_ , . 1 ‘ .P.. .. I- . ... {Z i . . . alh. lllfll ; §.\.\|\.1v\|-Ill!‘-6.l\r1 .-.Il.f,\ \, . _ . - l). \ ., D)..),D.x /5) _ __). I). MM .._. .. U ..._ . .2. . . .. ..). . _. ..... .. .)~ ~._.).)._\/.__ 3 >9 33 . . . 1 _ ; ,. F? . .,. ). .) . . ))§.).. D.) .».>> @ . ;. A . . .. .. .>.w .>.>..,.; ..\ - . . . .. .. 33).. > ~. > >.,3 . .. ~ , _ . ~ - . ->>>%...>.€> 2 >>>...,~£,>..~, _~> \ V H .) \ .1 » $1 .) I . _ “J )9..?.9.>..>.. \_,...D\.,, . q .>.. _.>>~.>>_ _.D_o>..>§>..>..)>>>.~w> . . . >i . .3 33?, »,.n/>>.,.>..>)>. .>. . ))~)>)>> .§.O).>>>.»~.D.Q .>.\~.<.,..s.> >... J u .r . ... \/. \. _) .\. _x . _ >_ 2.. ..))J) J .. _ 3. . 3 . . >._-.>.>)).>>>_ ). _>.$.~> _,3>.>.>..>-».._>w.v7_>. \ » J. . .>. . D.D..)..D..>.».).). M _ \J. \ . ~ --.. >>>». w)~».»>>>>Q. ~>>>>> ~ ) )) D) >.o.b.>D.>.D >.>.>.>.>.~. \,>>_>>)>.> ....>. >> h).)O_OO\ . .3D.w._..:>..._>..>)..W.Y)>Dw.)>.»\,. ..\/v . . .. 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H).._ ._ . .. . .. __,. . ... . .. .\ \1.. . . . \>. . .\m/.. N! . . .. . . r _ I Aw). . .. .. __.. ;H . . . _ .. T >.. . , . . . \ . ..v~.. “#1., 5 > J , . . .\> M \/ .\l. .\l. .\l \. >\fi.Q . 3 ‘I .? ) 5. \» )...‘ _ . J _ J)_) _. .. )\/H.) . >> 1888-1911 PRLbI3NTED BY IKICI-11% RJ) IIUDSO PROFESSOR OF HISTORY >. ). ) >>>»>w ) . _ ._ . .. 3. ). ._ ~> > - > >>>>>@@»»>»» . .. ~ . ~ -_ ~... ) > ) .\. . ... . . _. C. . _>. .) _ . _. . . _. . J .9. ....§ .c...§.. ?. 2.. M . .. .. _.).\/_\./. . 1% .\fi \. . ‘ V .1 .3 \ . _ _ . .. ~...m.,.~... H. .. .. . .. , . . w. > _ _ . 5. ..>.>3wD>>. ~ . .4 ,_ .. ..)).\/.)\/D 3.). .. >5). . .. .. . -.... . ..H .\/..._>w..".\, .\/_.> \/J)... _ . . ... \/ \) ... . _. 1 _ . . ).\/ . . _ . . >. . . .\/7 . . 2 . . . ). ._ ._ > ~ 25 ~ ~> .>>>~ . ~ .. ~ __ .~ 3%.). _ ~ __ hm . Y.....nw..-.. ......) > 3?)" '_\‘§;x3 >3 \» r JOHNSON ’S UNIVERSAL OYGLOPZEDIA VOL. VIII J O SON ’S UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA A NE W EDITION PREPARED BY A CORPS OF THIRTY—SIX EDITORS, ASSISTED BY EMINENT EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN SPECIALISTS UNDER THE DIRECTION OF CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS, LL. D. PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN EDITOR-IN—CHIEF ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS, PLANS, AND EN GRA VIN GS COMPLETE IN EIGHT VOLUMES VOL. VIII NEW YORK ‘D. APPLETON AND COMPANY A. J. JOHNSON COMPANY 1895 PUBLISHERS’ NOTE. JUST two and a half years have elapsed since the first volume of this new edition of the Cyclopaedia was issued. The work is therefore practically all of the same age. President Adams and his able and scholarly corps of editors and contributors are to be congratulated on the accom- plishment of their great task in so short a time, and with such thoroughness. During the progress of the work some changes in the constitution of the editorial staff have taken place. In the department of Law, President Henry Wade Rogers having been com- pelled by the pressure of other duties to relinquish his connection with the Cyclopaedia, President Adams was fortunate in securing in his place Francis M. Burdick, LL. D., Dwight Professor of Law, Columbia College, New York, who in turn called to his aid Professors George ‘V. Kirchwey, Munroe Smith, 'W. A. Keener, etc., of the same institution. The department of Philosophy, always strong, was still further strengthened by associating with Dr. Harris, J. Mark Baldwin, Ph.D., Stuart Professor of Experimental Psychology in the College of New Jersey; while Dr. Gildersleeve strengthened his department by intrusting the sub-department of Greek Mythology, Antiquities, ctc., to Professor J. R. S. Sterrett, Ph.D., of Amherst College, and that of Roman Mythology, Antiquities, etc., to Professor George L. I-Iendrickson, of the University of VVisconsin. By the death of Dr. Philip Schaff, full charge of the department of General Church History and Biblical Literature devolved on his associate, Rev. Samuel Macauley Jackson, D. D., LL. D. To the great body of contributors (whose names are prefixed to each volume of the Cyclopaedia) the publishers tender hearty thanks for their enthusiastic and prompt co-operation in the effort to produce a work of reference at once scholarly, authoritative, and fresh. It may be proper to add here that the work has from the first been brought out under the auspices of D. Appleton & Co., and has thus had the benefit of their ample resources and great experience. ‘ A. J. JOHNSON Co. NEW YORK, Nov. 1, 1895. COPYRIGHT, 1877, BY A. J. JOHNSON. , COPYRIGHT, 1877, BY ALVlN J. JOHNSON. COPYRIGHT, 1886, 1889, BY A. J. JOHNSON AND COMPANY. COPYRIGHT, 1895, BY A. J. JOHNSON COMPANY. ORGANIZATION OF THE STAFF. EDITOR —IN- CHIEF. CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS, LL.D., PRESIDENT on THE UNIVERSITY OF wIsCoNSIN, History, Politics, and Education. ASSOCIATE EDITORS. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, M. S., _ . Professor of Horticulture, Cornell University. Agriculture, Horticulture, Forestry, etc. WILLIS J . BEECHER, D.D., _ Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature, Auburn Theological Seminary. Presbyterian Church History, Doctrine, etc. HENRY A. BEERS, A. M., _ _ Professor of English Literature, Yale University. English Literature, etc. CHARLES E. BESSEY, Ph. D., Professor of Botany, State University of Nebraska. Botany, Vegetable Physiology, etc. DUDLEY BUCK, Composer and Organist, Brooklyn, N. Y. Music, Theory of Harmony, ll/Iusical Terms, etc. FRANCIS M. BURDICK, A. M., LL. B., Dwight Professor of Law, Columbia College, New York. Municipal, Civil, and Constitutional Law. GECRGE P. FISHER, D.D., LL. D., Professor of Church History, Yale University. Congregational Church History, Doctrine, etc. GRovE K. GILBERT, A. M., Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey. Physical Geography, Geology, and Palaeontology. BASIL L. GILDERSLEEVE, LL. D., Professor of Greek, Johns Hopkins University. Grecian and Roman Literature. ARTHUR T. HADLEY, A. M., Professor of Political Economy, Yale University. Political Economy, Finance, and Transportation. MARK W. HARRINGTON, A. M., LL. D., F. L. S., Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau. Geography, Meteorology, Climatology, etc. WILLIAM T. HARRIS, LL. D., U. S. Commissioner of Education, and J . MARK BALDWIN, Ph. D., Professor of Experimental Psychology, College of New Jersey. Philosophy, Psychology, Ethics, etc. JCHN F. I-IURST, D.D., LL.D., Bishop (M. E.), Chancellor American University, Washington. Methodist Church History, Doctrine, etc. SAMUEL MACAULEY J ACKSON,'D. D.. LL. D., Editor of A Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowl- edge, and associate editor of the Schalf-Herzog En- cyclopaedia, New York. General Church History and Biblical Literature. HENRY E. JACCBS, D. D., LL.D., Professor of Systematic Theology, Evangelical Lu- theran Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa. Lutheran Church History, Doctrine, etc. DAVID S. J CRDAN. LL. D., President Leland Stanford Junior University. Zoiiiogy, Comparative Anatomy, and Animal Physi- o ogy. JCHN J. KEANE, D. D., LL. D., Bishop (R. C.), Rector of the Catholic University of America. Roman Catholic Church History, Doctrine, etc. CHARLES KIRCHHOFF, M. E., Editor of the Iron Age, New York. Mining Engineering, Mineralogy, and llietallurgy. STEPHEN B. LUCE, Rear-Admiral, U. S. Navy. Naval Affairs, Naval Construction, Navigation, etc. ARTHUR R. MARSH, A. M., Professor of Comparative Literature, Harvard Univ. Foreign Literature, etc. JAMES MERCUR, Professor of Mil. Engineering, West Point Mil. Acad. Military Engineering, Science and Munitions of War, e c. MANSFIELD MERRIMAN, C. E., Ph. D., Professor of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University. Civil Engineering, etc. SIMCN N EWCOMB, LL. D.. M. N. A. S., Editor of the U. S. Nautical Almanac. Astronomy and Mathematics. EDWARD L. NICHOLS, Ph.D., Professor of Physics, Cornell University. Physics, Electricity and its Applications. VVILLIAM PEPPER, M. D., LL. D., Provost of the University of Pennsylveinia. Medicine, Surgery, and Collateral Sciences. WILLIAM S. PERRY, D.D. Oxon., LL. D., Bishop (P. E.), Davenport, Iowa. Episcopal Church History, Doctrine, etc. J CIIN IV. PCWELL. LL. D.. Director of the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology. American Archaeology and Ethnology. IRA REMSEN, M. D., Ph. D., LL. D.. Professor of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University. Chemistry and its Applications, etc. AINSWCRTII R. SPCFFCRD. LL. D.,- Librarian of Congress. U. S. Geography, Statistics, etc. RUSSELL STURGIS, A. M., Ph.D.. F. A. I. A., Ex-President Architectural League of New York. Archaeology and Art. RCBERT H. TIIURSTCN. Doc. Eng. LL. D., Director of Sibley College, Cornell University. Mechanical Science. BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER, Ph. D., Professor of Greek and Com. Philology, Cornell Univ. Comparative Philology, Linguistics, etc. WILLIAM H. WHITSITT, D. D., Professor of Church History, Baptist Theological v Seminary, Louisville, hy. Baptist Church History, Doctrine, etc. THECDCRE S. WCCLSEY, A. M., Professor of International Law, Yale University. Public Law, Intercourse of Nations. MA NA GING EDITOR. ROBERT LILLEY, M. R. A. S., ONE OF THE EDITORS OF THE CENTURY DICTIONARY. ASSISTANT TO THE EDITOR-IN—C'HIEF. CHARLES H. THUR-BER, A. M., ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, AND DEAN OF MORGAN PARK ACADEMY. I J 232'3‘?13 J OHNSON’S UNIVERSAL GYCLOPAEDIA. VOL. VIII. CONTRIBUTORS AND REVISERS. AEEOT, HENRY LARCDM, LL. D., M. N. A. S., Colonel U. S. Engineers; brevet brigadier-general U. S. army, New York. ADAM, GRAEME MERCER, Author of Toronto, Old and New ; Canada from Sea to Sea; The Canadian Northwest, etc.; New York. ADAMS, CHARLES KENDALL, LL. D., President of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, \Vis. ADAMS, CYRUS C., ‘ Editorial stafi of The San (New York); President of Department of Geography, Brooklyn Institute, Brook- lyn, N. Y. ALGER, Rev. WILLIAM ROUNSEVILLE, A. M ., Author of A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Fil- tnre Life, etc.; Boston, Mass. ALLEN, FREDERIC STUReEs, A-. B., LL. B., Member of the New York Bar, New York; one of the editors of lVebster’s International Diclionari/. AMES, JQSEPH S., Ph. D., . Associate Professor of Physics, and sub-director of Physical Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Bal- timore, Md. ANDERSON, Hon. RASMUS BJURN, Formerly Professor of Scandinavian Languages, Uni- versity of Wisconsin ; ex-U. S. minister to Denmark; Madison, \Vis. ANDREWs, E. BENJAMIN, D. D., LL. D., President of Brown University, Providence, R. I. ANTHONY, SUSAN BRUWNELL, President National American Woman Suffrage Asso- ciation, Rochester, N. Y. ARMSTRONG, SAMUEL T., M. D., Ph. D., One of the collaborators of Foster’s Encg/clopmdic Meal- icalDicti0na1',1/,and editor of an American Appen- dix to Qaain’s Dictionary of Jlfedicinc; New York. ASHHURST, JOHN, Jr., A. M., M. D., John Rhea Barton Professor of Surgery and Professor of Clinical Surgery in the University of Pennsylvania, Department of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa. BAILEY, LIBERTY H., M. S., Professor of General and Experimental Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. BALDWIN, J . MARK, Ph. D., Stuart Professor of Experimental Psychology, College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J . BASSETT, II. F., Librarian Silas Bronson Library, Waterbury, Conn. BATTAILE, J. F., Associate editor Commercial-lYerald, Vicksburg, Miss. BEDELL, FREDERICK, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Physics, Cornell University, Ith- aca, N. Y. BEECHER, Rev. WILLIS J ., D. D., Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature, Auburn Theological Seminary, Auburn, N. Y. BEERS, HENRY A., A. M ., Professor of English Literature, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. BELKNAP, Lieut.-Com. CHARLES, U. S. navy, ‘Head of Department of Mechanics and Applied Mathe- matics, U. S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE, Author of Visible Speech and Universal Alplzabelics, etc.; Washington, D. C. BENDELARI, GEORGE, A. M., Of the staff of the New York San; late Assistant Pro- fessor of Modern Languages, Yale University. BENJAMIN, MARCUS, Ph. D., F. C. S., Editorial staff of the Standard Dictionary, and of The Annual Cyclopedia, New York. BESSEY, CHARLES E., Ph. D., Professor of Botany and Horticulture, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. BETTS, Rev. BEVERLEY ROBINSON, A. M ., Formerly librarian of Columbia College, New York. BILLINGS, JOHN S., M. D., LL. D., Pepper Professor of Hygiene, University of Pennsyl- vania, Philadelphia, Pa. ; and Su%erinten dent of Army Medical Museum, Washington, . C. BIRGE, EDWARD ASAIIEL, Ph. D., Professor of Zoology and Dean of the College of Letters and Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. BLACK, CHARLES E. D., Late geographer to the India Oflice, London, England. BRANDT, HERMANN CARL GEORGE, A. M., Ph. D., Professor of the German and French Languages, and Philology, Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y. BRINTON, DANIEL GARRISON, M. D., Professor of American Archzeology and Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. BROCKUNIER, WILBUR C., A. M., Manufacturer, Wheeling, W. Va. BUCK, DUDLEY, composer and organist, Brooklyn, N. Y. (vi) CONTRIBUTORS BURDICK, CHARLES W., Secretary of State, Wyoming; Cheyenne, Wyo. BURDICK, FRANCIS M., LL. D., Dwight Professor of Law, School of Law, Columbia Col- lege, New York. BURGESS, J OHN W., Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of History, Political Science, and Constitu- tional Law, and Dean of the Faculty of Political Sci- ence, Columbia College, New York. BURR, GEORGE LINCOLN, A. B., Professor of Ancient and Mediaeval History, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. ' BURRoUeIIs, GEORGE, S., Ph. D., D. D., President of Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind. BURROUGHS, J oiIN, Author of Walt Whitman as Poet and Person, etc., Eso- pus, N. Y. BUTLER, NATHANIEL, D. D., President of Colby University, Water_ville,_ Me.; late Di- rector of University Extension, University of Chicago. BUTLER, W. R., Principal of the Public High School, Waltham, MIass. CAMPRELL,'JORN L., Treasurer of Washington and Lee University, Lexing- ton, Va. CANEIELD, ARTHUR G., A. M., Professor of the French Language and Literature, Uni- versity of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. CARHART, HENRY S., A. M., Professor of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Ar- bor, Mich. CARTER, FRANKLIN, Ph. D., LL. D., President of Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. CAUTIIORN, HENRY S., attorney-at-law, Vincennes, Ind. CHADWICK, Rev. J OHN W., A. M., D. D., Unitarian clergyman, Brooklyn, N. Y. CIIAPLIN, WINEIELD S., LL. D., President of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. CLARK, LOUIS, Designer, Mississippi Mills, Wesson, Miss.; formerly in- structor in designing in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. ‘CLARK, M. L., One of the editors of The Times and News-Letter, ‘West- field, Mass. COFEIN, WILLIAM A., Artist; secretary Society of American Artists, New York. COLRY, FRANK M., A. M., Professor of Economics, University of the City of New York; late Lecturer in History, Columbia College, New York. COOLIDGE, ARCHIBALD CARY, Ph. D., In._s\gructor in History, Harvard University, Cambridge, I ass. CoUNoILMAN, W. T., M. D., Shattuck Professor of Pathological Anatomy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass. CROES, J. JAMES R., C.E., New York. Caoss, CHARLES R., S. B., Thayer Professor of Physics, and director of the Rogers Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. CULBERTsoN, WILLIAM, carpenter and builder, Zanesville, 0. AND REVISERS Vii CURTIS, EDWARD, M. D., Emeritus Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeu- tics, College of Physicians and Surgeons (Medical Department, Columbia College), New York. CUSHING, FRANK HAMILToN, Ethnologist in the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C. DAN DE QUILLE, Peg-name of William Wright, journalist, Virginia City, ev. DAVIDS, T. W. RHYS. Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, England; secretary Royal Asiatic Society, London. DAVIDSON, TIioMAs, M. A., Splefziilist in Literature and M ediaeval Philosophy, Keene, DAVIS, WILLIAM MoRRIs, M. E., - Professor of Physical Geography, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. DE VINJE, THEODORE L., Founder of the De Vinne Press, New York. DEWEY, MELVIL, . . Secretary of the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. DEXTER-, FRANKLIN BOWDITCH, M. A., Author of Btograplztes of Yale Graduates, Sketch of the History of Yale College, etc.; secretary and as- sistant librarian, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. DIXON, JAMES MAIN, A. M., F. R. S. E., Professor of English Literature, Washington Univer- sity, St. Louis, Mo.; formerly Professor of English Literature, Imperial University, Japan. DODGE, DANIEL KILIIAM, A. M., Ph. D., Professor of English Language and Literature, Univer- sity of Illinois, Champaign, Ill. ‘ IDORSEY, Rev. JAMES OWEN, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C. DURAND, EDWARD DANA, A. B., Legislative librarian State Library, Albany, N. Y.; late assistant secretary of the American Economic Asso- ciation. ERNST, OSWALI) H., Colonel U. S. Engineers; superintendent of U. S._Mili- tary Academy, West Point, N. Y. FISHER, Rev. GEoReE PARK, D. D., LL. D., Titus Street Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. FORD, J EREMIAH DENIS MATTHIAS, A. M., Instructor in French, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. FosTER. R. F., Author of The Wlztst llfamzal; Duplicate Wh/tst, etc., Baltimore, Md. FRIZELL, J OSEPH P., C. E., Boston, Mass. GANNETT, HENRY, Geologist U. S. Geological Survey; geographer of the eleventh census of the U. S.; author of a Dwtz.o'naTg/ of Altttmles, etc.; \Vashington, D. C. GAREE, RIoIIARD, Ph. D., Professor Ordinarius of Sanskrit and Comparative Phi- lology, University of Konigsberg, Prussia. GARRISON, GEoReE P., L. A., Associate Professor of History, University of Texas, Austin, Tex. viii GIDDINGS, FRANKLIN H., A. M., Professor of Sociology, Columbia College, New York. GILBERT, EDWARD H., Of the George H. Gilbert Manufacturing Company, of Ware and Gilbertville, Mass. GILBERT, GRCYE KARL, M. N. A. S., Geologist U. S. Geological Survey, \/Vashington, D. C. GILDERSLEEYE, BASIL L., Ph. D., LL. D., D. C. L., Professor of Greek, Johns Hopkins University, Balti- more, Md. ‘ GILL, THECDCRE N., A. M., M. D., Ph. D., LL. D., M. N. A. S., Professor of Zoology, Columbian University, Washing-' ton, D. C. GILLETT, Rev. CHARLES R., Librarian Union Theological Seminary, New York. GILMAN, DANIEL Corr, LL. D., -President of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. GDEBEL, J ULIUS, Ph. D., Professor of Germanic Literature and Philology, Leland Stanford Junior University, Santa Clara co., Cal. GCCDRICH, J OHN E., A. M., Professor of Latin, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. GCSSE, EDMUND, A. M., Author of From Shakespeare to Pope; History of Eigh- teen-th Century Literature, etc., London, England. GCTTHEIL, RICHARD J. H., Ph. D., Professor of Rabbinical Literature and the Semitic Languages, Columbia College, New York. *GRAY, ASA, M. D., LL.D., Fisher Professor of Natural History, Harvard Univer- sity, Cambridge, Mass. GRCC, BYRCN, Register of the U. S. Land Ofiiee for the District of Utah; Salt Lake City, Utah. GRosvENoR, Rev. EDWIN A., A. M., Professor of European History, Amherst College, Am- herst, Mass.; formerly Professor of History, Robert College, Constantinople, Turkey. GRCWCLL, A., Managing editor of The Publishers’ W'ee7oly, New York. GUDEMAN, ALFRED, Ph. D., Professor of Classical Philology, University of Pennsyl- vania, Philadelphia, Pa. GUMMERE, FRANCIS BARTON, A. B., Ph. D., Professor of English and German, Haverford College, Pennsylvania. HADLEY, ARTHUR TWININC, A. M., Professor of Political Economy and Dean of Courses of Graduate Instruction, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. HAGUE, ARNOLD, M. N. A. S.. Geologist U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. HAIGHT, THERCN W., Counselor-at-law, \Vaukesha, Wis. -‘HALL, ISAAC HCLLISTER, Ph. D., L. H. D., Orientalist; curator of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New'York. HARE, HCBART A., M. D., Professor of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, and Hy- giene, Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, Pa. HARPER, J01-IN M., A. M., Ph. D., F. E. I. S., Inspector of Superior Schools, Province of Quebec, Que- bec, Canada. ' CONTRIBUTORS AND REVISERS HARRINGTCN, MARK W., A. M., LL. D., F. L. S., President of the University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.; formerly Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C. HARRIS, WILLIAM TCRREY, A. M., LL. D., U. S. Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. HART, SAMUEL, A. M., D. D., Professor of Latin, Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. HASKINS, CHARLES H., Ph. D., Professor of Institutional History, University of Wis- consin, Madison, Wis. - HATTCN, CHARLES K., attorney-at-law, Wichita, Kan. I-IENDRICKSCN, GECRCE L., A. B., Professor of Latin, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. HERvEY, DANIEL E., organist, Newark, N. J. HILGARD, EUGENE WALDEMAR, Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of Agriculture and Agricultural Chemistry, University of California, and director of the Cali- fornia Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. HIRST, BARTCN CooK, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics, Department of Medicine, Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. HITCHCCCK, EDWARD, J r., A. B., M. D., Professor of Hygiene and Physical Culture. and direc- tor of the Gymnasium, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. HCDCE, FREDERICK WEBB, Ethnologist and librarian in the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. I-ICLMAN, Lieut. GEORGE F. W., U. S. navy, U. S. Naval Torpedo Station, Newport, R. I. HCSKINS, Rev. LEIGIITCN, Formerly assistant priest at the Memorial Church of the Holy Comforter, Philadelphia, Pa. HCWARD, DANIEL W., Member of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania and of the Chester County Historical Society, West Ches- ter, Pa. HCYT, Rev. CHARLES K.. A. M., Formerly Professor of English Literature, Wells Col- lege, Aurora, N. Y. ; now pastor of First Presbyterian church, Brookfield, M o. HUMPHREYS, MILTON WYLIE, Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of Greek, University of Virginia, Charlottes- ville, Va. HURST, Rev. J CHN FLETCHER, D. D., LL. D., Bishop in the Methodist Episcopal Church, and chan- cellor of the American University, Washington, D. C. HUTTCN, FREDERICK REMSEN, E. M., Ph. D., Professor of Mechanical Engineering, School of Mines, Columbia College, New York. HUTTCN, WILLIAM RICH, A. M., C. E., New York. IDDINGS, J OSEPH PAXSCN, Ph.B., Associate Professor of Petrology, University of Chica- go, Chicago, 111. J ACKSCN, A. V. WILLIAMS, A. M., L. H. D., Ph. D., Professor of the Indo-Iranian Languages, Columbia College, New York. J ACKSCN, SAMUEL MACAULEY, D. D., LL. D., Editor of A Concise Dictionary of Religions Knowledge, and associate editor of the Schafi’-Herzog Encyclo- pcedia, New York. JACOBS, HENRY E., D. D., LL. D., Professor of Systematic Theology, Evan elical Lutheran Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, a. CONTRIBUTORS JAMES, WILLIAM, M. D., Ph. D., Litt. D., Professor of Psychology, Harvard University, Cam- bridge, Mass. J ERMAIN, FRANCES D., Librarian Toledo Public Library, Toledo, 0. JOHNSON, J oHN B., C. E., Professor of Civil Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. JONES, J oHN MORRIS, M. A., Professor of the Welsh Language and Literature, Uni- versity College of North Wales, Bangor, Wales. JONES, R. MoKEAN, Of Wyckotf, Seamans & Benedict, manufacturers of typewriters, New York. J ORDAN, DAVID STARR, Ph. D., LL. D., President of the Leland Stanford Junior University, Santa Clara co., Cal. JUDGE, WILLIAM QUAY, President of the Theosophical Society in America, New York. KARNS, THoMAs CONNER, A. M., Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogics, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. KEANE, Rt. Rev. J oHN J OSEPH, D. D., LL. D., Bishop in the Roman Catholic Church, and rector of the Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. KELLOGG, ROEERT J ., A. B., Fellow in Comparative Philology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. KENT, WILLIAM, A. M., M. E., Author of The ll[echam'cal E'ngz'neer’s Pocket-booh; as- sociate editor of Engtneem'ng News, New York. KENYON F. C., assistant in Biology, Tufts College, Mass. KINGSLEY, J oHN STERLING, S. D., Professor of Biology, Tufts College, Massachusetts. KIRCHHOFF, CHARLES, M. E., Editor of The Iron Age, New York. KIRCHWEY, GEoReE W., A. B., Professor of Law, School of Law, Columbia College, New York. KUNZ, GEORGE FREDERICK, Gem expert with Tiffany & Co., New York, and of the U. S. Geological Survey ; mineralogist for the eleventh U. S. census. . LANE, J. J ., Secretary of Board of Regents of the University of Tex- as, Austin, Tex. LANG, HENRY R., Ph. D., Instructor in the Romance Languages, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. LANMAN, CHARLES RooKwELL, Ph. D., Pr1, yielding by descent, i. e. under the operation of phonetic law. <, descended from. :, borrowed without change from. : , cognate with. +, a sign joining the constituent elements of a compound. * , a sign appended to a word the existence of which is z'nfew'ecZ. ablat. ablative Dan. Danish accus. accusative Eng. English adjec. adjective Fr. French adv. adverb Germ. German cf. compare Goth. Gothic conjunc. conjunction Gr. Greek deriv. of derivative of Heb. Hebrew dimin. diminutive Icel. Icelandic fem. feminine Ital. Italian genit. genitive Lat. Latin imper. imperative Lith. Lithuanian impf. . imperfect Medizev. Lat. Mediaeval Latin indic. indicative Mod. Lat. Modern Latin infin. infinitive M. Eng. LMiddle English masc. masculine M. H. Germ. Middle High German nomin. nominative O. Bulg. Old Bulgarian (: Church Slavonic) partic. participle O. Eng. Old English (: Anglo-Saxon) perf. perfect O. Fr. ‘ Old French plur. plural O. Fris. Old Frisian prep. preposition ‘ O. H. Germ. Old High German pres. present O. N. Old Norse pron. pronoun O. Sax. Old Saxon sc. scilicet, supply Pers. Persian sing. singular Portug. Portuguese subst. substantive Prov. Provencal vocat. vocative Sanskr. Sanskrit Sc. Scotch Anglo-Fr. Anglo-French Span. Spanish Arab. Arabic Swed. Swedish Avest. Avcstan Teuton. Teutonic KEY TO THE PRCNUNCIATION. aa. . . . . . as a in father, and in the second syllable of armada. aa. . . . . . same, but less prolonged, as in the initial syllable of armada, Arditi, etc. a . . . . . . . as final a in armada, peninsula, etc. 5. . . . . . . . as a in fat, and i in French fin. ay or 5.. . as ag in nag, or as a in fate. a-Vy or d.. same, but less prolonged. it . . . . . . . as a in wel fare. aw . . . . . . as a in fall, all. ee . . . . . . as in meet, or as i in machine. eve . . . . . . same, but less prolonged, as final i in Arditi. e . . . . . . . as in men, pet. e . . . . . . . obscure e, as in Bigelow, and final e in Jfeine. é . . . . . . . as in her, and en in French -eur. i . . . . . . . as in it, sin. i . . . . . . . as in fire, swine. i . . . . . . . same, but less prolonged. 6 . . . . . . . as in mole, sober. 6 . . . . . . . same, but less prolonged, as in sobriety. o . . . . . . . as in on, not,l/not. oo . . . . . . as in fool, or as u in rule. o”o . . . . . . as in book, or as u in put, pull. oi . . . . .. as in noise, and og in boy, or as cu in German Beust. ow.. . . . . as in now, and as au in German haus. 6 . . . . . . . . as in G6the, and as eu in French neuf, Chintreuil ll. . . . . . . . as in but, hub. ii. . . . . . . . obscure 0, as final 0 in Compton. . . . . as in German sitd, and as u in French Buzan- cais, ou. yorl . seelory. yu. . . . . . . as u in mule. y“u .. . . . . . same, but less prolonged, as in singular. ch . . . . . . . as in German ich. g . . . . . . . . as in get, give (never as in gist, congest). hw . . . . . . as wh in which. h'h . . . . . . . as ch in German nacht, g in German tag, chin Scotch loch, and j in Spanish Badaios; etc. 1'1 . . . . . . . . nasal n, as in French fin-, Bourbon, and nasal m, as in French nom, Portuguese Sam. T1 or n-y.. Spanish it, as in carton, piiion, French and Italian gn, etc., as in Boulognc. lor y. . . . French l, liquid or mouillé, as (-i)ll- in French Baudrillart, and (-i)l in Chintreuil. th . . . . . . . as in thin. th . . . . . . . as in though, them, mother. '1) . . . . . . . . as w in German zwei, and b in Spanish Cordoba. Sh . . . . . . . as in shine. zh. . . . . . . as s in pleasure, and j in French jour. All other letters are used with their ordinary English values. NOTE. The values of most of the signs used in the above Key are plainly shown by the examples given. But those of 6, ii, ch, hh, T1, and '1), which have no equivalents in English, can not be sufiiciently indicated without a brief explanation, which is here given. 6. The sound represented by this symbol is approximately that of -u- in hurt or -e- in her, but is materially different from either. the position assumed in uttering 6. It is properly pronounced with the tongue in the position it has when 5. is uttered and with the lips in This vowel is produced with the lips rounded as in uttering co and with the tongue in the position required in utter- ing ee, into which sound it is most naturally corrupted. ch and hh. These are both rough breathings or spirants made with considerable force, ch being made between the fiat of the tongue and the hard palate, and hh between the tongue and the soft palate. ch approaches in sound to Eng- lish sh, but is less sibilant and is made further back in the mouth ; hh is a guttural and has a hawking sound. lor y. These are both used to represent the sound of French 1 mouillé. in (-i)ll- and (-i)l, which resembles English -y- in lawg/er. the -y-. Final l, that is, (-i)l, may be approximated by starting to pronounce lawyer and stopping abruptly with D or n-y. The consonants represented by ii (Spanish H, French and Italian gn‘, etc.) are practically equivalent to English -ni- or -ny- in bunion, bunyon, onion, etc., and, except when final, are represented by n-y. Final 11, as French -gn(e), may be produced by omitting the sound of -on in the pronunciation of onion. ‘U. This may be pronounced by attempting to utter English v with the use of the lips alone. See PREFACE (vol. i., p. xxiv.) and the article PRCNUNCIATICN or F.O_R.EIGN NAMES. J OHNSON’S UNIVERSAL CYCLCPREDIA. _ an’ cred: one of the most celebrated heroes of the first crusade; b. in Sicily in 1078, a son of Odo, a Norman baron, and Emma, the sister of Robert Guiscard; in 1096 raised an army in Apulia and Calabria, crossed over to Epirus, joined his cousin, Bohemund of Taranto, and distinguished himself greatly by his valor, sagacity, pie- and chivalric forbearance toward a defeated enemy dur- ty, ing the campaigns in Asia Minor and Syria, but still more at the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, and afterward in the battle of Askalon. He was made Prince of Tiberias, and governed with great wisdom not only his own principality but also that of Bohemund, who had been captured by the Saracens; but most of his time was taken up in petty war- fare, partly with Baldwin and the other Christian princes, partly with the Saracens. D. in Antioch in 1112. His ex- ploits have been narrated in prose and verse by Raoul de Caen in his Les Gestes de Twneréde. He also plays a con- spicuous part in Tasso’s Gerusalemme Liberata. See Dela- barre. 1?/istovhe de Tcmcréde (Paris, 1822), and Kugler, Boe- mund and Tanlcred, Fiirsten eon Am‘z'oehz‘en (Tiibingen, 1862) Taney, taw'nc-Ye, ROGER Bnooms, LL. D.: jurist; b. in Cal- vert co., Md., Mar. 17, 1777 ; graduated at Dickinson College in 1795 ; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1799, beginning ractice in Calvert County, from which he was chosen a de egate to the General Assembly of Maryland; re- moved to Frederick, Md., in 1801, and in 1816 was elected to the State Senate. He originally belonged to the Federal party, and stoutly supported the policy of the Government in the war with (xreat Britain. In 1819, in his defense of a Methodist minister who had condemned slavery, he declared that slavery was a blot on the national character. In 1822 he removed to Baltimore, and in 1824 he became a sup- porter of Gen. Jackson, by whom in 1831 he was appointed U. S. Attorney-General, and in 1833 was nominated as Secre- tary of the Treasury in place of Mr. Duane, who had been dismissed in consequence of his disagreement with the Presi- dent in the matter of the removal of the public deposits from the U. Bank; but the Senate, by a vote of 28 to 18, refused to confirm the nomination, although ‘he had for nearly nine months exercised the functions of secretary and had ordered the removal of the deposits. He was nomi- nated by the President as the successor of Chief Justice Marshall, who died in 1835. and the administration having secured a majority in the Senate, the noinination was con- firmed in Man, 1836. he taking his seat upon the bench in the following January, and occupying it until his death. In the administration of this oifice he supported the supremacy of the U. S. Constitution, but far less broadly than Chief Justice Marshall had before him. His most noted act was his decision in the Dane Scorr C.-xsn (q. 2).) in 1857. Another of his opinions which occasioned much public feeling was that rendered in 1861. in the case of John Merryman, who had been arrested in Baltimore by order of a Federal gen- eral for alleged treason. The chief justice issued a writ of habeas corpus to bring the prisoner before him; the officer in charge of Merryman refused to obey, on the ground 398 that he had been empowered by President Lincoln to sus- pend the execution of the writ of habeas corpus; whereupon the chief justice wrote out a formal opinion to the effect that the President had no constitutional authority to sus- pend the writ, and that this could be done only by the legislative authority. D. in Washiiigton, Oct. 12. 18611. A notice of his career is contained in Santvoord’s Siretches 0] the Lives and JucZz'eiaZ Services of the Che'ef-Juszfices of the Umted States (1853), and a memoir, embodying an auto- biography down to 1801, has been written by Prof. Samuel Tyler (1872). A bronze statue of him, ordered by the State of Maryland, was unveiled at Baltimore Dec. 10, 1872. Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Tanganyika, tavan-ga”an-yee’ka‘a : a lake of Central Africa, S. of Lakes Albert and Victoria, between lat. 8° and 9° S. and between lon. 29° and 82° E. ; about 400 miles in length from N. E. to S. W. It was first discovered by Burton and Speke in 1858, and afterward ex JlOI‘€CI by Livingstone and Cameron. It has an elevation of 2,700 feet above the level of the sea, deep and clear water, and a very irregular form, its width varying from 10 to 50 miles. Area, 12.170 sq. miles. Its shores are generally rich in beautiful scenery, especially those of the northern part, which are set with mountains and hills covered with a luxuriant vegetation. The surrounding country is in many places densely peopled. The most important town is Ujiji, on the eastern shore. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tangent [from Lat. z‘am/gens, pres. partic. of z‘a'n/gere, z‘ae'2fum, touch, whence Eng. Mot, z‘actiZe, etc.]: a line touch- ing a curve at some point of its length ; this point is called the point of eooztaet. The tangent to a curve at a point may be regarded as the limit of a secant through that point ; for, suppose a secant to be drawn through the point of contact and any other point of the curve; then let the second point be moved along the curve toward the first; the secant will continually approach the tangent, and when the second point falls on the first, the secant will become a tan- gent; if the motion of the second point is continued. the line will become a secant on the other side. From this ex- planation we infer that only one tangent can be drawn to a curve at a given point. An exception, however, occurs when two or more branches of the curve pass through the point. According to the theory of the infinitesimal calculus, a curve is to be regarded as a broken line whose sides are infinitesimal : the consecutive vertices of this polygonal line are called co92.secufI}ve pozhfs. and the prolongation of any side is a Umgent; a tangent to a curve is therefore a line passing through two consecutive points of the curve. The first point in the order of generation is the point of contact. For the trigonometrical tangent of an angle, see TRIGONOMETRY. Tan’ ghin [from Malagasy]: an ordeal poison formerly used in Madagascar. consisting of the powdered seed of the Tcmglz-zT'n'z'a vene'n'ife'1'a, an apocynaceous tree of that island. It killed by paralysis of the heart and respiration. It con- tains an active principle, z‘ahg7mz.z"n. A small portion was administered to the suspected erson, whose only hope was in the emetic action which the drug sometimes e§;erted. Revised by H. A. HARE. (1) 2 TANGIER Tangier, tzfan-jeer’ (Arab. Tanja, anc. Tingis): fortified port of Morocco, on the Straits of Gibraltar, 5 miles E. of Cape Spartel, on a shallow, semicircular bay open to the N. and N. E. (see map of Africa, ref. 1—B). Its trade is large and increasing. In 1892 935 vessels entered and 927 cleared; the value of the imports was $2,624,000 and the exports less than half as much. The chief imports are cot- ton goods and sugar; exports, beans. barley, and wool. Tan- gier is also of considerable political importance as the only place of residence permanently open for foreigners, whether representatives or private, and it is a favorite place of refuge for fugitives from justice. The winter climate 1s exceptionally fine, and is largely resorted to by those who are unable to stand the severer climate of Europe. Pop. about 30,000, one-third Jews, who transact most of the busi- ness. MARK W. HARRING'l‘ON. Tangle, or Sea-tangle: any one of several kinds of sea- weeds, but especially Laminaria cligitata. The young shoots are sometimes used as food and forage, and the plants are employed in the production of iodine. The stalks of the European sea-tangle are used in making ute- rine tents for surgeons’ use, but those growing on the North American coast have been found unfit for this purpose. Tanlliillser, ta"an’hoi-zer: minnesinger; probably a mem- ber of the noble family Tanhausen, in Bavaria. He was born in the early part of the thirteenth century; lived chiefly at the court of Vienna: participated in one of the crusades; probably joined King Konrad IV. (d. 1254), and disappears with the death of King Konradin (1268). He is one of the foremost representatives of the later minnesong, a poet of great talent, of delightful humor, and of a re- markable mastery of the metrical form. He led for a time a very gay life, and the sensuous character of many of his oems, as well as a penitential song which he composed ater, may have been the cause of his becoming the hero of the Tanhauser legend. According to this legend, Tan- hauser lived for some time with Venus in the Venusberg, but finally was smitten by conscience and begged Venus to allow him to depart. She refused, but owing to the help of the Holy Virgin Tanhttuser made his escape and went to Pope Urban (IV.) to obtain remission of his sins. The pope, however, answered that Tanhiiuser’s sins could as little be forgiven as the wand which he held in his hand could be- come green again. Tanhiiuser, in his despair, went back to Venusberg and was received with great rejoicing. Three days after the pope’s wand suddenly began to sprout, and messengers were sent to inform Tanhauser of this divine miracle, but on account of his return to the Venusberg he was obliged to remain there till doomsday. The Tanhiiuser legend is doubtlessly one of the stories treating of the fatal union between a mortal youth and an elf which frequently occur in German, Danish, and English folk-songs, and which are founded on popular conceptions having their origin in old Germanic mythology. The reason why Venus, in this legend, takes the place of the elf may be found in the fact that the minnesinger Tan- hiiuser frequently addresses in his poems Minne (love) as Frau Venus. In the mentioning of Pope Urban may per- haps be seen a reminiscence of the historical fact that it was Pope Urban IV. (1261-64) who caused the final down- fall and utter destruction of the glorious dynasty of the Hohenstaufen, with which Tanhétuser seems to have been closely allied. The story of the wand which began to sprout in spite of the words of the pope seems to express the popular view concerning the papal abuses in granting the remission of sins. The best account of the Tanh'etuser legend is contained in the famous Tanhdnserliecl, one of the most popular folk- songs of the sixteenth century, printed in Uhland’s Volks- liecler, No. 297. See also I. G. Th. Griisse, Der Ta/nnholuser and Ewige Jade (1861). In modern times the legend has been treated poetically by L. Tieck, H. Heine, Fr. von Sallet, E. Geibel, and by Richard Wagner in his famous opera. JULIUS GCEBEL. Tani, KANJC, Count: soldier and statesman; b. in the province of Tosa, island of Shikoku, Japan, in 1837. He served on the imperialist side in the troubles of the restora- tion, and when the Satsuma rebellion broke out in 1877 was a major-general, in command of the garrison at Kumamoto. His brilliant defense of this stronghold against a powerful attacking force established his reputation. In 1883 he be- came Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, and soon after made a European tour. On his return he advocated TANNAHILL various reforms in the administration, but as these were not adopted he resigned, and has since become leader of the opposition in the new house of peers. J . M. DIKCN. Ta'nis (Gr. Taiws, Egypt. T5» or Tan, Heb. Zo‘an, Arabic Scin): an ancient Egyptian city in the Delta region, on the old Tanitic branch of the Nile (31° N. lat., 31° 55' E. of Greenwich). It was the capital of the fourteenth nome of Lower Egypt, and a very populous and important city in certain periods of Egyptian history. In the Hebrew Scriptures it is said to have been founded seven years after Hebron in Palestine (Num. xiii. 22), and the miracles of Moses were said to have been performed in the “field of Zoan” (PS. lxxviii. 12, 43). This designation corresponds with the native designation of the region, sekhet Tan, “the field of Tan.” In the time of Isaiah and Ezekiel it was an important place. The site was explored by Napoleon’s saeants, by Mariette, and again by Flinders Petrie under the auspices of the Egypt Exploration Fund in 1883-84, The earliest monument found was a statue of Merira Pepi. of the seventh dynasty, but as it was the sole memorial of that ancient time it is supposed to have been transported thither at a later date. A red-granite colossal statue of Amenemha I., the first king of the twelfth dynasty, and others in black granite representing Usertasen I. and Amenemha II., of the same dynasty, are believed to be monuments of the earliest founders of the temple which constituted the central portion of the city. The last-named colossus shows a peculiarity, in that it is sculptured with- out the usual supporting pilaster in the rear. From the same dynasty came two sphinxes, one of which is in the Louvre. There were found also other pre-Hyksos sphinxes and statues dating from the thirteenth dynasty. From the following period, during which the place was beautified and fortified so that it became one of the Hyksos strongholds, the distinctive “ Tanis sphinxes ” were long supposed to have come. (See SPHINK.) They are cut from dark-gray granite, adorned with manes, short, thick beards, and shaggy breasts. They have been usurped by later native kings, who caused their own names to be inscribed over erasures, rendering an exact determination of their age impossible. In some cases the name of the Hyksos king Apepi still is visible on the right shoulder of the sphinxes. From the eighteenth dynasty there are no monuments at Tanis, but with Seti I. and Ramses II. of the nineteenth dynasty its real glory dates. The latter built the huge temple, utterly obliterating the plan of the buildings of the twelfth dynasty Pharaohs. This building was massive and extensive, and was approached by an avenue adorned with obelisks (fourteen have been found in broken condition), sphinxes, and huge statues. In a space of 150 feet were found eight obelisks. and between them were the statues mentioned above. while towering above them all was the colossal statue of Ramses II., which Petrie, judging according to the law of proportion when applied to the fragments that were found, declares must have been about 75 feet high, or, with the base and diadem, 92 feet, and must have weighed complete about 900 tons, “the largest statue ever executed.” The ruins of the te1n le cover a space about 1,000 feet long and occupy a depression surrounded by ridges about 60 feet above the Nile. Tanis retained its importance under the native kings down to the thirtieth dynasty and under the Greeks and Romans. It appears also to have been an important seaport, and to have lost its pre-eminence to Alexandria through the silt- ing up of the Tanitic branch of the Nile (now represented by the Mu‘izz Canal) and also of Lake Menzaleh. In the Coptic period it had lost its importance completely and was scarcely known. At present San is a squalid fishing-vil- lage, half a mile from the canal and at a considerable dis- tance from Lake Menzaleh. See Petrie, Tanis (2 vols., London, 1885, 1888), and second and fifth Memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund. CHARLES R. GILLETT. Tanjore, tan-j5r’: city of Madras, British India: capital of a district of the same name, and railway junction; on the right bank of the south branch of the Cavery; lat. 10° 47’ N., lon. 79° 10' E. (see map of S. India, ref 7-E). It is one of the great religious and literary centers of Tamil India, and is renowned for its artistic industries (silk rugs, jewelry, and copper re,/ooassé) and for its great pagoda. The palace of the rajahs contains a very valuable collection of 18,000 Sanskrit manuscripts. Pop. (1891) 54,390. M. W. H Tank-worm: See GUINEA-WORM. Tan’nahill, RCBERT: poet; b. at Paisley, Scotland, June 3, 1774; bred as a weaver, he worked at the loom all his life; TANNER wrote occasionally for periodicals, and in 1807 published The Soldter’s Return, with other Poems and Songs, chiefly in the Scotttsh Dialect, which rendered the poet famous. Several of these became popular favorites, and have remained so. When his publisher hesitated to issue a new and enlarged edition, he fell into a fit of despondency, burned all the new poems which he had written, and drowned himself in a pool near Paisley, May 17, 1810. A statue of the poet was erected in Paisley in 1883. Tannahill possessed much tenderness of sentiment and a delicate feeling for the effects of nature. An edition of his poems by D. Semple (1876) contains an exhaustive account of the poet’s life and writings. Tanner, THOMAS, D. D.: antiquary; b. at Market Laving- ton, Wiltshire, England, Jan. 25, 1674; was educated at Ox- ford, and was made fellow of All Souls in 1696; entered holy orders; became successively chaplain to the Bishop of Nor- wich, whose daughter was his wife, chancellor of Norwich, prebendary of Ely, rector of Thorpe, near Norwich, Arch- deacon of Norwich (1710), canon of Christ church, Oxford (1723), and in 1732 Bishop of St. Asaph. His principal works, published posthumously, are Notttta Monasttca, an account of the religious houses, colleges, hospitals, etc., founded in England and Wales before 1540 (1744), and Bib- ltotheca Britannica-Htberntca, an account of the writers who flourished in England, Scotland, and Ireland up to the beginning of the seventeenth century (1748). He edited Anthony Wood’s Athence O./zsontenses (2 vols. fol., 1721). He bequeathed his large collection of MSS. to the Bodleian Li- brary. D. at Oxford, Dec. 14, 1735. Revised by S. M. J AcKsoN. Tannhiiuserz same as TANHAUSER (q. 22.). Tannic Acid, or Tannin [tannic is deriv. of tan, tanbark, deriv. of tan (verb) Mod. Germ. tanne, fir; tannz'n::Fr., deriv. of tan, tan]: any one of several astringent principles that are widely disseminated in the vegetable kingdom. The chief sources of these compounds are the barks of varieties of the oak and pine, sumach, gall and valonia nuts, kino, divi- divi, and catechu ; the bark and berries of many forest and fruit trees, such as the elm, the willow, the horse-chestnut, the plum, the pear. All of the forms of tannic acid were formerly supposed to be identical with the tannin contained in the gall-nut, the differences in chemical composition pre- sented by them being accounted for by the presence of acci- dental impurities; but there is no doubt of the existence of several distinct acids with many properties in common. The term “ pathological tannins ” has been applied to those obtained from diseased vegetable excrescences, such as the gall-nut; those which are contained in barks, etc., being designated as “physiological tannins. The latter only are adapted to the manufacture of leather. The most important and best-investigated form of tannin is that known as gal- lotannic acid. Other modifications are caffetannic, catechu- tannic, morintannic, quercitannic, and quinotannic acids, which, although very similar in many properties, possess different compositions. Gallotannic acid occurs in the gall-nut, an excrescence produced by the puncture of a small hymeno terous insect upon the leaves and stalks of the species of oa { Qnercns in- fectorta, sometimes in a proportion as high as 60 per cent. of the mass. The tannin of the sumach, once considered identical with gallotannic acid, appears to be a distinct com- pound. Pure gallotannic acid, C1,H10O9,is an amorphous buff-colored solid, easily soluble in water; it also dissolves in aqueous alcohol, but only with great difficulty in pure ether. It has an intensely astringent taste, imparts a strong red color to litmus, enters into double decomposition with bases, and liberates carbonic acid from the carbonates. Of the gallotannates, the ferric salt is especially characteristic and important. It is obtained, upon adding a solution of the acid to a solution of a ferric salt, in the form of a violet- black precipitate. This reaction is exceedingly delicate. The basis of much of the ordinary writing-ink is ferric gal- lotannate. In common with most forms of tannin, gallotan- nic acid forms with gelatin an insoluble compound. The afiinity of the acid for gelatin is so great that when a skin is immersed in its aqueous solution all the tannin is ulti- mately removed. This property of gallotannic acid is often utilized in its quantitative estimation in nut-galls, etc., a standardized solution of gelatin, with a small quantity of alum or ammonic chloride, being employed for this purpose. See LEATHER. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Tanning : See LEATHER. TANoAN INDIANS 3 Tafioan (tan’yb'-an) or Tanoan Indians: a family of North American Pueblo Indians. In the middle of the six- teenth century they were widely scattered and divided into distinct geographic groups, and they were variously named by their Spanish discoverers and conquerors. For a long time they were regarded as representative, linguistically and otherwise, of four diverse stocks, but since 1878 they have all been designated as Tanoan. Tribes and Paeblos.—-As with other Pueblo Indians, they are chiefly named according to their pueblos or towns. In alphabetical order these are Hano (of the Tusayan group in Arizona), Isleta (New Mexico), Isleta (Texas, below El Paso), Jemez, Nambe, Pecos (a mere remnant, living since 1840 with their kinspeople at J emez), Picuris, Pojoaque, Sandia, San Ildefonso, San Juan (de los Caballeros), Santa Clara, Senecu (in Northeastern Chihuahua, Mexico, below El Paso), Tangewifige (a remnant sub-tribe sharing with the Keresans the pueblo of Santo Domingo), Taos, and Tesuque. Habttat.——Notwithstanding the intrusion of the Keresan Cochitme and Kiwami tribes (which was comparatively recent at the time of the discovery), the Tanoans were the people par excellence of the Rio Grande del Norte, originally occupying, with but slight interruptions, its entire valley and some of its outlying tributaries from within 40 miles of the northern boundary of New Mexico to within 120 miles of Mexico it- self, a stretch of country not less than 230 miles long by a varying width of from a few to nearly 100 miles at its sev- eral widest points. Throughout this region their pueblos were, in the sixteenth century, distributed from north south- ward in five groups—Taos, Tewa, J emez, Tanos, and Piros— this geographic distribution agreeing almost wholly with that of the ethnic subdivisions of the family. Of the Taos group were Taos (Te-wat-ha, the “ Braba ” of Castafieda and the “Tayberon” of later Spanish writers), situated about 45 miles due N. N. E. of Santa Fé, on an eastern tributary of the Rio Grande, and Picuris (Ping-’ul- tha or U-la-na, the Picuries of OIiate,1584-85). 2 miles S. W. of Taos. Both occupy nearly the same positions as when discovered. - Of the Tewa group, San Juan (J yu-o-tyu te-oj-ke) was situated on the western side of the Rio Grande, about 30 miles S. W. of Picuris. It was, with a companion town on the opposite side of the river, at Chamito, now in ruins, the Tunque Yunge of Castafieda, and from it probably the ma- jority of the Tewas now of Hano in Tusayan fied in the latter part of the seventeenth century. The still inhab- ited Santa Clara (Ka-po), and San Ildefonso (Pho-ju-o-ge). on the east side of the river, respectively about 2 and 5 miles lower down than San Juan, belonged also to the Tewas. Their remaining towns are (as they were) Pojuaque (Pho-ju-aI~1-ge), N ambe (N a-im-be), and Tesuque or Tezuque (Te-tzo-ge), all quite near to each other and from 6 to 9 miles E. of the main Rio Grande valley, the last-named be- ing only 9 miles N. of Santa Fé. The J emez (or Teguala tribe) now occupy but one pueblo, J emez (Wa-la to-hu-a), 30 miles VV. of the Rio Grande, on the Rio J emcz, but in the sixteenth century they existed in two branches. The western was distributed in twelve or thirteen towns, of which the main group was near the famous Hot Springs of San Diego. Here were the large ruins of Gwin-se-wa or old J emez (at the Hot Springs them- selves), and of A-mox-yum Kwa, Asht-ya-la-kwa, and four others on the heights lower down. Below these still were seven or eight goodly towns (the ruins of which can be still distinctly traced), from about where the modern J emez stands to near the Keresan towns of Oia. The Pecos (Pa- e-kwi wa-la), or eastern branch of the Tequala, speaking the same dialect, were separated by a distance of 80 miles from their western kinsmen, with whom their few survivors now dwell. They occupied the famous ruin of Pecos (Tshi- kwit-ye. the Cieuiye of Coronado), on the Rio Pecos, some 4.0 miles E. of the Rio Grande and S. E. of Santa Fé. This pueblo was, at the time of the discovery, the largest and most populous in New Mexico. It is probable also that the ruins of Ku-wang wa-la (pueblo de las Ruedas) and Se-yu-pa we-la, near Fulton in the same section, were occupiedby sub-tribes of these Pecos, who were the most eastern repre- sentatives (as the Taos are the most northern) of all the Pueblo peoples. Properly, there were three groups of the Tano pueblos— the northern, or Galisteo: the southern, or Rio Grande; and the eastern, or Manzano. The northern Tanos (Tafi-ge-was) originally had two pueblos on the site of the present capital of New Mexico, and others in the same neighborhood; but 4 - TANOAN when discovered their most northern town was Tzi-gu-ma, at Ciénega, 12 miles S. of Santa Fé, and a few miles S. E. of this was another important town at San Marcos, called Kwa-ka. About 12 miles farther S. (at Galisteo) was their principal pueblo of Tan-ge-win-ge, and within a radius of 10 miles around the Galisteo basin the lesser pueblos of I-pe-re (at San Lazaro), Yam-p’ham-ba (San Cristobal), and Hi-shi, or Pueblo Largo. Of these six towns the inhabitants were almost totally destroyed by the Comanches and Apaches soon after the sixteenth century, a few fugitives seeking shelter with the Santo Domingo Keres, where their descend- ants remain, keeping up, as do their Tewa kinsmen in the far away Hano of Tusayan, their original language and or- ganization. On the northern spurs of the Sandia and Man- zano Mountains were other pueblos of this tribe. In addi- tion to these, but belonging more properly to the Rio Grande division of the Tanos, were six or seven pueblos W. and S. VV. of the Salines, linking the northern or Tafi-ge-was to the more southern or Isleta series of Tano towns. Of the latter there were twelve or thirteen, situated along the Rio Grande from Bernalillo to below Isleta, including Na-f’hi-ap, near Bernalillo, and a town at Los Corrales (the ancestral homes, probably, of the present Sandias) ; and Pu-a-ray, the princi- pal pueblo of the series, Hy-en tu-ay, and Bejui tu-way, near Las Lunas, which were the ancestral abodes of the modern Isletas. These eighteen or more populous pueblos constituted the famous province of Tiguex of Coronado. Following the Isleta pueblos, there were at least ten or twelve settlements of the Piros distributed along both sides of the Rio Grande as far S. as San Marcial. The northern- most of these (abandoned for El Paso in 1680) was at Ala- millo; another, called Pil-a-bo, and perhaps a third, occu- pied the site of Socorro. At San Antonio was the New Mexican Se-ne-k1’1, or Senecu, which was destroyed by Apaches in 1675. Fugitives from it fled to Socorro and to Chihuahua, near El Paso, where they established themselves with fugitives from other devastated towns in the pueblo of the same name there, still inhabited by their descendants. The last of the series, and the most southern example of the compact, many-celled pueblos, still occupied at the time of the discovery was Tre-na-quel, at San Marcial. S. of the Salines and some 40 miles E. of the Rio Grande series were, in the valley of Abo, the Piro towns of Abo and Ten Abo (El Pueblo de Los Siete Arroyos), and near the Mesa de los J umanos, Tabira, or the famous Gran Quivira. All of these Piro towns, including three or four others in the immediate vicinity, were destroyed by Apaches between 1670 and 1680, those of the inhabitants who escaped fleeing to the lower Senecu and Isleta pueblos. General Characteristics.—The Tanoans were everywhere the frontiersmen of the Pueblo country and peoples. On the N. and E. they were contiguous to the Great Plains, and thus to the Utes, Pawnees, Comanches, dog-using Apaches, and other buffalo-hunting or roving tribes. With these they were constantly either at war or on terms of very doubtful amity during frequent but brief trading-truces. Thus they became hardier and more warlike, and greater travelers, traders, and hunters, than any others of the Pueblo peoples. Their training as mountaineers, and their intermarriage for generations with wilder neighbors, especially with the Shoshonean Utes and Comanches, have had a marked in- fluence on their physical development and appearance. The typical Tanoans (of the north especially) are tall, broad-shouldered, lithe, but strong-limbed, resembling the plains Indians in these and many other respects, even more than they do the Pueblo Indians of other stocks. They are alert in movement and wit, their expression being keen, their features spare, clear-cut, and prominent. The women are shorter than the men, but taller than the average Pueblo woman, and less rotund as a rule. Their costume is much the same. Their dresses, although more ornate, are much shorter of skirt, both modifications being due largely to their greater stature, and to the more active life led by the Tanoan women. The men wear their hair as do the north- ern plains Indian, long, and plaited at the sides (with fur or bright-colored stuffs interbraided), instead of do1ng 1t up at the back in a club or queue, as do the Keresans. They also wear long leggings of buckskin in place of the short, wide trousers or long knitted stockings of the other Pueblos, and for a long time catskin and buffalo robes largely supplied the place of the striped or figured and woven scrapes so characteristic of all the other Pueblos. The wide distribution of the Tanoans was the result of their wandering proclivities; their permanent segregation INDIANS in small but numerous communities and the compact many- storied and steeply terraced style of their pueblos being due to their constant warfare and defensive necessities. In sup- plying all pueblos with products of the buffalo-hunt the Tanoans formed small trading-parties, which sometimes penetrated as far S. and W. as the Pima country of Ari- zona and Northern Mexico. Even now their descendants are the greatest travelers and cleverest traders among exist- ing Pueblos. Able to secure in this way all the products of the finer Pueblo arts, they depended more than the towns- people on both barter and the hunt, tilled the soil less ex- tensively, and seldom resorted to irrigation. Their tendency to sever themselves (in bands more or less numerous) from their own communities and to join those of other stocks is strongly characteristic, the Hano Tewas of Tusayan being the last of a series of such migrant settle- ments. While thus so much affected externally by natural and sociologic environment, the Tanoans have been remark- ably tenacious of their language, organization, and customs, even the few survivors of the Galisteo towns adhering to these, after a residence with alien people for more than two centuries. This adhesion to native institutions was in part due to the similarity of culture everywhere traceable among the Pueblos; but with the Tanoans the division of each tribe into two main bodies—the clan-groups of winter and summer--was more distinct than with the other Pueblos, resulting sometimes in double (that is, northern and south- ern) divisions of their towns, as at Taos, and in the pos- session of at least two kivas in every pueblo. Within these groups, however, occurred the usual septenary subdivisions (see Habitations under PUEBLO INDIANS) and the elan-sys- tem, together with the totems of their tribes, was no less analogous to those of other Pueblos. The cult-lore of the Tanoans, while pueblo in principle, is very composite in make-up, their folk-tales being derived from, or modified by, that of all the numerous wilder peoples with whom they held intercourse. Naturally they had not advanced beyond sim- ple animism and a resultantly extensive fetish worship, which included a kind of mortuary fetishism not character- istic originally of the other pueblos (exclusively, it may be, of the Tusayan Indians). Their dance-worship is more ob- viously animal dramaturgy than is that of the Zufii Pueblos, and their sacred or sociologic games are more athletic than those of the farther pueblos. Their tendency to war kept them on only a slender footing of peace even with the other pueblos, but made them pre-eminent, and secured them leaders'hip, in case of any general confederation or uprising of the Pueblos. The Rio Grande or Isleta(Tiguex) Tanoans were the first to oppose the Spaniards, murdering the earli- est Franciscan missionaries to New Mexico. Moreover, it was a wizard chief of the Tanoans, the celebrated Popé, who incited, planned, and largely led the terrible Pueblo rebel- lion of 1680-96, which well-nigh resulted in the downfall of Spanish power N. of Mexico. Yet the position of the Tanoans on the frontiers, as heretofore defined, led to the speedy extermination of whole groups of their pueblos by the wilder tribes soon after the introduction of Spanish horses and firearms, which, by changing the nature of Indian warfare, rendered the Pueblo defensive method no longer adequate. History/.—There is evidence that the ancestral Tanoans were derived from the northwest—ruins of their pueblos being abundant in Colorado and Utah, and thence traceable south- wardly into the canon and mountain country W. N. W. of the present Taos ranges in the north of New Mexico. It seems probable that the Lower Tafios and J emez branches were the first to migrate, peopling the basin and tributary valleys of the great river below Santa F6, from the north and west, while the Taos and Tewa branches of the same family descended directly from the west, and then spread gradually eastward and downward along the upper section of the same river to about their present stations thereon and on the higher tributaries. Whatever the original language of the Tanoans may have been, it is now true that considerable numbers of words in their various dialects show Shoshonean association. Their long intercourse and constant intermarriages with Ute and Comanche branches of this great stock during centuries may account for this. If, nevertheless, the Tanoans should yet be proven to have been Shoshonean at an earlier stage of development, then the conversion to the pueblo mode of life and the aridian status of culture of the Shoshonean- Moqui or Tusayan Indians is, by comparison with theirs, a modern event. It is worth noting that the Jemez Tan- TANREC oans are now largely Navajo, and that formerly they and their eastern kinsmen, the Pecos, were once so intermixed also with the Zufiis that much in their dialect—-especially in the names of their pueblos and ruins-—shows unmistakable relation to the Zufii. this, however, more in a derivative than in an inherited way. The wide rangings of the Tanoans made them no less townspeople in the Pueblo sense, but far less sedentary than any of the other Pueblo peoples, and hence less conservative, more subject to admixture with and prone to adopt terms, etc., from outsiders. Popnlation.—The total population of the Tanoan Indians was in the sixteenth century much greater than at present. There are now only between 3,250 and 3,300 of them. Isleta, of New Mexico, is the most populous pueblo, its inhabitants numbering 1,059. AUTHORITIES.—Ad. F. Bandelier, in Papers and Reports of the Archaeological Institute of America (i., Boston and Cambridge, 1883—91); H. H. Bancroft, Arizona and New ]lIea;ico and lVatioe Races; and W. W. H. Davis, Spanish Conquest of N ew Jlfescico. See also INDIANS OF NORTH AMER- IOA, PUEBLO INDIANS, KERESAN INDIANS, SHOSHONEAN INDI- ANS, and ZUNIAN INDIANS. FRANK HAMILTON CUSHING. Tanrec, or Tenrec ['= Fr., from native (Malagasy) name]: any insectivorous mammal of the family Centeticlce. The species are confined to Madagascar, and some have a super- ficial resemblance to hedgehogs. The tailless Centetes ecaa- datas attains a length of 6 inches, and has dorsal spines, lost in the adult. The species of Orzoryctes are mole-like, and burrow in the rice-fields, doing much damage. Tansil' 10, LUIGI : poet; b. at Venosa, Italy, in 1510. He passed his life in Naples, where he long enjoyed the favor of the viceroy, Don Pedro de Toledo, after whose death, however, he lived poorly by a small office in the customs. D. at Teano, Dec. 1, 1568. His earlier poems are the Due Pellegrini, a pastoral ; the Vendemmiatore (1532), in ottara rima, a work so licentious that it was placed upon the In- dex ; and some amorous Rime, probably addressed to M aria of Aragon. To his later period belong certain spirited Capi- toli, or epistles sent to influential friends; the Balia, ex- horting mothers to nurse their own children; the Poclere (1560), an idyl on the charms of country-life; and the La- grime di San Pietro, a religious work written by way of atonement for the Vendernrniatore. See Opere di Luigi Tansillo (Venice, 1738) ; Poesie di Luigi Tansillo (London, 1782); Capitoli giocosi e satirici, ed. by S. Volpicella (Na- ples, 1870) ; Poesie liriche eclite ed inedite, ed. by F. Fioren- tino (Naples, 1882, with biography); ll podere, in Poeti rninori italiani (Venice, 1786); The iVarse, a Poem trans- latecl from the Italian of Laigi Tansillo, by William Ros- coe (3d ed. Dublin, 1800, with Italian text) ; X. Sonetti in- ecliti, in Aneclcloti tansilliani e alanteschi, ed. by Francesco and Imbriani (Naples, 1883); Franc. Flamini, Snlle poesie del Tansillo di genere oario (Pisa, 1888). J. D. M. FORD. Tansy [M. Eng. tansaye, from 0. Fr. tanaisie 'pa.gnuoZ'i (1615) shows his hatred for the Span- iards. His best-known work is the Seeohia ro;m'z‘a- (1615- 22), a mock-heroic poem which sings a war caused between the Modenese and the Bolognese, when the former carried off a bucket from the latter. It does not fall behind the Lwtrln and the Rape of the Loch. Further may be men- tioned the Tencla Rossa, several unedited political docu- ments, the fragment of an epic. the Uceono. some satirical rhymes, and his Letters. See La Secohin rapz'fa. poema ero- 'zTeomt'eo. e ]l pmimo canto dell’ Oeeano (Turin, 1830): Rime, ed. by T. Casini (Bologna, 1880); Life, by A. llluratori, in the edition of the Seeohia Ra_7J1'lct (Modena, 1744). Cf. G. Tiraboschi, B/ibliofeoa .1l10Ll/37l6-5'8 (1784). v., 180 ft, and d‘An- cona and Bacci, llfonz/ale della Letleratura I2‘al2'(ma. iii., 356 if. (Florence. 1893). J. D. M. FORD. Taste : See Snxsns and Hrsror.oev (The Dz'gesz‘z've Organs). Tatar Bazardjik: town: in Eastern Roumelia (Bulga- ria); on the Maritza; 23 miles VV. N. W. of Philippopolis (see map of Turkey, ref. 3-C); traversed by the railway which connects Vienna and Constantinople; maintains a large trade in wheat. lumber. coarse cloth (shaiak), ottar of rose, tobacco. tar, cheese, rice, butter, sheep, and skins. Pop. (1893) 16,343. E. A. Tatars: See Txarxas. Tate, NAHUM : poet ; b. in Dublin, Ireland, in 1652 : was educated at Trinity College: went to London, devoted him- self to literature. and in 1692 succeeded Shadwell as poet- laureate: fell into pecuniary straits. and died in the pre- cincts of the Mint, where debtors were privileged from ar- rest. Aug. 12. 1715. He assisted Dryden in the composition of Absalom and Aehilophel. most of the second and poorer part being the work of Tate ; perpetrated an alteration of Shak- speare‘s King Lear. which kept the stage for a long time in place of the original ; as poet-laureate produced common- place birthday odes and elegies; and put forth several works in prose and verse, among which are about half a score of dramatic pieces. He is chiefly known as a psal- modist, the versions of the Psalms executed by him and Nicholas Brady being long retained in the English Book of Common Prayer; these first appeared under the title Essr/y of (6 New Version of the Psalms of Darirl, eonsisfz'ng of the first Twenty. by N. Bracly anal _N. Tale (1695). which was followed by The Boole of Psalms, o. l\Iew l"ersz'on in flfefre. fifz‘erl to the Tunes usecl in the Churches, by .N. Tate and IV. Brady (1696), and A Supplement of Church flymns (1700). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Tateno Gozo: oificial and diplomatist; b. at Kokura, on the southern shore of the Straits of Shimonoseki. J apan. in 1841. Sent in 1869 to London in charge of students, he spent four years there. and acquired a thorough knowledge of the English language and of foreign life. From 1880 to 1890 he served with great acceptance as governor of Osaka, whence he was transferred to the legation at \Vashington, D. C., as minister plenipotentiary. He returned to Japan in the year 1894. J. M. Drxox. Tatl1an1.WILLI.iM : soldier and author; b. at Hutton, Eng- land. in 1752 ; emigrated to Virginia in 17 69. and entered a mercantile establishment on the James river; served as adju- tant of militia against the Indians; during the Revolution was colonel in the Virginia cavalry, and in 1780. in connec- tion with Col. John Todd, compiled the first trustworthy ac- count of the \Vestern territory. He studied law and was admitted in 1784; in 1786 established himself at Lumbarton, N. C., and in 1787 was elected to the Legislature of North Carolina. He twice visited England, and in 1801-1805 was superintendent of the London docks. Returning to Virginia in 1805, he was in his old age reduced to penury. and was appointed keeper of the military stores in the Richmond arsenal. He committed suicide at Richmond, Feb. 22. 1819. Among his publications are Analysis of the State of Tir- ginzia (Philadelphia. 1794) : l~?emar/as on Inland (Fmols (Lon- don. 1798): Polzlirol Economy of Inlmul 1\'(u':',(/ofz'orz (Lon- don. 1799) : and Hz'sfor,z/ and P1-nm‘a'euZ Essog/s on the (lull‘ure ancl Commerce of Tobacco (London, 1800). Tai-ia’linS: Christian apologist: b. in Assyria about 110 A. D.: studied philosophy and rhetoric: went to Rome. and taught rhetoric there: enjoyed the friendship of Jus- tin hlart_vr; was converted by him to Christianity about 152, and wrote in Greek one of the earliest apologies for (‘hristianity against the pagan philosophers. An .~l(/(l/'1-#8 to the Cr’/'ee/rs (ed. K. Otto, Jena, 1851 ; Eng. trans, .ln/e- ‘ Eucharist. 9 HO TATIUS Nicene Fathers, ii., 65-82). After the death of Justin, about 167, Tatian returned to the East, and adopted very strange, heterodox ideas of the Gnostic variety, joining the Eucratites. He died, perhaps at Edessa, about 180. His morality was asceticism. He forbade marriage, animal food, wine, etc., and used water in the celebration of the The Diatessaron of Tatian, in which the Gos- pels are so combined as to form a continuous narrative with- out repetitions, known from the fiftl1 century as the form in which the Gospels were read in Syria, was probably made originally in Syriac. It was entirely unknown except in name and from quotations from it until a Latin transla- tion of it, along with an Arabic version of it of Egyptian origin in the fourteenth century, was published by A. Ciasca in Rome, 1888. Eng. trans. from the Arabic by J . Hamlyn Hill, Earliest Life of Christ (Edinburgh, 1894). It proves the existence of four, and only four, Gospels about the middle of the second century. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. , Tatius, ACHILLES1 See ACHILLES TATIUS. Tatnall, J osrauz soldier; b. at Bonaventura, near Savan- nah, Ga., in 1762; went to England with his parents, who were loyalists, on the outbreak of the Revolutionary war, but ran away from home in 1780. and returning to Georgia in 1782 joined the army of Gen. Nathanael Greene; was made colonel of militia in 1793 and brigadier-general in 1800; took an active part in the military affairs of the State, and was elected to the Legislature; was U. S. Senator from Georgia 1796-99, and Governor of Georgia 1800. D. at Nassau, New Providence, June 6, 1803. Tatou-peba: See CACHICAMA. Tatpu1‘l1sl1a: a technical term of the traditional Sanskrit grammar applying to substantive compounds, in which the prior member is an adjective, noun, or adverb modifying in meaning the second member, the whole being of the same part of speech as the latter member. They are also called determinative compounds. Such are inclraclhciniis-, Indra’s bow, oeclcwicl, Veda-knowing, priyasahha-, dear friend; or in English, clining-room, wecitherwise, ivilclcat. KARMA- DHARAYA (q. 1).) applies to a subdivision of this class. See also LWIMUTATA. BE-NJ. IDE WHEELER. Tattam, HENRY, LL. D., F. R. S. : Orientalist; b. in Ireland, Dec. 28, 1788; educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and at the Universities of G6ttingen and Leyden; took orders in the Church of England; was archdeacon of Bedford 1844- 66, and rector of Stanford Rivers, Essex, 1849—68, and was afterward a chaplain in ordinary to the Queen. D. at Stanford Rivers, Jan. 8,1868. During his travels in the East, early in the century. he laid the foundation of an in- timate knowledge of Oriental languages, concerning one of which, the Coptic, he became an authority. He discovered at the convent of Nitria, in the northwest desert of Egypt, and secured for the British Museum. a splendid collection of ancient Syriac MSS. Among these were the Ecclesi- astical flistory of John, Bishop of Ephesus (Oxford, 1853), and the Epistles of Ignatius (1845), both edited in the Syriac text by Dr. William Cureton, and the former trans- lated into English by Dr. R. Payne Smith (1860). He was the author of several works, including Lexicon /Egyptiaco- Lalinmn ea; 2/eterilms Lingnce jilflgypticicre 1l[onmnentis,etc. (Oxford, 1835) ; The Ancient Coptic Version of the Book of Job the Just, t/2-anslcitecl into English and edited (1847); and Prophetce 171' ajores in Dialecto Linguce E/7;/yptiacce (Oxford, 2 vols., 1852). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Tattler: a name applied without definite limits to nu- merous birds of the snipe family, usually to the larger spe- cies of sandpipers, such as the yellowlegs, Tetanus melano- lencus. Tattooing [deriv. of tattoo, from Fr. tatouer, tattoo, from Tahitian tatn, tattooing] : the practice of marking the skin with various indelible figures by means of slight punctures or incisions into which certain pigments are introduced. In the islands of the South Pacific the custom was originally almost universal, although now dying out through the in- fluence of missionaries and civilization. Tattooing is also found among the Burmese, Laos, Japanese, and American Indians (see INDIANS or Nonrn AMERICA); in Japan, however, the practice has been forbidden by the Government, and is disappearing. With the races of darker color, such as Ne- groes, Halays, and the natives of Australia, a more preva- lent method of ornarncnting the skin is by means of simple scars. The tattooing of a few emblems on the arms or body is a common custom with white sailors and with the lower- TAUNAY class population of Europe. \Vith the Polynesians and Jap- anese, however, the figures cover nearly the whole body, and largely take the place of clothing. A distinguishing pecul- iarity of the Maoris was the elaborate tattooing of the face; many of their heads are preserved in museums. The art of tattooing was brought to its highest and most artistic de- velopment in Japan; here the subjects chosen for repre- sentation include lions, dragons, birds, trees, flowers, his- torical incidents, beautiful women, etc. The best authorities on the subject are Lacassagne, Les Tatonages (Paris, 1881), and J oest, Tdttoiviren, Narbenzeichnen, and K '0'rpe1'bema.len (Berlin, 1887). Taubaté, tow-bava-ta’: town of the state of S50 Paulo, Brazil; in the valley of the upper Parahyba, and on the railway from Sao Paulo to Rio de J aneiro ; 81 miles E. N. E. of the former city (see map of South America, ref. 7-G). It is the center of one of the richest coffee-growing districts of Brazil. Pop. about 12,000; with the manicipio (1889), 23,000. Tauchnitz, towch’nits, CHRISTIAN BERNHARD, Baron von : publisher ; nephew of Karl Christoph Ta-uchnitz ; b. at Schlei- nitz, near Naumburg, Germany, Aug. 25, 1816; established a publishing-house at Leipzig in 1837, and became celebrated for his editions of Greek and Latin classics, Hebrew and Greek Bibles; best known to travelers and writers for his continental editions of British authors, which consists of 3,000 titles. He began this series in 1841, and adopted the principle of paying the authors for the republication of their works, although there was at that time no international copy- right. He was made a baron 1860; became British con- sul-general in Saxony, 1872, and 1876 for the other Saxon principalities; called by the king to the house of peers of Saxony 1877. C. H. THURBER. Tauchnitz, KARL CHRISTOPH TRAUGOTT: publisher; b. at Grossbardau, near Grimma, Saxony, Oct. 29, 1761 ; learned printing at Leipzig; worked for some time in Unger’s establishment in Berlin, and opened in 1796 a printing- house in Leipzig, to which were added in 1798 a bookstore, in 1800 a type—foundry, and in 1816 the first stereotype- foundry in Germany. From his establishment, which soon grew and became one of the largest of the kind in Ger- many, issued those celebrated editions of Greek and Latin authors which in correctness, convenience, and cheapness surpassed all other editions which had hitherto appeared. D. in Leipzig, Jan. 14, 1836. Tauism and Tauists: See TAOISM. Tauler, tow’ler, JOHANNES, Doctor Illuminatus: mystic; b. at Strassburg about 1300 ; entered the order of the Domin- icans about 1318, and came under the influence of Meister Eckart, theological professor of the monastic school. He further studied theology at the college of his order in Cologne 1327-31, and afterward in Paris. The scholastic method, however, of the theology of that time did not satisfy him ; he felt himself drawn toward the mystical and speculative writ- ers on religion and philosophy; and this tendency was still more strengthened Within him, after his return from Strass- burg, by his intercourse with Meister Eckart. Eckart's pan- theism, however, as well as Suso’s sentimentalism. remained foreign to him. His character was of a more practical turn, and it is the moral bearing of the religious ideas which forms the essence of all his writings. Banished with the Domini- cans from Strassburg, in consequence of their determina- tion to close their churches during the papal ban, he went to Basel (1339). There he was converted by the mysteri- ous “ Friend from Oberland,” and his preaching became more spiritual. From 1346 he lived in Strassburg, and there died June 16, 1361. He enjoyed the reputation of being the greatest preacher of his time, and set a rare example of Christian courage, self-denial, and persistency during times of papal ban, of plague, and other hardships. I-lis sermons were first collected in 1498 (Leipzig). A translation into new High German was given by Schlosser (Frankfort, 1826) ; better by J . Ha-mberger (Frankfort, 2d ed. 1872). See Karl Schmidt. Johannes Tanler eon Strassbm"g (I—l amburg, 1841); Miss VVinkworth, Life anal Times of Tanler (Lon- don, 1857), containing twenty-five of his sermons; American reprint, ed. by R. D. Hitchcock, New York, 1858. See also .Denifle’s Das Bach eon cler geistlichen Arm.nt (Strass- burg, 1877) and 7‘a.nlers Behehrung (1879); A. Jundt, Les amis dc Dien an XIV‘3 siecle (Paris, 1879); F. Bevan, Trois (i-mis cle Dion (1889). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Taunay, tow-na’, ALFREDO D’ MSCRAGNOLLEZ author and politician; b. in Rio de J aneiro, Brazil, Feb. 22, 1843. His TAUNTON ancestors were French nobles, who fled to Portugal during the Revolution, and passed with the royal family to Brazil. After graduating with high honors at the Pedro II. College, he studied engineering in the Polytechnic and Military schools in Rio de Janeiro, having entered the army in 1861. In 1865-68 he was attached to the Engineer Corps of the Brazilian army which invaded Northern Paraguay from Matto Grosso. The history and sufferings of these cam- paigns were described by him in two works-—Soenas de eta- gem (1868) and La Retratte de Lag/and (1871; origmally written in French); these at once placed him in the first rank among Brazilian authors. In 1869-70 he was attached to the army in Southern Paraguay, editing its records. After the war he took an active part (as a conservative) in politics, was elected to parliament, was president succes- sively of Santa Catharina and Parana, and in 1886 was chosen to the senate; in all these positions his efiorts were especially directed to the promotion of immigration, and he urged his plans in an important series of publications. His other writings include essays, poems, comedies, criticism, etc., and a series of novels which are regarded as the best ever produced by a Brazilian author. Among these are A moctdade de Trdyttno and Innooencz'a, the latter translated into French and English. Taunay excels in descriptidns and character-drawing, but is lacking in humor. Since the Rev- olution he has been a leader of the imperialist party, but has taken no part in the acts of rebellion. See Koseritz, Alfredo d’Escragnolle Tammy (Rio, 1886). HERBERT H. SMITH. Taunton : town; in Somersetshire, England; on the Tone; 45 miles S. W. of Bristol (for location, see map of England, ref. 13—F). It is well built, and has manufactures of hosiery and silk, and trade in agricultural and dairy produce. Among its principal edifices are the Church of St. Mary Magdalen, St. J ames’s church, the market-house, Taunton and Somer- set Institution, the West of England College for Dissenters, and a castle built in the time of Henry I. Taunton returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1891) 18,026. Taunton: city; port of entry; capital of Bristol co., Mass. ; on the Taunton river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 15 miles N. by E. of Fall River, 33 miles S. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 5—I). It was called Cohannet by the Indians; the first purchase of ground by the whites was in 1637; the town was incorpo- rated in 1639, and had a city government in 1865. It is in an agricultural region, and is widely known for the extent and variety’ of its manufactures. I11 1890 it had 310 manu- facturing establishments, representing 65 industries. The invested capital aggregated $7,754,773. Over 6,000 persons were employed, to whom $3,104,023 was paid in wages. Materials valued at $4,771,096 were used in manufacturing, and goods were produced of an aggregate value of $9,834,- 584. The principal manufactures are locomotives, cotton machinery, cotton cloth and yarn, cutlery, nails and tacks, copper, yellow metal, silver and britannia ware, steam- engines, oil-cloth, fire and building brick, stoves, printing- presses, shoe-buttons and eyelets. and machinists’ tools. The city has an extensive trade with the interior in coal and grain, and a considerable coasting trade. There are 20 churches; a high school, 64 graded and 17 ungraded public schools, and over 4,700 pupils; Bristol Academy (non-sec- tarian, chartered in 1792) ; a public library with 37,000 vol- umes; State Insane Hospital; Home for Aged Women; the Morton Memorial Hospital; exhibition grounds and build- ings of the Bristol County Agricultural Society; headquar- ters of the Old Colony Historical Society; new court-house; 3 national banks with aggregate capital and surplus of $1,800,000, 3 co-operative banks with authorized capital of $1,000,000 each, and 2 savings-banks with aggregate deposits of over $6,000,000; and 3 daily. 2 weekly, and 3 monthly periodicals. The assessed valuation in 1894 was $18.987,964, and net city debt $207,495. Pop. (1880) 21,213 ; (1890) 25.448. SAMUEL Horxms EMERY. Taurida. tow're‘e-dafa: government of Russia, bordering on the Dnieper, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azof: area, 24,539 sq. miles. It consists of the peninsula of the CRIMEA (q.v.), and some extensive districts of the mainland. The northwestern part of the Crimea and the-mainland are desert steppes interspersed with salt lakes; they are inhabited by Tartars, who feed large herds of cattle and sheep on the steppes and cultivate wheat and millet. Pop. of government, (1890) 1,167,600. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Taurus, taw'ri“1s [: Lat. : Gr.. liter., bull. ox < Indo-Eur. *tary.os > O. Ir. ta/rb]; a brilliant constellation, which may TAVISTOCK 21 be seen S. of the zenith during the evenings of December and January. It includes the remarkable groups of stars the Pleiades and Hyades, and the red star Aldebaran. Taurus is the second sign of the Zodiac. S. N. Taurus: a range of mountains in Asia Minor. stretching E. to W. from the Euphrates to the Gulf of Adalia. By the Alma-Dagh it communicates with the Lebanon Mountains in Syria, and by one branch of the Anti-Taurus with the Caucasian Mountains. It rises in terraces from the Medi- terranean to a height of 10,000 feet, and incloses between itself and Anti-Taurus an elevated plain, arid, dotted with salt lakes, and having the same character as the plateaus of Central Asia. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tausig, tow’zich, CARL: pianist; b. near IV-arsaw, Poland, Nov. 4, 1841 ; pronounced by his teacher Liszt the best pian- ist the world ever heard. His octave playing was wonder- ful. After making many successful concert tours he settled in 1865 in Berlin, where he opened a school for piano instruc- tion. D. in Leipzig, July 17, 1871. His compositions are all for the piano, and are masterpieces of execution. D. E. H. Taussig, tow’sig, FRANK WILLIAM: political economist ; b. in St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 28, 1859 ; A. B. 1879. Ph. D. 1883, LL. B. 1886, all from Harvard University: studied one year in Europe; has since been Professor of Political Economy in Harvard University; author of 7'art_77i Htsto1'_2/ of the United States (New York, 1888: 2d ed. 1892); The Szllrer Situation in the United States (1892); various contributions to scientific periodicals, chiefly to The Quarterly Journal of Economics. C. H. T. Taut0g' [from Amer. Ind. tautauog (given by Roger Williams, and said by him to mean sheep’s heads), plur. of taut, the Indian name] : a fish (Tautoga 0/nttts) of the family Labrtdae, related to the wrasses of Europe, but the only mem- ber of its genus. It is a deep-bodied fish, with small smooth scales; the opercular bones scaleless; the teeth on the jaws conical and in two rows, and none behind developed as ea- nines; dorsal spines numerous (seventeen). and only three anal spines; the adult is sometimes an almost uniform black, but generally more or less blotched, and in the young band- ed and otherwise decorated. It is common on the Atlantic coast of North America from Massachusetts to Carolina, and rarer farther northward and southward. Its average weight is about 2 lb.. but it frequently weighs 10 lb. It makes its appearance in large numbers and in shallow waters on the New England and New York coasts between the months of April and November, and is most abundant in May and October. It spawns in May or June. \Vhen it first makes its appearance in shallow water. it refuses the hook, but soon takes it readily, and is one of the most frequently caught of the salt-water fishes. It prefers rocky places and slight cur- rents. It keeps near the bottom, and preys upon crustaceans and molluscs. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Tavernier. ta.“a'vt”tr’ni-a’. JEAN BAPTISTE, Baron d‘Au- bonne : traveler; b. in Paris in 1605; undertook while still very young extensive journeys in Europe, and made from 1631 to 1633 his first great journey to the East—from Con- stantinople to Persia, and thence by way of Aleppo to Rome. Subse uently. from 1638 to 1669, he made five more voyages to the ‘ast, through Asia Minor and Persia to Hindustan, and as far as Batavia. He possessed great skill in appraising precious stones, and by trading in jewelry he amassed a great fortune. He also promoted French commerce in the East Indies in various ways. and on his return from his last voy- age Louis XIV., who bought many of his jewels, made him a baron. He lost a part of his fortune. however, and, being a Protestant, sought refuge in Switzerland after the revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes. On a seventh journey to the East he died in Moscow in July, 1689. A report of his first six voyages was edited by Chappuzeau (2 vols., 1676-77). and a third by La Chapelle (1679), under the title Les Sta: l/'o_2/- ages de J.-B. Taverm'er. His descriptions are remarkable for their accuracy and for the light that they throw on the condition of Eastern commerce. An edition of his works was published in 1810 (7 vols.). and an abridged edition in 1882. See Tlra/eels in India (Eng. trans., 2 vols.. 1890). and Joret, Jeaot-Baptiste Tu/z'e*rm'er. F. M. COLBY. Tav’isteck: town; in Devonshire, England; on the Tavy: 11 miles N. of Plymouth (see map of England. ref. 14-D). There are only a few remains of a once splendid Benedictine abbey, founded in 961. Copper, lead. silver, and tin are found in the vicinity. and there is much trade in cattle and grain. Pop. (1891) 6,252. 22 TAVOY T:1\'0_\": capital of Tavoy district, Tenasserim, Burma; in lat. 14° 7’ N.. on the river Tavoy, 30 miles from its'mouth (see map of S. India, ref. 5-M). It is a neat and handsome town, of a thoroughly Indian character, built of bamboo and on piles, half concealed by luxuriant orchards and fruit- gardens, and standing in the 0 center of rich rice-fields. Salt and earthen pots are the chief manufactures. Pop. 13370. M. W. H. Tavsen, tow'sen, HANs: Reformer; b. near Kjerteminde, island of Fiinen, Denmark, 1494. In 1515 he entered a clois- ter, but the following year went abroad and studied at the University of Rostock, where he took the master’s degree. After lecturing on theology at the University of Copenha- gen for two years, he went abroad again, with the assistance of his cloister, and spent a 'year at \Vittenberg, under the direct influence of Luther and Melanchthon. After a year he was suddenly called home, and returned filled with en- thusiasm over the new teachings. In spite of entreaties, threats. and imprisonment, he continued to preach, even from his prison windows. In 1526 he was made chaplain to Frederick I., and permitted to preach in Viborg. Three years later he moved to Copenhagen, and became the leader of the Danish Reformation, 077Z’7’b’l’lb77l Lntheranornm in 1_)a/nzfa anfesignanas. For some unknown reason he was not included in the first list of Danish Protestant bishops, but in 1542 he was appointed to the diocese of Ribe, where he remained till his death Nov. 11, 1561. Among his writ- ings, which are inferior in form to those of Christiern Peder- sen, are a translation of the Pentateuch (llfagdeburg, 1535); Posfil (Sermon, 1539), a collection of sermons for the whole year ; and a translation of the whole Bible (before 1543). D. K. DODGE. Taw’ as City : incorporated village; capital of Iosco co., l\Iich.; on Taw-as Bay, Lake Huron, at the mouth of the Tawas river, and on the Detroit and Mack. Railroad; 65 miles N. E. of Bay City (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 5-J). It has a fine harbor, is in an agricultural region, and is principally engaged in the manufacture and shipment of lumber and salt. There are 6 churches, graded public school, a private bank, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 712; (1890) 1,544; (1894) State census, 1230; town- ship, 2,191. EDITCR or “ HERALD.” Tawing and Tanning : See LEATHER. Taxa'ceae [l\Iod. Lat., from Tasons, the typical genus, from Lat. taans : Gr. 'rof.3§os‘, yew-tree] : one of the two fam- dies of the order Comfeme. See CONIFERS. Taxation [via O. Fr. from Lat. lawa’2fio, estimation, valu- ing. deriv. of tan;a’re, handle, estimate, value, rate, deriv. of l(lI?/"(/67'(’, tac’t/um, touch]: the system by which revenue is raised to meet the general expenses of a government, wheth- er national or local. Taxes are to be distinguished (1) from forced contributions, which do not form part of a system, but which are an exceptional means of raising revenue in time of war or other emergency; (2) from fees like court charges or postage-stamps, which are contributions in con- nection with special services rendered in each case, and do not, properly speaking, form part of the general revenue. An account of the principal taxes in use will be found in the article FINANCE. The object of the present article is to examine the grounds on which methods of taxation are criticised or justified. In his lVeallh of lVali0ns, published in 1776, Adam Smith laid down four canons of taxation which are taken as the starting-point in this discussion. They were as follows: (1) The subjects of every state ought to contribute to the support of the government as nearly as possible in propor- tion to their respective abilities—-that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the pro- tection of the state. (2) The tax which each individual is bound to pay ought to be certain and not arbitrary. (3) Every tax ought to be levied at the time or in the manner in which it is most likely to be convenient for the contribu- tor to pay it. (4) Every tax ought to be so contrived as both to take out and to keep out of the pockets of the people as little as possible over and above what it brings into the treasury of the state.‘ As the French financier Colbert somewhat cynically puts it, taxation is the art of so plucking the goose as to secure the largest amount of feathers with the least amount of squealing. Of these canons the second and third are obviously of minor importance, being rather of the nature of adminis- trative directions as to the detail of collection than general TAXATION criteria for judging a tax itself. ‘The first and fourth are the important ones. Taxes must be equal and effective. Of course. if a tax meets both these requirements, it is a good one. But can both be applied side by side‘? In ancient times this was possible. There was one group of men who had considerable property and income which was in a form where it could be easily assessed. The property consisted chiefly of real estate. What little personal property there was consisted largely of visible and tangible objects, like plate or jewels, which the owners kept for display. A tax levied on these persons fell on those who could afford to pay it, and was one which could be collected at relatively little expense; a tax on any other body of persons was at once unjust and destructive. But even at the time when Smith wrote matters had begun to change from their an- cient simplicity. The persons who had the most ability or revenue were not always in a position where the assessors could ascertain the exact measure of this ability. Personal property in invisible forms, like stocks and bonds, had be- gun to acquire increasing importance. The attempt to make everybody contribute equally by the old method re- sulted in burdening the honest and exempting the dishon- est, and in making a tax system which was singularly inef- fective-—one whose burdens were out of proportion to the financial results. The tax legislator now has to decide the question whether he shall make equality or effectiveness his primary aim. This can be answered only by looking at the indirect effects of the taxes laid and studying what is known as the incidence of taxation. Suppose that atax is laid which is equal, but not effective-for instance, one which taxes people on stocks and bonds in the same manner that it does on real estate-the result is that the honest people alone tell what they have, while the dishonest conceal it. This constitutes, first, a premium on dishonesty; second, a bur- den on the honest, for if half of the property of a given class escapes taxation, the other half has to pay double rates in order to yield a given amount of revenue; third, an in- creasing burden, because each year of successful evasion renders the public conscience more lax and reduces the honest to a smaller minority. No system of oaths has been devised which will meet this evil. On the other hand, suppose a tax is laid which is effective but not equal—that is, which strikes a particular class of persons, but reaches all that it is aimed at. Assume, for in- stance, that houses were taxed at a different rate from other kinds of property. At first this would be an injustice to the owners of houses; but as time went on fewer houses would be built for rent, and the owners of those already ex- isting could charge higher prices on account of the short supply, thus shifting part of the burden on to the occupiers. Then as rents were slightly raised the employers of labor would probably have to pay a little higher wages in order to induce workmen to live in the place in question—a thing which the employers would be enabled to do if the house tax had been sufficiently productive to diminish the amount of the total payments which business concerns would have to contribute to the municipal support. Each year as it passed would tend to shift the burden of this tax from the class which originally felt it to the shoulders of the com- munity as a whole. The only cases where such shifting would not take place would be those where the class specially taxed was making such high profits that a diminution of these profits did not affect the supply of the goods or services which this class gave; and where profits were so large as this it would prove that such a class under previous systems of taxation had not been contributing a fair share to the expenses of the government. A tax law which aims to be equal, but which is ineffective, produces the worst kind of inequality, which tends to increase as time goes on. A tax law which aims to be effective, even in apparent disregard of equality, tends by a constant process of economic adjust- ment to be more and more equally distributed over the whole community. Effectiveness rather than equality should there- fore be the primary object of the tax legislator. The other can be trusted to follow. Unfortunately this sequence is not well understood. In seeking to apply an illusory theory of equal treatment of all persons, law-makers really put double burdens on the honest. When the courts squarely face the fact that any tax is a discriminating tax, if a large part of those against whom it is directed can practically escape its burdens, we may hope for a real reform in these matters. A few rules can be given which tend to secure effectiveness of tax laws and to avoid discriminations against the honest. TAXIDERMY (1) Taxes should be assessed on things rather than on per- sons——on the property itself rather than on its owners. (2) In conformity with this rule an income tax should be levied at the sources of the income rather than on the receivers of the income. Of course this complicates the possibility of levying compensator-y or progressive income taxes, and may bear hard upon people with small incomes ; but the evasions which result from a violation of this rule do far more harm than the hardships which result from conformity to it. (3) No deductions from the value of property should be made on account of debt. Mortgaged real estate, for instance, should be assessed at its full value. This at first sight seems very unjust, but is really the equitable arrangement. Under the present system, which allows deduction for debt, a large part of the money lent on real estate wholly escapes taxation. The present system puts burdens, first, on the holder of un- mortgaged real estate, who has to pay a higher rate of tax because the valuation of the town where he lives is lower; second. on the widows and orphans. who pay a high tax rate on their investments, while other investors conceal the fact of their holdings. lts benefit to the holder of mortgaged real estate is largely illusory, because the existence of the present system keeps the rate of interest higher than would otherwise be the case. The only man who gets much benefit is the unscrupulous lender, who enjoys the high rate of in- terest and makes no tax return. (4) The same principle should be applied to corporations. The value of the corpor- ate property is represented by the market value of its stock and debt. This debt can be reached by taxing the corpor- ation either on its gross earnings, its net earnings, or its secu- rities as a whole. It can not be reached by an attempt to tax it in the hands of the holders. (5) To secure an equitable land tax, real estate should be assessed on the basis of its price rather than of its productiveness ; unimproved real es- tate should be assessed higher and improvements relatively lower than at present. The assessors to-day see that the man who holds unimproved real estate gets little income. and they let him off easily on account of his supposed inability to pay a high tax. The real eifect of this is to take burdens off from the shoulders of a man who is waiting for the growth of the community to make him rich, and to put those bur- dens on the shoulders of those who are contributing to that growth. Whatever may be thought of Henry George's single- tax theory as a whole, there can be little question that a relatively higher assessment of ground rent, with corre- sponding relief for those who have made improvements, is a much-needed reform. (See SINGLE TAX.) (6) The objects of national, state, and local taxation should be separated as far as possible. If, as happens in so many of the U. S., the State taxes are partly made up of contributions from the towns on the basis of their grand lists, or assessed valuations, the local assessors are anxious to lessen the share of the State tax which their town must pay. This they can do by lowering the grand list and correspondingly raising the local tax rate. When once the assessors are interested in making an incorrect list, no board of equalization can overcome the evil. There are certain important groups of taxes in which revenue is a subordinate consideration, and which therefore fall somewhat outside the scope of this article. High li- censes constitute one group, protective tariffs another. The object of such taxes is to discourage certain forms of trade upon which they are levied, and they should obviously be judged on other grounds than those of equality or fiscal elfectiveness. There is no satisfactory general work on the economics of taxation. The leading American writers on thesubject are David A. Vi/yells, whose article on Ta.rate'on in LaZor’s CycZopwcZz'a of Polizfical Economy goes into more detail than is compatible with the scope of this work, and includes a detailed bibliography, and E. R. A. Seligman, PubZ1.'cafi'ons of the Amem'caa Economa'c Associatz'on, vol. vii., Nos. 2, 3, vol. ix., Nos. 1, 2, who has done excellent work, but not quite -comprelicnsive enough for the general reader. Gossa. Tar- a/f'i'01t, its Prz'ncz'pZes and rlfefhods, deals with European con- ditions rather than American. R. T. Ely’s Ta.ratzIon- z'n,1»:ime'r— icaa Sir‘!/tea and Oifics contains some interesting matter, but must be used with caution. ARTHUR T. HADLEY. 'l‘ax’idermy [from Gr. ¢dE¢s, arranging, arrangement (deriv. of 'r0io'a'eu/, 1-cigar, arrange)+ 6e’p,ua, a skin (deriv. of 5e'peu/, to skin)]: the art of preserving the skins of animals and replacing the flesh by some durable material, so as to represent life. In the matter of removing and replacing 23 perishable parts it differs from embalming. which seeks to preserve the flesh itself. With the questionable exception of crustaceans, the art of the taxidermist is practically re- stricted to vertebrated animals, for invertebrates are usually dried or preserved in liquid, and while a large insect may be cleaned and mounted, such cleaning and mounting can hardly be called taxidermy. Taxidermy is a comparatively modern art. for while it is said that Hanno brought back to Carthage skins, supposed to be those of gorillas, from the west coast of Africa, no at- tempt seems to have been made to mount them. The well- known quotation from Romeo and Julia‘, And in his needy shop a tortoise hung, An alligator stuff‘d, and other skins, Of ill-shaped fishes, is one of the earliest references to stuifed animals. Still, from a work published in Paris in 1689, it is certain that as early as 1517 birds, including the cassowary, brought from Malaysia, were mounted in Amsterdam, and a stuifed rhi- noceros is preserved in the Royal Museum of Vertebrates, Florence, which was prepared for the museum by Ulysses Aldrovandus in Bologna, sometime in the sixteenth cen- tury. It is very probable that taxidermy originated in the desire to preserve for exhibition the strange quadrupeds and brilliant-hued birds brought to Europe by the early navigators, and to this desire is due the genesis of the mod- ern natural history museum. The establishment of muse- ums naturally gave an impetus to taxidermy, but it was for a long time taxidermy of a decidedly inferior quality, and so far back as 1825 \Vaterton vigorously criticised the ap- pea-ranee of museum specimens. The demand for more art in taxidermy came mainly from private individuals desirous of preserving birds for their beauty, or mammals as trophies of the chase. and it was many years before the greater por- tion of museum work rose above the level of the positively bad. Perhaps the earliest institution to admit within its walls groups of animals mounted to show them with natu- ral surroundings. or to illustrate their habits, was the Uni- versity of Pisa, where, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, Prof. Paolo Savi mounted in a most artistic man- ner a number of groups of birds and mammals. The British Museum was the first large institution for- mally to adopt groups of birds mounted with their natural surroundings as a part of its regular exhibition series, but in this it was only following in the lead of E. T. Booth, who had applied the idea to one entire museum, and had introduced into the Brighton Museum, England, a series of British birds thus mounted. At present the best work is demanded by public museums, and some noteworthy exam- ples of taxidermy are to be found iii the U. S. in the Amer- ican Museum of “Natural History, New York, and in the U. S. National hluseum at ‘Washington. The general principles of taxidermy may be outlined as follows: The skin of the animal to be mounted must be carefully removed. cleaned, and poisoned. preferably with some preparation of arsenic, either in the shape of arsenical soap or in powder. In the ease of most mammals the skin must be so tanned that the hair will not fall out, and that the skin may dry hard and stiff in order to retain the form given it. Wires or irons are placed in the legs to sustain the weight of the animal, and around these the original shape of the legs is carefully built up in tow, or tow and excelsior. On the care with which this is done depends much of the appearance of the finished work, and in the ease of quadrupeds thinly clad with hair great pains are needed to bring out the muscles. The leg-irons are attached to a central wire, board, or body of excelsior, according to the size of the animal or method to be followed, and in birds and small mammals the neck and body are made together, and little remains to be done in the way of further filling. The easiest, but worst, method is after the skin has been drawn over the legs, and they have been attached to the body, to fill out the skin with tow or straw, working out the principal muscles from within. The best method. with quadrupeds of any size, is to build up over a wooden frame- work the entire shape of the body, including the neck, re- placing the muscles by excelsior and tow. smearing this manikin over with clay to attain smoothness. The finer details about the eyes. lips, and nostrils are reproduced by placing a layer of clay beneath the skin, and working in the lines and other characters. Birds are preserved readily by the art of taxidermy; mammals are more ditlicult; the smooth, glossy skin of cetaceans defies the taxidermist, and can only be imitated by a carefully made cast, and the same is true 24 TAXONOMY of the large majority of reptiles and fishes, although with care many may be mounted. See Hornaday, To.:z;tcZe'rm,y and Zofilogtcal Collecting (New York, 1891), and Davie, lllcthods tn the Art of Tct.m'cZe'm2.y (Columbus, 1894). F. A. Lucas. Taxonomy [from Gr. ¢ci£w, arrangement + 1/6,uos, law]: that department of biological science wlnch deals with the arrangement and classification of animals and plants. Tax Sales: public official sales of land made in pursu- ance of law for the non-payment of taxes which have been laid upon them. Power to make such sales is entirely statu- tory, and is not derived from any rule of the common law, the right of a government to grant such power being a neces- sary attribute of its sovereignty. The power when granted is a naked power, and not one coupled with an interest, and the statutes giving it must be strictly construed. In the U. S. tax sales are very common, and the laws gov- erning them and the construction of those laws form a very important part of the jurisprudence of the various States. The statutes of the several States vary widely in their spe- cific provisions as to the assessment of taxes, the manner of making tax sales and their effect, and the right of redemp- tion accorded to interested parties. Certain general princi- ples, however, have been established which apply to all, or nearly all, the statutes, and regulate the proceedings under them. Regm'sttes to a Val/id SaZe.—The land must be regularly listed and assessed, it must not be exempt, and the tax must remain undischarged at the time of the sale. Payment, or even tender by the owner, or by any other person whose in- terests would be prejudiced by the sale, destroys the right to sell. Such a sale is in a great measure an ex parte pro- ceeding, and in order to render it valid every statutory re- quirement which regulates the prior proceedings, down to and including the sale, must be strictly complied with. This principle applies to all preliminary steps—-the assessment and laying the tax, preparation of the assessment roll and its delivery to the proper officer for collection, etc.—as well as to the subsequent steps relating to default in payment of the tax and the proceedings thereupon preparatory to mak- ing the sale. This doctrine is fundamental in all the States, but in the methods and means by which this regularity shall be judicially determined there is considerable variation. Due notice, usually by advertisement in a newspaper for a specified time, must be given of the property to be sold, and of the time and place of the sale, which must be held as advertised, must be public, and must be conducted by the officer authorized by statute in strict conformity with the provisions of the statutes. The amount of land to be sold is variously regulated; in some States it is optional with the oificer to sell the whole or a part, while in others the amount is limited to such as it is necessary to sell to realize enough to satisfy the taxes and charges, any violation of the provisions in this respect rendering the sale void. Each parcel of land which is sepa- rately assessed must be sold by itself, usually for cash to the person bidding the highest sum, which sum must not be less than the total amount of taxes and charges. After the sale, in most States, the officer is required to issue to the purchaser a certificate of sale which, upon the termination of the time limited by statute for redemption, entitles the purchaser to a deed of the land, executed by the proper offl- cer on behalf of the State, and conveys or purports to con- vey the title to him; and the officer must make a return specifying the fact of notice, the time of sale, the property sold, the name of the purchaser, etc., and the making of this return is usually mandatory. The 7't_(/ht of redemjatton is usually allowed to the owner and parties interested during the period fixed by statute, during which time the possession of the owner is not dis- turbed. In most of th States it is provided that notice to redeem must be given to the owner, and that his right of re- dem ption shall continue thereafter during the time required to elapse before the purchaser is entitled to a deed. The provisions as to who shall have the right to redeem are con- strued liberally, and usually any one possessing an interest in the land may exercise the right, but not a mere stranger. Payment or tender of the full amount required by statute by the owner, or other person entitled to redeem, constitutes an exercise of this right, and vests the title absolutely again in the owner or the redeemer, cutting off the right of the purchaser. The statutes regulating the right of redemption are liberally construed in favor of those having the right to TAY redeem, but their provisions must be observed ; and without statutory authority the courts can not entertain an action to redeem the land. The deed to the ])m*cha.se'r upon the tax sale (to which he is entitled upon the expiration of the time of redemption, the land remaining unredeemed) must be substantially in the form required by statute; must recite enough of the previous proceedings to show at least authority to sell and to make the deed; must describe the property with sufficient certainty (if possible, following the description in the as- sessment roll) ; and its execution and delivery must be in ac- cordance with such statutory provisions. There are some States in which every tax sale is required by statute to be founded upon an order of the court. At the common law a tax deed is not even ])m'ma. faete evidence of the facts necessary to create valid title under the deed, but the bur- den of proof is upon the purchaser to show by independent proof compliance with all statutory requirements. This rule has been variously modified by statute; in some States only to the extent of making the tax deed prtma faete evidence that the proceedings on the sale itself were duly performed, still leaving the purchaser to prove compliance with the law as to all requisites thereto; in other States (the great majority) to the extent of making the deed J'_m'e'mct facte of the regularity of all previous proceedings upon which the validity of the tax deed depends, making the production of the tax deed shift the burden of proof from the purcha‘ser to the owner or redemptioner; in a few States, to the ex- tent of making the deed conclusive evidence of the regular- ity of the sale and of certain proceedings prior thereto, such as the assessment of the tax, proper advertisement of the sale, etc., but not depriving the owner or redemptioner of the right to avoid the tax sale by proof of failure to comply with any vitally essential prerequisite. Adverse possession during the prescribed period, and under a claim of title by a tax deed valid on its face, is suifieient to vest the title by prescription where the title under the tax deed would be defective. This would not be so in a case of a claim of title under a certificate of sale. As to the ease of possession under a claim of title by a tax deed void on its face the au- thorities are divided. In the case of a void or voidable tax title the purchaser at common law had no remedy; but re- lief is generally granted by statute, usually by providing that the purchaser may recover the purchase money, and subsequent taxes paid, with interest. After execution and delivery of the tax deed the parties are remitted to the ordinary remedies open to them in cases of contested titles. Unless a purchaser under a tax sale can enter peaceably, he must bring an action in the nature of an ejectment in order to obtain possession. Generally the for- mer owner may institute an action to set aside the sale and conveyance thereunder, for any material irregularity, illegal- ity, or fraud ; but the time limited for the beginning of such _ action is generally made much shorter than that prescribed by common law for contesting the title of land. This time begins to run in some States from the date of sale; in others, from the execution and delivery of the deed; and in still others, from the time when the purchaser takes possession. The nature of the estate which the purchaser acquires by the tax deed varies in the different States, in some being only the interest of the person to whom the land was as- sessed, or that of the real owner; in others, a new and origi- nal fee, unincumbered by previous liens, created in the pur- chaser, and going back no further than the tax sale. F. Sruaens ALLEN. Tay: a river of Scotland, flowing from Loch Tay, at an elevation of 355 feet above the level of the sea, to the Ger- man Ocean, which it enters through a large estuary, the Firth of Tay, from 1 to 3 miles broad. It is the largest river of Scotland, draining nearly the whole of Perthshire, and carrying to the German Ocean a greater mass of water than any other of the rivers of Great Britain. The Dochart, the principal feeder of Loch Tay, rises in Ben Lui, on the borders of Argyleshire and, flowing in a northeastern direc- tion, is joined by the Lochy just before the united streams enter the lake. Loch Tay itself is a long and narrow sheet of water picturesquely situated in a basin scooped out of the bosom of the mountains, 355 feet above the level of the sea. After leaving it the Tay receives from the N. and the E. the Lyon, the Tummel, the Garry, and the Isla, and from the W. the Almond and the Earn. Its entire basin comprises an area of about 2,500 sq. miles. Its entire course is about 120 miles, and it is navigable for vessels of 500 tons burden TAYABAS up to Newburgh, 15 miles from its mouth. The tide flows up the river to about a mile above Perth, to which place it is navigable by vessels of 100 tons. The salmon-fisheries of the Tay and its tributaries are of considerable value. The Stormouthfield pounds for the propagation of salmon are 5 miles above Perth. On Dec. 28,1879, the railway bridge across the Tay was blown down in a hurricane, but a new bridge, some distance to the W., was opened on June 20, 1887. See BRIDGES (Failure of Bridges). Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tayabas, ta”a-yaa’ba"as : town of the Philippines, the capital of the district of Tayabas; on the southern shore of the island of Luzon, 60 miles S. E. of Manila (see map of East Indies, ref. 3—G); in an unhealthful region. It is a clean, well-built, and handsome town, carrying on a considerable trade. Pop. 20,000, most of whom are Chinese mestizoes. Taygetus, td-ij’i-tiis: the loftiest mountain range of Pel- oponnesus, Greece, extending in an almost unbroken line for about 70 miles, from Leondari in Arcadia to Cape Matapan. Its height, ascertained by the French commission to be 7,902 feet, its unbroken length and majestic form, have been cele- brated by both ancient and modern writers. It rises to its greatest height immediately above Sparta. Its principal summit was in ancient times called Taletum, now St. Elias. On the sides of Taygetus are forests of pine, which abounded formerly with wild animals. The districts around Taletum formed a celebrated hunting-ground. The southern part of Mt. Taygetus is rich in marble and iron. Near Croceee there were quarries of green porphyry, which was extensively em- ployed by the Romans. There was also another kind of mar- ble, obtained from quarries more to the S., called by the Romans Tamorian marble. Tayler, JOHN JAMES, D. D.: preacher, educator, and au- thor; b. in Nottingham, England, in 1798; son of a Uni- tarian minister; educated at the dissenting college in York ; graduated at the University of Glasgow 1818; studied theol- ogy; became minister of a Unitarian congregation in Man- chester 1820; was secretary to the college in York from 1822 to 1840, when it was removed to Manchester; became at that time Professor of Ecclesiastical History, and subsequently of Doctrinal Theology; removed to London in 1853, along with the college, of which, under the name of Manchester New College, he became principal; was for some years pas- tor, together with Rev. James Martineau, of the Unitarian congregation in Little Portland Street. He was the author of A Retrospect of the Religious Life of England (1845); Christian Aspects of Faith and Duty (1851) ; An Attempt to ascertain the Character of the Fourth Gospel (1867); A Catholic Christian Church the VVant of our Time (1867); Christianiti , What is it .9 and What has it done 9 (1868) ; and other works on religious subjects, some of them post- humously published. D. at Hampstead, London, May-28, 1869. His Life and Letters (1872) were published by Rev. John Hamilton Thom. Revised by J. W. Cnxnwrcx. Taylor: town (founded in 1875); Williamson co., Tex.; on the International and Gt. N. and the Mo., Kan. and Tex. railways; 37 miles N. E. of Austin (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 6-E). It is in an agricultural, stock-raising, and fruit and vegetable growing region, and contains 12 churches, public-school buildings valued at $38,000, electric-light and street-railway plants, railway-shops, cotton-compress, 2 cot- tonseed-oil mills, 2 national banks with combined capital of $250,000, and 3 weekly newspa ers. Pop. (1890) 2,584; (1895) estimated, 5,500. EDITOR or “ JoUR.NAL.” Taylor, ALFRED SWAINE, M.D., F. R. S.: physician and chemist; b. at Northfleet, Kent, England, in Dec.,‘ 1806; studied surgery; became Professor of Chemistry at Guy’s Hospital, and first Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the same institution. Author of A Afanual of Jtfedical Jurisprudence (1843); Photogenic Drawing (1840); On Poi- sons in Relation to Illedical Jurisprudence and llledicine (1848); On Poisoning by Strychnia (1856); and (his most important work) The Principles and Practice of Ilfedical Jurisprudence (1st ed. 1865): author with Dr. VV. T. Brande of a standard 1lIanual of Chemistry, and editor for many years of The Ilfedical Gazette. D. May 27, 1880. Revised by F. Srusens ALLEN. Taylor, ANN and J ANEI See TAYLOR, Isaac. Taylor, BAYARD1 traveler and author; b. at Kennett Square, Pa., Jan. 11, 1825; in 1842 became apprentice to a printer; published his first volume, X/imena and other Poems, in 1844; in 1844-45 made a pedestrian tour in Eu- TAYLOR 25 rope, and after his return published Views A foot, or Europe seen with Knapsach and Stay?‘ (1846); in 1847 became one of the editorial stafi of The IVew Yorh Tribune, with which he was connected while he lived, publishing in that journal originally the substance of most of his works of travel. In 1849 he visited California; in 1851 visited Egypt, Asia Minor, Syria, and Europe; in 1852- 3 crossed India from Bombay to Calcutta, going thence to Hongkong and joining Perry’s expedition to Japan, and made several other jour- neys. In 1862-63 he was secretary of legation, and for a while chargé d’afi'aires at St. Petersburg; in 1874 went to Egypt, and thence to the millennial celebration in Iceland. He resided at intervals several years in Germany, where he married, and from 1872 he was engaged upon a biography of Goethe and Schiller, which he left unfinished. Several of his works have been translated into German, French, and Russian. His books of travel are El Dorado, or Adventures in the Path of Empire (1850); Journey to Central Africa (1854); The Lands of the Saracen (1854); Visit to India, China, and Japan (1855) ; IVorthern Travel-—Summer and Winter Pictures of Sweden, Denmark, and Lapland (1857); Travels in Greece and Russia (1859) ; At Home and Abroad, a Sketch-booh of Life, Scenery, and Ilfen (1859; 2d series, 1862); Colorado, a Summer Trip (1867); Byways of Europe (1869) ; and Egypt and Iceland (1874). He wrote four novels —Hannah Thurston (1863); John God frey’s Fortunes (1864); The Story of Kennett (1866); and Joseph and his Friend (1870). He published the following volumes of poems: Rhyrn es of Travel, Ballads, and other poems (1848); The American Legend, delivered before the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Harvard University (1850); Book of Romances, Lyrics, and Songs (1851) ; Poe-ms and Ballads (1854) ; Poems of the Ori- ent (1855); Poems of I:Iome and Travel, selected from his earlier productions (1855); The Poets Journal (1862); The Picture of St. John (1866); The Ballad of Abraham Lin- coln (1869); The ilfasque of the Gods (1872); Lars, a Pas- toral of IVorway (1873); The Prophet, a Tragedy (1874); Home Pastorals and Lyrics (1875); and a Centennial Ode (1876). He edited a Hand-book of Literature and the Fine Arts, in conjunction with George Ripley (1852); C_?}Cl0p(l’d’iCI, of Illodern Travel (1856); Frithiof’s Saga, translated from the Swedish of Tegnér by W. L. Blackley (1867 ); Auerbach's Villa on the Rhine (1869); and the Illustrated Library of Travel, Ezcploration, and Adventure (1872, seq.); and trans- lated into the original meters both parts of Goethe’s Faust (1870-71), which is probably his most important literary work. Besides the foregoing he wrote largely in prose and verse for many periodicals; contributed notes on Loo-Choo and Japan to the IVarrative of Perry’s E;rpedition, and an introduction to R. H. Stoddard’s Life, Travels, and Books of Alexander con _Humboldt, and lectured extensively in nearly every part of the U. S. In 1876 he published The Echo Club and other Literary Diversions, and delivered the poem at the Centennial celebration of the anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, in Philadelphia. July 4. He was appointed U. S. minister to Germany in 1877 ; died in Berlin, Dec. 19,1878. See his Life and Letters (2 vols., Boston, 1884). Revised by H. A. Bnnns. Taylor, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN: poet and journalist; b. at Lowville, N. Y., July 19, 1819; was educated at what is now Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y., where his father, Ste- phen VV. Taylor, was professor; became in 1840 literary editor of the Chicago Evening Journal, and during the civil war was its military correspondent with the armies in the \Vest; afterward traveled and lectured. He published January and June (1853); Pictures in Camp and Field (1867) ; The lVorld on Wheels (1873); Old-time Pictures and Sheaves of Rhyme (1874); Songs of Yesterday (187 5); The River of Time; Complete Poems (1887); and other works. D. at Cleveland, 0., Feb. 24, 1887. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Taylor, BROOK: mathematician; b. at Edmonton, near London, Aug. 18, 1685; entered St. J ohn's College, Cambridge, in 1701 ; distinguished himself in music, painting, and mathe- matics; in 1708 wrote a treatise on The Center of Oscillation, which was published in the Philosophical transactions for 1713; in 1712 was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, of which he became secretary two years later: and in 1715 he had a controversial correspondence with Count Raymond de Montmort u on the philosophical theories of Malebranche. He published Ilfethodus Incrementorum, etc. (1715), which contains the foundation of the calculus of finite differences and the first announcement of the famous “ Taylor‘s theorem.” the latter almost unnoticed by mathematicians until 177 2 ‘*6 26 when Lagrange adopted it as the basis of the differential calculus. Among his other works were New Principles of Linear Perspective (1719); and Contemplatio P/iilosoph/ica, which was published, with a memoir, by his grandson, Sir XYilliam Young (1793). D. in London, Dec. 29, 1731. Taylor, GEORGE: patriot; b. in Ireland in 1716; is said to have been the son of a clergyman and to have received a liberal education; emigrated to North America as a “ re- demptioner ” in 1736; was bound to an iron manufacturer, bv whom he was made a clerk, at Durham, Pa. ; several years later married the widow of his employer and became propri- etor of the works; established a large iron-mill on the Lehigh river, and acquired a considerable fortune. In 1764 he was elected to the colonial assembly, in 1770 became a judge of the county court, and in 1775 was elected to the provincial assembly, and was earnest in the advocacy of revolutionary measures. He was elected to fill a vacancy in the Conti- nental Congress July 20, 1776, and so was not a member when the Declaration of Independence was passed, but was one of those who signed the document. He retired from Congress in Mar., 1777, and returned to his home in Penn- sylvania. D. at Easton, Pa., Feb. 23, 1781. Taylor, Sir HENRY: dramatist; b. at Bishop Middleham, Durham, England, Oct. 18, 1800; entered in 1824 the Colo- nial Office in London, in which he continued until 1872, and was for many years one of the five senior clerks. He contributed to various periodicals, and published Isaac Com- nenus, a drama (1827); Philip van Arte velde, a tragedy (1834) ; The Statesman, a series of essays (1836); Edwin the Fair, an historical drama (1842); The Eve of Conquest, and other Poems (1847); Notes from Life, a series of essays (1847); Notes from Books, containing essays on the poems of \Vords- worth and Sir Aubrey dc Vere (1849); The Virgin I/Vidow, a comedy (1850); St. Clement’s Eve, a play (1862); and A Sicilian Summer, and llfinor Poems (1868). An edition of his plays and poems appeared in 3 vols. in 1863; another in 5 vols. in 1878; his Autobiography appeared in 1885 (2 vols.) and his Correspondence in 1888. His Philip van Ar- tevelde is the best English historical tragedy since Otway’s Venice P/eserved. D. at Bournemouth, Mar. 28, 1886. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Taylor, ISAAC (known as Taylor of Ongar): author: b. in London in 1759; was a successful engraver in London; removed to Lavenham, Suffolk, in 1786; was minister of an Independent congregation at Colchester 1796-1810, and of one at Ongar, Essex, from 1811 until his death. Besides sermons, he published, mainly for the young, a number of volumes including Advice to the Teens; Beginnings of British Bi- ography; Beginnings of European Biography; Biography of a Brown Loaf; Boole of I/lIartyrs for the Young; Bun- yan explained to a Child; Character Essential to Success in Life; Child’s Life of Christ; I/lfirahilia, or the Wonders of Natune and Art; Scenes in America, in Asia, in Eng- land, in Europe, in Foreign Lands ; Scenes of Commerce; Scenes of British Wealth; Self-cultivation Recommended, all separate works; and Twelve Addresses to Youth. with I-Iymns. Nearly all of his works have been frequently re- published. He was the father of ANN TAYLOR (Mrs. Gil- bert, of Nottingham, b. 1782, d. 1866; Autobiograplm , 1871), who with her sister, JANE (1783-1824; llfemoirs, 1825), wrote Hymns for Infant flfinds and Original Poems; of J EFFREYS TAYLOR (1792-1853), author of a number of works. chiefly for the young; and of IsAAo TAYLOR, LL. D. (g. v.). D. at Ongar, Dec. 11,1829.-l-Iis elder brother, CHARLES TAYLOR (1756- 1821), was the editor of Calmet’s Dictionary of the Holy Bible. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Taylor, ISAAC, LL. D.: author; son of Isaac Taylor of Ongar; b. at Lavenham, Suffolk, England, Aug. 17, 1787; was educated as an artist, but began to study theology with the intention of becoming an Independent minister; be- came a member of the Established Church, turned his at- tention to the bar, and finally devoted himself to the study of mechanical inventions and to literary labor. Besides contributions to The Eclectic Review he published many books, including Elements of Thought (London, 1823) ; His- tory of the Transmission of Ancient Books to Modern Times- (1827); The Process of IIis-torical Proof Encemplified and E.cplained (1828) ; 1Vatural Ifistory of Enthusiasm. one of his best works (1829); New ]l[odel of Christian JlIis-sions (1829) ; Saturday Evening (1832) ; Fanaticisrn, a continua- tion of the Natural I—Iistory of Enthusiasm (1834); Spiritu- al Despotism (1835); Physical Theory of A nother Life (1836), which was the first work published under his own name and TAYLOR which greatly enhanced his reputation; Ancient Christi- anity and the Doctrines of the O:I‘fOY'CZ TM/0I'8 f0?‘ the TJWB8 (1839; with supplement and indexes, 1844); Loyola, and Jesuitism in its Rudiments (1849) ; Wesley and Iliethodism (1851); The Restoration of Belief (1855); The World of illind (1857); Logic in Theology (1859); The Liturg‘z/ and the Dissenters (1860) ; The Soirit of Hebrew Poetry (1861) ; and Considerations on the Plentateuch, a reply to the work of Bishop Colenso (1863). In 1836 he was a candidate for the chair of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh, but was unsuccessful. In 1862 a pension of £100 was bestowed upon him from the civil-service fund “ in public acknowledgment of his eminent services to lit- erature, especially in the departments of history and phi- losophy, during more than forty years.” D. at Ongar, June 28, 1865. His LL. D. came from the University of the City of New York in 1862.—I~1is son, IsAAc TAYLOR. a clergyman of the Church of England, b. at Stanford Rivers, May 2, 1829, graduated B. A. at Cambridge 1853; became curate 1857; vicar of St. Matthias, Bethnal Green, London, 1865, of Holy Trinity, Twickenham, 1869; rector of Settrington, diocese of York, 1875 ; has been also a canon of York since 1885. He is honorary LL. D., Edinburgh, 1879, Litt. D., Cambridge, 1885, and is author of lVords and Places, an ex- planation of the local names in Great Britain (London, 1865) ; The Family Pen, Jllemorials, Biographical and Lit- erary, of the Taylor Family of Ongar (1867) ; The Alphabet : an Account of the Origin and Development of Letters (1883); The flfan./1; Runes (1886) ; The Origin of the Aryans (1890) ; and other works. Revised by S. M. J AOKSON. Taylor, ISIDORE SEVERIN JUSTIN, Baron : traveler and au- thor; b. in Brussels, Aug. 15, 1789; studied art at Paris; served for several years in the army; traveled extensively; was appointed in 1824 royal commissary of the Coméclie Fran- caise, which he opened to the dramas of Victor Hugo and other romanticists ; induced by his petitions the Legislative Assembly (1818-30) to vote the restoration of the mediaeval monuments in France : was sent to Egypt to negotiate the transfer to France of the obelisk of Luxor. and was made a senator in 1869. He wrote Voyages p'ittore.sq'ues et roman- tiques clans l’Ancienne France (1820-54); Voyqges pitte- resques en Espagne, etc. (1826, seq.) ; La Syrie. l’Egypte, etc. (1837); Voyages en Suisse, Italic, Angleterre, etc. (1843). D. in Paris, Sept. 6, 1879. Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. Taylor, JAMES I~IUDsoN: clergyman, missionary : founder of the China Inland Mission; b. at Barnsley, Yorkshire, England, May 31, 1832; studied and practiced medicine and surgery in Hull; sent out by the Chinese Evangeliza- tion Society as its first representative 1853 and began duty in Shanghai; moved to Ningpo, and severed his relations with the society 1857; labored independently until 1860, when he returned to England in broken health; organized the China Inland Mission 1865, and returned to China him- self 1866 ; has since been back and forth several times. He is the director of the China Inland Mission, which has had a remarkable career. .lts missionaries come from different denominations and have no guaranteed salary, a number be- ing of independent means. They adopt native dress and mode of life as far as practicable. The mission makes “no personal solicitation or collection of funds” and does not publish the names of its donors. See Miss M. Geraldine Guinness, The Story of the China Inland Mission (2 vols., 2d ed. London, 1893). SAMUEL MAOAULEY JACKSON. Taylor, JAMES MONROE, D. D., LL. 1).: educator; b. in Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 5, 1848; educated at the University of Rochester and Rochester Theological Seminary; pastor in South Norwalk, Conn., 1873-82, Providence, R. I., 1882- 86; elected president of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1886; author of a number of magazine articles and ad- dresses, including The Place of Preaching in the Plan of God (1880) ; The Catechumenate (1875) ; The Future of the lVoman’s College (1890); Neglect of the Student in Recent Educational Theory (1893); and a volume on Psychology (1802). W. H. W1-iiTsiTT. Taylor, JEREMY, D. D. : theologian ; b. in Aug., 1613, at Cambridge, England, where his father was a barber; in 1626 entered Caius College as a sizar; took his degree; gained the friendship of Bishop Land, and in 1636 obtained a fellowship at Oxford, and in 1638 was presented to the rectory of Uppingham. In the civil wars he adhered to the cause of Charles I., who made him his chaplain, and in 1642 commanded that the degree of D. I). should be conferred upon him on account of his treatise, Episcopacy asserted TAYLOR against the Acephalt and E7-'2Ians New anal Old; but in that year his rectory was sequestered by Parliament and he was forced to take refuge in \Vales, where he supported himself by teaching a school and wrote his noblest works; preached occasionally in London; was several times im- prisoned for giving utterance to royalist sentiments; and in 1658 took up his residence in Ireland upon the invitation of the Earl of Conway. In 1660 he was one of the signers of the royalist declaration of Apr. 24 which paved the way for the restoration of Charles II. He had married for his sec- ond wife Joanna Bridges (who was said to be a natural daughter of Charles I.), and soon after the Restoration he was made Bishop of Down and Connor, to which the see of Dromore was added, and was also made vice-chancellor of the University of Dublin and a member of the Irish privy council. He labored earnestly, but with indifferent success, for the firm establishment of the English Church in Ireland. As a preacher and writer, he occupies a foremost rank in literature. Besides his Sermons his principal works are Discourse on the Liberty of Prophesying, setting forth the iniquity of persecution for differences in opinions, by some held to be the ablest of all his works (1647) ; The Great Ea- emplar of Sancttty and Holy Life, a life of Christ (1649) ; The Rule and Ezverctse of Holy Ltotng (1650); The Rule and Ea;eroz'se of Holy Dying (1651); Dactor Duhttanttam, a work on casuistry. Many of his separate works have been frequently republished. His ll/‘hole Works, with a Life of the author and a critical examination of his writings by Bishop I-Ieber, in 15 vols., appeared in 1820-22 (10 vols., rev. ed. 1807-54): his Life was also written by R. A. Willmott (1847). D. at Lisburn, Ireland, Aug. 13, 1667. See ENGLISH LI'l‘ERA'l‘URE. Revised by S. M JACKSON. Taylor, JOHN: poet; b. in Gloucestershire, England, in Aug., 1580; was educated at a free school in Gloucester; went to London, where he was apprenticed to a waterman, and followed this occupation during the greater part of his life, whence he is styled “ the water-poet.” His productions in prose and verse, of which about 140 are known to collect- ors. have no literary value, but some interest in showing the manners and customs of the times. The following will serve to illustrate Taylor’s eccentric titles: Taylor‘s Revenge, or the Rrhner, W'tlltam Fennor, firht, ferritecl, and finely fetcht over the Goals (1615); The pennyles Pilgrimage, or the -moneylesse Pe1'amlmlat'ton of John Taylor, alias the Ifz.'ng’s .1lIajestte’s lVater-Poet, from London to Edenboroagh on Foot (1618). I11 1630 Taylor made a collection, in a single volume, of the sixty-three pieces which he had at that time put forth in brochures and broadsheets, which was in 1869 republished in facsimile by the Spencer Society. D. in Lon- don in 1654. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Taylor, JOHN, LL. D. : Greek scholar; b. at Shrewsbury, 1703; was educated at Cambridge University: librarian to the university in 1732, advocate in Doctors’ Commons in 1741, and chancellor of Lincoln in 1744. He subsequently entered holy orders; became rector of Lawford in 1751, archdeacon of Buckingham in 1753, and canon residentiary of St. Paul’s in 1757. He published several orations and essays, but his principal works are an edition of the Greek text, with a Latin translation and notes, of The Orat/tons -and Fragments of Lys/tas (1739), his masterpiece, and some of the Orattons of Demosthenes, ;Eschtnes, Dtna/rchas, and Demades. D. in 1766. See F. A. Wolf, Analecta, i., 550 if. Revised by A. GUDEMAN. Taylor, JOHN LOUIS: jurist; b. in London, Mar. 1, 1769; was taken to the U. S. by a brother in 1781; studied law, and settled at Fayetteville, N. C.. from where he removed to N ewbern, and later to Raleigh: was several times elected to the Legislature; became one of the judges of the superior court of the State in 1798, and was chief justice of the Su- preme Court from 1810 until his death. He had much con- structive ability, and in 1817 was made commissioner to revise the statutes of the State. A volume of his decisions, containing cases decided from 1799 to 1802, was published in 1802, and another volume, of cases from 1816 to 1818, ap- peared in 1818. He also published a Charge to the Grand Jury of Eclgecornbe Superior‘ Court, e.rh2Il)ttz'ng a View of the (]r1.'m.t'na.l Law of North Carol tna (1817). D. at Raleigh, Jan. 29, 1829. Revised by F. Srunens ALLEN. Taylor, NATHANIEL WILLIAM. D. D. : theologian ; b. at New Milford, Conn.. J uue 23, 1786; graduated at Yale Col- lege in 1807; studied theology, and in 1812 became pastor of the First (Center) Congregational church in New Haven, where he rose to eminence as a preacher. In 1822 he was 27 chosen Dwight Professor of Didactic Theology in Yale Col- lege, and occupied the chair until his death. In 1828110 delivered the comic acl cler-um discourse at New Haven, which was the beginning of a theological controversy which spread through New England and beyond its limits. Dr. Taylor defended his modifications of Calvinism in the Chris- tian Spectator. They were vehemently opposed by other divines in various discourses and periodicals. By his writ- ings and through his pupils he produced a profound im- pression on theology in the Congregational and Presbyterian communions. After his death four volumes of his works, edited by Rev. Noah Porter, D.D., were published: Prac- tical Sermons, preached while pastor of the Center church (1858) ; Lectures on the rljoral Gorernnzent of Goal (2 vols., 1859) ; and Essays, Lectures. etc., upon Select Topics in Re- vealed Theology (1859). D. in New Haven, Mar. 10. 1858. Revised by G. P. FISHER. Taylor, PHILIP IHEADOWS: soldier and author: b. in Liverpool, Sept. 25, 1808; went to Calcutta, where he held a mercantile post; in 1826 entered the army of the Nizam of Ha-iderabad, for whom he administered several large ter- ritories; about 1858 became administrator for the British Government of some districts in the Deccan; rose to the rank of colonel and was decorated with the order of the Star of India; was a learned archaeologist; married a princess of Southern India. He was the author of Confesstons of a Thug (3 vols., 1839 ; new ed. 1858) ; Ttppoo Sultana, a Tale of the Mysore ll/'ar (3 vols., 1840); N'otz'ces of C/romlechs, Cairns. and other Ancient Scyt/I0-Drutel/teal Remains in the Prtn.c2']9a.l'tty of Sorrzpur (London, 1853) ; Tara, a fl[ah- ratta Tale (3 vols., 1863); Ralph Darnell, a Tale (3 vols., 1865): The Student’s fl.[an»ual of the History of India, from the Earliest Period to the Present (187 0), and other works. D. in Menton, France, May 13, 1876. See his Story of my Life (1877; new ed. 1881). Taylor, RICHARD : soldier; son of Zachary Taylor: b. in New Orleans, La.. Jan. 27, 1826; graduated at Yale 1845; was a resident of Louisiana at the breaking out of the civil war, when he entered the Confederate army, and was made colonel of a Louisiana regiment. which fought under his command at the battle of Bull Run: was made brigadier- general in Oct.. 1861: served under Stonewall Jackson in Virginia; became major-general; in 1863-64 commanded in the department \V. of the Mississippi, especially against Gen. Banks in his unsuccessful Red river campaign; in Sept., 1864, was placed in command of the department of East Louisiana, with his headquarters at Mobile. and on May 8. 1865, surrendered to Gen. Canby, his force being the last which remained to the Confederacy. After the war he resided O11 his plantation in Louisiana. He published De- struction and [i’econstr'uctz'on (New York, 1879). D. in New York, Apr. 12, 1879. Revised by JAMES MERCUR. Taylor. Tnonasz author; styled the Platonist; b. in London. May 15. 1758; studied at St. Paul’s School with the design of becoming a dissenting minister, but afterward entered a banking-house; devoted his spare moments to the study of Greek, mathematics. and chemistry; taught the languages and mathematics. His works comprise sixty- three volumes, of which twenty-three are large quartos; among them are treatises on arithmetic and geometry, on the Eleusinian and Bacchic mysteries; an edition, with large additions, of the Greek Lerteon of Hedericus: an essay on the Rights of Brutes, in ridicule of Paine's .Re'ghts of fllan ; a Htstov'y of the l?estor1'ate'(m of the Platonic The- ology; and a volume of 1lIz'scellanz'es in Prose and Verse. His main labor was the translating of little-known Greek and Latin works. Besides the Plato and Aristotle, his translations include the remains of Apuleius, Celsus, De- mophilus, Hieroeles, Iamblichus, Julian, Maximus Tyrius, Ocellus Lucanus, Olympiodorus. Pausanias, Plotinus, Por- phyry, Proclus, the Orplztc Hymns, and the (lhalrlccan Ora- cles. His translation of Plato (5 vols. 4to, 1804) was printed at the cost of the Duke of Norfolk, who locked up nearly the whole edition in his house, where the copies remained until 1848. Of his translations of .»‘\ristotle (10 vols. -lto, 1806—12) only fifty complete copies were struck ofi’. the ex- pense being defrayed by W. Meredith, a retired tradesman, who gave Taylor an annuity of £100. I). at Walwortli, London, Nov. 1, 1835. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Taylor. TOM: dramatist; b. at Sunderlund. Durham. in 1817; was educated at Glasgow University and Trinity College, Cambridge: appointed to the chair of English Literature in University College, London, which he held 28 for two years; wrote for periodicals, especially for Punch, which he edited in 1874-80; studied law; was called to the bar in 1845 ; was made secretary to the board of health in 1854, and in 1858 secretary to the Local Government Act Otlice. He was art critic to the London Times and Graphic. He produced, either singly or in conjunction with others, more than 100 dramatic pieces, many of which have had a marked success; among them are Still lVaters Run Deep; The Unequal _/lfatch; The Overland Route; The Contested Election; Our American Cousin; The Ticket-of-Leave Jlfan; and ’Twi:vt Axe and Crown. He also published Life of B. R. Haydon (1853); Autobiographical Recollections of C. R. Leslie (1860); translated from the French of Ville- marque the Ballads and Songs of Brittany (1865); pub- lished Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1865) ; and in conjunction with C. W. Franks prepared a Catalogue of the lVorhs of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1869). D. at Wands- worth, July 12, 1880. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Taylor, WILLIAM: author; b. in Norwich, England, in 1765. He was the first Englishman to introduce to Eng- lish readers a knowledge of the literature of Germany, and is best known by his vigorous translation of Bilrger’s Lenore. He published a translation of Lessing’s IVathan the lVise (1805) ; English Synonyms Discriminated (1813) ; and His- toric Survey of German Poetry, with many translations (3 vols., 1828-30). His Life and lVritings, containing corre- spondence with Robert Southey and original letters from Sir NValter Scott, was published by J. W. Robberds (2 vols., 8vo, 1843). D. at Norwich in Mar., 1836. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Taylor, WILLIAM, D. D. : bishop and author; b. in Rock- bridge co., Va., May 2, 1821; educated at Lexington, Va.; entered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church 1842; missionary to California in 1849 ; labored as an evan- gelist in all the English-speaking countries in the world; elected missionary bishop for Africa May, 1884; author of a number of works, including Seven Years’ Street Preach- ing in San Francisco; Address to Young America and a Word to the Old Fol/es; Pauline Methods of Ilfissionary Wbrh; Reconciliation, or H020 to be Saved; Infancy and Illanhood of the Christian Life; Four Years’ Campaign in India; Our South American Cousins; Ten Years’ Self- supporting Ilfissions in India; Letters to a Quaker Friend on Baptism; and The Election of Grace. A. OSBORN. Taylor, I/VILLIAM Macxnaeo, D. D., LL. D.: clergyman and author; b. at Kilmarnock, Ayrshire, Scotland, Oct. 23, 1829 ; educated at Kilmarnock Academy; graduated M. A. at University of Glasgow 1849; studied theology at Divinity Hall of the United Presbyterian Church in Edinburgh ; was licensed to preach by the presbytery of Kilmarnock Dec. 14, 1852; ordained pastor of the United Presbyterian congre- gation at Kilmaurs June 28, 1853; settled over the United Presbyterian church, Liverpool, England, Oct. 23, 1855; in 1871 was delegate from the United Presbyterian Church in Scotland to the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church at Chicago; was called to the pastorate of the Broadway Tabernacle (Congregational) church in New York Nov. 22, 1871, and entered upon his labors there Mar. 10, 1872; re- tired in consequence of paralysis 1893. D. in New York, Feb. 8, 1895. In addition to many articles in The Scottish Re- view and many separate sermons, he published Life Truths (1862); The Illiracles Helps to Faith, not Hindrances (1865) ; The Lost Found, and the Wanderer Welcomed (1870) ; Idem- oirs and Remains of Rev. III. Dickie, Bristol (1872); Da- vid, King of Israel (1874); Elijah the Prophet (1875); The fllinistry of the IVord (1876); Peter the Apostle (1877); Limitations of Life, and other Sermons (1879); The Gos- pel Miracles (1880); Paul the Ilfissionary (1881) ; Contrary Winds, and other Sermons (1883): John Ifnoaa (1885); Jo- seph, the Prime Ilfinister; The Parables of Our Saviour (1886) ; The Itfiracles of Our Lord (1890); and The Scottish Pulpit from the Reformation (1887). Revised by G. P. Frsnnn. Taylor, ZACHARY: twelfth President of the U. S.; b. in Orange co., Va., Sept. 24, 1784. H.is father, Richard Taylor (1744-1822), was colonel of a Virginia regiment in the war of the Revolution; removed to Kentucky in 1785: became a member of the convention which framed the constitution of Kentucky; served in both branches of the Legislature and was collector of the port at Louisville under Washington. Zachary remained on his father’s plantation until 1808, in which year (May 3) he was appointed first lieutenant in the Seventh Infantry. Promoted to be captain in Nov., TAYLOR 1810, in the summer of 1812 he was in command of Fort Harrison, near the present site of Terre H aute, h1S success- ful defense of which (Sept. 4-5), with but a handful of men against a large force of Indians, was one of the first marked military achievements of the war of 1812; was breveted ma- jor, and in 1814 promoted to the full rank. In the peace or- ganization of the army in 1815 he was retamed as captam, but soon after resigned and settled near Louisville. In May, 1816, he re-entered the army as major of the. Third Infantry,becamelieutenant-colonel Eighth Infantry in 1819, and in 1832 attained the colonelcy of the First Infantry, of which he had been lieutenant-colonel since 1821. On dif- ferent occasions he had been a member of a military board for organizing the militia of the Union, and to aid the Gov- ernment with his knowledge in the organization of the Ind- ian bureau, having for many years discharged the duties of Indian agent over large tracts of Western country. He served through the Black Hawk war (1832), and in 1837 was ordered to take command in Florida, then the scene of war with the Indians. By the battle of Okechobee, Dec. 25, 1837, the savages were decisively defeated and the war was virtually ended. For this Taylor was breveted brigadier- general and made commander-in-chief in Florida; was transferred to command of the army of the Southwest in 1840; subsequently was stationed on the Arkansas frontier at Forts Gibson, Smith, and Jesup. He proceeded, upon the annexation of Texas in 1845, with about 1,500 men, to Corpus Christi, where his force was increased to some 4.000. In Mar., 1846, he was ordered to advance to the banks of the Rio Grande, opposite Matamoros, where a camp was con- structed, and established his dép6t of supplies at Point Isa- bel, 25 miles to the E. He was ordered by Gen. Ampudia to retire beyond the Nueees, to which he replied that under instructions of his Government he should maintain his po- sition. Apprehending an attempt to cut him elf from his base of supplies, he started for Point Isabel (May 1) with the main body of his troops. On May 3 the sound of heavy can- nonading warned him of an attack on his camp, guarded only by a weak garrison, and he returned to its relief May 7. The battle of Palo Alto was fought next day, and that of Resaca de la Palma May 9; Matamoros was occupied without resistance May 18, where he remained until Septem- ber. Taylor was breveted major-general May 28, and a month later (June 29. 1846) his full commission to that grade was issued. After re-enforcement, he advanced in Septem- ber on Monterey, which capitulated after three days’ re- sistance. Here he took up his winter quarters. The lan for the invasion of Mexico by way of Vera Cruz, with en. Scott in command, was now determined upon, and at the moment Taylor was about to resume active operations he received orders to send the larger part of his force (Worth and Quitman’s divisions and most of Gen. Wool’s volun- teers) to re-enforce the army of Gen. Scott. Though subse- quently re-enforced by raw recruits, yet after providing a garrison for Monterey and Saltillo he had but about 5,300 effective troops, of whom only 600 were regulars. In this weakened condition, however, he was destined to achieve his greatest victory. Relying upon the strength of Vera Cruz to resist the enemy for a long time, Santa Anna direct- ed his entire army against Taylor to overwhelm him, and then return to oppose the advance of Scott’s more formi- dable invasion. The battle of Buena Vista was fought Feb. 22-23, 1847. Taylor received the thanks of Congress and a gold medal, and “ Old Rough and Ready,” as he was called in the army, became a household word. He remained in pos- session of the Rio Grande valley until November, when he returned to the U. S. In the Whig convention which met at Philadelphia June 7, 1848, Taylor was nominated on the fourth ballot (June 8) as the candidate of the Whig party for President over Clay, Scott, and Webster. In Novem- ber Taylor received a majority of the electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,360,752 against 1,219,962 for Cass and But- ler, and 291,342 for Van Buren and Adams. Gen. Taylor was inaugurated President Mar. 4, 1849. Among the ques- tions requiring the attention of the President was the or- ganization of the large territories newly acquired by con- quest and treaty, the question of the admission of California, the formation of new Territories, and the settlement of the boundary-line between Texas and New Mexico. The free and slave States being then equal in number, the struggle for supremacy on the part of the leaders in Congress was vio- lent and bitter. California adopted in convention, in the summer of 1849, a constitution prohibiting slavery within its borders. Taylor advocated the immediate admission of TAYLOR, MOUNT California with her constitution, and the postponement of the question as to the other Territories until they could hold conventions and decide for themselves whether slavery should exist within their borders. This policy ultimately prevailed through the “Compromise measures” of Henry Clay. On July 5 Taylor was taken ill with a bilious fever, which proved fatal, his death occurring July 9, 1850. Gen. Taylor’s wife was Margaret (1790-1852), daughter of Wal- ter Smith, a Maryland planter. One of his daughters mar- ried Col. William W. S. Bliss, his adjutant-general and chief of staff in Mexico. and private secretary during his presi- dency; after his death she became Mrs. Philip Pe_ndleto_n I)andridge; another was married to J eiferson Dav1s.—H1s son, RICHARD TAYLOR (q. 1).), was an officer in the Confed- erate army. The best Life of Taylor, written by Gen. O. O. Howard, appeared in 1892, being the second of the Great Commander Series. Revised by JAMES GRANT WILSON. Taylor, Mount: an isolated mountain in New Mexico, 80 miles W. of Santa Fé. It was named San Mateo by the Spanish, but the name Taylor, afterward bestowed by Ameri- can explorers in honor of President Taylor, is now generally used. It is an extinct volcano, composed chiefly of andesitic lava. Its altitude is 11,388 feet, and it rises over 8,000 feet above its immediate base, which is a plateau of lava 36 miles by 12. The Atlantic and Pacific Railroad winds about the southern base of the lateau. The geology of the mountain and its environs is escribed by C. E. Dutton in the sixth annual report of the U. S. Geological Survey. G. K. G. Taylor’s Theorem: in mathematics, a theorem first dem- onstrated by Dr. Brook Taylor, and published by him in his Zlfelhodus Incremem‘orum in 1715. The object of the theorem is to show how to develop a function of the sum of two variables into a series arranged according to the as- cending powers of one with coefficients that are functions of the other. The formula for making the development may be written: ' + -— /u, (i_Q_1_6 :2/_2- _CZ_3£(, g/3 fly“ 1’/l _ dry + dw’ 1.2+ d.v31.2.3 + , etc. The first member of this formula denotes any function of the sum as and y, and u is what that function becomes when 3/ is made equal to 0. The formula is always applicable, but it sometimes happens that u or one of its successive dif- ferential coefficients reduces to 00 for a particular value of :1;. This is called the _fcu'li/ng case of Taylor‘s theorem. It is more proper to say that the function fails to be develop- able in powers of y for the value in question. If the series is infinite, it must satisfy a test of convergence, in order to represent accurately the function on the left-hand side. Taylorville: city; capital of Christian co., Il1.; on the South Fork of the Sangamon river, and on the Bait. and O. S. W. and the Wabash railways; 25 miles S. E. of Spring- field, 28 miles S. W. of Decatur (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 7—E). It is in a coal-mining, grain and hay grow- ing, and stock-raising region, and contains a high school (building cost $35,000), 2 ward schools. 7 churches, a na- tional bank with capital of $75,000, 2 private banks, and a daily, a monthly, and 4 weekly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 2,237; (1890) 2,829. Enrroa OF “ ScHooL NEWS.” Tchad, or TS:1(l: a lake of Central Sudan. See CHAD. Tchernigov: another spelling of CHERNIGOFF (q. v.). 'l‘ehernyshev’ski'1', Nmonait Gxvmnovrcn: author; b. in Saratov, Russia, 1828; educated by ecclesiastical teachers and at the University of St. Petersburg, was for a time editor of a military journal and then of the S02/*1'e'mem'l.= (Contemporary, 1855-64), in which he published a number of able articles on literature, history, economics, and social questions, besides which he wrote a book on Lessing (1854), translated Mill and Adam Smith, and other authors. Fi- nally he expressed such pronounced socialist views that he was arrested and sent to Siberia. It was while he was in prison that he composed his famous novel Shto Del(1.t(\Vha.t is to be Done‘? English translation with the title A Vital Questqlon, 1886, and by Benjamin R. Tucker, l/Vlmiz‘ ’s to be Done 9, Boston, 1893), which as a literary work is full of im- possible characters and unreadable, but was hailed as the gospel of the earlier generation of Nihilists, who saw in it their ideals of emancipated mankind. In 1883 Tcherny- ‘shevski'i was allowed to live in Astrakhan and occupy him- self with the translation of foreign scientific works. Ile was pardoned in 1889, and died in Saratov, Oct. 29, 1889. His complete works were published at Vevey, Switzerland, 1868-70. A. C. Coomncn. TEA 29 Tehooktehees, chook’che‘iaz : a tribe inhabiting the north- eastern corner of Siberia from the 160th meridian to Bering Strait. It consists of two divisions one settled along the coast, and occupied in hunting the whale, the seal. and the walrus; and the other wandering across the bleak, barren plateaus with their herds of reindeer. The Tchooktchees, whose number is variously estimated at from 6,000 to 13,000, are a well-grown, vigorous people, hospitable and bold, but almost entirely destitute of civilization. They are depend- ents of the Russian Government. Ethnologically, they be- long to the same family as the Eskimos of North America, and the Tchooktchee builds his house and his boat exactly like the Greenlander. See ESKIMAUAN INDIANS. Tea [originally pronounced tay, the local pronunciation in Fuhkien, China, of la, a dialectal form of Chinese ch’a] : 1, the prepared leaves of a plant of the genus Tlzea, and specifically of the Thea chinensis; 2, the plant itself: and, 8, an infusion of the leaves of the tea-plant, in universal use as a beverage in China, Japan, and other Oriental countries, gpd widely used throughout Christendom. See the article icon. By some authorities the tea-plant has been assigned to the genus Camellia as C. lhea or z.‘hez'fera. Formerly, when it was erroneously supposed that black and green teas were derived from different plants, the attempt was made to dis- tinguish between Tlzea bolzea and T. /vz'/rz'd"£s. Geographical- ly and practically it is desirable to recognize as distinct sorts T. asscmm'ca (Assamese), T. sz"nensz's (Chinese). and the intermediate hybrids which have resulted from the near cultivation of the two. It is probable that all tea owes its origin to Assam, a province of Burma ceded to Great Britain in 1826, and annexed to the Presidency of Bengal. There in the jungle bordering on the Brahmaputra were found a few years later thickets of indigenous tea-trees, often attaining a height of 30 feet. It has been claimed by some writers that indigenous tea exists in China and Japan; but it is probable that the plant was introduced into China from India 1,500 years ago, and into Japan from China not later than the ninth century. The Japanese declare that wild-tea grows freely in the hills of Kiushiu, Shikoku, and the central part of the main island, although acknowledging that its leaf is inferior to that from the gardens which were established with imported seed. Tea was introduced into Europe by the Dutch about the beginning of the seventeenth century. It remained, however, for the East India Company to develop the great British trade in Chinese tea, of which it enjoyed the monopoly until 1834. The Tea,-plant.—Two extremes of growth and product are presented by the Assamese and Chinese plants. The Assamese in its natural condition. as originally found in the hot, moist, and still atmosphere of its native jungles, exhibits a most luxuriant growth, often developing into a small tree with a clean stem. Its leaves are of a bright green, not infrequently 9 inches long and 3 wide. It re- sents transplanting after the tap-root has attained any con- siderable size. It does not bear drought. cold, nor rough usage from high winds or otherwise. It requires rich soil, abundant moisture. good drainage, and a rather elevated temperature: and these conditions are difficult to fill be- yond the region where it was found. Under suitable con- ditions of cultivation this variety produces twenty or more “ flushes,” i. e. successive crops of young leaf, during each picking season. The small young leaf is of a golden color and soft texture; it is better adapted for the manufacture of black tea. The tea made from the Assam leaf is strong, often pungent and rasping; it is half again as strong as the Chinese, hence the Assam leaf is frequently blended with the Chinese leaf by the trade. The Chinese plant. whether indigenous in China or of Indian origin and altered by long exposure to a colder cli- mate and otherwise less favorable conditions, is of bushy growth and of far less attractive appearance than its As- samese relative. It is tough and hardy. successfully endur- ing the severe winters of the higher latitudes of China and Japan or of the elevated gardens on the Himalayan slopes. It survives deficiencies in moisture, soil, and cultivation, but gra.tefully acknowledges care and enrichment with an improved growth and higher leaf qualities. Under ordinary agricultural conditions it annually produces only four or five flushes. The leaf is smaller,‘ tougher, and darker. It yields when properly prepared a more delicate if weaker tea than the Assamese. It is usually made into green tea. See TEA-PLANT. 30 The Hyb2'zTcls.—As the result of the introduction into India in 1835 of Chinese tea-plants and seeds and their cul- tivation in gardens adjacent to those of the Assamese varie- ty, hybridization has so thoroughly taken place that there are in India very few gardens of pure stock. In the result- ant hybrids are blended the qualities of the parents, al- though there is a frequent tendency to exhibit the marked characteristics of one. Many intermediate varieties have been described, but it is very diflicult to maintain any one of them pure unless by distinct separation from other kinds or by propagation from cuttings. Conditions .FCt2)07'Ctl)l6 for Grozvth.—Climatic and agri- cultural conditions improve or deteriorate the tea-plant. It quickly responds to favorable conditions in larger bush and leaf, more frequent and abundant flushes, tenderer leaf, and better tea. Neglect, drought, and cold gradually develop the opposite, while their extremes absolutely destroy the better grades. Thus while the tea-plant will often grow under disadvantageous conditions the produce may be scant and almost worthless. The plant does best in a moist, warm, equable climate; in a rich soil sufliciently friable for the penetration of its tap-root; in a situation protected from strong winds, freshets, or stagnant subsoil water. It is a strong feeder, and except when planted out in virgin soil should receive abundant manuring. Unfortunately the very conditions conducive to its best growth create the worst malarial disorders among Europeans and those from other temperate climates. “ Fever and tea go together.” Growth of the Plant.—Cultivated tea is raised from seed. The plant produces small white flowers, which one year later become capsules containing from one to four seeds about half the size of the American chestnut. Neither well- plucked bushes nor the better varieties of the tea-plant afford much seed. The preferable plan is to pick the ripe seeds in the autumn before the opening of the capsules causes them to fall to the ground. The sooner thereafter the seed is planted out the better. The seeds do not bear transportation to a distance without serious loss of their germinating power. About one consignment in four reaches the U. S. in good order. They are apt to be mildewed or dried up, too often the result of careless packing or unac- countable mishaps in transportation. \Vhen received in prime order it is possible to germinate 50 per cent. of them. The seed is planted either in the future tea-garden or in nurseries whence the young trees are subsequently trans- planted. Indian gardens usually contain from 2,000 to 3,000 plants to the acre, according to their habit of growth and the lay of the land. Where cultivators and draft animals are used, the number of plants to the acre should not exceed 1,500 to 2,500. In the U. S. and similar climates the seed- lings require protection by shingles from the hot sun and by mulching from cold weather and drought. The plants are allowed to attain under favorable conditions two or three years’ growth without interference; they are then sub- jected to severe pruning, which in temperate climates should be done when the trees are not in sap. The objects to be at- tained are to give the plants a form suitable for leaf-picking and to remove useless or objectionable branches, but particu- larly to induce an abnormal productionof foliage. Leaf-picking.-—To obtain abundant young leaf, from which alone good tea is made, it is necessary to make two essential departures from the original mode of growth, viz., the thick shade of thejungle must be exchanged for the open, sunny garden, and the total amount of foliage must be re- duced below the normal proportion. Nature will then make a supreme effort to re-establish the equilibrium, and will put forth a tender shoot from every leaf-bud, which in turn gives rise to countless others if unmolested. Yet in spite of sulliciently severe pruning to secure good picking, culti- vated tea-plants occasionally attain great size, so that with a height of 4 feet and a stem 10 inches in diameter the cir- cumference of the bush may exceed 40 feet. The tender leaves should be carefully plucked, so as to avoid making too serious inroads on the vitality of the plant or interfer- ing with the speedy formation of another flush. Pe/roe Tea.—At the end of the young shoot is an undevel- oped bud, which is of all the new foliage the tenderest and choicest. It is called the pekoe tip, or flowery pekoe when made into tea. Pekoe in Chinese means white hair or down, rel.'erring to the delicate fuzz on the very young foliage. hlandarin tea is prepared from it in China; the tips are slightl_v rolled and dried, and finally tied up with ribbons in tiny bunches. like cigars. Except as a curiosity one does not see this ten outside of China, as in that country it com- TEA . mands a very high price. The next leaves are called the orange pekoe and pekoe. They, with the tip, yield pekoe tea, especially esteemed for strength and flavor. When not fer- mented. but prepared as green tea from the half-opened leaves in April, it is known as young hyson, hyson being a corruption of the Chinese “ yu tsien.” meaning “ before the rains.” Most pekoe teas are sent to Great Britain and Russia. Sonchong and Congon.-—Following the pekoe leaves the next two are called souchong (small kind), and wliatever of young leaf may yet be present is termed congou, or the “ well worked” (from Chinese kung-foo, “ labor”). Quality] of Tea.—In this order of enumeration, from the pekoe tip downward, the size of the leaf increases, but the quality falls off. The finer the picking, i. e. the more strict- ly it is confined to the bud and smaller lea.ves, the better is the quality, but the more expensive and curtailed is the crop. In China, at the time of the second picking, in the early summer, men, women. and children flock to the tea-gardens to pick leaf, as in other countries to pick hops or cotton. They practically strip the twigs of all the green leaf. The necessary result is a poor tea; and if the small quantity of fine leaf is sifted out from the mass, the balance is ‘“ tea,” but decidedly trashy. The highest grades of Chinese teas are in- jured by subjecting them to the elevated temperature by which teas are rendered capable of enduring long sea voy- ages. They command high prices in China, and some of them can be bought only by the very rich. The lowest grades also find a home market, or are made up with some glutinous substance into bricks (brick-tea) for sale in the interior of Asia. Yiclcl of T ea.—The annual produce per plant may be stated at from 2 to 6 oz. of cured tea according to the cli- matic and cultural conditions, the richness of the soil or its fertilization. the variety of plant and the degree of picking. In India and Ceylon the yield per acre averages about 400’ lb. ; occasionally it amounts to 1.000 lb. Green anal Bloch Teas.—As before mentioned, green and black teas are not derived from distinct plants. It is pos- sible to make either from the same leaf; but that from the Assamese plant is better adapted for the manufacture of black, and that from the Chinese for green; while some hybrids serve better for the former and others for the latter. The Chinese distinguish between green tea, as affording a greenish liquor, and red tea, as giving one of that color. They do not employ the term black tea, nor do they use any of the artificially colored bright-green teas so popular in the U. S. The great difference between the two most im- portant classes of tea lies in this, that genuine green teas- are the result of quickly drying the fresh leaf, whereas black teas are subjected to oxidation before being “ fired,” as the drying of the moist leaf over fire or in furnaces is called. The most important chemical difference between the simply dried tea-leaves (i. e. green) and the fermented (i. e. black) lies in the decidedly less amount of tannin in the latter. The- multiplicity of brands of tea corresponds to the many varie- ties of the tea-plant, to differences in the mode of growth and manufacture which reflect racial characteristics, and finally to the taste of the consumer. Some of the trade-names have geographical significance ;. others relate to the gardens where the tea was made or to the mode of manufacture ; others to the quality ; and finally many are accidental or unaccountable. The great bulk of the teas sent to the U. S. might be properly classified as “ low- middling,” with occasional consignments of superior grades and very rarely of fancy. .llT(t’/“I/’L(/fCt0i’lt’l’6.——TllG green leaf is tasteless and odorless; it contains almost 80 per cent. of water. To prepare it for receiving the rolling to which almost all tea-leaf is subjected, it is spread out thin and withered by exposure to light, heat, and air. Direct sunshine comprises all of these require- ments, but it is apt to turn the leaf red. In the manufac- ture of green tea., where it is desirable to avoid any lengthy exposure of the fresh leaf to the air and light, withering is performed in iron vessels over a quick fire or the leaves are steamed on mats. \Vithered leaf is flaccid; it has the feel of an old kid glove; it does not crackle when held to the ear and compressed. When over-withered or after exposure to sunshine it becomes dark in color. Rolling is necessary for breaking up the cellular tissues which contain the essential oil. The juice is expressed and coats the outside of the leaves and their fragments, whereby better cup-qualities are later obtained. Rolling is essential in the man uf acture of black tea, as it masses the leaf in a state conducive to speedy oxidation. It is also desirable for TEA . 31 giving form to the finished product. VVell-withered leaf does not break into fragments under this operation ; it re- tains its original shape. Rolling is performed by hand on tables or mats, or by the use of specially designed machinery. The finest finish is given by hand-rolling ; machines perform the task more uniformly and cheaply. Under the pressure of rolling, juice exudes from the ball of leaf. In India it is carefully sopped up into the “roll,” and the strength of the tea is thus retained. From much of the Chinese teas it has been expressed and lost. For the manufacture of black tea, the fresh leaf is thinly spread out to wither. When sutficiently flaccid it is rolled, then the balls or mass of rolled leaf are broken up, spread out thinly, moistened, and are subjected to oxidation, where- by tea loses its raw smell and acquires a fine flavor. This constitutes the most critical operation in the whole process, there being no fixed rules to determine its length and in- tensity. Due allowance must be made for difierences in leaf and in temperature. The effect of oxidation is chemical, the chief change being a loss in astringency, induced by a diminution of the tannin; the tea also becomes darker in color. After the rolled leaf is broken it is fired in iron ves- sels over charcoal fires or in suitably constructed furnaces. The thoroughly dried and brittle tea should be packed while yet hot in metallic cases, and afterward hermetically sealed to exclude moisture. In preparing green tea the essential points are that the fresh leaf should be taken into treatment with the least pos- sible delay. It is sufliciently withered, usually by artificial heat, to admit of its being slightly rolled, then reheated. These steps are repeated several times, until the desired form has been put on the tea and it has lost a large part of its moisture. It is then subjected to long-continued drying over low fires, whereby a decidedly greenish hue is imparted to the finished tea. These are the fundamental rules for making tea. In difierent countries are practiced various departures or additional processes, such as screening and fanning. Tea-z'ncZustry in C’hz'na.-—The tea-plant is said to grow in all except the most northern provinces. Extremes of cli- mate prevail in China as a whole, particularly in the interior, the temperature ranging from severe heat in midsummer to bitter cold in winter, with abundant ice and snow. There is reason to believe that in the principal tea-districts the frost is less intense and of shorter duration. The annual crop of tea has been estimated at from 400,000,000 to 2,000,000,000 lb.; in any case, it is immense, and is mostly consumed by the natives. Teas for exportation are raised chiefly in the central and southeastern provinces. In 1893 Chinese tea to the extent of nearly 250,000,000 lb., valued at 30,558,723 haikwan taels, was exported. Tea is China’s most important export next after silk. The Chinese cultivate the tea-plant in small gardens, or in outlying corners and on steep hill-sides where no other crop can be raised. The farmer often sells his crop on the bushes, as oranges are sold in Florida. Or if he picks the leaf, he sells it to the middlemen who in hordes invade the tea-dis- tricts at the time of leaf-picking. The tea that has not been mortgaged to the factors is sold at the large tea-hongs-— brick buildings embracing with their courts an acre or two of land, and quite common in the Chinese towns. There it is prepared and packed for the market, or it is forwarded in an unfinished state to the great commercial centers on the coast. There are also very choice gardens, well manured and cultivated, which have a long-established reputation. They frequently belong to priests, and are tended by them and their acolytes. , Japan.—Tea-drinking in Japan began 692 A. D. Tea- seeds were brought from China in the eighth century, and gardens then established which are yet in existence. Al- though, as before mentioned, wild tea is found in Japan. the most celebrated gardens have been sown with seed im- ported from China. The chief tea-producing districts are in the Tokaido, in the region around Kioto, known as the Kinai, and in the islands of Shikoku and Kiushiu. The total production of the empire in 1891 was 59,000,000 lb., of which 41,000,000 were sent to the U. S. The climate of the Japanese tea-districts is moist, averaging 72 inches rainfall yearly on 165 days. The extremes of temperature are 93° and 20° F,, with a yearly average of 55° F. Japanese teas are almost wholly green. The leaf is not adapted for the manufacture of black tea. Steani-witliering is practiced to reduce the raw flavor. The general finish is very elegant, but artificial coloring and facing are common features of the export trade. The choicest tea is that raised under protection from direct sunlight, as it contains 50 per cent. more theine than that grown in the open. The most esteemed brand is called Mncha or fiat tea, because it is not rolled ; indeed, it is claimed that it is not touched by hand after being put on the steaming apparatus. It commands a high price in Japan. Such teas are finely ground shortly be- fore use, and after stirring with warm (not boiling) water for a few minutes, the whole infusion is drank. They play an important part in the ceremonial tea-drinking—an institu- tion dating back to the fifteenth century, and constituting 13-UIYGIY curious feature of Japanese political history and social 1 e. India and CeyZon.—The climate of Assam has been al- ready referred to under the conditions favorable to the growth of the tea-plant. It is steaming hot ; its yearly av- erage, nearly 75° F., with a maximum temperature of almost 100° and a minimum rarely below 50° F. The total yearly precipitation of moisture is from 90 to 100 inches. It is free from hot, dry winds. Fogs are quite prevalent there. The cutting down of the jungle and its transformation into a vast tea-garden has unquestionably altered the climate j. nevertheless, Assam still affords the best tea-climate. That of the elevated gardens on the Himalayan slopes and in the Neilgherries is better suited for the Chinese plant and hy- brids similar to it in ability to resist cold wintry weather and to dispense with excessive rainfall. Although situated in 7° lat., Ceylon enjoys, even at the intermediate levels. a comparatively temperate and equable climate; and natu- rally on the most elevated gardens (some being at 5,000 feet and more), it is quite mild. The thermometer at the inter- mediate levels rarely indicates 100° F., and above 2,000 feet elevation seldom over 90° F. At none of the meteorological stations in the districts does the thermometer fall below 32° F. in winter. The number of rainy days approximates 200, and the total yearly rainfall about 90 inches. At the higher stations the average temperature is about 15° F., and the rainfall 25 inches less than at the lower ones. The tea-plant continues to grow and produce leaf through the whole year on the lower estates. The development of the Ceylon tea- industry has occurred since about 1876. It is largely in consequence of the replanting in tea of the great coffee es- tates which were ruined by the leaf disease. Desultory ex- perimentation in tea-planting had occurred before, but with- out material results. The whole system of tea-production in the British Indies is 011 a large scale. \Vealthy corporations or individuals cul- tivate hundreds or thousands of acres, employing great cap- ital and immense numbers of laborers. The operations in the field are performed under the piece system and in ather- oughly systematic manner. In the factory, the simplifica- tion of processes and the substitution of machinery for manual labor have reduced the cost of manufacture, and re- sulted in the production of a more uniform and cleaner article. The following statistics are from a paper on tea by A. G. Stanton (of Gow, VVilson Stanton). The United Kingdom consumed in 1800 20,000,000 lb. of tea; in 1850. 51,000,000; in 1870, 118,000,000; and in 1894, 214,000,000. The annual consumption per head of population. and the displacement of Chinese and all other sorts by Indian and Ceylon teas in the United Kingdom, are shown by the following table: ' I . YEAR, China, etc. 1 Indian. Ceylon. IQ“n.nmy Per. head I ‘ 01 population. I per cent. l per cent. per cent. lb. 1866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q ‘ -1 . . 3 -L2 1883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 1 4'82 189-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 55 33 553 Jaz'a.——Tea-seeds from Japan were planted in 1826, and shortly thereafter some gardens were established by the Dutch Government. They were not financially successful. and, conscquently.the last of them were relinquished to pri- vate parties in 1860. The best localities for growing tea are at a height of 3,000 to -1,000 feet above sea-level, on the slopes of the mountains. Cold weather is not felt there and leaf- picking extends through the year. The plants are kept within small dimensions, being pruned down to 2 feet in height; they are planted in rows 4 by 2 feet apart. The tea is well made and highly esteemed for its fine flavor, but it is not strong. The crop for 1892 was 0,000,000 lb. lt is chiefly sent to Holland, Xorth Germany, and England. ln regard to Java, parts of Ceylon, and similarly situated tea- 32 TEA districts where the tea-plant flushes through the whole year, it is believed that in vigor of growth and strength of tea they do not compare favorably with situations where the plant hibernates for a few months. United States.—In other lands than those already de- scribed attempts have been made to establish the cultiva- tion of tea. Some of these trials have resulted in failure, others are full of promise, but have not progressed far enough to warrant description here. I11 view, however, of the general interest which has been manifested in the ex- periments conducted in an intermittent manner since about 1850 to determine the feasibility of establishing the tea-m- dustry in the U. S., and more recently by Charles U. Shep- ard, near Summerville, S. C., it may be proper to add a brief summary of the results thus far gained and the present out- look. It has been shown that ordinary hybrids, as also Chinese and Japanese plants, will thrive and produce ex- ceptionally good teas, at least under the stimulus of high cultivation, in several of the Southern States. It is doubt- ful if the U. S. affords a suitable locality for the growth of the Assamese species. The main difficulties in the path of the tea-grower in the U. S. are the lack of a favorable ch- mate and cheap labor. In regard to climate, at least in the Southeastern States, the variations of temperature are great, equaling those of the Chinese tea-districts, while the amount of rainfall during the picking season hardly meets the re- quirements for a successful crop. Thus at Charleston, S. C., the mean annual temperature is 66° F., with average ex- tremes of 94° and 20$’ F.; and the rainfall amounts to 57 inches per annum on 118 days. Climate materially affects the production. A dry spring retards luxuriant growth and the formation of early tender flushes. The tea-plant needs alternating gentle showers and warm sunshine. Violent storms of wind and rain cause considerable damage. Day labor costs at least five times as much as in the far East. The difference in the cost of leaf-picking amounts to five cents a pound of cured tea, and that is almost the cost of a pound of fair tea on some Oriental estates. The Southern States, therefore, can not be regarded as ideal tea-districts. Indeed, it has been evident for some years that Asiatic competition precludes the successful rais- ing of the cheaper classes of tea. Nevertheless, there is ground to believe that the better qualities may be profit- ably grown provided the yield of fine leaf can be made to equal the average of Asiatic gardens. Assuming that by high manuring and careful cultivation a yield of 400 lb. of cured leaf may be obtained from an acre containing 2,000 plants, the cost should not exceed 20 to 25 cents a pound, and 80 cents a pound is the price of similar Asiatic teas in “ importers’ bulk ” at the chief ports of the U. S. Final- ly, it is very improbable that in the U. S. low-grade and sophisticated teas will always satisfy the wants of the pub- lie in general. With increasing wealth and intelligence tea-drinkers will demand and be willing to pay for the bet- ter qualities. There will be some who will want the best; that can be furnished only from gardens in the U. S., as it will not bear transportation to a distance. Adulterations of Tea.-—There can be no doubt that a great deal of the tea, especially green tea, imported into the U. S. would fall under the condemnation of the law of New York, by “being colored, or coated, or polished, whereby damage is concealed, or it is made to appear better than it really is, or of greater value.” On the contrary, it should be regarded as very exceptional in any tea “if it contain any added poi- sonous ingredient, or any ingredient which may render such article injurious to the health of the person consuming it.” The adulterants of tea have been carefully investigated, especially in the U. S., by J. P. Battershall (Food Adulter- atton and /its Detection) and G. L. Spencer (Foods and Food Arlultemnts. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry, Bulletin No. 13). Tampering with tea has for its objects the improvement of its appearance, its increase in weight or bulk, or the heightening of some quality of flavor. The origin and method of imparting a bright green to tea, as practiced in China and Japan, more particularly for the benefit of tea- drinkers in the U. S., have been described as follows by S. W'ells VVilliams (The flltddlc Kmgdom): “ \Vhen green tea is intended for home consumption soon after it is made, the color is of little consequence; but when the hue influences the sale, then it is not to be overlooked by the manufacturer or broker. The first tea brought to Europe was from Fuhkien, and all black: but as the trade extended, probably some of the delicate hyson sorts were .similar materials are employed. now and then seen at Canton, and their appearance in Eng- land and Holland appreciated as more and more was sent. It was found, however, to be difficult to maintain a uniform tint. Chinese ingenuity was equal to the call. The opera- tion of giving green tea its color is a simple one. A quan- tity of Prussian blue is pulverized to a very’fine powder, and kept ready at the last roasting. Pure gypsum is burned in the charcoal fire till it is soft and fit for easily triturat- ing. Four parts are then thoroughly mixed with three parts of Prussian blue, making a light-blue powder. About five minutes before taking off the dried leaves this powder is sprinkled on them, and instantly the whole panful of 2 or 3 lb. is turned over by the workman’s hands till a uni- form color is obtained. His hands come out quite blue, but the compound gives the green leaves a brighter green hue. If foreigners preferred yellow teas no doubt they could be favored, for the Chinese are much perplexed to account for this strange predilection, as they never drink this colored or faced tea.” The amount of Prussian blue used in color- ing green tea is so infinitesimal that it would be necessary for a tea-drinker to consume at one sitting 1 lb. of such tea in order to take what was formerly regarded as one dose of it. The prevalent idea that green tea owes its color to cop- per is erroneous. Indigo, turmeric, plumbago, and iron sul- phate are also used for imparting color. Lie-tea is a mix- ture of the dust of tea with old tea-leaves and occasionally the leaves of other plants, starch, gum, and mineral sub- stances, worked down to a convenient mass, artificially col- ored, and usually made to imitate gunpowder tea. For facing or giving a gloss to teas, plumbago, soapstone, and Tannin is added for heightening the astringency, which with most tea-drinkers is synonymous with strength and high quality. Foreign substances, such as fragments of brick, sand, etc., up to a reasonable content, may be regarded as the result of careless- ness; beyond that of fraudulent intent. Scented teas chiefly owe their fragrance to the odors of the rose, 08- manthus (0Zed) fmgrcms, tuberose, and gardenia; the jas- mine and azalea are also employed for this purpose. But scented teas can hardly fall into the category of adultera- tions. Spent leaves are rarely to be found in tea, except in small quantity; and the presence of the leaves of other plants has been seldom detected. The poorest teas are raised at such a modicum of expense that adulteration be- comes remunerative only in response to the demands of the consumer, or at the hands of the middle men. though unrecognizable in the cup, can be made almost to satisfy the buyer who wants something for nothing. The detection of adulterants lies in the application of the usual chemical tests, the determination under prescribed con- ditions of the matter extracted by hot water, and an ex- amination of the leaves with the microscope. CHARLES U. SHEPARD. PHYSIOLOGICAL Errncrs or Tnx.—The chief active ingre- dient of tea, upon which depends most of its influence upon the human body, is the alkaloid or active principle called theine, which is practically identical with caffeine derived from coffee, guaranine derived from guarana, and similar substances. It is stated on good authority that as a matter of fact most of the caffeine which is used in medicine is in reality theine derived from damaged teas which can not be used for the ordinary purposes, as this is a much cheaper source of supply than is coffee. In addition to theine tea- leaves contain some tannic acid, which gives them their somewhat bitter taste, and a small amount of volatile oil, upon which a “cup of tea” depends for its aroma. The percentage of theine in tea-leaves varies from t to 6 per cent., the tannic acid from 12 to 18 per cent., and the vola- tile oil equals about half of 1 per cent. I11 addition to these constituents there are numerous vegetable extractives, such as coloring-matter, albumen, gum, and slight traces of min- eral substances. When tea infusion, or in other words, a “cup of tea,” is swallowed by the ordinary adult human being it produces a powerful stimulant influence which is chiefly exercised upon the nervous system, especially the brain and spinal cord. As a result of this, thought-processes are more rapidly and readily carried‘out and the reflexes are increased from the spinal stimulation, so that a mild condition of “nervous- ness” may develop. The heat which is also taken into the body in drinking tea acts as a powerful stimulant and aids very materially in the absorption of the drug by the stom- ach. If the tea is taken in over-dose the condition of cere- bral and spinal excitation may be so great as to be quite “Tea,” al- , TEACHERS’ INSTITUTES annoying, the chief symptom, if the tea be taken in the even- ing, being often excessive wakefulness. Because of the stimulant influence of tea upon the human being it is em- ployed very largely, and in many cases to excess, so that persons who are wont to pay little attention to their diet and habits of life frequently become addicted to its exces- sive use, resorting to it as a “whip” to overcome the apa- thetic condition arising from the nervous exhaustion from which they are suffering. While there is no doubt that tea is capable, by its stimulating influence, of removing tem- porary nervous depression, it should never be forgotten that its constant employment for this purpose is always followed sooner or later by physical bankruptcy, a condition which is seen most commonly in nervous women. Tea belongs to that class of substances, such as coffee, cocoa, tobacco, alco- hol, and opium, which retard tissue waste, or, in other words, -decrease nitrogenous break-down in the body, thereby con- serving the tissues, and it is thought by some that human beings resort to these drugs as a result of an instinctive feeling that they are saving themselves to some extent from wear and tear. A strong infusion of tea is valuable in two dangerous con- ditions as an antidote: (1) in opium-poisoning, for the pur- pose of stimulating the respiration and heart; and (2) in antimonial poisoning, for the same purpose, and also for the purpose of forming an insoluble tannate of antimony so slow in its action that acute poisoning will not ensue. In preparing tea for drinking purposes care should be taken that perfectly pure water is employed which is de- void of either taste or smell, and which is neither too hard nor too soft. It should be poured upon the tea-leaves when actually boiling and the mixture allowed to steep for but a short time. Boiling tea-leaves for the purpose of making an infusion for drinking purposes should never be done, as this process extracts a large amount of organic matter from the leaf and dissipates the aroma, leaving in its stead an acricl, bitter taste. See OAFFEINE. H. A. HARE. Teachers’ Institutes: institutions, original in the U. S., for giving professional instruction to teachers already at work. The institute is usually held for a week during the school term at some central point in the county or commis- sioners’ district, the teachers being required to attend and being paid as though they were teaching. The institutes are led by experienced conductors. and are substantially normal schools with a course of study of a week. Gatherings of this kind were held as early as 1834. In 1839 Henry Bar- nard assembled a number of teachers for this purpose at Hartford, but the first meeting that was called an institute was held in Tompkins co., N. Y., in 1843. The character and work of the institutes vary widely with different locali- ties. See Boone, Edaoatton tn the United States (1890). O. H. THURBER. Teachers’ Seminaries: in Germany, Russia, Scandina- via, Denmark, and Finland, schools for the training of teachers. Such institutions all have the same general char- acter, as described especially for German seminaries in the article Normal Schools under SCHOOLS. Tea Family: the Tcrnsto~oem/taoece, a small group (310 species) of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs of warm and hot climates, with regular showy flowers, having usually five sepals, five petals, many stamens, and a superior three-celled to five-celled compound ovary, each cell containing from two to many ovules. The most i1n ortant genus is CAMEL- LIA (q. o.), in which Bentham and Hooker include the TEA- PLANT (q. 1).), O. thctfera. Other botanists maintain Thea as a separate genus. and designate the tea-plant as T. 071,2; /aensts or T. stnensts, while others still would include all the camellias in Thea. In the southern parts of the U. S. there are two species of GORDONIA (q. 2;.) and two of Stuar- t-ta, all shrubs with pretty flowers. CHARLES E. Bussnv. Teak [from Malayalam tekka]: a forest-tree, Tectona g'rancZ't's, of the family Verbenaoeaz, of India and Farther ndia. It is the best timber known for ship-building. It is more durable than oak, more easily seasoned, equally strong, considerably lighter, and far more easily worked. It is used for making decks and planking, for the keel, timbers, and even masts and spars. Many all-teak ships are reported to be over 100 years old, and still seaworthy. The wood somewhat resembles mahogany. The flowers and leaves have medicinal qualities, and are used in dyeing. African teak, the wood of a euphorbiaceous tree, Oldfieldta afwtoana, re- sembles true teak, but is much inferior to it. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. TEOHE, BAYOU 33 Teal: any one of several small ducks having a bill but little longer than the foot, rather narrow, and with small lamellae. The wing bears a conspicuous mark, or speculum, of blue or metallic green. They are birds of rapid flight, partial to fresh water, and their flesh is excellent food. There are about twenty species scattered through the world, three occurring as regular residents within the U. S. These are the blue-winged teal (Anas disco/rs), the green-winged teal (A. caroltnensts), and the cinnamon teal (A. cyanoptera). The European green-winged teal (A. crecca) occurs as a straggler in the Eastern U. S. For the summer teal, see GARGANEY. F. A. LUCAS. Tea, Paraguay: See MATE. Tea-plant: a shrub with smooth evergreen leaves, bear- ing white flowers (an inch or more broad) in their axils, re- sembling those of a small camellia, belonging to the same family (Ternstrccmtacece), and in the opinion of many recent botanists to the same genus. A distinguishing character is that camellias have numerous unconnected stamens within the ring of outer ones, the united filaments of which form a short tube, cohering with the base of the petals, and falling with them ; while in the tea-plants there are only five or six of these inner and separate stamens. In both the blossom is succeeded by a globular, thick-walled, woody capsule, in- ternally divided into three or four cells, tardily splitting open; each cell ripening from one to four large and oily seeds, with a hard and smooth seed-coat. See TEA. Tear-gland : See LACHRYMAL GLAND. Tears [O. Eng. téar : O. H. Germ. zahar ( > Mod. Germ. zéthre) : Icel. tar : Goth. tagr < Teuton. *ta7zr-, *tagr- < Indo-Eur. *dakm > Sanskr. dayra : Gr. Eoircpv : O. Lat. da- crama > Lat. Zacrtma]: the slightly saline watery secre- tion of the LACHRYMAL GLAND (q. o.). The ordinary func- tion of this secretion is to assist in the work of moistening and lubricating the eyeball; but in the human species, at least, the exercise of certain strong emotions acts as a pow- erful stimulus upon this secretion. Pungent odors, as that from the onion, sometimes provoke a copious and even pain- ful discharge of tears. To certain of the lower animals, as the crocodile and the hymna, folk-lore ascribes the power of shedding voluntary tears for the deception of the beholder ; and observers old and recent testify that certain species of deer and of the seal family express grief by the shedding of tears. Most of the lower animals do not secrete a note- worthy flow of tears except after injury of the eye or in some diseases of the gland or of some adjacent part. Tea-sel [Mod Eng. tesel < O. Eng. tcfasel, deriv. of trtsan. pluck, tease (wool)] : the Jflpsaous fallonwm, a biennial plant of the south of Europe, naturalized to some extent in the U. S. It is cultivated in Europe, as in the U. S., on ac- count of its burs or heads, covered with hooked bracts. These heads are fastened to a revolving cylinder. and are used by woolen manufacturers to raise a nap on cloth. No artificial contrivance has been found to equal the tease] for this purpose. " Male ” and “ female " teasels are merely va- rieties in size and stiffness, each adapted to the dressing of special cloths. Teasel Family: the Dz'psaoece; a small group (150 spe- cies) of dicotyledonous herbs (rarely shrubs) of the Old World, with small flowers, having a small calyx, tubular corolla, stamens two to four inserted on the corolla, anthers free, and ovary inferior. one-celled and one-ovuled. They are closely related to the COMPOSITES (g. ’L'.). from which they are separated mainly by their free anthers. The teasel and the ornamental species of Scablziosa are the most im- portant plants of the family. CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Teche (tesh), Bayou: one of several small tide-water navi- gable channels in Southern Louisiana. which were once the main channels of large rivers. This bayou lies immediately W. of Grand Lake, and the Atchafalaya river basin and its high banks, formed by the overflows centuries ago, when it was a main river outlet, now form one of the most fertile and productive portions of the State of Louisiana. It pro- duces large crops of sugar and cotton, these lands being above overflow. It is navigable to St. Martinsville, about 100 miles above its mouth, where it empties into the lower Atchafalaya, near Morgan City. Above St. Martinsville the Téche is only navigable for very small boats a portion of the year. What is now termed Bayou Téche was once the lower portion of the ancient channel of Red river, ex- tending from the present Bayou Courtableau, E. of Ope- lousas, La., around and to the W. and S. of what is now the 400 34, TECHNICAL SCHOOLS Grand Lake basin—then probably an inland bay into which the Mississippi river discharged--to the Gulf of Mexico, but now, too, the lower Atchafalaya river, S. of Grand Lake. St. Martinsville, Pattersonville, Centerville, Franklin, and New Iberia are prominent towns on the Teche. Revised by J. B. JOHNSON. Technical Schools: See ScHooLs. Technology [from Gr. ‘TE/XI/7], art + Mi’)/os, discourse]: a general name for industrial science. Strictly, there is no such science, but all the sciences contribute much which is of the greatest value to the various industries; and technol- ogy is the teaching of those parts of science which are of direct industrial importance. See Technical Schools and Trade Schools under SCHOOLS. Teck : small duchy situated in Suabia, and called so after the castle of Teck. It was held successively by several fam- ilies during the Middle Ages, but in the fourteenth century passed into the possession of the Dukes of Wiirtemberg. In 1863 the King of Wiirtemberg conferred it on the children of Duke Alexander of Wiirtemberg by his marriage with the Countess Rhédey. Their son Francis (b. 1837), who be- came Duke of Teck by this arrangement, is the father of the Princess Victoria May, who married the Duke of York of the British royal house (July 6, 1893). F. M. CoLBY. Tectibranchia’ta [Mod. Lat.; Lat. tec’tns, perf. partic. of te’gere, cover + bran'che'oe, gills]: a group of opistho- branchiate molluscs in which the gills are covered by the mantle. See Gxsrnaoronx. '1‘ecum’seh: village (settled in 1824) ; Lenawee co., Mich. ; on the Raisin river, and the Cin., Jack. and Mack. and the Lake Shore and Mich. S. railways; 13 miles N. E. of Adrian, and 33 S. E. of Jackson (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 8—J). It is in an agricultural and fruit-growing region, has large manufacturing interests, and contains 6 churches, a central and 3 ward schools, a public library, 2 State banks with combined capital of $66,000, 3 flour-mills, 2 planing-mills, a paper-mill, brick and tile machine-works, 2 foundries, carriage-factory, table and furniture factory, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,111 ; (1890) 2,310. Enrroa or “ HERALD.” Tecumseh: city (founded in 1857); capital of Johnson co., N eb. ; on the Big Nemaha river and the Burl. and Mo. River Railroad ; 30 miles W. of Missouri river, and 50 miles S. E. of Lincoln (for location, see map of Nebraska, ref. 11—H). It contains 8 churches, 4 public-school buildings, high school, water-works, electric lights, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a State bank with capital of $50,000, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1.268; (1890) 1,654; (1894) 2,225. Enrroa or “ CHIEFTAIN.” Tecumseh, or Tecumtha: chief of the Shawnee Indians ; b. near Springfield, O., about 1768; took part in the war with the Kentucky forces about 1791 ; was engaged in the battle of Mad river and in the attack on Fort Recovery, 1794; joined his brother, Elskwatawa (called The Proph- et), about 1805 in the attempt to organize all the Western Indians in a confederacy against the whites; visited all the tribes on the upper lakes and in the Mississippi valley down to the Gulf of Mexico; collected a considerable force on the upper Wabash in the autumn of 1811, which, under command of the Prophet, attacked Gen. Harrison and was defeated at Tippecanoe N ov. 7, during Tecumseh’s absence among the Southern tribes ; went to Canada with a band of Shawnees in the following year on the outbreak of hostilities with Great Britain ; was a useful ally to the British in the battles of Raisin river and of Maguaga, where he was wounded ; was made a brigadier-general in the British serv- ice; was joint commander with Gen. Proctor at the siege of Fort Meigs, and protected the American prisoners from mas- sacre; was wounded at the battle of Lake Erie, and com- manded the right wing at the battle near the Moravian towns on the Thames. Having, it is said, a presentiment of his ap- proaching death, he laid aside his sword and uniform, put on his hunting-costume, and plunged into the hottest of the fight, in which he was killed Oct. 5, 1813. It was asserted for many years that he fell by the hand of Col. Richard M. Johnson, afterward Vice-President of the U. S. (1837-41). See Drake, Life of Teen/nseh and his B1-other the Prophet, /wtth an Iftstorical Shetch of the Shawnee Indians (Cin- cinnati. 1841), and Eggleston, Tecumseh and the Shawnee Prophet (New York, 1878). Tc ])c’um [Lat., so called from the first words, Te Demn (Zaudamas), Thee God (we praise), Eng. version, “ We TEETH praise thee, O God ”]: the most famous “non-biblical” hymn of the Western Church, dating from the fifth century. It was intended to be a daily morning hymn. Its author- ship is unknown. It is first referred to by Caesarius of Arles (502), who ordered it to form part of the regular morning service of his monks, and as he cites it only by the first three words it indicates that it was then well known. So it passed into the service books of the Western Church, and has always constituted a portion of the Morning Service (as one of its supplications, “Keep us this day without sin,” implies) in the English and American church services be- tween the first and second lessons for the morning, the rubric prescribing that it shall be “ said or sung." Besides the use in the Morning Service, this triumphal hymn is used, arranged to elaborate music, as a special service of thanksgiving. The sovereigns of England have been accustomed to go in state to the singing of the Te Deum after great victories, Handel’s Detttngen Te Deavn having been composed for one of these occasions. At the conclusion of coronations it has been used from time im- memorial throughout Europe. When it is said in the or- dinary Morning Service, its verses are antiphonally re- cited by minister and congregation, but it is very generally sung by choir and congregation. The music which has come down in connection with this hymn is probably pre- Gregorian. No hymn or form of words has been the sub- ject of so many musical renderings by composers of all grades, of all ages, and of all nations. Among the elaborate works are those of Handel (just cited), Romberg, Andre’, Lassen, and Wiillner. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Teeth [plur. of tooth < O. Eng. tot (plur. te‘6): O. H. Germ. zand (> Mod. Germ. zahn) : Icel. to'nn : Goth. tanlaus; cf. Lith. dantts : Lat. dens, dentts : Gr. 6806s, 586wros : Sanskr. danta]: certain hard bodies situated in the mouth or at the beginning of the alimentary canal. This definition, comprehensive and vague as it may appear, is as exact as the nature of the case permits. Under it would be in- cluded not only the teeth of mammals and other verte- brates, but also the hard bodies that stud the surface of the odontophore or lingual ribbon of molluscs, etc., al- though these parts are not at all homologous. The teeth of vertebrates, which alone are considered here, are exceed- ingly variable in development, as well as form and position, and their characteristics in the several classes may be briefly examined in order, while much information as to dentition will be found in the articles treating of the vari- ous families, etc. The teeth of vertebrates, and particularly those of mam- mals, are closely related to the entire structure of the animal to which they belong, and as the teeth, owing to their hard- ness, often remain after other parts have wholly or largely disappeared, they are for these reasons of great importance to the palaeontologist. Following Tomes, the main features in the development of teeth are, briefly, as follows: “ In all animals the tooth- germ consists primarily of two structures, and two only-— the dent.ine-germ and the enamel-germ. The simplest tooth-germ never comprises anything more. When a cap- sule is developed it is derived partly from a secondary up- growth of the tissue at the base of the dentine-germ, partly from an accidental condensation of the surrounding con- nective tissue. The existence of an enamel-organ is quite universal, and is in no way dependent upon the presence or absence of enamel upon the completed tooth, although the degree to which it is developed has distinct relation to the thickness of the future enamel. So far as researches go, a stellate reticulum, constituting a large bulk of the enamel- organ, is a structure confined to the Mammalia. The den- tine-papilla is a dermal structure, the enamel-organ an epithelial or epidermic structure. As the enamel is formed by an actual conversion of the cells of the enamel-organ, this makes the dentine dermal and the enamel epidermic structures. In Teleostei the new enamel-germs are formed directly from the oral epithelium, and are new formations arising quite independently of any portion of the tooth- germs of the teeth which have preceded them. In mammals and reptiles, and in some, at all events, of the Batrachia, new tooth-germs are derived from portions of their prede- cessors. In all animals examined the phenomena are very uniform : a process dips in fro1n the oral epithelium, often to a great depth; the end of the process becomes trans- formed into an enamel-organ coincidently with the forma- tion of a dentine-papilla beneath it. The differences lie TEETH rather in such minor details as the extent to which a cap- sule is developed, and no such generalization as that the teeth of fish in their development represent only an earlier stage of the development of the teeth of Mammalia can be drawn.” The leptocardians or pharyngobranchiates are entirely destitute of teeth. The marsipobranchiates have teeth developed on the tongue, and more or less from the surface of the oral disk; in the myxinoids a single tooth is present on the roof of the mouth; but in the petromyzonts numerous teeth exist in oblique rows on the disk. The selachians or elasmobranchiates exhibit a very con- siderable diversity in their dentition, but the principal types are as follows: In sharks the teeth vary in shape from fiat and broadly triangular, with serrate edges (Carcharias), to long, slender, and smooth (Lamna). They differ consider- ably in shape, according to their position in the jaw, and are arranged in several (six to eight) rows, although those of the front row only are in active use. The others form a reserve series, and move continually forward to replace the others, while new teeth are continually being developed at the back. The skates and rays have either numerous small, pointed teeth, arranged in alternating rows, but so thickly set as to form one mass (Raja), or they are fiat, six-sided, and so disposed as to form a sort of pavement (llfyliobatis). In either case new teeth are constantly forming at the back to replace the loss by wear in front. The fishes are, more than any other class, distinguished by the diversity in development and position of the teeth, as well as form and mode of attachment. As to position, they may be entirely absent from at least the mouth proper, or they may be present on almost all the bones——i. e. the intermaxillaries, the supramaxillaries, the vomer, the palatines, the pterygoids, the ento-pterygoids, and the tongue, as well as the pharyngeal bones, the branchial arches, and the beginning of the oesophagus. There may be also a considerable diversity in dentition within the limits of the same natural family, although, as a rule, the differences are inconsiderable : as examples among American fishes the cyprinoids and centrarchoids may be mentioned. All of the cyprinoids (car and suckers) are totally devoid of teeth in the mouth, a though they have them well developed on the pharyngeal bones. The cen- trarchoids (bass) offer considerable diversity: in Pomotis and Lepomis teeth are present only on the jaws and vomer, but in Ambloplites and Cluenobryttus they exist not only on the jaws and vomer, but also on the palatine and ptery- goid bones. A still more noticeable case of diversity is afforded by the family of clupeids, including the herrings, shad, etc.: in Alosa (the shad) the mouth is almost tooth- less, while in Clupeoides teeth are developed on the inter- maxillaries and supramaxillaries (as crenulations), as well as on the dentaries, vomer, palatines, pterygoids, and tongue ; between these there is almost every gradation. These variations in the clupeids are so generally unaccom- panied by other modifications of structure that their sys- tematic value is very slight. Nevertheless, in most cases there is a quite close concordance between the development of the teeth and other characters, so that, on the whole, the nature of the dentition may be tolerably well predicated from the associated characters. The most common combi- nation, too, at least among the specialized acanthopterygian fishes, is expressed in the aggregation of teeth on the inter- maxillaries, dentaries, vomer, and palatines. The Percidce, Serranidae, and Scombridce (but not all their species) are examples of this class. Closely related types, however. have the teeth confined to the intermaxillaries and dentaries; such are, e. g., the typical Pristipomatidre and Sparidaa. In Stromateidaa teeth are developed on plates at the en- trance of the oesophagus. In form there is great variety. The most common shape is an elongated but more or less curved cone, or some slight modification thereof. The most noteworthy examples of other types are the following: Extremely elongated, slender, and almost hair-like teeth are found in the chaetodontids; incisors like those of mammals, superficially at least, are de- veloped in the Sargi (sheepshead, etc.); molar-like teeth are present in the jaws of many Sparidze and on the palate in Anarrhicadidte (wolf-fishes); barbed or arrow-like teeth are exemplified in the Trichiuridre and related forms; com- pressed, lancet-like teeth exist in the jaws of Pomatornus or Temnodon (the bluefish); slender spoon-like teeth are to be seen on the lips of the loricariids, a group of peculiar South 35 American catfishes; squamiform, imbricated teeth cover the jaws in the Scaridce (parrot-fishes); and broad incisori- al teeth are confluent with the jaws in the diodons and tetrodons. In their combinations and mode of attachment there is almost equal variety. In most fishes the teeth are very nu- merous, and grouped in many rows on the jaws as well as on the palate; in many they are a single row; often they are differentiated into two or more kinds—-e. g. the foremost tooth or the hindmost ones, and sometimes (as in different labrids) both, may be developed as canines, while the others are small; often, too, the teeth of the anterior row are much larger than the others; again, as in the sparids, the teeth of the front of the jaws are conic or incisorial, and those of the sides molar. In fishes generally the teeth are immov- ably implanted in sockets in the jaws, but readily detached therefrom; in some (e. g. in Salarias, Euchalarodus, cer- tain Serranidte, etc.) they are more or less movable, while in loricariids they seem to be loosely attached to the lips; in the scarids they are imbricated on the jaws; and in the die- dons and tetrodons they are inseparable from the jaws. In the amphibians there is much less diversity than in the fishes, or even the selachians. In form they are mostly slender, conic, and pointed. In position they exhibit much greater diversities: in the Grad ientia (salamanders and other tailed species) they are present on the jaws and palate under various combinations. In the Salientia they are less con- stantly present; in many (e. g. the frogs) they are sup- pressed in the lower jaw, and present only in the upper; in numerous others (e. g. the toads) they are absent from the upper as well as the lower jaw; in the frogs teeth are de- veloped on the vomer, but in the toads are entirely want- ing on the palate as on the jaws. In the reptiles the varieties of dentition are quite numer- ous, but less so than in the fishes. In shape their teeth are usuallyr more or less conical or rounded, but they may be somewhat notched or pectinated. It need only be added here that, according to Tomes, but contrary to the older authors, " the teeth, as far as known, consist of dentine, to which is very generally superadded an investment of enamel, partial or complete, but that cementum is only present in a few instances,” the only forms having teeth covered with cementum being “those which have them implanted in more or less complete sockets or in a groove,” as the croco- dilians and ichthyosaurians. The teeth of reptiles are usu- ally succeeded as they wear out by others which either grow up at their sides, as in serpents, or are pushed up from be- neath, as in crocodiles and most lizards. The birds of the present epoch are entirely destitute of true teeth, and the mandibles have generally more or less trenchant, unarmed linear edges, but sometimes they are armed with processes of bone simulating teeth, but in no other respect entitled to that name. In former cpochs, however, there existed types actually provided with true teeth, having all the structural characteristics of these or- gans, and fitting in sockets in the jaws; these have been combined by Marsh under the general term Odontornithes (i. e. toothed birds). In the mammals teeth are confined to the jaws—i. e. the intermaxillary, supramaxillary, and dentary bones—-and are almost always developed, although in a few forms, repre- senting several orders, they are entirely wanting. No teeth have been discovered in the Monot-remes belonging to the family Tachyglossidce, but in the Ornithorhynchidce very young animals possess three minute, many-tuberculed teeth on either side of each jaw. A little later these are hid- den under the large, horny, epidermal plates which serve as teeth in the adult, and ultimately the rudimentary teeth are absorbed, so that until recently the Ornit/1orhynchidre were considered to be toothless. In the marsupials and placental mammals the teeth are homologous with each other, and developed in the same manner. The fully devel- oped teeth are composed essentially of three substances: the dentine, the enamel, and the cement. The dent-iue is the chief component of the teeth, and is a dense, fine-grained, elastic substance, permeated by minute tubes; there is a familiar and well-marked example of dent-ine in ivory, but it varies much in appearance and hardness, although it al- ways contains a considerable portion of animal matter. The enamel is generally more or less developed around the dcntine on the crown of the tooth, or is present in the form of vertical plates as among ungulates. It is composed of extremely minute fibers standing outward over the dentine, and is the hardest of animal tissues. The enamel is devel- 36 TEETH oped around the teeth of most mammals, but to a varying extent, and is wanting chiefly in most of the representatives of tlie order Bruta. The cement is quite like bone in ap- pearance and composition, and enters to a varying extent into the composition of the tooth. It is generally most de- veloped around the roots, and least so on the crowns, although in ungulates it fills the valleys between the plates of enamel also. See the illustration in the article HISTOLOGY. The teeth of mammals are always inserted in sockets in the jaws, surrounded by gums. They are severally divided into two portions—the exposed portion or crown, and the inserted portion, known as the fangs or roots. The differ- ence is generally well defined, but in some forms, especially in certain rodents (Aroieolinoe), etc., there is no abrupt dis- tinction between the inserted and exserted portions, and true roots are not developed. In nearly all mammals there is a limit to the growth of a tooth, but the incisors of all rodents and all the teeth of some species, as well as the teeth of sloths, continue to grow upward throughout life, the pulp-cavity remaining open and new material being added at the base as it is worn away above. The teeth of mammals not increasing in size, as do the other parts of the body, a provision must exist for the ac- commodation of their size and development to that of the animal. This is effected in part by the late development of some of the teeth, which do not appear until the animal has attained a large size; and, in part, as well, by the re- placement of some of the teeth developed about the time of birth by subsequent ones of larger size. Those animals which have only one set of teeth are said to be monophyo- dont (pl:/os, single + ¢6ew, to put forth + 5806s, tooth); those which have two sets of teeth, an early (deciduous) and a later (non-deciduous) set, are called in contrast diphyodont (Sis, twice + §b1')eu/, to put forth + 6606s, tooth) ; these characters, however, are not co-ordinated with others, and mammals, therefore, can not be contrasted, as has been attempted, into natural sections distinguished by such characteristics. In the marsupials only four teeth (one in each jaw on each side) are succeeded by larger teeth, the teeth which corre- spond to the milk teeth of other mammals persisting during life, with the exception of the third premolar. The teeth of the second set are developed from divert-icula of the sacs in which originated those of the first set. The edentates, so far as known, are mostly monophyodont, but the armadillos and aard-vark are diphyodont, a set of milk teeth existing for a longer or shorter time after birth, and being finally succeeded, sometimes not until near maturity, by a second permanent set. The sloths are not yet fully known, but there is reason to suppose that they may also prove to be diphyodont also. Among the Oarnivores, in the Fissipedes, or terrestrial species, the diphyodont type is well exemplified, the milk teeth being rather large, and retained for quite a long period, until finally replaced by the permanent set; but in the Pinnipeds the milk teeth are extremely rudimen- tary, and replaced before birth by those of the permanent series. In the majority of the toothed whales the teeth are those of the first or milk dentition, which persist through- out lifc, but the porpoise (Phoooena) is partly diphyodont, although the majority of the teeth belong to the milk den- tition. Foetal whalebone whales have a single set of simple teeth which are absorbed before birth. In the rodents the great incisor teeth are permanent, and have no deciduous predecessors. In the case of those forms which have only three molars or less, as in the Mnriclw, etc., these are per- manent, being persistent milk teeth. In those forms, how- ever, where the number of molars exceed three, the teeth in front of them are premolars, or teeth which have had decidu- ous predecessors. Recent investigations have shown that the rudiments of teeth are present in many mammals previously classed as monophyodont, but that they fail to develop, and that di- phyodont mammals possess germs of a third set, possibly of a fourth. The rows of teeth in almost all species exhibit inter- ruptions of varying extent. These interruptions (diastcmas or diastemata) most frequently exist between the incisors and canines of the upper jaw for the reception of the ca- nines of the lower, and in the lower jaw between the canines and molars for the reception of the canines of the upper jaw. When the canines are reduced in size, there is often a cor- responding reduction in the extent of the diastemas; and in man, where the teeth are all nearly on the same level, the series in both jaws are perfectly uninterrupted ; and in TEGNER this respect man is distinguished from all the other living mammals, although approached by certain of the iemuroid species. The character is, however, not exclusive, and in certain extinct forms, notably those of the ruminant family of Anoplotheriiclce, there are also uninterrupted series of teeth in the two jaws. The diastemas, however, are by no means always co-ordinated with the development of the canine teeth, but very frequently result from the elongation of the jaws and the reduction of the anterior molar teeth, as in most of the ungulates and in all the rodents, in which latter the canines are never developed. The teeth of mammals are, in respect to situation, func- tion, or mode of replacement, divisible into four groups, incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. The incisors (Lat. inoidere, to cut) are the teeth in the front of the jaws ; those implanted in the premaxillaries above, and those immediate- ly opposing them below. The canines (Lat. caninns, dog- like) are the usually prominent teeth just back of the in- cisors. The upper canine is the tooth situated immediately behind the suture dividing the premaxillary from the max- illary ; the lower canine is that tooth which, when the jaws are closed, lies in front of the upper canine. Premolars are teeth back of the canines which have taken the place of those borne at or developed soon after birth, and molars are these back teeth which have had no deciduous predecessors. In some marsupials there may be as many as ten incisors, but in the placental mammals there are never more than six in either jaw. This is the normal number, but in some spe- cies there may be fewer, or even none. There are never more than four canines, one on either side of each jaw, and they may be entirely wanting. The number of premolars and molars is variable, particularly so in the lower groups ; in the higher groups the typical number is four premolars and three molars. A complete typical dentition may there- fore be said to comprise 44 teeth: incisors §-, canines %-, pre- molars ;‘1~, molars J}, a number shown by the hog, although uncommon among existing mammals. See Owen, Oclon- tography (London, 1840-45) and Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates (London, 1866-68); 0. S. Tomes, Manual of Dental Anatomy, Human and Comparative (London, 1882); and Wortman, Comparatiye Anatomy of the Teeth of Vertebrates, in American System of Dentistry (Philadelphia, 1886). See also Dnnrrsrnr. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Teifé, tef-fa’, formerly Ega or Egas : a town of the state of Amazonas, Brazil; on a lake formed by the little river Teffé near its mouth, on the southern side of the Amazon ; 1,215 miles by the river route from Para. Originally a Jes- uit mission, it is now the most important river-port above Manzios, exporting rubber, sarsaparilla, etc. Teffé, or Ega, as it is still commonly called in English books, is celebrated in science as the residence of Bates, Agassiz, and other dis- tinguished naturalists. Pop. about 5,000. H. H. S. Tegnér, teg-nar', ESAIAS: poet; b. at Kyrkernd, Worm- land, Sweden, Nov. 13, 1782. His father, who was a poor parish priest, died early, but the son contrived to go to Lund in 1799, and in 1802 he graduated from the university with great honor; became doeent in aesthetics, and in 1812 was promoted to the chair of Greek Literature. In 1818 he was elected a member of the Academy, and in 1824. he was made Bishop of Wexi6. In this position, for which he was but ill fitted by nature, he exercised a great and beneficial influence by his powerful eloquence and his energy in school matters. His talent was essentially lyrical, with a tendency toward the didactic. His first great poem, Soea (1811), although crowned by the Academy, was a protest against the conven- tionalism of the Academy. and had a decisive influence on the poetic development of the time. In Nattodrdsbarnen (The Children of the Lord’s Supper, 1820), translated by Longfellow, he displayed his skill as a didactic poet, his model being taken from Goethe’s Hermann and Dorothea. Axel (1820), influenced by Byron, though more popular than the preceding poem, is vastly inferior to it as a work of art, the poet’s tendency to sentimentality and rhetoric appearing to excess. Frithiof’s Saga (1825), which is his most cele- brated work, and which has been translated into almost every European language and nineteen times into English, is a combination of ballads. In opposition to the French school, which with its pompous and pedantic or superficial and frivolous elegance predominated in the Swedish litera- ture at the beginning of the nineteenth century, Tegnér un- veiled the ideal of the romantic school, with its new relations between nature and art, and between art and religion. He TEGUCIGALPA avoided, however, the excesses of the Phosphorists (see SWED- ISH LITERATURE), whose obscurity was repugnant to his clear, logical mind. During the latter years of his life he suffered from melancholia, which in 1840 assumed an acute form. D. at Wexi6, Nov. 2, 1846. His collected writings (Samlade Slorvifter) were published at Stockholm (7 vols., 1847-51 ; ad- ditional, 3 vols., 1873-74). See Georg Brandes, Eminent Au- thors of the Nineteenth Century (R. B. Anderson’s trans, New York, 1886). Revised by D. K. Doncn. Tegucigalpa, tc'i-go”o-the"e-gaal’pa"a: capital (since 1880) and largest city of Honduras; beautifully situated in a plain or basin surrounded by mountains, 3.250 feet above the sea; 60 miles from its port of Amapala on the Gulf of Fonseca (see map of Central America, ref. 4-H). It is in the most thickly populated region of the republic, 1s the center of a fertile agricultural district, and has mines of gold and silver, which were formerly much more important. The most con- spicuous building is the cathedral; the president’s palace and other public edifices are unpretentious, and most of the dwellings have but a single floor. The city has a university, library, ladies’ seminary, etc. The climate is mild and salu- brious. A railway to San Lorenzo on the Gulf of Fonseca is projected. Pop. about 15,000. Tegucigalpa is the capital of a department of the same name, having an area of 3,475 sq. miles and a population (1889) of 60,170. H. H. S. Teheran', or Tehran: capital of Persia; in lat. 35° 41' N., lon. 51° 23’ E.; province of lrak-Ajmi, 70 miles S. of the Caspian Sea: in a sandy and stony plain at the southern foot of the Elburz Mountains, which rise here, in Mt. Dema- vend, 18,600 feet above the level of the sea (see map of Persia and Arabia, ref. TEIGNMOUTH 37 Spanish conquest it was occupied by a powerful Nahuatl tribe. In the vicinity are ruins of pyramids and other structures, supposed to have been built by the Toltecs. Pop. about 12,000. HERBERT H. SMITH. Tehuantepec, tel-wa"an-tat-pek’: town; state of Oaxaca, Mexico; on the Tehuantepec river, 13 miles from its mouth in the gulf of that name; station on the Tehu- antepec Railway (see map of Mexico, ref. 9-1). It isof very ancient origin, was at one time the chief town of the Zapotec Indians, and later was occupied by a branch of that tribe which submitted to Alvarado in 1522. Pop. 8,000. H. H. S. Tehuantepec, Isthmus of : a constriction of the Ameri- can continent, in Southeastern Mexico, between the Bay of Campeche (Gulf of Mexico) on the N., and the Gulf of Tehuantepec, an arm of the Pacific, on the S. Its width, in the narrowest part, is 134 miles. The mountain chains, on reaching the isthmus, are suddenly depressed, with several passes below 700 feet. There have been many projects for a canal across this neck, and careful surveys, one by order of the U. S. Government, have been made with this end in view. Some of the reports are favorable, but the work would be enormously expensive. A railway from Coatza- coalcos on the N. to Salina Cruz on the S. now runs across the isthmus; it was constructed by the Mexican Government and was opened for traffic in 1894. (See also SHIP-RAILWAYS.) As long ago as 1847 the U. S. Government endeavored, with- out results, to procure a right of way over the same route. The great importance of communication through the isth- mus may be seen from the accompanying illustration. 2—G). It was for- merly surrounded by a mud wall 4 miles in circum- \ ¢ . \;\\\\ \\ \\\\ \\\\\ §\\\\‘§\\\\ ‘\ l \ \ \ \\ .\.,. \ \ \ & \Q \\\\~\\\\\\\\\ \\\\ . \ \ \ \ \a~\\\\\\\\\\\§\sss \‘\\\\§,§‘:}\“‘ “Q \i\\\ \\ ~ ‘\\\‘.\\\§; ‘\ \ \\ c I \ \\\ , ~,\s\ ms‘ \:\\.\ss\\§\~> sz , ,/ ,//’/ / ,1 / / /,,/ / , H , 3, ,/ , ~ ’ :2 / , , - , / f , / ,/ , , , / / 7 / , , ,/ // / , , / ’ ”z’ ’ // /// / I / / 1/ , ’ ’/ ,\ / ’ / / 1/ I /{ II’ I I / I I///I ,// , 1/ 1 - Z//, /_- A / / /// 1/ /; ’ / , , . / /, , ” / , / /N ,,,, . UVIZFIP /4 1 -1 /Z ” I /r , /// /I \ 1 , ,y, \l,/ //,//, ,, // / M ’- , ’ ,// /" / / 1 § -~4- ’ I J / 1 1 ¢ /// , /’ ,///, ,. ;/ \ ,/” I / / 9 ’ . / 1); / / ruurnx I /, / / O //N wvo K / , 4“ e ‘. 5 , /4 ‘>0 -v / ;/ / / ‘ 4/ / , , / ’ / ; // / / / / / 4 / . / , ’ ference, 20 feet ; a v ’»///7/, ' ///;,’ /,/’,/ ,/ high, with 6 gates, ., , . /// , /. / 4 / /, . I / but it has been ,1, 4 //4 //'//1’ ’ ;; , I/’// 77 A :41 extended beyond :’ /, 0 u _ I7///I/// - ;,// //'//1 ///, these limits. The .; stregts tfor nthe ; ' 8.1 _ / "/4 7' ’ /I / / /Z/I } row crooked ill " /. / 7 paved, and filthy, J , ‘ and the houses low /j ' and insignificant, , generally built of f>/’ mud, although ” there are some modern boule- vards and houses in Western style. Some mosques, bazaars, and car- avansaries are handsome struc- tures, however, and the palace of the shah, forming a city by itself, # adjoining the northern part of the wall, is vast and elegant. Teheran became the residence of the shah in 1796, and has increased considerably since that time. It has some manufactures of carpets. cotton and linen goods, shoes and hats, and carries on a brisk trade. Its population varies much from winter to summer, as the shah and all the wealthier citizens leave it early in spring on account of the intolerable heat and unhealthful atmos- phere. Pop. estimated at 210,000. In the vicinity are the ruins of Rei, the Rhages of Scripture, the ancient capital of Parthia and the birthplace of Harun al Raschid. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tehri’ : a small hill-state under British control in the Himalayas. See GARH\VAL. Tehuaean, ta-wa“a-1ew, write] : in general, any apparatus or process for conveying intelligence to a dis- tance other than by voice or writing. The idea of speed is in- cluded, the telegraph being employed only to transmit in- telligence more quickly than can be done by ordinary means. Sound, light, and electricity, owing to the rapidity with which they are propagated, form the most convenient agen- cies for telegraphing. For long distances light and elec- tricity are immeasurably superior to sound. The necessity of transmitting intelligence to a distance with rapidity and certainty was felt by the ancients, and many expedients were resorted to under different circum- stances. These were usually simple, and exhibited little mechanical contrivance. The semaphore was the first really efficient telegraph. It was invented by Claude Chappé, and adopted by the French Government in 1794. It consisted of an upright post supporting a pivoted horizontal bar, which could be placed at various inclinations. This had two small- er arms pivoted to its extremities, and capable of being placed at various angles. By independent movements the apparatus was susceptible of ninety-eight distinct positions, and of thus exhibiting the same number of different signals, conventionally representing letters, numbers, words, or sen- tences. The speed of transmission under the most favor- able circumstances was about three signals per minute. The semaphores were placed upon high towers, 4 or 5 miles apart. Much ingenuity was expended by Chappé and others in arranging a system of lights to enable the sema- phore to be used at night, but with only partial success. In fogs and snowstorms this system was entirely useless. Be- fore the introduction of the electric telegraph almost every country in Europe maintained lines of semaphores between its capital and the principal ports upon its seaboard. Per- haps the most important and costly undertaking of this kind was the great line constructed by Nicholas I. of Russia, from the Austrian frontier through Warsaw to St. Peters- burg, which had 220 stations. The semaphores were erected TELEGRAPH upon the summits of substantial and lofty towers, and the whole work cost several millions of dollars. Another system of ocular telegraphy consists of alter- nately exposing and cutting off a continuous beam of light directed from the sending to the receiving stations, the characters being formed on the same principle as those of the conventional telegraphic alphabet, shortly to be de- scribed, which consists in breaking a continuous line into sections of varying length. In 1861 Moses G. Farmer made a series of successful experiments with this method between Hull and Nantasket on the coast of Massachusetts, and it also appears to have been employed about the same time by the officers of the U. S. Coast Survey on Lake Superior, where, by means of equatorially mounted mirrors, tele- graphic messages were exchanged between stations 90 miles apart with ease and rapidity. During the campaign of Gen. Miles against the Apaches in New Mexico and Arizona a system of thirteen stations was established, over which, dur- ing a period of four months, more than 1,800 messages, con- taining some 35,000 words, were sent. The savages were sur- prised and confounded by the way in which intelligence of their hostile movements became known hundreds of miles away. The French have established heliographic commu- nication between the islands of Mauritius and Reunion in the Indian Ocean, the stations, which are on mountain- peaks, being no less than 133 miles apart. Even this has been surpassed by the U. S. Signal-corps, which has ex- changed messages between Mt. Uncompahgre, Col., and Mt. Ellen, Utah. a distance of 183 miles. In 1862 this system was taken up by Capt. Colomb and Maj. Bolton and intro- duced into the British navy, electric and calcium lights being employed at night and a collapsing drum closing upon its central hoop by day. During the siege of Paris messages were often sent 20 or 30 miles from one elevated point to another by the use of a calcium light concentrated and directed by lenses. More recently it has been pro- posed to employ a similar alphabet of short and long sounds for signaling between vessels at sea. Telegraphing by Eleezfm'evity.——As soon as it became known that electricity could be conducted by wires to a distance, it began to be regarded as a possible means of conveying intelligence. The earliest suggestion of this kind seems to have been contained in a letter to The Scots Magazdoze dated Feb. 1, 1753, the authorship of which has never been satis- factorily determined. The writer proposed to employ in- sulated wires equal in number to the letters of the alphabet, the signals being given by means of frictional electricity. In 1774 Lesage, of Geneva, constructed the first electric tel- egraph, which was practically a realization of the above idea. It had twenty-four wires, each connected with a pith- ball electroscope, the signals being given by frictional elec- tricity. From this time forward many ingenious attempts were made to employ frictional electricity for telegraphic purposes, most of which it is unnecessary to notice in detail. In 1816 Francis Ronalds constructed a telegraph, making use of frictional electricity and a single wire, and exhibited signals by the divergence of pith-balls combined with syn- chronously revolving dials. He fully appreciated the value of his idea, and strove to bring it before the British Gov- ernment, but was informed that “telegraphs of any kind are now wholly unnecessary, and no other than the one now in use will be adopted.” In 1828 Harrison Gray Dyar, of New York, invented a telegraph, the principle of which con- sisted in sending discharges of frictional electricity through a wire, which were to be recorded upon a sheet of moistened litmus-paper moving at a uniform rate. The relative inter- vals between the discharges were to indicate the letters of the alphabet. There is evidence that this invention was ex- perimentally tried on Long Island the same year i11 which it was invented, but little is definitely known respecting the results. In 1820 Ampere suggested that the deflection of a needle by the galvanic current might be used for telegraphic purposes. In 1830 Baron Schilling constructed a telegraph having five vertical needles, and in 1835 he exhibited his invention, simplified to a single needle, at Bonn. This was shown by Moncke at Heidelberg in 1836 to \V. Fothergill Cooke, who immediately set to work to devise and construct a telegraph for practical use, consisting of a pair of three- needle instruments, with keys and reciprocal system. He also invented the electro-mechanical alarm and the detector for discovering the position of faults in the lines. In Feb., 1837, he became associated with Wheatstone, and took out a patent with him the same year. In 1839 the first actual -electric telegraph was constructed, extending from Padding- 39 ton to Drayton, in England, a distance of 13 miles. It had six wires and five needles. The wires were wound with hemp and laid in a pipe on the surface of the ground. In 1839 Dr. W. O’Shaughnessy at Calcutta, India, built the first over- ground line of iron wire on bamboo poles. It was 21 miles long, and worked by Cooke’s sign al-needle instrument. Mean- while in the U. S. Joseph Henry’s experiments in electro- magnetism had demonstrated the feasibility of transmit- ting signals by a current of electricity through insulated wire. Samuel F. B. Morse, of New York, during a voyage home from France in 1832, conceived the idea of making signs at a distance by means of a pencil moved by an electro-mag- net and a single conducting circuit, the paper being moved under the pencil by clockwork. He constructed a working model of his invention in 1836, and exhibited it to several persons the same year, but not publicly until 1837. Several years were devoted by Morse and his associate Alfred Vail to improving the invention and endeavoring to interest the public in the project. It was not until 1844 that the first public line was completed between Washington and Balti- more (40 miles), and the first message transmitted May 27 of that year. W'ithin a few years, however. lines were ex- tended to the principal cities of the U. S. The Morse tele- graph was introduced into Germany in 1847, whence it has spread all over the Eastern hemisphere, and may now be said to be the universal telegraph of the world. Gauss and Weber, of Gbttingen, Germany, constructed a telegraph in 1833 consisting of a magnetic needle acted upon by mag- neto-electric currents. Their invention was taken up by Steinheil in 1836-37, and practically worked out to a high degree of perfection. The discovery that the earth may be employed as part of a telegraphic circuit was made by him. Steinheil’s telegraph never went into extensive use, owing to the introduction of the Morse system in Germany. The earliest experiment on record in submarine telegra- phy was made by Dr. W. O’Shaughnessy at Calcutta in 1839. He laid a copper wire, insulated with a coating of cotton thread saturated with pitch and tar, across the river Hugli, and transmitted signals through it. In 1842 Morse made experiments with a cable between Castle Garden and Gov- ernor’s island in New York, and obtained results that dem- onstrated the practicability of submarine telegraphy. In 1847 J. J. Craven, of Newark, N. J ., insulated an iron wire with gutta-percha and placed it in the circuit of the New York and Washington telegraph line, submerging it in the waters of a small creek. The success of this experiment led to the laying of a gutta-percha cable between New York and Jersey City in 1848. In 1850 an experimental line was laid across the English Channel, followed in 1851 by a perma- nent cable, which is still in use. The success of this under- taking at once revived the suggestion of laying a cable across the Atlantic Ocean from Ireland to Newfoundland. In 1854 the attention of Cyrus W. Field, of New York, was directed to the subject, and mainly through his efforts a company was formed, principally of British capitalists, to undertake the enterprise. The first attempt was made in Aug., 1857, but it was unsuccessful, the cable parting 300 miles from shore. The following year the attempt was re- newed, and the enterprise successfully completed Aug. 5, 1858. The electrical condition of the cable was faulty from the first, but signals and communications were exchanged with more or less facility until Sept. 1, when the cable failed altogether. During this time 366 messages, contain- ing 3,942 words, were interchanged between Europe and America. Several attempts to raise and repair the cable were made without success, and this disastrous result dis- couraged further enterprise in the same direction for a num- ber of years. The experience gained, however, was of the highest value, and the success of the Malta and Alexandria (1861), Persian Gulf (1864), and other deep-sea cables led to a renewal of the attempt to cross the Atlantic in 1865, which again resulted in the breaking of the cable after 1,186 miles had been paid out. The following year, however, a new cable was successfully submerged. being landed at New- foundland in perfect working order July 27, 1866, and the great problem was thus at last definitely solved. In Sep- tember following the lost cable of 1865 was picked up and completed. From that date such rapid progress has been made in the extension of telegraphic cables that no isolated system of telegraphs is to be found throughout the world. All electric telegraphs may be said to consist of three parts: first, an apparatus for generating or producing the electric current; second, a conductor for conveying the 40 electricity from one point to another as required; and, third, apparatus for transmitting and receiving the signals. I. Souacns or ELEc'rR1crrY.—The electricity used in teleg- raphy may be derived either from the voltaic battery, the magneto-electric machine, or the thermo-electric battery. Of these, the voltaic battery has been the most commonly used, though latterly much has been done in developing the capacity of the dynamo—electric machine, which in most large stations has successfully replaced the voltaic system. The employment of the thermo-battery is very infrequent. A. Voltaic Batz‘em'es.—Of these, the sulphate of copper battery, invented by Daniell in 1836. is the most generally employed. It is constructed in various forms, the most use- ful of which are (1) the gravity battery, invented by Fuller in 1853, which is almost exclusively used in the U. S., and (2) the trough battery, another form of the same, used in Eng- land. (3) The manganese battery, invented by Leclanché in 1867, is extensively used in France and England ; (4) the nitric-acid battery of Grove; and (5) the chromic--acid bat— tery, such as that of Bunsen is now but little used. (6) Stor- age batteries or accumulators are employed in many of the larger European stations and in some few instances in the U. S. B. liagaeto-electflc ll[achz'nes.—The earliest form of this apparatus was Pixii’s, which is employed in W heatstone’s dial telegraph. Siemens’s (1855), a much more eificient ap- paratus, is largely used in dial and other special telegraphs. In 1879 S. D. Field successfully applied the Siemens dynamo machine in the Western Union telegraph office in New York, with highly economical results, ten small dynamos replacing 35,000 cells of battery. Since that date the dynamo machine has been adopted in most of the larger stations. C. The/‘mo-clec1f'm'c Bcufzfem'es.—No permanently successful installation of this kind was made until the year 1895, when H. B. Cox’s apparatus was introduced on the lines of the Commercial Cable Company in New York. The consump- tion of gas in the ordinary operations of the lines is 7 cubic feet an hour. C‘ircm‘ts.-—In applying electricity from any source to the production of telegraphic signals, it is generally done in one of three ways : (1) by completing the circuit of a battery or other generator, and giving signals by causing currents of determinate polarity to traverse a line normally free from electricity; or (2) by connecting the battery and line, so that a constant current will traverse the latter, the signal being given by interrupting this current; or (3) by arranging the battery and line as in the last case, and giving signals by re- versing the polarity of the current instead of interrupting it. II. TELEGRAPHIC Counucrons.—Conductors are usually carried through the air, but when required may be placed under ground or under water. In either case they must be well insulated with non-conducting materials. A. Over-ground.—-Galvanized iron wire weighing from 320 to 740 lb. per mile and hard-drawn copper wire weigh- ing from 166 to 209 lb. per mile are used in the U. S. The largest wire is used for the longest lines, and equivalent sizes are used in most of the European countries. The wires are supported on wooden poles placed along railways or highways from 8 to 10 rods apart. From 1 to 50 wires may be conveniently placed on one line of'poles, the lowest being 20 feet from the ground. Iron poles are seldom used except in desert and tropical countries. The wires are at- tached to the poles by insulators of a bell or inverted cup shape, which are supported by brackets or cross-arms of wood or iron. In the U. S. insulators are usually of glass, in Europe and Asia of brown earthenware or white porce- lain. In large cities the wires are frequently carried on standards fixed upon tall buildings. B. Under-groumZ.—-Wires are now laid under ground in the principal cities of Europe and also in New York and other large cities of the U. S. In London No.13 copper wires, coated with gutta-percha to a diameter of -1%,-ths of an inch, are used. The required number of these are laid in a cable served with tarred tape. The cables are made in lengths of 400 yards, and drawn into iron pipes laid 2 or 3 feet below the surface of the ground. Boxes with trap-covers are placed every 400 yards for convenience in testing wires and drawing them in and out. The same system has been adopted in other cities‘of Great Britain, and also in New York. In Paris the cables are placed in the sewers. The plan of inclosing wires wrapped with fibrous material loosely within a metal tube filled with paraffin oil under pressure (Brooks’s system) is much less expensive, and has been used to some extent. Paper insulation has also proved successful. TELEGRAPH C. Submam'ne.—The early submarine lines were simply ordinary iron wires coated with gutta-percha to a diameter of half an inch. In the cable laid between Dover and Calais in 1851 four gutta-percha coated wires were wrapped with hemp and inelosed in a wire rope for protection. This gen- eral plan has been followed in all cables since constructed. The Atlantic cables are composed of a copper strand of seven wires, forming the conductor, surrounded by several distinct layers of gutta-percha and covered by a serving of jute; outside of this is a protecting armor of ten wires of homogeneous iron, each enveloped in fine strands of Manilla hemp. In shallow waters, where cables are exposed to in- jury from anchors, the armor is often made enormously thick and heavy, sometimes weighing as much as 20 tons a mile. The modern type of deep-sea cable weighs about 2 tons for each mile. III. TELEGRAPHIC APPARATUS.—Th6 apparatus used in telegraphy may be conveniently divided into recording and non-recording. Of each of these there are several varieties, which will be described in order. A. Recording T eZegmphs.—These are of two classes, one recordmg arbitrary signs, and the other ordinary printed letters. (1) ]lIaw7oe'ng TeZegraphs.—(a) M orse’s is by far the best known and the most extensively used of this class. Its characteristic feature is the rege'stcr, which is constructed in many forms, but upon the general principle shown in the dia- gram. A horizontal lever is mounted upon a fulcrum, a, and armed at one end with a steel point, 0, projecting upward and nearly touching a ribbon of paper, f, which is carried along at a uniform rate by a grooved roller just above it, the roller _, — >\.\.\>.\.\.\.\.\\\.\\>\\.\.\.\.>\.\.sxsxxsaarm§\§§g,;\;§§s\\=sws§ssss§ss\s\\\s\\§\\§1\\\w\\s\. . U .‘ ~ " ~ ~ , . _ ~.: _.\:\“~_.. W. _ :~~:m ;~ ~ ~»\: ~ R“ The telegraphic register. being impelled by a system of clockwork, e. The opposite end of the lever carries a soft iron armature, qt, suspended just above the poles of an electro-magnet, t. The end of the wire helix surrounding this magnet terminates in binding- screws, g g, to which the conducting wires are attached. A current of electricity traversing the helix of the electro- magnet causes it to become powerfully magnetic, attracting the armature, n, to its poles, and thus pressing the steel point, 0, against the paper ribbon moving above it upon the grooved roller. A continuous line will in this manner be embossed upon the paper as long as the armature remains attached to the poles of the magnet. When the current is interrupted, the magnetism disappears, and the spring, d, draws the marking-point away from the paper. Thus the length of the line embossed upon the paper corresponds to the greater or less length of time that the electric current is allowed to traverse the helix of the electro-magnet, t. This is governed by the transmitting instrument termed the key, which is simply a small horizontal lever with a finger-knob at one end and a spring beneath. The wire leading from the line is connected to this lever, and when the latter is depressed by the finger of the operator, it comes in contact with a metallic stud, known as the anvil, to which the bat- tery wire is attached; thus the circuit is completed and the current permitted to flow into the line. When the latter is but a few miles long, the battery and key are connected di- rectly by a wire with the electro-magnet of the register: but when the distance is greater, an instrument called the relay is employed. This consists of an electro-magnet with a lever mounted like that of a register, except that the mark- ing-point is replaced by a contact-point, which opens and closes the circuit of a local battery, and this in turn operates the register. A considerable number of relays with their registers may be placed at as many different points upon the same line, and all operated simultaneously by a key at any point; and, in fact, this is the arrangement usually adopted in the U. S. The greatest length of line ordinarily worked in one circuit is about 500 miles, and the number of TELEGRAPH relays at different points varies from 2 to 30, and even 40.. The line or main batteries are usually placed at the two ends of the route, though each station has of course its local battery of one or two cells. The alphabetical code, believed to have been devised by Vail, consists of arbitrary charac- ters composed of combinations of short lines termed dots and longer ones termed dashes, separated by varying spaces. This alphabet, it will be seen, is capable of being written with facility by means of the key and register above de- scribed. The following is the alphabetical code used in the U. S., Canada, Mexico, and Central America: THE AMERICAN TELEGRAPHIC ALPHABET. Au” ‘1T<___—_" <%"‘' B _________ ________ __ C——- — L——— U——-—-— D-—--—— It -—-—- V-———--— E-— N—- W-———— F——-—— 0- — X—-————- G——-———— lé—————— 5-— —-— H_______ _______ ___.__ I —-— R— —-— &—————— 1———— 4--—-—-—— 8——-—————-— 2—————— 5-—--—-— 9—-—-——-——- 3——————- 6 — — — — —-— 0———-——- /, 7____ Period (.)--_-__-__- Comma (,)_____.____ Interrogation (?) -- _- __ __ __ Exclamation (l) _- ___- __ _ In all other parts of the world the 2'/nzfe1’natz'0nctZ telegraph alphabet is used, as follows: A-— J ——————— S —-—- B——-——— K—--—-— T __ C ——————— L——-_- U_____ D ———— M-—-— V_____ E—- N-—-— w______ F-—-—— O-—--—_ X_______ G—--—-— P—-—-———- Y______ H—-————— Q————-— z ______ I —-— R-—-— 1—-—————--— 6——---__ 2—-——————-—- 7-_____.____ 3————-———— 8——-——---_ 4—-————— 9————--_- 5—————— 0--—---—-___ Period (.) — — — - —- Comma (,)-____________ Interrogation (?) -- - -_- _ _ _ Exclamation (I) —-— —-— - _ __ __ The international alphabet is preferable, as it contains no spaced letters; these sometimes give rise to errors in read- ing communications. In Europe and Asia an improved register called the ink-writer is much used. A sharp-edged wheel is kept constantly revolving in a dish of colored fluid. The slightest pressure of this against the paper suflices to make a distinct mark, and thus the relay may be in most cases dispensed with, as a very feeble current is sutficient to make a perfect record. Electro-magnets intended for use in the main circuit, whether for relays or ink-writers, usually have helices composed of several thousand convo- lutions of very fine insulated wire, but for local circuits a small number of convolutions of coarse wire is suificient. In order to transmit direct between points more than 500 or 600 miles apart, two or more circuits are coupled together by means of an automatic repeater, which was first accom- plished by C. S. Bulkley in 1848. By this means each cir- cuit operates the succeeding one upon the principle of the relay. In this way direct communication has been had between points several thousand miles apart. (Z2) Bain’s electro-chemical telegraph was invented in 1846, and extensively used in the U. S., Great Britain, and Germany from 1849 to 1860, but is now superseded by Morse’s. The system of signs and the transmitting key are similar to those of Morse. The record is made by passing the current from the line over an iron style and thence di- rectly through a moving strip or disk of paper. The paper is saturated with a mixture of 10 parts of saturated solu- tion of potassium ferrocyanide, 2 parts each of nitric and hydrochloric acid, and 1 part of chlorinated lime. The elec- tric current causes the solution to unite chemically with the iron of the style, forming Prussian blue. A very weak cur- rent suffices to give a distinct mark. No electro-magnet is required in this system except to operate an alarm. (2) P2'/mtmg Telegmphs.-—Tl1e earliest conception of a telegraph which should record messages in printed Roman letters is due to Alfred Vail, of New Jersey (1837). The first model of such an instrument was made by Wheatstone (1841). (a) House’s TeZegmph.—Tl1is was the earliest prac- 41 tical printing instrument. It was first invented in 1844, introduced in 1847, and largely used in the U. S. until about 1860. It is simple in principle, though complicated in con- struction. The twenty-six letters of the alphabet, a period. and a blank are engraved on the edge of a type-wheel, upon the shaft of which is a scape-wheel of fourteen teeth. The type-wheel revolves by manual power, but is held in check by a double-acting anchor escapement. The latter vibrates by the alternate action of an axial electro-magnet and a re- tracting spring. When at rest, the blank space on the type- wheel is in front, the circuit being complete. If it is inter- rupted the scape-wheel advances half a tooth, presenting the letter A, and when restored it again advances, present- ing B. If the circuit is opened fourteen times and closed fourteen times alternately, the type-wheel will make a com- plete revolution. It is obvious that any particular letter may be presented by breaking and closing the circuit the proper number of times. This is effected in practice by a metallic contact-wheel at the transmitting station. This wheel has fourteen teeth and fourteen equal spaces ; its axis is connected to the line. A flat spring connected with the battery touches each tooth as it revolves and transmits the electric pulsations. The revolution of this contact-wheel is stopped at the proper place for each letter by a keyboard having twenty-eight keys. A cylinder fixed upon the axis of the contact-wheel carries twenty-eight pins arranged in a spiral, each pin turning with the cylinder underneath its own key. Each key is provided with a stop, which falls into the path of the pin and arrests the cylinder when the key is depressed. Thus when the cylinder is turned from one letter to another, just so many contacts and interruptions are given as will advance the type-wheel the same distance. The print- ing is effected at the receiving station by the action of an eccentric which is automatically released when the wheel pauses at any letter. It makes a single revolution, forcing the paper against the letter presented by the type-wheel. and then advances the paper, which is in the form of a con- tinuous ribbon, so as to leave a clear space for the impres- sion of the succeeding letter. Thus it will be seen that the instrument is operated wholly by manual power, the only ofiice of the electric current being to secure a corresponding movement between the type-wheel of the receiving and the contact-wheel of the transmitting instrument. The appara- tus requires a powerful electric current, and it seldom oper- ates satisfactorily on a line more than 250 miles in length. (Z2) Hug7zes’s TeZegraph.—-This was invented by D. E. Hughes in 1855, and has been extensively used in Europe since 1860. The essential principle of the apparatus is the synchronous movement of two constantly revolving shafts at two stations. This is effected by means of a governor consisting of a re- coil escapement and a vibrating bar. The shaft at the transmitting station carries a revolving contact-maker, and the corresponding one at the receiving station a type-wheel similar to that of House. The contact-maker travels over a circle of twenty-eight pins which are connected with the same number of piano-keys. Each pin represents a letter, and is raised by the depression of the corresponding key when a letter is to be transmitted. The contact-maker, which travels round the circle of pins with a motion uni- form with that of the type-wheel at the receiving station, comes in contact with the raised pin at the same instant that the corresponding type upon the type-wheel is passing the platen and closes the circuit. An electro-magnet at the receiving station releases a cam which throws the platen carrying the paper against the type as it is passing, thus printing the letter. Only one pulsation is thus required for the printing of each letter, and by the use of a peculiar form of electro-magnet a very weak current suffices to do the work. (0) The CO7)tbl")Z»(Zi'Z:0IZ' e‘nsz“r2un.e’22.z.‘ is a modification of Hughes‘s. It retains the principle of synchronous mech- anism at the sending and receiving stations, but it differs much in details. It has an electro-magnetic governor in- stead of a vibrating spring, and is more simple and durable in its construction than the Hughes apparatus. It was in- vented in 1859 by G. M. Phelps. and was formerly used on many of the principal lines in the eastern part of the U. 8. (cl) Phe-Zps’s EZecz‘r0-motor fllelegiwiulz.-—Tliis apparatus was invented in 1869, and in 1875 was put in use by the )Vestern Union Telegraph Company between Boston and VVashing- ton. The mechanism is driven by a small electric motor connected with a special battery. This is more convenient and economical than the manual power required by the House machine or the heavy weight and clockwork of the Hughes apparatus. The synchronous movements of the 42 transmitting mechanism at one station and the type-wheel at the other are maintained by means of a centrifugal gov- ernor attached to the motor, which instantly reduces the strength of the local current by which the latter is propelled whenever the speed of revolution tends to exceed the pre- scribed limit. The synchronous movement of the Hughes apparatus is retained, except that both the type-wheel and the revolving contact--maker are simultaneously arrested for a given integral portion of a revolution during the trans- mission and printing of each letter. An improved form of the automatic unison for bringing the two instruments into correspondence whenever transmission is suspended for a few moments (invented by Farmer, 1858) has also been ap- plied to this instrument. (e) Telegrap/is for Financial and Commercial Reporting.-The method of reporting the fluc- tuations of the prices of stocks, gold, merchandise, etc., by means of automatic-printing telegraph mstruments placed in the oflices of merchants, brokers, and other interested persons, and of which several hundred are often simultane- ously operated by a single person located in the central ex- change, originated in New York in 1867, and has since ex- tended to the principal cities of the U. S. and of Europe. The instruments which have been principally used are those of Ca-lahan, Pope, Edison, Phelps, Van Hoevenbergh, and Smith, though many others have aided in the perfection of the apparatus. The general principle is the step-by-step movement of the House apparatus, but two type-wheels are made use of—one for letters and the other for numerals and fraetions—which print in parallel lines on the same strip of paper. By an ingenious device invented by Dujardin in 1867 the platen is automatically shifted from one type-wheel to the other by the operator at the central station according as he wishes to print letters or numerals. These instru- ments also have an automatic unison invented by Foote (1860). The printing is in most cases effected by a special electro-magnet. (f) Printing Telegraphsfor Private Use. —These are constructed upon a plan similar to the instru- ment for commercial reporting, and thousands of them were used by manufacturers, merchants, and others from 1870 to 1878, after which they were practically superseded by the speaking telephone. The most successful were those of Gray, Chester, and Anders. Any intelligent person after a few minutes’ instruction can print a communication at any distance, even in the absence of an attendant, by de- pressing the proper keys upon a lettered keyboard. The speed of transmission is from 10 to 30 words per minute, depending upon the instrument used and the skill of the operator. B. .N0n-recording Telegraphs.—These may be divided into two classes—visual and acoustic. They give only eva- nescent signals, and are sometimes termed semaphores. (1) Visual Telegraphs.—(a) Coolse’s Needle Instrument-— This is simply an upright galvanometer needle surrounded by a coil of fine insulated wire, and is operated from the sending station by two keys, one of which sends a positive current, deflecting the needle to the right, and the other a negative current, deflecting it to the left. The alphabet- ical code is the same as the Morse, a deflection to the left signifying a dot, and to the right a dash. Owing to its simplicity and convenience this apparatus was almost uni- versally used in Great Britain from 1840 until within a few years, since which time it has been superseded on all the important lines by the Morse system. It still retains its supremacy for railway use. (b) The dial instrument, invented by Wheatstone in 1840, is arranged on the same plan as a type-printer, but is much more simple, as an in- dex-hand and dial carrying the alphabet replaces the some- what complex type-wheel and printing apparatus. These are largely used for private and police telegraphs, and in Europe for railway purposes, as they are easily operated by unskilled persons. The best known are those of Wheat- stone, Siemens, Anders, Bréguet, and Chester. The three first mentioned are operated by magneto-generators and re- quire no battery. (c) The visual indicator, invented by C. H. Pond (1880), is a species of dial telegraph employed in connection with the fire-alarm system (see below), to exhibit the number of a signal-box simultaneously when an alarm is given. (2) Acoustic Telegraphs.—-Of these, the best known and most important is (a) the sounder, which is simply a Morse register stripped of all its parts except the electro- magnet, writing lever, and retracting spring. The operator interprets the sounds made by the motion of the lever up and down between its stops. This method was taken up by TELEGRAPH operators in the U. S. about 1848-, and the sounder has now almost entirely superseded the recording apparatus in the U. S. and Canada, as experience proves that the speed of transmission is practically doubled, while, somewhat para- doxically, the proportion of errors is largely diminished. The same method is employed in India, and to an increas- ing extent in Great Britain and other parts of Europe. The operator reads from the instrument, and simultaneously copies the message. For military purposes the sounder, together with a manipulating key, is often reduced in size, so as to be contained in a pocket-case not larger than a tobacco-box and weighing but a few ounces, and yet form- ing a completely equipped Morse telegraph station, which may be connected with a line at any required point. (b) The fire-alarm telegraph. invented by W. F. Channing and M. G. Farmer, of Boston (1851), is a most ingenious and useful ap- plication of the telegraph, in use in the principal cities and towns in the U. S., and other countries. A series of locked signal-boxes are placed at convenient intervals throughout a city or town; each of these contains mechanism which, when wound up by simply pulling a hook, will in- stantly transmit through the connecting telegraph wires a determinate numerical signal representing that individual box and no other. The signal thus transmitted is instantly sounded, by means of mechanism controlled by electro- magnets iii the circuit, upon the church and tower bells and upon large gongs placed in all the fire-engine houses. So effective is this system in practice that frequently in less than thirty seconds after the discovery of a fire a number of engines will be on their way to the spot. This inven- tion has been the means of saving millions of dollars’ worth of property and thousands of lives since its introduction. By a subsequent invention of W. B. Watkins (1871) the fire itself is made to transmit a numerical alarm-signal automatically. Thermostats are placed in the rooms of a building, which when heated above the normal temperature close a circuit and trip the clockwork of an automatic trans- mitter. The rest of the apparatus resembles Channing and Farmer’s. (c) The district telegraph (1870) is another ap- plication of the above system. Signal-boxes are placed in the houses of persons desiring them, and connected tele- graphically with a central station. By simply turning a crank at any hour of the day or night a messenger or po- liceman may be instantly summoned or a fire-alarm trans- mitted. Many thousands of these signal-boxes are in use in New York and other important cities of the U. S. (d) An application of the same principle is found in the mu- nicipal or police telegraph, one arrangement of which, for public use, employs a number of street stations, from any of which police assistance may be summoned by a citizen at a moment’s notice. Another adaptation is an automatic attachment to safes, vaults, and other structures having valu- able contents, so that in case the fastenings are tampered with by unauthorized persons a definite alarm is silently sent to a central station, at which officers are always on the alert. IV. SPECIAL Mnrnons or TELEGRAPI-1Y.—A. The Auto- matic Process.—At an early period in the history of teleg- raphy attempts were made to devise methods of transmis- sion, by which means the capacity of each individual wire might be largely increased, and the evils which necessarily arise from a multiplication of wires in a great measure avoided. In 1846 Alexander Bain, of Scotland, patented an automatic telegraph, in which the messages, instead of being transmitted by a key or maniplulator, were first pre- pared by punching out the telegrap ic characters in a rib- bon of paper, the dots and dashes being represented by per- forations of different lengths. In order to transmit the prepared message the strip was caused to pass rapidly over a metallic roller driven by clockwork or otherwise, and a light spring or brush of metal, resting upon the paper over the roller, made contact with the latter through each of the perforations as they successively passed under it, and thus completed the electric circuit between the battery and the line. By this means several operators could be employed simultaneously in preparing messages, which could be run through the machine and recorded on chemical paper at the receiving station at a high rate of speed. The system was tried in Great Britain and the U. S. in 1849 and 1850, but no practical advantage over hand-labor resulted, per- haps largely owing to the fact that no convenient means of perforating the aper had been devised. In 1856 Dr. W. Siemens, of Ber in, invented a perforating-machine with three keys, by which the time required to prepare a dis- TELEGRAPH patch was much lessened. He applied this method in con- unction with Morse’s receiving apparatus on many Russian lines in 1853-55, but the automatic feature was soon aban- doned. In 1856 J. P. Humaston, of Connecticut, invented a keyboard perforator which produced a complete charac- ter by the touch of a single key. The same year Siemens introduced the polarized relay, operated by alternate posi- tive and negative currents. In 1858 Wheatstone, in Eng- land, modified Siemens’s apparatus, and in its subsequently improved form it is largely used on the Government lines in Great Britain, especially for sending large quantities of press news in duplicate. The same system is used on a number of the more important lines in the U. S., and is probably destined to be still more extensively employed. B. The Aatographtc .Process.—In 1848 F. C. Bakewell, of London, patented a modification of Bain’s automatic process by which a facsimile of the transmitted dispatch is produced at the receiving station. The original is written on tin-foil with insulating ink, and wrapped round a me- tallic cylinder rotated by clockwork at a uniform rate. A style rests upon the cylinder as it turns, and also receives a slight lateral motion by a screw as the cylinder revolves ; it thus describes a spiral path, passing successively over the whole surface of the tin-foil on the cylinder. The battery- current passes through the style to the tin-foil, thence to the cylinder and over the line, but is necessarily interrupted when passing over the insulating lines of the writing. The cylinder at the receiving station is covered with Bain’s chemical paper, and revolves synchronously with that of the transmitter. The iron style traces a continuous blue line on the paper, except when the current is interruptedby the style passing over the lines of writing upon the tin-foil. The chemical paper therefore appears covered with fine parallel blue lines, forming a ground-tint upon which a fac- simile of the writing appears in white. This apparatus, though practically unsuccessful on account of the difficulty in maintaining sutficiently accurate synchronism. illustrates the principle of all its successors. Abbé Caselli, of Florence, in 1856 greatly improved this process by employing a pendu- lum to control the synchronous movements of the two cor- responding instruments, and by so arranging his electrical connections that the facsimile appeared in blue on a white ground. In 1865 this process was put in actual service on some of the French and Russian telegraphs, and has given very good results. The more recent inventions of Lenoir and Meyer in France record in ink by means of electro- magnets. W. E. Sawyer in 1874 invented several improve- ments in the autographic process, one of which consists in transferring the original message, written upon ordinary paper. to a metal plate for transmission. (See also TELAU- TOGRAPH.) As the autographic process dispenses entirely with specially skilled labor, it is not unlikely that it may yet prove to be of considerable economic value. C. The iflalttple P/rooess.—The idea of increasing the capacity of a line by transmitting two or more communica- tions simultaneously appears to have been first suggested by Farmer, who in 1852 made a successful experiment on one of the municipal lines in Boston. He employed two rapidly revolving synchronous commutators, one at each end of the line, which served to bring the latter successively and simultaneously into connection with two or more short branches at each terminus, in each of which ordinarv tele- graphic instruments were inserted. Thus the current in the corresponding branches at each terminus, though ap- parently continuous, actually consisted of rapidly recurring pulsations. From the difficulty of maintaining synchro- nism, and other causes, nothing practical resulted from the experiment. In 1873 Meyer, of France, exhibited at Vienna an apparatus on this principle capable of transmitting four simultaneous communications. It has been employed in actual service between Lyons and Paris, and is said to have a capacity of 110 messages per hour. In 1853 Dr. \V. Gintl, of Austria, invented a method of simultaneous transmission in opposite directions by connecting an auxiliary local cir- cuit with the Morse key, which passed through a separate but opposing helix upon the instrument at the home station, and thus neutralized the effect of the current transmitted over the line upon the home instrument, while at the same time it was left free to respond to the increased current in the line due to the depression of the distant key. Practi- cally it was found impossible to adjust the local current so as to perfectly compensate that of the main line. The fol- lowing year Carl Frischen, of Hanover, substituted a branch of the main current for the local current of Gintl, and the 0 43 method thus improved was used to a limited extent in Austria and Holland. In 1855 Stark, of Austria, proposed a method of simultaneous transmission in the same direc- tion, and suggested that it might be combined with Frischen’s plan, thus enabling four simultaneous dispatches to be sent over one wire. In 1858-59 Farmer made successful experi- ments with a modification of Frischen’s method on several American lines. J. B. Stearns, of Massachusetts, revived Frischen’s method in 1868, and in 1872 enormously im- proved it by adding a condenser to compensate the effects of induction in long lines. He introduced the improved method known as the “duplex” into general use, first in the U. S. and afterward in Europe. In 1874 Thomas A. Edison invented a new method of simultaneous transmis- sion in the same direction, which has been combined with Stearns’s method, forming a “quadruplex.” Subsequent improvements by G. Smith and others have vastly increased - the efiectiveness of this method. It is in extensive use, and is regarded as an improvement of the highest value. D. Sabmartne or Cable TeZegraphy.——Owing to the em- barrassment arising from electrostatic induction in long submarine cables, special arrangements have been devised by Lord Kelvin (better known as Sir William Thomson), C. F. Varley, and others without which it would scarcely be possible to transmit through them at a sufficient rate of speed to render them commercially valuable. The method employed on the Atlantic cables is a modification of Cooke’s single-needle method, and is arranged as follows: Two keys, which when depressed transmit respectively positive and negative currents, are employed at the sending station in connection with a battery of a few elements only. The cur- rent of the battery does not pass directly into the cable, but into a condenser of considerable capacity composed of tin- foil plates interleaved with paraflined paper, the opposite side of which is attached to the cable, and the condenser trans- mits a wave of electricity through the cable. As there is no actual circuit from one terminus to the other, this arrange- ment serves to cut off the earth-currents, which would other- wise be troublesome. The receiving instrument employed is Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer, the message being read by the right and left deflections of a spot of light upon a screen, which moves to and fro as in the ordinary needle telegraph. The recording or siphon galvanometer of the same inventor writes down the deflections by means of ink spurted from a fine glass siphon-tube attached to a coil sus- pended between powerful fixed magnets, and which swings to the right or eft as the positive or negative pulsations pass through it. The record ap ears upon a ribbon of paper in the form of a straight line W ien no signal is passing, but with waves to the right or left when pulsations pass through the coil. Important improvements in this apparatus have been introduced by Charles Cuttriss. Mr. Stearns success- fully applied his system of duplex telegraphy to the Valentia- Newfoundland cables in 1877-78, thereby doubling their carrying capacity. Dr. Muirhead about the same time efiected the same result upon the Marseilles-Alexandria cable by a different system. All the important cables are now worked in this manner. E. Pneumatic TeZegraph.—This system has been employed for many years in Europe, and is extensively used in the U. S. Brass tubes 2% inches in diameter are laid in trenches under the streets. The messages are rolled up and placed in a cylindrical carrier of leather or felt about 8 inches i11 length, closed at the front, and provided with a flange loose- ly fitting the inside of the tube. while the rear end is left open. The carriers are driven in one direction by com- pressed air and in the other by an exhaust, both operated by a powerful air-pump at the central station. Packages of ten or twelve messages are sent a distance of half a mile in a few seconds. This method is destined to be increas- ingly used in the larger cities, in connection with the tele- graphic system. as it is more rapid. convenient, and economi- cal for short distances than the electric telegraph. See PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION. It is almost impossible to obtain trustworthy statistics of the extent of telegraphic communication in the various countries of the world. The best authorities give the total length of line in all countries at the beginning of 1894 as 900,000 miles, of which 158,000 is submarine. The total mileage of wire is 2,632,000. Nearly all the submarine lines have been established by British companies. The most extensive telegraphic system in the world is that of the Western Union Company of the U. S. In 1894 it had 190,303 miles of telegraph lines, 790,792 miles of 44 TELEGRAPH COMPANIES wire, 21,166 offices, and transmitted 58,632,237 messages. The average toll of a message was 305 cents. _ The number of messages transmitted in 1893 in some of the principal countries of the world was as follows: Great Britain . . . . . . . . . .. 69,907,848 Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,522,302 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33,172,116 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,585,606 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12,068,084 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,681,512 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,414,864 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,429,771 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,817,718 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,740,180 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47,017,117 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,101,850 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,838,323 L1rEaA'rUEE.—American: The American Elcctro-mag- netic Telegraph, Alfred Vail (Philadelphia, 1845); The Elec- tro-magnetic Telegraph, L. Turnbull (Philadelphia, 1853); The Telegraph ltfanaal, T. P. Shaffner (New York, 1859); History, Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph, B. Prescott (Boston, 1865); 1lIodern Practice of the Electric Telegraph, F. L. Pope (15th ed. New York, 1893); Hand- book of Electrical Diagrams and Uonnectwns, Davis and Rae (New York, 1876); Electricity and the Electric Tele- graph, G. B. Prescott (New York, 1892); Commercial and Railway Telegraphy, J. B. Abernethy (Cleveland, 1893); Handboole of the Electro-magnetic Telegraph, A. E. Loring (New York, 1878); Electricity, Iifagnetism, and Telegraphy, T. D. Lockwood (New York, 1883); The Telegraph in Amer- ica, J. D. Reid (New York, 1878); The Practical Telegrapher, J. A. Swift (New York, 1884); Practical Guide to the Test- ing of Insulated Wires and 0ables, H. L. Webb (New York, 1891); American Telegraphy, W. Maver, Jr. (New York, 1892); Telegraph Uonnections, C. Thom and W. H. Jones (New York, 1892); Electrical Transmission of Intelligence, E. J. Houston (New York, 1893); Dictionary of Electrical W'ords, Terms, and Phrases, E. J. Houston (3d ed. New York, 1894). English: Handbook of Practical Telegraph’: , R. S. Culley (8th ed. London, 1885) ; History and Progress of Electric Telegraph, R. Sabine (2d ed. London and New York, 1869); The Electric Telegraph, Dr. Lardner, revised by E. B. Bright (London, 1867); 1/llannal of Telegraphic Uonstrnction, J. C. Douglas (London, 1895); Telegraphy, W. H. Preece and J. Sivewright (London, 9th ed. 1891); Laying and Repairing Telegraph Uables, V. Hoskiaer (London, 1878); A Guide for Testing Telegraph Cables, ibid. (London, 1889); Instructions for Testing Telegraph Lines, L. Schwendler (London, 1879-80); History of Elec- tric Telegraphy to Year 1837, J. J. Fahie (London, 1884); Jifannal of Telegraphy, W. Williams (London, 1885). Ger- man: Der elehtromagnetische Telegraph, Dr. H. Schellen (6th ed. Brunswick, 1885); Der Telegraphenban, L. F. W. Rother (4th ed. Berlin, 1876); Die Uopirtelegraphen, die Typendruchtelegraphen and die Doppeltelegraphie, K. E. Zetszche (Leipzig, 1865); Handbuch der ele/etrischen Tele- graphic, K. E. Zetszche (Berlin, 1876) ; Die Telegraphen- Tech- nilc, A. Merling (Hanover, 1879). French: Télégraphie e’lec- triquc, J. Gavarret (Paris, 1861); Traité de Télégraphie é/ectrique, Th. du Moncel (Paris, 1864); Nonoeaa Traité de Télégraphie électrigne, E. E. Blavier (Paris, 1865); Les Systemes te'le'graphiques,,C. Bontemps (Paris, 1876); Eaposé des Applications de l’Electricite’, Th. du Moncel (Paris, 1859-62; same, new ed., Paris, 1874-76); La Te'le'graphie Actnelle,,L. Montillot (Madrid, 1892); Lignes et Trans- mission Electrigaes, L. Weiller and H. Vivarez (Paris, 1892) ; Carte des Lignes Télégraphignes et Udbles Sous-Jifarins, C. Delagrave (Paris, 1893) ; Télégraphie Sons-Jtlarine, E. Wun- schendorrf (Paris, 1888). FRANKLIN L. Porn. Telegraph Companies, Laws RELATING re: The busi- ness of telegraph companies is so “affected with a public interest ” that they may be authorized to take private prop- erty for their use, upon making due compensation (see EMI- NENT Donxm), and that the construction of their lines, as well as their rates and their treatment of customers, may be regulated by the state. It is now settled, contrary to the doctrine of a few early decisions, that these companies are not common carriers. Their legal status, however, is quite analogous to that of common carriers. Their em- ployment is of a public nature, which subjects them to duties over and above those created by their contract obligations. For example, they must take all lawful messages that are offered, up to the limit‘ of their facilities; they must trans- mit them, as a rule, in the order of reception; they must treat all customers impartially, even to the extent of fur- nishing facilities for rival companies. Del., etc. Telephone go. vs. State of Del. 6613 rel. Postal Telegraph 00., 50 Fed. . 677. Regulations-They have the right to make reasonable TELEOLOGY rules and regulations touching their dealings with cus- tomers. All messages may be required to be plainly written; prepayment may be required, as well as a deposit for an answer; and the hours during which messages will be re- ceived and sent may be fixed. Whether the regulation that the company will not be responsible for the correctness of a message, unless it is repeated, is reasonable, and there- fore binding on customers who assent to it, is a question upon which the courts are divided. In Great Britain, in New York, and in other States of the U. S. the regulation is approved. (Kiley vs. W. U. Tel. 00., 109 N. Y. 231.) The weight of authority in the U. S., however, is against its validity. Two main reasons are assigned for this view: first, that a company can exempt itself from liability from errors only arising from causes beyond its control; second, if the repetition of the message is necessary to insure its accurate transmission, then the law devolves upon the com- pany the duty of repeating it. (IV. U. Tel. 00. vs. Blanch- ard, 68 Ga. 299; 45 Am. B. 480.) Some authorities enforce express contracts between customer and company that the latter shall be liable only for gross negligence or willful wrongdoing; but by most courts in the U. S. they are deemed against public policy, and void. Gillis vs. W. U. Tel. 00., 61 Vt. 461. Liability.—British courts hold that the duty of the company to transmit and deliver a message arises wholly out of the contract with the sender, and there is no duty toward the receiver. This view is not entertained to any extent by courts in the U. S. On the other hand, it is gen- erally held that a receiver may recover against the company such damages as proximately result to him from its negligent default. bility is rested in part upon the common-law duty incident to the exercise of a public calling, and in part upon the theory that the receiver may sue because he is a beneficiary under the contract between the sender and the company. It is held generally that the company will not be liable be- yond the charge for sending the message, where it does not show on its face that it relates to a business transaction, or is in cipher. (Cf. Baldwin vs. Tel. 00., 45 N. Y. 744, with W. U. Tel. 00. vs. Hyer, 22 Fla. 637.) The foregoing rules are applicable to telephone companies. F. M. BURDICK. Telegrapher’s Cramp: See Nnuaosrs. Telem’achus (in Gr. T'n7\e/,u.axos)t in Greek mythology, son of Odysseus and Penelope. He was an infant when his father joined in the war against Troy. After the termina- tion of the war, he sailed out, accompanied by Athene in the shape of Mentor, and visited Pylos, Sparta, and other places, where he expected to gather some information con- cerning the fate of his father; and on his return to Ithaca he found Odysseus living there in disguise with the swine- herd Eumoeus. A recognition took place, and he then aided Odysseus in slaying the suitors and clearing the house of its many burdensome guests, who ate up its wealth without bringing it any honor. His voyage forms the subject of Fénelon’s celebrated epic Télémagne. Revised by J. R. S. STERRETT. Telemeter: See STADIA MEAsUEEMEN'.r. ’1‘eleoceph’ali [Mod. Lat.; from Gr. 1-e’Aeos, complete + xe<;l>aM;, head]: a group of fishes, recognized by some au- thors, containing most of the teleost or true bony fishes. Teleol'ogy [from Gr. '1'e’7\o$, 're'2\eos, end, purpose + Aéyos, discourse, reason] : the doctrine which finds intelligent ends or purposes in the processes and forms of nature. The evi- dences of purpose in nature were recognized by the Greeks, especially by Aristotle, who distinguished the final or teleo- logical cause of a thing—i. e. the purpose of its existence or act-ivity—-from the material and efficient causes of the same thing. Teleology has been used to support the theistic theory of the world in each of the periods of modern speculation.’ The teleological argument for the existence of God is by many made the strongest argument—from the evidence of design in nature to the existence of an intelligent designer. The rise of modern evolutionary theory, using the principle of natural selection to account for single instances of adap- tation found in nature, tended for a period to throw the theory of design into disrepute, the conception of mechan- ical law being substituted for that of purpose in the inter- pretation of nature. Undoubtedly the evolutionary concep- tion does remove much of the force from the oft-cited in- stances of adaptation, such as of the eye to light, of the (Tel. 00. vs. Drylrarg, 35 Pa. St. 298.) This lia- , TELEOSTEI color of an animal to its environment, etc. But while this is true, the theory of teleology takes on, in view of it, a profounder and more inspiring form, as part of the broader idealistic philosophy of the world. The new construction of teleology exhibits two great contrasts to the old view as it was urged in the natural theology of such men as Butler and Paley. 1. We are now led to look for design in nature not in the planning of a particular instance of adaptation, for all such instances might have come about by the more mechanical operation of natural selection upon variations; but we are to look for it in the very conception of law—be it mechan- ical or be it mental. The principles of natural selection and probability when expressed in formulas are themselves consistent expressions of plan or mind in nature. For why should mechanical law, uniformity, conservation of motion- why should any steady conception be applicable to nature at all, if not because nature is in some sense the expression or embodiment of that steady conception or idea? So the presence of the idea which we ordinarily call law in nature is itself the best. teleology, although the law be what is called mechanical, and subversive of the old theory of design. 2. Further, the‘ old view of design made the designer and the design or plan both logically apart from nature. God, it held, imposed certain designs upon nature. This con- ception also goes under in the minds both of naturalists and of philosophers who accept current evolutionary doc- trine. But again the resulting conception is more profound and ins iring. The idea of plan or law in nature yields what is mown as the modern doctrine of immanence. Na- ture is law-abiding and progressive just because it is itself the manifestation and realization of intelligence. God is immanent in the world and in man; both the world and man in their law-abiding character show just the nature and reality of God. And the universe as a whole gives the movement of development which naturalists construe in its particular aspects in terms of law. This newer statement of teleology is found both in intellectual idealists, such as Caird and Green, and in the critical realists, as represented by Trendelenberg and Lotze. LITERATUR.E.——S86 the chapters on Descartes, Anselm, Kant, Butler, Hegel, in the Histories of Philosophy, by Erd- mann, Fischer, Ueberweg; also the literature in the article GOD. Special books are Janet, Final Causes (New York, 1876); Lotze, Ifletaphysic (Oxford, 1884); Martineau, Study of Religion (London and New York, 1888). J. MARK BALDWIN. T6l(30S'tBi [from GI’. ¢é7\eos, complete + bo"re'ov, bovroiiv, bone]: a primary division of fishes embracing the great ma- jority of living s ecies, so called on account of the ossified con- dition of the ske eton, the cartilages being almost entirely re- placed by bone. Among other characters which separate them from the other true fishes are the absence of a conus arteriosus in the heart, of a spiral valve in the intestine ; the presence of a gill-cover (operculum), and usually the presence of true scales on the body, although the skin is sometimes naked, sometimes covered by bony plates. The subdivision of the group is yet in a most unsatisfactory condition, and the va- nous species have Jrobably descended from more than one ganoid ancestor. n general words, the sub-class can be divided into two groups. In the one, the Physostomi, the air-bladder, when present, is connected by a duct with the alimentary canal, and the ventral fins are never spined. In the Physoclisti the connection between air-bladder and alimentary canal becomes lost with growth, and the fins are usually spined. The Teleostei are further subdivided into more than a dozen orders, the names and characters of which must be sought in the article IOHTHYOLOGY and in technical works, such as there cited. J. S. KINGSLEY. Telep’athy [from Gr. rfi)\e, far + mi0os, feeling]: thought- transference, or the phenomenon of the reception by the mind of an impression not traceable to any of the ordinarily recognized channels of sense, and assumed to be due to an influence from the mind of another person, near or remote. lhus the sphere of telepathy 1s not the same as that of cla/i_rvoyance,in which it is assumed that the mind of the subject may receive an impression of impersmw/Z fads, 01‘ things at a distance. The subject who receives the impres- sion is called the percipient, the one from whom the influ- ence emanates is usually called the agent, in accounts of experiments on this phenomenon. In the earlier works on animal magnetism there are many reports concerning subjects who are said to have developed TELEPATHY 45 the faculty of obeying the unspoken will of their magnetizer, going to sleep and waking, moving, acting, and speaking in accordance with his silent commands. More recently there have been public exhibitors of " mind-reading,” and their performances have been imitated in private circles by the so- called willing-game. In most of these feats the agent is re- quired to think intently of some act while he lays his hands on some part of the so-called mind-reader’s person. The mind-reader, either promptly or hesitatingly, will then usu- ally perform the act. It is safe to assume that wherever such personal contact between the pair is allowed, the per- cipient is guided by the encouragment or checking which the agent’s hands more or less unconsciously exert upon his at first tentative movements; so that muscle-reading, and not mind-reading, is the proper name for this phenomenon. There are, it is true, reports of success in the willing-game where no contact was allowed; but in the absence of authen- tic details, they can not be taken as evidence that telepathy exists. or the same reason the earlier mesmeric reports have doubtful evidential value. The operators took too few precautions against “suggesting” to the subjects by other channels than speech what their will might be. It is only within recent years that we have learned to measure the acuteness with which an entranced person with his mind concentrated upon his hypnotizer will divine the intentions of the latter by indications which he gives quite uncon- sciously by voice or movement, or even by the mere order of sequence of what he does. On these accounts, evidence in the strict sense for telepathy must be sought in a small num- ber of experiments conducted by a few more careful ob- servers since about 1880. These experiments, taken in the aggregate, appear to make it unreasonable to doubt any longer the fact that occasionally a telepathic relation be- tween one mind and another may exist. In a faultless experiment on thought-transference certain precautions must be observed. To avoid previous collusion between agent and percipient the agent should receive from a third party the idea to be transferred; and the latter should, when possible, select it by drawing lots or by some other appeal to chance. This is to exclude the possibility of himself and the percipient being led by number-habits, dia- gram-habits. or other parallel paths of inner association to a common result. The percipient should not be in the room when the idea is determined on; and when possible it should be chosen in silence, written down, and shown, if it need be shown beforehand, in written form. The percipient should, if possible, do his guess- ing in another room. In any case he should be blindfolded, and there should be no conversation with him during the perform- ance, the signal that he must attend to his inner impressions be- ing given by bell or ~ other sound. Physical contact between agent and percipient must not occur, and if the percipient writes or draws his result the agent should not look on, since an uncon- scious commentary by changes in breathing, etc., might reveal to the percipient whether he was going right or wrong. The Proceedings of the Society for Psy- chical Research con- tain some records of experiments made under approximately faultless conditions. In certain cases the Ideas to be transferred were diagrams Original Drawing Reproduction V‘ L \ \ test“ FIG. 1. 46 or drawings. A couple of examples will show the success reached when at its best. Fig. 1 is from a series made with Mr. Blackburn, agent, G. A. Smith, percipient, in which out of thirty-three tri- als without contact, though with percipient and agent in one room, there were twenty-five reproductions as good as those here given of a figure prepared and kept outside of the room. Fig. 2 gives the first six trials of a series reported by Malcolm Guthrie, of Liverpool, he being agent and a Miss E. percipient. The conditions seem almost faultless, if the account is accurate, though the figures are simpler than in the former series. In all, with va- rious agents, Miss E. made 150 trials, the majority of which were successful entirely or in part. Sixteen speci- mens are rinted in the report, al about as good as those in Fig. 2. The same Miss E. and a Miss R. were subjected at Liverpool in 1883 to a series of experiments in trans- ferring ideas and sen- sations of every order, the agents being Mr. Guthrie and others. Out of 713 trials there were but 252 cases in which the percipient either get no impres- sion or described the object wrongly. In the remaining 461 cases the success was either complete or partial. “Miss X.” has pub- lished (Proceedings of Society for Psychical Research, vol. vi.) a long series of telepath- ic interchange of ex- eriences over a long istance with “Miss D.,” corroborated by independent entries in their respective dia- ries. Of 20 such en- tries 14 refer to a con- sciousness on the part of Miss D. that Miss X. was at that hour (the hours are quite ir- regular) playing a cer- ‘ tain definite piece of music. Miss Wingfield was the subject of a series of number - guessings, No. 4. ‘Mr. Guthrie and Miss E. where out of 2,624 trials there were 275 No Contact. successes instead of 29, which was the figure probable on the assumption of “ chance.” The numbers thought of were the 90 two-digital ones, from 10 to 99. They were drawn atran- dom from a bowl and thought of by the percipient’s sister. In a later series of 400 trials with this percipient the com- pletely right guesses were 27 instead of the chance number 4 ; there were moreover, 21 guesses with the digits reversed, and 162 with a single digit in its right place. _ Similar, though less extended and perhaps less conclusive, Original Drawing Reproduction C J No. 1. Mr. Guthrie and Mis E. No Contact. No.2. Mr. Guthrie and Miss_E. No Contact. No. 3. Mr. Guthrie and Miss E. No Contact. No.6. FIG. 2. TELEPATHY ' series of experiments at guessing ideas have been reported in the Society for Psychical Research Proceedings by various experimenters—-Dessoir, Schmall and Mabire, W. J . Smith, von Schrenk-Notzing, and Barrett and Gurney. The ob- servations last referred to were those first published. The subjects were two girls who, four years later when experi- ments were resumed, were found, when tested in each other’s presence, to be cheating by a code of signals. Much has been made of the breakdown of this case. But very many of the earlier successes recorded of these children occurred when they were singly present. and often when only one ex- perimenter knew the thing to be guessed. Collusion under such circumstances can not well be charged, although will- ingness to cheat rightly casts vague suspicion on all trials done with the percipient concerned, and shows the impor- tance of making all tests under the conditions described as “faultless ” a few lines back. Mr. Rawson finally, in vol. xi. of the Proceedings, gives a striking series of correct card and diagram guesses. On telepathy in the hypnotic state there are recorded in the Proceedings experiments by Dr. B. Thaw and Prof. and Mrs. H. Sidgwick. The conditions in the latter set seem to have been, on the whole. very careful, though not quite faultless in the technical sense. The agent was the hypno- tizer, G. A. Smith. The things to be impressed were usu- ally the numbers (of two digits) on eighty-one lotto-coun- ters, drawn by Prof. Sidgwick from a bag and handed to Mr. Smith to gaze at, while the hypnotized percipient awaited the impression. There were four percipients, with 644 trials made with agent and percipient in the same rooms, and 218 made with them in different rooms. In the former set 131 trials were successful, though the digits were named in reverse order in 14 of these 131 cases. In the latter set there were only 9 successes. The “probable” number of successes by chance would have been in the former set 8, in the latter at most 3. Later, with three of the same percipi- ents and three new ones, Mr. Smith still being agent, Mrs. Sidgwick and Miss Johnson report 252 trials and 27 suc- cesses (chance number :4), with agent and percipient in different rooms. Mr. Smith transferred “ mental pictures” to five subjects, successfully in 31 out of 71 trials in one room, in 2 out of 55 in different rooms. The subjects of the mental pictures were such things as “ a boy skating,” “a baby in a perambulator with nurse,” “a mouse in a trap,” etc. Prof. Richet has described (Proceedings of Society for Psychical Research, vol. v.) a series of successes in guessing drawings in the hypnotic state; but as he found that the same subjects succeeded 30 times out of 180 trials in guess- ing the drawing when it was inclosed in an envelope and unknown to any one present, it is doubtful whether telepa- thy or clairvoyance be the cause of the success. Control- experiments showed that “ chance” could give as many as 35 per cent. of good successes at matching pictures made arbitrarily by different persons with others taken at ran- dom from a large collection previously prepared. Richet’s hypnotic subjects gave, however, 10 per cent. of good suc- cesses in 200 trials, and he concludes the existence of an unknown power. Thus, to count only systematically pursued experiments, some of which are not mentioned here, there are accounts from more than a dozen competent observers concerning about a score of subjects, all seeming to show a degree of success in guessing very much greater than that which chance would give. Different readers, however, will weigh the evidence differently, according to their prepossessions. Much of it is fragmentary, and in much one or other con- dition of “ faultlessness ” in experimenting is violated. The mass. however, is decidedly imposing; and if more and more of this solitary kind of evidence should accumulate, it would probably end by convincing the world. Meanwhile there are other kinds of telepathy which, il- logically perhaps, impress the believing imagination more than high percentages of success in guessing numbers can. Such are cases of the induction of sleep in hypnotic sub- jects by mental commands given at a distance. Pierre Janet, Richet, Gibert, Ochorowicz, Héricourt, Dufay, Da- niex, Tolosa, Latour, and others are the relaters of these observations, of which the most important evidentially are those made on the celebrated somnambulic subject, Ma- dame B., or “ Léonie.” Out of one series of 25 trials with this woman, there were 18 complete and 4 partial successes. Mr. Ochorowicz vouches for some of these, and gives also a long series in which silent commands were acted out by TELEPHONE another hypnotic subject of his own, both he and she being, however, in the same room. The most convmcmg sort of evidence for thought-transference is given by the sittings of certain “ test-mediums,” of which the best worked-out case is that of Mrs. Piper, published in the So- ciety for Psychical Research Proceedings for 1890-92-95. This lady shows a profuse intimacy, not so much with the actual passing thoughts of her sitters as with the whole reservoir of their memory or potential thinking; and as the larger covers the less, so the present writer, being as convinced of the reality of the phenomenon in her as he can be convinced of anything in the world, probably makes less exacting demands than he otherwise would on the sort of evidence given for minor grades of the power. The authors of the word telepathy have used it as a the- ory whereby to explain “ veridical hallucinations ” such as would be the apparition of a person at a distance at the time of his death. The theory is that one who is dying or passing through some crisis is for some unknown reason peculiarly able to serve as “ agent ” and project an impres- sion, and that the telepathic “ impact ” in such a case pro- duces hallucination. Stated thus boldly the theory sounds most fanciful, but it rests on certain actual analogies. Thus a suggestion made to a suitable subject in the hypnotic trance that at a certain appointed time after l11S awa- kening he shall see the operator or other designated person enter the room, will post-hypnotically take efiect and be fol- lowed at the appointed time by an exteriorized apparition of the person named. Moreover, strange as the fact may appear, there seems evidence, small in amount but good in quality, that one may, by exerting one’s Wlll to that efiect, cause one’s self to appear present to a person at a distance. As many as eight persons worthy of confidence have recent- ly reported successes in this sort of experiment. The writer knows a ninth case, impossible to publish, but where the evidence (as far as taken) is good. Now the committee on the census of hallucinations of the Society for Psychical Re- search find that the “ veridical ” ones among them—those, namely, in which the apparition coincides with the death of the person who appears-—-are 440 times more numerous than they ought to be if they were the result of mere chance. For the particular data and logic by which this figure is ob- tained, see the report in vol. x. of the Society for Psychical Research Proceedings. Of course, if such a conclusion ever be accepted, and if the telepathic theory of such apparitions be credible, the probability that telepathy is the cause of success in the simpler number-guessing cases would be greatly re-enforced. The whole subject, so far as definite observation goes, is still in its earliest infancy. BIBLIocRAPHY.——J. Ochorowicz, De la Suggestion mentale (Paris, 1887) ; Proceedings of the Society for Psgohical Re- search, passim; F. Podmore, Apparitions and Thought- transference (1894). WILLIAM J arms. Telephone [from Gr. ¢fiAe, far + ¢wvfi, sound, voice]: a term onginally applied by Wheatstone in 1840 to the various forms of rod and string telephones (as they are now called) in which sound-vibrations are transmitted from one point to another by means of a rod or tightly stretched string connecting two elastic diaphragms of membrane, wood, or other suitable material, and of which the well-known lover’s telegraph is a type; but while in strictness the word tele- phone still refers to the acoustic as well as the electric telephone, the latter, on account of its universal use, is the instrument to which the term is chiefly applied. As early as 1854 a crude suggestion as to the possibility of transmitting speech electrically was made by Charles Bourseul in L’Illustration (Paris), and in 1861 at Frankfort, Germany, Philipp Reis exhibited and for the first time pub- lished an account of his extended experiments in the same direction. Reis endeavored to secure the transmission of speech by a circuit-breaking operation. For a transmitter he employed a membrane to which was fastened a flexible strip of metal connected with one terminal of a voltaic bat- tery. In the instrument originally described the membrane was stretched over the smaller end of a conical speaking- tube bored in a cubical block of wood, whence this form of transmitter is known as the bored-block transmitter. Op- posite the outer surface of the membrane was placed a stiff brass spring connected with the conducting line-wire which ran to the receiver. .From the end of this spring, which was opposite the center of the membrane, a platinum point project- ed toward the metallic strip. The distance between this point and the strip was such that when the membrane was set into 47 vibration by the voice of one speaking into the conical sound- tube. the metallic strip came into contact with the point on the forward motion of the membrane and broke contact with the point as the membrane retreated, thus making and break- ing the battery-current once at each complete vibration of the membrane. The receiver employed consisted of a long helix of insulated wire wound about a knitting-needle, the whole being mounted upon a sounding-box. As was shown by Charles G. Page (1837), whenever the coils of an electro- magnet are traversed by such an intermittent current there is a click produced at each make and break owing to the successive magnetization and demagnetization of the cores, and if the intermittences are sufficiently frequent the clicks will blend into a continuous musical sound, whose pitch is determined by the frequency of the breaks. Hence when the Reis receiver was connected in circuit with the transmitter and a battery, and the transmitter was operated as described, the alternate makes and breaks of the current produced by the intermittent contact between the metallic strip and point of the transmitter caused a sound to issue from the receiver. This sound would necessarily correspond in pitch with that uttered into the transmitter, since the pitch of a sound is determined wholly by the frequency or rate of vibration, which is necessarily the same for the knitting-needle of the receiver as for the membrane of the circuit-breaking trans- mitter which produces those intermittences of the current which excite the vibrations of the former. After the publi- cation of his first paper Reis altered the shape of his trans- mitter, and caused to be manufactured and sold an instru- ment consisting of a hollow cubical box having a circular hole at the top which was closed by a membrane and fur- nished with a speaking-tube which entered the side of the box. To the membrane was fastened a flexible strip of metal. A light piece of sheet brass bent at right angles in a horizon- tal plane was loosely supported at its ends, while a pointed leg of platinum wire projecting from the angle rested upon the metallic strip over the center of the membrane. The circuit was completed through the strip and point. On speaking into the transmitter the angle-piece was tossed out of contact with the metal strip when the membrane dia- phragm vibrated, thus producing an intermittent current. From its wide sale this transmitter, known as the cubical box transmitter, became more generally known than the earlier instrument. “ Reis recognized the fact that much more than the repro- duction of pitch at the receiver was necessary to reproduce speech. But he thought incorrectly that the amplitude of the vibrations of the receiver, upon which the loudness of the resulting sound depends, would be proportional to the amplitude of the vibration of the membrane of the trans- mitter, and that the reproduction of these two characteris- tics of the sound actuating the transmitter would be suffi- cient to reproduce that sound in its completeness. Every sound possesses three characteristics, which deter- mine and define it. They are pitch. which depends upon the frequency of the vibrations of the particles of the sounding body or those constituting the air-waves produced by it; loudness, which depends (other things being the same) upon the amplitude of vibration ; and quality, which depends upon what is called the “ form” of the vibration. Quality is that characteristic by means of which is recognized the particu- lar kind of instrument producing the sound, as a piano. a violin, or the voice. It was proved by Helmholtz to depend upon the number, pitch, and relative loudness of the partial tones which constitute sound-vibrations, and which diifer with different instruments. As these difier, the particular velocity with which the vibrating particle moves from in- stant to instant while executing its complete vibration will differ. See articles Aeoosrms and Vomn. If represented graphically according to the usual mode of illustrating such motions, the curves representing such dif- ferent vibrations will have different forms to the eye, whence it has become customary to designate the corresponding dif- ferences in the vibrations thus represented by the term “ form.” And since the sound-waves possess a varying density from point to point corresponding to the varying wglocity of their particles, they are also spoken of as having “ orm.” It follows from what has been said that no transmitter like that of Reis, which operates by breaking the circuit once at each full or complete vibration, can completely re- produce any sound, for it can not reproduce the quality. The receiver takes no cognizance of the mode of vibration of the transmitter between the breaks. The quality of the 48 sound issuing from the receiver depends substantially upon the physical conditions of the circuit, and whatever may be the character of the particular instrument whose sound actu- ates the transmitter when operated as described, the sound issuing from the receiver will be the same. "A method by which the quality of sounds in general, in- cluding those of articulate speech, can be reproduced, to- gether with an apparatus embodying this method, was invented by Alexander Graham Bell and first published in U. S. Patent No. 174,465, dated Mar. 7, 1876. The method consists in the production and utilization of electrical un- dulations similar in form to the vibrations of the air of the sound-waves. The electrical condition of the line particles and the vibration of the receiver are controlled, not inter- mittently, at the end of each complete vibration, but through- out the whole duration and extent of this vibration. To do this the transmitting instrument must produce in the line an electrical current which possesses a variation in strength from instant to instant, similar to the corresponding changes in the density of the air in the sound-waves which actuate the transmitter, in which case the electrical changes will copy the aerial vibrations, so to speak, and the varying elec- trical current will be represented graphically by substantial- ly the same curve that represents the air-waves. Hence the electrical undulations are spoken of as being similar in form to the air-waves. By the action of this undulatory current upon a suitable receiver, it will reproduce at the receiving end of the line air-waves which are similar in form to the electrical variations, and hence to the sound-waves actuating the transmitter. The original apparatus devised by Bell was a form of what is now called a “ magneto-telephone.” It will be sufficient to consider the improved instrument, which has chiefly been used in the U. S. The transmitter and receiver are alike, and are shown in Fig. 1. F F is a compound-bar magnet, =.=;é5ies- ~ ~ ~ w ~ _E_\\\\.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\s\\\x\\\\\\\\\w&\\x\\~.‘\\\&\ 7 FIG. 1. with a soft-iron pole-piece, C, around which is wound a coil of insulated wire, D, whose terminals run to the binding posts, G G. H is a circular diaphragm of thin ferrotype iron, eld at its edge between the case of the instrument, K, and the mouth-piece. A. When used as a transmitter the instru- ment is put in circuit with a second one at the further end of the line, which serves as a receiver. The operation is as follows: VVhen the soft-iron diaphragm, H, is spoken to it takes up the motions of the particles of air and vibrates in accord- ance with these motions, and so moves toward and away from the magnetized pole-piece periodically with a velocity varying from instant to instant, according to the character- istic form of the air-waves. In accordance with the well-known laws of electricity and magnetism, whenever the iron diaphragm approaches the pole of the magnet this will become stronger; an induced current of electricity will be generated in the coil, D, and will flow through the circuit. When the diaphragm recedes the pole will become weaker, and a current will be induced in the opposite direction. Moreover, the strength of the induced current will be proportional at each instant to the velocity with which the diaphragm is moving. (See ELEG- TRICITY.) Hence an undulatory current will be set up in the circuit which will be similar in form to the air-waves produced by the voice at the transmitter. This undulat-ory current flows through the coils, D, of the receiver, and in- creases or diminishes the strength of the pole of its magnet in a degree depending on the direction and strength of the current, that is, according to the direction and velocity of the motion of the diaphragm of the transmitter. Hence the magnet of the receiver will exert a varying pull upon the diaphragm, H, deflecting it more or less against the restor- ing force of its elasticity, and the vibrations thus impressed upon the diaphragm will be communicated to the air at the TELEPHONE receiving station. Since these possess all the characteristics impressed upon the electrical current by the vibrations of the diaphragm of the transmitter, the receiver will give out a sound similar to that uttered into the transmitter. The Jlficrogahonc.-The magneto-telephone just described has been universally employed as a receiver. As a trans- mitter, however, it was soon superseded by a subsequently invented and more powerful apparatus, the microphone. It had been known for a long time that when an electric cur- rent passed from one conductor to another through a “loose contact ”-that is, when the contact-surfaces or electrodes rested only very lightly upon one another-—there was at the joint a resistance to the electrical flow, which was lessened when the pressure was increased. Early in 1877 Emile Ber- liner proposed to utilize this property in a telephone trans- mitter. A metal diaphragm rested firmly against a metallic point or ball. A battery current passed from the former into the latter and thence to a suitable telephone receiver. On speaking to the diaphragm the vibrations of this produced a variation of pressure between it and the metal point with- out ever breaking the circuit, thus producing electrical un- dulations. The law of variation of resistance with pressure is such that the electrical and acoustic undulations have a like form. Shortly afterward Thomas A. Edison invented an apparatus identical in principle, but employing soft car- bon as the material of one of the electrodes instead of mak- ing both of them of metal. Still later (May, 1878), Prof. David E. Hughes devised and described another a paratus of the same character, employing hard carbon, an gave to it the name microphone. Carbon is so excellent a material for the purpose that in practice it has always been made to constitute either one or both of the electrodes of the micro- phone transmitter. Many forms of microphone transmitter have been em- ployed. The two described are the ones that have been principally used in the U. S. The Blake transmitter, the best known of these, was in- vented by Francis Blake, and first introduced into public use late in 1878. Its construction is illustrated in Fig. 2. D is a diaphragm of sheet-iron against which rests lightly a small platinum button, K, which is sus- pended by a light leaf-spring, A. Around a button of hard carbon, C, is spun a brass weight, W. A rather stiff spring, S, sustains W and C. A and S are insulated from each other at their upper ends. K and VV are the hammer and anvil electrodes respectively of the microphone. A current from a battery, B, passes through the joint between the two elec- trodes. When the diaphragm en- ters into vibration under the ac- tion of the voice it pushes the hammer electrode, K, into more or less intimate contact with the an- -‘ vil electrode, C. The inertia of C, l weighted as it is by W, keeps the anvil electrode from jumping away from the hammer electrode, and the spring S holds the two electrodes in proper position as regards the diaphragm. The va- rying pressure between K and C causes a corresponding variation in the strength of the current to take place, so that when a mag- neto-receiver is put in circuit with the transmitter speech is repro- duced. The proper normal pressure be- tween the electrodes is secured by means of the bent lever, L, and adjusting screw, N. Instead of placing the receiver in direct circuit with the battery and microphone, it is customary to cause the undu- latory battery current to pass through the primary of an in- duction-coil in whose secondary, of much higher resistance, the receiving telephone is placed. This gives better elec- trical conditions for transmission over lines of considerable length. This arrangement is symbolically indicated at IC in the figure. \ sh §%.W (ll'(\ll\\\H1l I C O \\\“\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\&. \\‘\\‘ \‘\\\§-R'\§\\\\\\\ : Z W% FIG. 2. TELEPHONE A very powerful form of microphonic transmitter, devel- oped in the laboratory of the American Bell Telephone Com- pany by A. C. White, is employed for long-distance trans- mission. Its construction is shown in Fig. 3. K K’ are two polished buttons of hard carbon, the rear one of which is fastened solidly in a frame, while the forward one is riveted to the center of the metal diaphragm, D, and moves to and fro like a plunger when the diaphragm vibrates. The two carbon buttons are insulated from each other and form the opposite faces of a flat, cylindrical cell, which is closed at the front by a thin, flexible disk of mica concentric with the forward button and of greater diameter than this, so that the mica projects beyond the edge of the. button. The disk is in front of the button, carried by the same piece that carries this and secured at its edges by an annu%r cap which holds it firmly while allowing perfect free om of vibratory motion to the plunger and front button. The cell is filled partly full with coarse, granulated carbon powder. The current from a battery passes from the front button through the granulated carbon to the rear button. The buttons and the particles of carbon constitute the electrodes of the transmitter. An induction-coil is used, as with the Blake transmitter. It is evident from what has been said regarding the microphone that microphonic action may be produced with a Reis transmitter by operating it so as to prevent any break- ing of the circuit. I/Vhen the R-eis transmitter is coupled with a sufflcientl y sensitive receiver it is possible to transmit and reproduce speech by this operation. vWhatever of qual- ity has ever been transmitted by a Reis instrument was the result of this action, of which Iteis was entirely ignorant. The development of the art of telephony has necessitated the invention of a vast number of special contrivances for local and long-distance transmission. For long-distance transmission complete metallic circuits are employed rather than the grounded circuits usual in telegraphy, and such lines are also far more satisfactory for local business on ac- count of their greater freedom from electrical disturbances. Substantially all of the telephone business of the U. S. has been carried on by the licensees of the American Bell Telephone Company. Under the company’s control there were on Jan. 1, 1894, 154,106 miles of long-distance (“ex- tra-territorial ”) lines in use and 353,480 miles of local (“ ex- change”) lines. of which 121,930 miles were underground. The total number of telephones in use was 566,491,, the number of subscribers 237,186. the number of persons em- ployed 10,421. The number of magneto-telephones i11 use Sept. 20, 1894, was 289,495, the number of Blake transmit- ters 218,782, and the number of long-distance transmitters 49,435. The number of telephone connections made at ex- changes during 1893 was 600,000,000. The longest telephone lme in actual commercial use extends from Portland. Me, to l\’[ilwaukee via Boston, New York, and Chicago, a distance of 1.337 miles. The complete history and theory of the speaking telephone have been brought out very fully in the protracted litigation regarding it which has been carried on in the U. S. courts. The fullest accessible discussion of these topics will be found in vol. cxxvi., Z/'m'z‘ed States Re- p0r2f_s. The laws relating to the duties of telephone com- pames are in general the same as those relating to telegraph companies. See TELEGRAPH Conramns, Laws RELATING TO. 401 Cnxanns R. Caoss. TELESCOPE 4,9 Telescope [from Gr. 'r'Y)7\e, far +0'K01re'1.‘1/, to view] : an opti- cal instrument for increasing the apparent magnitude of distant objects, or the size of their images on the retina. The essential parts of the instrument are two in number: a mirror or combination of lenses for bringing the rays of light which emanate from each point of the distant object to a focus, thus forming an image of the object, and an ocular for viewing this image. A refracting telescope is one in which the rays of light are made to converge to the focus by a system of lenses; a reflecting telescope is one in which they are made to converge by being reflected from the surface of a slightly concave, polished reflector. The Refraeting TeZesc0pe.—If the light reflected or emitted by the object to be observed were all of one color and one degree of refrangibilit-y, and if a lens could be made of any shape desired, then a single lens would sufliee for the object- glass of a telescope. Practically, however, such a lens will not bring all the rays to one and the same focus. Since glass exerts a more powerful refraction on blue than on red rays, a lens brings the blue rays to a shorter focus than the red ones; hence the use of a single lens gives a row of foci, making distinct vision impossible. This effect is called chromatic aberration. Moreover, if the lens is spherical, the rays which pass near the circumference of the lens will come to a shorter focus than those which pass through the central portions. This makes a second defect, which is called spherical aberration. The Aplanatie Objectz'z'e.—I11 the modern aplanatic tele- scope these aberrations are in great part obviated by the combination of two lenses, a double convex lens of crown glass and a concave lens of flint glass, as shown in Fig. 1. For a statement of the prin- ci le by which chromatic .//\/_> abperration is thus obviated, \ : 4 see Acnaonxmsn. The two FIG 1 lenses disperse the red and ' ‘ blue rays in opposite directions: that is to say. the crown lens, being convex converges the blue rays more than it does the red ones, while the flint glass, being concave, tends in an equal degree to diverge the blue rays away from the axis more than the red ones. On the other hand, the re- fracting power of the crown lens is stronger than that of the flint lens, so that the combined effect of the two is to bring the rays to a focus, while their opposite dispersions neu- tralize each other, and bring both blue and red rays to near- ly the same focus. In addition, such curves may be given to the lenses that the spherical aberrations shall also annul each other, and thus all the rays be brought to one focus. It is this combination of achromatism with freedom from spherical aberration which gives perfection to the telescope. The fact is, however, that no objective can be made of crown glass and flint glass which will bring all the rays absolutely to one focus. The reason of this is that the latter disperses the rays more and more in proportion to the former, as we pass -toward the violet end of the spectrum. The result is that when the nearest approach to a-chromatism is gained. the extreme rays (blue and red) will come to a focus a little farther away from the objective than the intermediate rays, which are yellow or pale green. This defect is not serious in a small telescope, but becomes very serious in greater refractors. Makers of optical glass in Germany have de- voted great attention to discovering kinds of glass which will not produce this secondary aberration. Partial success has been gained, but it is still questionable whether the new glasses possess the durability of the ordinary kinds and can be made of the requisite size for great telescopes. The Plzofograph/t'c Telescope.—ln consequence of the de- fect just described. a telescope which is best adapted for seeing will not be the best for taking photographs of heav- enly bodies. The reason is that the best visual telescope brings the yellow rays to the shortest focus, and scatters the blue and violet rays farther along the axis. But the latter are those which have the best photographic effect. Conse- quently, in order to take the best photographs, the telescope must either have a weaker (less concave) flint lens or a stronger (more convex) crown lens than the ordinary visual. telescope. In order that a telescope may be well adapted for both purposes some device must be employed to increase the effect of the crown lens. or diminish that of the flint lens. In the great Lick telescope a third lens is supplied, which is put over the objective when photographs are taken. One necessary effect of this method is to shorten the focus by several feet. The Reflecting TeZesr0p(>.——Tl1is instrument is so called 50 because the rays from the star or other distant_object are brought to a focus by a slightly concave, parabohc reflector, which may be either of polished metal or of glass. For the great telescopes of Herschel, Rosse, Lassell, De la Rue, and all others previously to 1857, the reflectors were made of a combination of tin and copper, called speculum metal, which would hear a high polish. lt is now more common to grmd a reflector of glass, which is then coated with a film of silver, about 9-0-610~0~5t.h of an inch thick, on the side toward the ob- ject. These latter must not be confounded with looking- glass mirrors, which are coated with tin-amalgam on the posterior side. Silvered-glass telescopes were invented by Steinheil, and reinvented in the same year by Foucault, whose admirable paper in the Annales de Z’Obscrcatotre de Paris (vol. v., 1859) is a model of what such memoirs should be. See Henry Draper’s paper on this subject in the Sme'z‘h- som'cm Contrzibutions to Science (1864). Ever since the in- troduction of silvered glass, there has been a controversy as to its utility compared with speculum metal, but the balance has inclined finally to the former. A silvered speculum is permanent; for even though the silver coating be tarnished it may readily be repolished, or, if injured by dampness, be replaced without affecting the figure of the glass; it is many times lighter, and therefore demands less weight in the mounting, and is correspondingly more manageable; it is more reflecting, in the proportion of about 92 to 65, and in consequence a smaller aperture will give an equal brilliancy to ob'ects, this being a great advantage in an unsteady at- mosp ere. Speculum metal is composed of copper and tin in the proportion of 32 to 14911 ; it must be cast on a chill —-that is, a slightly warmed iron surface; and that it must be annealed with the greatest care and for a long time. Gm'nding and PoZe'she'/a .—These operations do not differ much in the cases of meta and glass, except that the latter, being more rigid, will not take a permanent set if raised from its bearings, and, being lighter, can be more easily ma- nipulated. The grinding and polishing of specula may be accomplished by machinery or by hand. When Hadley, Mudge, Edwards, Molyneux, Short, and others were making reflecting telescopes, the work was done altogether by hand, the tools being fixed on an optician’s post, which allowed free motion all round the surface to be worked; but when the elder Herschel had advanced to the larger telescopes which he constructed, he found it desirable to use machin- ery. For many years the arrangement of this machinery was kept a profound secret until finally revealed by Sir John Herschel shortly before his death. Silvering of G‘Zass.-—A large number of processes have been invented for coating glass with a thin and uniform film of silver. They all depend on reducing metallic silver from a solution of silver nitrate and ammonia, with per- haps the addition of potash. The reducing agent may be Rochelle salt, milk-sugar, inverted sugar, oil of cloves, alde- hyde, etc. The best process is described in the Jlfonzfhly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (Dec., 1875, vol. xxxvi., p. 76) by Martin, who made a 4-foot silvered-glass telescope for the Paris Observatory. The glass must be carefully cleaned with nitric acid, and afterward with potash and alcohol, and then placed face downward on a mixture of equal parts of the following four liquids: (1) A solution of 40 grammes of crystallized silver nitrate in a liter of dis- tilled water; (2) a solution of 6 grammes of pure ammo- nium nitrate in 100 grammes of water; (3) a solution of 10 grammes of caustic potash (quite free from carbonate and chloride) in 100 grammes of water; (4) a solution of 25 grammes of sugar in 250 grammes of water, to which is added 3 grammes of tartaric acid, and the liquid is then boiled for about ten minutes to produce the inversion of the sugar. After the solution has cooled 50 cubic centimeters ,of alcohol are added to hinder any subsequent fermenta- tion. The volume is made half a liter by dilution with water if the silvering is to be done in winter, or dilute still more if it is to be done in summer. The film of silver, if the potash is pure,’ may not need any polishing, and should in any case require only a few strokes of a buckskin pad slightly tinged with fine rouge. The great difliculty with the reflecting telescope is that the speculum throws the rays back directly toward the ob- ject, so that the observer can not place his eye in front of the focus to see the object without obstructing the light which falls upon the mirror. This light must therefore be reflected backward or laterally by a second reflector. There are two ways of doing this; one, called the Newtonian, is shown in Fig. 2. A mirror, M, is placed at an angle of 45° TELESCOPE between the focus and mirror, but nearer the former, in such a position as to throw the light through the opening 0 t I FIG. 2. at the side of the telescope where the image is formed, and 1s viewed by an eye-piece of the usual construction. A more convenient form 1S that shown in Fig. 3, which is known as ,4.4-.\,-_- “ — - ~ -- _ _____>..._‘ __d ‘v’ ‘r "V ,= U? _.~ L >-_-~J FIG. 3.—Oassegrainian telescope. the Cassegrainian telescope. Here the light from the prin- cipal mirror meets a second slightly convex mirror placed between the principal mirror and the focus. From the sec- ond mirror it is thrown back through a central opening through the principal mirror. where the eye-piece is placed. This form is most convenient, because the observer looks directly up at the object. In a modified form of the Cassegrainian telescope, called the brachi-telescope. which has been tried in Germany, the speculum is slightly inclined, so as to throw the rays to one side, admitting of the second reflector being so placed as not to prevent any of the light from falling on the speculum. The reflecting telescope has the great advantage that chromatic aberration does not exist, because in all rays the angle of reflection is equal to that of incidence; while by making the mirror truly parabolic the spherical aberration can also be entirely obviated. It is therefore, in theory, the only perfect telescope. There is no limit to its possible size, and therefore no theoretical limit to its power. Unfortunate- ly, the mechanical difficulties in its construction and use are so great that the astronomical work of the world is almost entirely done with refractors. The first difficulty is that if the mirror is more than a foot in diameter it is liable to bend under the influence of its own weight, and thus fail to bring the rays to one focus. By ingenious systems of supporting the mirror this defect can be partially cured, so that reflectors have been made of so great a diameter as 5 or even 6 feet. In the case of the celebrated telescope of Lord Rosse the diameter is 6 feet. Yet it does not ap- pear that the contrivances for securing perfection of figure are entirely successful. Nothing has yet been seen or done with these great reflectors which can not be at least as well seen or done with much smaller refracting telescopes. For the purposes of the amateur, small reflectors, say from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, can be made free from this difliculty, and are much cheaper than refraetors of equal power. Another difliculty associated with them is the lia- bility of the silver film to tarnish. especially near a city where gas is burned. Consequently the possessor of such an instrument must know how to resilver and repolish the mirror, directions for doing which are found in a preceding paragraph of this article, or must be near an expert who can do this. The Eye-piece, or 00/u.Zrm'.——As essential as the object- glass or mirror of a telescope is a lens, or combination of lenses, for collecting the light from the image so as to form a second image on the retina of the observer’s eye. In strictness, a single lens of short focus, such as is in conrmon use for viewing minute objects, would suffice. But such a lens Orives distinct vision only for a single point in the center of the field of view. Hence an astronomical eve- piece is made with two lenses. One of these. called the field-lens, is placed very near the focus, of the objective; the other, called the eye-lens, is next the observer’s eye. If the most distinct vision throughout the whole field is to be ob- tained, the best eye-piece is one of the I-luyghenian form, shown in the article Mrcnoscorn, Figs. 11 and 12. Here TELESCOPE the field-lens is placed a little inside the focus, so that the image is formed between the two lenses. A further im- provement on this form was made by Airy, who proposed a meniscus for the field-lens. The eye-pieces of this pat- tern are called negative. Since the image is formed in the eye-piece itself, a micrometer can not be used with a nega- ' tive eye-piece. Hence, in ordinary astronomical ob- servations, when measures are made by the microm- eter, a form known as the Ramsden eye-piece is used. This consists of two plane- convex lenses, having the plane sides outward, as shown in Fig. 4. Every eye-piece must be fixed in a little sliding tube, so that the observer can push it in or out, and thus get it into such a position as to secure the sharpest vision. The more near- sighted an observer is, the further he must push an eye- piece in, to attain this object. llfounzfz'ng of the Telescope.——Owing to the diurnal motion of the earth, if a telescope is pointed at any object in the heavens, the latter will be seen to move across the field of view, and speedily disappear from sight. If a high power is used, it will be very difficult to point the telescope so as to find the object again. The telescope must therefore be mounted on axes, so as to admit of being continually moved. The arrangement for this purpose is called the mounting of the telescope. It varies with the size and with the needs of the observer. A small, cheap instrument, say of three inches in diameter, is usually mounted in the simplest way, so that the observer can himself turn it in any direction at pleasure. No exact observations are, however, possible with this sort of mounting. When the telescope is to follow a star closely, an equatorial mounting is used. In this form the principal axis of the instrument, around which it may be turned, is inclined to the horizon at an angle equal to the latitude of the place, and directed toward the north ole of the heavens. In other words, it is set exactly paral- el to the axis of the earth. Thus as the earth turns in one direction, the observer has only to move his telescope around its axis in the other direction in order to keep it constant- ly pointed at a heavenly body. Attached to the principal axis is a secondary one, at right angles to it, by which the telescope may be pointed at any required distance from the pole. This is called the declination axis, while the princi- pal one is called the polar axis. If the telescope is not very _~ __..--._ ---__-__ FIG. 4. \\’£{s/\\\\/4/4.4% ’\\ / , . .I-“1~~ _‘ 0 ,- ‘Q, l___'-.-_\:- ._l . - ‘e. ; III ." """‘.:.----"e FIG. 5.-An eqi1_1atorial telescope : A, section of object glass ; a, crown lens; I), imt lens; P Q, polar axis; PD. declination axis; H, clockwork to turn telescope round the polar axis ; F, finder ; E, eye-piece. ' large, it is frequently constructed so that the observer can move it around the polar axis by turning an endless screw. This would be very troublesome in a large instrument. A 51 complete telescope must therefore be fitted with clock- work, so arranged as to make this motion automatically. Then, when the telescope is pointed at a star, clamped, and the clock-work set in motion, the star remains in whatever point of the field the observer may set it, just as if the earth were at rest. History of the Telescope.—The question as to who was the first real inventor of the telescope is involved in some obscurity. What is certainly known is that telescopes were first made in Holland, about the year 1608, when Hans Lip- perhey applied for a patent for such an instrument. It seems an attempt was made by the Dutch authorities to have the invention kept secret. The first telescopes were of course very imperfect instruments, the object-glass consist- ing only of a single small lens. It does not seem that the Dutch inventors attempted to apply the instrument to any important purpose. This was first done by Galileo in 1610, who, having heard of it, reasoned out the principles on which it ought to be constructed. Galilean telescopes con- sisted of an object-glass and a concave eye-piece, the latter being placed inside the focus. This form is still used in opera-glasses, but does not admit of a high power being ob- tained with distinctness. Galileo, however, was able with this imperfect instrument to see the phases of Venus and the satellites of Jupiter, making the discoveries which have made his name immortal. The great difficulty encountered by the astronomers of the seventeenth century arose from the chromatic aberra- tion of the telescope. It was found that this defect could be diminished by increasing the focal length, but then the instrument would soon become unmanageable. This led to the invention of the reflecting telescope, in which no such de- fect exists. The latter instrument underwent gradual im- provement from the time of Newton to that of Herschel, a hun- dred years later. who brought it to great perfection. Mean- while Chester More Hall, of England, about 1733, invented the combination of crown lenses and flint lenses already described, which would in great part correct not only the chromatic but also the spherical aberration. The invention was brought into practical use by Dollond. of London, whose telescopes acquired great celebrity during the latter half of the eighteenth century; but their size was only what is now considered the smallest. Up to 1800 it was thought almost impossible to make a good disk of flint glass of more than 4 or 5 inches in diameter. The difficulty was that the great density of the lead, which is a component of the flint glass, caused the lower part of the pot of glass to be denser than the upper part. By skill and attention glassmakers learned how to obviate this diflficulty, so that early in the nineteenth century disks of 8 or 10 inches became common, and before the middle of the century they were carried to 15 inches. The difficulty then was on the part of the opti- cian to grind lenses of this'size so perfect in figure that they would bring all the rays to the same focus. The greatest artist in this respect during the first half of the century was Fraunhofer, of Germany. None of his immediate European successors was able to improve upon his work. The first person to do this was a comparatively obscure portrait- painter, Alvan Clark, of Cambridgeport, Mass. About 1846 he began to experiment in grinding lenses. and by 1853 had attained such success that a glass of nearly 8 inches diame- ter was purehased from him by Rev. W’. R. Dawes, a mem- ber of the Royal Astronomical Society. This gentleman found that Mr. Clark’s glass was superior to any that he had been able to obtain elsewhere : a conclusion which speedily established the reputation of the maker. He and his two sons continued to make larger and larger instru- ments, as orders were given, until his work culminated in the grinding of the 36-inch telescope of the Lick Observa- tory and that of his son, Alvan G., i11 the Yerkes telescope of Chicago, 40 inches in diameter. So far it would seem that the retracting telescope has cut- stripped the reflector. The difficulties already mentioned are such that no great improvement has certainly been made in reflecting telescopes in recent times. Those of 4 and 5 feet diameter, made for or by A. A. Common, of Eng-- land, may be taken as the latest and best result of art in this direction. Pri-22cz'poZ Telescopes of the ll'orZ, TELESCOPE dimensions, it may be stated that the movable part of the instrument, which turns on the polar axis, weighs about 12 tons, and the clock which turns the telescope weighs 11]; tons. It is to be mounted near Geneva Lake, Wis., so as to be.away from the smoke of the city. Next in size comes the great telescope of the Lick Observ- atory, California, which, under the terms on which the in- stitution was founded, was to be supplied with the largest telescope in existence. It was completed in 1887. The ob- ject-glass was figured by Alvan Clark & Sons, and the mount- ing was done by Warner & Swazey. Third in size are two practicall_v equal telescopes of 30 inches diameter: that of the Russian Imperial Observatory, at Pulkowa, of which the object-glass is by Clark & Sons, and the mounting by the Repsolds, of Hamburg, and the telescope of the Nice Observatory, in France, of which the object-glass is by the Henry Brothers, of Paris, and the mounting by Gauthier, of the same city. There are also two refracting telescopes of 26 inches aper- ture: one at the Naval Observatory in l/Vashington, the other at the Leander McCormick Observatory, University of TELFORD also at various observatories in the U. S. telescopes of con- siderable size, which are mentioned in the general list at the end of this article. BIBLIOGRAPl:lY.——F()1‘ very full information about the use of a telescope by an amateur observer, see Chambers’s As- tronomn, 4th ed., vol. ii. (London, 1890). For a popular account, see Newcomb’s Popular Astronomy. The mathe- matical theory of the formation of images by lenses is de- veloped in the classic memoir of Gauss, Dioptrische Unter- snchnngen (Werhe, vol. v.); in Pendlebury's Lenses and Sys- tems of Lenses (London, 1884) ; and in Steinheil and Voit“s Angewandte Optik (Leipzig, 1891). A brief but fairly com- plete history of the invention is found in Poggendorf’s Ge- schichte der Physi/0 (Leipzig, 1879) and a shorter one in Grant’s History of Physical Astronomy (London, 1852). Discussions of recent improvements are found in great number in the volumes of Jlfonthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. The Journal of Astrophysics, pub- lished monthly at Chicago, and the Observatory. published at Greenwich, are also valuable for discussions of the latest proposed improvements. S. Nnwcone. LIST or THE PRINCIPAL TELESCOPES (BY PROF. J. K. REES). I. Refracting Telescopes with Object Glasses 13 Inches in Diameter and over. OBSERVATORY. Maker of lenses. Aperture. Focal length. Remarks. Yerkes, Geneva Lake, Wis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. G. Clark, 1894 . . . . . . . . . . .. 400 in. 64 ft. For University of Chicago. Lick, California. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. Clark & Sons, 1887 . . . . . .. 360 in. 57 ft. 10 in. _ Meudon, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. } ' ' ' ' I I %}ilSO,lt§igfgrFsh1c lens‘ Imperial, Pulkowa, Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. Clark & Sons, 1885. . . .. .. 300 in. Nice, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Henry Brothers, 1886 . . . . . .. 299 in. Meudon, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29'Oin. Royal, Greenwich, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sir H. Grubb, 1893 . . . . . . . . .. 280 in. Imperial, Vienna, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sir H. Grubb, 1881 . . . . . . . . .. 27'O.in. 29 ft Royal, Greenwich, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sir I-I. Grubb, 1895 . . . . . . . . .. 260 in. Astrographic equatorial. Naval, Washington, D. C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. Clark 8: Sons, 1873 . . . . . .. 260 in. Leander McCormick, Charlottesville, Va . . . . . . A. Clark & Sons, 1881 . . . . . . . 260 in. 32.} ft University of Virginia. Cambridge, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Cooke 85 Sons, 1870 . . . . . . . .. 250 in. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass . . . . . . . . A. G. Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24'O in. . . . . . . . . .. Photographic doublet. National, Paris, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Henry Brothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.6 in. 59 ft. Equatorial Coudé. Halsted, Princeton, N J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. Clark 8: Sons, 1883 . . . . . .. 230 in. Chamberlin, Denver, Col . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. Clark & Sons, 1881 . . . . . .. 20'0 in. Brera, Milan, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Merz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19'1 in. Manila, Philippine islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Merz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192 in. University, Strassburg, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . Merz & Mahler . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 in. 27;} ft. University of Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. Clark & Sons, 1862 . . . . . .. 18.3 in. 23 ft. Van der Zee, Buffalo, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 180 in. . .. .. . Dismounted. Lowell, Flagstafi, Ariz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. Clark & Sons . . . . . . . . . .. 180 in. Lowe, Echo Mountain, Cal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Clark & Sons . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 in. 22 ft. Formerly in Rochester, N. Y. Goodsell, Northfield, Minn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. Clark & Sons . . . . . . . . . . .. 160 in. Washburn, Madison, Wis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Clark & Sons, 1879 . . . . . .. 156 in. 20 ft. 3 in. Dunecht, Aberdeen, Scotland. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. T. Grubb, 187 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 151 in. 15 ft. . Tulse Hill. London, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. T. Grubb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15'O in. ’ Pulkowa, Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Merz & Mahler, 1840 . . . . . . . .. 150 in. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass . . . . . . . . 11/Ierz & Mahler, 1843 . . . . . . . .. 150 in. 22 ft. 6 in. National, Paris, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Lerebours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15.0 in. Madrid, Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Merz & Son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15-0 in. Royal, Brussels, Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Merz & Son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 in. 25 ft. Bordeaux, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Merz 8: Son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149 in. 27 ft. Nice, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Henry Brothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 in. 27% ft. Lisbon, Portugal . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Merz 8; Mahler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 in. Markree Castle, Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 in. Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135 in. Dudley, Albany, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ' z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130 in. 15 ft. ' Columbia College, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rutherfurd & Fitz . . . . . . . . . . 130 in. 15 ft. 2 in. Allegheny, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13'() in. II. Reflectors with Mirrors of 24 Inch cs Diameter and over. Dlam. of mirror. Birr Castle, Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Rosse. 1844 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 ft. 54 ft. Speculum metal. Common, Ending}, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A. A. Common, 1891 . . . . . .. 5 ft. 27 ft. Silver on glass. Herschel, Sloug , England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. W. Herschel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 ft. 40 ft. Dismounted. Speculum metal. Lassell, Liverpool. England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Lassell, 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 ft. 37' ft Destroyed. Speculum metal. Melbourne, Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. T. Grubb, 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 ft. 28 ft Speculum metal. National, Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Martin, 1875 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ft. . . . . . . . . . . Silver on glass. Birr Castle, Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rosse, 1839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '3 ft. . . . . . . . . . . Speculum metal. Bermerside, Halifax, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Calver, 1879 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 ft. . . . . . . . .. Silver on glass. Toulouse. France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Henry Brothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314~ in. . . . . . . . . . Silver on glass. Marseilles. France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foucault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311; in . . . . . . . . . . Silver on glass. Harvard University. Cambridge, Mass . . . . . . .. H. Draper, 1870 . . . . . . . . . . .. 28 in. . . . . . . . . .. Silver on glass. Royal, Greenwich, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. \V. Lassell, 1846 . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘ 24 in 20 ft Speculum metal. Royal, Edinburgh, Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. Grubb, 1872 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24 in . . . . . . _ . .. Silver on glass. \Vestmeath, Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sir H. Grubb, 1881 . . . . . . . . .. 24 in 10% ft Photographic telescopes, employed in taking photographs for the purpose of making a catalogue of the stars to be measured on the plates, and in the construction of a photographic chart of the heavens (photographic lens 13 inches, with 11-inch visual refractor in each case i, are mounted at the following observatories : Paris, Algiers, Bordeaux, Toulouse, San Fernando, the Vatican, La Plata. Rio de J aneiro, Santiago, Helsmgfors, Potsdam, Catania, Greenwich, Oxford, the Cape of Good Hope, Melbourne, Sydney, and Tacubaya. Virginia. Both were originally made by Alvan Clark & Sons, but the Washington telescope was remounted in 1803 by Warner & Swazey. A telescope of 25 inches aperture was constructed in Eng- land by Messrs. Cook, for Mr. Newall, of Gateshead, in 1870; it was later given to the University of Cambridge. The Vienna telescope is 27 inches in diameter, and was made by Sir Howard Grubb, of Dublin, in 1882. There are Telesil’la (Gr. TE7\e’0'l.7\?\a.) of Argos: lyric poet and hero- ine, who flourished about 510 B. 0. Her warlike deeds in the struggle of Argos against Sparta are probably mythical, and her poetry is represented by two lines in Bergk‘s Poetaa Lyrici Grceci (vol. iii., p. 380, 4th ed.). B. L. G. Telford, THOMAS: engineer; 1). at I/Vesterkirk, Dumf.ries- slnre, Scotland, Aug. 9, 1757; became a stone-mason, and TELFORD PAVEMENT studied architecture and drawing; went to London 1783, and was architect in the Portsmouth dockyard; in 1787 removed to Shrewsbury. His first great engineering work was the construction of the Ellesmere Canal, 103 miles long, which was begun in 1793 and completed in ten years. In 1803 he was intrusted with the construction of the CALEDONIAN CANAL (q. 1).), connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the North Sea, the ascent and descent being accomplished by locks of a size surpassing any heretofore attempted; this was com- pleted in 1823. Besides other works, as engineer to the commissioners of Highland roads and bridges, he built about 1,000 miles of road in Scotland, upon which are more than 1,200 bridges ; he constructed eight canals in Great Britain, the Gtita Canal in Sweden, and the beautiful suspension railway bridge over the Menai Strait. The Telford pave- ment was invented by him. The Institution of Civil Engi- neers was founded in 1818 Inainly through his influence, and he was its first president. Before he left his native dis- trict he wrote several very creditable poems in the Scottish dialect; he contributed valuable papers to The Edinburgh Encyclopeedia, and left The Life of Thomas Telford, Civil Engineer, written by himself (1838). D. at Westminster, Sept. 2, 1834. Revised by MANSFIELD MEEEIMAN. Telford. Pavement: See RoADs. Tell, VVILLIAM : according to Swiss legends, a celebrated marksman with the bow, living as a hunter at Biirglen in the canton of Uri. He was a member of the conspiracy which was formed against Austria at Griitli Nov. 7, 1307, by Walter Fiirst, of Uri, his father-in-law, T/Verner Stauffacher, of Schwytz, and Arnold von Melchthal, of Unterwalden, and which finally succeeded in freeing the country from the foreign yoke. At this time Gessler, the Austrian bailiff in Kiissnacht, raised a cap on a pole in the market-place of Altorf and ordered all passers-by to bow to the cap in token of submission. Tell refused, and was condemned to death, but pardoned on condition that he should shoot an apple from the head of his son. He ventured the shot and suc- ceeded, but Gessler noticed that he had put two arrows in his quiver, and asked why he had done so; and when Tell answered that if he had killed his son with the one he would have killed the bailiff with the other he was again put in chains and taken on board the bailiif’s boat to be brought to Kiissnacht. While crossing the lake the boat was ever- taken by a fearful storm and Tell was unchained in order to steer it, but at a certain point, known as Tell’s Leap, he jum ed ashore, lay in ambush in a defile through which Gess er had to pass on his way to Kiissnacht, and shot him; which deed became the occasion of a general rising in the cantons. Of this story about Gessler, Tell, Stauifacher, etc., the oldest Swiss chroniclers, Johannes, of Winterthur, Jus- tinger, of Berne, and Hemmerlin, of Zurich, know nothing. The first mention of these names and incidents is made in the latter part of the fifteenth century by Das weisse Buch, and a complete narrative does not occur until the middle of the sixteenth century in the Chronicon Illelveticum, bv ]Egidius Tschudi. The monuments erected in various places in honor of Tell are of a much later date. These cir- cumstances early made the story of William Tell somewhat suspected, though as a general rule it was considered as real history ; even Johannes von Mtiller accepted it. Later critics, however, have proved that the whole story is noth- ing but a legend common among the nations of the Aryan race, found with all its principal features in the Persian oet Farid Uddin Attzir, the Icelandic Thitlrehsaga, the anish historian Saxo Grammaticus, the English popular song on William of Cloudesley, etc., and only modified to suit Swiss circumstances. It has been proved further, es- pecially by Rochholz, that Gessler, too, is the product of imagination, and that a bailiff of that name did not exist at the time when Tell is said to have lived. The best poetic treatment of the Tell saga is that by Schiller in his famous drama Wilhelm Tell. Besides the account of the Tell legend in Tschudi, Schiller probably knew and used some of the old Tell plays popular in Switzerland. See Ideler, Die Sage vom Schusse cles Tells (1836) : Hitusser, Die Sage com Tell (1840); l-Iisely, Recherches critiques sur l’lfistoire dc Guillaume Tell (1843) ; Huber. Die Ii/'alrlstc'iclte Uri, Schwyz uncl Unterumlelen bis zur festen Begrilrz-clung ihrer Eialgenossenschaft (1861) ; Vischer. Die Sage von derDefrei- ung der Waldsttidte (1867 ; Rochholz. Tell und Gessler in Sage uncl Geschichte (1877); and G. Rtithe, Die dramatischen Quellen des Schill. Tell, in Eorsch. 2. al. Philologie (1894). Revised by JULIUS GOEBEL. TELL EL-KEBIR 53 Tell City: city (settled by Swiss colonists in 1858) ; Per- ry co., Ind.; on the Ohio river, and the Louisv., Evansv. and St. L. Consolidated Railroad; 3 miles N. l/V. of Cannelton and 75 miles E. of Evansville (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 11—D). It is in a coal-mining region; has Lutheran and English and German Methodist and Roman Catholic churches, a parochial and 2 public-school buildings, an in- corporated bank with capital of $25,000, and 3 weekly news- papers; and flour, woolen. saw, and shingle mills, foundry and machine-shop, distilleries, breweries, and chair, furni- ture, and plow factories. Pop. (1880) 2,112; (1890) 2,094; (1894) 2,308, estimated with suburbs, 2,500. EDITOR or “JoUaNAL.” . Tell el-Amar’na: a modern Arab village in Egypt, on the east side of the Nile. midway between ancient Thebes and Memphis, and 190 miles S. of Cairo (27° 30’ N. lat.). It is near the ancient site of the capital founded and built by Amenophis IV., or KnU:\'A'rEN (q. u), the “hcretic” king who attempted to supplant the cult of Amon of Thebes by that of Aten, being a form of solar monotheism. Abandon- ing Thebes, the previous royal residence, Khunaten chose the plain of el-Amarna. It is about 12 miles long by 5 broad. The city occupied‘ its southwestern portion, and its site is indicated by low mounds which are about 5 by 2 miles in extent. These ruins show a systematic plan and are intersected by broad streets. The materials used in con- struction were mud bricks faced with plaster, except that stone was employed for altars, stelze, and for pavements, doorsteps, and in other places exposed to hard usage. The king’s palace was located on the side toward the river, and its painted pavements have been uncovered. The central and eastern portions were occupied by the temple of Aten, while the southern portion was devoted to the quarters of workmen and artisans. The designs are Egyptian in char- acter, but bear a foreign appearance as though executed by foreign workmen. As is well known, the royal court of the time was under foreign influence, even if it was not itself of foreign stock. In the cliff back of the city are many_tombs of adherents of the new form of the Egyptian religion. In the winter of 1887-88 some 320 clay tablets, perfect or fragmentary, inscribed with cuneiform inscriptions, were found among the ruins of a building adjacent to the palace, and are now preserved in the museums of London, Ber- lin, and Gizeh. They were written in the Babylonian lan- guage and date from the fifteenth century B. 0. Most of them are communications from various persons in the East, kings, governors, or agents, made to Amenophis III. and Amenophis IV., or Khunaten. They contain many well- known local names, such as Jerusalem, Lachish. Ascalon, Gezer, J oppa, Hazor, Accho. Sidon, Tyre. and Beirut. See Bezold and Budge, The Tell el-Amarna Tablets in the Brit- ish flluseum (London, 1892); Bezold, Oriental D2'])lomaey (London, 1893) : Sayce, Records of the Past. 2d series. vols. ii., iii., v.. vi.; Iligher Criticism and the Jllonuments (Lon- don, 1893); Evetts, lVezv Light on the Bible and the Holy Land (London, 1894): Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. x., 540-569 (Budge); 21., 488-525, xi., 326-413 (Sayce); Zeitsch/rift fiir Assyriologie. iii., 372-406 (Lehman, Aus elem Euncle eon Tell el-Amarna); v.. 137-165 (Zimmern, Briefe aus elem Furule in el-Amarna); vi., 245-63 (Zimmern. Die Keilschrz'ftbrz'efe aus Jerusalem). See also Ba-edeker‘s Upper Egypt, p. 20 ff. CHARLES R. GILLETT. Tell el-Kebir’ [Arab. ::the great mound]: a village in the province of Sharkiah in Lower Egypt; situated upon a canal of sweet water which flows from Suez to Zagazig. It lies slightly N. of Tell el-Mashkutah, the site of ancient Pithom. Tell el-Kebir was the scene of a fierce battle between Brit- ish and Egyptian troops. which decided the fate of the re- bellion instigated by Arabi Pasha. In this place. chosen by nature to be a fortress, Arabi had intrenched 50.000 men with 150 cannon and plenty of ammunition. Sir Garnet VVolseley. the British commander-in-chief, had, by a ruse. become possessed of the Suez Canal. On the march toward Cairo. Maj.-Gen. Graham had advanced as far as Kassas- , sin. where he had been attacked by the Arabs. It was not until the night of Sept. 12, 1882. that Wolseley felt secure enough in order to move forward. On the morning of the 13th the British forces. to the number of 14.000, moved for- ward and took the fortifications raised at Tell el-Kebir at the point of the bayonet. Though the Egyptians fought bravely. their camp and 3.000 soldiers fell into the hands of the British. By continued prompt action W’olseley saved Cairo from a destruction which Arabi had prepared for it. 54 TELLER See Appletons’ Annual C_r/olojvcedia (new series, vol. vii., 1887, p. 251); Goodrich, Report of the B)"il’i8]b N a-val cmcl llltlttary (lpera-lions in Egypt : Info1'12zatt'on_f'rom Abroad (War Series, No. 3, p. 146). R. GoT'rHEIL. Teller, HENRY Moons, LL. D.: U. S. Senator; b. at Granger, Allegany co., N. Y., May 23, 1830; educated at Alfred University, New York; studied law, and was ad- mitted to the bar at Binghamton, N. Y., 1858 ; removed to Illinois in 1858, thence to Colorado in 1861 ; was elected U. S. Senator (Republican) on the admission of Colorado as a State in 187 6; re-elected for 1877-83; chairman of special committee on election frauds, known as the Teller com- mittee, 1877-78. He was U. S. Secretary of Interior from Apr. 6, 1882, to Mar. 4, 1885 ; re-elected U. S. Senator from Colorado in 1885 and again in 1891. Téllez, tel’_v5th, GABRIEL, Maestro Fray (better known by his nom de guerre of Traso DE MOLINA): dramatist; b. in Madrid, Spain, some time between 1570 and 1585. The details of his life are almost entirely unknown. He was educated at Alcala de Henares, and later (perhaps when well advanced in life) took orders in the Church. He en- tered the order of N uestra Sefiora de la Merced Calzada, and became a famous preacher; was made chronicler of his or- der; inspector of the convents in Old Castile; and Sept. 29, 1645, was elected prior of the monastery of Soria. D. in Soria about 1648. As a dramatist he belonged to the school of Lope de Vega, as he himself acknowledged. So prolific ' was he, however, that he is one of the chief figures of the golden age of the Spanish drama. He informs us that he had written 300 plays, but only fifty-nine are extant. Many of these are remarkable for the looseness of their situ- ations and their language; and the Inquisition is known to have hunted down and destroyed his works on this account, wherever it could find them. Undoubtedly the most fa- mous of his plays is El Burlaclor do Seotlla, in which, using a dramatic situation from Lope’s Dt'ne’ros son (jalvlddd and a theme perhaps derived from real life, the poet first worked out the story of Don Juan Tenorio, so famous in European literature since. Another play, a most intricate comedy of intrigue, Don Gil de las Cdlzds Verdes, has held its place on the Spanish stage down to the present. A different side of Tirso's genius is shown in the grave and deeply religious play El Condenado por desoonfiddo (The Doubter Damned). Like all the Spanish dramatists of his time, he showed the greatest facility in turning from the gay to the serious; and several of his Autos, or religious dramas, are excellent in their kind. Besides plays, Tirso wrote two famous collec- tions of stories after the fashion of the Deoameron—-the C’/igarrales de Toledo (1st ed. 1621 or 1624)—-giving the stories, verses, and plays supposed to have been recited to a wedding company at country-houses (oz'garrales) near Toledo, and Delettar Aproveohcmdo (Pleasure with Profit, 1625), more moral, but never finished. The Comedvlcas of Tirso de Molina, so far as published, first appeared in five parts, between 1627 and 1636. A selection of thirty-six of the best plays was edited by Hartzenbusch, 12 vols.. 1839-42; 3d ed. 1 vol., 1885 (vol. v. of Rivadeneyra’s Bibltotecd de Autores Espaltoles). Tirso’s Nooelds are printed in vol. i. of Ochoa’s Tesoro do Novcltstas espaitoles (Paris, 1847). A. R. MARSH. Tellicher’ry: town of Malabar, Madras, British India; picturesquely situated on the open sea in a beautiful, fer- tile, and well-cultivated district rich in spices, rice, and co- coanut-palms (see map of S. India, ref. 6-C). It has a good harbor and exports spices and sandal-wood. Pop. (1891) 27,196. of which number 10,000 are Mohammedans and 1,800 Christians. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tel'lurides [deriv. of tellum'um] : compounds of the ele- ment tellurium with other metals. They constitute chiefly the native mineral compounds of tellurium. Blsrmu‘/2, lellwm'de is the mineral tetradymite, which, as found in gold mines in Virginia and Georgia, has the com- position, according to Genth, of pure bismuth telluride, Bi2Te3, while that from the Uncle Sam lode in Montana con- tains sulphur and has the composition Bi4Te,-,S. Other Mon- tana tetradymitcs, from placer gold, were found by Genth to be free from sulphur. Genth discovered with these latter tetradymites, and also in Davidson co., N. C., a mineral mon- tanite, a bismuth tellurate, Bi2O3.TeO3.2H2O. Tetradymite is a steel-gray mineral, in inflexible folia or laminae like graphite, soft and marking paper like the latter, hexagonal in form. It may be distinguished from gra )l1ltC by roasting in a glass tube open at both ends. when a white sublimate of tellurous oxide will appear, fusible to transparent, colorless TEMESVAR droplets. It is also fusible and combustible before the blow- pipe, tingeing the flame bluish green. Lead tellmvlde is altaite, a rare white metallic sectile min- eral, sometimes in cubical crystals, like galena, the corre- sponding sulphide. It is PbTe. It is found in the Altai Mountains, and in the U. S. at the Red Cloud mine, Colorado, and at the King’s Mountain gold mine in Gaston co., N. C. Silver tellurlde is the rare mineral hessite, Ag2Te. It is metallic, iron gray, and sectile, and in crystallization right rhombic. It usually contains some gold. It is found in the Altai Mountains, at several Hungarian localities, and at the Stanislaus mine in Calaveras co., Cal. Genth has also noted it in small quantity from the Red Cloud mine, Colorado. Gold and silver telluodde is the mineral petzite, found at Nagy-Ag in Transylvania, and also by Genth among the ores of the Red Cloud mine. Genth’s analyses indicated 24 and 25 per cent. of gold in the composition of the Colorado petzite. It is scarcely to be distinguished without analysis from hessite in appearance or character. The auriferous mineral is somewhat lighter in color and more brittle. It is right rhombic, like hessite. Gold z.‘ell'm't'de is sylvanite, which always contains some sil- ver (12 to 13 per cent. at the Red Cloud mine), is monoclinic, steel gray or silver white, and varies in composition and density within wide limits, containing from 23 to 30 per cent. of gold. It is found at two Transylvanian localities in Europe, Nagy-Ag and Ofienbanya, and it was unknown in the U. S. until the younger Silliman found it at the Red Cloud mine; but Dana gives also the Melones and Stanislaus mines in Calaveras co., Cal., as localities. Genth obtained gold telluride, calaverite, from the Stanislaus mine, having the composition AuTe.;, with about 41 per cent. of gold. Its color is bronze yellow, and its streak yellowish gray. It is brittle, and not crystalline. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Telll1’1‘iu1n [from Lat. tel’lus, tellu’m's, earth] : one of the elements of matter belonging to the same family as sul- phur and selenium. It is one of the rarer elements, though it is found in a number of minerals. Von Reichenstein be- lieved that he had found a new metal in 1782 while work- ing with some gold ores. Not trusting his own work he sent specimens of the ores to Torbern Bergmann; but Berg- mann would not venture a positive conclusion, and it was not until 1798 that Klaproth confirmed the discovery, and then he named the element tellurium. It has been since investigated mainly by Berzelius. Brauner has also con- tributed to the knowledge of its properties. The occurrence of the element is described in the article TELLURIDES (g. o.). It is found in a number of localities in North America, and if there were a demand for it no doubt it could be obtained in any desired quantity. The ores are treated with strong oxidizing agents, such as aqua regia, chlorine, etc., by which the tellurium is converted into tellurous acid, H2TeO3. By treating with sulphurous acid the acid is then reduced to the form of the element. Tellurium is silver white, very lus- trous, and crystallizes very easily. It is brittle, does not con- duct heat well. and conducts electricity very little. Under the influence of light the electrical conductivity is somewhat increased, though the increase is by no means as marked as in the case of selenium. When tellurium is strongly heated, it takes fire and burns with a strong flame which is blue with green edges, and gives off a thick white smoke of tel- lurium dioxide, TeO2, which has a peculiar weak acid odor. It was formerly supposed that this vapor has the odor of rotten radishes, but this is wrong, as the latter odor is caused by the presence of a small quantity of selenium. Tellurium melts at about 500° C., and at a higher temper- ature it is converted into a golden yellow vapor. Its atomic weight is 125. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Telugu: See DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES. Temesvar, tam-esh-vaar’: town; in Hungary; on the navigable Bega Canal, which joins the Theiss at Titel, 5 miles from the Danube (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 8—J). It is well built with broad, straight streets lined by handsome houses. Its cathedral and synagogue are splen- did edifices, and it has fine monuments and educational in- stitutions. The castle, erected by I-luniadi in 1443, is now the arsenal. The town was held by the Ottomans from 1552 to 1716, when it was taken by Prince Eugene of Savoy. It was almost destroyed when besieged by the Hungarians from Apr. 25 to Aug. 9, 1849, but was delivered by Haynau. It manufactures leather, silk and cotton fabrics, and carries on an extensive transport trade in wheat and wine. Pop. (1890) 39,884. E. A. Gaosvmvou. TEMISCAMINGUE LAKE Temis'camingue Lake: a body of water on the bound- ary between the provinces of Ontario and Quebec of the Do- minion of Canada. It is 30 miles long and 15 broad, and is in lat. 47° 30’ N., lon. 80° WV. Its waters flow into Ottawa river. Its basin is the seat of a French-Canadian coloniza- tion of several hundred families. Tem’minck, CONRAD JACOB; naturalist; b. in Amster- dam, Holland, Mar. 31, 1778; entered the service of the Dutch East India Company, and became a student of natu- ral history. His principal work was Jllcmuel cl’Orm'z‘holo- gie (1815; enlarged ed., 4 vols. 8vo, 1835-40). He was also author of Nouoeau Reouevll do Plcmches coloriées d’0iseaux (folio, 1820-44), consisting of 600 plates. He became direc- tor of the Natural History Museum at Leyden in 1820. He wrote a number of important works respecting the East Indies; among others, Coup d’cez'Z général 8’ll/I‘ Zes possessions Neerlandaises dams Z’1acZe Aroltipélagdque (3 vols., Leyden, 1847-49). I). J an. 30, 1858. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Tem'pe (in Gr. 01% Té/urn): a valley, or rather a gorge, in Northeastern Thessaly, Greece; 5 miles long, and in_ some places so narrow that between the high cliffs which rise al- most perpendicularly on both sides there is space only for the river Peneus, which traverses the valley, and a carriage- road. In antiquity it was very celebrated for the beauty'of its scenery. It was strongly fortified at several points, and ruins of these fortifications are still visible. It is now called Lykostomo. Revised by J. R. S. Srnaasrr. Temperament [from Lat. temperamen'ium, a mixing in due proportion, temperament, disposition, deriv. of tempera- re, divide, proportion, mingle in due proportion]: in keyed instruments, such as the organ and piano, a certain adjust- ment or regulation of the sounds or intervals of the scale, with the view of removing an apparent imperfection, and fitting the scale for use in all keys without offense to the ear. The musical scale in use in keyed instruments is a compro- mise, or a scale in which most of the intervals are not mathematically correct, or true to the scale of nature as de- duced from the Monoonoan (g. 1).), but are slightly modified by elevation or depression, a process absolutely necessary to meet the various exigencies of modern music. This modi- fying or nice adjustment of the sounds of the scale is the office of temperament; and in tuning an organ or piano the first thing done is the fixing of the temperament by adjust- ing with great care a single octave in the middle of the keyboard as a pattern from which all the other pipes or strings, above or below, are to be tuned by octaves, double octaves, etc. It has been found that though the perfect octave seems to be divisible into six major tones, as 0--D, D-—E. E——Ffi, Fit—G;tt, Ab—Bb, and Bb-0, yet these, when added to- gether, are really somewhat more than an octave. Again, though the octave seems divisible into three major thirds, as 0-E, E-—Git, and Ab-—C, yet by strict measurement these three thirds prove to be less than the octave in ex- tent. This is illustrated in the following manner by E. J. Hopkins, of the Temple church, London, in his work on 1716 Organ: “Supposing the perfect octave to be divided into 3,010 equal parts, the interval of a major tone would con- tain 511 of those parts. But if we multiply 511 by 6, we have 3,066, instead of 3,010, plus 56 parts; so that the oc- tave contains less than 6 major tones by 56 parts. A major third also would contain 969 parts, which multiplied by 3 would make 2,907, instead of 3,010, minus 103 parts; the octave in this case containing 103 parts more than the three major thirds.” To distribute or get rid of this excess or shortcoming resource can only be had to temperament-—i. e. the modifying of several of the intervals by very slightly raising or lowering them, so as to extend or contract their whole sum to the exact limits of the octave. In the prac- tice of tuning, this apparent irregularity or imperfection of the scale is usually treated as an overplus, which must be disposed of by some method which shall not so affect any interval of the scale as to make it offensive to the ear. Sev- eral modes of doing this have been devised. and these are commonly classed under the heads of equal and unequal temperament. On an instrument unequally tern .ered the excess is un- evenly distributed, so that some of t ie intervals will be per- fectly smooth and agreeable, while others will be harsh. In old church organs this temperament was in general use. Music formerly was written in very few keys, and modula- tions were seldom carried into remote scales. It was cus- tomary, therefore, to make the keys that were in common TEM PERANCE 5 5 use as perfect as possible, at the expense of the other keys, on which all the roughness of the temperament was concen- trated. Under the requirements of modern music, with the whole circle of the keys in common use, this unequal tern- perament has become obsolete. In equal temperament the excess or deficiency above noted is distributed among all the keys, thereby rendering them all available for use, and enabling the composer to present harmonious combinations in the remotest keys without any disagreeable effect. There are, however. several shades or degrees of equal tempera- ment, from the strictest uniformity to any amount of ine- quality which is still bearable. If all keys were made ex- actly alike, there would be an undesirable loss of their individual character, and no difference perceptible except in their degree of acuteness. To avoid this, some discrimina- tion is commonly used in favor of certain popular keys, yet not to such an extent as sensibly to injure the effect of keys less favored. A difference is recognized at once between the major keys of D and Ab, even though the instrument in use is said to be equally tempered. In musical theory and in treatises on harmony a tempered interval does not differ by name from an untempered one. Thus the fifth C—G. though reduced by temperament. is still called and assumed to be a perfect fifth; and all terms indicating chords, com- binations, and progressions remain unaffected by any influ- ence from temperament. Revised by DUDLEY BUCK. Temperament: the general temper or disposition of a person. The word is of popular origin, signifying the most general characteristics which distinguish one person from another. Such differences as those between phlegmatic and nervous individuals have a fairly evident basis in the popu- lar use of the terms. Yet the doctrine of temperaments is very undeveloped. In the older physiology and medicine humors or bodily fluids were supposed to exist in varying quantities and varied mixtures in difierent persons; so among philosophers, Descartes and Priestley. Four temper- aments were distinguished-the choleric, the sanguine, the phlegmatic, and the melancholic. Later writers, to whom the problem was one mainly of psychological interest, have classed the temperaments under much the same words, but with more adequate theoretical grounds. For example, \Vundt arranges the temperaments under two great classes, each again having two divisions: first, as having a prevail- ing degree of quickness or sluggishness (i. e. fast and slow), and second, as being weak or strong. As follows: cuss. 1 Strong. 1 Weak. Fast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cl10l8I‘iC. Sanguine_ Slow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Melancholic. Phlegmatic. The grounds of explanation of such vaguely defined char- acteristics are about as vague in both medical and psycho- logical literature. Two general suppositions underlie cur- rent explanations: The differences are considered either vaso-motor in their seat, due to differences in the blood- circulation, pressure, etc.. or nervous, matters of hereditary variation on the side of sensibility. This latter explana- tion, vague as it is in respect to any definite determination of the actual basis of any of the so-called temperaments. is probably the line of inquiry which offers most promise for future research. An attempt has been made by Pa-ulhan to distinguish the temperaments on the ground of individ- ual pcculiarities in the manner and facility of movement, giving such divisions as impulsive, inhibitive. reflective tem- peraments, etc. This has also a certain interest. A distinction made by the pathologists in investigating speech-troubles seems to throw a little light upon this ob- scure subject. Men are distinguished as of various types, such as visuals, auditives, motors. etc., according as they depend mainly on one kind of sense-memories or another (those of sight, hearing, etc.) for the readiest speech. These distinctions probably apply also to other functions, and it is possible that in the future the criteria of mental “type ” may be so defined as to cover broadly the phenomena now ascribed to temperament. This, combined with the investi- gation of nervous heredity, may be expected to clear up the ‘ topic somewhat. J. I\’.[AR.K BALDWIN. Telnperance [via 0. Fr. from Lat. Z‘e'nzpe'2"(In'z‘2Ia, modera- tion, sobriety, deriv. of I‘e'm'perans, pres. partic. of z‘enz,vera-’- re, mix in due proportion, temper, moderate]: moderation or abstinence respecting the use of intoxicating liquors. It is more common among the more educated and refined classes in the community than it was a century ago. At that time 56 all classes indulged often to excess and without a thought of the impropriety of so doing. The disgusting stories of what happened without rebuke from public opinion in Europe or the U. S. are not myths. Some of the worst of these occur- rences, which would not now be tolerated in any decent so- ciety, were then generally considered as mere practical jokes; but such facts could not long occur in any reason- able community without exciting decided opposition from the more thoughtful members of it. The evils arising there- from were too patent. Hence arose temperance societies, so called-—societies of men and women pledged to promote temperance in the use of intoxicating drinks, not total ab- stinence as now generally inculcated by their successors. After some years their efforts seemed weak and success im- possible to the more earnest advocates. Hence have arisen various movements, all aiming to promote the same general object, the suppression of the liquor traffic and the disuse of alcohol in any form as a beverage. During the first half of the nineteenth century the so-called Washingtonian move- ment began in Baltimore. This for a season aroused the whole people and was the means of exciting a deep interest in the subject. It may be styled the confessional phase of the temperance movement. The pioneers and chief workers in it pleaded the cause of temperance by minutely detailing at public meetings their own erratic courses. Every drunk- ard became for the time being a most effective apostle, not only of temperance, but of total abstinence; but this move- ment did not last long, because (1) some of these apostles became baeksliders, and (2) because after a time the com- munity became nauseated with the revelations made by some of the speakers. Total abstinence was an essential article of faith for every Washingtonian. For him certain- ly that rule was su reme and admitted by all to be abso- lutely necessary. ollowing these have arisen societies, some of which declare that the taking of stimulants in any amount by any person is unnecessary and virtually a crime against society, a sin per se, while others acknowledge that many, perhaps a majority of, persons may indulge with per- sonal safety, but urge that all should practice abstention as needful for the remainder, the strong assisting to bear the burdens of the weak and thus carrying out the Christian law of charity as taught by St. Paul. The doctrine that everybody should forego the use of all liquors because some became drunkards was a logical and practical one for the Washingtonians; but it was by no means an equally obvi- ous conclusion when applied to the whole public, as the Prohibitionists for many years have been trying to do. The old temperance societies opposed this idea, but either failed of meeting it or were finally subdued by it. Licenses given by the state are by Prohibitionists deemed wrong in principle, as licensing a crime, or at least a great social evil which should be made the subject of legal restriction as well as gambling. Hence for years the questions of prohi- bition and license have been the watchwords of bitterly op- posing partisans. It is proposed briefly to examine these two systems of promoting temperance. Alcohol has been proved to be at times a remedy of im- mense value to man. In order to be thus valuable to man- kind it must be used legitimately and under proper safe- guards. On the contrary, if used 011 improper occasions or too frequently or too freely, it ruins man and injures soci- ety to its very depths. These two propositions are strictly, scientifically true. It would seem as if none but bigots of either of the contending parties could deny them. Hence it follows that we may properly and justly under the vary- ing circumstances of life take one or the other position of favoring or of opposing either license or prohibition in our dealings practically with the question of temperance. It has been proved by correspondents living in various and widely separated portions of the earth’s surface that a tend- ency to use stimulants exists among all people. From the savage to the most highly civilized race of men there is no one of them that has not this instinct; and with the instinct naturally arises the tendency to excess in the indulgence of it. The desire for this gratification appears, however, to vary much according to a cosmic law of heat and climate. The isothermal lines which limit the growth of the grape N. and S. of the equator seem to divide the northern and southern hemispheres into three tolerably well-marked zones —namely, (1) the tropical, (2) the temperate or grape-grow- ing, and (3) the northern or colder. In the first drunken- ness is almost unknown and it is deemed disgraceful, while lusts of other kinds, which are rare at the north, have full sway, unopposed by public opinion. In the second region TEMPERANCE milder drinks, such as native grap'e wines, mild beers, and ales, are used, perhaps in very large quantities, producing when drunkenness follows a milder and more jovial, less offensive, less destructive type of it than is observed in the more northern regions. In the third zone man drinks less in amount perhaps, but it is of a more potent fiery liquor. It makes him brutal and beastly, and frequently he becomes destructive of persons and of property. If this be so-—and such seems to be the fact—it is plain that prohibition in the first zone would scarcely be thought of; in the second some 1noralists might suggest it, though it would not be likely to be adopted; in the third it would find its strongest advo- cates. Parties there would inevitably arise prepared to stop the whole traffic in liquor because of its vile influence on man; and the zeal of these parties would be just in propor- tion to the enormity of the evil sought to be eradicated. Surely any reasonable plan which proposes to prevent a man from degrading and making a tiger of himself in his intercourse with others should be sustained. Another great influence—-viz., that of race, with its centuries of educa- tion of certain habits-—should always be taken into con- sideration in judging of this question. From these considerations it seems to many people that the state as a guardian of the public health is bound to use its great powers to restrain its citizens by actual prohibi- tion from the use of every alcoholic stimulus or to allow the use of them under more or less restriction to all, pro- vided that in so doing it does not interfere with the inher- ent right of the individual to use any food or drink he may prefer without injury to himself or others. In deciding these delicate questions the community may be divided into childhood and manhood. This is already done on the sub- ject of voting and on many others. Only at certain ages does the male in the eyes of the law become a man and the female a woman. For the former of these classes—i. e. for all persons under the age of legal manhood——the prohibi- tion of the use of liquors or a most restrictive license should be inaugurated and as far as possible thoroughly carried out. For the very young statute law would be rarely needed if the parental authority were duly exercised. The custom in some families, more common formerly than now, of allow- ing children to sip wine at their father's table is fraught with dangers of the most deadly kind for the future well- being of the man and of society; and it must be added that if the father sips his wine at table it will be very difficult to prevent the sons from doing the same when opportunity offers. Statute law should provide still further for the cor- rect guidance of the youthful years of the future citizen, and the giving or selling of liquor to a minor should be pro- hibited under the severest penalties. When the state appre- ciates its high prerogative of contributing to the best edu- cation of every citizen, then the selling or giving of liquor to a minor will be deemed one of the most heinous of crimes. After the youth arrives at manhood or womanhood—viz., at the age at which even by statute law he or she has the full- est privileges in the choice of good or evil——we can not pro- ceed in this arbitrary way. In consequence, however, of the inherent infirmity of hum an nature some will then be induced to drink inordinately and behave in a manner contrary not only to their own interests, but to the peace of the common- wealth. All such persons will need the watchful care of the state, and it must assume the parental relation or that of a stern judge, and if no punishment should be sulficient to restrain the drunkard, then the state should seclude him as an insane man in an inebriate asylum. Again, it has been most justly urged that the state should not only prohibit the sale of liquor to an habitual drunkard, but that the dealer who for the sake of gain violates such a law should be held responsible, not only for that violation, but for all the damages the victim may commit while in- toxicated ; and, moreover, that the family of the latter, which is bereft of its natural guardian, should be allowed a weekly stipend from the vender during the illness or im- prisonment of the father. Finally, the state, for its own safety and on the sacred principle of salus popnli snprcma lea, should deprive the in- corrigible drunkard of his civil rights, as the state treats the felon. Virtually the drunkard throws his recklessly away in the very act of becoming intoxicated. But shall we have prohibition or a limited license for the community at large‘? This question divides itself when applied to the practical customs of life. The system of open bars for the sale of the coarser liquors and the custom of treating, as practiced by the English-speaking race, and especially iii the U. S., are TEMPERAT URE unmitigated evils, and should be forthwith given up or should be crushed by state power. Although they would undoubtedly exist in secret places, it would nevertheless be the greatest boon to the community to have them, at least like the felons they make, obliged to keep out of sight. Should the same prompt measures be applied to the sellers of milder beers, ales, and wines‘? Undoubtedly these too should be under state and municipal surveillance. More- over, some of the stronger beers or ales should be classed with the coarser liquors, as they steal away the senses al- most as quickly and quite as powerfully as absinthe, whisky, or rum. Another question arises: Should the same rigid rule be applied to native light wines and beers which con- tain but a small quantity of alcohol and may therefore be used with comparative safety‘? The diificulty is that, as shown by practical experience, tavernkeepers, licensed to sell beer, will usually sell whisky also, surreptitiously. It is, moreover, argued that though beer and light wines may be indulged in more freely than stronger drinks, there is a dan- ger that this use of milder liquors will lead to the use of grosser ones. It is probable that this is true in many cases, and doubtless it would be wrong to allow any one having tendencies to intoxication, either from hereditary descent or previous bad habits, to use even these milder liquors. With all such, total abstinence is absolutely essential; but it does not follow that this is necessary for all, and the only valid argument for total abstinence with those who are free from such tendencies must be the Scriptural one-—that every man should be willing to curtail his own liberty lest his weaker brother be made to ofiend. The final conclusion is this—-viz., education and a cultiva- tion of all the amenities of life should be promoted for the sake of temperance. In the school, and above all in the family, no opportunity should be lost of impressing on the tender consciences of the young the utter beastliness of drunkenness. A child should be taught to reverence the mind within him, and to shrink with horror from the thought of ever once depriving himself of its perfect con- trol; and where public opinion will sustain such action the state may properly place liquor-saloons in the same category with gambling-houses, and rigidly suppress both. See PRO- HIBITION and ABsTiNENcE, TOTAL. Revised by JOHN ASHHURST, Jr. Telllgeratiire [via O. Fr. from Lat. ternperatn’ra, a mix- ing in ue measure, proportion, temper, temperament, tem- perature, deriv. of temperdre, mix in due proportion, tem- per]: the condition of a body in relation to the molecular activity manifested as heat, which condition determines its interchange, either of radiation or absorption, with neigh- boring bodies. (See GAS and -HEAT.) The addition of heat to a body communicates to it a higher temperature in all cases except when a change of form occurs, as from a liquid to a gaseous condition, or when there is chemical action. (See THERMO-CHEMISTRY.) Measurements of the tempera- ture of a body by thermometers are not strict measurements from a scientific point of view, but rather comparisons with certain other effects depending on change of temperature in special bodies. (See THERMOMETER. and TEERMOMETRY.) In gases the temperature can be expressed in an absolute manner in terms of the kinetic energy of the molecules, if we suppose the rigorous truth of Boyle’s and Gay-Lussac’s laws; that is, in a perfect gas the temperature is propor- tional to the average kinetic energy per molecule. As this is not the case, only a part of the temperature can be so ex- pressed iii consequence of the existence of intermolecular actions. See THERMODYNAMICS. See also METEOROLOGY. R. A. RoBERTs. Temperature of the Body: The temperature of the human adult in a state of health averages from 984° to 986° F., the fractionally higher temperature existing in the warmer-blooded races, as those of Southern Europe, the lower average being found in northern nations and the Anglo-Saxon race. The fluctuations of temperature in health are exceedingly small-—fractions of a degree, rarely more-—dependent on physical activity or inactivity in sleep or wakefulness, or functional activity, as digestion. The ex- tremities and surfaces may show a lowered temperature in winter, but the temperature taken by a thermometer in the mouth, rectum, armpit, or fold of the groin reveals a nearly uniform heat of the blood and internal organs. Animal heat is generated by the nutritive supply and assimilation with destructive tissue-waste. These processes lead to a cer- tain production of heat; at the same time there is a constant ' servation. TEMPLE 57 dissipation of heat from the skin, through the lungs, and by the various other excretions. The regulation of the produc- tion and dissipation of heat is controlled by nervous centers situated in the basal portions of the brain. Any disturbance of these by conditions of the blood or circulation may there- fore lead to disturbances of the temperature. As well- known examples “ shock” or nervous depression causes re- duced temperature, while excitement, pleasure, anger accel- erate the circulation and elevate temperature. The temper- ature of children and infants is one to two degrees higher than that of adults. The temperature of aged persons is half a degree or more below the adult average. “ Medical thermometry,” the use of the thermometer to register and study temperature in disease, is a constant practice in med- ical work. De Haen (during the fever at Breslau a century and more ago), John Hunter, and Currie employed the ther- mometer, but the German school-and notably 'Wunderlich -has popularized its use by the profession within a com- paratively recent period. The self-registering thermometer is employed, and the observations may therefore be taken by the nurse or attendant. In many diseases there is elevation of temperature. Where this is but a symptom in some dis- tinct local disease the fever is regarded as but a symptom. On the other hand, there are diseases in which the fever is the most decided symptom. These have long been known as the fevers, or of late, from the present knowledge of their causation, as the infectious fevers. Among such are typhoid fever, malarial fever, and the like. In these there is usually a period of onset, a stage of continued symptoms, and a stage of decline. The temperature of the body varies greatly in different cases of the same fever or other disease and at dif- ferent times. This may depend either upon the individual or upon the severity of the disease. As a rule. its range is from 101° to 105° F. When above the latter point the term hgperpgrewia is applied. Such may occur in various infec- tious diseases, and especially in pernicious malarial fever, in sunstroke, and in certain cases of rheumatism. In the last-named diseases, temperatures of 110° or 112° F. have not infrequently been noted where recovery ensued. Occa- sionally cases of elevation of the temperature to 118° or 120° or even more are recorded; but in many of these deception has been practiced. The reverse of fever, subnormal tem- perature, is also frequent. Moderate grades are noted in conditions of depression or shock. It reaches serious grades in collapse from injury or such diseases as cholera, in which debilitating discharges occur. The, external temperature may here sink to 90° or even to 85° F. In practice the tem- perature is usually taken in the axilla or mouth, though the rectal temperature is less liable to accidental errors of ob- Revised by W. PEPPER. Teniperature of the Earth: See EARTH. Templar Knights : See KNIGHTS TEMPLAR. Temple: city (founded in 1882); Bell co., Tex.; on the Gulf, C01. and S. Fe and the Mo., Kan. and Tex. railways; 36 miles S. by VV. of V)-Taco, and 218 miles N. W. of Galves- ton (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 4-H). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and has 7 churches, a graded public school, a private high school, 2 national banks with combined capital of $180,000, 5 weekly newspapers, 3 large cottonseed-oil mills, cotton-compresses, and agricul- tural-i-niplement works. It is principally engaged in mer- cantile business. Pop. (1890) 4,047; (1895) estimated, 8,390. EDiToR or " TIMES.” Temple, FREDERICK, D.D.: Bishop of London; b. in England, Nov. 30, 1821; educated in the grammar school at Tiverton; graduated at Oxford University 1842; became fellow of Baliol College; took orders in the Church of Eng- land 1846; was principal of the training-college at Kneller Hall, near Twickenham, 1848-55; one of the Government inspectors of schools 1855-58 ; master of Rugby School from 1858 to 1869; appointed by Lord Palmerston Bishop of Exeter 1869; appointed Bishop of London 1885. He is a chaplain to the Queen; was one of the authors of the fa- mous Essays and Reviews (1860), and his confirmation to a bishopric was ineifectually opposed by the conservative party in the Church. He wrote three volumes of Sermons preached in Rugby Chapel (1861-71), and was Bampton lecturer at Oxford for 1884. Revised by C. H. THURBER. Temple, HENRY J onx : See PALMERSTON, VisooUNT. Temple, Sir RICHARD, D. C. L.. LL. D.: statesman and au- thor; b. iii \Vorcestershire, England, in 1826; entered the India civil service in 1846; was knighted in 1867; was for 58 TEMPLE several years lieutenant-governor and actual ruler of Bengal, in which capacity he did much to benefit the natives, espe- cially during the, famine of 1874; was governor of the Presi- dency of Bombay, and having returned to England in 1880 entered Parliament in 1885 as Conservative member for the southern division of Worcestershire; has been a member of the London school board since 1885. He is the author of India in 1880; 1lI en and Events of my Time in India (1882); Oriental Eazperience (1883) ; Cosmopolitan Essays (1886) : Palestine lllastrated (1888) ; and the memoir of John Law- rence in English Men of Action. F. M. COLBY. Temple, RICHARD GRENVILLE, Earl: statesman; brother of George Grenville ; b. in England, Sept. 26, 1711 ; entered Parliament for Buckingham 1734; was advanced in polit- ical life by the elder Pitt, and held the offices of Lord of the Admiralty 1756-57 and Lord Privy Seal 1757-61. D. at Stowe, Sept. 11, 1779. His correspondence, and that of his brother George, with Pitt, was edited as The Grenville Papers (4 vols., 1852-53), by \V. J. Smith. Temple, Sir WILLIAM : diplomatist and author; b. in London, England, in 1628 ; educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge; traveled on the Continent 1647-54; married Dorothy Osborne 1654; was a member of the Irish conven- tion 1660; a joint commissioner of the Irish Parliament to Charles II. 1662; was sent on a secret mission to the Bishop of Miinster 1665; was made a baronet and minister resi- dent at the court of Brussels 1666; visited Holland to urge the formation of a league against Louis XIV. 1667; nego- tiated the triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden, J an., 1668 ; assisted in perfecting the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and was commissioned ambassador to The Hague 1668; returned to England Sept., 1670; was dis- missed from otfice June, 1671, in consequence of the change of policy which had already (1670) led to a secret treaty with France, but was again appointed to negotiate a peace with the States-General of Netherlands 1674; assisted at the Congress of Nymwegen 1675-79; devised for Charles II. the plan of his privy council of thirty members Apr., 1679, and himself became a member. He declined the secretary- ship of state in the same year; served in Parliament as mem- ber for the University of Cambridge for a single session, but in 1680 his name was stricken from the roll of privy coun- cilors and he lived in retirement at Sheen and at Moor Park during his later years, having as secretary and literary as- sistant Jonathan Swift ; was visited and consulted by Will- iam III., but declined to return to political life. D. at Moor Park, Surrey, Jan. 27, 1699. Author of Observations upon the United Provinces (1672); The Origin and Nature of Government; Essay upon Ancient and Jlfodern Learn- ing; and other publications, collectively issued as his Works (2 vols., 1720), edited with a Zllemoir by Dr. Swift. His col- lected writings were republished in four volumes in 1814. See the Jlteinoirs by T. P. Courtenay (1836) and the Letters of Dorothy Osborne, edited by E. A. Parry (1888). Temple of the Sun: See Cuzco and INCAN ANTIQUITIES. Temple, The: See J ERUSALEM. Templeton: town; \/Vorcester co., Mass.; on the Boston and Albany Railroad ; 10 miles S. of Vllinchenden, 30 miles N. \V. of Worcester (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-F). It contains the villages of Baldwinsville, Otter River, and East Templeton; has 6 churches, high school, 14 schools, Boynton Public Library, a savings-bank, and a weekly newspaper ; and is principally engaged in the manu- facture of articles from asbestos, chairs, furniture, pails, and boxes. Pop. (1880) 2,789; (1890) 2,999. Tem’p0ral Bones [temporal is from Lat. tempora’lis, pertaining to the temples, deriv. of tem’pora, temples (of the head)] : a pair of irregular bones which in man consti- tute a portion of the sides and base of the skull. Each con- sists of (1) a squamous portion, perhaps a part of the ex- panded neural spine of the second cephalic vertebra; (2) a mastoid portion ; and (3) a petrous portion. Some regard these last two as parts of the splanchno skeleton rather than of the vertebral skeleton, considering them as structurally parts of the auditory apparatus. although they are func- tionally, at least in part, identified with the rest of the temporal bones. Others regard the mastoid as belonging to the neural arch of the second vertebra. The zygomatic process reaches forward from the outer surface of the squa- mous portion. and joins the malar bone, forming the zygo- matic arch; while attached to the petrous portion are a long styloid process and a nearly circular auditory process, TENDER the pleurapophyses, or ribs, of the third and second verte- brae of the skull. Attached to the mastoid portion is the mastoid (teat-shaped) process, which after puberty becomes hollowed into mastoid cells. Revised by W. PEPPER. Temporal Power : See PAPAL STATES and ROMAN CATI-Io- LIC Cannon. Temudj in: See GENGHIS KHAN. Tenacity of Metals: See STRENGTH or MATERIALS. Tenaille: in fortification, a rampart in the main ditch, in front of the curtain, between two bastions. See FOR'l‘IFICA.- TION. Tenancy in Cominon : See ESTATE, LANDLORD AND TEN- ANT, and JoINT Ownnasmr. Tenant for Years, at Will, and by Sufferance: See Es'rATE and LANDLORD AND TENANT. ' Tenas’serim: a division of BURMA (q. v.), forming part of the British empire in India. It is a long narrow tract of country, in from 10° to 17° N. lat., between Siam and the Bay of Bengal. Area, 46,590 sq. miles. The principal river is the Tenasserim, which rises in about 15° N. lat., and emp- ties into the sea by two months. Pop. (1891) 971,660. The principal town is MAULMAIN (q. v.). Ten Brink, BEENI-IARD ZEGIDIUS KONRAD : See BEINK. Tench [from O. Fr. tenche > Fr. tanche < Lat. tin'ca]: the Tinea valgaris, a cyprinid fish, abundant in European streams and lakes, and the only member of its genus. It has a compressed, fusiform shape, the trunk covered with small scales, the lateral line little decurved, the head conic in profile, the mouth small, and with a small barbel at \ The tench. each corner. the dorsal above the pectorals, and short, the anal also short, and the caudal little emarginated; the pha- ryngeal teeth are compressed, club-shaped, and in one row, generally five on the left and four on the right side; the color is generally dark-greenish olive above and on the sides, lighter below; the fins dark brownish. tains a length of nearly 3 feet and a weight of 12 lb., but does not often weigh more than 3 lb. It prefers rather deep and weedy, and apparently even foul water. It is very tena- cious of life. The female spawns in the late spring. The fish is popularly supposed to possess healing properties. Its fiesh is rather insipid. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Tendai-Shill (in Chinese T’icn-tai Tsang): a Buddhist sect, whose doctrines were introduced from China into Ja- pan in the year 805 A. D. by Dengio, the first abbot of Hiyei- san, Kioto. It divided later into three, the Enrialrnji, the Onjoji, Jlfiidera or Jiimon-Ha, and the Saihioji or Shinsei- Ifa. The name comes from the sacred mountain T’ien-tai in China, where Chisa first taught his doctrines. Recog- nizing the highest truths as incomprehensible, it makes spiritual enlightenment the result of contemplation and as- ceticism, which is confined to monks, who may impart their teaching by word of mouth to the laity. There is an ex- oteric teaching suitable for the vulgar, and another reve- lation of truth in itself. The deities worshiped formerly included many Shinto gods, who were regarded as Avataras of Buddhist deities. Nirvana is the final result of exist- ence, a state of absolute unconditioned existence, in which the thinking substance while remaining individual is unaf- fected by feeling, thought, or passion. J. M. Drxon. _ Tender [from Fr. tendre < Lat. ten’dere, stretch, extend] : In law, the attempt to perform a promise to do something or to pay something. The tender must be made by the prom- Iser, or by one duly acting on his behalf, to the promises or It occasionally at- ' TENDON his duly authorized representative ; it must be of the kind and must be made at the time and place stipulated in the contract or fixed by law, and it must be unconditional. If the law imposes upon the promisee the performance of some act as a condition of receiving the thing tendered, the ful- fillment of such condition may be required by the tenderer. For example, the debtor upon tendering the amount due on a note or a mortgage may demand the surrender of the note or a satisfaction of the mortgage. (Halp/t'n vs. Phwm':c Ins. Uo., 118 N. Y. 165.) Defects in a tender may be waived by the promisee, and the waiver may be by express words or by conduct. The subject is regulated by statute in some States. The eifect of a rejected tender to pay money is somewhat different from that of a rejected tender of goods. In the latter case the seller is discharged by his tender, “ and may either maintain or defend successfully an action for the breach of the contract.” According to the prevailing view in the U. S., the tender, although rejected, vests title to the goods in the purchaser. (2 Kent’s Commemfames, 508.) Such is not the effect in England, unless the buyer has pre- viously assented to the appropriation of the goods to the contract by the seller. (See SALE.) A tender of money in per- formance of a promise does not discharge the debt. It does, however, if kept good, stop interest and entitle the tenderer to costs, if he is subsequently sued upon the contract. It also discharges the lien of a mortgage or other security for the debt tendered. The money must be of a kind declared by law to be tenderable. In Great Britain gold coins of the realm are a legal tender to any amount, silver coins to the amount of 40 shillings, bronze coins to the amount of 1 shilling, and Bank of England notes for debts exceeding £5 are also ten- derable. The U. S. Constitution (Art. I, § 10, cl. 1) provides that no State shall make anything but go cl and silver a ten- der in payment of debts. The Federal Government has de- clared U. S. gold coins a legal tender to any extent, also silver dollars, except when otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract, also U. S. notes; while silver certificates are tender- able for customs, taxes, and public dues, and silver coins be- low the dollar are tenderable in sums not exceeding $10, and other minor coins for an amount not exceeding 25 cents. (U. S. R. S., 3584-3590; ch. 20, Laws of 1878: ch. 12, Laws of 1879; Legal Tender Cases, 12 I/Vallace 457.) Sil- ver coins are tenderable although worn smooth by wear, as are gold coins unless reduced one-half of 1 per cent. below standard weight. Rcwllroad vs. Jllorgan, 52 N. J . L. 60, 558. FRANCIS M. BURDICK. Tendon [from Fr., deriv. of tendre < Lat. ten’dere, stretch, extend; cf. Gr. 1'6’;/cox/, sinew, tendon, deriv. of 1-eiuew, stretch, extend]: in anatomy, the name of a white fibrous tissue connecting the end of a muscle with the bone which it is intended to move. It has sometimes the form of a cylindrical cord, sometimes of a broad ribbon, and in a few cases of a wide, thin sheet, but it is always inextensible and inelastic, and transfers at once the motion imparted by the contraction of the muscle to the bone into which it is in- serted. See HISTOLOGY and ACHILLES’ TENDON. Revised by W. PEPPER. Teneb'rio [Mod. Lat., from Lat. teneb'm'o, one who loves darkness, trickster, deriv of te'aebrce, darkness]: a genus of beetles, one species of which (T. molzfor) in the larval state is the well-known meal-worm, which feeds upon meal and other farinaceous substances. There are very few allied species in the eastern parts of the U. S. In California tenebrionid beetles “ form the characteristic feature of the insect fauna.” Ten’edos: island belonging to Turkey; in the Egean, 12 miles S. of the Strait of the Dardanelles and 44; miles from the mainland; famous as the place where the Greek vessels were concealed during the stratagem of the wooden horse which resulted in the fall of Troy. On the E. it has a good harbor, sheltered from the west wind, but the east coast verifies Ve1'gil—sfatt'o malefida ca2"m/is. During the Greek revolution Tenedos was the headquarters of the Otto- man fleet, which was destroyed here by Kanaris (Nov. 22, 1822). The island is famous for its wines and melons, and during the season abounds in red partridges and quail. Pop. of Tenedos, the capital, 6,000; of the island 15,000, almost exclusively Greeks, quiet and contented and less enterpris- ing than most of their race. E. A. Gaosvmvoa. Tenement [via O. Fr. from Late Lat. z‘enemen’zfmn. hold- ing, fief, deriv. of tene're, hold; of. TENANT, etc.]: in law, any real property, corporeal or incorporcal, which was sus- ceptible of tenure. Literally, the term signifies “ that which -above. TENEMENT-HOUSES 59 is held,” and the holding referred to is the feudal tenure of real property of and under a superior lord. In the famil- iar phrase employed by the common law to describe real property-—“ lands, tenements, and hereditaments ”—the term tenement has the most extensive signification; for it com- prehends not only lands proper, but everything in the na- ture of a right, interest, or estate in the lands of another; and it includes not only hereditaments, or estates of inher- itance, but such interests also as are incapable of transmis- sion by descent. For a fuller exposition, see articles on FEUDAL SYSTEM, LANDLORD no 'l‘ENAM‘, PROPERTY, and TENURE. GEORGE W. KIRCHWEY. Tenement-houses (originally Tenant-houses): dwellings sheltering under one roof several tenants, whose tenements, i. e. living-rooms. are independent of each other, but access to which is had by a common entrance. The number of tenants requisite to fixing their character as such varies with the legal definition of the term tenement-house. In New York it is a building “occupied by three or more families living independently and doing their cooking on the premises, or by more than two families on a floor, so living and cooking, and having a common right in the halls, stairways, yards, etc.” (Ch. 84, Laws of 1887.) In Massachusetts the standard is “more than three families,” while in some cities in the U. S. it is “ two or more families having a common entrance.” Of this latter kind are the small two-family houses common to factory towns in the U. S. which are often leased by the mill-owners to their employees. In England and in continental Europe the tenement-house may be a small two-story dwelling, origi- nally built for and occupied by one family. or a barracks containing a hundred. In Scotland a “tenement ” con- tains so many “houses” for tenants. There, as in Eng- land, the one-room apartment is common. In the U. S. it has never been so. New York is pre-eminently the tenement city of the U. S. In 1893 1,332,773 persons out of an estimated population of 1,891,306 lived in 39,138 tenements (board of health census of 1893), but this included the better apartment-houses, which are legally tenements. Deducting one-fifth as inhab- iting these, eight-fifteenths of the entire population lived in what are commonly called tenement-houses. The tenement of New York is generally from four to six stories high, of brick, on a lot 25 feet wide by 100, or less, deep, with air- shafts and more or less light on stairs and in hallways if built since 1880, when reform began in earnest, with none of these things if it antedates that period; stores on the ground floor, and two or four families on each of the floors Each family has a living-room with windows open- ing on street or yard, and usually two interior bedrooms, to which air and light are admitted only by the air-shaft or through the front room. In the old tenements the bed- rooms are not lighted at all. They are ventilated only by windows 'cut through to the dark hall. Almost the first task the health department found to do after its organization was to order 40,000 such windows cut through tenement bedroom walls in one year. The four-families-on-a-floor tenement is styled the double-decker. “ A five-story house of this character contains apartments for eighteen or twenty families, a population frequently amounting to 100 people, and sometimes increased by boarders and lodgers to 150 or more. The double-decker can not be well ventilated: it can not be well lighted. It is not safe in case of fire." Report of Tenement-house Committee, New York. 1894. Bethnal Green, London, before its partial demolition by the authorities, presented a view of the Old World slum tenement: “An area of some 15 acres was covered with an- cient two-story cottages facing on streets barely 18 feet wide and with the diminutive back-yards completely filled with outbuildings and workshops. Bethnal Green had been a thriving community of Huguenot weavers who had taken refuge in England from persecution in France, and had domiciled themselves in what was then a little village in the suburbs of London. But it had been swallowed up in the growth of the metropolis. and its tiny cottages had become packed with a slum population of the worst sort. The county council found five or six thousand people liv- ing in such amanner as to furnish an object-lesson.” (Albert Shaw, ]l[u»m'czIpa.Z (rloeemment in Great Bflfazin.) In Glas- gow “houses which were only intended to accommodate single families had beenincreased in height, and were found tenanted by separate families in every apartment, until they appeared to teem with inhabitants. . . . A worse state was 60 disclosed by an inspection of some of the more recently erected houses for the working classes. Tenements of great height were reared on either side of narrow lanes with no back-yard space, and were divided from top to bottom into numberless small dwellings, all crowded with occupants.” Report of Municipal Committee, 1859. Tenements are as old as the race, wherever the crowding of population made building space scarce and dear. When there was no longer room to build houses beside each other, they were put on top of each other and so the tenement grew. The communal dwellings of the Pueblo Indians of the U. S. and Mexico are tenement barracks built so for the common defense. The same reason crowded the population of Old World cities within their walls. In the second cen- tury J uvenal drew in his satires (see the third) a scornful picture of the towering tenements of Rome——called e‘/nsulce, because of their being built with narrow alleys between --in which 500,000 of his fellow citizens lived, squeezed into single rooms (coenaeala), for which they paid rent that would have purchased cheerful and commodious cottages in provincial towns. The architect Vitruvius, who lived in the Augustan era, speaks of the crowding of the poor within their cramped quarters. The palaces of the wealthy Ro- mans spread themselves over vast areas, leaving little room for the propertyless, and compelling recourse to the “ com- mon though inconvenient practice of raising the houses to a considerable height in the air. But the loftiness of these buildings, which often consisted of hasty work and insuffi- cient material, was the cause of frequent and fatal accidents, and it was enacted by Augustus, as well as by Nero, that the height of private edifices within the walls of Rome should not exceed the measure of 70 feet from the ground.” (Gib- bon’s Rome, ch. xxxi.) Modern cities have copied Nero’s enactment for their own safety. The development of the factory system with its changed industrial conditions, in the age of steam, caused the drift of population to the cities that has characterized the nine- teenth century. Their sudden growth, for which no prep- aration had been made, caused an unprecedented packing of the population and a corresponding expansion of the tenement-house system. The result is shown in the ease of New York. Its tenement-house system is entirely a growth of the century. The old dwellings, deserted by their wealth- ier inhabitants, were first turned into tenant-houses. Then rear houses were built in the yard, and great barracks with- out light or ventilation run up to shelter the crowds. Top- ographical conditions aided this development. The rivers shut in the population of workers, chiefly poor, who must live near their work. The greater the crowding grew, the higher the rent and the more pressing the need of crowd- ing to pay it. New York in 1894 had a density of popu- lation of 1432 to the acre, and stood in this respect at the head of the world’s cities. Paris came next with a density of 1252 to the acre, and Berlin third with 1136. The Tenth Ward of New York had 62626 to the acre, and one sanitary district of 32 acres in the Eleventh Ward averaged as high as 9864 persons to the acre. The densest small section in Europe is given as that of J osefstadt, Prague, with 4854 to the acre, but the Tenth Ward in New York alone is five times as large as Josefstadt. Report of the Tenement-house Com- mittee, 1894. Evils of Tenement-house Crozudtng.—Directly and indi- rectly, such crowding breeds bad social and moral condi- tions. “ The more crowded a community, the greater, speak- ing generally, is the amount of abject want, of filth, of crime, of drunkenness, and other excesses, the more keen is compe- tition. and the more feverish and exhausting the conditions of life.” (Dr. Ogle, of the Registrar-General’s office, Eng- land.) “Such conditions . . . interfere with the separate- ness and sacredncss of home life, lead to the promiscuous mixing of all ages and sexes in a single room, . . . thus breaking down the barriers of modesty and conducing to the corruption of the young." (Report of the Tenement-house Committee, New York, 1894.) The death-rate rises in pro- portion to the crowding and the age of the tenements, ex- cept, usually, in quarters inhabited by Hebrews, whose gen- eral hardiness, great vitality, and habits of abstemiousness, enforced by the precepts of the Mosaic faith, counteract the deteriorating influences of the slum. Thus the Tenth \Vard, in New York, while the most crowded, has of all the well- peopled wards of the city the lowest death-rate. Its rate in 1893, with an average density of 572 tenants to the house, was 1714 per 1,000 of the living; while the general tenement- house death-rate of the entire city was 2275, with an average TENEMENT—HOUSES number of 34 tenants in each house.‘ But among the other elements of the population the oldest and most crowded houses, which were built before the era of sanitary reform, have the highest mortality. The rear tenements, generally the oldest, with the poorest tenants and the greatest swarms, are the worst. According to the New York health depart- ment’s census of 1893 the death-rate for houses having rear tenements was 2766, against 2221 for the single tenements. The adult death-rate for the First (the oldest) Ward was for houses standing singly on the lot 2903; where there were front and rear houses it was 6197. The infant mortality for the same ward was respectively 10958 and 20454. In England, Dr. Tatham, of Salford, gave the following results in houses built on the “ back-to-back ” plan, now condemned as unfit to live in: General death-rate. Regent Road Sub- 1. No back-to-back houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26' 1 district . . . . . . . .. 2. Average of 18 per cent. of back-to-back houses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3. Average of 50 per cent. of back-to-back OUSQS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tenement‘-house Reform-These evils compelled recogni- tion in the Old World about the middle of the nineteenth century, and measures were set on foot to better the condi- tion of the tenants. They led, after twenty years of discus- sion, in Glasgow to the foundation in 1866 of the Improve- ment Trust, by which a wholesale destruction of old unsani- tary tenement-house property was begun; 29 new streets were formed, 25 old ones widened and much improved, a new square and a park opened, all at a cost of about £2,000,- 000. The improvement in the condition of the people has been great. In 1871 304 per cent. lived in one-room tene- ments. In 1881 the proportion had fallen to 24"? per cent., and in 1891 to 18 per cent. Great undertakings of the same character followed in Birmingham, in Liverpool, Hudders- field, and in London. Greenock, Sheffield, and Dublin struck the same path with much success. In many instances the city became landlord and engaged in the erection of muni- cipal tenements. Under the Housing of the Working Classes Act (1890) great powers were given to local authorities in the matter of expropriation and acquisition of property that gave a impetus to this wholesome activity. London replaced its Bethnal Green slu1n and its narrow alleys with wide streets lined with model five-story tenements, from which the one- room family apartment was eliminated. In France, in Bel- gium, and throughout Europe the great cities engaged in the battle with their tenement slums. Napoleon III. made light in darkest Paris. In Naples and Rome immense public im- provements have been instituted. Budapest has, from one of the filthiest capitals in Europe, become a model city. In the U. S. the cholera epidemic of 1866 gave the impetus to tenement-house reform, but it was not until 1885 that the first tenement-house committee was appointed. The second committee (1894) carried its work further. The sanitary con- ,dition of tenements has been greatly improved, and in New York their death-rate has been brought apparently even be- low that of the general death-rate of the city. In 1893 the registered tenement-house death-rate was 2275, while that of the city as a whole was 2352. (When, however, all deaths in institutions and all unknown dead that can not be re- ferred back to the tenements are counted as belonging there, their showing is 2577, and this is doubtless the more correct statement.) Light and air have been secured to the poor ten- ant, and steps taken to protect him from the danger of fire. The Tenement-house Committee in its report (1894) demand- ed the power of expropriation of unsanitary property. The Mulberry Bend tenement property, the worst in the city, has been acquired by the city. A park is to be opened 011 the site. Other cities in the U. S. in which the dangers due to the tenement-house system were impending are taking steps to prevent them. The 25-foot lot remains the chief obstacle to reform in New York. Model Tenements.—ln London Octavia Hill has shown that even old tenement property can be improved when proper attention is paid to it by the owner. Similar results have followed the efforts of Ellen Collins and others in New York. Philanthropists have erected model tenements in the effort to solve the problem of housing the poor, with excel- lent results. The general plan of these is that of a central court-yard, around which the buildings are grouped with two and three room flats, every room opening on the outer air. As a rule, they have yielded a fair return upon the in- vestment where the management has been upon a business basis. The Peabody Fund tenements in London shelter about 20,000 tenants. Their death-rate, both adult and in- and chamberlain. TENERANI fant, averages below that of London as a whole. The Arti- san’s Block buildings house more than 100,000 tenants. There are some 600 “model” tenements in London, but not all of them are models, nor did philanthropy dictate the erection of all. In general, the barracks plan of these huge buildings is not accepted in England as the best. In New York the model tenements of the Improved Dwellings Association, and in Brooklyn those erected by A. T. White upon substantially the London plan, have proved successful business enterprises, though the rate of rental of the poorer tenements has not been exceeded. If anything, rents have been cheapened. It was found by the Tenement-house Committee (1894) that the worst slum tene- ments yielded the biggest profits to the landlords, even as high as 25 per cent., while for the better class they ranged from 8 to 10 per cent. The model tenement has paid 5 per cent. and over to the owner. The solution of the tenement-house question must come, apparently, through still greater crowding, which will com- pel the scattering of the population to the suburbs by some adequate system of rapid transit, as a measure of self-pro- tection. Such a result has already followed in London, and has been greatly encouraged by the authorities. In its real -essence the tenement-house question is in all the large cities of the world a question of transportation, and must be solved finally along that line. LITERATURE.—0ld Glasgow, by James B. Russell, medical health olficer; Report of Parliamentary Commission on the Houses of the VVorking Classes (London, 1885); Reports of New York Board of Health (1869, 1891, and 1893); Dr. 0. Du Mesnil, L’Habitation da Paaore (Paris); Dr. Albert Palmberg, Traité de l’Hg/giéne pabligae; Reports of the Tenement-house Commissions of 1884-85 and 1894 (New York) ; Albert Shaw, ilfanicipal Gozwrnment in Great Brit- ain (New York); Charles Booth, Life and Labour of the People (London); Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half I/toes (New York). J ACOB A. Rns. Tenerani, td-nd-raa’ne”e, PIETRO: sculptor; b. at Torano, near Carrara, Italy, Nov. 11, 1789; was a upil of Canova, and also of Thorwaldsen, and worked un er Desmarais in Rome. He resided almost wholly in that city, and had many public duties there connected with the museums and gal- leries. D. in Rome, Dec. 14, 1869. His principal works are a Psyche with the Vase of Pandora; a group of Venus and Psyche; a Venas reclining, with Cupid drawing a Thorn from her Foot; a Piping Faun; a Crucifix; a statue of Bolivar for Colombia; a bas-relief representing the Depo- sition from the Cross; the Angel of the Last J adgment. a statue of great power; busts of Thorwaldsen, of Pius IX. etc., a11d many other works for churches and cemeteries. Revised by RUSSELL Sruaers. Tenerifl‘e' : the largest of the Canary islands (see CANA- mns) ; area, 780 sq. miles. The coasts are rocky and wild, and atford only one good harbor, that of Santa Cruz de Santiago. The interior is mountainous, and in the center is the mighty volcano of Pico do Teyde, 12,182 feet in height. The middle region is clad with beautiful forests of chestnut and oak, and the foot, as well as the hills and valleys around it, is covered with vineyards, olive and almond groves, wheat- fields, and orchards in which oranges and figs ripen to per- fection. Prior to 1853 the average annual yield of wine was 25,000 pipes, but the grape disease appeared and the yield fell to 8,000 pipes. Land previously devoted to vineyards was given up to the cultivation of the cochineal insect, and it became the chief product. Pop. (1887) 108,081. Principal town, Santa Cruz de Santiago. ‘ Teniers, ten’yers, Fr. pron. t(‘i'nyFr’, Damn: the elder; painter; b. at Antwerp in 1582. He lived in Home for some time, where he studied under Elsheimer. He became a member of the Guild of St. Luke, in Antwerp, 1605. He taught his son painting, and their works are so similar in style as to be often mistaken the one for the other. D. in Antwerp, July 29, 1649. \V. J . S. Teniers, DAVID, the younger: painter; b. in Antwerp, Dec. 15, 1610. He studied under his father, but the influ- ence of Rubens and Adrian Brouwer is recognizable in his work. In 1632 he was elected a member of the Guild of St. Luke, and in 1644 its president. His works were extremely popular, and he became wealthy and distinguished by honors. Archduke Leopold William, the governor of the Spanish Netherlands, appointed him to be his court painter Teniers bought an estate at Perck, be- tween Antwerp and Mechlin, whither people of distinction TENNANT 61 went to visit him; removed to Brussels in 1647; d. there Apr. 25, 1690, and was buried at Perck. He married twice. His first wife was the daughter of Jan Breughel. This artist is well represented in all European collections. ‘He painted very rapidly, and produced hundreds of genre-pictures, also some landscapes. The father’s signature seems to have been a T within a D, while the son wrote his name D. Teniers F. For further information, see Teniers, David, by C. de Brou; D. Teniers, by Arséne Houssaye; and P. Lacroix, Le Cabinet de l’Amatear, vol. ii., p. 481. W. J. STILLMAN. Tenimber Islands: See TIMOR.-LAUT. Ten Kate, ten-kaa'te, JAN JACOB LODEWIJK: poet and theologian; b. at The Hague, Holland, Dec. 23, 1819. His youth was passed as clerk and bookkeeper in a mercantile establishment at The Hague, but he very early felt the in- fluence of the romantic poetical movement, then in full swing in Holland. He was an enthusiastic admirer of Wal- ter Scott, Macpherson’s Ossian, Byron, and the Dutch poets Bilderdijk and Da Costa. He tried his own hand at verses, and in 1836 appeared his first volume, Gedichten. In 1837 he determined to give up trade and prepare himself for the Church. He studied at the University in Utrecht 1838-43, and passed his candidate’s examination in May, 1844; and in J an., 1845, he was called as pastor to the little fishing- village of Marcken. During these years, however, he had not neglected poetry. In 1837 he had published with a friend a translation of the Odes of Anacreon, the first of the long series of translations that have distinguished him among modern Dutch poets. In 1839 appeared Bladeren en bloemen, Rozen, lViewwe rozen, and Vertaa-Zde poe‘zie. In 1840 he published a translation of Byron's Giaoar, and the poem Ahasverus op den Grimsel ; in 1841, Po/?zy roor Hol- lands schoonen and Zangen des tijds. In 1842 he became the leading spirit in a curious venture, a periodical wholly in verse, called Braga, devoted largely to satiric criticism of the literary tendencies of the time. In the same year ap- peared his poem Thomas Chatterton, and in 1846 the collec- tion Legenden en ill en gel poézy. In 1847 he was called to the church at Almkerk; in 1850 to Middelburg. Here he re- mained till 1860, when he was called to Amsterdam. There the remainder of his life has been passed. As has been in- dicated, the first productive years of Ten Kate were largely influenced by romanticism in its extreme form. After he had taken up the profession of clergyman, however, the in- fluence of Bilderdijk became predominant with him, and the religious element in his thought grew much stronger. Through his later years his poetry has steadily held this religious coloring: and he has produced besides a number of treatises of a religious or philosophical character in prose. Afnong the poetical works in this manner are the didactic Dood en Zeoen (1856); the poem on the creation of the world, De Schepping (1866; Eng. trans., The Creation, by Rev. D. van de Pelt, New York, 1888); De Planeten (1869); De Jaargetijden (1871); Eunoé (1874); Godsdienstige pofizy (1879) ; ll./ozaiek (1881); Palmbladen en dichtbloemen (1884) ; Etch coat wils (1887). Cf great importance also are Ten Kate’s translations into Dutch from other languages, many of which are among the best his country has produced. Among these are Tasso’s G€)‘”ll8(ll(’7?IIII€ Liberata (1856) : Teg- nér‘s l?'rithiof’s Saga (1861) : Schiller‘s Jlfaria Stuart (1866); La Fontaine‘s Fables (1868); Oehlenschliiger‘s Correggio (1868); Dante’s Inferno (1876); the first part of Goethe’s Faust (1878); Milton’s Paradise Lost (1880); Victor I-lugo’s Lyric Poems (1881); and strangely, but characteristically, the Gospel Hz/mns of Ira D. Sankey (1875). In these trans- lations, as well as in his original verse, Ten Kate has shown very remarkable command of the Dutch language and im- aginative powers of no mean order. A collected edition of his poems appeared in 8 vols. (Leyden, 1861-66; 2d ed. 1867). For his Life and a bibliography of his works see J . Ten Brink's Geschiedcn/is der Noora'-iVederZa.ndsche Let- teren in de XIXe Eeaw (Amsterdam, 1888). A. R. I\;lARSH. Tennant. WILLIA.\i: poet and Oriental scholar: b. at Anstruther Easter, Fifeshire. Scotland, May 15, 1784 : studied at the University of St. Andrews 1799-1801; was for some years clerk to his brother, a grain-dealer in Glasgow, and afterward in his native town; published The Anstcr Con- cert (1811), a poem in the Scottish dialect, and Anster Fair, a Poem in $211: Cantos (1812), in ottara rima, both descrip- tive of rural Scottish life, which gradually acquired popu- larity; was parish schoolmaster of Dunino 1812-16, and at Lasswade 1816-19; acquired the Arabic, Syriac, and Persian languages; taught Oriental and classical languages in the 62 TENNENT academy of Dollar, Clackmannanshire, 1819-34; became in 1834 Professor of Oriental Languages in St. Mary’s College, St-. Andrews. He was the author of several later poems and dramas which were not successful, of a Syriac and Chaldee Glrammar (1840), a Life of Allan Ramsay] (1808), and of numerous contributions to periodicals, including some trans- lations from Oriental poets. D. near Dollar. Feb. 15, 1848. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Tenuent, Sir Janus EMERSON: author; b. in Belfast, Ire- land, Apr. 7, 1804; son of William Emerson, a wealthy merchant; was educated at Trinity College, Dublin : traveled after graduation (1824—25) through Europe and the Levant, also in Greece; published A Ptctnre of Greece in 1825 (1826), Letters from the .zE'gean or Grecian Islands (2 vols., 1829), and a Jftstory of Jlfodern Greece (2 vols., 1830); married (June, 1831) the only daughter of William Tennent, a wealthy banker of Belfast, whose name he assumed; was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1831; was chosen for Belfast to Parliament in 1832, and several times subse- quently; was secretary to the Indian board 1841-45; pub- lished a work on Belgium (2 vols., 1841); procured the passage of an act establishing copyright in designs 1843; was civil secretary to the colonial government of Ceylon 1845-50; was one of the joint secretaries to the Board of Trade from 1852 to 1867, when he retired from oifiee. D. in London, Mar. 6, 1869. He is best known as the author of Ceylon. an Account of the Island, Phg/steal, fih'store'cal, and To;oographtcal (2 vols., 1859); he also wrote Chrtsttan'tt_2/ en Ceylon (1850) and Bfatnral Tftstory of Ceylon (1861). Tennessee’: one of the U. S. of North America (South Central group); the third State admitted into the Union. Location and Area/.—lt extends from the Appalachian Mountains on the E. to the Mississippi river on the \V.; be- tween lat. 35° and 36° 36' N. and lon. 81° 3'7’ and 90° 28' W. ; is bounded N. by Kentucky and l“ "h it “Min ,',;'l,-. ' L'‘i2'‘'. .,‘ .H“‘ - A l L _ _ ‘ Virginia, E. by , éj ' ', |_ North Carolina, S. ‘till " -_: t __ "W" by Georgia,_ Alaba- ml} "’ "" ‘ ' f-.;$‘.l,lg§\r ma, and Mississip- mp ‘ W. p1, and W. by Ar- kansas and Missou- ri; extreme length :“___.-‘W, from _ to ., ‘"1’ 432 miles; breadth from N. to S., 109 miles; area, 42,050 sq. miles, of which 300 sq. miles are water surface. Physical Fea- tares.—The eastern third of the State is hilly and mountainous, the middle un- dulating, and the west comparatively low and level. Reck- oned from the altitude of its river-beds, there is a gradual, but irregular, slope from an elevation of 1,264 feet on the E., to 200 feet on the W. There are eight natural divisions: (1) The Unalea Range on the eastern border, comprising nu- merous wooded mountain—ridges with outlying spurs and in- tervening coves of great fertility; also lofty peaks with tree- less summits covered with luxuriant natural grasses and having the flora of Canada and the climate of New England ; area about 2,000 sq. miles. (2) The valley of East Tennes- see, a fluted region of parallel ridges and narrow valleys, ex- tending diagonally from N. E. to WV. through the eastern part of the State; elevation, 1,000 feet; area, 9,200 sq. miles. (3) Next on the W. the Cumberland Table-land, or level top of the Cumberland Mountains, which rise abruptly 1,000 feet above the valley of East Tennessee and 2,000 feet above the sea; surface shows low ridges and shallow valleys; much of it is_ covered with native grasses; summers are cool and climate healthful ; area, 5,100 sq. miles. (4) The Iftgh.- land Rim bounds the table-land on the W., and, extending on the N. and S., as far W. as the Tennessee valley, ineloses the Central Basin : elevation, 1,000 feet; has numerous min- eral springs and many summer resorts; area. 9,300 sq. miles. (5) The Central Basin, a depression of 5.450 sq. miles; re- sembles the bed of a drained lake with its main slope to the N. \N.; greatest diameter from N. E. to S. W., 120 miles; breadth from 55 to 60 miles; altitude 550 feet, with varia- tions of 200 to 300 feet. (6) The western valley of the Ten- ‘ i:'i‘yi1~--IT“ I uwwnynmw Seal of Tennessee. TENNESSEE nessee river embraces 1,200 sq. miles of river lowlands and subordinate valleys extending into the highlands; elevation above the sea, 360 feet ; reaches across the State from N. to S., with a breadth of 10 to 12 miles. (7) Adjoining this is the plateau slope of West Tennessee, descending gently to- the Mississippi; surface slightly undulating, but often show- ing abrupt hills and narrow valleys; streams sluggish ; west- ern border terminates abruptly with steep hills which over- look the Mississippi bottoms; average elevation about 500 feet; area, 8,850 sq. miles. (8) The alluvial Jlftsstsstppt bottoms are low and level, with numerous swamps and many lakes, abounding in fish and wildfowl; elevation above the Gulf about 295 feet; area, 950 sq. miles. The Clinch, Pow- ell’s. and Holston rivers drain upper East Tennessee; the French Bread, Little Tennessee, and Hiwassee assist, lower down ; and the Tennessee, formed by the French Bread and Holston, carries all this water into Alabama, thence back north across Tennessee and Kentucky into the Ohio. The Cumberland pours into the Ohio the drainage of northern Middle Tennessee; the Duck, the Elk, and Caney Fork drain the rest of this section; and the Obion, Forked Deer, Big Hatchie, and Wolf carry most of the West Tennessee waters into the Mississippi. The principal rivers are the Missis- sippi, the Cumberland, and the Tennessee. The only lakes are found in the Mississippi bottoms, and are little more than expansions of small rivers. Reelfoot, between Lake and Obion Counties, is the most noted; it was largely pro- duced by the earthquake of 1811—12. Geology and llftneral Resources.—The geology presents a striking variety, ranging from the oldest metamorphic rocks of the Lower Silurian formation on the east border to the most recent alluvial deposits on the west. The natural divisions whose area is occupied almost wholly by the Lower Silurian are the Unaka Range, the valley of East Tennes- see, and the Central Basin. The Cumberland Table-land and the Highland Rim are Carboniferous ; the Vilestern val- ley, Upper Silurian and Devonian; the plateau slope of West Tennessee. mainly Cretaceous and Tertiary: the Mississippi bottoms, Recent. All the important mountains are in the east end of the State, which rests upon the west slope of the Appalachian system. The Great Smoky Range is on the North Carolina border; extreme height, 6,660 feet; average, 5,000 feet. Parallel with this, through the valley of East Tennessee, extend Clinch Mountain (2,000 feet), Powell’s Mountain, and numerous minor ridges. To the W. of these and parallel is the broad plateau of the Cumberland. The- rest are unimportant. The total value of mineral products in 1889 was $6,455,- 283, coal and iron being most important. The coal-fields are coextensive with the Cumberland Table-land and form a part of the great system which extends from Pennsylvania to Alabama; area, 5,100 sq. miles; total output in 1893, 1,902,258 short tons. The coal is bituminous, makes a good coke (265,"/'77 tons in 1893), and is adapted to smelting, manufacturing, domestic, and general purposes. There are three main iron-producing belts extending across the State: the eastern belt, along the Smoky Mountains ; the Dyestone belt, parallel with the eastern base of the Cumberland Table-land, yielding hematite ore ; and the western belt, 50- miles wide, on the dividing-line between Middle and West Tennessee. A fourth belt of minor importance coincides with the coal-fields. In 1891 there were produced 326,747 tons of pig iron. In 1893 the output of iron ore was 372,996 long tons. The marble-industry, confined mainly to East Tennessee, has experienced a rapid growth. In 1892 there were twenty-two quarries in operation, which shipped an- nually about 25,000 tons, worth $350,000. Jefferson, Union, and Claiborne Counties, in the northeastern part of the State, produce large quantities of zinc ore. The copper mines of Polk County, in the southeast corner of the State, are very productive. One mine produces 150 tons of ore daily. In 1889 there were 3,057 tons of mineral paint pro- duced. Blue Springs, in Bradley County, produces con- siderable lead. Gold is found in small quantities in Men- roe County. Pyrite, manganese orcs, alum, barite, salt, niter, gypsum, hydraulic rocks, building-stone, potter’s clay,. fire-clay, and epsomite abound. Overton and Dickson Coun- ties produce petroleum, although in limited quantities. Sell and Prod'ucttons.—-Tlie soils of the State are as va- ried as its rocks. The greatest diversity is found in the east part, where only the best valleys and river-bottoms have high fertilit-y. General farm products are here raised. The soil of the Cumberland Table-land is usually sandy, porous, and not very productive, though adapted to pasturage, the A _s, ____4 A _.._______ .1 Drawn an .“.' V (;}iib‘\\ L.) (L ‘J (K-..‘ . V~—- -n—- ' EXPRE S SLY FOR JQHNBWQ QYQLOPAENIA Scale of Miles .6“ __ _s.- ._ M/v 4: 6 ' anl/rau ;. E 07 I;V'_e‘at F from B6 E:eeuvlicli_ G V l a (11 er-Plate muocg’ / ’ H A R \ Liuszrrrrq , , -\_ll*{'{ Q. £'lL'¢.'/7/H‘!/III.) ~ “ti ‘ 14,: .,,;‘.~. /_ _‘ _ ‘ ‘I. I‘/II‘/(Fl /FM o@1,,,,L» FA\"ETTE !- - - r J I I I EYVL . I ' ‘ ()II7‘/IlP-°q~ - Q‘/"/M’! ll I . I _ l!t.s/'_un_/ ‘ /znrlmj /jun!»/'.\‘i'i I» ‘~- _ /2,/, rnmG- 5 I .. non ' F. \ '.‘,A II . U!‘-’l - U I _| fig . ‘Z I . If‘4)’fi ' 1 IF‘ \-~.__ I \ /> 110721 I--- / H R T I ' .\l ‘ \ - omo SON\ ”“m| L? ' i \ 6 a.}%:M£~»m. . \ i_ " - 1/ ‘ " U9/z 1?!/la://I)K‘4bl A‘ ~ QVPW ’ V ,\niI71.‘:Gr ' Eb =.~ eusc- --E- 1/.’ - ?(,,Jt3A Btu \ I '~\§co'rr\ LLE , A L L‘ C,@O N I wuéi I HARTSWI LLE. I s F - ' ’ ‘S-‘b;1T‘{:lVI’LL£ woong’unY I)’ ' ’ \ ',C.\NNO::4/ '/ ‘ 'M_‘ Mwfllru. ~'1 /7/-7ZVm7¢/F/I1 '\wA - RE . n'r1I'tr'u/v_' \ \ //eo"Fr££ , - E/‘/6F0R ' ,. 1.0 ANC MI 0025 . ' 1 ' 7 ‘ ‘ /l . V/A/‘|'>'€::-if F71/C\n':'/1 \ A |F'vA1' )(I6lI .- ‘ ?l7_ng: '- Pm-/II‘ r"M _‘ Yf.\'?r((/:l/ D0 Iamlgiiiille Xllesl F V "‘—E__:F"IT_‘ ‘.1 .I‘ Hl:unillu11 "“ . ' \ ‘F11-71'/lniflson, _ LIBEQTV _" ;i_\_\J“QH tvzn-5 nu“: vi 41’ ‘ i‘c’Z:i "-4 AR T0 (.1? \ Pil is A?“ \ \ Lii.-3 " AM wow I ‘db A .___\ W tyeae-1 E '/J11“!//Ir -, LIBLRTY , _ » c .5 s E Y -,, . , . ,_~ ' 1 .)‘r1Z'/lié I II .' / ‘ \\<¥A‘ ' [:9/1r/'n_o. ‘ M °Pg'l CELLO wlp >2 6 J \. I\]_-/c ‘l N, yofirmusvuu-:\ 3 man If}: E Uc /11: est: \.\ | ,g ' LB / ‘er-.vviZle I' sk-- --’ A l l’ v pemru ,.,4.prI.,, serwcsn ' /4. #917 yf'gqy~/I//4' " L A .n\€h Q; /' /‘Z. 7’1{l'I&‘ ,. -4‘ 7 A A A__. l ‘Di 9 \VZ\ :il€ng'ton. TENNESSEE growth of fruit, garden vegetables, and Irish potatoes. On the Highland Rim some sections have good fertility, but most of its area, called the Barrens, is flinty and little pro- ductive. Fruit and wild grass for pasturage are the main productions, exce ting tobacco in the northern part. The rich limestone soi s of the Central Basin make it the garden- spot of the State, and produce abundantly Indian corn, wheat, blue grass, and, in the south part, cotton. The soils of West Tennessee are sandy and mellow, but generally fertile. Cot- ton is produced abundantly in the south and general crops in the north. In the Mississippi bottoms is a black loam, the richest soil in the State; it produces cotton, Indian corn, and general crops in luxuriance. The following summary of the census reports of 1880 and 1890 shows the extent of farm operations in the State : FARMS, ETC. 1880. 1890. Per cent. Total number of farms . . . . . . . . . . 165,650 174,412 * 53 Number of acres in farms . . . . . . 20,666,915 20,161,583 Jr 2'4 Value of farms, including build- ings and fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $206,749,837 $242,700,540 * 17'4 * Increase. ‘r Decrease. The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of the principal crops in the calendar year 1894: CROPS. Acreage. Yield. "alue. Indian corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,107,777 68.060,316 bush. $26,543,523 Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728,122 5,897,788 “ 3,007,872 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445,968 6,511,133 “ 2,278,897 Rye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.341 21,069 “ 16,012 Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,622 36,184 “ 20,263 Buckwheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,381 17,677 “ 10,076 Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,300 26,724,000 lb. 2 405.160 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38.956 2,142,580 bush. 1 049,864 Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435,510 513,902 tons ,791,676 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,801,977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $41,123,343 The farm animals on Jan. 1, 1895,, comprised 344,440 horses, value 815,007,506; 200,153 mules, value 89,142,760; 344,469 milch cows, value 35,280,710; 546,446 oxen and other cattle, value 85,198,999; 493,782 sheep, value 8767,- 633; and 1,930,049 swine, value $7,002,990; total head, 3,859,339; total value, $42,400,598. (l'limate.—T he average annual mean temperature is 59°. Though in summer and winter marked extremes are some- times reached, yet these seasons are generally mild, and spring and autumn are delightfully temperate and pleasant. A limited amount of snow falls. Temperature and rainfall by months for twenty-three years (1871 to 1893, inclusive) are as follows : Average Avem e Average Ave we Mol\"rus. mean rainfall, MONTHS. mm raiii!f:1Il tempera‘ in inches. tempera‘ in inched ture. ture. 5' January . . . . . . . . . 39 '0° 5'53 July . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 '0° 3'95 February . . . . . . . . 43 '7 5'49 August . . . . . . . . . 77'0 3'78 March . . . . . . . . . . . 487 548 September . . . . . , 703 3'35 April . . . . . . . . . . .. 59'7 5'15 October . . . . . . . .. 59'7 2'79 May . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68'0 4'03 November . . . . . . 48' 3 428 June . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76 '0 449 December . . . . . . 1'7 3'88 The extremes for the above period in the three sections of the State are : ‘ Average _ A ' g SECTION. Coldest month. tempmmm Ilotlest month. teulgirrztjre. ‘West Tennessee , . . . J an., 1886. 30° July, 1878. 84° Middle Tennessee. . . J an., 1886. 29 July, 1879. 83‘ East Tennessee. . . ,. J an., 1893. 29 July, 1878. 80 A difference of elevation produces a difference of about 2° in the mean temperature of the extreme ends of the State. Dioisions.—The State has three distinctly recognized civil or political divisions : East Tennessee. Middle rFennes- see, and VV est Tennessee. The first occupies the east end of the State to the middle of the Cumberland Table-land, and contains 34 counties; the second reaches to the west valley of the Tennessee river, and contains 41 counties ~ the third lies between the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers, and contaiiis 21 counties. Much local feeling exists in these d1v1s1ons as to the apportionment of State oflicers, the charitable institutions, etc. In many respects the divisions resemble ditlerent States. 63 COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWNS, IYITH POPULATION. I COUNTIES. * Ref. 532%: gig: COUNTY-TOVVNS. $80912)‘ Anderson . . . . . . 6-I 10.820 15,128 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,198 Bedford . . . . . . . 7-F 26,025 24,739 Shelbyville . . . . . . . . 1,823 Benton . . . . . . . . 6-D 9,780 11.230 Camden . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Bledsoe . . . . . . .. 7-H 5,617 6,134 Pikeville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blount . . . . . . . . . 6-1 15,985 17,589 Maryville . . . . . . . . . 1,686 Bradley . . . . . . . . 7-H 12.124 13,607 Cleveland . . . . . . . . . 2,863 Campbell . . . . . . 6-1 10,005 13,486 J acksboro . . . . . . . . . 37 Cannon . . . . . . . . 6-1?‘ 11,859 12,197 \Voodbury . . . . . . . . 576 Carroll . . . . . . . . 6.6 22,103 23.630 Huntingdon . . . . . . . 7 7 Carter . . . . . . . .. 5-K 10,019 13,389 Elizabethton . . . . . . 734 Cheatham. . . . . 6-E 7,956 8,845 Ashland City . . . . . . 358 Chester ‘r . . . . . .. 7- . . . . . . 9,069 Henderson . . . . . . . . 1,069 Claiborne . . . . . . 5-J 13,373 15,103 Tazewelli . . . . . . . . . 1,592 Clay . . . . . . . . . . . 5-G 6,987 7,260 Celina . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Cocke . . . . . . . . . . 6-J 14,808 16,523 Newport . . . . . . . . . . 658 Coffee . . . . . . . . . 7-F 12,894 13,827 Tullahoma . . . . . . . . 2,439 Crockett . . . . . . . 6-B 14,109 15,146 Alamo . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Cumberland. . . 6-H 4,538 5.37 Crossville . . . . . . . . . 266 Davidson . . . . . . 6-12 79,026 108,17 4 Nashville . . . . . . . . . 76,168 Decatur . . . . . .. 7-D 8,498 8,995 Decaturville 12. . . . . 1,463 Dekalb . . . . . . . . 6-G 14.813 15,650 Smithville . . . . . . . . . 57' Dickson . . . . . . 6-E 12,460 13,645 Charlotte . . . . . . . . . 427 Dyer . . . . . . . . . . 6-B 15,118 19,878 Dyersburg . . . . . . . . 2,009 Fayette . . . . . . . . 7-B 31,871 28,878 Somerville . . . . . . . . 892 Fentress . . . . . . . 5-H 5.941 5,226 Jamestown . . . . . . . 84 Franklin . . . . . . . 7-F 17,178 18.929 Winchester . . . . . . . 1,313 Gibson . . . . . . . . . 6-B 32,685 35,859 Trenton . . . . . . . . . . . 1.693 Giles . . . . . . . . . .. 7-E 36.014 34,957 Pulaski . . . . . . . . . . . 2,27 Grainger . . . . . . . 6-J 12.384 13.196 Rutledge . . . . . . . . . . 143 Greene . . . . . . . . . 6-,] 24.005 26,614 Greeneville . . . . . . . 1,779 Grundy . . . . . . . . 7-G 4,592 6,345 Altamont . . . . . . . . . 7 Hamblen . . . . . . 6-J 10,187 11,418 Morristown . . . . . . . 1.999 Hamilton . . . . . . 7-H 23.642 53,482 Chattanooga . . . . . . ; 29,100 Hancock . . . . . . . 5-J 9.098 10,342 Sneedville . . . . . . . . . | 156 Hardeman.. .- . 7-B 22,921 21,029 Bolivar . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,100 Hardin . . . . . . . . 7_ 14,7 93 17,698 Savannah . . . . . . . . . 1,087 Hawkins . . . . . . . 5-J 20.610 22,246 Rogersville . . . . . . . 1,153 Haywood . . . . . . 7-H 26,053 23,558 Bron nsville . . . . . . . 2,516 Henderson. . . . . 7-C 17,430 16,336 Lexington . . . . . . . . 715 Henry . . . . . . . , . 643 2,142 01.070 Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,917 Hickman . . . . .. 6-E 12.095 14,499 Centerville . . . . . . . . 498 Houston . . . . . .. 6-D 4,295 5,390 Erin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789 Humphreys . . . 6-D 11.379 11.720 Waverly f . . . . . . . . . 1.418 Jackson . . . . . . . 5-61 12,008 13,325 Gainesboro . . . . . . . ‘ 462 James . . . . . . . . . 7-H 5,187 4,903 Ooltewah . . . . . . . . . 233 Jefferson . . . . . . 6-J 15,846 16,47 Dandridge . . . . . . . . 451 Johnson . . . . . . . 5-L 7 .766 8,858 Mountain City . . . . 249 Knox . . . . . . . . . . 6-I 39.124 59,557 Knoxville § . . . . . . . . 27,573 Lake . . . . . . . . . . . 6-B 3.968 5,304 Tiptonville . . . . . . . . 363 Lauclerdale . . . . 6-3, 14,918 18,756 Ripley . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 Lawrence . . . . . . 7-E 10.383 12.286 Lawrenceburg. . . . 618 Lewis . . . . . . . . . . 7-E 2.181 2,555 Newburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lincoln . . . . . . . . 7-F 26,960 27,382 Fayetteville . . . . . . . 2,410 Loudon , _ , . , , _ , 6-I 9,148 9,273 London . . . . . . . . . . . 942 McMinn . . . . . . . . 7-1 15,064 17,890 Athens . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,224 McNairy . . . . . . . 7-C 17.271 15.510 Purdy . . . . . . . . . . . , . Macon . . . . . . . . . 5-F 9,321 10.878 Lafayette . . . _ . . . . . 256 Madison . . . . . . . 7-C 30.874 30.497 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . 10,039 Marion . . . . . . . . 7-G 10,910 15,411 Jasper . . . . . . . . . . . . 902 Marshall . . . . . . . 7 -13 19,259 18,906 Lewisburg . . . . . . 631 Maury . . . . . . . . . 7-E 39.904 38,112 Columbia . . . . . . . . . 5,370 Meigs . , . . . . . . . . 7-H 7,117 6,930 Decatur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . Monroe . . . . . . . . 7 -I 14,283 15,329 Madisonville . . . . . . 313 Montgomery. . . 5-E 28,481 29,697 Clarksville . . . . . . . . 7 ,924 Moore . . . . . . . .. 7-F 6.233 5.975 Lynehburg . . . . . . . . 500 Morgan . . . . . . . . 6-H 5,156 7.639 lVa.rtburg . . . . . . . . 206 Obion . . . . . . . . . . 6-B 22,912 27,273 Union City . . . . . . . . 3,441 Overton . . . . . .. 5-H 12,153 12,039 Livingston . . . . , . . . 320 Perry . . . . . . . . . . 7-D 7,174 7.7 ‘“ Linden . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Pickett t . . . . . . . 5-H . . . . . . 4.7 36 Byrdstown . . . . . . . . . . . . . Polk . . . . . . . . . . . 7-I 7,269 8,361 Benton . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Putnam . . . . . . . . 6-G 11,501 13,683 Cookeville . . . . . . . 469 Rhea . . . . . . . . .- 7-H 7, "3 12,647 Dayton , . . . . . . , . . . . '2,719 Roane . . . . . . . . . 6-H 15,231 17,418 Kingston gt . . . . . . . . 1,838 Robertson . . . . . 5—E 18.861 20,078 Springfield . . . . . . . . 1,372 Rutherford- . . . 6-13‘ 36,741 35,097 Murfreesboro. . . . . 3,739 Scott . . . . . . . . . . 5-I-I 6.021 9.794 Huntsville . . . . . . . . 149 Sequatchie . . . . 7- 2,565 3,027 Dunlap . . . . . . . . . . . . Sevier , . . . . . . , . 6-J 15.541 18,761 Sevierville . . . . . . . . 283 Shelby . . . . . . . . . .-A 78,430 112,740 Memphis . . . . . . . . . . 64,495 Smith . . . . . . . . . . 6-G 17,799 18,404 Carthage . . . . . . . 47 Stewart... . . , . . . 5-D 12,690 12,193 Cumberland . . . . . . 244 Sullivan . . . . . . . 5-K 18,321 20,879 Blountville . . . . . . . . 224 Sumner . . . , , . , _ 5-]? 23,625 23,668 Gallatin . . . . . . . . . . 2.078 Tipton . . . . . . . . . 7-- 21,033 24,271 Covington . . . . . . . . . 1,067 Trousdale . . . . . . 6-F 6,646 5,850 Hartsville . . . . . . . . . 654 Unicoi _ , , _ _ , , _ _ 6-K 3,645 4.619 Erwin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Union . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 10,260 11,459 Maynardville . . . . 144 Van Buren. . . . . 6-G 2,933 2,863 Spencer . . . . . . . . . . . 138 \\’arren . . . . . . . . 6-G 14,079 14,413 Mchlinnville . . . . . . 1,677 Washington . . . 5-K 16,181 20,354 J onesboro . . . . . . . . . 937 YVayne . . . . . . . . 7-D 11,301 11,47 \\'aynesboro . . . . . 239 \Veak1ey . . . . . . . 6-B 24,538 28955 Dresden . , . . . . . , . . . 420 White . . . . . . . . . . 6-01 11,176 12,348 Sparta . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 WVilliamson . . . . 6-13 28,313 26,321 Franklin . . . . . . , . . ' 2,250 Wilson . . . . . . . . , 6-F 28,747 27,148 Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . j 1,883 - Totals . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1,542,359 1 1,767,518 I * Reference for location of counties, see map of Tennessee. t Organized since census of 1880. 1; District. s ‘West, North, and South Knoxville included. Principal (h'tz'es and Towns, zoith Popnlr(t2'on in J890.— 1\ashv1llc, 76,168 ; l\IGll11Jl11S, 64,495 ; C11-attanooga, 29,100 ; 64 Knoxville (including \Vest, North, and South Knoxville), 27,573; Jackson, 10,039 ; Clarksville, 7,924; Columbia, 5,370; Johnson City, 4,161; Murfreesboro, 3,739; Union City, 3,441; Bristol, part in Tennessee, 3,324 ; Cleveland, 2,863. Popitlcotiort and Rcwes.—In 1860, 1,109,801; 1870, 1,258,- 520; 1880, 1,542,359; 1890, 1,767,518 (natives, 1,747,489; foreign, 20,029; males, 891,585; females, 875,933; whites, 1,336,637; colored, 430.881, comprising 430,678 persons of African descent, 51 Chinese, 6 Japanese, and 146 civilized Indians); Jan. 1, 1894, estimated, 1,850,000‘. Indz/.sz‘,rt'es and Bll/8372/688 Interests.—In 1890 the State debt was $19,695,974; value of taxable property (1892), $352,716,532; revenue (1892), $1,816,268; mortgage indebt- edness, per head (1892), 82300. There were 192 banks in 1894——national 55, State 119, private 18——with a total paid- up capital of $17,382,235. Deposits in savings-banks in 1892 were $1,292,913. The number of newspapers and period- icals in 1894 was 275. The census of 1890 reported the manufactures of cities only, the total of which for all indus- tries was: Number of establishments reporting, 1,264 ; value of hired property, $4,346,153; direct investment, $29,713,- 423; miscellaneous expenses, $2,666,795; average number of persons employed, 23,094; total wages, $11,297,019; cost of materials used, 822,487,757 : value of products, $43,071,- 586. There were 23 cotton-mills and 19 woolen-mills. The value of the annual product of flour is $10,000,000; lum- ber, $5.000,000; leather, $2,000,000. The manufacture of cottonseed oil reaches about 3,000,000 gal. per annum, and the manufacture of distilled spirits 1,000,000 gal. Means of Commzmication.—In 1891 there were 2,767'58 miles of railway ; assessed valuation, $38,341,488; average per mile, $13,853. The most important roads are the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis; the Louisville and Nashville; and the Southern. The number of electric railways in 1893 was 12; miles, 188; capital stock, $5,065,000. The rivers navigable for steamers are the Mississippi, 160 miles; the Tennessee, its whole course; the Cumberland, 304 miles; Clinch and Emery rivers, to Harriman; French Bread, 90 miles, to Leadvale; Hiwassee, 20 miles, to Charleston; Clinch, to Clinton; the Big I-Iatchie, Forked Deer, and other minor ones, to a limited extent. At high water many other streams float barges and rafts. C/z/urchcs.—Tl1e census of 1890 gave the following sta- tistics concerning the principal religious bodies: 0 if _ C} h Value of DENOMINATIONS. """‘“ "“ “"° es Members. church hens. and halls. property. Methodist Episcopal South . . . . . .. 1,367 1,317’ 121,398 81,994,382 Baptist, Regular, South . . . . . . . . .. 1,287 1,269 106,632 1,802,015 Baptist, Regular, Colored . . . . . . .. 575 581 54,252 525,573 Methodist Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 603 42,873 665,460 Disciples of Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 313 41,125 410,660 Cumberland Presbyterian . . . . . . . . 529 510 39,477 745,605 African Methodist Episcopal . . . . . 144 236 23,718 461,305 Methodist Episcopal, Colored . . .. 206 205 18,968 258,120 Roman Catholic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 60 17,950 434,200 Presbyterian in the U. S . . . . . . . . .. 155 152 15,954 927,320 African Meth. Episcopal Zion. . . . 55 55 12,434 78,813 Baptist, Primitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 262 10,535 119,455 Lutheran, United Synod in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 103 10,086 143,790 Protestant Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 63 5,671 575,900 Cumberland Presb., Colored . . . . .. 81 79 5,202 88,660 Baptist, Church of Christ . . . . . . . .. 69 69 5,065 31,355 Schools.--In 1891-92 the universities and colleges num- bered 22; instructors, 404; students, 6,283; income, $368,- 304; value of grounds and buildings, $3,062,400. The most noted of these are t-he UNIVERSITY or TENNESSEE (g/.11.), at Knoxville; VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY (Q. ’U.) and the University of Nashville (Peabody Normal College), at Nash- ville; the University of the South, at Sewanee; Cumber- land University, at Lebanon; Southwestern Presbyterian University, at Clarksville; Southwestern Baptist Univer- sity, at Jackson ; and FISK Ul\'IVERSI'I‘Y (q. 71.), at Nashville. The number of children of school age (six to twenty-one years) in 1893 was 701,229, of whom 447,938 were enrolled in the public schools, and 308,776 were in average daily attendance. There were 5,184 white primary district schools and 641 white secondary; 1,555 colored primary and 24 colored secondary; city schools, 156. The total number of public schools was 7,560; teachers, 8,609 ; the expenditures were $1,647,799, of which $1.311,892 was for teachers’ sal- aries. The number of schoolhouses was 6,672: value of school property, $2,918,004. In 1891 there were 978 private schools with an enrollment of 43,342 pupils. TENNESSEE L?Jb¢'wm'es.—-Acco1'(ling to a U. S; Government report on public libraries of 1,000 volumes and upward each in 1891, Tennessee had 53 libraries, containing 232,929 bound vol- umes and 39,595 pamphlets. The libraries were classified as follows: General, 11; school, 7; college, 25; college so- ciety, 6: law, 1 ; Y. H. C. A., 2; and society, 1. Charz'tabZe, Ref0'rma-zfory, and Penal I'nst'1Jzfutt'0ns.—There is an insane asylum in each of the three divisions of the State, as follows: the Eastern, at Knoxville; the Central, at Nashville ; the Western, at Bolivar. The disbursements for the insane in 1891—92 were $369,521.33. The School for the Deaf and Dumb is at Knoxville; the School for the Blind at Nashville; and the State also has at Nashville the Tennessee Industrial School, a reform school for both sexes. A home for Confederate soldiers was opened at the Hermit- age (near Nashville) in 1892, with accommodations for 125 persons. Disabled and indigent Confederate soldiers who enlisted from the State receive pensions ranging from $8.334- to $25.00 per month. The State penitentiary is at Nashville, but the convicts are worked by the lease (six years) system, and are scattered over the State, mainly in coal mines. ‘There are poorhouses and jails in every county, and the most populous counties have workhouses. Politicctl Orgam'zcott'0n.—’l‘l1e State government has the usual legislative, executive, and judicial departments. The Legislature has two chambers, the House and the Senate. Its members are elected for two years and receive $4 a day during the session, which is limited to seventy-five days. At the head of the executive department is the Governor, elected for two years. He must have been a citizen of the State seven years and be thirty years old. In case of a vacancy the Speaker of the Senate succeeds him. Three State officers are elected by the Legislature, namely, a sec- retary of State (four years), comptroller (two years), and treasurer (two years). The Governor appoints, subject to confirmation by the Senate, a superintendent of public in- struction, superintendent of prisons, commissioner of agri- culture, statistics, and mines, etc. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of five judges, elected for eight years. who sit in Jackson, Nashville, and Knoxville. There are also chancery or equity courts, circuit or law courts, and a court of chancery appeals. Some of the larger coun- ties have separate criminal courts. Each county has a sheriff (two years), a trustee (two years), a register of deeds, and clerks of courts. Every civil district has two or more jus- tices of the peace (six years), who, besides their individual jurisdiction, form the county court, a body of legislative and judicial powers. Each city has a mayor, a common council (some of one and some of two chambers), and the usual municipal officers. Suffrage is free to all males not con- victed of infamous crime, who are citizens of the U. S. and have been one year in the State and six months in the county. A State law requires a modified form of the Australian ballot system in the large towns and counties. A State board of health has power to declare quarantine in times of epidemics. I-.1"/L'.st0ry.——In 1541 the Spaniards under de Soto touched Tennessee where l\Iemphis now stands, being the first Eu- ropean visitors. Here the French under La Salle, 141 years later, built a fort, and the Spaniards, in turn, afterward erected San Fernando. The country was claimed by the Spanish, the French, and the English. Charleville, coming up from Louisiana in 1714, built a trading-house near the present Nashville, and French and English struggled to se- cure the Indian trade. In 1748 Dr. Thomas Walker, with other Virginians, discovered the Cumberland l\lountains, Gap, and river, which he named for the Duke of Cumber- land. Fort Loudon, the first Anglo-Saxon outpost in the great wilderness, was built by Andrew Lewis in 1756. It was taken by the Indians four years later. The tide of mi- gration was from Virginia and the Carolinas. First came hunters, explorers (see Booms, DANIEL), and traders, fol- lowed, in 1769, by immigrants who settled on the Wa- tauga. In 1772 the first government, the Watauga Asso- ciation, was formcd. James Robertson settled on the Cum- berland in 1779. The war of the Revolution found the settlements patriotic. Shelby and Sevier led 500 men into the Carolinas in 1780, where, under Campbell, they defeated the British Ferguson at King’s Mountain. On his return the following year, Sevier made a conquest of the Chero- kee Indians. After the Revolution North Carolina ceded the territory to the Federal Government and left the in- habitants without law or protection. Therefore, in 1784, the State of Franklin was formed, and, though the parent TENNESSEE RIVER State at once reversed her act of cession, lasted till 1788. The final cession, however, was made in 1790, and the “ Ter- ritory South of the Ohio River” was formed, with William Blount as first governor. Knoxville was laid out in 1792, and the first territorial assembly met there in 1794. In 1796 the State was formed and admitted into the Union. The first two decades of the nineteenth century were char- acterized by rapid growth and contests with the Indians. The first bank (the Nashville) was chartered in 1807. Mem- phis was laid out in 1819. The State capital was Knox- ville till 1811, except in 1807, when it was Kingston. Knox- ville, Nashville, and Murfrecsboro had the honor in turns till 1826, when Nashville became the permanent capital. Three Presidents of the U. S. have come from Tennessee: Andrew Jackson (1829-37); James K. Polk (1845-49); and Andrew Johnson (1865-69). The State was distinguished in the Mexican war (1845-47), Pillow, Haskall, Campbell, Trousdale, and Cheatham being prominent. In the civil war Tennessee at first hesitated, but on June 8, 1861, voted to join the Confederacy. The Federal Government soon re- gained the capital and a large part of the State. and Presi- dent Lincoln appointed Andrew Johnson military governor. The contending forces fought successively the battles of Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Pittsburg Landing (Shiloh), Stone River, Chickamauga, Lookout Mountain, Mission Ridge, Knoxville, Franklin, and Nashville. In Apr., 1865, the Legislature ratified the thirteenth amendment to the Federal Constitution, and on July 12, 1866, the fourteenth amendment. The usual reconstruction troubles succeeded the war. Prominent public leaders were William G. Brown- low, Andrew Johnson, and Horace Maynard, Republicans ; and Isham G. Harris, John C. Brown, B. F. Cheatham, and others, Democrats. Following the war a large State debt accumulated, which has been greatly reduced. GOVERNORS OF TENNESSEE. State of Franklin. Neil S. Brown . . . . . . . . . . .. 1335-49 - - William Trousdale . . . . . .. 1 ' -51 John Sev1er . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1780 88 William B. Oampbeuum 1g51_53 .- . - Andrew Johnson . . . . . . . .. 1 53-57 .T(.>T) “O7 y South of the 0,3110‘ Isham G. Harris. . . . . . . . . 1857-63 xvllllam . . . - . . - - - . . Andi-e\-v ‘Johnson . . _ _ . _ _ . _ William G. Brownlow.... 1865-69 State Of Tennessee De Witt c. Senter ...... .. 1869-71 John Sevier . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1796-1801 John C. Brown . . . . . . . . . .. 1871-7'5 Archibald Roane . . . . . . . .. 1801-O3 James D. Porter . . . . . . . . .. 1875-79 John Sevier . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1803-09 Albert S. Marks . . . . . . . . . . 1879-81 Willie Blount . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1809-15 Alvin Hawkins . . . . . . . . . .. 1881-83 Joseph McMinn . . . . . . . . .. 1815-21 William B. Bate . . . . . . . . .. 1883-87 William Carroll . . . . . . . . .. 1821-27 Robert L. Taylor . . . . . . . .. 1887-91 Samuel Houston . . . . . . . . .. 1827-29 John P. Buchanan . . . . . . .. 1891-93 1/Villiam Hall . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1829-29 Peter Turney . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1893- William Carroll . . . . . . . . .. 1829-35 Newton Cannon . . . . . . . . .. 1835-39 James K. Polk . . . . . . . . . . .. 1839-41 James C. Jones . . . . . . . . . .. 1841-45 Aaron V. Brown . . . . . . . . . . 1845-47 AUTEOEITIES.-Phelan, History of Tennessee; Phelan, School History of Tennessee ; Carpenter, ]~Iistory of Tennes- see; Ramsey, The Annals of Tennessee; Killebrew, Re- sources of Tennessee; Saiford, Geology of Tennessee; Saf- ford, Elementary Geology of Tennessee; the U. S. census of 1890; Reports of the State Superintendents of Public Instruction; Reports of the State Commissioners of Agri- culture and of other State officers ; and Reports of the U. S. Weather Bureau. Revised by T. C. KARNS. Tennessee River: the chief affiuent of the Ohio. It originates in the confluence of Holston and French Broad rivers near Knoxville, 'I‘eun., flows S. W. to Chattanooga. thence W., and again S. \V. Sweeping through Northern Alabama. it turns northward, traverses Tennessee and Ken- tucky, and joins the Ohio at Paducah, Ky. Its drainage- area is 41,000 sq. miles; total lengtl1 to the head of the I-lolston, nearly 1,200 miles : below the confluence, 800 miles. It is navigable without obstruction 280 miles to Florence, Ala., at the foot of the Muscle Shoals. The shoals (20 miles long) are navigable about three weeks in the year, during spring lloods. Canals and locks now obviate this difiiculty. Above this point the river is navigable throughout its course for the greater part of the year by light-draught steamers. There are 925 miles of naturally navigable waters above the shoals upon this river and its tributaries for six months in the year. Revised by I. C. RUssELL. Tennessee, University of : an institution at West Knox- ville; chartered in 1794 as Blount College; name changed in 1807 to East Tennessee College; in 1840 to East Tennes- see University; in 1879 to the University of Tennessee. It received the appropriations made by the U. S. Government TENNIS 65 in 1862, 1887, and 1890 for colleges of agricultural and me- chanical arts in the several States. The university includes, besides the regular academic department, a department of law, a department of medicine, and a department of den- tistry. In the academic department tuition is free to prop- erly qualified students of both sexes from all States of the Union. Instruction is provided in military science. The university occupies twelve large brick and stone buildings situated on a beautiful campus of 40 acres. The elevation is over 1,100 feet above the sea. In 1888 a complete reor- ganization of the university was effected. In 1894-95 the number of instructors was 46 ; of students, 505. The library contains 12,000 volumes. The president is Charles W. Dab- ney, Jr. Revised by T. C. KARNS. Tenney, SANBORN: naturalist; b. at Stoddard, N. H., Jan. 13, 1827; graduated at Amherst College 1853; after- ward studied under Louis Agassiz at Cambridge; was lec- turer on natural history in the Massachusetts Teachers’ Institute 1856-65; was (1865-68) professor at Vassar Col- lege ; became in 1868 professor at Williams College. Among his works are a text-book of Geology (1859); lllanaal of Zo- filogy (1865); lVatural .History of Animals; and Elements of Zoology. D. at Buchanan, Mich., July 9, 1877. Tenniel, ten-ni-eel’, Sir JOHN: painter and illustrator; b. in London, England, in 1820; showed a decided taste for art in boyhood; pursued his studies in his own way, thus developing a very original style; was a successful competi- tor for painting pictures in fresco in VVestminster Palace 1845; has been since 1851 one of the leading artists on the staff of Panch, for which he has produced weekly most of the large full-page pictures called cartoons, and has illustrated many books, among which are Esop‘s Fables, the In/goldsby Legends, Lalla Roohh, and the celebrated books for children, Alice’s ./"lCZL‘€7Ll‘ZlI‘€8 in lVonderZand and Through the Loo/sing-glass, by Lewis Carroll (C. L. Dodg- son). Revised by RussELL STURGIS. Tennis: a game played with small, hard balls, formerly struck by the hand, perhaps always gloved; then by the hand covered with a special gauntlet, and finally by a bat or racket; but LAWN-TE.\'.\'Is (g. r.) is a distinct gaine. In all its modifications tennis corresponds very closely with the French jen de paume. Even in the elaborate game which developed iii the seventeenth century, the resem- blance between the French and English customs of play- ing and counting is marked, and the points of difference are few. Both in England and on the continent of Europe ten- nis was played by the populace out of doors, in a town meat, or wherever a blank wall could be had, and in like manner it was played by kings and their courtiers in large rooms especially built and prepared for it, and also out of doors. Toward the end of the seventeenth century it seems to have been thought improper for the populace to play tennis at all; it was the sport of those who had the privilege of leis- ure, as, indeed, none others could hope to excel in it. The antiquarians have discovered accounts of Henry VII. of England losing his balls at the game and losing money also, twelvepence at one time, and Henry VIII. was evidently an ardent player. Charles I., for all his gravity and dignity, both as prince royal and as king, played tennis a great deal. In literature allusions to the game are frequent. Pericles, Prince of Tyre, complains of being A man whom both the waters and the wind, In that vast tennis-court, have made the ball For them to play upon. The “wild prince” Henry tells Poins that the tennis-court keeper knows more about the latter‘s wardrobe than any- body else because “ it is a low ebb of linen with thee when thou kcepest not racket there ” 2 Henry IV., ii., 2. To the same prince when king the Dauphin of France sends tennis-balls as a reproach for his idle frivolity (Henry l"., i.,2); but the king was not ashamed of tennis, for in his speech of defiance he goes into a discussion of the game which he means to play with the King of France, and rev- els in anticipation. The speech, some fifty lines long, is full of the language of tennis, not to be understood by those ignorant of the favorite game. In Henry VIII. (i., 3) Sir Thomas Lovell complains of the travelers who have so much faith “in tennis and tall stockings.” Polo- nius, in Hamlet (ii.,1), giving advice to his servant. sup- poses “a falling-out at tennis.” Bene.dick’s whiskers are assumed, now that he is elegant and trim “ for the love of Beatrice " (llfnch Ado about Nothing, iii., 2), to have stuffed tennis-balls. 402 66 In the 1894 edition of Les Trots Jlfonsqnetatres, with il- lustrations by Maurice Leloir, is a picture of Porthos in the few dc paume, which shows a tennis-court as it may be thought to have been u11der Louis XIII. In the Tal/Zeaurc Iftstortgztes de la Révotatton Francaise (1791 ; reissued 1817) there is a contemporary picture of the famous Jen do Paume at Versailles, in which was taken the oath of June 20, 1789, the serment da jea cZe panme. It is very like a modern court. A very large room, about three times as long as wide and 30 feet or more in height, is lighted with top light or at least with windows only at the top of the wall. Along one long side and both ends a wall about 7 feet high is built about 7 feet from the main wall, and a sloping, pent-house roof is carried from this wall back to the high wall. Tl1e gallery for spectators is high in the wall where there is no pent-house. What remains of unoccupied floor is divided into halves by what was originally a rope, afterward a net reaching to the floor. That half of the floor in which a player facing the net has the long pent-house on his left is the service side, the other is the hazard side. Behind the player on the service side is a long and large opening in the wall below the pent-house, and smaller openings are in other parts of it, as well as vertical break or step in the wall where there is no pent-house. The fioor is marked with lines par- allel to the net. The walls of the room are sometimes black to show the white balls the better, and it is stated that in India the British officers have their balls black so that they may keep the walls of the court white for coolness sake. The game is played by striking the ball from the service side so as to bound from the upper wall or the pent-house on the hazard side, and by returning it from the hazard side. The ball must strike the floor within certain limits ; it must be struck on the first bound; it must not strike the net, nor the roof, nor the high wall beyond a certain line. The player counts by sending a ball into any of the openings in the lower wall, and by striking the ball on its first bound in certain ways relatively to the cross-marks on the floor. Elaborate codes of laws are issued by tennis clubs, of which there are many in Great Britain and a few in the U. S. The not dissimilar game of racket is sometimes encouraged by the same association with tennis; thus in New York city the Racquet and Tennis Club has a court for each game, but no- where does the game find many players, as it is superseded in popularity by other athletic sports, among which are lawn-tennis, cricket, and base-ball. Ten'nyson, ALFRED, Baron Tennyson, D. C. L., F. R. 8.: poet; b. at Somersby, Lincolnshire, England, Aug. 6, 1809; the fourth of twelve children (eight sons and four daugh- ters) of George Clayton Tennyson, LL. D., rector of Somersby and other Lincolnshire parishes. Dr. Tennyson was the eldest son of George Tennyson (1750-1835), who belonged to the Lincolnshire gentry as owner of Bayons Manor and Usselby Hall, and was for several years a member of Par- liament; he married (Aug. 6, 1805) Elizabeth, daughter of Stephen Fytche, Vicar of Louth. The poet’s father (1778- 1831) was a man of superior abilities and varied attain- ments. His mother (1781-1865) was a pious woman of many admirable qualities, being especially sensitive. From her he inherited his refined, shrinking nature. Alfred was a pupil of Louth Grammar School 1816-20. During the next eight years he was educated at home by his father and private teachers. The rector requiring only a mod- erate amount of intellectual work, he was out of doors much of the time, rambling in the woods and pastures about Somersby. He was solitary and reserved, moody and absent-minded, the mental habits of the boy foreshadowing the characteristics of the man. He was fond of reading and addicted to verse-writing at an early age. His literary ca- reer began in his youth, his boyish rhymes and those of his elder brother Charles being collected into a volume-Poems by Two Brothers (1827). In his nineteenth year he com- Eosed a labored narrative in blank verse, entitled The over’s Tale, two parts of which were printed in 1833, but were immediately suppressed; in 1879 the entire poem was given to the world in a more finished dress, owing to the pirated republication of the fragment of 1833. In Oct., 1828, Tennyson entered Trinity College, Cambridge, leav- ing in 1831 without a degree. Here he formed friendships with Kemble, l\Iilncs, Brookfield, Spedding, and other tal- ented young men who afterward became famous as schol- ars and writers. He was fortunate in having the compan- ionship of such choice spirits, but he owed most to one TENNYSON whose name is forever associated with his own—Arthur Henry Hallam, a son of the historian. This dearest of his friends, whom he calls more than brother, became the be- trothed of his sister Emily. Together they traveled in the French Pyrenees in the summer of 1830. H-allam’s sudden death (Sept. 15, 1833) in Vienna made an ineffaceable im- pression on Tennyson, and may be considered an important - agency in shaping his character and poetical career. In producing the beautiful elegy known as In Jlfemor/tam. he conferred immortality upon his lost friend and won it for himself. In 1829 young Tennyson won the chanccllor’s gold medal for the prize poem Ttmbnctoo. In 1830 appeared his first book—Poems, chiefly Lyr/teal, including a few pieces which are perennial favorites with lovers of Tennyson’s poetry. His second book of Poems, published late in 1832 (dated 1833), was a more ambitious venture. There was nothing in it from the 1830 volume. It contained some of his love- liest lyrics, having the richness of melody and the inde- scribable witchery of style which constitute Tennyson’s charm, yet it found but few admirers beyond the immediate circle of his acquaintances. Not many reviewers noticed it. Stung by the savage criticisms of ~Wilson and Loekhart, he set himself to the task of improving what he had writ- ten. Profiting by the advice of critics and the suggestions of friends, he subjected his verses to the most painstaking revision. He experimented with various styles and meters; thus he served his laborious apprenticeship as poetic artist. Ten years passed, then he issued his Poems (1842) in two volumes, comprising selections from his two earlier books and many new pieces. The singer, hitherto unrecognized, was greeted with universal praise. The new spirit of the age found an exponent in his verse, which reflected the un- rest and hopefulness of a transitional era. This was the beginning of a series of triumphs and honors. In 1845 he was granted a pension of £200, in 1850 he was appointed poet-laureate to succeed I/Vordsworth, and in 1855 he re- ceived the honorary- degree of D. C. L. from Oxford. After leaving college, Tennyson resided chiefly with his sisters and his widowed mother at Somersby, then at High Beech (1837-40), Tunbridge Wells and Boxley (1840-44), and Chel- tenham. I-Ie roamed on foot through England and IV ales, often visiting friends in London and elsewhere, and mak- ing occasional trips to Ireland and the Continent. His writings prove that he was a close observer of nature as well as a diligent student of books. More than Vergil, he was a “landscape-lover.” The physical features of many of the places he visited are sketched by him with pictorial fidelity and vividness, though not with photographic accu- racy. Hamerton called him the “prince of poet-landscap- ists.” The Princess, in which he first essayed extended nar- rative in blank verse, was published in 1847; the six inter- calary songs were inserted in the third edition (1850), and there were numerous additions and alterations in the fourth and fifth editions. In 1850, which is called his golden year, appeared anonymously the poem that is generally regarded as Tennyson‘s masterpiece, In ll/[emom'am, a monumental work in process of growth during the seventeen years after I-Iallam’s death. Canto lix. was inserted in the fourth edi- tion (1851) and xxxix. about 1872. In 1855 flfand and other Poems was published. The volume contained two memorable patriotic lyrics previously printed—()cZe on the Death of the Dn/cc of W elZe'ngton (1852) and The Charge of the Light Brigade (1854). Jlfaad was at first misjudged and underrated, but later won its way to a generous appre- ciation of its abundant merits. The appearance of Jdylts of the King in 1859 can be described as a literary sensation. Tennyson’s fame was new international, and his books sold by the hundreds of thousands. His next publication, Enoch Arden (1864), has been the most widely read of the laureate’s writings in foreign lands, having been translated into Danish, German, Dutch, French, Bohemian, Italian, and Hungarian. Four more Arthurian romaunts were added in The Holy Grail, and other Poems (1869), two in 1872, and one in 1885. This series of tales. if not entitled to the name of epic, is certainly the greatest of his literary undertakings; the longest of his works, though not the most original. At threescore he showed no signs of failing powers. The last two decades of his life were exceptionally productive of works stamped with dignity of thought, felic- itous expression, and musical versifieation. The list in- cludes the dramas Queen fllary (1875); 1-Iarolcl (1876); Becket (1884); The Cap (1884); The Falcon (1884); and The Foresters (1892), several of which were put on the TENN YSON stage. There were also five volumes of minor poems—BaZ- lads, and other Poems (1880); Ttrestas, and other Poems (1885); Loehsley flatl St./vty Years After, etc. (1886); Dem- eter, and other Poems (1889); and The Death of Qdnone, A/cbar’s Dream, and other Poems (1892). Tennyson is not a world poet, his appeal being more or less insular. He has been criticised for being a “chanter of the aristocratic idea,” yet he was a poet of the common people as well as of lords and ladies. He drew his mate- rials from many sources, finding subjects in the legends of antiquity, the mediaeval world of romance, and the tangled skein of modern life. He was master of the technical re- sources of the poetic art, and possessed unrivaled power as a word-painter. But the domain of beauty was too narrow for him. Beyond any mere aesthetic influence that he ex- erted, he was a mighty force for good, his polished verse being the vehicle of ethical instruction and spiritual uplift. The personality and love of God, the divinity and mission of Christ, providence, free will, the immortality of the soul, the province of law, the ministry of sorrow in the develop- ment of character, the spheres and limits of faith and knowledge—these are some of the leading ideas or tenets of his theology and philosophy. His success is largely ex- plained by the fact that he clothed in artistic form the higher thought and sentiment of his time, thus enriching the spiritual life of England and the world. Tennyson‘s career was unstained by excesses. He fulfilled l\Iilton’s con- dition; his life was a poem. He remained in the Anglican Church all his days, liberal but essentially orthodox in his creed. A friend of the Broad Church party, he contributed not a little to the growth of tolerance and the non-sec.ta- rian temper. In politics he was a moderate Conservative, an advocate of gradual reform in Church and state. He was a man of many-sided culture, keenly interested in as- tronomy, geology, botany, and other sciences. He was fa- miliar with the discussions and speculations of physicists and metaphysicians. An idealist of the intuitional school, he was inclined to mysticism leavened with British sense. Tennyson married (June 13,1850) at Shiplake, Oxford- shire, Emily Sarah Sellwood, whom he had known and loved for many years. She was the eldest daughter of Henry Sellwood, of Peasmore, in Berkshire, afterward a so- licitor of Horncastle, Lincolnshire; her mother was a sister of Sir John Franklin, and her youngest sister the wife of Charles Tennyson Turner. A lady of high intelligence and gracious manner, she was in every way fitted to be the com- panion of her poet husband, who lovingly bore testimony to her loyalty and worth. Exalted as was the poet’s ideal of woman as wife and mother, she seems to have met his ex- acting requirements almost perfectly. Their wedded life was harmonious and happy. They lived three years at Twickenham, where Hallam (the second Lord Tennyson) was born. In 1858 he bought the Farringford domain near Freshwater, Isle of Wight, where was born his second son Lionel. In 1867 he purchased a small estate on Blackdown, Sussex; in 1868 he built Aldworth, a fine Gothic mansion, which was his summer home for more than twenty years. He twice declined a baronetcy (1865 and 1868); was created a peer (J an. 24, 1884) with the title Baron Tennyson of Ald- worth and Freshwater. D. at Aldworth, Oct. 6, 1892: was buried in Westinilister Abbey, Oct. 12. See Van Dyke‘s Poetry of Tennyson; Brooke’s Tennyam; \Vaugh‘s Alfred Lord Te/mtyson; and Napier’s Homes and Ifazmts of Ten- nyson. EUGENE Pxasoxs. Tennyson, FREDERICK: poet; b. at Louth, Lincolnshire, England, June 5, 1807 ; second son of Dr. George Clayton Tennyson and a coheir of the Earls of Scarsdale; ed‘ucated at Eton and Cambridge (entering Trinity College in 1827 and taking his degree in 1882), where he distinguished him- self by writing Greek verse, winning the prize for a Sapphic ode, entitled Egypt, in 1828. He married an Italian lady, Maria Guiliotta (since deceased), lived in Italy many years, and since 1859 chiefly in Jersey, devoting his leisure to poetry and his favorite Hellenic studies. Author of three volumes of verse——Days and Hours (1854); Isles of Greece : Sa-ppho and Atcceus (1890) ; Daphne, and other Poems (1891). EUGENE Pxnsons. Tennyson, HALLAM, Lord Tennyson : author; eldest son of Alfred Tennyson; b. at Twickenham, England, Aug. 11, 1852; educated at Marlborough College and Trinity, Cam- bridge, also a student of the Inner Temple. He edited a vol- ume (1880) of sonnets by his uncle, CHARLES TENNYSON TUR- NER (q. 1).), for which he furnished a memoir of the author; TENT 67 issued a juvenile work, Jack and the Beanstalk (1886), illus- trated by Randolph Caldecott ; translated the old Saxon song of Brunanburh, which appeared in The Contemporary Be- otew (Nov., 1876), and was later versified by his father. He is new writing the life of the late poet-laureate. Tennyson, LIONEL: author; second son of Alfred Tenny- son; b. at Freshwater, Isle of \/Vight, Mar. 16, 1854; edu- cated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he displayed the scholarly taste and literary temperament of his father; married (Feb. 28, 1878) Eleanor Mary Bertha, the accomplished daughter of Frederick Locker-Lampson; was connected with the India Office several years, and prepared a masterly report on The ilforal and Ilfater/tat Condttzfon of India for 1881-82. A profound student of dramatic poetry, he contributed valuable articles to the Cornhtll, the Nine- teenth Century, and other periodicals. D. on board the Chusan, near Aden, Apr. 20, 1886. EUGENE PARSONS. Ten0ehtitlan' : See MEXICO (city) and Mnxrcxn ANTIQUI- TIES. Tenor: the highest kind of adult male voice. The aver- age compass of a true tenor is from C in the bass staff to A in the treble. Special cases may occasionally be found which can produce two or three tones higher. In written music the treble clef is usually employed for the part to be sung by this voice, although the tones produced are an octave lower in actual pitch. Tenos : island in the Hfigean Sea : one of the Cyclades, be- longing to Greece. It is mountainous, but springs abound, and it is well cultivated. It has a gooeFha1'boi*, Porto Pan- ormo, on the IT. E. \Vine, raw silk, and marble, especially vert antique, are exported. The Tenians took a memorable part in the battle of Salamis (47 9 B. c.), fiercely resisted the Ottomans. by whom they were conquered, and fought hero- ically in the Greek revolution (1821-27). Their cathedral of the Holy Virgin, the Evangelistria, is one of the finest edifices of modern Greece. Area, 79 sq. miles. Pop. 21,000, nearly half of whom are Roman Catholics. E. A. G. Tenpins: See BowLs AND Bowmne. Tenrec: See TANREC. Tensas or rPensaw River, or Bayou Tensas: a stream which rises in Carroll parish, La., and after a devious south- erly course of 250 miles joins the IVashita at Trinity, La. It is navigable 150 miles during good stages of water. Tensaw River: a bayou of Alabama, which leaves Ala- bama river before its junction with the Tombigbee, and pursues a course parallel with that of Mobile river. Its waters flow into Mobile Bay. Tense: See VERB. Tenshi: See MIKADO. Tension of Electricity : See ELECTRICITY, ELECTRIC DIs- CHARGE, and Vonr. Tension of Vapors : See Vxrons. Tent [from 0. Fr. tente < Lat. ten'z‘um, neut. perf. partic. of ten’dere, stretch]: a pavilion or portable lodge made of skins, strong cloth, or canvas, sustained by one or more poles, and used as a shelter from the weather, especially by soldiers in camp. The material used as a covering is usu- ally stretched by means of cords secured to tent-pegs. Such portable shelters, or tents of some sort, have been used as homes by nomadic tribes from the earliest ages. The patri- archs were dwellers in tents, and the poorer classes in Persia, China, and other Eastern countries still live in tents formed of frames of wood covered with thick cloth, felt, or matting. Tents have become indispensable to the equipment of armies. The Greeks cncamped in tents at the siege of Troy, and the soldiers under l~lannibal had tents of skins or canvas. Mod- ern military tents are made of canvas, generally of cotton duck, on account of its being more impervious to water and cheaper than linen or hemp, though the latter are some- times used. Ditferent forms of tents for military purposes have been employed in the armies of the U. S. and of Europe. Prior to the civil war the Sibley tent, which is a conical tent, supported by a central pole resting on an iron tripod, and capable of sheltering fifteen infantry soldiers or thir- teen mounted men, was used in the U. S. army. One of its advantages was that it could be warmed by an open fire or small stove, and afforded ample ventilation, having a circu- lar opening at the apex partiall_v covered by a movable piece of canvas so arranged as to be shifted according to the direc- tion of the wind. It resembled a Sioux lodge, the chief dif- 68 TENTACULIFERA ference being that it was constructed of canvas and supported by the central pole and tripod. while the Indian lodge was made of rudely tanned buffalo skins stretched on several long wooden poles. The tents used in the U. S. military service include the hospital tent, which is of cotton duck 28-} inches wide. clear of all imperfection, and weighing 12 oz. to the linear yard, and has the following dimensions when pitched: Height, 11 feet; length of ridge, 14 feet; width, 14 ft. 6 in.; height of wall, 4 ft. 6 in.; wall eaves, 3 inches in width; height of door, 8 ft. 9 in. ; width of door, 18 inch- es at bottom and 10 inches at top; and from top of ridge to wall, 9 ft. 10 in. Such tents are made to open at both ends, so that several may be placed together and form a continu- ous wa.rd. Each tent holds from six to eight beds. The wall tent for officers is of similar material, and has the following dimensions: Height, 8 ft. 6 in.; length of ridge, 9 feet; width, 8 ft. 11-.) in.; height of wall, 3 ft. 9 in.; wall eaves, 2 inches wide; height of door, 6 ft. 8 in.; width of door, 12 inches at bottom, 4 inches at top; and from top of ridge to wall, 6 ft. 6 in.; a.nd is furnished with a fly. The conical wall tent for enlisted men has the body of the tent of stand- ard 12-oz. cotton duck, and the sod-cloth of standard 8-oz. cotton duck 284; inches wide, with eave-lines of six-thread manilla line (large), and foot-lines of nine-thread manilla line. Its roof is in the form of a frustum of a cone, 16 ft. 5 in. in diameter at the base, 18 inches in diameter at the top. Its wall is 3 feet high; the height to top of roof, 10 feet; eaves 2 inches wide, and tabling at bottom, 2-} inches wide. From the top to the cave it measures 10 ft. 1-}; in. The shelter tent, which is a modification of the French tente d’abri, consists of two pieces of cotton duck; each half is 65 inches long on the ridge and 61 inches wide when fin- ished. The center seam overlaps 1 inch. They are made of cotton duck 33 inches wide, to weigh from 7% to 8 oz. to the linear yard, and be free from imperfections, arranged to button together and stretch over a ridge supported by poles. In active service each soldier carries half a tent, which may serve as a cloak on the march, as a covering at night, and when the two pieces are joined forms a tent for both men. Besides military tents, there are special forms of tents made for emigrants, lumbermen, gypsies, surveyors; and prospecting parties, as in railway construction, have tents devised for their wants. There are pleasure tents ‘ of many forms, as those used for camping out, for lawns (square and oblong), for children, for screens, as the surf tents used on beaches. Besides large circus tents, which are of heavy twilled duck and special construction, there are boarding tents, stable tents, and house tents; also special tents for agricultural and other fairs, with varieties for the sale of refreshments and exhibition of side-shows, also pho- tographers’ tents, illusion tents, etc. The chief market for the duck in the U. S. is in Baltimore, and the centers of the tent-industry are in New York, St. Louis, Chicago, Cin- cinnati, and St. Paul. There is a large local demand in the U. S. for the many kinds of tents mentioned, and a small export trade dependent upon special causes; thus in 1894 and 1895 the demand was largely from Japan. Mxnous BENJAMIN. Tentaculif’ era: a group of protozoans. See Sactoria, under INFUSORIA. Tenterden, Lord, CHARLES ABBOTT: judge; b. at Can- terbury, England, Oct. 17, 1762, his father being a barber; entered Oxford University in 1781 ; took degree of B. A. in 1785; acted as private tutor to the son of a judge, who per- suaded him to take up the law; entered the Middle Temple 1787, practiced as a special pleader from 1789 to 1796, and then was admitted to the bar; became a judge in the court of common pleas in 1816, and lord chief justice of the king’s bench in 1818. In 1827 he was raised to the peerage as Lord Tenterden. D. in 1832. He combined with an unusually quick mind extraordinary perseverance and application, ‘and was recognized as the ablest lawyer of his time; but he was not called upon to decide any great constitutional ques- tions. He published in 1802 a Treatise on the Law relative to rlferchant Ships and Seamen, which has passed through more than a dozen editions and is a standard yet. F. Sruaons ALLEN. Ten Thousand, Retreat Of the: the homeward march of about 10,000 Greek mercenaries from Cunaxa, a town 60 miles N. of Babylon. At Cunaxa their leader, Cyrus the Younger, was killed in battle against his brothcrArtaxerxes II. (401 B. c.). Thereupon their Persian allies dispersed and the Greeks were left in a most critical position. Their only TENURE possible line of escape was by the'upper Tigris through the country of the Kardouchi (the modern Kurds), and across the highlands of Armenia to some Greek city on the Black Sea. At the river Zapatas their five principal generals were assassinated by the Persian satrap Tissaphernes. Thereupon Xenophon, then a private soldier, was elected a general, and became practically commander-in-chief. After a Winter’s march of over 700 miles in an enemy’s country, during which they endured terrible hardship and suffering, they reached Trapesus (Trebizond). Finally they arrived at Chrysopolis, opposite Byzantium (400 B. c.). Their success- ful escape revealed the weakness of the Persian empire, and encouraged Alexander to undertake its subjugation. In the Anabasis Xenophon describes this retreat, and gives the most vivid picture extant of Greek discipline and military methods. E. A. GnosvENon. Tenues: See MEDLZE. Tenuiros’tres [M ed. Lat.; Lat. te'nais, slender + ros- tram, beak, bill]: a group (tribe or family) of birds, includ- ing forms whose only common characters consisted in the possession of a slender bill, and feet with three toes directed forward and one backward. According to Cuvier, it includ- ed the Linnaean genera Sitta, Certhia, Trochilas, and Upapa. The group was a very heterogeneous one, and has not been retained in the ornithological system. Tenure: the manner in which real property is held or owned. As has been explained in the articles on LANDLORD AND TENANT and PROPERTY (go. o.), the common law of Eng- land and the U. S. denied to real property the capacity of absolute ownership. The exigencies of the feudal system, which required the complete dependence of the man upon his lord and of the lord upon the king, substituted for the notion of absolute ownership of lands-such as was recog- nized in the case of goods and chattels-—the conception of “ estates” in land, the land being deemed to be held of and in subordination to the lord of the man and of the land. These estates were qualified interests, resting upon a recog- nition of a superior right vested in the person of whom the land was “ held,” and dependent for their continuance upon the due performance of the terms and conditions of such “ holding.” It is true that the early English law recognized an “ allodial ” or absolute ownership of lands, as well as of chattels, but this form of proprietorship did not long sur- vive the Norman Conquest. The feudal system was primarily a military and political organization of society, its system of land tenure being only an incident, though doubtless at first a necessary incident, of that social organization. As the article on the FEUDAL SYSTEM (q. o.) shows, these primary features of the system dominated and controlled its development on the continent of Europe, while its system of land tenure continued to be a thing apart. In England, on the other hand, where the feudal system in the generation following the Norman Con- quest had an unparalleled expansion, its military and polit- ical features soon disappeared, while its system of land ten- ure entered into and completely transformed the property rights and the property law of the kingdom. From that time on the law of real property in England was the feudal law, and the allodial ownership of an earlier day disappeared so completely that its very existence was denied. It became a maxim of English law that the king is the ultimate and absolute owner of all the lands in the kingdom, and that all of his land-owning subjects are only his tenants. “Every acre of English soil and every proprietary right therein have been brought within the compass of a single formula, which may be expressed thus: Z tenet terram illam de . . . domino Rege. The king himself holds land which is in every sense his own; no one else has any proprietary right in it; but if we leave out of account these royal demesnes, then it is true that every acre of land is held of the king. The per- son whom we might be inclined to call its owner, the person who has the right to use and abuse the land, to cultivate it or leave it uncultivated, to keep all others 011' it, holds the land of the king either immediately or mediately ” (Pollock and Jlfaitland). He who held directly or immediately of the king was said to hold in chief (in capite) ; but the tenant in capite is not usually the person who deals with the land as owner. The latter is usually one to whom the tenant in chief has directly, or through still other links in the feudal chain, transmitted the power of dealing with the land. In other words, D, who is seized of the land in fee simple, holds of C, who in his turn holds of B, who holds of A, who holds in capite of the king. In this feudal order D is said to hold TENURE the land in demesne, while A, B, and C are mesne lords, be- ing lords with respect to those standing below them, but tenants with respect to those standing above them. There is another side to this relation of lord and tenant which has been developed out of the feudal relation of lord and man. The chief end of the transaction above described is not to confer lands on A, or B, or C, or D, but to secure to the king the services of A, to A the services of B, and so on. It is to secure these services that the land is granted, and it is only by the due performance of these services that it can be retained. The term “ tenure” involves the obliga- tion of service on the part of the tenant quite as much as it does the right of the tenant to hold the land for which the service is due. So important is this fact of service that the principal classification of tenures is by the service to be per- formed. A tenant may hold his lands in fee simple, fee tail, or for life, but his tenure is by “knight service,” or by the service of “ free alms,” or by the service of “serjeanty,” or by the service of “ socage.” CLASSIFICATION or TENUREs.—Land tenures under the feudal re'gtme fell into two classes—(a) the free tenures and (b) such as were not free. The Free Tenares.-1. Kntght’s Serotce.—This form of tenure, known also as military tenure, or tenure tn ch/lt'alry, was the most important, as it was for many years the most numerous, class of tenures at common law. It was created by “ homage,” a solemn act by which the tenant acknowl- edged his lord as him of whom he held his land and to whom he was bound to render service, and from which, on the other hand, arose the duty on the part of the lord of pro- tecting his tenant. This tenure was, as its various designa- tions indicate, based upon the performance by the tenant of military service in the army of the king. Most of the ten- ants tn caplte held by this tenure, but wherever it existed, whether the holding was immediately of the king or of some mesne lord, the military service was still due directly to the king. Doubtless the practice of that feudal society conformed for a time to the theory upon which this form of tenure was based and the tenants in chivalry paid their serv- ice in person by actual military duty, but it was not long before tenure by knight’s service stood for an irregular series of money payments, while the king, with his share of these payments (scatage, shield-money), recruited his army wherever he could. The “ incidental” payments to the lord, however, were by far the most burdensome feature of mili- tary tenure, and, under the name of rights of marrtage, wardship, aids, and reliefs, became the most characteristic and oppressive features of the feudal system in England. They continued until the abolition of military tenures by statute in the year 1660 (12 Car. II., cap. 24, Stat. of 1l[lle'- tary Tenares). 2. Se¢y'eanty,—Closely allied to the tenures based on mili- tary service were those where the tenant held his land by the duty of performing some personal and ofttimes domes- tic or menial service to his lord. This form of service cov- ered a wide range, from the “grand serjeanties ” of the king’s marshal, chancellor, or justiciar, to the “petty ser- jeanty” of the freeman who supplied his lord with arrows or knives for the chase. ' 3. Franlcalmolgn.—Most of the lands held by ecclesiastics or by the Church (and the quantity of land so held was, even at the beginning of the thirteenth century, very large) were held by this tenure of “free aims.” The service implied was spiritual—to sing masses, to distribute money among the poor, etc.—-and the land was, as between the donor and the tenant in frankalmoign, held free from any services or dues of a secular nature. Of course, if the land‘ thus given was held by the donor of the king, or of some mesne lord by a tenure of secular service, the land would go even into the hands of the Church burdened with this external (for/lnsec) service; for it was a marked characteristic of all the feudal tenures that the services on which they were based were di- rectly imposed upon the land, and could thus be exacted even plf those tenants of the land who did not personally “ owe ” 1cm. 4. Socage.—-This was the great residual tenure of the feudal era, and comprehended all freehold lands not held by military, or “ domestic,” or spiritual service. The land- owner who bought his land outright for a valuable consid- eration, the freehold tenant who held by the service of pay- mg a perpetual rent in money, or produce, or labor, the secular tenant to whom the land was given as a free gift- all these held by the tenure of “free and common socage.” Homage was not essential to the creation of this tenure, 69 though doubtless it often arose by the performance of that solemn act. But the oath of fealty was indispensable, and often constituted the sole “service” of the tenant in socage. The principal characteristic of this tenure was the certainty, or definiteness, of the service required as compared with those exacted under the other feudal tenures, and its freedom from the most burdensome of the so-called feudal “ incidents ”— wardship and marriage—rendered it a popular and highly desirable form of tenure. The first soc-age tenants were doubtless primitive allodial proprietors, some of the more obscure of whom succeeded in escaping the general confis- cation of lands after the Conquest by coming under the pro- tection of the local lords and admitting their paramount title to their lands. At first the number of persons in sec- age must have been very small, but it must also have grown very rapidly as the advantages of this form of tenure be- came apparent and unoccupied lands were, more and more, granted out for agricultural uses. By the statute of Charles II., heretofore referred to, all freehold tenures were turned into free and common socage, and this has continued to be the well-nigh universal form of land-holding in England. The so-called “' burgage ” tenure was merely a form of sec- age which obtained in certain boroughs. The tenures of Bonouen ENGLISH and GAVELKIND (qq. 1*.) were only local variations of socage tenure. Non-free Ten/a're.——In addition to the lands held by the king or other territorial lords in demesne and those parceled out by them to be held of them by the free tenures above de- scribed, there were other lands granted by them for longer or shorter periods—-to be held, perhaps, at the will of the lord, perhaps for the life of the tenant, sometimes even by the tenant and his heirs forever—upon the service and con- dition of agricultural or other labor to be performed by the tenant at the lords will. The terms of this tenure—known as “ villeinage ”—were, for the most part, regulated by the custom of the “ manor,” or estate, of which the villein tene- ment formed a part, and the rights of the villein tenant were protected by the court of the manor, but there is no doubt that the quasi-servile character of this tenure was due to the fact that the terms of the tenancy and the enforcement of the tenant’s rights were originally largely dependerit on the will of the lord. Although it was the unfree man, the vil- lein, who gave his name to this form of land-holding, there was nothing to prevent a freeman, even one who already held lands in the same manor by knight’s service or in sec- age, from being the holder of a villein tenement. In the course of time this villein tenure lost its arbitrary and indefinite character. The custom of the manor acquired binding force and became enforceable in the king’s courts even against the lord of the manor. The condition of labor to be performed by the tenant was commuted into rent, and the copy of the “ roll ” or record of the lord’s court, in which was recorded his accession to the estate, became his muni- ment of title. He was now a " copyhold ” tenant and was said to hold “ by copy of court roll.” Copyhold tenure still prevails to a considerable extent in England, and presents in the main the same characteristics as it did after the trans- formation above described. However much it may resemble the prevailing form of freehold tenure—as respects duration of interest, time of enjoyment, mode of descent, etc.—it is nevertheless sharply discriminated from the latter. Land held by copyhold tenure is always parcel of and included in a manor. The lord of the manor has the freehold, the copyholder holds “ at the will of the lord according to the custom of the manor.” The evidence of the nature and ex- tent of his rights is to be looked for, primarily, in the court rolls of the manor. He has the free right of alienation, but he can alienate only by surrendering the land to the lord who then admits the purchaser. Feudal Inoldents.—Occasional reference has been made to the incidental burdens of the feudal relation. As has been pointed out above, these incidents of feudal tenure were, from the very beginnings of the system in England, a griev- ous burden, and in the course of time, when there was noth- ing else to distinguish such tenures from one another and from allodial ownership, the legalized ex-actions of the feu- dal lords served to keep the old distinctions alive. For more than a hundred years before the abolition of these burdens by the Statute of Military Tenures, they had been the distinctive badge of feudalism as well as the principal cause of complaint against the feudal system of property. The usual incidents of tenure were the following: (a) Re- l/tef: a fine paid to the lord of the fee by the heir upon the death of a tenant of an estate of inheritance. Al- 70, TEOCALLI though the law recognized the right of the heir to succeed to his ancestor’s estate, he could enter only at the price of a relief. The amount to be paid was originally indefinite, but in Glarvill's time the relief for a knight’s fee is fixed by law at 1003.; for socage land it is one year‘s rent; as to baronies and serjeanties. there is no settled rule; the heir 1nust make the best bargain he can. (Z1) Aids: regular or irregular exaetions made by the lord to enable hi1n to meet his own pressing necessities. They were regularly and law- fully claimed for the purpose of ransoming the lord from the enemy. for knighting his eldest son, and for marrying off his eldest daughter ; but they were sometimes more doubtfully demanded for the purpose of paying the lord’s debts, or his relief to his superior lord, etc. It was an- ciently provided that the aid should be “reasonable,” and the amount to be exacted was as early as the year 1275 fixed by statute. (0) ll/'arcZs]uIp azzd file:/M'z'(tge: the right of the lord of a 1ninor tenant, who held by knight’s service or mili- tary serjeanty. to the custody or wardship both of the land and tenant during the minority of the latter, as well as to dispose of the infant tenant in marriage. These rights were during the latter part of the feudal rég/ime the principal source of revenue to the king and the other territorial lords. The lord was entitled to all the rents and profits of the tene- ment for his own use during the continuance of the ward- ship (though he was expected to support the heir until the latter came of age), and he might “ sell” the young heir, whether boy or girl, in marriage. As has been said before, the lord had in general no rights of wardship or marriage over the heir to socage lands. ((1) Eschecmf: the lord’s right to resume an estate in fee upon failure of the estate. Noth- ing is more significant of the reality and permanence of the lords rights in the lands held of him than this notion of the escheating or reverting of the estate to him. Though he has parted with the land in fee, his feudal lordship is a real right of property, which persists through all the changes in title which the land in question may undergo, and which may at any time become once more a full ownership of it. See Escunar. TENURE IN THE UNITED STATES.——-The more burdensome forms of feudal tenure, i. e. the military tenures, never gained a foothold on the American side of the Atlantic. Although these‘ tenures were still in force in England when the earliest colonial charters were granted, these charters invariably provided for socage tenure. The usual provision was that the land should be holden of the king “in free and common socage, by fealty only, for all services, and not in ccqaite or by knight’s service.” Tenure in this form, the lordship of the State being substituted for that of the king, and all feudal incidents being abolished, survives in New Jersey, Penn.sylvania, South Carolina, Georgia, and several other States. In New York and most of the remaining States “all feudal tenures, with all their incidents,” have been abolished even in name, and all lands are declared by statute “to be allodial, so that, subject only to the liability to escheat, the entire and absolute property is vested in the owners.” This is the language of the New York statute (1 Rev. Stat. 717, sec. 3) now embodied in the constitution of the State (Revision of 1894), which has been substantially followed in many other States. In addition to the Uommentam'es of Blackstone, Kent, and Stephen, the reader is recommended to consult the fol- lowing modern authorities: Digby’s History of the Law of Real Pr0perl‘_//: Leake’s Digest of the Law of Property in Land ; \Villiams on Real Proyaerzfy; Fowler’s Ilz'story of Me Law 0/“Real Property; in 1Vew York; and especially Pol- lock and Maitland’s admirable II/L's2f0rfy of Enghish Law. Gnonen W. Kmcrnvnr. Teocalli, td-5-l [Mod. Lat.; named from Terebra’tala, the typical genus, dimin. of Lat. te¢'eln'a’tas, perf. partic. of terel2'ra"re, bore] : a family of BRACHIOPODA (q. '0.) or lamp- shells. A few species still live in the seas, but the fossil allies are numerous. The shell is pear-shaped in outline, and is anchored by means of a fleshy peduncle which passes through the beak of one of the valves. Teredin’idaa [l\’Iod. Lat., named from Tere’do, the typical genus, from Lat. tere'clo, tee-e'clz'm's : Gr. 'repn5a'J1/, a worm that gnaws wood or clothes, etc., deriv. of ¢el.’pew : Lat. te- rere, rub, grind] : a family of conchiferous or lamelli- branehiate molluscs. notable as destructive of timber used as piles, etc., in the ocean. The so-called ship-worms are its chief representatives. The several forms are in nowise re- lated to worms, and the only feature common between the two is the elongation of the body and the tube which they form; they have the true molluscan organization, and the TEREDO elongation is simply due to the excessive protraction back- ward of the siphonal tubes and the reduction of the body. The portion of the animal which is covered with shell is com- paratively very small and almost globular, and the siphonal The ship-worm. portion is in proportion extremely long and worm-like; the siphons are united for the greater part of their length, but free toward their ends, and there armed with two peculiar elongated shelly appendages called styles or siphonal pal- ettes; the mantle is well developed, its lobes united ex- cept at the pedal opening. reflected behind over the valves of the shell, and developed above into lobe-like expansions, which are also reflected over the hinges of the shell, and serve to keep the valves in place; the gills are large, and extend far into the siphonal portion; the mouth is provided with palpi, the foot is subcylindrical and sucker-like, with a foliaceous margin, moderately protractile, and well supplied with nerves; the shell is composed of two equal valves of peculiar form; these valves are not united at the hinge, but are only kept in place by the reflections of the mantle above referred to, and are thus susceptible of much independent interaction. The animal forms a long burrow lined with shelly material, i11 which it conceals itself. Such are the principal characters which distinguish this type. The fami- ly has quite a number of representatives, most of which bore in wood, but a few live in the bottom of the water, and the tubes they form in that case serve to protect them from the inflow of mud into their burrows. The members of the several subordinate groups and species are essentially simi- lar, but differ much in details as to form and sculpture of their shells, and still more in modifications of the siphonal palettes. N ot far from forty species have been recognized by recent naturalists, most of which belong to Teredo. Rep- resentatives of the family are found in the seas of almost every country. Great ravages have been committed by spe- cies'ot‘ the genus Tereclo-—especi-ally Teredo n(waZzTs——a11cl government commissions of inquiry have been instituted to investigate the natural history of the animals with a view to staying their destructive work. The literature concern- ing the subject is therefore very voluminous. The most noteworthy reports are those made during the years 1860—65 by a commission authorized by the Government of the Neth- erlands. An account of the American forms is given by A. E. Verrill in Bulletin of the Unttecl States Fish Com.m2's- stove (1871-72), p. 384. The burrow seems to be made by the foot, not by the shell. It is very small at the surface of the wood, but becomes a quarter of an inch in diameter and as much as 10 inches long. It may penetrate the wood in any direction, but usually runs with the grain, avoiding knots and the burrows of other teredos. The wood is often completely honeycombed with the burrows, and the largest piles may be destroyed in the course of two or three years. The wood thus excavated is not eaten, but the animal feeds on infusoria, etc., obtained from the water. The young are produced in May, and later. They are active free-swimming at first, but later attach themselves to solid objects. The young teredo, when it first settles on the pile, is not larger than the head of a pin. The only remedies are those which prevent the teredo from gaining entrance to the wood, such as sheathing for vessels, painting with coal-tar, etc. Im- pregnating the timber with creosote and similar means is less effective. Revised by E. A. Brace. Teredo : See TEREDINIDA3. Terence (Palflzias Terentzias Afer): writer of comedy; b. at Carthage, although the date usually given, 185 B. c.,‘is doubtful. He became the slave of a senator, Terentius Lu- canus, but on account of talent early evinced he received a careful education, was manumitted, and lived. after the performance of his first comedy, A'n,(Z'2'z'a, in 166 B. c-., in intimate friendship with some of the best men in Rome, such as the younger Scipio and Laalius. He died 159 B. c., on his return from Greece, where he had spent about a year. A daughter survived him. The reports of his death dilfer very much, some asserting that he was drowned, others that he died in Arcadia. His six comedies are extant— namely, Andv-2Ia., Ifeoyra, Hea-aton-te'mo'rumenos, Eumle/mls. Phormto, and Arlelyuhce. They belong to the so-called fab- TERMINOS, LAGUNA DE 73 ala paZZtata—that is, they represent Greek characters, Greek customs, and Greek life; and they all are borrowed from Greek originals by Menander, Apollodorus, or Diphilus, two Greek comedies being often compounded into one by the Latin author. By the Roman public at large they were not received with any great applause; when the Heeyra was first played, people left the theater to see the acrobats; but their purity of language, elegance of diction, and refinement of humor and sentiment——merits which the rivals of Terence as- cribed to the co-operation of Scipio and Lzelius—made them great favorites with cultivated Romans and sub- jects of much imitation after the revival of letters in the Middle Ages. Among late editions are those by Parry (London, 1857), \Vagner (London, 1869), both with notes, Umpfenbach, critical (Berlin, 1870), and Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1884). There are translations into English by Patrick (1745), Colman (1765; reprinted 1841), and Riley (1853). Annotated editions of separate plays: Aozdrzfa and Adel- phoe, by Spengel (Berlin, 1888 and 1879); Phormio and Adelphoe, by Dziatzko (1885 and 1881); A'ncZ'2'2'a and Herm- ton-ttmorzmzenos, I/Vest (New York, 1888); Heeyra, Thomas (Paris, 1887). Revised by M. \/VARREN. Terentia’ nus llIal11'I1s: a Latin writer of the end of the second century A. D., from Mauritania. His treatise in 2,981 verses, De Zttterts, s7/Zlabts, metrts, addressed to his son Bassinus and stepson Novatus, is still extant. The expo- sition of meters is especially valuable. The work was edited by Lachmann (Berlin, 1836), and by Keil, Grammatz'ee' Lat., vol. vi., pp. 313-413. M. W. Teren'tius S(32lIl1‘llS,QUINTUS : a celebrated Latin gram- marian who flourished under Hadrian, wrote commentaries to Horace, the ZEIIQZEZ of Vergil, and Plant-us, and gram- matical treatises. Excerpts from his De O1*t7z0gra]97zza are printed in Keil's Granmzatzd Lat., vol. vii. M. ' Tereus: See PHILOMELE. 'l‘erg0uw: See Gonna. Terhune', MARY VIRGINIA (Hawes): author; known by her pseudonym, Jlfarton Harland; b. in Amelia-co., Va., about 1835; in 1856 married Rev. Edward P. Terhune, a clergyman in Virginia, who i11 1859 became pastor of a Dutch Reformed church in Newark, N. J ., and afterward of Dutch Reformed and Congregational churches in Brooklyn, N. Y. In 1888 she became editor of The Home-mal.'e'r maga- zine. She has published a number of novels, including The Iiidden Path (1855): Jlfarion (1860); Judzth (1883); His Great Self (1892); and several books on domestic house- wifery, such as Common Sense in the Household (1871). H. A. BEERS. Terlizzi, tz'ir-le"et'seVe : town; in the province of Bari delle Puglie, Italy; in a fertile plain about 7 miles from the Adriatic, and very near the town of Barletta (see map of Italy, ref. 6—G). Grain, wine, oil, and fruits are exported to some extent. Pop. 20,440. Termini Imerese, t.-fir’nieb-iieb-ee-n16/-ra’sa (anc. Thermae Hz'mere/nses): town ; in the province of Palermo, Sicily; 23 miles E. S. E. of Palermo. It is on a hill on the left bank and near the mouth of the river Termini, which, as well as the town, derives its name from the warm springs in and near this place. The experts are chiefly grain, fruits, sul- phur, macaroni, fish, etc. It was under the walls of the ancient I-Ilimera that Gelon obtained his great victory over the Carthaginians (480 B. 0.), and when, seventy years after, the Punic armies destroyed the city. the refugees made the new settlement of Thermre I-I2?me/re/nses, which was a flour- ishing town in the time of Augustus. Fragments of the ancient ruins are still visible. Pop. 22,7 30. Termines (tar’me”e-nos), Lagulla de: a lagoon on the coast of Gampcche, Mexico; separated from the Bay of Campeche (Gulf of Mexico) on the N. by reefs and low islands: these are partly rocky, a.nd between them there are three passages. The lagoon has an area of about 2,600 sq. miles, and over l1alf of it admits vessels of deep draught. It receives a number of small rivers. and several bayous and navigable channels open into it ; through some of these, on the \V., there is communication with the river Usumacinta. The shores are low and swampy, but abound in cabinet woods and dye-woods, for which the lagoon has long been frequented. At the beginning of the eighteenth century it was a resort of buccaneers. Contemplated improvements would make it one of the best harbors on the Mexican coast. I'IEILBER'1‘ I-l. Snrrn. 174, TERMITES Termites. ter'mits [usually derived from Late Lat. fer’/mes, ./er'mz'z‘L's, wood-worm ; another view is that the name of the principal genus, Termcs. was given because the book-louse (Atropos) was formerly included in it, and this animal was confused with the death-watch (Anobz'/wnz), which insect was supposed to forebode early death; G'1‘.'rép,u.a, end]: insects (also called white ants. from the fact that like the ants they are social) which were formerly assigned to the 1Vem'op1.‘era,, but are now considered as distinct under the name Isopzfem. The termites form large colonies, and in each colony the in- dividuals are differentiated into different classes or castes, each being fitted by structure for its duties i11 the colony. Only the king and queen are winged, and these have two pairs of long, narrow. leathery Wings, which are similar in structure and are carried fiat upon the back when not in use. The mouth-parts are etficient biting organs, and there is an incomplete metamorphosis. The wingless forms are grouped into small-headed workers and soldiers with enor- mous heads. The king and queen are the sexual mem- bers of the colony. At certain seasons of the year they swarm from the nest, take a marriage flight, and then lose the wings, and under favorable circumstances found a new colony. Before egg-laying the abdomen of the female be- comes enormously distended with eggs. (For illustrations of termites, see ENTOMOLOGY.) The workers wait upon the royal pair, feed the young, and, besides, do all the exca- vating for the colony, store away the food, etc. The sol- diers are far less numerous, and. as the name indicates, they are the fighters of the colony. Besides their warlike duties, in some species they act as overseers of the workers. The great home of the termites is in the tropics, but they also extend into colder climates, one species being found in New England. These northern forms do little damage, al- though one year they seriously threatened libraries in Cam- bridge. In the tropics, however, they are a formidable pest. The reader is referred to the oft-quoted account of Smeath- man, which though ‘published in 1781 still remains the most accurate and detailed description of the habits of these animals. The termites are dark-loving forms, and the workers and soldiers are blind. They are rarely seen, since they are miners and spend their whole lives in the tunnels which they excavate. \Vhen they wish to attack a piece of timber they build a covered approach of earth and saliva, and then when the wood is reached their tunnels run through it in Vertical section of termites‘ nest, from apex to ground : CL 0 rr, gal- leries penetrating outer dome: I) b, air-chamber; cc, magazine and nurseries : (1 cl, royal chamber : c e, bridges ; f, outer shell ; g g, congeries of royal ante-chambers. every direction, until at last only the thinnest shell re- mains, ready to crumble at the slightest touch. In this way they build their mortar approaches up the trunks of the largest trees in order to reach dead branches. They do great good in the tropical forests by removing all dead tim- ber, but when they attack human habitations the results are serious. and the more so since the ravages give no external sign. They will completely riddle every bit of timber in a house, and have even been known to enter a table through its legs and leave. nothing but the outside, ready to collapse upon the slightest strain. The species found in the U. S. lives in decaying wood, but some of the tropical species build conical nests sur- TERPANDER mounted by numerous pinnacles, and in some cases these nests are 10 to 15 feet in height and 40 to 50 in circumfer- ence. They are made of clay solidly packed together and cemented by the saliva of the animal, while in the interior are passages and storerooms for food, nurseries for the young. quarters for the workers and soldiers, and always near the center of the base is the royal chamber where the queen is kept. See Smeathman, in Pht'Zosop7m'o(tZ T1’cm.s(.tozft'ons‘, vol. xvii. (1781); Hagen, monograph in L/zivmea Enfovlzologécct, vols. x.—xii. ; Fritz l\'It'iller, in 1/lmerican N Cl/If?!/7'61/Z'IJSZf, vol. xxiv., p. 1118 (1890). J. S. KINGSLEY. Tern : any small gull of the sub-family Sterm'ncc, popu- larly known as sea-swallows. They are characterized by their slender build, remarkably long, pointed wings, rather long, sharp beak, small feet, and, usually, deeply forked tail. They range in size from 2 feet in length down to 9 inches. The general style of plumage is white, with a pearly mantle, and top of head black, but there are exceptions to this, the sooty tern and noddy being almost black. Terns are found over the greater part of the world, and, while typical sea- birds, often occur on bodies of fresh water, especially dur- ing the breeding season. They nest on the ground, lay from one to four eggs, feed on fishes and small crustaceans, or even, as in some of the smaller species, on insects. There are some sixty species, about one-fourth of which occur in the U. S., one of the most familiar being the Sterna Mrmzclo, a species common to Europe and North America. This bird is 15 inches long, 30 in spread of wing, and the tail is well forked. For the sooty tern see EGG-BIRD. F. A. LUCAS. Ternate: See Morrueeas. Ternaux-C01n1)a.ns, ta1"’116'l<61i’pzfan’, I-IENRI: bibliogra- pher ; b. in Paris, France, in 1807. He was secretary of the French embassies at l\-Iadrid and Lisbon, and 0'/Lcmlr/é d’af- ,faz'res at Rio de J aneiro; resigned and devoted himself to the collection and study of early documents relating to America, traveling extensively in Spain and America for this purpose. For a short time he was a member of the . French Assembly. In 1836 he published Bt'Z)Zz'ot]1éque Amé'm'- ca/inc, on catalogue dos ovwragcs relat/zlfs ct l’AméreIquc clepmls so cZéoomcr2fe en 1493 jusqu‘d Pan 1700. French transla- tions of a selected series of documents and rare books from his magnificent library were published as Voyages, reZa1fz'ons ct mévvvo/Wes pour sc'/"var (Z Z’hz'sI.‘ot'1'e dc la décotwcrtc do Z’Amérz.'que (two series, 20 vols., 1836—40), generally known as the Ternaux-Compans collection. This set, which is of great value, is enriched by notes. Subsequently he issued smaller collections or single works of the same character, an historical and bibliographical essay on Guiana, etc. D. in Paris, Dee., 1864. I-IERBERT H. SMITH. Terni, t£tr’ne“e (anc. Intomm/mt UmZrm'oa): town; in the province of Perugia, Italy; near the banks of the Nera, about 10 miles S. S. W. of Spoleto and 55 N. N. E. of Rome (see map of Italy, ref. 5-E). It is chiefly interesting from the antiquities, and remains of a very ancient wall with square towers are to be seen. One of the five gates is called Trc ]iI0’It’tL’flZ/G’ILZf’II, from the monuments of the historian Taci- tus and of the Emperors Tacitus and Florian, all of whom were born here; The streets open upon a very large square near the center of the town. The cathedral, dating from the seventeenth century, contains many early monuments and inscriptions, but the basilica of San Valentino is still more ancient. The Church of San Salvadore is built on the ruins of a temple of the sun—that of Sant’ A10 over a tem- ple of Cybele. The episcopal palace stands, in part, on the site of an amphitheater of the time of Tiberius, which, jllt g- ing from the foundations. was capable of holding 10,000 spectators. Pop. about 9,420. Revised by M. W. HARRING'1‘ON. Te1'nst1'0emia’ceae : See TEA FAMILY. Teror, td-r5r’ : a beautiful town in attractive surround- ings on Grand Canary, one of the Canary islands, which has some warm mineral springs, resorted to on account of their curative effects. Pop. 5,800 (in the commune). M. VV. I-I. Terpan’der (G1'.Tépmzu6pos) : musician and lyric poet; b. at Antissa, island of Lesbos, in the first half of the seventh century B. o.: settled in Sparta, where, in 676 B. 0., he gained the prize in the first musical contest instituted at the feast of Apollo Carneius. lle is generally considered the founder of Greek music, as he increased the number of the strings of the lyre from four to seven ; was the first to set poetry to music, both his own verses and those of Homer; TERPSICHORE established the first regular school of music, and made mu- sic a part of education. See Flach, Gcsc/mic/ole clcr gm'cch- z'sc/ten L_z/rt'/0 (vol. i.). Revised by B. L. GILDERSLEEVE. Terpsichore, terp-sik’5-rc“e [: Lat. : Gr. Tepil/ixdpn, liter., fem. of 'rep1,t/txopos, delighting in dancing; Te/p1reu/, Tépitai, enjoy + Xopés, dance, dancing] : one of the nine Muses. She presided over song and choral dancing, and was represented with lyre and plectrum in her hands, and a wreath of flow- ers on her head. See Musns. Terrace : a limited plain, natural or artificial, from which the surface descends on one side and ascends on the other. Artificial terraces are often constructed for the purpose of utilizing the sides of hills, and the steep slopes separating them are protected from the attack of rain by masonry or turf. They have also an extensive use in connection with agriculture, especially in Southern Europe. Gentle slopes, which in the natural condition are covered and protected by vegetation, are sometimes worn into gullies and steep ridges when cultivation exposes them to the action of rain. To prevent this, the land is graded in terraces whose flat sur- faces give the rain-water rills no power to erode, and the steep bluffs between the terraces are guarded by turf or a facing of stone. Natural terraces are of various kinds, the most abundant being terraces of dzlfi”e/~entz'aZ degr-adcztion. Wliere a hill or mountain or the side of a valley is composed of level strata which differ among themselves in texture, these differences usually find expression in the topography. Frost and other agencies that break up rocks act more rap- idly on weak rocks, such as shales, than on strong rocks. and reduce them to earth which is washed away by rain. Often a weak rock is in this way eaten back until the strong rock above it is deprived of support and falls away in blocks. By such processes the hillside is carved into a series of ter- races separated by bluffs or clilfs. Stremn zferraces are next in abundance. When the volume and grade of a stream are so adjusted to the load of detritus it carries forward that it neither wears down nor builds up its bottom, the stream wears its banks. making a flood-plain, and this gradually becomes broader. If the stream is overloaded, part of the load is deposited and the flood-plain grows higher as well as broader. If then the land is lifted, or the flow of water is increased, or the load is diminished, the stream cuts its channel deeper and ceases to spread over the fiood-plain, which then constitutes a terrace on each side of the stream. A repetition of this process produces a series of terraces ris- ing like steps on the valley side, and such series are to be seen in many valleys of the U. S. Shore z‘e/rrrlces a.re of sev- eral types. Those most frequently seen are carved out by the waves where the sea attacks the land. They are over- locked by cliffs and are usually submerged at high tide. 011 parts of a coast where drifting sand or shingle accumulates. beach being added to beach, a rather uneven terrace is pro- duced, and this is bounded seaward by a submerged decliv- ity. The deltas accumulated at river mouths are tan-shaped terraces with steep outer slopes. \Vhile these features are in process of formation they are partly concealed b_v the water, but if the region is afterward uplifted their character as terraces becomes conspicuous. A m.0ra.zTne z‘errace is formed where a stream of water flows between a glacier and the side -of its valley. The earth and stones of the lateral moraine, together with other material brought by the stream, are built by the running water into a plain: and afterward. when the glacier has disappeared, this plain constitutes a terrace on the valley side. The glaciated districts of the U. S. afford numerous examples. Fault I‘c2'rares are com- paratively rare. They are formed where a system of faults traverse a plain, letting it down in steps. and their produc- tion is accompanied by earthquakes. American examples occur in the Great Basin, especially at the foot of the \Va- satch range. Rain and frost, the great agents of land sculp- ture, attack and gradually destroy the terraces marking the former activity of streams, glaciers, waves. and the forces of the inner earth, but they perpetually restore the terraces of differential degradation, and it is for this reason that the latter are most abundant. See GEoLoev, and consult Lake 1302mem'llc, Monograph I., U. S. Geological Survey. G. K. GILBERT. Terrace Epoch: See C1~IAMPLAII\" Erocn. 'l‘erra-cotta [: Ital. IU (q. 0.). which was formerly regarded as an earthy mineral. '1‘errano’va : town ; in the province of (‘altanisetta-. Sic- ily ; on the south coast of the island, near the mouth of the 'l‘erranova: (50 miles \V. of Syracuse (see map of ltaly, ref. 10-F). This town occupies the site of an ancient city (prob- ably Gclu). as is proved by the remains of a Dorie temple and by the many old sepulchers found in the neighborhood, whose contents have enriched the museum of Palermo. Pop. 16,440. Revised by M. W. ILin.RI~.\‘e'l‘o.\*. Ter’rapin [probably Amer. lnd.]: any one of various small fresh-\vat.er turtles of the family 1?/nydz' “ll/L@;§\fl"-_\'|\ll'l".4_ 7 _~ '.- L-1-‘ ‘ “ The salt-water terrapin. (whence the name Jlfalaclemmys), and the alveolar surface of the upper jaw is broad and divided in front by only a slight groove; the neck is short and thick; the shell oval, moderately convex, slightly keeled, and the scales marked with concentric, generally impressed, lines ; the skin is gray, spotted, and otherwise marked with black. It rarely much exceeds 8 inches in length, and is generally less than that. It is the most esteemed for the table of any species of the family, and is caught in large numbers for the markets of Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, and other cities. It commands a price of from $15 to $100 a dozen, according to size, season, and demand. It is active in the water, swim- ming well, and on land runs with considerable speed. See Torrrorsn and TURTLE—FISI~IERY. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Terrebonne, tZi'.r'bon’: town of Terrebonne County, Que- bec; on the north shore of the navigable river Jésus; 16 miles by land N. of Montreal (see map of Quebec, ref. 5-B). It is the seat of Masson College (Roman Catholic), a large and prosperous institution. It has a fine water-power, util- ized in a number of manufactories. Its stone-quarries are valuable. Pop. 1,460. Terre Haute, tar-h5t': city (founded in 1816); capital of Vigo co., Ind.; on the Wabash river, and the Vandalia Line, the Cleve., Cinn., Chi., and St. L., the Chi. and E. Ill., and the Evans. and T. H. railways; 73 miles W. of Indian- apolis, the State capital (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 7—B). It is on a rolling prairie between the Wabash and a low range of wooded bluffs; is divided into blocks 300 feet square by broad streets, paved with macadam, brick, or asphaltum, and having brick, limestone, and artificial stone walks; and contains three parks, Collett, with 30 acres of grove and lawn ; Deming, with 50 acres of rolling land and forest; and a driving-park and fair-grounds of 90 acres, with a noted racing-track. The city is surrounded by coal- fields, and has 3 productive oil-wells, 2 artesian wells, sup- plying sulphur water, 20 miles of electric railway, and a garbage crematory. The notable buildings include the coun- ty court-house (cost $475,000), U. S. Government building ($150,000), union station ($100,000), State normal school ($250,000), and opera-house. There are 33 churches, viz.: Methodist Episcopal, 8; Baptist, 5; Roman Catholic, 4; Presbyterian, 2; Protestant Episcopal, 2; Congregational, 2; Christian, 2; German Evangelical, 2 ; and Jewish, Lutheran, United Brethren, Seventh-day Advent, German Reformed, and Church of Christ, each 1. The public-school system supports a high school and 18 district schools, having 147 teachers and nearly 6,000 pupils, and costing annually over $110,000. Connected with the system is a free public li- brary with over 11,000 volumes. There are also 4 Roman Catholic parochial schools, with 20 teachers and nearly 800 pupils. The most noted educational institution is the Rose Polytechnic Institute, an advanced school of engineering and chemistry, founded by the late Chauncey Rose, and opened in 1883. It is admirably equipped for its work, and has a productive endowment of $600,000 and an annual in- come of $47,000. The State normal school has an annual allowance by the State of $60,000, and a library of 11,000 volumes. There are also Coates College for young women (Presbyterian), and St. Mary’s in the Woods, a Roman Catholic seminary for girls. The charitable institutions in- clude the Rose Ladies’ Aid Society for the relief of the poor and the care of a home for old ladies (endowment $90,000), St. Anthony’s Hospital, conducted by Sisters of St. Francis TERRORITE (cost $130,000, chiefly gift of H. Hulman, Sr.), Rose Dis- pensary (endowment $90,000), Rose Orphan Home (cost $130,000, with additional endowment of $200,000), and St. Ann’s Orphan Asylum. In 1894-95 the city had receipts, $447,832; disburse- ments, $381,588: net debt, $297,000; and total assessed valu- ation. $25,000,000. There are 3 national banks with combined capital and surplus of $1,080,000, sav- ings-bank with deposits of over $500,000, a loan and trust company with capital of $100,000, and a pri- vate bank. The city has 85 large manufacturing establishments and numerous minor ones, includ- ing railway-car works, 6 machine-shops, 3 rolling- mills, 3 flour-mills, 2 hominy-mills, 2 distilleries, piano-factory, and stave, heading, and lumber mills. There is a large wholesale trade, particularly in groceries and dry goods. Pop. (1880) 26,042; (1890) 30,217 ; (1895) estimated, 37,000. O. C. OAKEY. Terrell : city; Kaufman co., Tex.; on the Tex. and Pac. and the Tex. Midland railways; 31 miles E. of Dallas (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 2-1). It is in an agricultural, fruit-growing, and stock-raising region, and contains a large high school, a school for colored chil- dren, railway-shops, cottonseed-oil mill, creamery, compress, flour-mill, iron-works, a national bank with capital of $75,- 000, a private bank, and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,003 ; (1890) 2,988; (1895) estimated, 4,500. EDITOR or “ TIMES-STAR.” ’.[‘errestria1 Magnetism : See lflaennrrsn, TERRESTRIAL. Terrier [from O. Fr. terr/ter in chten terrier, terrier dog; chten, dog + terr/ter < Late Lat. terra’m'ns, of the ground, cleriv. of ter'ra > O. Fr. terre, earth, ground; cf. O. Fr. ter- rter, little mound of earth, burrow of a fox or rabbit] : any one of a large number of breeds of small dogs distinguished for vivacity and courage. Among the best known are the English or black-and-tan terrier; the bull-terrier, a minia- ture bulldog in courage, and often in shape; the fox-ter- rier, formerly used to unearth foxes; the Scotch or rough- Skye terrier. haired terriers, including the Skye, the Dandie Dinmont, and other strains; and the toy-terriers, crosses with some of the small lapdogs. Most of the various breeds of terrier are especially trained to the killing of rats and other vermin. See Does. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Territory : a term technically applied in the U. S. and in some Spanish-American republics to certain por- tions of the public lands which are under the direct control of the national legislature. In the U. S. Territories are or- ganized by congressional enactment. The governor and the administrative and judicial officers are appointed by the President, but a territorial legislature is intrusted with lim- ited powers, subject to the approval of Congress. VVhen a Territory attains a population suflicient to entitle it to one- Representative in Congress, it has usually been given per- mission by a special act to form a State constitution, and then admitted into the Union with rights equal to those of the other States. The rights of Congress over the Territories and respecting their admission as States are based on Art. IV., Sec. 3, of the Constitution. WVith the exception of Texas, California, I/Vest Virginia, and the original thirteen colonies, all the States of the Union have passed through the territorial form of government. At present (1895) there are four organized Territories : Arizona, New Mexico, Okla- homa, and Utah. Alaska and Indian Territory also rank in the U. S. as territories, although they have no organized territorial form of government. Terrorite: See Ex1>LosivEs. , TERRY Terry, ALFRED I-Iownz soldier; b. at Hartford, Conn., Nov. 10, 1827; educated at schools in New Haven and at the law school of Yale College; entered upon the practice of law in 1849, and was clerk of the Superior and Supreme Courts of Connecticut 1854-60. For some years prior to the civil war he had been an active member of the State militia, and since 1854 in command of the Second Connecticut Mi- litia, which regiment was mustered into the service of the U. S. in response to the call for three months’ troops, and, with Terry still in command, was engaged in the first battle of Bull Run. Returning at the expiration of the three months, Terry then organized the Seventh Connecticut Vol- unteers, of which regiment he was appointed colonel Sept., 1861, and which he commanded in the expeditionary corps of Gen. Thomas W. Sherman at the capture of Port Royal, S. C.; was placed in command of Fort Pulaski upon its cap- ture. Promoted to be brigadier—general of volunteers in Apr., 1862, he served in the operations about Charleston, in making a successful demonstration up Stono river during the descent on Morris island, and in the siege operations at Forts Wagner and Sumter. In the Virginia campaign of 1864 he commanded a division in the Army of the James, and was engaged at Drury’s Bluff, Bermuda Hundred, and siege of Petersburg, being in command of the corps May- July, 1864. Upon the failure of the first attempt to capture FORT FISHER (q. u), Terry was selected in J an., 1865, to command the new expedition, which successfully carried that work by assault J an. 15. For his services on this oc- casion he was promoted to be a major-general of volunteers and made a brigadier—general in the regular army. In the capture of Wilmington he rendered etlicient aid, and in Mar., 1865, was placed in command of the Tenth Corps, which he held during the subsequent operations in North Carolina. In June, 1865, he was placed in command of the department of Virginia; commanded the department of the South 1869-72, and afterward the department of Dakota. He became major-general in the regular army Mar., 1886, and took command of the division of Missouri; retired Apr. 5, 1888. D. at New Haven, Dec. 16, 1890. ' Revised by J AMES MERCUR. Terry, ELLEN ALICE: actress; b. at Coventry, England, Feb. 27, 1848; made her first appearance on the stage in 1856 at the Princess’s theater, London, under the management of Mrs. Charles Kean, playing Puck, Prince Arthur, etc., and became in 1878 a member of the company of the Lyceum theater under the management of Henry Irving, playing Ophelia, Desdemona, Portia, Juliet, and other characters. Her three sisters-Kate, Florence, and Marion—and her daughter are successful actresses. She visited the U. S. five times in company with Irving, and her acting was much ad- mired for its winning charm, its gracious dignity, and its emotional intensity. Her Portia especially entirely accords with the spirit and poetry of Shakspeare‘s play. Revised by B. B. VALLENTINE. Terry, MILTON SPENSER, A. M., S. T. D.: minister and educator; b. at Coeymans, Albany co., N. Y., Feb. 22, 1840; educated at Charlotteville Seminary, Troy University, and Yale Theological Seminary; pastor in the Methodist Epis- copal Church eighteen years, presiding elder four years; since 1884 has been Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Ill. He has published Commentary on Judges, Ruth, and Samuel (1873); Com- mentary on K’/tngs, Chronzfeles, Ezra, l\TehemzTah, and Esther (1875); B/tbl/teal Hermeneutics (1883; rev. ed. 1890); Oom- mentary on Genesis and Ezvodus (1889); Slbylle'ne Oracles, translated from the Greek (1890) ; The Song of Songs (1893) ; The Prophecies of Daniel E.I;])0unded (1893); and Rambles tn the Old World (1894). A. OSBORN. Tersehel'ling: the third of the chain of islands which lie in the North Sea along the northeastern coast of H01- land; comprises an area of 45 sq. miles, and consists of low and rich meadow-land protected by downs and dikes against the sea. The inhabitants form a commune iiiiniberiiigaboiit 3,730, and are engaged in ship-building, fishing, and pilotage. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tertian Fever: See FEvER and C1-IILL. Ter'tiaries [from Eccles. Lat. tertz.'a’rz'us, belonging to the third degree or order < Lat. terte'a'm'us, containing a third part, deriv. of ter’ttus, third : Eng. third] : in some Ro- man Catholic religious orders, those members who from mar- riage or secular occupations are not received into the highest membership of the order, but nevertheless take simple vows. TESSIN 77 The members of the Third Order of St. Francis are the most celebrated class of Tertiaries. They have long, in fact, con- stituted a separate order in the Church and have a general of their own. The Third Order embraces congregations of both men and women. Other orders have houses of Tertiaries, who are not to be confounded with the lay brethren and sis- ters of the orders. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Tertiary Era: a division of geologic time co-ordinate with the Primary era, and Secondary era, which it follows, and the Quaternary era, which it precedes. In the later and widely adopted classification based on life, the CENozoIc ERA (q. r.) is made to include the Tertiary and Quaternary. Tertiary time is divided by European geologists into four periods—-Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene. In the chronologic system adopted for the atlas of the U. S. Geo- logical Survey these are represented by two periods named Eocene and N eocene. For accounts of the periods, see the articles under their several names. The flora of this era is treated in the article PLANTS, FOSSIL. See also QUATERNARY ERA. G. K. GILBERT. Tertre, (lu: See DUTERTRE. Tertull'ian (Qutntus Septtmtus Elorens TertulZtanus): the most eminent Latin ecclesiastical writer of the early Church; b. at Carthage about 160. The son of a Roman military official, he was liberally educated, and became one of the ablest lawyers of the day and professor of rhetoric in his native city. The hollowness of contemporary paganism, the purity of the Christian life, and the courage of the martyrs co-operated to make him a Christian. From his conversion he experienced a profound change of heart, and was soon as noted for the rigidity of his ethical views and conduct as he was formerly for his looseness of life. In fact his severity in this regard led him to break with the regular Church authorities by his excessive insistence on the tenets of Men- tanism and his want of pity on the fallen. He is said to have founded a sect of Tertullianists which lingered on un- til the fifth century. He is famous for many works apolo- getical, doctrinal, and ethico-practical. Among them are the A]Jologet'tcum, a gem of Christian wit, logic, and erudi- tion ; the De ]9rceserz‘ptton2'bus hcereficorum, valuable as an evidence of the ecclesiastical mind of his time: the Ad- rersus .Zl[arcz'onem, in five books; and works on patience, 011 chastity, on monogamy, on idolatry, on theaters, etc. He is laconic, pointed, sarcastic, sententious in his utterances. His language is often compressed and obscure, so loaded is it with thought and reference. He created much of the technical ecclesiastical phraseology of the Latin Church. He lived and taught at Rome for some time, and his per- sonal diiferences with the Roman clergy may have had something to do with his sharp expressions concerning the Roman mildness in treating these who fell away from Chris- tian virtue or faith, but his works contain many expressions and principles that show the theoretical headship and real influence of the Roman Church. D. about 240. See Tille- mont,1l[émoirespourservir a l’h1'stoz'2'e eceZéstast'z'q'ue: Frep- pel, Tertullien (Paris, 1864); Cruttwell, A Literary History of Early Ch2'*z'st'tanz'z‘y (London, 1893); the patrologies of I*‘essler-Jungma-nn and of Alzog. The best edition of Ter- tullian is that of Oehler (3 vols., Leipzig, 1851-54). J OHN J . KEANE. Terwaglie, ANNE JosEPuE: See TIIERSIGNE nn MERI- COURT. Tesla, NIKoL.i: electrician ; b. at Smiljan, Croatia, Aus- tria-Hunga-ry, in 1857 ; graduated at the Polytechnic School, Gratz; engaged in electrical work in France; went to the U. S. and was associated with Edison; became electrician of the Tesla Electric Light Company and established the Tesla laboratory in New York for independent electrical re- search. He has received honorary degrees from Columbia and Yale and the order of St. Sava fro1n the King of Ser- via, as well as that of the Eagle from Montenegro. and has been vice-president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. He is the inventor of the modern principle of the rotating magnetic field embodied in the apparatus used in the transmission of power from Niagara Falls, of new forms of dynamos, transformers, motors, induction coils, con- densers, arc and incandescent lamps, and of the oscillator. combining steam-engine and dynamo, etc. His researches in electrical oscillation have opened a new field for scientific investigation. See The Inventions, Researches, and lVrz'z‘- tnys of Nikola Tesla, by T. C. Martin (New York, 1894). Tessin: Sec TICINO. 73 rrEssIN Tessin’, KARL GUSTAF: statesman and writer: b. in Swe- den, 1695. He filled various important political positions, but he is best remembered as a patron of letters and an era- torof force and elegance. \Vhile tutor to the crown prince, afterward Gustaf III., he wrote his famous En gammal mans bref till en lung prins (An Old Man‘s Letters to a Young Prince). D. 1770. D. K. D. Testament (Lat. testaonentnm): See YVILL. Testamentary Guardian: See GUARDIAN. Testaments, Old and New: See BIBLE. Testi, FULvIo : poet ; b. at Ferrara, Italy, Aug. 23, 1597, the son of a pharmacist. Trained at Bologna and Ferrara, he spent his life in the service of the court of Modena; at- tacked the Spaniards in some early verses, and excited their suspicions ; later sought to gain their favor, when ambassa- dor to Madrid (1635-38); was arrested Jan., 1646, for in- triguing with French officials, and died in prison at Modena, Aug. 28, 1646. His verse consists chiefly of the Rirne (1611) ; a tragedy, Is-ola d’Alcina (1626) ; the fragments of another drama and two epics; and most probably the poem in oc- taves called the Pia/ito d’Italia. J . D. M. FORD. Testicle: Sec HIsToLoeY. Testimony [from Lat. testi'1no’ninin, deriv. of tes’tis, a witness]: iI1 law, the oral statement of facts made under oath by witnesses upon the trial of a civil or criminal ac- tion, or upon the hearing of any other judicial proceeding, as contradistinguished from the evidence furnished by writ- ten instruments, or by any other mere physical facts or ap- pearances which can be exhibited to the court or jury. “ Evidence ” is the generic term, while “testimony ” is specific. (See EvIDE.\'cE.) At the common law the wit- nesses in a legal action must be produced before the jury, unless they are without the kingdom or state, in which case their examination is taken in writing by means of a com- mission sent to the foreign country. In the English equity, admiralty, probate, and ecclesiastical proceedings the testi- mony was always taken by deposition and read on the trial. The modern radical changes in procedure have altered most of these ancient rules. Even the testimony in legal actions, both in the U. S. and in England, may now be written if the parties agree to that method; while by the practice of some States and of the U. S. tribunals it may always be in the form of a deposition if the witness lives at a fixed dis- tance from the court or in certain cases in a county other than that in which the trial is held. One important excep- tion to this relaxation is made necessary by the national and State constitutions. In all criminal trials the prisoner must be confronted by the witnesses against him, so that the testi- mony for the prosecution must be produced and delivered orally before the jury. Generally, wherever the reformed procedure prevails, the testimony in equitable suits is given in the same manner and is governed by the same rules as that in legal actions. In the U. S. courts, however, and in a few States which still retain a separate administration of equity the original form of deposition continues to be used. The reformed English procedure allows the parties a free selection between the written and the oral modes. In re- spect to the compelling the attendance of witnesses, the administration of the oath or of the atlirmation, the exami- nation and cross-examination, and the rules as to the com- petency of witnesses, see SUBPUBNA, OATI1, and TRIAL. Revised by GEORGE W. KIRUI-IWEY. Test Oath: the oath required by the Corporation and the Test Acts (13 Car. II., st. 2, c. 1, A. D. 1661, and 25 Car. II., c. 2, A. 1). 1672) to be taken by nearly all civil and military offi- cers. Blackstone describes thcse statutes as “two bulwarks erected in order the better to secure the Established Church against perils from nonconformists of all denominations, in- fidels, Turks, Jews, heretics, papists, and sectaries.” They made the holding of public ollice conditional upon the in- cumbent’s taking the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and subscribing a declaration against transubstantiation and receiving the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper accord- ing to the usage of the Church of England. After various modifications the statutes were substantially repealed in 1828 (9 Geo. IV., c. 17). During the civil war in the U. S. and after its close, test oaths were imposed by Federal and State legislation. (See U. S. R. S., § 1756, repealed by ch. 46, Laws 1884.) Their validity was soon called in ques- tion, and in the famous cases of Cam/nings vs. Jlfissonri and ex parte Garland (4 ‘Wallace ~77 and the U. S. Su- preme Court held that any law requiring these oaths to be TETA taken as a condition of holding certain offices and trusts or of pursuing one’s ordinary and regular vocation, and thus operating to deprive persons of vested rights, was uncon- stitutional, as imposing a punishment for an act which was not punishable when it was committed, and hence within the prohibition against ea; post facto laws; or as inflicting punishment without a judicial trial, and hence under the ban against bills of attainder. FRANeIs M. BURnIcx. TeStu(liI1a’ta [Mod. Lat., neut. plur. of Lat. test'tldina’t/as, from testn/do, tortoise]: an order of reptiles including the turtles, distinguished by having the body protected by a bony case. This is formed above by the ribs and vertebrae, to which are added other expanded bony plates, the whole con- stituting the carapace ; below by a series of bony plates, usu- ally nine, forming the plastron; other bones, called mar- ginals or peripheralia, are usually developed about the edge of the carapace, and in the adults of many species all these bones are immovably connected with one another. The lower jaw, as in other reptiles, is formed of several pieces, but its halves are largely and firmly united at the symphy- sis by the coalesced dentarics. The jaws are toothless and, like those of a bird, encased in horny sheaths. The dorsal vertebrae are few in number, and immovably connected with one another and with the ribs. The feet have five digits each, and are variously modified for walking and swim- ming. There is no true sternum, the plastron consisting in part of bones corresponding to the clavicles and interclav- icle of other animals, and in part of dermal bones. In most Testaclinata the carapace is covered with regularly arranged horny plates, which may be quite thin, as in so1ne tortoises (Testado), or thick and overlapping, as in the hawk’s-bill turtle. In the trunk-turtle (Dernzochelys) and the fresh-water Trionychidre the carapace is covered with a thin skin. The heart has two auricles and an imperfectly divided ventricle, and some venous blood enters into the circulation. The digestive apparatus is well developed, al- though the distinction between gullet and stomach is slight. In the marine turtles, which feed on seaweed, the gullet is armed with long, sharp, backwardly directed papillae; in other turtles the gullet usually shows longitudinal folds. Including fossil forms the Testndinata are divided into four groups: (1) Amplzichelydia, containing extinct species distinguished among other characters by the separation of the dentary bones. (2) Plearodira, in which the neck is bent sidewise, not in a vertical plane, and the head in con- sequence can not be drawn within the shell; the pelvis is ankylosed to the carapace and plastron ; marginal bones are present. This group contains a small number of tropical species, (3) Cryptodira, in which the neck can be bent in a vertical plane, and the neck in most can be drawn within the shell; marginal bones are present. The large majority of turtles belong to this division. (4) Trionychia, contain- ing forms in which marginal bones are usually absent, or when present they form an imperfect series and are not connected with the ribs. This group comprises the so- called soft-shelled fresh-water turtles, which have a con- siderable portion of the outer and posterior part of the carapace cartilaginous and slightly flexible. A fifth group (Athecaz) is used by some systematists for the reception of the trunk-turtle (Dermochelys) and some fossil forms, in which the carapace consists of numerous small segments and is not united with the vertebrae and ribs. Geological members of the order Testadinata are found from the Up- per Trias onward. Geographically they are found through- out the tropical and temperate portions of the world, their northernmost limits being about 50° in North America and 54° in Europe. See article Tortoise in Eneg/clopmdia Brit- annica, 9th ed. ; also Baur On the Classification of the Tes- tudinata, American 1/.Vataralist (June, 1890). See GREEN TURTLE, [—IAwK’s-BILL TURTLE, LEA'1‘IIER.-'1‘UR’l‘LE, LYRE-'rUR- TLE, ToR'roIsE, and TRIONYCHIDJE. F. A. LUcAs. Testu(lin’i(la2 [Mod. Lat., named from Testu/do, the typical genus, from Lat. testa’do, tortoise]: a family of tortoises (Testndinata) distinguished by their club-shaped feet and their special adaptation for terrestrial life. (See ToR'roIsE.) The North American species are Gopheras poly- 7)/I/0))?/'11/S, G. agassizii, and G. berla.ndieri. The species are long-lived and very tenacious of life, and can live for a long time without food; they subsist upon herbage (grass, vegetables, and roots), and travel, in some cases at least, periodically to watercourses to drink. In temperate cli- mates they hibernate in burrows through the winter. Teta : See Crnons. TETANUS Tet'anus [l\/Iod. Lat., from Lat. z‘e’tanus : Gr. 'Te"Ta1/as. spas1n, tetanus, liter., stretching, tension, deriv. of Teii/en/, stretch]: a dangerous spasmodic disease characterized by paroxysms of tonic muscular contraction, succeeding each other with varying frequency for days or weeks. The spasms usually appear first in the muscles of mastication, producing the condition popularly known as “lock-jaw,” then involve the large muscles of the trunk, then those of the extremities and those concerned in respiration. In a paroxysm the patient’s face is livid or purple, his respira- tion suspended, his whole body rigid and usually arched backward, owing to the greater power of the muscles of the back. Such a spasm lasts several seconds, and may cause death by arrest of respiration. Fever of varying in- tensity is present, and extreme exhaustion follows the parox- ysms. Death is the more common issue in acute cases, oc- curring in two or five days. Occasionally, tetanus of less intense type becomes chronic, lasting weeks. Tetanus is universally recognized as an infectious disease due to the bacillus of Nicolaier, which was discovered in 1885. This micro-organism gains access to the system through wounds which are infected with earth or dust. The earth of al- most any garden contains them. Jagged wounds, and espe- cially such as involve or injure nerves, are particularly liable to cause the disease. It may begin soon after the injury or not for a long time. Tetanus is more common in hot than in cold climates. As in other infectious diseases the symp- toms are largely the result of the action of certain toxines, the products of the bacillus. Tetanus has been success- fully treated by chloral hydrate, opium, chloroform, and by timely removal or separation of the nerves which are irri- tated by the wound. The modern treatment consists in the injection of antitoxines obtained from the blood of animals rendered immune fro1n the disease. This treatment has been highly satisfactory in some cases. Revised by W. PEPPER. T@te de Pent, tat’de-p5r'1 [Er., head of a bridge, bridge- head]: in fortification, a fieldwork, generally open at the gorge, resting its flanks on the banks of a river in order to cover one or more bridges. In spite of their small compass, such works are often of great strength. See FORTIFICATION. Tetrabranchia’ ta [l\Iod. Lat., from Gr. 'Te'rpa-, four + Bpaiq/Xia, gills]: that group of cephalopod Mollusca which in- cludes those forms with two pairs of gills. See CEPHALOPODA, N AUTILIDIE, and MOLLUSGA. Tetrachord: See Hnxxcnoan. Tet1‘a00l'al'lia [Mod. Lat.; from Gr. 'Te'Tpa-, four + KOPd7\- M011. coral] : a group of fossil corals, characterized by having the septa arranged in fours. They are simple or colonial, free or fixed. The group is confined to the Paleozoic age, and attained its maximum in the Silurian. About 400 spe- cies are known. Tetradecap'oda [Mod Lat. ; Gr. 're'Tpa—. four + Eéxa, ten + 1r06s, wo66s, foot]: a group of malacostracous crustacea, embracing forms the typical members of which have four- teen (seven pairs) feet fitted for locomotion. They have a small head, seven free thoracic body-rings, while more or fewer of the seven abdominal segments are coalesced. The eyes are never on stalks. The group is often known as EDRI— OPHTHALMA (q. /0.) (sessile-eyed) or 1/_t'rz‘/w'0sI‘raca, in allusion to the jointed thorax. (See l\IALAcosTaAc.i.) The group may be divided into four orders: Isoronx (q. u), AMPHIPODA (q. 1).), Lcemoclipoda, and Em‘om'scidw. In the Laamodipoda, embracing a few marine forms and including the whale- lice (Cyamas) and Caprclia, the abdomen is greatly reduced, several of the thoracic feet may be lost, while one pair is transferred to the head. The Em‘om'scz'dw, with isopodan atlinities, are greatly reduced by parasitism, the female being frequently so degenerate that no crustacean relationships are recognizable in the adult. J . S. KINGSLEY. '1‘etradymite: See Tr.nnumnas. Tetrag1‘am’ llli'tt0l1 [M0d. Lat.. f1‘OI11 G1‘. 1'e'rpa'ypoi,u,ua'r0z/, a word of four letters; 're'1'pa-, four + ')/pct/a,ua, letter]: the word of four letters, i. e. the Hebrew Y1-IWH, the holy name of the Deity which the Jews considered " secret” or “inexpressible ” (shém hawnmz/cplzérdsh). Cf. Zc#.1)czu‘sclz. ]lIorge»2iZc'i)uZ. G~cseZl., xxxv., 162; xxxvi.. 410; xxxix., 513. It was written in Hebrew letters in MSS. of the LXX.. and then read as Greek IIIHI (Zeit. 1)@t6t86]t. 1l.[0rgenZ. GescIl., xxxii., 465). The real pronunciation, which was given but once—-on the Day of Atonement by the high priest—has been lost. In its place the word Adonai (my Lord) was TETRODONTIDiE 79 used, and the vowels of that word placed under the conso- nants YH'W H. Since 15.20 Christian scholars have wrong- ly combined the consonants of the one with the vowels of the other, and produced a new word, Jehovah. The correct pronunciation is probably Yah/wé ; cf., ’Idw of the Ophites, Val- entinians, Abraxas Gems, and magical papyri ; ‘Iaové of Cle- mens, ’IaBé of Epiphanius and the Samaritans (Theodoret). The word means either “the one who exists ” (Ex. iii. 1-1; Hosea i. 9), or “the one who calls into being” (Clericus, La- garde, Bilclung der Nomiiict, p. 137 . For other meanings, see Wellhai1se1i,S/rizzen, iii., 175 : Stade, Ge.sc7n'cMe. i.,-129 ; Schultze, Alttest. Th-eolog/fie, 4th ed., p. 508; Baudissin, StucZz'en zu/r Semfl. ReZ'z‘g2'0nsgesc7tic71fe, i., 181 ; Zeiz‘. All- test. Wz'as-en. (1882-83). RICHARD Gorrnmn. Tetrahe’dron [from Gr. 're'rpa-, four + Efipa, seat, base]: a solid having four bounding planes, four solid angles, and six edges. If regular, its sides are equilateral triangles. Tetral’0g'y [Gr. TeTpa}\o')/ta, a quaternion of discourses or dialogues]: the technical name given to a combination of three tragedies (trilogy) and a satyr-drama. The word is also applied to the Platonic dialogues, as grouped in sets of four. B. L. G. Tetrameter: See Mnrans. Tetraon'ida>. [Mod Lat., named from Tc’trao, the typical genus; from Lat. z‘e’z‘rao. Z‘€Z‘7'(l0'7l‘i8: Gr. 1-e1-pdwu, heath- cock, moor-fowl] : a family of birds comprising the grouse, partridges, quails, etc. The general aspect of the birds is familiar in connection with the kinds just indicated; the bill varies considerably in size, being in some robust and in others rather weak; it is broad at the base, and thence compressed, and the culmen is always arched to the tip, which is obtusely hooked and decurved over the lower man- dible; the nostrils are basal and lateral, in some (e. g. T @- z‘7'a0m'mc) concealed by feathers. in others partly covered by a hard scale; the wings are short, rounded. and concave; the tail diversiform, but generally short and depressed: the tarsi strong, variously clothed; the toes moderate, the three anterior free, the posterior elevated; the claws stout and adapted for scratching. With these are associated certain osteological characters, contrasting with those exhibited by the nearly allied P/zasianz'dce. (Huxley, Proc. Z061. Soc. London, 1868, p. 801.) These characters are best expressed in the grouse. As here defined, the family embraces the sub-families Tetraonz'ncc. O9'tygz"n(c or Odoizfojalzorinre. Per- dz'cz'nce, Roliulintc. and C'uccabz'm'me (in part). The Tu;-ml czlnre have been isolated by Huxley not only as a distinct family, but as a peculiar super-family or sub-order, under the name Tumz'c2'm02'_p7z(P. By some authorities the family is held to contain only the grouse proper. the partridges and quail being placed in a separate family, Perd 2'c'1'da>, but there seems to be no good reason for this separation. See Gnouss, Pxexrrunen, QUAIL, RUFFED Gaousn. etc. Revised by F. A. LUPAS. Tetrapel'itan C0l1ft‘-SSi0l1 [Tezf2'a])0Zz1z‘(m (with 25 by anal- ogy of G1'.1ro?dn7s, Eng. polzfical, etc.) is from G1‘.'re'Tpoi1ro7us (sc. Xpa. district, country). a region having four cities. liter., fem. adj.. having four cities: 're'Tpa—. four + m5)us. city] : the “confession of the four cities” of Constance. Strassburg, Memmingen, and Lindau. It consists of twenty-three arti- cles and is the oldest confession of the Reformed Church in Germany. It was drawn up by Bueer during the session of the Diet of Augsburg (1580), and presented to the emperor in the name of the four cities. but not read before the diet, nor did it ever receive wider sanction than in the four cities. See Schatf. Creeds, i., 526-520. S. M. J. Te’t1'a1‘cll [from Lat. fcfrar’c/‘zes : Gr. q-erpdpxns. 're"rpap- Xos; 're'rpa—, four+c‘ipXeu/. be first. lead. rule] : a name which strictly designated. originally. the viceroy or monarch of the fourth part of a country (Thessaly. ete.). but subsequently became a title bestowed. especially under the Romans, upon the minor tributary princes of the East. Tet1‘0d0ll'ti(lzr [Mod Lat., named from Te’z‘rodon, the typical genus; Gr. 'r6'rpa—, four + 5806s. 586wros. tooth]: a. family of plectognath fishes distinguished by the develop- ment of the jaw into four tooth-like margins. The form .is normally more or less oblong, but the abdomen is capable of much distension, and thus the true form is often dis- guised; the skin, espeeially on the belly. is mostly covered with larger or smaller dermal ossifications or spines; the head is oblong and covered with skin, so that the opercular and other bones are concealed; the mouth terminal or sub- terminal, and with the cleft mostly transverse; the inter- 80 TETUAN maxillary and supra.maxillary bones are confluent, but those of the opposite sides are divided by a suture, as is also the dentary bone of the lower jaw; the teeth are represented by the trenchant edges of the jaws and are otherwise wanting; the branchial apertures are narrow slits in front of the pee- toral fins; the branchiostegal rays are entirely inclosed within the integuments; the dorsal is chiefly composed of articulated and branched rays, and is generally short and far behind; the anal is like the dorsal, and obliquely oppo- site, but rather farther behind; the pectorals are narrow and high up; the ventrals are wanting. With these char- acters are co-ordinated certain osteological features which confirm the isolation of this group as a peculiar family. It is, however, nearly related to the family Diodomfz'dce, which has generally been combined with it. Between sixty and seventy species are known. Representatives of the family are found in all tropical and warm temperate seas. Several are natives of the seacoast of the U. S., two (Tetrodon Zcevz'- gatus and G/2.t'Zz'eht/t;2/s tw'gt'dus) extending to the eastern coast, and one (Tetrodon pohzf/as) occurring along the Cali- fornian coast. These species are called by the fishermen and others puffers, swell-fish, blowers, etc. The puffing is due to the development of a largely dilatable air-sac, which closely adheres to the peritoneum, and has a valvular com- munication with the oesophagus, through which the air is received. The species are of no economical importance; indeed some are poisonous. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Tetuan, tet-oo-aan’: town of Morocco; in lat. 35° 34’ N., lon. 5° 18' W., near the mouth of the river Martil; in an ex- ceedingly fertile and well-cultivated region, especially cele- brated for its oranges (see map of Africa, ref. 1-B). The town is fortified and well built, and has several fine mosques and an active trade in woolen and silk stuffs, leather, and fruit. Pop. 20,000 to 25,000, one-quarter Jews. M. W. H. Tetzel, or Tezel, tet’sel, J OHANN [Tetzel is a diminutive of Tietze, his father’s name]: seller of indulgences; son of a goldsmith; b. in Leipzig about 1455; studied theology and philosophy at the university of his native city; in 1489 entered the Dominican monastery of St. Paul in Leipzig, and soon became noted as a very impressive popular preacher. In 1502 he was appointed to preach an indulgence in Zwickau and its vicinity, and he was so successful-that is, he made so much money for the papal treasury—that he was steadily employed in the sale of indulgences for fifteen years. His territory was enlarged and his authority increased. It is said that he sold indulgences without requiring previous confession, and that he led an immoral life. At Innspruck in 1512 he was sentenced as an adulterer to be sewn in a sack and thrown into the river, but that sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life, and after being confined for some time at Leipzig he was set free. Roman Catholic writers deny that he sold indulgences without repentance, or indul- gences for sins not yet committed ; but their argument rests solely on the words of the papal commission, which are vague, and prove nothing with respect to the practice of the man as it had been reported by eye-witnesses. Leo X., having determined to grant a universal indulgence, made Tetzel inquisitor, and commissioned him to preach the in- dulgence throughout Germany. Tctzel appeared in his higiest glory, journeying from town to town and levying his contributions, as has been described by contemporary writers; but when from Brandenburg he approached the Saxon frontier in the middle of 1517, he was unexpectedly met by Lu-ther’s theses, nailed to the church-door in Wit- tenberg Oct. 31. He burned Luther’s theses at J iiterbogk, and wrote some theses himself, which the students burned at Wittenberg, while he defended them in a disputation at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, whereby he became a doctor of di- vinity. This illusion did not last long; and when, in 1518, Karl von Militiz, the papal ambassador, arrived at Leipzig, he not only suspended Tetzel, but spoke so harshly to him that the poor man fell sick of fright and humiliation, and died July 14. 1519. His Life has been written by the Prot- estants F. G. Hofmann (Leipzig, 1844) and F. Ktirner (Frankenburg, 1880), and by the Roman Catholics V. Grtine (hliinster, 1853; 2d ed.. Soest, 1860) and K. W. Hermann (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1882). Cf. J. B. Rtihm, Zur Tetzel Legende (Hildcshcim, 1890). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Teu'cer (in Gr. Teihcp0s)2 (1) the first King of Troy, in honor of whom the Trojans are sometimes called Teucri; but the legends differ with respect to whether he was a native of Troy, giving his daughter, Arisbe, in marriage to Dardanus of Samothrace, or whether he immigrated, to- TEUTONIC LANGUAGES gether with Scamander. into Troas from Crete. (2) Son of Telamon, King of Salamis, and Hesione of Troy. He ac- companied his step-brother, Ajax, to Troy, and was the best archer among the Greeks; but when the Greeks returned after the capture of Troy, Telamon would not receive Teu- eer in Salamis, because he had not avenged Ajax, and he then sailed to Cyprus, which he received from Belus, King of Sidon, and where he founded the town of Salamis. Revised by J . R. S. Srnnnwrr. Teuffel, toif’fel, WILHELM SIGISMUND: classical scholar; b. at Ludwigsburg, W'urtemberg, Germany, Sept. 27, 1820; studied ancient languages in Tiibingen, where he became privat docent in 1844; professor extraordinary in 1849; ordinary professor in 1857. D. at Tiibingen, Mar. 8, 1878. His most famous work is his Geseimlchte der r(')'m/iselzen Liz.‘- temtur (2 vols, 5th ed., by L. Schwabe, Leipzig, 1890; trans. into Enghsh by Warr), the most exhaustive survey of the subject, and absolutely indispensable to every serious stu- dent. He 1s also the author of excellent editions of Aristo- phanes’s Clouds and of ]Eschylus’s Persce, and wrote a com- mentary to the second book of the Satz'res of Horace. His admirable and highly instructive essays on ancient life and thought are collected in his Studien and Characteflstqllaen (2d ed., Leipzig, 1889). See S. Teuifel, W. S. Z'eazj”el (1889) and Bursian, Biographzcche Jahrbiteher, i., 1878, pp. 2 ff. ALFRED GUDEMAN. Teuthid'idae [from Teuthis, the typical genus] : a family of acanthopterygian fishes, characterized by the peculiar structure of the fins. The body is oblong and compressed, scales small, lateral line continuous. There is a single row of cutting teeth in either jaw, no teeth on the palate. The dorsal fin has thirteen spinous and seven soft rays, the anal seven and nine, a formula common to all the species. Ven- tral fins thoracic with an outer and inner spine, between which are three soft rays. There are about thirty species, none over 15 inches in length, found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. F. A. LUCAS. Teuton’ic Knights: a military ecclesiastical order, founded in 1190 by some North German merchants, who had been moved by the sufferings of the crusaders at the siege of Acre. It soon found a patron in Frederick, Duke of Swabia, and secured charters from the emperor and the pope entitling it to all the privileges possessed by the two great rival orders of the Knights Templar and Knights of St. John. The members of the order were required to be Ger- mans of noble birth, but priests and half-brothers, not noble, were admitted. In the early times they took vows of chas- tity and poverty. In 1230 they entered upon a crusade against the Prussians, and after a century of hard fighting established their rule over Prussia, when they fixed their headquarters at Marienburg. In the meanwhile they had served in the crusades of St. Louis 1248-50, founded K5- nigsberg in 1255, and attacked the heathen Lithuanians in 1283. They were for many years involved in wars with P0- land ; held at times East and West Prussia, Est-honia, Pome- rania, and other neighboring countries. In 1466 they sur- rendered West Prussia to Poland, and recognized the latter’s feudal ownership for East Prussia, when Kiinigsberg be- came their capital. In 1525 their grand-master, Albert of Brandenburg, converted Prussia into a secular hereditary dukedom, and in 1527 the seat of the order was transferred to Mergentheim in Swabia. In 1561 they lost all their Li- vonian possessions. In 1805 the Emperor of Austria became grand-master of the order. In 1809 Napoleon declared the order abolished, and gave its lands to various German sov- ereigns. In .1840 the Austrian emperor reorganized the Teutonic Kmghts, and i11 1865 the order was still further reorganized. F. M. COLBY. Teutonic Languages: a branch of the Indo-European family of languages. For the relationship of Teutonic to the other branches, see article INDO—EUR.OPEAN Lxnouaens. The term Germanic is also used, especially in Germany, where it is supplanting the older term .D6t6l‘8bh. The mem- bers of this group may be enumerated and compared with the aid of the following diagram. Each language has been treated in a separate article, under Gothic, Icelandic, Ger- man, Dutch, etc. Teutonic is general and theoretical, and represents the one prehistoric language spoken by the Teutonic stock in Central Europe, between the Baltic and the Black Sea. The first divergence in general Teutonic was between East and West Teutonic, first fully treated by Zimmer in Z’Ifs('7m'2'fzf 7‘/£2/r d. Alter-lama, xix., p. 393, seq. See also Kluge in Paul’s G'1"1m- TEUTONIC MYTHOLOGY driss der german. Phe'lol., i., p. 362, seq., and Sievers in En- cyclopcedta Brt'zfannt'ca under Gothw Language. East Teu- tonic is divided into Gothic (see GOTEIO LANGUAGE) and the SOANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES (q. 1).), but the differences between Teutonic (Crimean G.) 8- English » . - Dutch Icelandlc Norwegian Flemish Plattdeutsch the two are more striking than their similarities, and they may as well be kept distinct. See Brugmann’s Grundmss, i., p. 11, and Noreen in Paul’s Grandrtss, p. 419, seq._; also Emerson’s History of the English Language. chap. i1., and Brandt’s German Grammar, §479. The West Teutonic d1- vision stands out as more distinct and compact. Applying GEIMM’S LAW (q. o.) in its second shifting we get three sub- divisions: 1. High German (see GERMAN LANGUAGE), which shifted most of all. 2. Low GERMAN (q. 1).), which shifted th to d. 3. English (see ENGLISH LANGUAGE), which, like Goth- ic and Scandinavian, shifted only once. The Frisian lan- guage stands between English and Low German. Some of its modern dialects have preserved zfh, some shifted it to d, and even to t. English writers like to place English in the Low German group, but this is hardly justifiable. It is true that when Angles, Saxon, J utes, and Frisians left the Con- tinent for Britain, their dialects Were, roughly speaking, identical with Old Low Saxon, Old Low Frankish, Old Fris- ian; but the general term Low German should be limited to the non-High German continental dialects, including Modern Dutch, Flemish, Plattdeutsch, and perhaps Frisian, all of which shifted th to d. The main common characteristics of the Teutonic languages, which constitute at the same time the reason for grouping them together, are as follows: 1. The shifting of consonants according to GRIMM’S LAW and V ER- NEa’s LAW (qq. 1).). 2. The AOOENT (q. 1).). In the Indo-Euro- pean and for a while still in the Teutonic period the accent was “free.” Then it became limited to the stem-syllable, which is always the first one in simple words and in “ nomi- nal ” compounds. In genuine (inseparable) compound verbs it is the second syllable. Cf. Lat. a’mo—ama’mas, a'mor —amo’refs with Germ. rich stand, wtr standen, stand'haft, Stand’hafzfe'ghm't, oerste’hen; Germ. Ur'lanb——erlaa’ben, Bee”- schla_f——beschla' fen. 3. The “strong” and “ weak " conjuga- tions. By ABLAUT (q. r0.) which is not peculiar to the group, however, a regular and full system of verb-inflection called strong has developed; e. g. Eng. write, wrote, wwlzften; O. H. Germ. helfan, half—halfam, giholfan. The so-called weak conjugation is quite characteristic. It employs a suflix d (t), of still doubtful origin, to express the simple past tense; e. g. Gothic nasyan—nastda; Eng. love-—loved; Germ. haasen—haasz‘e. 4. The double adjective declensionz (a) The strong, identical with the strong substantive declension, although endings from the pronominal inflection have been mixed with it; (b) the weak, whose endings are identical with the weak or n-declension of substantives. Mod. H. Germ. has well preserved this twofold inflection and the syntax of the same, e. g. gater Jlfann, gatem Ilfanne; der gale ]l’[ann, dcm guten Jlfanne; Gates, das Gate. There are other minor characteristics of the group, but too tech- nical to enumerate and enlarge upon here. H. C. G. BRANDT. Teutonic (or Germanic) Mythology : the body of myths belonging to the Teutonic or Germanic nations; also the system of gods, minor deities, and spirits which these myths commemorate. History of the Sclence.—The discovery of the Eddas (see EDDA) in the sixteenth century dates the beginning of this science, which moved chiefly on lines of interpretation—and that in the. main Euhemeristic—until Jacob Grimm (Deidsche .Mythologz'e, 1835) put it upon a foundation of philological, historical, and comparative criticism. His main success was in the exhaustive material which he gathered, and in 81 his wonderful, it often misguided, power of combination. Moreover, he not only avoided interpretation, but also in- sisted that Scandinavian sources are not to be regarded as the foundation, but simply as part of the material, of Teutonic mythology. Then came the great enthusiasm for comparative mythology, with Max Miiller and Kuhn as lead- ers. This has been succeeded by a caution bordering on skepticism in regard to the validity of such processes; but it is interesting to note that rationalists were abroad a cen- tury ago, declaring (Adelung, Riihs, and others) that Chris- tian and classical material—that is, more loans and repeti- tion—lay at the foundation of Norse myth. This view, with concessions to Teutonic and comparative mythology, and put forth with great philological insight, method, and ability, has been revived of late by certain Scandinavian scholars, such as J essen, and notably by Sophus Bugge, who has succeeded in throwing grave suspicion upon the exclu- sively heathen character of such myths as the sacrifice of Odin, the death of Balder. and the descriptions of Valhalla. Miillenhoff, who had insisted on the critical methods of Lachmann as check to the more generous combination of J . Grimm, Grundtvig, and others, nevertheless took up the challenge of Bugge and made a manful defense of the es- sentially heathen character of Scandinavian mythology (Dentschc Alzferzfhnmskunde, v. i.). VVhatever the merits of this particular controversy the vigorous methods of Miillen- hoff in the general science deserve all praise. His friend and scholar Mannhardt. who began investigation as an en- thusiastic follower of Kuhn, soon developed independent powers of criticism, insisted upon the artistic or poetical element which is sure to master higher forms of myth, abandoned (see his JlIytlzoZogz'sche Forschzmgen, with valua- ble introductions by Miillenhoff and Scherer, Strassburg, 1884) much of the Old material, and emphasized the impor- tance of traditional rites and su erstitions among the peas- ants. \Vith Mannhardt. as wit others, anthropology has exercised a salutary power. Finally. we may mention the tendency of modern critics to exalt the importance of re- ligious rites in general as a far more stable affair than the ' myth. Extreme in this regard is J . Lippert (Die Relz'gtonen der earopdischen KaZturoO'ZI:er, 1881), a disciple of- Herbert Spencer; according to Lippert myths are mere tales and fancies, accretions upon the religious instinct, and subordi- nate in every way to ceremonial religion. This is exaggera- tion: but it is safe to say that while the old problems of Teutonic mythology are still unsolved, a more temperate and reasonable spirit prevails, the material is better understood, and a sounder critical method is accepted on every side. Soarces.—Aside from Scandinavian myths (see SOANDI- NAvIAN lllYTHOLOGY), plentiful indeed, but not to be used in their present shape as outright material for the reconstruc- tion of a Teutonic Olympus, the sources are meager and baffling. The line between genuine myth and poetic fancy or allegory is not easy to determine: while the test of a defi- nite cult and a definite locality can be applied successfully to few of the myths which we possess. Names of persons and places—Thor was a favorite for this purpose in Scandi- navia—from heathen times are trustworthy, particularly when the name is compounded so as to indicate some phase of worship; and with these sources are to be ranged runic and other inscriptions of ancient date, genealogies, like those of the Anglo-Saxon kings, which go back to such gods as \Voden, and even the so-called “ kem1ings " or metaphors of scaldic poetry. Ornaments and other relics from heathen tombs are often incorruptible witnesses to heathen worship. Important, but not always clear, is the evidence of classical writers contemporary with our heathendom ; such are Caesar (Commenfarz'es on the Gall to lVar, vi., 21), Tacitus (Germant'a and parts of the Annals and Heistory), and Plutarch. \Vith the conversion come the Christian chroniclers—Jordanes, for example—and the lives of saints, particularly of men like Boniface, who were foremost in missionary labor; here too belong renunciations of heathen gods drawn up for the Ger- manic convert. Critical powers of a high order are needed in the use of such sources as the half-heathen epic (Beowulf) and the complicated heroic legend ; but poetic fancy is not so rife and contamination not so prevalent in the charms and ineantations which more or less clearly show heathen origin. These are a pa.rt of religion, as is evident from their purpose and the manner of using them ; but popular stories, legends, ballads, and the like. are of little value, having no stay in religious rites and floating easily from one race or community to another. Lower 1l[ytlzology.—Turning to the actual material we 403 82 TEUTONIC MYTHOLOGY note that the worship of spirits, survival from heathen be- lief, is found in all Teutonic races, and carries with it a host of stories which belong in part to primitive myth. One example out of many which prove an older worship of the dead is the myth of the Wild Huntsman and his troop of spirits sweeping through a stormy sky. Such a storm is often called Allerseelemoind; and the direct cult of these spirits is known still in folk-lore, even adapting itself to Christian purposes in the feast of All Souls. Offermgs to the dead, ceremonies at a tomb, give sanction to degenerate myths of this sort, still told by the people, but hopelessly tangled with other elements, native and foreign. Here_too belong stories of spirits in guise of bird or beast, or in a form at once human and superhuman—-the lore of ghosts. In the popular tales (see BEAST-FABLES) myth is inextricably woven with narrative pure and simple, and migration, espe- cially from the East, may be assumed at every turn ; but an exception must be made of charms and incantations, for here we have the sure test of a cult, of ceremonial rites, to- gether with the credentials of immemorial tradition. A charm is often introduced by an epic exordium, setting forth a case similar to the one about to be treated and hold- ing in many cases its shred of myth. Such is the famous Merseburg charm which tells of Phol and l/Vodan; such is a long incantation in Anglo-Saxon, meant to cure sudden at- tacks of rheumatism and telling how “mighty women” rid- ing about the air send their spears at the unwary mortal (translated in Gummere’s Germanic Origins, p. 373). These supernatural women, degenerating into modern witches, or the weird sisters of Macbeth, are of course related to the Norns and the Valkyries of Norse myth, and to those women whom the Germans of Tacitus worshiped as divine. lVature-m3/ths.——Myths of the dead, ghost-lore in general, may be referred to the analogy worked-out by primitive man between the world of spirits and the world of his inner consciousness, particularly in dreams. But the world with- out was as insistent as that within, and there is no good reason for postponing the myths of nature to the late stage as- signed them by some modern scholars. Storm and light- ning were probably referred to the agency of gigantic spirits, not necessarily ancestral ; a vague personality, logical result of what Mr. Tylor calls primitive “ animism,” was be- hind the roar of the tempest. Minor phases of natural power, moreover, had their cult and myth ; tree-worship and water-worship are cases in point, and exist in manifold sur- vival to this day. I/Vorship of such elemental powers was partly conciliatory and grateful, partly of the banning order, and the myths connected with them have these dual- istic types. The forces of nature had higher powers and larger utterance than the serviceable or annoying spirits of the home. The Corn Demon, the good or bad genius of the fields, belonged in this list (see Mannhardt, A/ntihe Wald- und Feldlculte) ; and so, in yet more vague conception, did the giants (see JOTUN), of whom Scandinavia preserved so many myths. Gods and Goddesses.—Through the border-land of demons, dragons, and giants we pass to what E. H. Meyer has called the Pantheon, as opposed to the Pandemonium, of Germanic myth. Here is the higher mythology, where the poet has wrought material, often brutal and always clumsy, into shapes of beauty and majesty. Some of the gods are merely demons or giants promoted, like Loke, god of fire or possibly of lightning ; but many of them are far more ven- erable in origin. They are called god (perhaps “he who is invoked ”) or ans (probably “helper”; Anglo-Saxon Os- in words such as Oscar), and, as opposed to giants, are the friends of man. They were worshiped in rude temples, de- spite the denial of Tacitus, and in sacred groves, with dance, song, and sacrifice. Comparative mythology assures the parallel of an old Teutonic god, probably “the bright one,” Tiwaz (Scand. Tyr), with Sanskrit Dyaus, Greek Zeus, Latin J u-piter, god of the shining heaven. Originally supreme god, he became the Teutonic Mars (giving the name to Tuesday, dies M'artis); a few traces of his worship are found, notably an inscription in England. His supremacy was overthrown by Wodan (Ang.-Sax. Woclen; Scand. Odin), the god of wind a.nd storm, “ Mercurius ” in Roman interpretation (hence Wednesday). and then a divinity rep- resenting conquest and new arts of life. VVodan became of course monarch of all Teutonic gods; myths about him abound in Scandinavian sources, and traces of his worship are found in all Teutonic nations. Identification of Eng- lish VVoden and the outlaw Robin Hood, however, is made without good reason. (See Child, Ballads, 2d ed., iii., p. 47.) TEUTONS The cult of Wodan seems finally to-have penetrated peasant life, and is proved by folk-lore ; but for Scandinavia at least there is no doubt that Thor (Ang.-Sax. Thunor) was once the favorite; ample material is given by Henry Petersen, Om iVordboerues Gudedgrlrelse og Gudetro i Hedeuold, espe- cially page 46, seq. Thor, the thunder-god (Thursday, dies Jouis), may have been meant by C:esar when he ascribes to the Germans a god “Vulcan.” There are many myths about this friend of man and sworn foe to the giants, and the converted Scandinavians parted from him unwillingly enough. Occasionally an old god is worshiped under a new name, and Tiwaz probably lives again as the Freyr of Norse myth, a god of fertility, peace, and commerce; his sister Freyja is probably no other than the Nerthus, terra /mater, mentioned by Tacitus (Germ, 40) as worshiped by Germans along the North Sea with rites that are described in valua- ble detail. Freyr, moreover, is closely related to, probably identical with, Ing, the father and god of the Tacitean Ingvzeones, who dwelt about the Elbe mouth, and later sent conquerors to Britain. Ing is mentioned in the Anglo- Saxon Rune-Lay. Besides Freyja should be mentioned Frigg (Scand. form; Ang.-Sax. Frig), wife of Odin, goddess of love and fecundity; later she appears in folk-lore in humble guise and under many names, such as Holda in Germany. I'nterp1'etation.-—Occasionally, as has been shown, the meaning of a myth and the origin of a deity are evident enough; such is the case with Wodan and his hunt, with Tiwaz, and others. But the mania for interpretation of myths—whether sun, storm, or a beautiful allegory of human life be the solution—lapsed at one time into a mere guessing- match, and was baffled by nothing. Simrock, in his 1l[ytho- logie, gives after each myth a have fabula doeet, often in- genious to absurdity. Jacob Grimm held himself aloof from all this; and with modern times, as criticism finds more and more difficulty in the mere sifting and valuation of material, and recognizes how many strands are inter- woven, what different stages of culture are to be reckoned with, and how hard it is to approach the origins of a myth, interpretation, even with the aid of comparative mythology, has lost much of its ardor. One thing is certain: while myths may yet be traced to personified natural forces, often with convincing proof, the hunt after allegories and fine- spun meanings, such as mars the effect of so able a book as Uhland’s llfgtlzus con Thor, is now abandoned. BIBLIoeRA1>i-IY.-—Besides the works already named, one should consult J. Grimm, Deutsche Jllgthologie, especially his preface to the second edition (1844 ; reprinted in fourth edition); Miiller, Cesehichte uud Sy/stem der altdeutscheu Religion (1844), despite its age still a useful book; K. Maurer, Behelmmg des norwegischen Stammes zum Chris- teuthum (1855, seg.); VVut-tke, Der deutsche Vol/osglaube der Gegeuwart (1869); H. Pfannenschmid, Germauisehe Ernie- feste (1878), an excellent book; Tylor, Primitive Culture; Kemble, Zhe Saxons in England; E. H. Meyer, Vifluspa and Germanisehe Jlfgthologie (1891); Mogk, Mgthologie, in Paul’s Gm:/nd'riss der Germauischen Philologie. FRANCIS B. GUMMERE. Teutons [from Lat. Teu’toni, Teu'tones, from a Teutonic word represented by Goth. Piuda : O. H. Germ. cliot : O. Eng. ]>e“od, people; cf. Eng. Dutch, from Dutch Duitsch : Germ. Deutsch. German < O. H. Germ. diutish, popular, national, deriv. of diet, people]: the members of the Teutonic branch of the Aryan family. (1) The Peoples embraced under the Name.—Much uncer- tainty is manifested in the extent of the application. The Greek and Latin authors seem to have used the word to des- ignate only a certain portion of the great race then inhabit- ing the lands N. of the Alps and E. of the Rhine—viz., that portion with which they first became acquainted—that por- tion which undertook, in company with the Cimbri, to in- vade the Roman empire about 113 B. c., and whose original abode had been probably the western coast of Schleswig- I-Iolstein and the territory about the mouth of the Elbe. It was then that Rome first became aware of the existence of a people of untamed might dwelling N. of the Alps, and dis- tinct from the Celtic tribes; and it is quite natural that the Romans, in their ignorance of the extent of the race, should have taken the word which this tribe used, in common with all the other tribes, to designate itself, and have applied it in a Latinized form in particular to this one, and then, upon becoming acquainted with the larger extent of the race, have adopted, as they did, another word, the Belgic-Celtic TE UTONS word Germa/n/6, for the name of the entire race. Some of the Latin authors—-as Martial and Claudian--used the ad- jective Teatonteas as of like meaning with Germanteus, and after the beginning of the tenth century the Latin “ rTeuton- icus ” displaces, even in German authorship, the indigenous “ Theotiscus ” as the comprehensive race-adjective, while in modern times the Latin names, though still used, have been turned wholly about in the extent of their application, the race being designated by the term Teuton, and that portion of the pure or nearly pure stock inhabiting the European con- tinent by the term German. In this broadest sense must be included under the name Teuton. in first degree, the Ger- mans of the Continent——viz., the inhabitants of the German empire, of Austria proper, of the northern and northeastern cantons of Switzerland, and of Holland, and the Scandina- vians of the two northern peninsulas ; in the second degree, the English, the inhabitants of Lower Scotland, and the in- habitants of the U. S.; while in the ethnological composi- tion of almost every truly European nation—-that is, every nation W. of Russia proper and Turkey——the Teutonic com- ponent enters in a greater or less degree. At the close of the fifth century, when the great movement known in Eu- ropean history as the migration of the peoples ended, the Teutons were the ruling race from Carthage to the Vistula: the Vandals in Africa from Carthage to Gibraltar ; the Visi- goths from Gibraltar to the banks of the Loire; the Suevi occupying about the present Portugal; Burgundians from the upper course of the Loire to the center of the present Switzerland; the Ostrogoths from the last-mentioned boun- dary to that of the present Turkish empire on the E., and from the Mediterranean Sea on the S. to the Danube on the N. ; the Franks from the lower Loire to Thuringia; Saxon conquerors upon the English coasts; Saxons, Frisii, Thuringians, Marcomanni, Bavarians, and Longobardi still upon the original German soil, the latter moving down a little later (last half of the sixth century) into Italy, and oc- cupying the plain of the upper Po, while the Seandinavic branch not only occupied the two northern peninsulas, but reached round the entire eastern and southeastern shore of the Baltic and far inland. In the far-off lands of Africa, Hispania, Southwestern Gaul, and Middle and Southern Italy the Teutonic element disappeared almost entirely in the amalgamation with the great mass of the Romanic popu- lation; while, on the other hand, the inhabitants of Northern and Northeastern France, of Belgium, of Northern Italy, and of Russia’s Baltic provinces manifest still most strongly the ethnological characteristics of the Teutons. (2) Chara0te're'stt'es of the Te-aton.—(a) Phg/se'eaZ.—Besides the usual Caucasian peculiarities of the " oval head; the lines of eye and mouth dividing the whole face into three nearly equal parts; the large eyes with their axis at right angles with the line of the nose; the 90° facial angle; the full beard, covering to the ears; the white complexion, and the tall, straight, and well-proportioned stature ”—which the Teuton possesses in common with all Europeans, he is further somewhat distinguished from these by a larger frame, a whiter and more florid complexion, a bluer eye, and a lighter shade of hair. (1)) .MentaZ.-—The distinction between the Teutonic and the Romanic nature is even more manifest in the mental than in the physical constitution. The Grteco-Roman world meditated the connection between the ancient civilization and the modern. Its geographical position and historical connections with the Oriental world preserved in the Greek and the Roman the inheritance of the Oriental traits, which the differences of climate and soil, of geography and topography, have indeed modified but not destroyed. The prevailing temperament of the Romanic peoples is still a mixture of the sanguine and the melanchol- ic, the latter element predominating, while fancy and imag- ination, vacillation, and mysticism, are among the chief traits in their intellectual, moral, and religious character. On the other hand. the Teuton, with more of the phlegm and the choler in his temperament, evinces the deeper in- sight, the more constant purpose, and the greater éelaz'ree'sse- ment. (3) Inst'1Jtnt'tons.—Tliese differences of mental constitution are most clearly seen in the fundamental institutions which they have produced. The Roman imperium and the Roman Church may be taken as the great historical products of the Roman spirit. In both of these the sum and substance of all authority is viewed, imaginatively and mystically, as in- herent in an office, and all law as proceeding out of it, from above, down, over, and independent of the governed. On the other hand, individual liberty and personal worth were TEXARKANA 89 U the fundamental principles of the old Teutonic life and polity. In the old assemblies of the village, the hundred, and the tribe it was the will of the freeman which was the authority of law. While in Rome the central power was the strongest, and there existed no local power worth the name, save as an imperial agency, among the Teutons, again, the local power was always the strongest, and centralization always opposed, defied, and overthrown. ‘When Marbodius, the Marcomannic duke, and even the brave Arminius, to whom the German tribes were indebted for the expulsion of the Roman legions from their soil, attempted to retain in time of peace the centralized authority which they had ex- ercised as leaders in war, the one was obliged to flee to Rome in order to save his life, while the other fell a victim to his fatal ambition. Thus is seen enkindled at the very first contact of the Teutonic with the Romanic world the ir- repressible conflict between freedom and authority which has shaken Europe from that day to this. Then it was Teutonic liberty against the Roman imperium: in the Middle Ages, after contact and connection with the Roman world had given the Germans kings and emperors, it was the emperor against the pope; in the transition period from the mediaaval age to the new time it was German Protestantism against Roman Catholicism ; and to-day it is Teutonic science against the syllabus and the Vatican. The Teutonic spirit has given to the modern civilization its freedom of thought and con- science, its estimation of man above institutions, its science, its Protestantism, its doctrine of popular sovereignty, its local self-government, and its national development. It can therefore be truly said to be the spirit of the modern civili- zation. SOURGES.— Vorgesehz'ehte der deutschen lVatz'on, Wietei's- heim; Gesehiehte der Vol/rerwanclerung, 'Wietersheim; Dte Guanehen der canartsehen Inseln. von L5her; Deatsche Verfassungsgesohte/zte, Waitz ; CuZtm'gesch2'chte des deut- schen Volhs, Riickert; Rom and die Deatsehen, Bluntschli; De Bello Galltoo, Caesar; De Sttn,1lIo7'2'bus, et Popalts Ger- manioe, Tacitus; l[onamenta Germantce h2Tsto'rz'ca, edited by Pertz. J . W. Buaenss. Tewfik (tef’fe“ek) Pasha, MoHAninEn : Khedive of Egypt: b. Nov. 15, 1852, the eldest son of Ismail Pasha. He was edu- cated in Egypt, and declared heir-apparent in 1866 when the Porte granted the right of primogeniture to the Egyptian reigning family. He married Emineh Hamen, and never had any other wives. In 1879 Ismail appointed him presi- dent of the ministry, which position he resigned after a few weeks. On June 26, 187 9, Ismail was compelled to abdicate by the British and French Governments. and Tewfik was proclaimed khedive. But he ruled only in name, the dual control having placed the state virtually in the power of the two foreign governments. The result of this was the for- mation of a national party, with Arabi Pasha at the head. Though he was Minister of War, he quarreled with Tewfik. Great Britain, acting in the interest of the Egyptian bond- holders, intervened, and issued an ultimatum July 9. 1882. Alexandria was bombarded on July 11. The insurrection was forcibly put down, and a sort of constitutional monarchy established. On Jan. 18, 1883, a British financial adviser was given a seat in the council. During the Mahdi troubles in 1884 Tewfik was compelled, against his better judgment, to give up the Sudan. He was greatly interested in public works and public instruction. D. at Helwan Palace, Jan. 7, 1892. RICHARD GrO'l"1‘HEIL. Tewksbury: town (incorporated in 1734); Middlesex eo., Mass. ; between the Merrimack and Concord rivers; on the Boston and Albany Railroad : 5 miles S. E. of Lowell. and 22 miles N. \V. of Boston (for location of county, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H). It contains the villages of Wig- ginville, Gillmanville, Phoenix, and North Tewksbury; has a high school, twelve schools, public library, and the State almshouse; and is principally engaged in agriculture and the manufacture of cotton-machinery. Pop. (1880) 2,179; (1890) 2,515. Texarkan' a: twin city; one part, the capital of Miller eo., Ark.. the other part in Bowie eo., Tex.; separated by_ the boundary-line between the two States; on the St. L., Iron Mt. and S., the St. L. S. \V., the Texark. and Ft. Smith. and the Tex. and Pac. railways; 45 miles S. W. of Little Rock, and 58 miles N. N. E. of Jefferson (for location, see map of Arkansas. ref. 5—B, and of Texas, ref. 2-K). The city is a unit practically, though each part is legally a separate municipality. It is in a pine-lumber region; ships large quantities of cotton ; has electric lights, cotton-compresses, 81 machine and boiler works, cottonseed-oil mill, ice-factories, and car-works; and contains 3 national banks with com- bined capital of $275,000, and 2 daily and 2 weekly news- papers. Pop. (1880), part in Arkansas, 1,390; part in Texas, 1,833; (1890), part in Arkansas, 3,528; part in Texas, 2,852. Texas : one of the U. S. of North America (South Central group); the fifteenth in order of admission into the Union ; popularly known as the “ Lone Star State.” Location and Area.—It is the most westerly of the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico; is the largest State in the Union : lies be- tween lat. 25° 51' and 36° 30’ N., lon. 93° 27’ and 106° 43’ VV. ; bounded N. E. , and E. by Oklaho- .l""i'.'l* ma, Indian Territo- W ry, Arkansas, and ~ PW. Louisiana, S. E. by ‘ii’ the Gulf of Mexico, ‘\,““““ S. W. by Mexico, and N. VV. by New Mexico; with a rec- __- "hm tangular projec- tion, known as the Panhandle, in- cluded between Oklahoma on the N. and E.. and New Mexico on the W1; . area estimated at 268,242 sq. miles, including Greer County on its N. E. boundary, which is also claimed by the U. S. Government. Physical Featwcs.—In its geology and topography Texas is composed of areas marked by typical aspects. The north- eastern part belongs to the forest-belt extending across the Southern States, the northwestern to an extensive plain reaching downward through several States from the N., and the southwestern, beyond the Pecos river, to the Rocky Mountain system. The surface of the State, omitting the Trans-Pecos region, consists of a series of benches, approxi- mately parallel to the Gulf coast. rising gently toward the N. W. and culminating in the great plateau of the Llano Estacado. Several of these benches are narrowed consid- erably near their middle portions. The Trans-Pecos country is covered with scattered mountain peaks and ranges having great basins between. The principal benches named in order from the S. E. are the Coast Prairie, the Lignitic Belt, the Black Waxy Prairie, the Grand Prairie, and the Central Denuded Region. Beyond the last lies the Llano Estacado. The Coast Prairie has a width varying from 50 to 100 miles, and the southeast edge, with its long, easy slope, extends a considerable distance out under the waters of the Gulf. The Lignitic Belt has an undulating surface, and is made up of plains, from some of which great basins have been carved out by rivers. The surface of the Black Waxy Prairie rolls gently, and is marked by numerous small hol- lows or depressions known as hog-wallows. This prairie is about 140 miles wide along Red river, about 85 on the Rio Grande, and only about 10 where the Colorado intersects it. The Grand Prairie is a great plateau, the southwest- ern part of which is a bed of hard limestone. Its south- east edge is marked by an escarpment reaching from the Colorado river to the Rio Grande, and known as the Bal- cones. Many springs, remarkable for volume of water and for beauty, burst out along the base of this escarpment. The Central Denuded Region is a basin having a maximum width of about 180 miles. It extends S. into the State for more than three-fourths of the distance across and separates the Grand Prairie from the Llano Estacado. The Grand Prairie, however, sweeps around the southern end of the basin and reaches the Llano Estacado in that quarter. The latter is a vast. table-land, sloping gently to the S. E. In Burnet and Llano Counties there is an area of older rocks, notably Archaean, near the junction of the Grand Prairie and the Central Denuded Region. The coast has a line of long narrow islands extending along its front at a distance of 10 to 20 miles from the mainland. From Galveston northeastward these islands sink into shoals. The principal bays are those of Galveston, Matagorda, Espiritu Santo, Aransas, Corpus Christi, and Alazan. While there are dis- tricts in North and Central Texas mountainous in geolog- ical formation, the only elevations deserving the name of , . - i ii, iii iih "WI" l i .|l|'i;,'ii1ll(j|li'i‘i‘iiil 14 M “H W ii .1 \lL—l.‘Q|‘\,-‘§>%liv l t _. .,ii‘ _I:-;' ‘l~%\LiiH\y}(l]!li " 0 lllt)I|;;)‘~?i.... - i “ l 5 ‘ - __"_—'— ' as .,\ 3. (Ft ‘ s - i. "if; . i"' ‘I ii i‘5 illil M‘ Seal of Texas. TEXAS mountains by their altitudeare in the Trans-Pecos country. The rivers all have an approximately parallel S. E. direction, except the Canadian and the Red. The former flows N. E. across the Panhandle, and the latter nearly E. along a large part of the northern boundary of the State. The principal remainino~ rivers named in order toward the S. W. are the Sabine, l\?eches, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe, Nuc- ces, and Rio Grande, with its tributary the Pecos. The Ca- nadian, the Red, the Pecos, and the Rio Grande originate beyond the State, and their sources are included in a com- paratively small district of upper New Mexico and lower Colorado. Soil and Producz‘t'ons.—The Coast Prairie has a fertile‘ soil of sandy loam with a red or yellow clay subsoil. The alluvial deposits of its river-bottoms are composed largely of materials brought down from the Cretaceous and Permian beds through which the rivers flow in their upper course, and are exceedingly rich. In the Lignitic Belt the pine up- lands have a gray sandy soil, usually not very fertile, but the lowlands are better. The Black Waxy Prairie, though som e- what difficult of tillage, is one of the finest agricultural areas of the world. The northeastern half of the Grand Prairie is covered with a chocolate soil of great productive capacity. The southwestern half has a rougher surface, and the soil is shallow, the parts fit for cultivation being mainly the valleys. The Llano Estacado is deeply covered with a brown loam suited especially for wheat and fruit. The mineral resources of Texas are great, but as yet little developed. Salt is obtained from numerous lakes along the Rio Grande border and from salines in East Texas. Extensive beds of rock-salt exist in Van Zandt and Mitchell Counties. In East Texas lignite has been found through- out a large district. In the central and western parts are beds of bituminous coal. The workable area of the Central beds is estimated at 2,300 sq. miles. Sulphur‘, celestite, strontianite, asphaltum, gypsum, and kaolin are found in various quarters. There are large deposits of iron ore in East Texas, in the Trans-Pecos region, and in the districts adjacent to the town of Llano. Copper ore exists in the last two localities, and also in Northwestern Texas. Lead occurs in the Central Mineral Region and the Trans-Pe- cos district, and in the latter zinc as well. Gold and sil- ver are found in both these sections. There are, however, few mines of any sort in the parts mentioned as mineral- hearing. There are numerous quarries of good building- limestone in the State, and several of sandstone. Among the most durable and costly varieties of stone are the granites, marbles, and serpentines of Burnet and Llano Counties and the Trans-Pecos region. The principal forests are in East Texas, and the prevailing growth is pine. In the western part of the forest region oak, hickory, and ash are common. In the river-bottoms of the southeast cypress is found in abundance, and in the northeast bois d’arc. Running from Red river S. are two belts of post-oak and blackjacks about 40 miles apart, the eastern being known as the Lower Cross Timbers and the western as the Upper Cross Timbers. They reach -about 150 miles into the State, and mark re- ectively the eastern and the western edges of the Grand Prairie. Toward the S. W. the forests disappear and are replaced by cedar brakes, stretches of mesquite, and similar growths. Along the Rio Grande border are dense thickets of chaparral, mimosa, and various kinds of acacias. The southern part of the district W. from the Black Waxy Prairie is covered with nutritious grasses. Texas ranks first among the cotton-growing States. It produces also large crops of maize, wheat, and oats. Near Alvin in the Coast Prairie, around Tyler, and in the western parts fine fruit is rown. g The animals of Texas, like the vegetables, change in type in passing from the N. and E. toward Mexico. In the for- ests and along the streams of the eastern part are the red deer, beaver, squirrel, gopher, and badger, with an occa- sional brown bear, and panther. On the plains and in the more rugged districts of the west are antelopes, black-tailed deer, and big-horn sheep. Only one herd of buffalo is left in the State, and this is in a large pasture in the Panhandle. In different quarters are lobo-wolves and coyotes, red and gray foxes, skunks, wild cats and civet cats. The prairie districts abound in prairie-dogs and Texas hares. Among the birds of the State are wild geese and ducks, which are found mainly in the eastern portions and on the coast; while farther west the plover, curlew, snipe, and Mexican canary prevail. The quail, wild turkey, crow, hawk, owl, and mocking-bird are widely distributed. The commonest - _ '.-' ' ‘“'i0.~ ' I ma B 105 C 10; " ”“‘iI§;I3‘“‘_' |.(T"_ 5' '"'I‘III“ “L1-II"‘r“ ‘i'IIIn'va'JIi‘“ IiII1Ii"‘ " ' ' ' " ’ ' ’"""' ' " - _ L . ,___,__.- , . - "- L G'.l9(n1-I-_11vu1;h qg H q- | 96 F ‘ . -1= “PL-HMH I:-_~-~ - - ,I,--It": P--1; ~'" -W ; ‘:—I.==-~ '**T_.I:— - - -,_T-- ~ ,._..;-- ;~,_-- ,~- Q--' - - T 1 , V ‘ ' . ll / ' _"lllNMlTT\\I lsuvznro F 9 i \ l‘‘‘-*'1iI'7‘‘“:‘ ~~ ‘"1 O I . " OR: = 0 R5 I ’ 'iPAmIr.n, e -sw s- 0 I M I. V n% . ,- . // I ,~CASTRO"i\ ",tdRI§JI\3‘|IU;‘_/oa: H A LL icmm , I) L, IE’ {D M A . 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' ~° ~ ‘ - ' \ ‘ \~ 1-; ../l PLAN or I ‘ ! L 5-WONGIDONI-E l WORTH If Q /I 'I " " ~ I - -‘ 8l I / w 1 l ' —-I.-_.___ 1 I | I I I 1 ' ‘ »ALVl-J.sT0N RAY I I Mn" '‘ ' > — -- -“zip - T _ _____ ._ Q cm/' ~ : \ 1 raven and bng‘raved on Ijoppm--Plate . . .. ' ‘ I ' 2:. ' ' ‘ ‘ ~ ‘ 3‘ ,/ ANSI3a1y(§,g:h}II§I gv I _ I ~ U1-I G A L _ , Ll ‘ ,-, I.‘/7,/;§‘§;m I I LXPR 1-. s smr , E11.-:1:Qir;— P ICASTR ‘\\:l ER lamscozl ' 9 S‘ Q ’ mo1-0. Stockton. Elliott‘ Elevation, feet. . . . . . . . 495 67 1,133 3,050 2.500 January . . . . . . . .. 502° 42'‘ ° 50'6° 42' ° 43'0° 30 6° February . . . . . . . .. 56'4 52'1 560 7'4 488 36'0 Mar_ch . . . . . . . . . . .. 63'0 58'9 63'3 57'4 56'6 46'0 April . . . . . . . . . . .. 68'3 65'4 69'5 7'0 63'9 55'6 May . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74'6 71'2 753 732 722 638 June . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 805 782 812 80'9 78'8 73'0 July . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. R2'7 81'4 82/9 83'9 80'6 77'0 August . . . . . . . . . . .. 826 802 823 81'8 780 74''? September . . . . . . .. 77'7 75'6 77'5 742 719 68'2 October . . . . . . . . . .. 69'7 66'1 69'5 66'8 63'-1 56'8 November . . . . . .. 592 56 6 58'7 2'7 506 425 December . . . . . . . .. 536 488 53'3 440 455 3-1'4 Annual . . . . . . . . . . .. 68'2 6-1'7 68'5 643 628 54'8 Years included in average . . . . . . . .. 16 6 9 5 9 8 R-AINFALL (IN INoIIEs). , New . San ‘ __ Fort Fort MONTHS, ETC. Ulm‘ Palestine Antonio. ,Juel\sboI'o. Stockton Elliott Elevation, feet. . . . . . . . 495 676 1,133 3.050 2500 January . . . . . . . . .. 4'14 2'82 1'22 0'73 029 0'31 February . . . . . . . . . 4'53 3 ' 07 2 ' 34 1'89 0'52 0'52 Mar_ch . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5'07 2'88 2'39 1'23 0'86 0'61 April . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3'84 4'30 2'41 2'00 0'41 2'14 May . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5'72 5'83 3'29 3' 7 1'58 5'32 June . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3'48 2'80 3'13 4'10 2'23 379 July . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4'23 2'83 2'41 4'65 1'87 266 August . . . . . . . . . . . . 3'05 2'44 3'31 2'25 2'62 3'62 September . . . . . . . . 5'68 3'70 4'09 5'79 3'88 2'00 October . . . . . . . . . .. 4'04 3'79 2'23 2'78 1'25 2'82 November . . . . . . .. 5'16 4'00 2'41 1'99 0'74 0'54 December . . . . . . . . . 4'62 4'01 2'08 1'61 0' 85 0'81 Annual . . . . . . . . . . .. 5356 4247 31'31 3239 17'10 2514 iad . . . . . . . . 6-I 5.832 5.910 Goliad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gonzales . . . . . . . 5-l-I 14,810 18,016 Gonzales . . . . . . . . . . 1,641 Gray . . . . . . . . . . . 8-E 1 203 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grarson ..... . . 2-1 33,103 53.211 Sl'1(-}l‘l1l3.ll ........ .. 7,335 regg . . . . . . . . . . 2-J 8,530 9,402 Longview . . . . . . . . . 2,034 Grnnes . . . . . . . . 4-1 18,603 21,312 Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guadalupe. . . . . 5-H 12,202 15,217 Seguin . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,716 Hale . . . . . . . . . . . 1-E . . . . . . 721 Plainview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hall ._ . . . . . . . . .. 1-F 36 703 Memphis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Hamilton . . . . . . 3-H 6,365 9,313 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . 726 * Reference for location of counties, see map of Texas. I Formed since census of 1890. I Formed since census of 1880. 86 TEXAS COUNTIES AND COUN'1‘Y-TOWNS, WITH POPULATION. COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWNS, WITH POPULATION. . . P . COUNTIES. * Ref. 122%: COUNTY-TOWNS. 533%: counrms. * R71. gggl ,2;%_ COUI\TY-TOWNS. I8‘:,I,’,_ Hansford . . . . .. 7-E 18 133 Hansford . . . . . . . . . . . . .. San Saba . . . . . . 4-G 5,324 6,641 San Saba . . . . . . . . . 697 Hardeman. . . . . -F 50 3,904 Quanah . . . . . . . . . . . 1,477 Schleicher t. . . 4-F . . . . .. 155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' -1' 1 870 956 Kountze . . . . . . . . . .. 295 Scurr . . . . . . . . . 2-F 102 1,415 Snydei . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 Hardin . . . . . . .. 5 x , , y Harris . . . . . . . . . 5-J 27.985 37,249 Houston . . . . . . . . . . 27,557 Shackelford . . . 2—G 2,037 2,012 Albany . . . . . . . . . . .. 857 Harrison . . . . . . . 2-K 25,177 26,721 Marshall . . . . . . . . . . 7,207 Shelby . . . . . . . . . 3-K 9,523 14,365 Ccnte1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hartley . . . . . . .. 7-D 100 252 Hartley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sherman .. 7-D . . . . .. 34 Coldwater . . . . . . .. Haskell . . . . . . . . 2-F 48 1,665 Haskell . . . . . . . . . . . 745 Smith . . . . . . . . . . 3-J 21,863 28,324 Tyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,908 Hays . . . . . . . .. 5-H 7.555 11,352 San Marcos . . . . . . . 2,335 Somervell . . . . . 3-H 2,649 3,419 Glen Rose. . . . . .. 400 Hemphill . . . . .. 7-15 149 519 Canadian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tarr . . . . . . . . .. 8-G 8,304 10,749 R10 Grande City .. 1,968 Henderson. . . . 3-J 9,735 12,285 Athens . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 Stephens 2—G 4,725 4,926 Breckenridge. . . . . 462 Hidalgo . . . . . . .. 8-H 4,347 6,534 Hidalgo . . . . . . . . . .. 389 Sterlmgt . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. Sterlmg City . . . . .. . Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-H 16,554 27,583 Hillsboro . . . . . . . . .. 2,541 gtqpeiirpll . . . . . . 104 1,22% ékayner . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Hockle ' . . . . . .. 2-D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. u on . . . . . . .. -4 . . . . .. 5 onora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Hood . . . . . . . . 3-H 6,125 7.614 Granbur . . . . . . . . . 1,164 Swisher . . . . . . . . 1-E 100 Tuha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hopkins . . . . . . 2-J 15,461 20,572 Sulphur Springs . 3,038 Tarrant . . . . . . . . 2-H 24,671 41,142 Fort Worth . . . . . .. 23,076 Houston . . . . . . . 3-J 16,702 19,360 Crockett . . . . . . . . . . 1,445 Tayloi . . . . . . . . . 3-F 1,736 6,957 Abilene . . . . . . . . . .. 3,194 Howard . . . . . . . 3-151 50 1,210 B19: Sprmg . . . . . . . . 1,158 Terr . . . . . . . . .. 2-D . . . . .. 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hunt . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 17,230 31,855 Greenville . . . . . . . . . 4,330 Tlirockmorton. 2-G 711 902 Throekmorton. . . . 240 Hutchinson. . .. 7-E 50 58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ Titus . . . . . . . . . .. 2-J 5,959 8,190 Mt. Pleasant . . . . .. 963 Irion t . . . . . . . . . 4-F . . . . . . 70 Sherwood . . . . . . . . . 264 Tom _Green . . . . 3-F‘ 3,615 5,152 San Angelo . . . . . . . 2,615 Jack . . . . . . . . . .. 2-H 6,626 9,740 Jacksboro . . . . . . . .. 751 Travis . . . . . . . .. 5-I-I 27,02 Austm . . . . . . . . .. 14,575 Jackson . . . . . . . 6-I 2,723 3,281 Edna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Trinity . . . . . . . . . 4—J 4,915 7,648 Groveton . . . . . . . . . . 1,076 Jasper . . . . . . . . . 4-K 5,779 5,592 Jasper . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tyler . . . . . . . . . . 4-K 5,825 10,877 Woodville . . . . . . . . . 518 Jeff Davis 1“. . .. 4-C . . . . .. 1,394 Fort Davis . . . . . . . . . . . .. Upshur . . . . . .. 2-J 10.266 12,695 Gilmer . . . . . . . . . . .. 591 Jefferson . . . . .. 5-K 3,489 5,857 Beaumont . . . . . . .. 3,296 Uptont . . . . . . .. 4-E . . . . .. _ 52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Johnson . . . . . . . 3-H 17,911 22,313 Cleburne . . . . . . . . .. 3,278 Uvalde . . . . . . . . 5-F 2,541 3,804 Uvalde . . . . . . . . . . . 1,265 Jones . . . . . . . . . . 2-F 546 3,797 Anson . . . . . . . . . . . .. 495 Val Verde '7. . . . 5-E . . . . . . 2,874 Del R10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,980 Karnes . . . . . . . . 6-H 3,270 3,637 Karnes City7 . . . . . . . . . . .. Van Zandt. . . .. 2-J 12,619 16,225 Canton . . . . . . . . . . .. 421 Kaufman . . . . . . 2-1 15,448 21,598 Kaufman . . . . . . . . . 1,282 Victoria . . . . . .. 6-I 6,289 8,737 Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . 3,046 Kendall . . . . . . . . 5-G 2,763 3,826 Boerne . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Walker . . . . . . . . 4—J 12,024 12,874 Huntsville . . . . . . . . 1,599 Kent . . . . . . . . . .. 2-F 92 324 Clairernont . . . . . . . _ _ _ , , Waller . . . . . . . . . 5-1 ,024 10,688 Hempstead . . . . . . . 1,67 Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . 5-G 2,168 4,462 Kerrville . . . . . . . . . . 1,044 Ward_iL . . . . . . . . . 3-D . . . . . . 77 Barstow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Kimble . . . . . . . . 5-G 1,343 2,243 Junction . . . . . . . . . . 449 Washington . . . 5-I 27,565 29,161 Brenham . . . . . . . . . 5,209 King . . . . . . . . . . 2-F 40 173 Guthrie . . . . . . . . . . . , _ , _ _ Webb . . . . . . . . . 7-G 5,273 14,842 Laredo . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,319 Kinney . . . . . . . . 5-F 4,487 3.781 Brackettvdle . . . . . . 1,649 Wharton . . . . . . 6-I 4,549 7 ,584 Wharton . . . . . . , . . . . . . .. Knox . . . . . . . . .. 2-G 77 1,134 Benjamin . . . . . . . . . _ , _ __ Wheeler . . . . . .. 8-E 512 778 Mobe_et1e . . . . . . .. . Lamar . . . . . . . . . 2-J 27 .193 37,302 Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,254 Wichita . . . . . . . . 1-G 433 4,831 Wichita Falls . . . . . 1,987 Lamb . . . . . . . . .. 1-D .. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , , __ Wilb_arger..... 1-G 126 7,092 Vernon . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,857 Lampasas . . . . . 4-H 5,421 7,584 Lampasas . . . . . . . . 2,408 Williamson . . . . 4-H 15,155 25,909 Georgetown . . . . . .. 2,447 La Salle . . . . . . . 7-G 789 2,139 Cotulla . . . . . . . . . . .. 672 Wilson . . . . . . . . . 5-H 7,118 10,655 Floresville . . . . . . . 913 Lavaca . . . . . . .. 5-1 13,641 21.887 Hallettsville .. 1,011 Winklert . . . . .. 3-D . . . . .. 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-I 8,937 11,952 Giddings . . . . . . . . . 1,203 Wise . . . . . . . . . . . 2-H 16,601 24,134 Decatur . . . . . . . . . . . 1,746 Leon . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 12,817 13,841 Centerville . . . . . . . . 288 Wood . . . . . . . . . . 2-J 11,212 13,932 Qmtman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liberty . . . . . . . . 5-J 4,999 4,230 Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . , , _ . , Yoakum t . . _ . . . 2-D . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Limestone. . . . . 3-1 16,246 21,678 Groesbeck . . . . . . . . 663 Young . . . . . . . . . 2-G 4,726 5,049 G1‘97h_am - - ~ - - - - - - - - 667 Lipscomb . . . . . . 7-13 69 632 Lipscomb . . . . . . . . _ _ _ , _ Zapata . . . . . . . . 8-G 3,636 3,562 Carnzo . . . . . . . . . . 243 Live Oak . . . . . . 6-H 1,994 2,055 Oakville . . . . . . . . . .. 329 Zavalla .. . . .. .. 6-G 410 1,097 Batesville . . . . . . . . . . . . . Llano . . . . . . . . .. 3-8 4,962 6,77; Lllanto . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ , _ __ T t I 1 591 ~4q 2 035 523 Lovin t . . . . . .. - . . . . .. ienone . . . . . . . . . , . . .. oas.... , ,7. ,...., . Lubbogek . . . . . . . 2-13 25 33 Lubbock . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ _ , _ _ . Lynn . . . . . . . . .. 2-E 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ , _ 5 Reference for location of counties. see map_of Texas. MeCulloch. . . .. 3-G 1,533 3,217 Brady . . . . . . . . . . . .. 560 t Formed since census of 1880. :t Formed since census of 1890. McLennan..... 3-H 26,934 39,204 Waco . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14,445 _ _ _ _ _ _ M01]/llullen - - - - -- £3; ggig '1€I1l% ’ . ’ ’ ’ fi§.‘%l§‘..IIIJl;1 £5 1033 1035' §§§t,$7‘},S.§’? ________ ,_ _3j‘_l'f'? Houston, 27,557; Fort Worth, 23,070; Austm, 14,575; Ma-SOH - - - - - - - -- 4,-G 2,655 5,189 1\’laS0I1 - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . .. Waco, 14,445; Laredo, 11,319; Demson, 10,958; El Paso, 1]}§t8,§;>cI‘,§e----- 37,? 3-343 -.333; lggteggggi ------ -- 398 10333; Paris, 3,254; Sherman, 7,335; l\farshall, 7,207; v ‘ . . . . . . — , 7 , °' ” . - - - . . . . .. , , - ' . ' 7 - Medina . . . . . . .. 5-G 4,492 5,730 Hoiido City . . . . . . . _ _ _ __ Tyler, 6,908, Gainesyille, 6,594, Corsicana, 6,285, Biowiis- Menard . . . . . . .. 3-]; 1,239 1,333 l\\%€CI1lla7I‘(]lVille . . . . . .. 185 ville, 6,134; Palestme, 5,838; Biediirliam, 1’5,24(E)g‘i7 Corpus T . . . - . . " . . . . . . 1, ' 1' ELD . . . . . . . . . . - (jhrisfi 4 - Greellville 4 8 an ernp e ' ' - ' O 7 - ' 7 7_ 7 5 1 a 7 ) §§}{i’g“$ """" " 1.3 18167’ ~§~Z§§ §%§‘5‘;’,‘,‘,’.,’1,,;,-,,-,,-'-";; 18°08 Populatzon 77770 Races.—-In 1350, 212,532; 1300, 004,215; 11117511511 ...... .. 3-F 117 21059 Colorado. ...... .. 1,582 1870, 818,579; 1880,1,591,'749; 1890, 2,235,523 (native, 2,082,- Montague'~"' E 118257 181862 Montague - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 567 ; foreign, 152,956; males, 1,172,553; females, 1,062,970; 11]§?,f,‘,t.§°me’Y 7:1) IOJ54 113% %‘,’,fi§§ ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' - ' - " white, 1,741,190; colored, 494,333, of whom 492,837 were Morris . . . . . . . .. 2-J 5,032 6,580 Daingerfield . . . . . . ' 553 persons of African descent, 727 Chinese, 3 Japanese, and 11{,I°tleYi- - -h- - ~ 11 590 1, 532 ]l\1II4m‘1<(>11‘-i - - - - - - - -1.1% 766 civihzed Indians). acovc oe es.. - ,. 5, acov oc ies , . .- ,' . __ ' _ '_ 577.577 ..... .. 74 21,772 27,777 ....... .. 7,777 I8d887888,.88d 38878888 We 888- Q/Xt88b18, P18 88.85 Newton . . . . . .. 4-K 4,359 4,050 Newton . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ , __ nently an agiicultuial and cattle-iaising ta e. H 1S lapl - Nolan . . . . . . . . .. 3-11‘ 040 1,573 Sweet Wate_r., . . .. 614 ly developing manufacturing interests. In 1890 there were 1(\)l:fi§1et,s.e'e' ' ' ' " 743/5 882% 8gI{,F;1L§e%h“lSt1 ' 4387 reported in the census 5,268 manufacturing establishments, Oldham . . . . . . .. 8-D 287 277) Ta,ScOSa,____,___,__ ::_:: with $46,815,181 capital, employing 39,475 persons, paying Orange - - - - ~ - -. 5-K 2,938 4770 Orange . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,173 $18,586,338 for wages and $36,152,308 for materials, and 11221153011; Into---~ 1331153 12.33% léglghlgngo - - - - - - - - --5,-54 turning out articles valued at $70,433,551. Parker ....... .. 2-H 15,370 21,032 Weathegrford .... .. 3,300 Commeme-'—The fO1‘,e18¥1 tmde In the fiscal 75861 1893-94, Parmer . . . . . . .. 1-D . . . . .. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. through the customs districts of Brazos de Santiago, Corpus \ Pecos - - - - - - - -- 4'13 1,807 1325 F91‘? Stockton 8 - - - - - - - -- Christi, Galveston, El Paso, and Saliiria. aggregated, imports, Polk - - - - - - - - - - - 4-J 7,189 10,332 LlVlI)§_ZS601l . . . . . . . . . . . .. _ GX Orts ' Potter . . . . . . . .. 8-D 28 849 Amarillo . . . . . . . . .. 482 ‘ ’ , 1 ’ p ' 1 _ 1 7 ' \ Presidio . . . . .. 5-B 2,873 1,698 Marfa, _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ _, _ _ __ Fma7we.—Iii 1893 the State had a bonded debt of $3,992,- Rams - - - - - - - -- 2% 3,035 3,909 Emory - - - - - - - - - - -- 353 030, and the counties an aggregate of $8,411,541 bonded and Randa-H ' ' ' ' ' ' " 8: ~ 3 1,27 Canyon. ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " $608,944 floating. The State special funds held $3,235,040, Red Rlvel‘ 2 J 17,194 21,452 Clarksville . . . . . . .. 1,588 . , 1 b . 1. , 1 Reevest . . . . . .. 4-O . . . . .. 1,247 Pecos . . . . . . _ _ , _ __ 393 making the amount of Stateboncls ield y ll’lClVldl1&S 11§e£118,1;0 - ~ - - - - -- 1.5;»; I1’;ef11gli1<>- - - - - - - - - - - - -- $756,990. The assessed valuations were, real, $607,941,700 ; 70 ers . . . . . . .. - . arne . . . . .. .. 7 r. 7- :- Robertson 4-1 22,333 20,500 Franklin . . . . . . . . .. 005 Peggonailz $278I~23318gg;oZ8t)§1°tfL1i $88,6’1?°’39f)' d 1 . 1 Rockwall 2-I 2,034 5,072 Roekwall ....... .. 043 0m78’8,”.(7--~ 11_ 61% W19 16P0,1te 22 Ilatlona Runnels . . . . . .. 3-F 930 3,193 Ballinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. banks, with capital of $23,520,200, deposits $31,468,466, sur- 5:5]; - - - - - - - -- 3-12 12,328 533215111‘-'i81-l'» Dec-» 1838- Richard B. Hubbard 1877-79 DP?-» 1b40- . Oran M. Roberts ....... .. 1879- ss Da‘,’1d G- Burnet (actmgh Dec-i John Ireland . _ . . . . . . . . . .. 1883-87 1940-Dec-E 1841- Lawrence 8. Ross . . . . . .. 1887-91 S91? Houstorb Dec-1 1&11_Dec-» James S. Hogg.2 . . . . . . . .. 1891-95 1944 Charles A. Cu1berson..... 1895- Anson Jones, Dec., 1844-Feb. 19', 1846. Governors of the State. J . P. Henderson . . . . . . . . .. 1846-47 George T. Wood . . . . . . . . . . 1847-49 AU'rHoarrIEs.—Bancroft, History of North Jlferviean States and Texas. 2 vols.; Yoakum, History of Texas (2 vols., New York, 1855); Foote, Texas and the Texans (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1841); Gouge, Fiscal History of Tervas (1852); Thrall, .Pietorial History of Texas; Smith, Remi- niscenoes of the Texas Republic; Halley, Texas; Brown, History of Texas, 2 vols.; N ewell, History of the Revolution in Texas; Kennedy, The Rise, Progress, and Prospects of the Republic of Texas (2 vols., London, 1841); Niles‘s Regis- ter; and State publications. GEORGE P. Gxnmson. Texas, University of : a coeducational institution com- prising departments in Austin, Galveston, and Bryan. The constitution of the republic, of Texas made it the duty of the congress of the republic to provide by law a general system of education as soon as circumstances permitted. The congress of 1839 provided for the selection of a site for a university, and when Austin was located as the capital of the State, 40 acres of land, in the center of which the uni- versity buildings stand, was designated for the seat of the university. This action of the republic was followed by a grant of 50 leagues (221,400 acres) of land for the “estab- lishment and endowment of two colleges or universities”; and in 1858 the State appropriated to the university $100,000 in U. S. bonds then in the State treasury, confirmed to it the 50 leagues grant of the republic, and further appropriated for its endowment every tenth section of the lands set apart to encourage the construction of railways in Texas. This endowment, which would have amounted to some 3,200,000 acres, was diverted to the free schools by the convention of 1876, which substituted therefor but 1.000.000 acres of far less valuable lands to the university. In 1883 partial resti- tution was made by the Legislature granting another mill- ion acres. The main sources of maintenance are from inter- est on bonds in which were invested the proceeds of the sale of the 50 leagues, with such appropriations as the Legisla- ture can be induced to make. The bonds amount to $575,- 840, the interest on which and on land-notes of the univer- sity and a few thousand dollars from tuition fees aggregate an annual available fund of from $50,000 to $60,000, which it is proposed to ask the Legislature to supplement with a small tax suflicient to support the institution without the necessity of specific appropriations. The main university establishment, embracing the academic and law departments, was located at Austin in accordance with a vote of the people of the State in 1881, and was opened by the admission of stu- dents Sept., 15, 1883, when rooms were provided for the pur- pose in the temporary Capitol and used till the university building was finished and occupied Jan. 1, 1884. The med- ical department, which was located at Galveston, also by a vote of the people at the election in 1881, was formally TEXTILE-DESIGNIN G opened in Oct., 1891. The Agricultural and Mechanical College at Bryan, which had been in operation many years before the university was organized, and which, under the Federal grant of 1862 for establishing agricultural colleges in the several States, was a beneficiary, independently of the university, of an endowment from the general Government, was made a branch of the university by the State convention of 1876 in order that it might also have the benefit of appro- priations from the university fund. The university has three fine buildings on its grounds at Austin-the main building, costing $135,000; the chemical laboratory, $25,000; and Brackenridge Hall, which is a gift from George W. Bracken- ridge, of San Antonio, one of the university regents, built at a cost of $17,000 and used for a 1ness-hall. The medical de- partment at Galveston embraces the Medical College, which cost about $125,000, and the John Sealy Hospital, valued at $70,000, the latter having been originally willed to the city by John Sealy, a citizen of that place, and transferred to the university. All departments of the university so far estab- lished are liberally equipped. In J an., 1895, the number of academic and law students was 406. Including with these 180 in the medical department at Galveston and those in the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Bryan there were over 900 students. The academic department has over 100 women students. J . J . LANE. Texcoco, or Tezcuco, tath-koo’k5: a town of the repub- lic and state of Mexico; near the eastern side of Texcoco Lake, opposite to and 17 miles E. from Mexico city (see map of Mexico, ref. 7-H). It is celebrated in history. Ac- cording to the Indian accounts it was founded or occu- pied about the year 1120 by a tribe of Chichimecs, who called it Acolhuacan or Tenayucan. It became one of the three confederated pueblos of the lake valley, and for a time was the most powerful, subsequently yielding the first place to Tenochtitlan, or Mexico. The inhabitants, called Acol- huas or Texcocans, claimed a pre-eminence of culture and of purity in the use of the Nahuatl language. The chron- icles of their chiefs or kings are preserved by Ixtlilxochitl and others. The last Acolhuan chief became an ally of Cortés in 1520, and at Texcoco the vessels were fitted out which played such an important part in the reduction of Mexico. The modern town is surrounded by farms and gardens. Near it are ruins, supposed to be remams of a country-house of Netzahualcoyotl, with a fountain incor- rectly called the Bath of Montezuma. Pop. (1889), with the commune, 15,856. See MEXIGAN ANTIQUITIES. H. H. S. Texcoco, or Tezcuco, Lake Of : the largest of the cluster of lakes in the valley of Mexico between Mexico and Texco- co. It is about 12 miles long by 7 miles wide, less than 2 feet deep, and much polluted by the city sewage. Formerly it was larger and deeper, surrounding the capital, which was approached by causeways. There are no true fish, but the axolotl (Sireclon) is common in it. H. H S Texel: the first and largest of the chain of islands which stretches along the northeastern coast of Holland. It con- tains about 35,000 acres of rich meadow-land. Texier, tes’i-a’, CHARLES FELIX l\’.[ARIE: archaeologist; b. at Versailles, France, Aug. 29, 1802; studied first architec- ture in the School of Fine Arts in Paris; devoted himself afterward to archa-zology; undertook under the support of the Government extensive explorations in the East between 1833 and 1843, and after his return was made inspector- general of public buildings in France and Algeria. The re- sults of his explorations he communicated in his two mag- nificently illustrated works—Deseription cle l’Arménie, cle la Perse et de la Jlfésopotamie (2 vols. fol., Paris, 1842-45). and Description do l’Asie mineure (4 vols., 1839, seg.)—whic i were put into English by R. P. Pullan. These books have been much criticised for their lack of accuracy,.as many plates are alleged to have been drawn and engraved chiefly from unwarranted conclusions of the explorer, and to have been proved inexact by later investigation. D. in Paris, July 1, 1871. Revised by RUSSELL Sruners. Textile-(lesiglling: the originating and producing of designs for textile fabrics. All large mills, making goods which require the combination of colors or weaves to pro- duce patterns, employ a designer of such patterns. A tex- tile design should contain not only the drawings of the fig- ure to be produced, but also a careful arrangement of the calculations and estimates for the work in the different branches of the manufacture. Many of the calculations and explanations, which must be a part of the complete de- TEXTILE-DESIGNIN G sign for a fabric complex in its production, may, however, be dropped from the design for a simple fabric. Besides giving the arrangement of warp and filling, as to colors, and the disposition of warp on the different harness, the textile design should include all the items in the following form, even for the simplest fabric : Style number, Number of picks to the inch, Widtli in loom, Size of filling yarn, Finished texture, Finished weight, Finished width, Weave. Name of fabric, Number of ends in warp, Reed, Size of warp yarn, Loom texture, Loom weight, Production of the loom a day, Stock, It is also often necessary to give the amount of each differ- ent color of yarn to the yard or in a given number of yards of the fabric in hand. It will thus be seen that designing is one of the most im- portant of the branches of textile manufacturing. Any mistake in the design may cause much trouble in the mill, if not a loss to the manufacturer. If a fabric is not started properly in the designing-room, the processes through which it passes before being ready for the market will not produce it a perfect fabric. It is not necessary to send a complete design to each department in the mill; only instructions re- specting the processes in the department; but this work should be carefully compared by the designer with his record before being sent to the departments. To produce a textile design intelligently a knowledge of manufacturing is re- quired. The designer must become thoroughly conversant with the loom and what can be accomplished by its use, that he may be competent to produce and understand any weave which could be made. The various raw materials must be studied and the methods used to grade the yarns made from them, according to size. To produce a perfect fabric he must study the effect each process in the manufacture has on the raw materials, and, in his conception of the fabric, go over all the processes and then make his design. Only ex- perience, practical mill-work, will show the designer what the construction must be. Weaves.——A knowledge of this division of the textile de- signs, while more theoretical, is not less important than the practical knowledge of raw materials, yarns, and processes of manufacture. \/Veaving is the interlacing of two systems of threads, technically known as “ warp and filling”; the threads in the length of the fabric are known as the warp, while those with which it interlaces are called the filling; yet very few persons realize the endless varieties of ways, i. e. weaves, which may be employed in the interlacing. As in the study of color it is found that all the many shades and tints point to three primary colors, so in the study of weaves there are found three primary weaves known to designers as the plain, twill, and satin. It does not follow that every weave resembles either one or all of these primary weaves; yet in innumerable cases the weave is derived directly from one of the three weaves, or is a combination of them. Plain l7Veaoes.——Tlie three primary weaves are illustrated in Fig. 1. The plain weave is shown by the plan A, called a draft, written out on a section of squared design-paper. The warp and filling as interlaced are represented by B. It will be seen that in the weave the movement of every other warp-thread is alike, as shown by the crosses which are used in the draft to represent the raising of the warp-thread at the passing through of the shuttle. To be able to under- stand the drafts even for the plain weave, the reader‘ will find it necessary to possess a knowledge of the process of weaving. The warp after being wound upon the warp-beam is drawn through the heddles of the different harness. Of these harness there must be as many as there are different movements required for these warp-threads, as shown by the weave. The filling is interlaced with the warp by the shuttle, containing the bobbin of filling, being passed through the shed, formed by the warp being separated into two parts, some of the harness being raised, the others low- ered. For description of shed, harness, etc., see Loon. Looking for a moment at A in Fig. 1, there will be seen only two movements to the warp-threads. Threads 1, 3, 5, 7, and continuing odd threads, are working alike, and could in consequence be put upon one harness. Threads 2,4, 6, 8, etc., would be placed on a second harness, as they work alike, and differently from 1, 3, 5, and 7. Thus only two harness are required for this the plain weave, which is the most sim- 89 ple that could be made, the position of the warp-threads changing for each successive pick or shot of the shuttle. Warp-threads 1, 3, 5, etc., are raised on the first pick in the draft A, while their mates are lowered, forming a shed. For 1 5. 4 s e 7 8 B B’ Br! li‘;Ce,e.AM"‘¢’@‘ M ;!l_!_/‘\___.’/\‘'.--- 12345678 '|2c4se7s msase 78 C C’ C” FiG.1. the second pick the position of every thread is reversed. The continued changing of position and the passing of the fill- ing through the shed at each change forms the fabric as seen in B, Fig. 1. A sectional view of the plain fabric cut through the warp is given in Fig. 1, C, the warp being represented by the solid black, the filling by a and Z1. Twills.—The second primary weave, the twill, could be defined as a weave having the picks alike, except that each pick in turn is stepped one square, that is. one thread to the right or left of the one preceding it, and has at least one float of more than one thread. Beginning at the left and stepping each succeeding pick to the right one thread and toward the bottom would produce a left twill (see A’, Fig. 1) ; while beginning at the right and stepping to the left toward the bottom would form a right twill. Any twill may be easily written out if one pick is given by starting in the up- per left-hand corner of a piece of squared paper, using the crosses when the threads are raised. If the pick given was “ the first thread raised the second lowered,” and continuing the same, technically " one up and one down,” or L-T, each pick alike but stepping to right or left, the weave written out would be the plain weave. The twill requires a float of more than one thread and the three-harness twill is the simplest, designated 1—.; or 3 1. The first pick of the L; twill beginning at the left gives a, Fig. 2: the next pick must step one space to the right (or left), and is Z), Fig. 2; the third pick is c, Fig. 2 ; each pick being shown by two repeats of the weave. On this basis all twills may be written out. A’, B’, and C’ in Fig. 1 illustrate the 11-; twill weave. This is the four-hariiess or cassimere twill; with the exception of the plain. it is the most common weave which is used. Saz"z'n lVeaves. The satin or satine is a weave extensively used. producing a fabric with a very smooth face, differing from the twill in that the intersections of warp with filling threads are distributed over the surface rather than follow- ing closely as in the stepping of the twill. In the twill the fabric presents a rib or wale, running diagonally. That the intersections may not be adjacent the weave must be more than four threads to a repeat, and consequently each warp and filling thread must float at least four threads, as the smooth face is obtained by stitching the warp-tliread down for one pick in a repeat. if it is a warp-face, or if a filling- face the warp is carried to the back. and only brought to the face for one pick in each repeat. weave possible, then. is the five-harness, Fig. 3, which is used to illustrate the construction of all satins. A rule to con- struct any perfect satin weave is to take two numbers. the sum of which is the number of harness to be used, neither of the numbers to be one, or to be contained an even num- ber of times by the number of harness; select one of the numbers as a counter, and begin in the lower left-hand 123'/23 FIG. 2. The simplest satin 90 TEXTILE corner of the squared-design paper, having marked off a square with as many sections as there are harness to be used. In the construction of the five-harness satin, A, Fig. 3, take the numbers 2 and 3; selecting 2 as a counter, mark the in- tersection of warp and fill- ing threads No. 1 as the stitching of the first filling thread; counting off 2 to the right from this inter- section gives the warp- thread to which the second pick is stitched. The con- tinued counting off of two threads gives the weave A, Fig. 3. Should the fabric in hand require a warp- face the draft would be written as B, Fig. 3; C, Fig. 3, would be the draft for the filling-face. The eight-harness satin warp- “N00-PCII 7 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 face is given in Fig. 1, A”, B", C”, and if compared FIG. 3. with the plain and twill weaves in the same illus- tration will further show the construction of the weave and its differences from the other primary weaves. Drawing-in Drafts.—The object of these drafts is to des- ignate the position of the different warp-threads in each re- peat of the pattern, showing which of the harness each shall be placed on. There are various names given to the differ- ent forms of drafts, each self-explanatory, as straight draws, skip-draws or cross-draws. point-draws, section-arrangement draws. An ex- B amination of Fig. 4 will help the reader to understand the process of draft- ing for the draw- ing-in. Arepre- sents the weave, B the straight- draw on twelve- harness, and C the reduction of the number of harness to six by the cross- draw, that is, by drawing in all those warp - threads which work alike on one harness ; D is the draft showing the harness-movements when reduced to six. The vertical lines marked 2; in C designate how the warp-threads shall be drawn through the reed. Teo;tnre.——This is the number of threads to the inch in a fabric : the warp-texture means the number of warp-threads, while the texture of the fabrics is the texture of both warp and filling, as 50 X 50, 48 x 48, 40 x 32. In writing out weaves for fabrics of uneven textures it is advisable to use a squared paper which is divided into sections to the square inch in the proportion of the warp and the filling threads. Figare-designs.—Upholstery and carpet-designing and many kinds of silk-designing demand more artistic ability than skill in manufacture so far as the designer is concerned, and the field is so great that explanations of the various sys- tems can not find place here. LITERA'f‘URE.——FO1’ books covering not only what has been given in this article, but far more that could not be given, as designing for double-cloth, gauze, and all Jacquard work, the reader will find very valuable Ashton and Ashenhnrst on Design ; Posselt’s Technology of Teretile Design and Jac- quard Jlfaehine; Posselt’s Stractnre of Fibres, Yarns, and Fabrics (among the best); Chevreul, Barlow, and Beaumont on Color; and a book which is itself a cyclopeedia of textile terms, Spitzli’s lllannal (5th ed. 1881). LOUIS CLARK. Textile Fabrics 2 fabrics made by weaving threads in a loom. (See Leon and VVEAVING.) The threads usually em- ployed are those made by spinning from vegetable fiber, such as that of hemp, flax, cotton, and many plants with FABRICS fibrous leaves, especially common in tropical countries: of animal fiber, such as wool of sheep, the hair of many varieties of goat, the llama, the camel, the horse, and other beasts; and of the threads spun by the silkworm. A few exceptional fabrics have been woven from byssas, or the silky filaments attached to the bivalve shell pinna flabellam, the thread of the spider, and other materials capable of being reduced to slender and somewhat pliant strips; thus glass has been spun into threads, and these have been woven into a texture having much beauty of color and luster; the un- opened leaves of some plants are woven into hammocks and into the well-known “Panama” hats; and a weaving to- gether of leather thongs has been used as a defensive gar- ment in warfare. Wire, as of silver and silver gilt, has been woven into cloth with other materials, as linen and silk, for ornament, and gilded paper cut into slender strips is used for the same purpose. Feathers also have been woven into fabrics, perhaps only for decorative purposes, a good ex- ample being the fabrics of brilliant-colored feathers made by the people of some islands in the Pacific. As textile fabrics have in all ages been made ornamental, so decorative effect has been sought not only by the color and the luster of the threads composing it, but also by the arrangement of the loom and the passing of the threads so as to produce surfaces of a character very different from that of simply woven stuff like ordinary cotton cloth. Thus a stuff can be woven of silk and cotton, or of silk and wool, in such a way that the whole surface of one side shall be of silk. In like manner a fabric of silk of two colors can be so woven that each surface shall be of one of these colors. Again, the threads can be so interwoven that considerable masses of the thread running in one direction shall be brought to the surface without being visibly broken by threads crossing them. These threads lying closely parallel display whatever natural gloss they have. Again, the threads running in one direction can be thrown up in loops, more or less long, and these loops can either be left to produce by themselves a peculiar surface or, as is more usual, they can be cut or shaved so as to produce the well-known surface of velvet, velveteen, and fustian. Patterns on the surface varied from the background both in the color of the threads and in the direction in which they lie, and patterns also of velvet surface or of uncut velvet or loops, as above mentioned, are also available by way of ornament. Greater thickness, warmth, the power of shedding water from the surface, and similar useful qualities can be got by the same means as are employed for decoration. Hence the varieties of textile fab- ric are indefinitely numerous, for these different devices are combined together in many different ways. Textile fabrics are colored for decorative purposes, sometimes by dyeing the thread before it is woven into the web. The simplest in- stance of this is gingham. in which all the threads are col- ored and the pattern is got by arranging the differently col- ored threads in stripes and plaids. Glass-cloths and tea- toweling are made in this way. Textiles are often colored after being manufactured, or “in the piece.” (See DYE- ING.) The effect of dyeing is sometimes modified for deco- rative purposes by gathering up small parts of the surface and tying them tightly. These parts, when the stuff is plunged in the dye, do not absorb the color with any readi- ness, and undyed spots are left. In some Eastern stuffs, both silk and cotton, undyed figures of definite shape are relieved upon the dyed ground. It is probable that those are produced by painting or printing the surface beforehand with some substance which repels the dye. A somewhat similar effect is produced in European goods, as thin silks, by printing in color the larger part of the surface, leaving spots of the uncolored material. Textile fabrics are orna- mented also by the application of color directly to their sur- face, either by hand-painting, which is unusual, or by print- ing from engraved blocks. All the great variety of figured calicoes are produced in this way, and thin silks also are printed in patterns. But this manner of decorating, as well as EMBROIDERY (Q. 1).), is separate from the question of textile fabrics, as fabrics are made complete before being decorated in either of these ways. Simply woven goods are those in which one thread of the weft or woof passes across the width of the web, passing alternately above and below the threads of the warp, one at a time. Examples are common linen and cotton goods, such as are used for undergarments, bed-sheets, and the like. Such goods are known by different names often taken from the uses they are put to and often from the place of their original manufacture. Linen cloth or linen is the common TEXTILE name for cloth made from flax. Linen sheeting and linen shirting are so called because of the more common use in modern times of cotton cloth for these purposes. Cam- bric or linen-cambric is a fine and close-woven material for pocket-handkerchiefs, and at different epochs, according to fashion, for different articles of dress; batiste is a still finer cambric; crash, canvas, duck, and sail-cloth are all stouter cloths, made originally of linen or hemp, although now more commonly of cotton, the names sometimes being used with the prefix, as cotton-duck. Other cotton goods of plain weave, besides cotton-cambric, etc., are the cloth which is called in Great Britain calico and in the U. S. more com- monly muslin, except when printed in colors, and muslin roper, a cloth which is either the fine hand-woven stuff of ndia or its European imitation. Woolen cloths and those of silk and wool or cotton and wool are also frequently of simple weave. Such are many blankets, the stuff called challis, which is usually printed in colors, the dress material formerly called mousseline de laine and now known by other names, and many light materials, the trade-names of which differ so widely from year to year, as fashions change and manufacturers try to recommend their goods, that it is use- less to name them. The patterns in simply woven stuffs must be either plain stripes, or stripes which when crossing each other form plaids, or “polka spots,” or other plain figures. A very slight change in the weave allows of a much richer ornamentation. Thus, when the threads are slightly bunched together, so that three parallel threads of the woof which have been separately alternating with those of the web are gathered into one strand and alternate with another similar strand made up of three threads of the warp, there is produced a square of coarser weave, giving a decided pat- tern to the surface. In like manner, especially in silk-weav- ing, threads are bunched together for the whole fabric, pro- ducing what is sometimes called “basket weave.” If the strands are pretty large, thirty-two to an inch or larger, and if several colors are employed in the same web, an appear- ance of considerable richness may be got by 1nere crossing lines. In like manner an appearance of silky softness is got by bunching the threads lying in one direction, and holding these together by fine strong threads the other way, as in some silk blankets; but this weave has little strength. When, however, anything elaborate is proposed, some less simple weave is employed. The one which comes nearest to plain weaving is that where, while the warp is continuous, the threads of the weft stop and return upon themselves, so that each figure of the pattern is of one color and is sepa- rated by a complete break in the stuff from the next figure. This is used in some beautiful Chinese silks, where the most elaborate flowers are woven into the uniform thickness of the web, without other separation from the background than this of the breaking off of the weft threads. In the flowers each color is separated from the other colors, as can be seen along the lines of division which run lengthwise of the stuff. A similar texture exists in the thin and hard-finished East- ern rugs without nap, and showing the same pattern on botl1 sides, which rugs are called “Persian cloths” by the dealers. A twill or a twilled fabric is merely one in which a thread of the woof is carried over and then under several threads of the warp at one time. This produces in the simple forms a kind of diagonal striping characteristic of the stuffs or- dinarily called twill. Scotch tartan plaids, the beautifully soft India shawls called Rampoor Chuddahs, most linen dia- per, tweeds and cheviots and serges, are examples of twilled fabrics. Satin is nothing more than a twill, the threads which lie side by side and form the surface being very soft, with a silky luster. Twilled fabrics are much stronger than those simply woven, and it is much easier in these to produce elaborate patterns on the surface, whether in different colors or by the mere arrangingof the threads so as to catch the light. Linen damask, for instance, such as is used for table-cloths, has commonly a pattern, the principal threads of which lie in one direction, while those of the background lie in the contrary direction. It is common to have the pattern fin- ished with a satin-like gloss 011 the right side; on the re- verse side, then, the background will have this gloss and the pattern will be without it, for the two sides of this stuff are the counterparts of each other. Another variety of weaving is that which produces ribbed materials, the ribs running across the fabric. In these the woof is merely a series of bunches or strands of fine threads, or else single stout cords, ‘- which lie nearly straight in the fabric, while the warp passes over them, up and down, leaving the ribs showing their rounded surfaces. Such materials are called reps, corded FABRICS 91 silk, and gros-grain. Sometimes the ribs come in pairs, or ribs of different sizes are alternated. C/rape is the general name of material made of threads twisted in reverse direc- tions, so that the surface of the stuff is very much crimped and blistered. Ordinary silk crape, a thin and gauzy tex- tile, is dyed black and used for mourning garments in Eu- rope, but is printed in bright colors in the East. Canton crapc is a thicker and softer silk textile. Crépon is a similar fabric made of woolen or other thread much heavier than ,crape. Perhaps the most important variety of weave is that which produces goods having a pile, such as velvet, velveteen, and fustian, also corduroy, which is merely velveteen or fustian in lengthwise ribs. In these materials a part of the woof is brought to the surface and forms fine, small loops, which loops cover the whole surface, at least of those parts which are to have the velvet finish. When these loops are not cut in any way the stuff, if of fine silk material, is what is called uncut velvet. Much the more common way of finishing the stuff is to cut the loops so that their threads form a uniform surface like the fur of some small animal. The threads standing up in this way are called the pile. Ordinary velvet has a uniform surface, usually of one color, and the name is confined to silk material of considerable value. Velveteen has a similar surface, and is of several kinds : first, a mixture of silk and cotton ; second, the material anciently called fustian and made entirely of cotton; third, a material in which the pile is of woolen; but the names change with changing fashions. A material called cclours, made of linen with a short pile, is also used for furniture-coverings. In goods having a pile the surface is generally uniform, al- though it may be broken by patterns in color; but a ma- terial is also produced in which only a part of the surface has the raised loops, whether cut or uncut, the rest being solid and seeming depressed below the velvety surface. There is, for instance, a Chinese stuff of great beauty in which large parts of the surface are covered or nearly covered with thin strips of gilded paper or silver gilt wire. having upon this an elaborate pattern of flowers. birds, and dragons in velvet pile. There is also a velvet which has the pile of different length or height in different parts, so that a pattern in long or high pile is relieved upon a shorter pile. This is called pile upon pile velvet. A greater elaborateness may be reached by having the general surface smooth, with a pattern in short velvet pile relieved and picked out by parts of longer pile. In the sixteenth century a splendid fabric was made which has been reproduced since 1880 in Venice and perhaps else- where. In this the ground is more or less satin-like in gloss and finish. and upon this ground a pattern is raised which is partly in uncut velvet with the loops arranged in strongly marked ridges and partly in cut velvet in still higher relief, the pattern being also in three or four different colors. For another important class of textiles. see CARPETS. Textile fabrics are of peculiar interest to the student of decorative art, because of the endless variety of effect which may be produced by combining the different methods of weaving, and because of the beauty of the results. In all ages weaving has been one of the first industrial arts which man on emerging from savagery has used for his humblest needs, and which he has then tried to make ornamental; the only exception being the practice of those peoples who have at hand natural substances which replace textiles, such as zfappa and similar easily prepared materials in the Pacific islands. Elaborate machinery has not been necessary. The most splendid fabrics known, and the most delicate, have been produced on hand-looms of a rudeness hard to im- agine——portable frames set up under a tree, as in India, or under a tent, as with the weavers of some of the most beauti- ful rugs ever made. In fact, the introduction of labor-saving and complicated machinery has been a direct and very posi- tive injury to the textile industry considered as an orna- mental art. None of the productions of the power-loom can interest the lover of beautiful fabrics. The making of such beautiful fabrics in the primitive way stops as soon as the machine-made product comes to compete with them, and, although manufacturers sometimes try to imitate the an- cient hand-woven stuffs, the imitations have very little of the beauty of the originals. The fine art of weaving belongs to the past and to the few Oriental peoples who still preserve for a little while some of their traditions. Public museums exist in which there are large collections of ancient stuffs, from the fragments of Egyptian and Peruvian mummy- wrappers to the gold-woven kincabs of India and broeades of Japan. The history of textiles is to be studied also in the 92 TEZCUCO representations of stuffs of which no fragments remain, as in the sculptures and paintings of Egypt and the art of sculptures in Assyria. The textile art and pottery should be_studied together as the most important records of me- chanical civilization. R. STURGIS. Tezcuc0: See Tnxcoco. Tezel, J OHANN: See TETZEL. Thack'eray, ANNE ISABELLA: author. See Rrrcrnn. Thackeray, WILLIAM ll’/l.AKEPEACE: novelist; b. in Cal- cutta, India, July 18, 1811; son of Richmond Thackeray, secretary to the Calcutta board of revenue, and descended from an ancient Yorkshire family. He was sent to Eng- land in 1816 ; was educated at the Charterhouse School, London, and at Trinity College, Cambridge (1829-30), where he was a contemporary of John M. Kemble and the brothers Tennyson, but left without taking a degree. At Cambridge he edited The Snob, a weekly undergraduate paper, in which he printed a parody on Alfred Tennyson’s prize poem Tim- bnctoo. He then traveled and studied on the Continent, es- pecially in Italy, with a view to becoming a painter ; spent a season (1830-31) in Weimar. enjoying free access to the ducal courts and becoming intimate with the aged Goethe and his brilliant circle. In 1831 he took up his residence in the Temple and began to read law; but in 1832 he went to Paris, in which cityr he continued to be as much at home as in London for the next ten years of his life. He had in- herited a fortune of about £20,000, which he lost in an Ind- ian bank and in journalistic speculations, and by 1837 he be- gan to devote himself seriously to literature. He became a correspondent of The Times; wrote humorous apers for The New llfonthlg Jllagazine, for Fraser, and for unch over a variety of signatures, such as Michael Angelo Titmarsh and The Fat Contributor ; published collections of his magazine articles with original illustrations, as The Paris Sketch- book, by Jllr. Titmarsh (1840); Comic Tales and Sketches (1841), including the Yellowplush Papers; The Irish Sketch- book (1843) ; visited the East in 1845, and published as the result .Notes of a Journey from Oornhill to Grand Cairo (1846); was first recognized as a literary celebrity upon the publication of his novel Vanity Fair, in monthly numbers (J an., 1847, to July, 1848). He was called to the bar May 26, 1848, but never practiced ; availed himself of his recently acquired popularity to issue several small volumes made up from earlier articles, Our Street (1847) ; The Book of Snobs (1848); Dr. Birch and his Young Friends (1848); and The H istorg of Samuel Titmarsh and the Great Hoggartg Dia- mond (1848); brought out in monthly parts (N ov., 1848, to Oct., 1850) his second novel, The History of Pendennis, which confirmed his already high reputation, and made him in popular estimation a rival of Dickens for the first place in modern English fiction ; lectured with brilliant success on the English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century in Lon- don 1851, and in the U. S. 1852; published The History of Henry Esmond (1852), The Newcomes (1853-55), and The Virginians (1857-59), completing the series of his five really great novels; lectured in the U. S. 1855-56, and afterward in England, on The Four Georges; presented himself un- successfully as a Liberal candidate for the representation of the city of Oxford in Parliament 1857; founded The Cornhill ./llagazine (1859), in which he published his two latest novels, Lo/vel the Widower (1860-61) and The Adventures of Philip (1861-62), both admitted to be inferior to his earlier produc- tions, and a series of articles collected as Roundabout Papers (1862), and resigned his editorship Apr. 11, 1862. D. in Kensington Palace Gardens, London, Dec. 24, 1863. A marble bust by Marochetti has been erected to his mem- ory in Westminster Abbey. A great part of his life was saddened by the insanity of his wife, who survived till Jan. 11, 1894. Thackeray has been variously described as a realist and a caricaturist, a cynic and a sentimentalist. Be- ginning with burlesque, satirical character sketches, and all manner of humorous skits and broadly comical drollerics, he gradually widened his field and refined his method until in his great novels he was able to draw a picture of English life, and especially of the life of town, society, and the upper classes, which, while brilliant as satire, included the tragic as well as the comic elements, and in truth to nature was supe- rior to the work of his great rival and counterpart, Charles Dickens. He left an unfinished novel, Denis Ducal, printed in 1867. Collected editions of his early writings appeared in the U. under the title Jllisccllanies in Prose and Verse (4 vols., 1855-57), and rival editions of his complete works are published in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. A Tl-IALIA collection of his fugitive articles was issued by James T. Fields as Early and Late Papers (Boston, 1867). The Or- phan of Pimlico, and other Sketches, Fragments, and Draw- ings (1875) was edited by his daughter. A volume of his inimitable caricatures and marginalia collected under the title of Thackeragana was published in 1876. James Hannay, Theodore Taylor, and William B. Reed have published valuable biographical monographs on his life. See also Thackeray, the Ifumorist and the Man of Letters, by J. C. Hotten (1864); Anecdote Biography of Thackerom , by Richard H. Stoddard (1874); Life of Thackeray, by An- thony Trollope (1879) ; and Life of Thackeray, by Herman Merivale and Frank T. Marzials (1891). Revised by H. A. Bnnas. Thadmor, or 'l‘ad1n0r: See PALMYRA. Tha’ is (in Gr. ®a'l's)2 an Athenian courtesan, as cele- brated 'for her wit as for her beauty. She accompanied Alexander the Great on his expedition into Asia, and is said to have instigated him, during a festival at Persepolis, to set fire to the palace of the Persian kings in revenge for the calamities which Xerxes had brought on her native city. After the death of Alexander she entered into a connection with Ptolemy, son of Lagus, King of Egypt, who is said to have married her, and to whom she bore two sons and a daughter. Revised by J. R. S. STERRETT. Tl1alamencepl1'al011: See BRAIN. Tl1alberg, SIGISMOND: pianist; b. in Geneva, Switzerland, Jan. 7, 1812. He was a natural son of Prince Dietrichstein and the Baroness I/Vetzlar, who superintended his early edu- cation. By the time he was fourteen years of age he was a remarkable pianist. He made many concert tours all over Europe and through the U. S. with the greatest success. He married in 1843 in Paris the daughter of Lablache, the singer, and his daughter, Zare Thalberg, became an opera-singer. Thalberg’s compositions are all for the piano. D. in Naples, Apl‘. 26, 1871. D. E. HERVEY. Thaler, taa'ler [: Germ. : Eng. dollar. See DOLLAR] : a coin and money of account in several European countries. The German Thaler of silver, till 1871 the monetary unit for Northern Germany, is worth $0729. The former Nor- wegian specie daler was equal to $1106. Denmark has a gold ten-daler piece worth $5532. Since 1873 the monetary unit for Denmark, Norway, and Sweden is the krona, two of which form a rigs-daler, equal to $0553. Tha’les (Gr. ®aM“7s): the earliest of the Greek philosophers, and with justice called the father of philosophy ; b. at Mile- tus about 640 B. 0.; d. about 550. He was of Phoenician descent, and his father’s name appears to have been Exa- myos (perhaps Samuel ; see Acta Societat. Philolog. Lipsicn- sis, vol. iv., p. 328, seg.; but cf. Diels, Arch. fitr Gesch. der Philos., ii, 165-70). He was the founder of the so-called Ionic or Hylogoic School of Thought, and was also one of the Seven Sages, a practical man, an astronomer, and a mathema- tician. He was the first man in the Western world who, setting aside the popular mythological or theological ex- planation of the universe, looked for its first principle in an abstraction of the reason. Philosophical language being then uninvented, he defined his abstract, universal ground of things as /water, being led to this perhaps by observing that all nourishment contained moisture. (See Aristotle, Jlfetaph. A, 3.) He may be said to have been the discoverer of Material Cause, although of course he made no distinction between matter and form, or between being and becoming. Still less had he any notion of etficient or final cause, al- though, having observed the action of the loadstone, he at- firmcd (according to Aristotle, De An., i., 5) that all things were full of gods (Seal). Thales left no writings, and even in Aristotle’s time considerable doubt prevailed regarding his opinions. The chief sources of knowledge respecting him are Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius. (Cf. Byk, Die Verso- kratische Philos. der Gricchen, vol. i., pp. 25-34.) He taught geometry, and studied astronomy. He is said by Herodotus (i., 74) to have predicted an eclipse of the sun, which hap- pened, according to Ottmanns, in B. C. 609; according to Airy (Philosophical Transactions, vol. cxliii., p. 179), in 585. THOMAS DAVIDSON. Thali’ a [: Lat. : Gr. ®dAeuz, liter., fem. adj., luxuriant, blooming, deriv. of 6dAAew, abound, be luxuriant, bloom]: in Greek mythology, one of the nine MUSES (q. 10.). She presided over comedy, idyllic and bucolic poetry, and her attributes are the ivy crown, the comic mask, and the shep- herd’s stall’. J. R. S. S THALLIUM Thal’lium [Mod. Lat., from Gr. 6aAA6s, green shoot, deriv. of 6dAAew, be luxuriant, flourish, bloom. So called from its green line in the spectrum]: one of the rarer elements, a metal, discovered in 1861 almost simultaneously by Lamy in France and Crookes in England, working independently of each other, by means of the spectroscope. It is found as a small constituent of some iron and copper pyrites in both native and artificial sulphur, in blende and calamine, in lepidolite, in mother-liquors of salt-works at Nauheim, etc. The most productive source of thallium has been from the condensed fume found in the flues of furnaces in which tha1lif- erous pyrites is burned for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Thallium is nearly as white as silver, with a high luster. It is a very soft metal, easily scratched by the nail, and even softer than lead. It marks paper like lead. Like the latter it is almost or quite destitute of elasticity, and acquires none by hammering or rolling. It is nevertheless crystalline in its internal structure, and gives, when bent, a “ cry” almost equal to that of tin. It fuses at about 555° F., expanding considerably. It may be welded perfectly at the ordinary temperature by pressure, like the soft alkali metals. Its spectrum is the simplest one known, and becomes no more complex at intense temperatures in flames, but in sparks from an induction-coil, between thallium-points, five more lines come out, and the photographic spectrum is by no means simple. Thallium has not been recognized in the sun. It is strongly diamagnetic, nearly as much so as bis- muth, and conducts electricity about like tin and lead. At a red heat it volatilizes in the air, giving brown oxidized vapor, and boils at a heat below whiteness. Hydrogen passed over the highly heated metal carries it along in vapor, and such hydrogen, even when cool, retains enough thallium to burn with a bright-green flame. Thallium burns brilliantly in oxygen. It is attacked with some difficulty by dilute sulphuric acid, but scarcely at all by hydrochloric acid; by nitric acid with violence. Its salts are highly poison- ous, and some of them are sensitive to light, like silver salts, and might be used in photography, though not sensitive enough to possess any advantages. It forms a hard, brittle, white alloy with copper; with lead, a malleable alloy; it combines with platinum very readily, with evolution of great heat; and with tin forms a malleable compound. Mercury readily amalgamates it, forming a crystalline mass. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Thallome, or Thallus [Mod. Lat., from Gr. 0a7\7\ds, young shoot or branch] : in botany, a plant-body in which stem and leaf have not been differentiated, as in many of the algae, some liverworts, the prothallia of ferns, etc. It is often a flat mass. sometimes with a thickened midrib of firmer tissues. Its margins may become lobed and its midrib more distinct, thus passing easily into the leaf-bearing stem. The thallus is thus the homologue of the leafy shoot, and may be re- garded as the primitive condition from which it sprang. See MORPHOLOGY, VEGETABLE CHARLES E. Bsssnv. Thal’lophytes, or Thalloph'yta [from Gr. 6a7\7\6$, young shoot + qbm-6v, a plant]: a general term applied in botany to the plants below the Mosswonrs (q. 1).), and including those described in the articles on PROTOPHYTES, Pnveo- PHYTES, and CARPOPHYTES (qq. 1).). Originally the group of the thallophytes was made co-ordinate with the cormo- phytes (“stemmed plants”), the two including the whole vegetable kingdom, but in recent years it has been made the lowest of the four branches. anthophytes (flowering plants), pteridophytes (fernworts), bryophytes (mossworts), thallo- phytes (thallus-plants). While the term is a convenient one to use it does not represent a natural group of plants, but rather an aggregation of groups. See PLANTS, FossI‘L. CHARLES E. Bsssnv. Thames, temz [anc. Tamesz's, appar. from T/zmne + Isis, names of the two rivers uniting to form the Thames]: the principal river of England. It rises on the southeast side of the Cotswold Hills near Cirencester, at an elevation of 376 feet above the level of the sea, and flows in an eastern direc- tion to the North Sea, passing Oxford, Reading, Henley,'Wind- sor, Eton, and Richmond on its way to London. It is called the Isis up to its junction with the Thame. The tide ascends as far as Tcddington, between Eton and Richmond, and from this point up to Oxford there are thirty-three locks. At London Bridge its width is 290 yards; at Wool- wich, 490 yards; at Gravesend, 800 yards; 3 miles below Gravesend it expands into a la rge estuary, 6 miles broad at its mouth, at the Nore Light. Its entire course is about 250 miles, and it is navigable for vessels of 1,400 tons burden THATCHER 93 up to Blackwall, 6 miles below London Bridge, and barges may ascend as far as 200 miles from the mouth. It owes its importance as a waterway to its tidal estuary and to the fact that it has no delta. Its principal affiuents are the Coln, Leach, Windrush, Cherwell, Thame, Colne, Lea, and Roding on the left bank, and on the right the Kennet, Lod- don, Darent, Mole, and Medway. The area of its basin is 6,100 sq. miles. Above London the scenery is interesting, and the river is studded with numerous islands. Through a vast system of canals it communicates with the southern and western coasts. Thames : a river of the province of Ontario, Canada. It flows in a southwest course for 160 miles, and then enters Lake St. Clair. The towns of London, Chatham, and Ox- ford are on this river. It is navigable by vessels of 8 or 10 feet draught to Chatham, 18 miles, but there is a trouble- some bar at its mouth. Thames: a river in Connecticut, formed at Norwich by the junction of Yantic, Shetucket, and Quinebaug rivers. It is a navigable tidal channel 14 miles long, and reaches Long Island Sound at New London. Thane, or Thegn [M. Eng. thein < O. Eng. Pegen. sol- dier, attendant, minister, nobleman : O. H. Germ. degan, boy, follower, warrior; cf. Gr. -re’m/oz/, child]: in English history, the title among the Anglo-Saxons and early Nor- mans of certain military tenants and freeholders in the king’s service. They were originally the servants of the king, and as the royal power increased they became a new nobility, supplanting the older nobility of birth, the nobility of the earls. Very early in the history of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain thanehood was fully established. As a nobility of office it made it possible for the simple freeman to rise to noble rank. The churl who owned five hides of land or had taken three sea-voyages was eligible to thanehood. After the Norman conquest the thanes were gradually merged in the barons, and the principle of personal service to the king gave place to that of the tenure of land from the king as the basis of nobility. In Scotland the thanes were a class of non-military tenants of the crown, and the title was in use till the end of the fifteenth century. F. M. COLBY. Than'et, OCTAVE (pseudonym of Amer: FRENCH) : writer; b. at Andover, Mass, about 1860. She was educated at the academy in her native place, and early removed to Daven- port, Ia., where she has since chiefly resided. Her short stories contributed to the Atlcm/tic, the Century/, and other monthlies attracted much attention, and were collected into a volume entitled K'n*zTtters -in the Sun (New York, 1884). She has also published E;r}n'atz'0'n., a novel (1890): Otto the Km'g/at and other T7'a.ns-ll/[z'ssz'ssz'ppzI Stories (1891); ‘We All (1891) ; Stories of ct W'estem Town (1893); and An Ad- ’venture in P/totograyahy (1898). M. B. Thanet, Isle of : the northeastern extremity of the county of Kent, England, separated from the mainland by the river Stour and the Nethergong rivulet. Area. 26,180 acres. The surface is level and the soil fertile, though light. Pop. (1891) 57,821. It contains the watering-places Rams- gate, Margate, W estgate, and Broadstairs. Thanksgiving‘ Day: an annual religious festival in the U. S., celebrated in New England from the first settlement by the Pilgrims. It originated in 1621, when Gov. Brad- ford of the Plymouth colony ap iointed a day for public praise and prayer after the first 1harvest, and the practice was observed by the other New England colonies and dur- ing the Revolution was introduced in several of the Middle States. Since then it has extended to nearly all the States, and has become a national institution since 1863. The day, which is usually the fourth Thursday of November, is designated by a proclamation signed by the Governor or the President. F. M. COLBY. Tha’sosz island; in the 2E‘gcan Sea; 5 miles S. of the mainland; since 1462 belonging to Turkey. Area, 85 sq. miles. \ The island has gold mines not worked since antiqui- ty; is the most fertile and least visited by foreigners of all the Greek islands; and in dress and customs its inhabitants have been the least affected by modern innovations. The painter Polygnotus was a Thasian. Ruins of ancient and medineval monuments abound. Pop. 4,500, all Greeks, sim- ple, unambitious, and prosperous, living in nine villages. E. A. Gnosvmvon. 'I‘hatcher, HENRY Knox: rear-admiral U. S. navy; b. at Thomaston, l\'Ie., May 26, 1806; entered the navy as a mid- 94 THAUMATROPE shipman Mar. 4, 1823, and in 1855 attained the rank of com- modore. During the civil war he commanded the first divi- sion of Porter’s fleet in both the Fort Fisher fights, and the West Gulf squadron during the bombardment of Fort Alexis and Spanish Fort in Apr.. 1865, just prior to their being stormed and carried by the Union army, their surrender being immediately followed by that of Mobile. After the war he commanded the Gulf Squadron and the Pacific Squadron; was promoted rear-admiral in 1866, and retired in 1868. D. in Boston, Mass., Apr. 5, 1880. Thaumatrope: See Srnoeoscore. Thaumaturgus, St. Gregory: See GREGORY THAUMA- TURGUS Thaxter. CELIA (Latghton): poet; b. at Portsmouth, N. H., June 29, 1836. She was a daughter of Thomas B. Laighton, an editor and politician who, disappointed in his political aspirations, became keeper of the I/Vhite Island light, on the Isles of Shoals, and her writings, both prose and verse, were largely inspired by the sea. She was married in 1851 to Levi L. Thaxter, of Watertown, Mass. Among her books are Among the Isles of Shoals (1873); Poems (1874) ; Drtft- weed (1878); The Cruise of the 1‘/[ystery and other Poems (1886); and An Island Garden (1894). D. on the island of Appledore, Isles of Shoals, Aug. 26, 1894. H. A. B. Thayer, ABBOTT HANDERSON : portrait, figure, and flower painter; b. in Boston, Mass., Aug. 12, 1849; pupil of Gér6me and Lehmann in Paris; third-class medal, Paris Exposition, 1889; Temple silver medal, Pennsylvania Academy, Phila- delphia, 1891 ; member Society American Artists 1879. His portraits are notable for expression and character and his studies of roses for beautiful color. His most important work is V/lrg/tn Enthronecl, owned by J . M. Sears, Boston. Studio in New York. W. A. C. Thayer, ALEXANDER WHEELOGK: music critic, biographer, and historian ; b. at South Natick, Mass., Oct. 22, 1817; gradu- ated at Harvard in 1843, and at the law school 1848 ; in 1849 went to Europe and began collecting materials for a Life of Beethoven. He made frequent visits to Europe, and since 1862 has permanently resided there, being U. S. consul in Trieste during 1859-82. His great work is yet (1895) incom- plete. Three volumes have been published, vol. i. (1770-92) in 1866, vol. ii. (1792-1806) in 1872, and vol. iii. (1807-16) in 1879. It was written in English and translated into Ger- man by Herman Deiters, of Bonn, and published in Berlin. It has not appeared in English. He has written many his- torical and critical musical articles for home and foreign periodicals. D. E. HERVEY. Thayer, EUGENE : organist and composer; b. in Mendon, Mass., Dec. 11, 1838; settled in Boston, where he remained for nearly twenty years; educated under local teachers of music; in 1862 was one of the performers at the opening of the great organ in Music Hall, Boston; visited Europe in 1865 and 1866 for additional study ; gave the first free organ recital in the U. S. in Boston, Apr. 10, 1869; in 1881 re- moved to New York to be organist of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian church; received the degree Mus. Doc. from Oxford; composed much organ and vocal music, including a mass in E fiat and a festival cantata. D. at Burlington, Vt., June 27, 1888. D. E. HERVEY. Thayer, J OHN MILTON: lawyer, soldier, and governor; b. at Bellingham, Mass., J an. 24, 1820; graduated at Brown Uni- versity; studied law and came to the bar ; went to Nebraska, where he became brigadier—general of militia and member of the Territorial Legislature; in Mar., 1863, at the begin- ning of the civil war, he became colonel of the First Ne- braska regiment, which he commanded at Shiloh; was ap- pointed brigadier—general of volunteers for services at Fort Donelson and Shiloh; Senator from Nebraska 1867-71: was Governor of Wyoming 1875-78, and of Nebraska 1887-91. He was the department commander of the Grand Army of the Republic in Nebraska in 1886. Thayer, JOSEPH HENRY, D. D.: biblical scholar; b. in Boston, Mass., Nov. 7, 1828; graduated at Harvard in 1850, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1857 ; preached for the Evangelical Congregational church in Quincy, Mass., one year; was settled over the Crombie Street church in Salem, Mass., Dec. 29, 1859; was chaplain of the Fortieth Mas- sachusetts Volunteers nine months from Sept., 1862; re- linquished his pastorate in Feb., 1864, to become Associ- ate Professor of Sacred Literature in Andover Theological Seminary, which place he resigned in 1882, removing to Cambridge, where, in 1884, he was chosen Professor of New THEATER Testament Criticism in the Divinity School. Besides occa- sional sermons, review articles, and contributions to the American edition of Smith’s Bible Dtottonarg/, he has ub- lished a translation of the 7th German ed. of Winer’s J. Tew Testament Grammar, on the basis of Masson’s English translation of the 6th ed. (1869), and a translation of Alex. Buttmann’s 1Yew Testament Grammar (1873). He has also published A Gree/0-English Lexicon of the N ew Testament (1886), a monument of great labor and erudition. He edited an edition of Sophocles’s Greeh Leartcon (1888). Revised by G. P. FISHER. Thayer, SYLVANUS, LL. D. : soldier; b. at Braintree, Mass., June 9, 1785; graduated at Dartmouth College 1807, and at the U. S. Military Academy 1808, and was promoted to a sec- ond lieutenancy of engineers. After service in the defenses of the eastern coast and of New York harbor, he was called to the field in 1812, and was chief engineer on the Niagara frontier; of the right division of the Northern army on the Lake Champlain line of operations in 1813; and in the de- fense of Norfolk, Va., in 1814, receiving the brevet of major Feb. 20, 1815. In 1815 he was sent to Europe to examine military works and schools and to witness the operations of the allied armies before Paris. From 1819 to 1833 he was superintendent of the Military Academy, during which time that institution was organized upon its present basis, and became one of the most thorough and successful of the military educational institutions of the world. (See MILI- TARY ACADEMIES.) On being relieved from the superin- tendency July 1, 1833, he was charged with the construction of the fortifications of Boston harbor, upon which, in union with his duties as president of the board of engineers for permanent fortifications he was engaged during the re- mainder of his term of active service. During a period embracing parts of 1857 and 1858 he was in command of the Corps of Engineers, exercising the functions of chief en- gineer of the U. S.: declined to transfer his headquarters to Washington, and on his own application was laced on leave of absence ; was retired with the rank of co onel July 1, 1863. He gave $70,000 to found the Thayer School of Civil Engineering at Dartmouth College, $10,000 for a pub- lic library in Braintree, and bequeathed about $300,000 in trust for an academy in Braintree. He published Papers on Praet/teal Engtneemng (1844). D. at South Braintree, Sept. 7, 1872. His body was reinterred in 1877 at West Point, where a statue was raised in his honor. Theanthropic Religion: See RELIGION, COMPARATIVE. Theater [via O. Fr. from Lat. thea’tram : Gr. Héwrpou, place for seeing shows, theater, deriv. of 9€a.0"6a!., view, be- held, deriv. of Héa, view, sight]: specifically, any structure erected for dramatic or operatic performances, the present form being a modification of the model first established by the Greeks more than 500 years before the Christian era. The Greek Theater.—In the very earliest days the Athenian dramas were performed upon temporary wooden scaifoldings, prototypes of the booths of mediaeval times, which were put up for the festivals of Dionysus and then taken down and laid aside for future use. It was upon such a scaffolding that the first acted drama of ]Eschylus was produced, and the collapse of the structure during the performance, an ac- cident regarded as an evil omen, suggested the construction of a more durable edifice. The first stone theater was begun soon afterward on the southeastern slope of the Acropolis, and it is a noteworthy fact that the plans were drawn with such skill and foresight, such exact appreciation of acoustic and spectacular require- ments, that none of the architects of succeeding generations was able to suggest any important improvement upon them. In all the ruins of theaters extant in Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily, the same general arrangement and proportions are observable. Here it may be noted that all Greek theaters were built either upon eminences or on the side of a hill, and that in every case the spectators occupied the upper or north- western and the stage the lower or southeastern part of the structure. As the performances occurred at comparatively long intervals, and were originally in the nature of religious festivals, it was necessary to provide accommodation for great crowds, and it is probable that some of the largest theaters were capable of holding as many as 70,000 or 80,000 people. The acoustic qualities of the auditorium were thus the last to receive attention, and the actors, to reach the ears of so vast a multitude, were compelled to adopt a slow method of elocution, and to use mechanical devices in their masks in order to increase the volume of the voice. THEATER Originally, the most important part of the Greek theater was the orchestra (5px'f)o"rpa), the central space devoted to the movements of the chorus, out of which the drama ulti- mately grew. This space was exactly circular, except that a narrow segment of it was occupied by the stage. It was a little lower than the lowest row of seats or benches sur- rounding it, and was boarded over. In the center of it, equidistant from the rear of the stage and from all other points of its circumference, stood the altar of Dionysus (6v,u.e'M7), which was square, made of wood, and elevated on a platform approached by steps. It was used for various purposes in different plays, sometimes as an altar, sometimes as a monument, etc. Occasionally it was occupied by the flute-player, or the leader of the chorus, which generally was grouped between it and the stage. Around the orches- tra the seats were ranged in rows forming three-fourths of the circumferences of a series of concentric circles arranged like stairs. When the theater was on the side of a hill these seats were hewn out of the rock. In other cases they were supported by elaborate sub-structures. The ascending series of these concentric circles was interrupted by one or more broad level spaces, or circular aisles (called by the Greeks 6ia§é;ia'ra, or ma-61-ojaat, and by the Romans ]9rcee7'nc- ttones), in which spectators were allowed to stand if there were no seats for them elsewhere. The benches themselves were intersected at frequent and regular intervals by flights of steps running from one aisle to another, but not in un- broken straight lines, by which the spectators could ascend or descend at will. These steps divided the benches into blocks or wedges, known in Greece as rcepxfdes and in Rome as armed. The approaches to the seats were mainly through underground passages to the lower benches, but in some cases there were galleries and stairways communicating with the upper rows. All the space devoted to the specia- tors, the theatram proper, was often denominated the mfiiiou, or in Latin the eavea, or pit, in allusion to its being an excavation. Behind and above the highest row of seats there was a covered portico which is supposed to have had some relation to the acoustics of the structure, but with this exception the audience was unprotected by any sort of roof, although at a later period awnings were introduced. The Stage.—The stage, as has been mentioned, occupied a small segment of the orchestra circle, and in height was level probaby with the top of the altar. At each end it was connected with the orchestra by a flight of steps by which the chorus ascended when required to take part in the ac- tion of the play. The back of the stage was inclosed by a wall called the scene (amyw/;, seena), having two extensions, or wings, entitled side-scenes ('n'apao'rc'hi1ioi/, parascena). The stage itself was called the 1rp00'm'7m01/(p7'0Scent’u/m), and the front part of it nearest the orchestra, where the actors gen- erally took their places, was known as the A0)/eT0v (logeam), and in the Roman theater the palpttarn. The seena repre- sented a suitable background for the play, and, before the performance, was covered by a curtain (1rapa1re’1-ao~,ua, aiziiaia, aalceum and stpa1'/tam), which was let down, not rolled up as with us. As to the description and quantity of the scenery employed, the information is rather meager, but it is known that there were different scenes for difierent plays, and that they were susceptible of change or modification. In the great tragedies the scene consisted of the front of a pal- ace, with a door in the center, and two projecting wings, also with doors. The center door was known as the royal entrance, and was used by the 1rpw'ra'yoi/i0"r'fis or leading man. The wings were often supposed to represent the abodes of guests or strangers. Frequently the palace possessed an upper story, from which actors described what was supposed to be going on at a distance. There is little doubt that elaborate scenery was in use before the days of Sopho- cles, and it certainly was needed in the plays of Euripides. Woods and hills were represented in the satiric drama, and private dwellings and the houses of slaves in comedies. There was also a certain amount of machinery, including one device for bringing a god down from the sky or up from the infernal regions. Actors and A7at'te7tee.—Tliei'e is some dispute among the authorities as to whether or not women were admitted to the theater in the earlier days of the drama, but the proba- bility is that they were permitted to witness tragedies but not comedies. Later on all restrictions as to sex were re- moved, although the coarseness of the dialogue in comic plays became worse and worse as the drama degenerated. This, perhaps, was one reason why all female characters were taken by youths. Another, possibly, was the fact that 95 a bad actor was occasionally subject to the penalty of cor- poral punishment. In the modern sense of the word, the old Greek stage-performers were not actors at all. To add to their stature they wore high-heeled boots (cothurnas); they were padded so extravagantly that free movement was not to be thought of; their faces were hidden behind masks of various material, and they chanted their lines through some sort of metal contrivance which had an effect akin to that of a speaking-trumpet. The performances, which al- ways included a series of plays, often lasted from sunrise until sunset. The places of honor were in the lowest rows of benches, where the magistrates and military and social magnates and illustrious strangers sat. Above them were the senators, then the ephebt, then the general public. The best seats cost the highest price, the average rate of ad- mission being about 2 obols, or 6 cents. Pericles passed a law which conferred the right of free admission upon the poor. The expenses of the representations were defrayed by wealthy citizens and by state subvention. The Roman Theater.—From the ruins of some of the most ancient Roman theaters, like those at Tusculum and Feesulae, which were excavated out of the sides of hills, it is quite plain that the Romans borrowed their theatrical ideas in the first place from the Greeks, but it was a long time before a stone theater was erected in Rome itself, owing to a notion that anything so elaborate and costly was not in accord with the simplicity of the republic. Dramatic rep- resentations were popular at an early period, but the the- aters used were wooden structures put up for temporary use, and then taken down. It was in buildings of this kind that the comedies of Plautus and Terence received their first interpretations. During the later days of the republic wooden theaters of vast size and elaborate ornamentation were built in Rome, but Pompey was the first man who dared to de- part from precedent and construct a magnificent stone the- ater near the Campus l\Iart-ius. The plan of this as of all other important Roman theaters differed from the Greek model, chiefly in the fact that the rows of benches around the or- chestra formed only a semicircle, and that the orchestra itself was a semicircle, of which the diameter was the front of the stage. In the Roman orchestra there was no altar, and no pro- vision for any chorus, the orchestral space being set aside for distinguished persons. The fourteen lowest rows of benches were appropriated to the Equites. Pompey’s theater was a copy of that at Mytilene, and had a capacity of 40,000. The Romans erected more theaters upon level ground than the Greeks did, their use of the arch and of concrete cheapen- ing the cost of sub-structure. It may be noted that al- though there was no religious idea in the Roman theater, Pompey, to escape a charge of impiety, put a statue of Ve- nus Victrix at the top of the cavea. The best-known re- mains of ancient theaters are at Rome, Nimes, Ephesus, Miletus, Cnidus, Tauromenium, and Syracuse. The Jlilodera Theate/r.—The exact process of the evolution of the modern theater from the early structures erected in England and on the Continent in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries can not now be traced. but the whole his- tory of the stage, as we know it. dates from the days of the old miracle-plays 01' inysteries. which were performed by itiner- ant performers in churches, in temporary booths, or in the court-yards of inns. In the last-mentioned case the stage was erected in the center of the yard, with its back toward the door, which afforded means of ingress and egress to the actors. The galleries of the inn served as boxes for the more distinguished spectators, while the common folk stood on the ground. Sometimes the stage was roofed, in which case the ends of it were appropriated to the use of such fashionable folk as might be present. This arrangement suggested the models of the earliest London theaters, which were practi- cally inclosed yards, octagonal or nearly circular in shape and roofless, except over the stage, which continued to give shelter to the fashionable theater-goers until Voltaire in France set the example of driving them into the boxes. At the rear of the stage was a raised platform, surmounted by a balcony, from which a movable curtain depended. This corresponded to the door in the inn-yard, and no other provi- sion for scenery or decoration appears to have been made. The green-room, or “tireynge-house,” was on one side of the stage, and the roof of it was often surrendered to the audience. The first playhouse in London was the theater erected by James Burbage in 157 6-77 , and the next the Cur- tain theater, in Shoreditch (so named from a plot of ground called the Curten). Burbage built the Globe, of Shakspe- rean fame, in 1598, and in the same decade Henslowe opened 96 THEATER the Rose and the Swan. Among other contemporary houses were the Blackfriars, the Red Bull, the Hope, the White-friars, and the 1nore famous Fortune of Edward Alleyn, which lasted from 1600 to 1819. Meanwhile (about 1550) Palladio had begun building the- aters in Italy, modeled largely upon the old classic rules, in which the stage was provided with a solid structure, with doors and balconies made to do duty for all kinds of scen- ery. This example, a little later, was followed in France in the Palais Royal, founded by Richelieu in 1639, where the tragedies of Corneille were first performed. The inven- tion of movable scenery, by Bibbiena, and of the drop-cur- tain, is ascribed to the latter half of the century. Thereafter the development of theatrical architecture and literature proceeded apace, and a gradual combination of the medias- val and classical ideas resulted in the prototype of the luxu- rious theater of the present era, with its boxes (intended originally for the persons who otherwise would have sat upon the stage), its orchestral stalls, which gradually have usurped the place of the old pit (the floor of the inn-yard), and its rows of semicircular galleries, which represent the benches of the ancient Greeks. The Moder-n Stage.——The theater, properly so called, has changed but little in essentials (except the addition of a roof) since the Greeks devised it 2,000 years and more ago, but as it now is the stage is a modern creation. The word stage is generally applied only to that part of it visible to the spectators through the proscenium arch, and inclosed by the scenery. The spaces on either side are known tech- nically as the wings, and these originally contained all the scenery (flats), which was pushed forward as required, run- ning in grooves. Nowadays there is a space above the stage as high again as the proscenium arch, which is known as the flies, while below the stage there is an excavation of almost equal capacity, which is called the dock. This latter is di- vided into several floors, in which there is storage-room for scenery and much complicated machinery for raising and lowering it at will, through trenches cut in the stage, and also for working the traps through which demons, harlequins, etc., appear and disappear. Scenery therefore can be ma- nipulated in three ways, from above, below, or the sides, while set pieces (such as castles, cottages, reversible exteriors, etc.) are constructed upon collapsible frames, which can be moved upon wheels in any direction and packed away with wonderful celerity. The double stage (of which the first ex- ample was constructed in the Madison Square theater of New York) was an invention of Steele Mackaye, and is ex- tremely useful when a succession of elaborate interiors is to be presented, but it occupies much space, and has other disadvantages which have prevented its general adoption. Scenery, Light/tng, etc.—The recent advance in the art of stage illusion has been very great. In the mere painting it would be difficult to improve much upon the work of such artists as Watteau and Boucher in France, Raphael in Italy, and Clarkson Stanfield, Beverley, and Telbin in Eng- land, but the new mechanism accomplishes marvels. Thun- der is counterfeited by iron balls or sheets of tin. The in- troduction of electricity has made real lightning possible in storms, and the noise of rain and wind is simulated won- derfully by the use of a cogged cylinder revolving against tightly stretched cloth. Formerly lightning was simulated by flashes of lycopodium, and the noise of rain by parched peas in a metal cylinder. Wagner‘, at Bayreuth, first used steam for the production of magical and other effects, and water is most faithfully represented by huge mirrors in which sylvan scenery is reflected. Until 1720 dip-candles were used for footlights. Then the French substituted moulded candles, which in time were replaced by lamps with Argand burners. Gas followed in 1822 and now yields to electricity. Stage Direct/t0ns.——For purposes of directions to actors, scene-shifters, etc., the stage is divided into five lateral strips, which, beginning from the left-hand side as the spec- tator faces it, are denominated the “ prompt-side ” (from the position of the prompt-er, who no longer occupies abox in the very center of the footlights, except in opera and in Con- tinental theaters), “ prompt-center,” “ center,” “opposite prompt-center,” “ opposite prompt-side.” These titles are abbreviated into “ P.-S.,” “ P.-C.,” “ C.,” “ O. P.-C.,” and “ O. P.-S.” The various entrances for actors in the wings, counting from the front of the stage, are called the first, second, and third entrances, left or right, as the case may be. Doors in the rear of the stage are described as center and left or right center (back), according to position. The posi- tion of the dressing-rooms for the performers depends large- THEATERS, LAW OF ly upon the amount of space available. In the older theaters these chambers were often little better than underground cells, stowed away in all sorts of dark and unwholesome re- cesses, but in the best modern houses the quarters of the actors are well lighted, well ventilated, and moderately com- fortable. Special conveniences, of course, are provided for “ star ” performers. The danger from fire in a well-equipped modern theater is inconsiderable. It is possible, indeed, to build and fur- nish a theater wholly with ineombustible materials, and to exclude all fire from the structure. The dynamos for light- ing, and the furnaces for heating and supplying power, can be placed in a separate building. All scenery, ropes, draperies, and woodwork (of which little is needed in these days of light steel manufactures) can be rendered flre~proof by the aid of various cheag chemicals. The use of gas, once a source of continual anger, is on the point of being discon- tinued altogether. The largest theaters in Europe are La Scala in Milan and the San Carlo in Naples, each of which can hold nearly 5,000 persons. The opera-house in Vienna and the Grand Opéra in Paris are perhaps the most notable houses architecturally. The first theater in the U. S. was opened in Williamsburg, Va., in 1752, the second in Nassau Street, New York, in 1753. L1'1‘ERATURE.—AI1 immense body of literature is at the disposal of students of the ancient and modern theater. Some of the best authorities on the early English stage are Wilkinson’s Londtna e'Zlnstrata (1819) ; Collier’s Iitstory of Dramctttc Poetry (1879) ; Halliwell-Phillips’s Life of Shake- pcare (1883); Malone‘s Iitstory of the Stage (1790; repub- lished by Boswell in 1821); the publications of the New Shakespeare Society, and a series of articles on early Lon- don theaters by F. F. Ordish in The Anttquary, vols. xi., xii., xiv. (1885-86). Other writers on the general topic are Coleridge, Hazlitt, Leigh Hunt, Charles Lamb, Edward Dowden, Dr. Doran, and Walter Thornbury. Of the conti- nental authorities may be mentioned Donnet’s Thcfitres de Pcmls (1821); Salomon’s Construction des Thécitvres (Paris, 1871) ; Coutant’s P/wtnictpana; The'c2tres ll/Iodernes (Paris, 1870); Moynet’s L’Encers dn Thédtre (Paris, 1874); Pou- gin’s Dvlct/tonnmhe dn Thédtre (Paris, 1885). The stu- dent of the ancient theater may consult Dr. Smith’s Dic- ttoncmny of Antiquities, Prof. Becker’s Ohnrtctes, and the works of Schlegel, Biittiger, Btickh, Schneider, Geppert, and others in the long list of German commentators. J . RANKEN Towsm. Theaters, Law of : Unlicensed or improperly conducted playhouses are nuisances. In Great Britain the license is granted by letters-patent from the crown, or by the lord chamberlain (to whom all new plays must be submitted also), or by justices of the peace, or by the county council. In the U. S. the authority to license, regulate, and tax theaters is commonly delegated to the municipalities. The English courts seem disposed to give to the term “theatrical enter- tainments ” a broader meaning than is attached to it by U. S. decisions. (Cf. Shelley vs. Bethell, 12 Q. B. D., and Queen vs. Tucker, 2 Q. B. D. 417, with Harris vs. C01n., 81 Va. 240, and Re Theatr'tca.Z L/tcenses, 3 Pa. Dist. R. 191, A. D. 1894.) The proprietor of a theater is not engaged in a busi- ness “affected with a public interest.” He may therefore fix his own prices, and he may refuse admission to whomsoever he pleases, unless a statute imposes the duty of providing like accommodation for all persons without regard to race or color. (People vs. King, 110 N. Y. 418.) If he sell tickets for an entertainment he must provide seats for the pur- chasers or refund the money. The purchaser, however, has no right to take a seat not called for by his ticket, and if he does he may be lawfully ejected. Moreover, as a ticket is at most a personal license to enter the theater, it may be revoked at any time, whereupon the holder is bound to leave the house, although he is entitled to damages for breach of the contract for admission. (Purcell vs. Daly, 19 Abb. N. Cas. (N. Y.) 301.) Auditors have the right to express their honest likes or dislikes of the play or the players or the management, by applause, by hisses, or by other dem- onstrations which do not tend to excite terror or to break the peace. If two or more, however, go to the theater with the preconcerted design to howl down an actor or to damn a play, their demonstrations in carrying out such designs are un- lawful, and their conduct amounts to actionable conspiracy. (Gregory vs. B1~nnswt'ch,1 C. and K. 24.) See I-lamlyn, Marz- nal of Thcctt1'tcnZ Law (London, 1891) ; Wandell, Law of the Theatre (Albany, 1891). Fa./nvcrs M. Bunnrcx. THEATINES The’ atines [named from the Bishop of Theate, afterward Pope Paul IV.]: a Roman Catholic order of regular clerks and nuns, founded in 1524 by the Bishop of Theate and several of his friends. They spread into various countries, opposed Protestantism, and labored for the reform of the clergy and the extension of the Oriental missions. They are now found chiefly in Italy. Revised by J . J . KEANE. The’ bafis, or the Thebal'd [Gr. ®nBoi1's, the region of Thebes] : the district of Upper Egypt, extending from Siut (Asyut, Lycopolis, about 27° 20’ N. lat.) to Syene at the first Nile cataract (24° N. lat.), which with the HEPTANOMIS (q. 11.) constituted the “ land of Upper Egypt ” in _the ancient texts. It probably was equivalent to the Hebrew Pathros, and it was originally of like extent with the Coptic and Ara- bic grand division of Upper Egypt. The Romans subdivided the Delta region into four parts, created the Heptanomis, and at one time divided the Thebais into two portions. CHARLES R. GILLETT. Thebes, theebz [Gr. ®fiBaz, and later Au5mro7us; Lat. Thebce, Dlospolis Magna; Egypt. Pa-Amen, dwelling of Amon-Zeus, Uast, lVa-Amen, Nu, city of Amen, or city par excellence; Heb. N0-Amen]: a city of Egypt on both sides of the Nile (at about 25° 50’ N. lat.). After the de- sertion of Memphis by the princes of the seventh to the tenth Egyptian dynasties, due possibly to a foreign inva- sion similar to that of the Hyksos at a later period, Thebes became the capital of Egypt, and so continued during the middle and new kingdoms. (See EGYPT, ANCIENT). The city proper was on the east side of the Nile, and is now repre- sented by the ruins of several temples, those of KARNAK (g. c.) and Luxon (q. 2).) being the chief. The west side of the river was occupied by the Theban necropolis and va- rious temples, most of which were memnonia dedicated to the manes of their founders. The tem les, beginning toward the N., were those of GURNAH (q. 2).), er el-Bahri, built by Hatasu, the Ramesseum (built by Ramses II.), Dér el-Medi- neh (founded by Ptolemy IV. and continued down to the time of Augustus, dedicated to Hathor), and MEDfNET H ABU (g. 12.). There was also formerly a temple of Amenhotep II . (the l\TEMNON (q. o.) of the Greeks) adjacent to the Colossi of Memnon, but it has almost entirely disappeared. Another temple, built by Thothmes III., just N. of the Ramesseum has also disappeared. The cemeteries in the same region are those of Drah Abu’l Neggah (eleventh and twelfth dynasties), just W. of Gurnah, Asasif and Abd el- Gurnah, respectively E. and S. of Dér el-Bahri, and Gurnai Murrai, N. of Medinet Habu. Besides these there were also the Tombs of the Kings, in a valley W. of Der el-Bahri, and the Tombs of the Queens, W. of Medinet Habu. It was in the hills W. of Der el-Bahri that the mummies of the Pha- raohs of the seventeenth to the twentieth dynasties were discovered in 1881. See HER—HOR. The hills bordering on the strip of land fertilized by the Nile at Thebes recede farther from the river than elsewhere, but they are more distant on the E. than on the W. The Libyan hills are honeycombed with tombs. The residence portion of Thebes was to the E. of the temple of Karnak, though it is estimated that about a quarter of the total popu- lation, consisting of priests and artisans whose employments were of a funerary character, dwelt in the necropolis on the W. The foundation of the city goes back probably to the Old Kingdom, though at that time it was of insignificant size. Its prominence dates from the eleventh and twelfth dynas- ties, when more extensive building operations were begun. During the Hyksos period it was the seat of native princes tributary to the invaders, and it so continued till the seven- teenth dynasty, when a revolt occurred, occasioned by relig- ious demands made upon Seqen-Ra, King of Thebes, by Apepi the Hyksos ruler. War was waged during several reigns, till at last the Egyptian armies were victorious. Thebes became the national capital again and Amen-Ra, the tutelary deity of Thebes, became the supreme god in the Egyptian pantheon. The kings of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, especially THOTEMES III. and RAMSES II. (qq. 11.), were exceedingly active in building at Thebes, and the history of the city is largely a history of these dy- nasties. During the reign of Amenophis IV., the “heretic king ” (see KI-IUNATEN), the capital was temporarily removed to TELL EL—AMARNA (q. c.), but the power of the priests of Amon was too great for the innovator, and the old v'ég'zIme was speedily restored. After the close of the twentieth dy- nasty the seat of government was removed to the Delta and THEINER 97 Thebes gradually lost its power, though it was twice the source of insurrections, which were subdued only by the aid of the Romans. (See PTOLEMY.) Its final destruction as a political power occurred in 85 B. e. The sanctity of Thebes, the “ On of the South” as con- trasted with On-Heliopolis at the apex of the Delta, arose from the fact that it was reputed to have been the birth- place of Osiris, but it was inferior to Abydos (see MEM- NONIUM), the burial-place of Osiris, and Heliopolis, the city of the Sun, in the religious estimation of the people. Its wealth and power were due to the spoils of war taken thither by the warlike Pharaohs of the eighteenth and nine- teenth dynasties. The epithet “ hundred-gated ” applied by the Greeks to Thebes had reference to the multitude of py- lens which marked the entrances to its numerous temples. The origin of the Greek name is uncertain, though several conjectures have been ventured. CHARLES R. GILLETT. Thebes: the capital city of Boeotia; founded by Cadmus in a fertile, well-watered, and undulating plain. The city was very prominent in mythical times, for many of the most important and most extensive myths were located there. (See Canmus, HARMONIA, SEMELE, INo, AMPHITRYON, ALCMENE, AMPHION, NIOBE, and CEDIPUS.) Its walls and their seven gates were built by Amphion, and were taken but twice, once in mythical times by the EPIGONI (q. 2;.) of the Seven and then by Alexander the Great. In historical times Thebes was the leading city of Boeotia and was usually hostile to Athens, but she never fought with success or rose to first-rate impor- tance until after the battle of Leuctra, when she assumed the hegemony of Greece, though she maintained it only during the lifetime of Epaminondas. She was unfortunate in her wars with Philip of Macedon, who placed a garrison within her citadel. On the death of Philip she expelled this gar- rison, but was punished severely therefor by Alexander, who razed the city, sparing only the temples and the house of Pin- dar, and sold the inhabitants into slavery, with the exception of the descendants of Pindar and those who had opposed the rebellion. PHRYNE (g. *0.) offered to rebuild the walls of Thebes, but her offer was declined. The city was rebuilt by Cassander with the help of the Athenians. but it did not prosper. The modern town has about 5,000 inhabitants. It was virtually destroyed by an earthquake in 1893. An excellent topographical account of Thebes is by Fabricius, Theben, etc. (Freiburg, Baden, 1890). J . R. S. STEERETT. The Brill: See BRIEL. Thecla, SAINT : according to the famous story, a virgin of Antioch, enthusiastically attached to the apostle Paul, by whom she was converted to Christianity and strict celibacy. She maintained her faith in Christ amid persecutions, public and private, and was miraculously delivered from assaults upon her virtue. The Acts of Paul and Thecla is a widely circulated Christian romance of the second or third century, designed to exalt celibacy and to emphasize the comfort the doctrine of the resurrection gave. It is probable, however, that the tale has an historical basis. See the chapter upon it in W. M. Ramsay’s The Chm'ch in the Roman _E")2Z])’l’)'6 (London and New York, 1893). S. M. J. Thecoso'mata [Mod. Lat., from Gr. 6’/urn, ease + 0'63/.La, 0'c6,u.ocr0s, body] : a subdivision of the pteropod llfollusca (see PTEROPODA) in which a shell is present. Theft: See LARCENY. Thegn: See THANE. The’ inc: the alkaloid of tea and cofiee; its formula is G3I“I10N4Og.H2O. See CAFFEINE and TEA, PHYSIOLOGICAL Errners or. Theiner, ti’ner, AUGUSTIN: historian, critic, and polem- ical writer; b. at Breslau, Prussian Silesia, Apr. 11, 1804; studied theology, philosophy, and jurisprudence at the uni- versity of his native cit;r : obtained the degree of doctor jurz's at the University of Halle for his Corzzovzenfalzio dc R0'ma/n,0- rimt Pofmtzgficzmn Ep£stola'ru/m Dec1'etal'lu/m Collecf1'o'nzTbu.s alntzfqms (1829); traveled with the support of the Prussian Government to Vienna, Paris, and London; settled in 1831 in Rome, and was in 1851 appointed keeper of the secret archives of the Vatican, from which oflice he was removed in Aug., 1870, accused by the Jesuits of having during the Council of the Vatican furnished the bishops of the opposi- tion with the documents necessary to combat the dogma of infallibility. D. at Civit-aVeechia, Italy, Aug. 10, 1874. He originally held liberal views of the relation between the papal see and the Roman Catholic Church ; he assisted his brother, Johann Anton, in the publication of Die Elvzfilhrzmg der 404 98 THEISM cr2'zrungenen Ehelosiglreit bei den christlichen Geistlichen und ihre Folgen (2 vols., Altenburg, 1828; n. c. Barmen, 1893), a book which was first upon the index; but during his residence in Rome he attached himself more and more closely to the Ultramontane party, and developed an aston- ishing literary activity in its service. Besides a number of minor essays and pamphlets, he wrote Geschiehte der geist- lichen Bildungsanstalten (Mentz, 1835); Disguisitiones in prcecipuas Canonum et Decretalium Collect/tones (Rome, 1836) ; Versuche und Bemilhungen des Ifeiligen Stuhls in den tetzten drei Jahrhanderten, die durch Ketzerei und Schisma con ihm getrennten VO'Zher des .Nordens wiederum mit der Kirche zu i-ereinen; nach geheimen Staatspapieren (Augs- burg, 1837) ; Die neuestcn Z ustctnde derh'ath0lisc/ten Ifirche beider Ritus in Polen und Russland seit Ifatharina II. (1841) ; Geschichte der Zurilchhelw' der regierenclen H c'l/user zu Braunschweig and Sachsen in den Sehoss der hatholisehen Ifirche (Einsiedeln, 1843); Die Staatshirche Russlands im Jahre 1889 (1844); Le cinque Riaghe della S. Chiesa (1849); Zusttlnde der hatholischen Kirche in Schlesien eon 1740-58 (2 vols., Regensburg, 1852); Geschichte cles Pontificats Clemens XI V. (2 vols., Paris, 1852); La Souoeraineté tem- porelle clu Saint-Siege (1861), etc. His principal works are his new edition and continuation of Baronius’s Annales Ecclesiastici, and his publications of documents relating to the history of the Church among various nations-Doeu- ments inédtts relatifs aux afiaires religieuses de la France 1750-1800 (2 vols., 1858); Vetera lllonumenta Ifungariam sacram illustrantia (2 vols., 1859) ; Jlfonuments historigues relatifs aux regnes d’Alexis Ilfichaélowitsch, Théodore III. et Pierre le Grand de Russie (1859); Vetera Ilfonumenta Polonicc Gentiumgue Finitimarum Historiam illustrantia (4 vols., 1860-64); Codex diptomaticus Dominii temporalis Sanctcc Sedis (3 vols., 1862) ; Vctera ilfonumenta Slaoorum meridionalium Historiam illustrantia (1863); Vetera IVI onu- menta 1Yibernorum et Scotorum .Historiam illustrantia (1864) ; and Acta genuina ss. oecumenici eoncilii Triclentini (2 vols., 1874).—His elder brother, J OHANN ANTON TI-IEINER, b. at Breslau, Dec. 15, 1799, became Professor of Scriptural Exegesis in 1824 in Breslau; became a pastor in 1830; re- signed his Office in 1845, and joined the German Catholics; lived as a private teacher in Breslau, and was appointed secretary of the library of the university in 1855. He wrote, besides the above-mentioned work on celibacy, Die refor- matorischen Bestrebungen in der hatholischen Ifirche (Al- tenburg. 1845); Das Seligheitsdogma der ro‘misch-hatholi- so/ten Ifirche (Breslau, 1847); Enthitllungen ilber Lehren und Leben der hatholischen Geistlichheit (Leipzig, 1862). D. at Breslau, May 15, 1860. Revised by 8. II. J AcxsoN. The'ism [from Gr. ®e<5s, God] : in the widest acceptation of the term, the doctrine of a Divine Being. As such it may be deistic or pantheistic or polytheistic, while atheism and ag- nosticism are its opposing terms. More narrowly considered, theism is synonymous with monotheism, and in this sense it may be deistic or pantheistic. Lord Shaftesbury used in- difierently the terms theism and deism. John Fiske in his Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy and elsewhere develops a “Cosmic Theism ” which is essentially pantheistic. He is not singular in this, and a pantheistic theisn1 may be said to be the general result of modern scientific and philosophic thought. In later usage theism has been, as with Frances Power Cobbe, a term indicating a belief in God not derived from supernatural revelation and not specifically Christian. \Vhile the derivative force of the words theist and deist is precisely the same, the only difference being that in one case we have a Greek and in the other a Latin root. they have been used very generally for some time past as differ- entiating terms. Deism has designated the historical move- ment in theology which is described in the article DEISTS. From that movement the theism of the nineteenth century has differed, as less mechanical and more spiritual. The god of deism was a god outside the world, a mechanical creator, apart from the world, and leaving it to go alone, or governing it by natural laws. The god of theism has been a principle of life and order, never ceasing from his opera- tions, his laws not delegated forces, but the constant habits of his activity. On the physical side theism has allied itself naturally with the doctrine of evolution. During the tran- scendental period in the U. S. deism was contemned as rest- ing on the argument from design, while theism was glorified as the doctrine of conscience and direct intuition. There has been much confusion, however, in the use of these terms, Kant using them in a manner directly opposite to that of THEMISTOCLES the New England transcendentalists. By deism he indicated the exclusive belief in a transcendental theology ; by theism the belief in natural theology as a possible, if not the only, way to God. Prof. Robert Flint’s Theism is a classic treat- ment of the matter, and another is l\lartineau’s bludy of Religion. See NATURAL THEOLOGY. JOHN W. CHADWIOK. '1‘heiss,tis: a river of Hungary; formed by the junction of the Black and White Theiss, both of which rise in the Carpathian Mountains; flows with a winding southern course to the Danube, which it joins 22 miles E. of Peter- wardein. Its entire length is 828 miles, for the greatest part of which it is navigable even for large vessels. After entering the Hungarian plain its breadth is from 400 to 800 feet, its shores are low and marshy, and its currrent is sluggish. It is rich in fish, especially sturgeon. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tl1e'mis [: Lat. : Gr. ®e',u.m, personification of 6e',ms, cus- tom, divine sanction, law, right, deriv. of n6e’z/at, 6&2‘;/ar, put, set] : a daughter of Uranus and Gzea, and the second wife of Zeus, by whom she became the mother of the Horas and the Moeree. She is the personification of law and order as es- tablished by custom and equity. She presides over the as- semblies of men, and sees to it that their deliberations make for order and justice. She is also a goddess of prophecy, and declares to mankind the decrees of Zeus. She presided over the oracle at Delphi before Apollo became the mouthpiece of Zeus at that place. She was worshiped at many places in Greece. As represented in art her features resemble those of Athene, but-she carries a cornucopia and a JRII‘ of scales, to typify the blessings that result from law and order. J . R. S. S'rERRE'rT. Themis’tius (in Gr. ®e,uto"r1os) of Paplrlagonia: Greek philosopher and orator ; flourisl1ed in the second half of the fourth century A. D. As a teacher of philosophy and oratory he had a long and successful career at the Byzantine court, being especially honored by the Emperor Theodosius. Though he shows great tolerance in religious matters, his spirit and his style are steeped in the thought and language of the great pagan authors. His extant works consist of orations, edited by VV. Dindorf, 1832, and paraphrases of Aristotle, which maintained their popularity through the Middle Ages, edited by L. Spengel (1866). . ‘. Themistocles, the-mis’t5-kle‘ez (G1'.®e,uia'roKM“qs): general and statesman; b. at Athens about 514 B. 0.; the son of Neocles and a Carian or Thracian woman; became the political leader of Athens after the expulsion of Aristides by ostracism in 483. He was impetuous and shrewd; sagacious in his judgment of actual circumstances and their probable consequences; swift in arriving at a resolution; inexhaust- ible in devices for the realization of his plans; possessed of a most impressive eloquence; energetic, cunning, and unscrupulous. His actions show a blending of rank am- bition and lofty statesmanship; of egotism sometimes even sordid, and an elevation of mind truly noble, which be- comes the more inexplicable the better known his ways and means become. Nevertheless, in a most decisive crisis he was the saviour of Athens and of Greece. After the battle of Marathon (490) people generally believed that the Persian war was ended. Themistocles, however, felt that a still heavier storm was coming, and he understood that a strong fleet would be the most effective means of victory, and the only safe means of rescue in case of de- feat. Thus the development of the Athenian navy became the goal of his policy. He induced his countrymen to spend the income of the silver mines of Laurium, which had hitherto been distributed among the citizens, in the organization of a powerl'ul fleet. He secured the passage of a law that twenty triremes should be built every year. When the armament of Xerxes was heard of, and Greece became alarmed, he procured an oracle from Delphi say- ing that Athens should defend herself by wooden walls that is, by her fleet; and when. finally, the pass of Ther- mopylse was forced, when the battle off Artemisium, in which he consented to fight under the Spartan commander, though the number of the Athenian ships was the greatest, had proved ineffective, and the Persian hosts streamed down over Boeotia and Attica, he persuaded the Athenians to leave their city to the protection of its tutelary deities. to bring their women and children in safety to the island of Salamis, and to go on board the fleet. In the Bay of Salamis the entire Greek fleet lay assembled; but various opinions prevailed in the council—-whether to give battle here or at the isthmus, whether to give battle at all, or to TI--IENARD’S BLUE separate, etc. It was Themistocles who held the fleet to- gether by declaring that if the Greeks now separated the Athenians would leave Greece for ever, take their women and children, and set sail for Italy—a plan as sound as grand, and one which he no doubt was able to carry out. It was also he who finally compelled the Greeks to give battle by entering into negotiations with the Persian com- mander and hastening the approach of the Persian fleet. The Greeks were surrounded without knowing it, escape was impossible; fight had become a necessity. During the night Themistocles rowed from the Athenian division of the fleet to the Spartan, from the Spartan to the Corinthian, etc., busy to the last. In Salamis the women and children of Athens watched in prayer; on the opposite coast of the main- land carpenters were raising a throne from which Xerxes would look at the battle. In the morning (Sept. 20. 480) the Persian fleet stood up the narrow sound; the battle began, and it terminated in a most glorious victory for the Greeks. Themistocles was now the first man, not only in Athens but in Greece; when visiting Sparta, he was presented with the best chariot the nation possessed, and accompa- nied to the borders of Tegea by a guard of 300 horse- men—-honors unheard of hitherto. To his native city he did one more great service. \Vhen, after the battle of Salamis, the Athenians began to rebuild their city, Sparta, through jealousy, dissuaded them from rebuilding the for- tifications, and even threatened them with an armed in- terference. Themistocles hastened to Sparta, bribed the ephori, deluded the assembly of the elders by lies and dis- simulations, deceived the whole community, and kept the question floating and undecided until it became superfluous, the walls not only of Athens, but also of Pirzeus, having reached a sufficient height to be defended with effect. Then he returned home, loaded with the hatred of all Spartans. Soon after this event he disappeared from public life. The last part of his history, that which follows the rebuilding of Athens, is as obscure and confused: as the first, that which precedes the expulsion of Aristides. He was accused of treasonable connections with the Persians, but acquitted; then ostracised in 471, exiled to Argos, and again accused of treason by the Spartans; an order to arrest him was issued, and he fled from Argos to Corcyra, Thrace, Ephesus, and ar- rived finally at Susa, the residence of the Persian king, in a covered carriage, such as was generally used to convey women to the royal harem. At the Persian court there was a party, headed by the widow of Xerxes, which demanded his execu- tion immediately ; but Themistocles understood how to im- press the reigning monarch, Artaxerxes, so favorably that he was not only left unmolested, but received rich dotations and acquired considerable influence. Deeply implicated in the Persian plans for the subjugation of Greece, he died sud- denly at Magnesia in Asia Minor in 449 B. e. Revised by J. R. S. STERRETT. Thenard’s Blue: See BLUE and COBALT. The’ obald, LEWIS: author; b. at Sittingbourne, Kent, England, about 1690 ; educated at Isleworth, and became a lawyer, but devoted himself chiefly to literature ; published Electra, a Tragedy (1714) ; A Critical Discourse on ]~Y0mer’s Iliad (1714); A Translation of the First Book of the Odys- sey (1716); The Censor, a periodical (1717) ; ilfemoirs of Sir lValter Raleigh (1719) ; The Double Falsehood (1720), a play which he attributed to Shakspeare ; and some twenty other plays, none of which had much success or are now remem- bered. He is chiefly known as a Shakspearean editor, hav- ing published Shahespear Restored, or Speczlziieiis of Blun- ders com/witted and una/mended in P01/oe’s Edition of this Poet (1726), which brought upon him the wrath of Pope, and procured him the post of hero of the first edition of the Dunciad (1729). In 1733 he issued an edition of Shak- speare (7 vols.) which completely superseded that of Pope. His emendations were few, executed with great care, and are acknowledged to possess great merit. having been repro- duced without acknowledgment by many subsequent editors. D. in Sept., 1744. Revised by H. A. Bnnns. '1‘he0b1'01na: See Cacao and THEOBROMINE. Theobro’ mine [deriv. of Med. Lat. theobro’ma; Gr. 6e6s, god + ,6p63,aa, food] : an organic base present in cacao-beans, and therefore in chocolate; formula CTHSNQOQ. It is pre- pared by treating the beans with warm water, adding neu- tral plumbic acetate to the strained solution, conducting a current of hydrogen sulphide through the filtrate from the lead precipitate, evaporating the second filtrate, and crys- tallizing from alcohol. It may be further purified by heat- THEODORA 99 ing between two watch-glasses, when it is obtained as a dazzling white sublimate. Theobromine is a colorless crys- talline powder, but sparingly soluble in boiling water, and still less so in alcohol and in ether. It has a bitter taste, and gives crystalline salts with several of the acids. Revised by IRA Ransex. The0craey: See RELIGION, COMPARATIVE. Theoc’ritus (in Gr. ®e6Kpz'r0s): earliest and chiefest of bucolic poets; commonly set down as a native of Syracuse, though Cos also has claims on him. He flourished in the first half of the third century B. 0., at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus in Alexandria, and the court of Hiero II. in Syracuse, but the chronological order of his poems in honor of those potentates is much disputed, so that it is not certain how his career is to be distributed. Nor is anything known as to the time and manner of his death, though it has been inferred from a line of Ovid, Ibis, 549, that his end was the halter. \Ve have under the name of Theocritus thirty-one poems, besides a number of epigrams. Of these poems, com- monly called idyls (Gr. eZ8z5A7ua), ten are strictly bucolic, three are imitations of the mimes of SOPHRON (g. 21.), the rest vary in sphere and poetic value, and a few are spurious. or at all events fall below the poet’s art and tone. Theocritus occupies a unique position in literature. No one has so blended in his verse the artistic and the popular, and all who have attempted to emulate him have failed to reproduce his wonderful charm. His language is Syracusan Doric, and yet it is not the peasant language pure and simple. It has notes that have been learned from the predecessors of Theoc- ritus, from Epicharmus and Sophron: and his £Eolic poems, among the most attractive of all, are clearly artificial. His peasants are peasants, his shepherds smell of the sheepcote, his reapers of the harvest-field, his fishermen of fins and scales ; their jests are as broad as the sky under which they live, and yet we can not but suspect allusion here and alle- gory there. His measures, as a rule, are epic, and belong to the recitat-ive order, and yet the arrangement in strophes mimics song and the dialogue gives dramatic character, so that the three great forms of poetic composition are all pres- ent in his works. He is a conscious artist to the minut-est points of workmanship; he is the child of a period when the scholar held the poet bound; and yet through all the limi- tations and artificialities of the period and the province there breathes an intimate love of nature that makes Theocritus a poet for all time, as he is the last true poet of the Greek tongue. Noteworthy editions are by Ahrens, 2 vols. (1855). by Meineke, 3d ed. (1856), by '\Vordsworth (1872), by Fritzsche- Hiller with German notes (1881). There is a Lexicon Theo- criteum. by Rumpcl (1879). For the bibliography, see Cipol- lini, Gli Idilli di Teocrito (1887). Of the translations into English the most interesting are the verse rendering by Cal- verley (1869) and the prose version by Andrew Lang (1880), with an introductory essay, Theocritus and his Age. B. L. GILDERSLEEVE. Theodec'tes (in Gr. ®eo8e’m-ns) of Phase’ HS, in Lycia : pu- pil of Plato and Isocrates : distinguished alike as tragic poet and orator. The scant fragments of his tragedies which are collected in Nauck’s Fragmenta T ragicorwm Grcecorum (2d ed., pp. 801-807) hardly bear out his reputation, which was doubtless enhanced by his versatility. ‘ B. L. G. Theod'olite [probably for the alidade; Arab. al ‘iddda, rule] : an instrument used by surveyors for measuring hori- zontal and vertical angles, similar to an engineer‘s transit in all respects. except that the telescope is not usually re- versible. See IIYPSOMETRY. Theodo’ra: Byzantine empress: b. about 508. either at Cyprus or more probably at Constantinople ; the daughter of Acacius, master of bears to the Green Faction. By the death of her father her mother was left destitute with three daugh- ters. Comito, Theodora, and Anastasia, none of whom was over seven years of age. The three successively appeared on the stage as pantomimic dancers, an occupation held in gen- eral contempt. In the Anecdota, attributed to Pnocorius (q. 12), scandalous stories are narrated of Tlieodora‘s youth, which it is impossible to verify or wholly refute. In 525, when she married the consul Justinian. she was, if the commonly accepted date of her birth be correct, but seven- teen years old; hence some of the charges against her can not possibly be true. Justinian had obtained from his uncle Justin I. abrogation of the law which forbade marriage be- tween a senator and a woman of servile origin or who had appeared on the stage. In 527 J iist.iiiijaii‘\succeeded; §.‘:’.> the I | 100 THEODORE throne. He required public functionaries to swear allegiance to Theodora as well as to himself, caused her efiigy to appear on the coins with his own, and cited both their names in public decrees as joint rulers. During twenty-three years of married life she showed herself his worthy consort. Her courage and judicious counsels prevented his deposition at the revolt of the Nika in 532, and in all questions of admin- istration she took a notable share. No female sovereign manifested larger interest in the unfortunate and destitute of her own sex or strove more earnestly to alleviate their condition. It has been supposed that thus she sought to atone for the possible faults of her own youth. She retained her ascendency over the mind of Justinian to the last. Her only child by him was a daughter. Theodora was of small stature, pale, delicate, vivacious, graceful rather than beau- tiful, had expressive eyes, and was fascinating in manner. She died of cancer in 548 at Pythia, near Broussa, whither she had gone for the baths. EDWIN A. GROSVENOR. Theodore, King of Abyssinia : See ABYssINIA. Theodore of M0psues’tia, also called, from his place of birth and early life, THEODORE or ANTIOCH, and whose epi- thet among the Nestorians is “The Interpreter”: bishop and exegete ; b. in Antioch about 350. His parents were wealthy and gave him every advantage, but under the urging of John Chrysostom, his life-long friend, he entered an ascetic broth- erhood which Chrysostom had established. Shortly after- ward he repented of the step and left the brotherhood, as he desired to marry. To him Chrysostom then addressed two eloquent and affectionate letters which bear the title An Ex- hortation to Theodore after his Fall, and which had the de- sired effect of determining him to renounce his matrimonial intentions and saving him for the Church. He was not yet twenty years of age when his “ fall” and recovery occurred. He continued his studies and was ordained priest in Antioch 383. Somewhat later he removed to Tarsus. He essayed authorship with brilliant success and in 392 became Bishop of Mopsuestia, the modern Messis, 40 miles W. from Tarsus, where he died 428. He is the most prominent representative of the “ middle ” Antiochian school of Bible interpreters. He commented on nearly the whole Bible in the grammatical and historical manner of the Antiochian school, and in con- stant protest against the allegorizers. He also appeared as a controversialist and as a practical theologian. Much of his writings has been lost—particularly to be regretted are his letters, which were so highly admired that they were called the Book of Pearls. His fame in the West is due to his alleged heresy. Dying in the odor of sanctity and pas- sionately defended, it was soon afterward openly said and was proved that he was the virtual author of N estorianism. The Council of Ephesus in 431 condemned his “ creed ”—- although his name was not mentioned—and the Council of Constantinople in 553 anathematized him, by request of the Emperor Justinian. So the West wanted to learn who the man was about whom the East was so much excited, and a Latin translation of portions of his works was the result. Curiously enough his commentary on Paul’s Epistles was cir- culated under the name of Ambrose. It was highly popular, and the heretic of the East “ supplied the Middle Ages [in the West with an accepted interpretation of an important part of - oly Scripture.” Much of this Latin translation was first published in 1880—82 in Cambridge. See Migne’s Patro- logia Grccca, lxvi., for a general collection of the remains. Cf. H. Kihn, Theodor von Mopsuestia ’ll. Jwnilias Africanas (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1880). SAMUEL MAcAULEY J AcKsoN. Tl1e0d'0ret: bishop and author; b. about A. D. 393 at Antioch, Syria, the only son of rich and influential parents; received a good education under religious influences; at twenty-three, his parents being dead, distributed all his property and retired to a monastery at Nicerte, 75 miles from Antioch; in 423 became Bishop of Cyrus or Cyrrhus, the modern Koros, on a branch of the river Aphreen, in the district of Syria called Cyrestica, which is a fertile plain lying between Alma Dagh and the Euphrates. D. probably in 457. In the discharge of his diocesan duties he was emi- nently successful, bringing back by his eloquence and power of persuasion numbers of heretics to the Catholic Church. At last, however, he himself was accused of heresy. He had a strong sympathy for Nestorius, and in 449 he was even de- posed from his see by the synod of Ephesus, though he was reinstated by the synod of Chalcedon in 451. Of his works, comprising a history of heresies, a dialogue against Eutych- ianism, ‘commentaries, etc., the History of the Church from 325 to $29 is the 'most important. The best edition of his THEODOSIUS works, which comprise commentaries on Paul’s Epistles and large parts of the Old Testament, discourses, controversial works, histories, and letters, appeared in Halle, 1769-74, in five volumes, edited by Schulze and Ntisselt, reprinted by Migne, in Patrologia Graaca, lxxx.—lxxxiv. (Paris, 1860); English translation by Bloomfield Jackson of the Ecclesias- tical Ilistorr , Dialogues, and Letters, in The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2d series, iii. (New York, 1892); Gais- ford’s translation of the history is in Bohn’s Ecclesiastical Series. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Theod’oric [a Teutonic name; of. Goth. laiada, people, and reihs, king]: founder of the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy; b. about 454, the son of Theudemir, who with his two brothers ruled over the Ostrogoths in Pannonia under the authority of the East Roman emperor; was educated at the Byzantine court, whither he was sent as a hostage at eight years of age, and where he spent about eleven years. In 474 he succeeded his father as king of his nation, and for some time was a true ally of Zeno, the Eastern emperor, but, dissensions soon arising, Theodoric invaded the Roman provinces of Macedonia and Epirus, and for several years harassed the empire by marauding expeditions. At last, in 488, he and the emperor agreed upon a plan for the em- ployment of the Ostrogoths in Italy against Odoacer. Late in the fall the whole nation, numbering over 200,000, of whom 40,000 were soldiers, broke up its settlements, and ad- vanced slowly into Italy, defeating the Gepidae on the way. Odoacer was defeated in three battles--at the Isonzo, near Aquileia, Aug. 28, 489; at Verona, Sept. 30, 489; and on the Adda, Aug. 11, 490. He then shut himself up in Ravenna, was besieged there for over two years, and was finally as- sassinated Mar. 15, 493, at a banquet shortly after he had surrendered himself. After his victories Theodoric natu- rally considered the soil of Italy as belonging to himself, and a part of it, one-third, it is said he partitioned out among his warriors, thus covering Italy with a network of Gothic mili- tary colonies. In other respects he retained the administra- tive machinery of the empire, and he understood how to work it. He governed Goths and Romans as if they were one people, and, though himself an Arian, refrained from persecuting the Catholics till the last two years of his reign. Under him the country enjoyed peace and prosperity to a greater degree than fell to its lot for several centuries. In commerce and industry, in science and art, damages were repaired, and new undertakings started. Cassiodorus, Boe- thius, Symmachus, and other literary men of eminence lived at his court in Verona as his intimate friends. In his for- eign policy he was also wise and successful, and among the Germ an tribes he became a hero (Dietrich von Bern), around whose name legends grew thick during the Middle Ages. The last days of his life were embittered by a controversy with the emperor and the pope over the persecution of the Arians, and stained by deeds of violence and cruelty. He alienated the minds of his Roman subjects by the judicial murder of Boethius and Symmachus, and he angered the Catholics by his treatment of Pope John 1., who died in prison. He died at Ravenna, Aug. 30, 526, just after he had issued an edict giving over the Catholic churches of Italy to the Arians. See Hodgkin, Theodoric the Goth (1891). F. M. CoLBY. Theodosia, or Feodosia: See KAFFA. Theodo'siusz an eminent Roman general from whom a line of emperors descended. Sent to Britain by Valentin- ian I. in 367 A. D., he drove out the Picts and Scots, strengthened the military positions on the frontiers, and re- stored security and order in the country. After his return he was for some time stationed on the upper Danube, where he defeated the Alemanni. I11 372 he took command in Africa, and succeeded, after an obstinate struggle, in put- ting down a revolt led by the Moorish chieftain Firmus. Theodosius was executed in 376 by order of Valens.—His son, Tnnonosrus 1., THE GREAT, Roman emperor from 379 to 395, was born in Spain, probably at Cauca, in Galicia, about the year 346, and educated in his father’s camp. He early received an independent command in Moesia, and dis- tinguished himself by victories over the Sarmatians, but after the execution of his father, in 376, he retired from public life, and returned to his native place. After the de- feat and death of Valens in the battle of Adrianople (in 378), Gratian recalled him to the court, made him com- mander-in-chief against the Goths, and declared him An- gustus (J an. 19, 379), placing Egypt, Asia, Thrace, Macedo- nia, and Dacia under his scepter. Theodosius pursued a skillful policy in his campaigns against the Goths, and a THEOGNIS OF MEGARA peace was concluded by which they received lands within the empire and became allies of Rome. In 383 Gratian was defeated and killed by Maximus at Lyons, and Theodosius acknowledged the usurper as Emperor of Britain, Spain, and Gaul, but secured Africa, Italy, and Illyricum for Gratian’s brother, Valentinian II. In 387, however, Maximus broke from Gaul into Italy, and the weak Valentinian II. and his mother Justina, who was the true regent of the empire, fled for safety to Theodosius. Theodosius became so infatuated with Valentinian’s beautiful sister, Galla, that he promised to restore him to the throne in order to obtain her hand. Maximus was defeated and put to death in 388, and Valen- tinian II. was reinstated as Emperor of the West, but in 392 was killed by Arbogastes, who, not venturing to assume the purple himself, raised the rhetorician Eugenius to the throne. Theodosius hesitated long before he entered on a new war, but in 394 he marched against Eugenius and Ar- bogastes, and defeated them at Aquileia, thereby uniting the whole Roman empire under his sce ter. He died shortly after, however (Jan. 17, 395), at M' an, leaving the empire to his sons Arcadius and Honorius. Theodosius was a zealous upholder of orthodox Christianity, and took active measures for the suppression of pagan rites and heretical opinions. His obedience to the Church was exemplified in his submission to the penance imposed by Ambrose after the cruel massacre of Thessalonica (390).—His grandson, THEO- DOSIUS II. (408-450), b. in 401, succeeded his father, Arca- dius, as emperor in the East. He was a weak ruler, con- trolled largely by his sister, Pulcheria, and his wife, Eudocia. He is chiefly known for the Theodosian code, a collection of the imperial constitutions issued since the time of Con- stantine. Revised by CHARLES H. HASKINS. Theog'nis of Megara, in Greece: elegiac poet who flour- ished in the latter half of the sixth century B. 0., and lived to see the on-coming of the Persian war. His life fell in a eriod of feuds and factions; the oligarchical party to which he belonged was overborne by the democracy, and Theognis, stripped of his estate, suffered the pangs of poverty and exile. In the verses that have been reserved under his name, 1,389 in number, we have the cree of a Doric oligarch set forth for the instruction of a young favorite who be- longed to the same order. The fragments vary in length, and as the sententious character of the poetry of Theognis lends itself readily to interpolations, his genuine work is largely mixed with passages from other poets, such as Solon, Mimnermus, Tyrtaeus, and Evenus. But for all these foreign ingredients the character of the poet and the bitterness of his spirit are manifest enough, and the remains of Theognis are of prime importance in enabling us to understand the state of parties and the problems of society in the Greece of the sixth century. Ed. by Welcker (1826), by Ziegler (2d ed. 1880), by Sitzler (1880),and by Bergk, Poctw Lg/M011 Grwci, vol. ii., pp. 177-236 (4th ed.). Translated by Frere (1842)—see Frere’s Works, vol. iii., ed. of 1874—with a clever but hopeless attempt to work all the disparate fragments into a mosaic of the poet’s life and character. For more recent studies, see Sittl, Gcsclvichzfc dcr gm'echz'scheu Litcratur, vol. i., p. 261, foll. B. L. GILDERSLEEVE. Theological Schools: See SCHOOLS. Theology [from Gr. ®e6s, God + Miyos, discourse, reason]: literally, discourse concerning God. The term has come down to us from the Greek philosophers, who used it in the sense of “ account of the gods.” Plato so used it in speaking of what Homer and Hesiod in their poems have said of the gods, though he also employs the word mythology, which by common consent has been adopted by Christian writers as the more appropriate term. The word theology seems to have first come distinctly into Christian use during the great controversies in the fourth century res ecting the di- vinity of Christ and his relation to the God lead, the term then meaning sometimes the doctrine of the divine nature of Christ as distinguished from his human nature (oixoz/o,uta), and sometimes the doctrine of the Trinity. Theodoret in the fifth century appears to have been the first to use the term in the sense of “doctrine of God.” He proposes and discusses the question, Why did not Moses preface his ac- count of the creation with (M-oiioq/fa) the doctrine of God-— i. c. with some explicit teaching respecting the nature and attributes of God? It was not until the twelfth century that theology assumed something like the comprehensive- ness of its modern meaning. Abelard having prepared a compend of his lectures on some of the most prominent doc- trines of faith, entitled it “Christian Theology” (C’hrz'st£aua THEOLOGY 101 Theologia). From the time of Abelard the term rapidly widened in meaning till it came to include all that is now comprehended under it. Theology now denotes not merely the doctrine of God, or theology proper, but also the doc- trine of the world in its relations to God, or cosmology; the doctrine of man in his relations to God, or anthropology; the doctrine of the salvation of man through the person and work of Christ, or soteriology; the doctrine of the final states of all men, or eschatology; and the doctrine of the Church, its constitution and government, or ecclesiology. Theology may therefore be defined as the science which treats of God and the universe in all their known relations to each other. It has sometimes been defined as “ the science of the supernatural,” and very commonly as “the science of religion.” These definitions, however, are vague and in- exact; both, with any definiteness of meaning, would neces- sarily include much that does not properly belong to theol- ogy, and omit still more that does. The last named, “the science of religion,” from its apparent simplicity and com- prehensiveness has gained great popular currency, which has also been promoted by indefinite notions as to the nature of both religion and theology. Religion exists as an inward state of feeling—a sense of duty toward a Being or beings regarded as divine and su- preme—and also as an outward expression of that feeling in acts of worship and service. The science of religion, there- fore, should analyze and classify the religions of the world—- both the religious convictions and feelings of men, and the forms of worship and service in which these convictions and feelings find their natural expression. Theology, on the other hand, deals exclusively with the facts, whether of con- sciousness or of revelation, from which religion, both subjec- tive and objective, proceeds, and, educing the truths and principles which the facts embody, it formulates and groups them into the doctrines which constitute theology. The right of theology to be called a science, which in late years has been warmly disputed, can be determined only by answering the following questions: first, Can the facts with which it has to do be proved to be indubitably real, and what are they supposed to be‘? and second, Can the methods which it adopts in dealing with its facts be shownto be in accordance with the acknowledged laws of mind? In its broad sense as a science it must gather its facts from the wide fields of nature, consciousness, and the sacred Scrip- tures. In a narrower and commoner sense of the term its facts, according to one class of theologians, are to be found only in the sacred Scriptures, and are strictly historical; according to another class, even in the narrower sense of the term, the facts of the moral consciousness should not be overlooked; this latter class holding that the ultimate and decisive a peal must ever be to the Scriptures, yet maintain- ing that t e facts of the moral consciousness when properly scrutinized will be found to be explanatory, supplemental, and corroborative of those of the Scriptures. As to the facts, so far as they are historical they are amenable to the bar of criticism, like the facts of any other history, and must vindicate their trustworthiness by precisely the same kind of evidence: and so far as they are from the moral consciousness, they are open to inspection, and may be sub- jected to the same kind of analyses and tests as any other facts of mind. As to methods, there is the same liability to error in theology as in any other science ; but out of various possible methods in dealing with the phenomena of nature, some one is of course admitted to be scientific, and that one, with such insignificant modification as may be neces- sary to fit it to its service, must be equally scientific in dealing with the phenomena of revelation; so that, if a science of astronomy. and still more if a science of ethics, be possible there may also be a science of theology. Science differs from mere knowledge in the degree of its certitude and exactness. It would be diificult to show that the essen- tial principles of theology are less certain or less capable of exact statement than those of an other science. Science also differs from mere knowledge in the extent to which its material is classified and organized. The facts of theology can be classified and organized, and precisely to the extent in_which this is accomplished can theology be called a sci- ence. The chief ground for denial of the right of theology to be called a science is found in its liability to resort to theory when facts are wanting, and to hypothesis in the ab- sence of evidence. Its danger of becoming in this way un- scientific is, however, no greater than that of most other sci- ences. The facts of revelation on which the science of the- ology rests presuppose and imply those fundamental facts 162 of being which it is the office of metaphysical philosophy to interpret: of these facts some kind of explanation is to every enlightened mind a necessity. The theologian must have his explanation, and it is to him the source of his greatest danger of becoming unseientific. His metaphysic is perpetually suggesting to him its method of rounding his theology into the completeness of a system. To what is strictly scientific in his theology he is continually tempted to add what is purely theoretic. It is because theology has been so encumbered by what is purely theoret-ic—by theories of the Trinity, theories of sin, and theories of the divine providence, of the atonement,\of regeneration, etc.—that its right to be entitled a science has been disputed ; but to any one who looks impartially at the materials with which theol- ogy builds, and at the inductive method which it may justly adopt, its right to be called a science would seem to be as clear as that of any other species of knowledge. Theology has been divided into two kinds, which have been designated according to the supposed sources of their materials. Thus we have NATURAL THEOLOGY ((1. c.) and re- vealed theology. By the first is meant that knowledge of God, his existence, attributes, and government of the world, which may be gathered from nature—~i. e. from the external world and from the mental and moral constitution of man; and by the second is meant that knowledge of God and the uni- verse, and of their mutual relations, which may be gathered from the Bible alone, or at least that knowledge alone which the Bible sanctions. It may be doubted, however, if the line of separation between the two is so clearly marked as is com- monly supposed. The Bible assumes and incorporates into itself no small portion of what must be regarded as funda- mental in natural theology, and few, if any, of the sources of natural theology have failed to be irradiated by the light of revelation. It is now well—nigh impossible to distinguish be- tween what is taught by nature and what by revelation. Revealed theology has been distributed into a variety of species. each of which has received its designation either from its special aim or from its special method of treatment. Thus, to particularize, we have systematic theology, the aim of which is to reduce all revealed truths to a series of statements that together shall constitute an organized whole; dogmatic, which aims pre-eminently to state what is authoritatively taught, whether by the Scriptures, the councils, or the creeds; philosophical, in which the formal statements of truth are more or less directly determined either by the postulates or by the conclusions of some special system of philosophy; met- aphysical, in which the aim is to substantiate the teachings of the Bible by an appeal to those primitive cognitions and primary beliefs which the Bible always assumes; specula- tive, in which theory predominates over Scripture and all other authority; rational, which gives to human reason the highest authority in determining what is theological truth ; biblical, which, indifferent alike to philosophy and dogma, and, making system but a secondary consideration, aims simply to state the teachings of the Bible; doctrinal, which contents itself with simply formulating its statements of truth with a view to their being understood and accepted, and practical, which, on the other hand, seeks so to shape its statements of truth as to secure conformity of life with what is stated ; polemical, which is quite as intent on over- throwing the positions of other systems as in defending its own ; and historical, which traces doctrines through the con- troversies amid which they 'were enunciated, and under the 'ini1uenee of which they were formulated. Moral theology is a designation which has among Protestants fallen into gen- eral disuse, but once denoted a discussion of moral law and human duty as laid down in the Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the lllount. and covered ground which is oc- cupied by moral philosophy or Christian ethics. The term theology, unaccompanied by an epithet, commonly denotes a completed series of the classified doctrines of Christianity. Doctrines are formal statements of Christian truth, and sci- entific theology consists of the whole circle of doctrines ar- ranged according to some determinate plan. Theology as a science has had a clearly marked history-— a history covering special controversies under which specific docl rincs took form, and those broader and less violent dis- eussions in which all doctrines, under the influence of meta- physical philosophies, were adjusted into the various systems which. taken together, constitute the science as a whole. This history, beginning with the time immediately succeed- ing that of the apostles, naturally divides itself into three great periods. the first extending to A. 1). 730, the second from 730 to 1517, and the third from 1517 to our own time. THEOLOGY During the first period, theology was in its formative state. The hints given by Scriptture in the formula of bap- tism (Matt. xxviii. 19) and the apostolic benedictlons (2 Cor. xiii. 14), in the grouping of the facts of sin and salvation about the two persons, Adam and Christ (Rom. v. 12-19), in the poetical summary of the truths of redemption quoted by Paul (1 Tim. iii. 16), seem first to have suggested the possi- bility of combining these facts and truths into a system. Ignatius (d. 115) gives the first distinct statement of the faith drawn up in a series of propositions, and his system- atizing formed the basis of all later efforts. No complete treatise of theology, however, was.written during this first period. The nearest approach to one was by Isidore, of Seville, who died in 636. He wrote what he styled Three Books of Sentences (Trcs Lib?‘/6 Sentea1hcm.om), but it was, as its title indicated, a mere collection of extracts from the Church Fathers. The period, however, was not unpro- ductive of results. It gave to the Church universal that admirable digest of Christian faith called the Apostles’ Creed. Among the churches of the East were elaborated the great doctrines of the Trinity and of the person of Christ, which were formulated in the creeds adopted by the Council of Nice in 325, of Constantinople in 381, of Ephesus in 431, and of Chalcedon in 451. \Vithin the same period also-—that is, during the first quarter of the fifth century—the equally important doctrines of anthropology (specifically of the fall of Adam and its effects on the human race) were discussed, chiefly among the churches of the West under the leader- ship of Augustine and Pelagius. Augustine maintained that all men sinned in Adam; that by his fall all were physically and morally corrupted (original sin), and incapac- itated to will or to do aught but evil; that all there is of good in any one is by sovereign grace in fulfillment of a predesti- nating purpose. Pelagius, on the other hand, maintained that Adam alone was injured by the fall; that every one of his descendants begins life with a nature as pure as his was, and with a will as free to choose good as evil; that grace simply assists natural power, and is bestowed on those who by right use of natural power deserve it. August-inism was adopted as the orthodox. doctrine of the Church by the Council of Ephesus in 431. Semi-Pelagianism denied the positions of Augustine and softened the statements of Pelagius. Wiggers in his history of the three views says aptly that “Pelagianism makes man to be morally well; Semi-Pelagianism makes him to be morally sick; Augustin- ism makes him to be morally dead.” The second period (from 730 to 1517) produced three great writers on theology—viz., John of Damascus, Peter the Lombard, and Thomas Aquinas. John (d. 754) wrote what he styled An Accurate Summary of the Orthodox Faith (”Er<800‘zs ducprBv‘7s fijs 5p3056§0v Himrews, 01‘ D6 01-tlzodoma Fide). He is the only writer of note on systematic theology which the Greek Church has ever produced. - He drew his materials from the earlier Fathers, and chiefly from the three great Cappadocian teachers, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, and Basil the Great. He was the first to apply the formulas of Aristotle to theological investigation, and thus to introduce the dialectic or scholastic method. I-lis views of the moral state and ability of man, like those of all the Greek Fathers, are much less rigid than those of Augustine. His work is chiefly of value to one who would understand the history of the doctrine of the person of Christ. Peter the Lombard (d. 1164) compiled from the Latin Fathers, chiefly from Augustine and Gregory the Great, what he styled Four Books of Sentences (Qzmzfaor Lz'bm' Scnteatiaram). I-lis method is formal and dialectic, but he shows great acutcness and skill in his aim at recon- ciling the opposing views of the a.uthors whom he quotes- an aim the opposite of that of Abelard (d. 1142), who had sought in his “Yes and No ” (Sic ct Non) to array the Fathers against one another. The work of Peter became the great authority in the Roman Church, the ablest theo- logians for a long time contenting themselves with simply commenting on it. The greatest of medizeval theologians, however, perhaps one of the ablest of any age, was Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). He wrote, according to the fashion of his time, elaborate commentaries on the Sentences of the Lombard, to which he also gave the alternative title of Sum of Theology (Sc/nmm T7z.e0Z0,(//6(3). He is pre-eminentlyscho- lastic in method, but transparent in thought and exhaustive in treatment. The Lombard simply recognized the rising controversy between the ll-ealists and the N ominalists ; Aqui- nas was a pronounced and earnest Realist. He was also 1nore Augustinian in his anthropology than Lombard, and, THEOLOGY setting aside the mythical theory of the atonement, which Lombard had accepted from the Fathers, and which made the death of Christ to have been a ransom paid to Satan, he maintained, and established for all time since, the An- selmic theory, that the death of Christ was a satisfaction for sin to the justice of God. The mythical theory had prevailed until the beginning of the twelfth century. when Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1109), elaborated the theory which bears his name, and the final acceptance of which made as distinctly, though less violently, an epoch in the progress of theological science as had been made more than seven centuries before by the adoption of the Augustinian views of human nature. The ,S’w/2mm of Aquinas is one of the highest authorities in the Roman Catholic Church. The third great period, from 1517 to the present, has been more fruitful of treatises on scientific theology, and has contributed more to its progress than all the Christian cen- turies preceding. Until the sixteenth century only two great doctrines or groups of doctrines—viz., of God, in- cluding the Trinity, Christology. ete., and of man, includ- ing sin, free will, sovereign grace, etc.—had been compre- hensively discussed. The Reformation under Luther turned on controversies over the doctrines of soteriology, or of the divine method of making the work of Christ available for men. The Roman Church, under guidance of mediaeval theologians, had come to make the process of salvation to be a mere external work (an opus operatum) wrought by the efficacy of the sacraments. Luther maintained that it could be wrought only through a personal faith (a ficles y'ustlji- -cans). In prosecution of the controversy the Reformers, cutting loose from scholastic theology, entered at once on the study of the Bible and the Christian truth for them- selves. The first Protestant treatise on scientific theology, the Common Places (Loci Commzmes) of Melanchthon, had its origin in a course of lectures on the Epistle to the R0- mans, the chief object of which was to collate and expound such passages of the Epistle as bore directly on the ques- tion in dispute. Out of the biblical studies of the Reform- ers, German, Swiss, and French alike, grew those statements of soteriological doctrines now found in all systems of Prot- estant theology. From the middle of the sixteenth century theology pre- sents itself under three clearly defined t_vpes——the Lutheran, the Reformed (the Calvinistic), and the Roman Catholic. At the beginning of Protestantism the Lutherans and the Cal- vinists were essentially one in doctrine. Both adopted the Augustinian views of sin and grace, and both held firmly to the Nicene and Chaleedon creeds. Luther was himself pre-eminently Augustinian, and even wrote a book (De Servo A'rb1,'t2'z'o) to prove that the will of man is enslaved; and Melanchthon, when he wrote the first edition of his Loci, as well as the Augsburg Confession (Con_fesslo Augus- tcma) and the apology for it (Apologia Confessz'om's), was no less Augustinian. Luther, however, propounded and de- fended a doctrine of the real presence of the body and blood in the Lord‘s Supper under the title of consubstantiation; .and Melanchtlion, gradually swerving from the Augustinian views of sin and irresistible grace (monergism), maintained the existence of a co-operative power of the human will in regeneration (synergism), and favored the Reformed view of the Supper rather than the Lutheran; the Reformed, under the lead of Calvin, adhered to Augustine’s views of human nature, and maintained that in the Supper the Lord is present, not in the bread and wine, but in the heart of the communicant through partaking of the consecrated ele- ments; the differences between the Lutheran and Reformed, slight at first, rapidly widened into complete sepa‘ration. The historical progress of dogmatic theology may be traced under the three above-mentioned types—the Roman, the Lutheran, and the Reformed or lalviiiistic. The Ronm/h.—'.l‘he Roman Catholic Ch urch, in which the- ological studies had fallen into neglect, was roused into im- mediate activity by the outbreak of the Reformation; but in the canons of the Council of Trent (15-15-93) it reafihmed the theology of its mediauval writers, particularly of Aquinas, and authorized the preparation of the Roman Catechism (Utlteelmismzls Roilumits), whieh popularizes and reiterates the decrees of the council. Its great writers, such as Bellar- mine and Petavius, contented themselves with acting on the defensive, simply reaifirming the dogmas of the Church and the interpretations which priestly authority had put upon them. There has been no dearth of modern theological treatises in the Roman Church, but the most able and com- 103 plete of them all is that of Cardinal Perrone (Praelectiones Theologicre), which first appeared in 1835, and of which very many editions have been since published. It is specially able in its presentation of the Roman theory of the Church and its sacraments. Moehler’s Syzvzboliszn skillfully states and minimizes the points of difference between Roman Cath- olicism and Protestantism ; while Hurter‘s Comyyenclium Tlzeologlce Dogmattcee is a recent and extended exposition of the Roman doctrine. The Lutheran.—Tl1e Loci of Melanchthon, first published in 1521, became at once the great Lutheran authority, and was the first in a series of learned and able treatises. It was clear in thought, admirable in style, and entirely free in language and method from scholasticism. Sixty editions in Latin and a large number (estimated at more than twen- ty) of translations into German were published during its author’s lifetime. The later editions were so changed from the earlier as to make it almost another work. Theologians immediately succeeding Melanchthon contented themselves with writing commentaries on the Loci; but during the 200 years following his death (1561) the Lutheran Church abounded in great writers on theology, many of whom were noted for their learning as well as for their extraordinary grasp and acuteness of intellect. Among others may be mentioned Chemnitz, Gerhard, Calixtus, Calovius, and Quenstedt. Of these authors, some sided in their anthro- pology with Luther, but the majority with Melanchthon, while almost unanimously they went with Luther in his views of the sacrament of the Supper. The simultaneous appearance, however, of Rationalism and Pietism about the middle of the eighteenth century interrupted the sluggish flow of Lutheran theology, few or no treatises of any special value for a half a century or more from that date having made their appearance. The Rationalists were too intent on their work of destruction to construct a scientific theology; and the Pietists, regarding religion as much more a matter of the heart than of the intellect, were indifferent to doctrinal dis- cussions. The only strictly rationalist treatise on systematic theology worthy of note was that of Wegscheider (Institu- tiones Tlzeologtne Ch/rz'stzTan(e Dog/matzfcte); the Pie_tists pro- duced no dogmatic treatise: but Pietism and Rationalism have, one or the other, largely determined the methods and conclusions of subsequent treatises. The union of the Lu- theran and the Reformed Churches in Germany, since 1817, has rendered increasingly indistinct the line of separation between the two theologies, and for this reason the later developments of Lutheran doctrine will be mentioned in connection with the Reformed theology after the time of Schleiermacher. The Reformed (Oezlrti-tz'st).—At the head of all the Re- formed theologians, and, in the estimation of some, of all Protestant as well, stands John Calvin. He was eleven years old when Melanchthon published the first edition of his Loci, and was but twenty-seven when he published the first edition of his own Instztutes of Theology (Olly/'LI\'ll-(‘(7268 Re- lz‘g£om's Instz'tzztz'o). Few if any writers 011 theology have surpassed him in transparency of thought. in depth or breadth of view, in strength of grasp, or in logical force and consist- ency. The Reformed theology has gained wide currency among different nations. Its adlierents had so multiplied and organized themselves into Churches under Calvinistie creeds among different nations as to admit, with varying degrees of accuracy, of national designations. Thus we have the Swiss-.French or G-enevan Church, founded by Calvin (he published at Geneva the revised edition of his Cateeh ism, 15-11: the Creecls, Consensus Tz'_t/hrzfhus, 15-19; Consensus Geherehsis, 1552; and the revised and standard edition of his Institutes, 1559); the Anglican, which through Cran- mer and Ridley expressed itself in the Thirty-nine Articles, 1552; the German Reformed Church, which crystallized around the Heidelberg Catechism, 1562; the Dutch (Neth- erlands), which culminated in the Synod of Dort, 1618, and afterward signalized itself by the origin of the federal theory or covenant system, 16-18; the Anglo-Scotch, which pro- claimed itself iii the \Vestminster Confession and Catechism, 1646 --18: and, finally, we have the American type of theol- ogy, which, having begun under the \Vestminster Symbols (the Congregationalists adopting them 16-18, and the Presby- terians 1729, while the Dutch brought with them the Heidel- berg Catechism, and the Fqaiscopalians the Thirty-nine Ar- ticles), now presents itself under new and ever-increasing variations. Calvinistic theology, unlike the Lutheran, has been sub- ject to many modilications, and has subdivided itself into 104 a variety of schools. Some of these modifications have had their origin in reactions against extremes of view or of method, and others have resulted from the influence of s e- cial schools of speculative philosophy, to which the te- formed theology has always been much more sensitive than the Lutheran. Thus near the middle of the seventeenth century the Calvinist writers of the Netherlands had be- come excessively scholastic and formal. In opposition to their method, Cocceius (in German Koch, and English Cook) conceived the federal method or the system of covenants— a covenant of works between God and man, and a covenant of grace between God and Christ-—a method which he re- garded as founded on the historical order of the Scri tures. Francis Burman at Utrecht and Herman Witsius at eyden adopted the federal theory. The Cartesian philosophy, just then engaging the attention of Europe, was accepted by the Federalists, who adopted it so far as it taught the capacity of the unaided reason of man to know God and his charac- ter; the Scholastics assailed it, Voetius and Van Mastricht (who styled it the gangrene of theology) being specially bit- ter in their denunciations. While the Netherlands were agitated with controversies about scholasticism, federalism, and Cartesianism, the Calvinists of France were equally moved by disputes over the two distinctively Calvinistic doctrines of predestination and imputation. The professors at Saumur persisted in modifications of the current state- ments of both these doctrines. Amyraldus (Amyraut) re- jected absolute predestination, but propounded in its stead a predestination conditioned by a hypothetic or ideal uni- versalism. Associated with Amyraut at Saumur was Pla- czeus (La Place), who denied the doctrine of immediate im- putation—i. e. the notio11 of a direct imputation of Adam’s guilt to his innocent descendants—and atfirmed the doctrine of mediate imputation—i. e. the imputation of Adam’s guilt to his descendants as made guilty by an inherited evil na- ture. The views of both Amyraut and Placeus were opposed by Rivetus in France, by Francis Turretin at Geneva, and by J . H. Heidegger at Zurich. Against them, Heidegger was apppointed by the Swiss to draw up a symbolical book, the Consensus I-Ielveticus, which was much discussed, but could never be lifted into a position of authority. Tur- retin, a sympathizing friend of Heidegger, in his impor- tant treatise on theology (Institutio Theologice Elencticaa) adopted the covenant theory of Cocceius and affirmed im- mediate imputation and absolute predestination. Again, during the first half of the eighteenth century the philoso- phy of Leibnitz having been adopted and adjusted to thee- logical inquiries by Wolff, some of the Swiss theologians followed the Wolffian method. Wolff had maintained, and attempted to show by a most elaborate treatise, that the truths of natural theology were capable of demonstration, and that revealed theology, resting on natural, could thus be made to stand on a basis of science and certainty. But Wolff had also resolved all theological truths, whether of revealed or of natural religion, into mere abstract princi- ples and definitions; and the theologians who constructed their systems after his method, while making a great show of logic, reduced theology to a mere system of formal and arid propositions. Notably of this class were Daniel Wyt- tenbach and J . F. Stapfer, of Berne. Schleiermacher, under the double influence of a pantheistic philosophy and of the Moravian teaching of his youth, gave to the German Re- formed theology, during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, a tendency and a modification which continue. He mediated, however, between the Lutheran and the Reformed systems, thus influencing to some extent the methods and results of both. Schleiermacher based his system of theol- ogy upon the inner certainties of Christian feeling, and his writings constituted a transition from the rationalism of the preceding century to the more scriptural and evan- gelical faith represented by Neander and Tholuck, Twes- ten and Nitzsch, Miiller and Dorner, Ebrard and Lange, Thomasius and Philippi, Luthardt and Kahnis. Two new forms of rationalism, however, have appeared in Germany, the one based upon the philosophy of Hegel, and number- ing among its adherents Strauss and Baur, Biedermann, Lip- sins, and Pfieiderer; the other based upon the philosophy of Kant, and advocated by Ritschl and his followers, Har- nack, Hermann, and Kaftan; the former emphasizing the ideal Christ, the latter emphasizing the historical Christ, but neither of the two fully recognizing the living Christ present in every believer. The Swiss Reformed Church has produced an able conservative theologian in the person of Gretillat, of Montauban. THEOLOGY Theologies in Antagonism with the Reformed.-Socinian» ism.-At a very early period iii the history of Protestant theology there was opposition to the doctrine of the Trinity. This opposition culminated in the person of Servetus, and he was put to death by burning. The opponents of trini- tarianism gathered in Transylvania, and finally, organized by Faustus Socinus (d. 1604), became known as Socinians. Socinus wrote a brief treatise on theology, and a catechism which comprehended only the points in dispute between him and the trinitarians. The views of the Socinians are found in the Racovian Catechism and in the Bibliotheoa Fratrum Polonorum. Socinianism has been represented by the Unitarians Samuel Clarke and James Martineau in Eng- land, and William Ellery Channing and James Freeman Clarke in the U. S. Unitarianism, however, has at no time produced a systematic theology. For a more extended ac- count, see SOCINIANS AND SOCINIANISM. Arminianism.-—In reaction against the rigid high Calvin- ism of the Netherlands, Arminius denied the doctrine of ab- solute predestination, and propounded in its stead the doc- trine of a predestination founded on the foreknowledge of God. Violent controversies ensued; the followers and suc- cessors of Arminius addressed a remonstrance to the state authorities; the Synod of Dort was convened, and the Re- monstrants were excluded from the Reformed Church. Episcopius and Limborch elaborated the Arminian theology into a self-consistent system, while Hugo Grotius construct- ed the governmental theory of the atonement. The Meth- odists, who have inherited the theology of the Arminians, have for their systematic theologians in England Watson and Pope, in the U. S. Raymond, Foster, and Miley. English Methodists hold in general to the modified Arminianism of John Wesley, and regard man’s ability to co-operate with God to be a matter of grace, while Arminius regarded the bestowal of this ability to be a matter of justice, man without it not being accountable. American Methodists, in general, hold more closely to original Arminianism, and maintain the al- most unlimited self-determining power of the human will. See also ARMINIUS AND ARMINIANISM. The Anglican Church and the Protestant Episcopal Church of the U. S. have taken little or no interest in the cultiva- tion of systematic or scientific theology, in large part be- cause, until recently, s ecifically theological schools have been lacking in Englan , and because questions of missions and of ritual have absorbed attention in the U. S. Pearson on The Creed and the popular expositions of the Thirty- nine Articles by Bishop Burnet, and more recently by Browne, Bishop of Winchester, are not in any proper sense scientific treatises on theology, although they are common English text-books. The “judicious” Hooker is still the greatest theological writer of the English Church, although his work is only on Ecclesiastical Polity. Yet there are signs of awakening. interest in theology. Litton’s Compendi- um of Dogmatic Theology and Moule’s Outlines of Christian Doctrine show a tendency to return from the usual Ar1nin- ianism of the Anglican Church to the old Augustinism ; while Kedney’s Christian Doctrine is a recent American work in which the speculative element is prominent. The Baptists have been represented in theology by John Bunyan’s Gospel Truths Opened, John Gill’s Body of Prac- tical Divinity, and Andrew Fuller’s Letters on Systematic Divinity. It is in the U. S., however, that the Baptists have shown greatest activity both in theology and in missions. Within a few years have been published Ezekiel G. Robin- son’s Christian Theology, Augustus H. Strong’s Systematic Theology, Alvah l-Iovey’s Manual of Theology and Ethics, James P. Boyce’s Systematic Theology, E. H. Johnson’s Outlines of Systematic Theology, Ebenezer Dodge’s Chris- tian Theology, and W. N. Clarke’s Christian Theology. The ablest exposition of the views of the Quakers is Robert Barclay’s Apology for the True Ch/ristian Divinity. American theology in general, aside from the writers al- ready mentioned, has run in two lines: 1. The Reformed system of Jonathan Edwards, modified successively by Joseph Bellamy, Samuel Hopkins, Timothy Dwight, Na- thaniel Emmons, Leonard Woods, Charles G. Finney, and Nathaniel ‘W. Taylor. Jonathan Edwards, one of the great- est of metaphysicians and theologians, thought too little of nature, and tended to a thoroughgoing idealism. He re- garded the chief good as happiness—a form of sensibility. Virtue was voluntary choice of this good. Hence union with Adam in acts and exercises was suflicient. This God’s will made identity of being with Adam. There naturally followed the exercise-system of Hopkins and Emmons, on THEOLOGY the one hand, and Bellamy’s and Dwight’s denial of any imputation of Adam’s sin or of inborn depravity, on the other--which last denial was also made by many other New England theologians who rejected the exercise-scheme, as, for example, Strong, Tyler, Smalley, Burton, Woods, and Park. Dr. Nathaniel W. Taylor added a more distinctly Arminian element, the power of contrary choice—and with this tenet of the New Haven theology, Charles G. F inney, of Oberlin, substantially agreed. Thus from certain principles ad- mitted by Edwards, who held in the main to an Old School theology, the New School theology has been gradually de- veloped. Calvinism, as thus modified, is often called the New England theology. Through Horace Bushnell, and the influence of Andover professors who, in their turn, have followed the German Dorner, the New England or New School theology has developed a tendency to the doctrine of probation after death for those who have had no oppor- tunity in this life to accept Christ; and, as thus modified, the New School theology is often called the New Theology. 2. The older Calvinism, represented by Charles Hodge the father, and A. A. Hodge the son, together with Robert J. Breckinridge, Samuel J. Baird, and William G. T. Shedd. All these, though with minor differences, hold to views of human depravity and divine grace more nearly conformed to the doctrine of Augustine and Calvin, and they are for this reason distinguished from the New School theologians and their followers by the popular title of Old School. Old School theology has for its characteristic tenet the guilt of inborn depravity; but among those who hold this view, some are federalists and creationists, and justify God’s con- demnation of all men upon the ground that Adam repre- sented his posterity. Such are the Princeton theologians generally, including Charles Hodge, Archibald A. Hodge, and the brothers Alexander. Among those who hold to the Old School doctrine of the guilt of inborn depravity, however, there are others who are traducianists, and who explain the imputation of Adam’s sin to his posterity upon the ground of the natural union between him and them. Baird's Elohim Revealed and Shedd’s essay on Original Sin (Sin a Nature and that Nature Guilt) represent this realistic conception of the relation of the race to its first father. R. J. Breckinridge, Robert L. Dabney, and James H. Thorn- well assert the fact of inherent corruption and guilt, but refuse to assign any rationale for it, though they tend to realism. Henry B. Smith holds guardedly to the theory of mediate imputation: but while ranked with the Old School he may be regarded as mediating between the Old School and the New. As a learned, acute, and philosophical theolo- gian, he deserves to be placed next to Jonathan Edwards. Relation of Theology to Jlletaphysical and Physical Sci- ence.——The rise and progress of systems of theology have always been coincident with the rise and progress of sys- tems of philosophy. Mediseval theology is intelligible only by understanding the realistic or nominalistic philosophies of its authors; and the modern systems of Protestant the- ology can be fully understood only by understanding the systems of philosophy which underlie them. It is re- markable that while the great theological writers anterior to the sixteenth century, who are appealed to as common authorities by Roman and Protestant writers alike, were philosophical realists, the chief theological systems of the Protestant Churches rest either upon avowed and unadul- terated nomiualism or upon nominalism in the disguised form of conceptualism; but with the traditional influence of metaphysical systems the natural sciences have in our day been rapidly coming into collision. It is the ofilce of these sciences to ascertain what is really knowable of the processes of nature, and to reduce this knowledge to exact orms of statement. In fulfillment of this office, these sci- ences, in their manifold departments, are not only render- ing an invaluable service to the science of mind, by bring- ing metaphysicians to observe its actual phenomena rather than to build on definitions of its processes, but are doing a work of equal value to theology, by requiring theologians to deal with law, government, sin, righteousness, character, heredity, and other fundamental truths. not as mere names or conceptions, but as the most real of realities. Both in Europe and in the U. S. the most recent theology has been greatly influenced by the monistic tendencies of modern science, in some instances to the denial of the freedom of man and of the, transcendence of God, in other cases with a strenuous aflirmation of these ethical postulates. The so- called higher criticism has applied the principles of his- torical development to the Old Testament, with the result THEOPHRAST US OF ERESUS 105 in some cases of denying any specifically divine element, but in general with the only result of inducing a somewhat broader view of divine inspiration as possibly consistent with error in matters not affecting the moral or religious teaching of the Scriptures. The theology of the future, which is to stand the test of criticism and control the con- sciences of men, must, like the teachings of the New Testa- ment, rest on a basis of reality, and find in the consciousness of mankind an unequivocal testimony to its truth. L1'rERA'rURE.—Petavius, Opus de Theologicis Dogmatibus; Bellarmine, Disputationes de Controrersiis Fidei; Mtihler, Symbolism; Gass, Geschichte der protestantischen Dogma- tilc; Polenz, Geschichte des Calvinismus; Heppe, Dogma- tih des deutschen Protestantismus; Hase, flutterus Redi- vivus; Schweizer. Die Glaubenslehre der erangelischen Re- form-Kirche. The church histories of Neander, Gieseler, Hase, and Guericke; Neander, Christliche Dogmengeschichte (History of Christian Dogmas, translated by J. E. Ryland); Hagenbach, History of Doctrines (the translation revised and enlarged by H. B. Smith); Winer, Comparative Darstel- lung des Lehrbegrifls der verschiedenen christlichen Kirchen- parteien; Schneckenburger, Vergleichende Darstellung des I/utherischen und reformirten Lehrbegm'fi‘s; Schaif, Creeds of Christendom; Dorner, History of Protestant Theology; and the ffistory of Theology in Gretillat‘s Théologie Systé- matique. Dictionaries of theology, which give definitions of theological terms and articles upon theologians and their systems, exist in different languages. Of them the best are known as Herzog’s Real-Encyklopddie, the great thesaurus of Protestant learning (2d ed. Leipzig, 1877-88, 18 vols.); Wetzer and Welte’s K irchenlezvicon, the great thesaurus of Roman Catholic learning (2d ed. Freiburg im Breisgau. 1882, scq.); McClintock and Strong, Cyclopazdia of Sacred Literature (New York, 1867-81, 10 vols., with 2 supplemen- tary vols. and supplements 1887, seg.); less extensive is the Schaf-Herzog Encyclopedia (New York, 3 vols., 1884; rev. ed. 1887) ; in one volume are W. F. Hook’s Church Dictionary (London, 1842; 14th ed. 1887) ; J. H. Blunt‘s Dictionary of Theology (1870); YV. E. Addis and T. Arnold’s [Roman] Catholic Dictionary (London and New York, 1888; 4th ed. 1893). See also Anrnaoronoev, ATONEMENT, Cxnvmrsm, CHURCH HISTORY, FUTURE STATE, GERMAN THEOLOGY, and Goo. Revised by Aueusrus H. Srnonc. The0paschites: the Greek name for Pxrarrxssmns (q. ’t‘.). Theoph'ilus: Bishop of Antioch (171-185); probably of heathen arentage; famous for his Apologia ad AutoZy- cum, an e aborate apology for Christianity. He is the first Christian writer to mention a Trinity in the Divine Nature (Apol., ii., 15). A commentary on the Gospels is ascribed to him, but probably inaccurately. The Apology was best ed- ited by Otto (Jena, 1861),~ and has been translated in the Ante-lVicene Fathers, ii., 89-121. S. M. J. Theophilus : Byzantine emperor (829-842). A brave and skillful soldier, he waged generally successful wars in Sicily and against the Saracens, and led his armies in person as far as the Euphrates. He enforced justice, rewarded merit, and his reign was glorious. The iconoclastic controversy which had convulsed the empire over a hundred years was terminated at his death. E. A. G. The0phras'tus (Gr. ®e6¢pamros) of Eresus, in Lesbos: Greek philosopher; became the head of the Peripatetic School after the death of its founder, ARISTOTLE (g. ’L'.), and presided over its fortunes. which prospered under his guidance for thirty-five years (322-287 B. 0.). This prosperity was due to the character and ability of the head of the school, who en- joyed the highest esteem both at home and abroad. His lec- tures had the same themes and the same titles as those of his great predecessor. Especially attractive were his discourses on ethical topics, in which he showed the indulgent temper of a man of the world; and in the province of science he eclipsed the botanical work of Aristotle. His treat-ises on Practical Botany (1repl ¢vn?w Em-opiczs) in nine books and Theoretical Botany (rrepl ¢vq-(EV ai'rLc';n/) i11 six books are still extant, besides fragments of works on mineralogy (mp) Aiéérwv). on the senses, and on metaphysics. But the work by which he is best known is his treatise called Characters (xapouc— fijpes). These sketches of character by Theophrast-us, who was a friend of l\lENANDER (g. ‘l‘.), are taken not from real life, but from the mimic life of the stage. and are of great im- portance for the study of the New Comedy. The book has en- joyed unbounded popularity, and has been imitated scores of times. Especially famous are La Bruyere’s companion pieces in French, and George Eliot's Theoph/rastus Such. 106 TIIEOPHYLACT Unfortunately only the vicious and ludicrous characters have been preserved, and the book ha.s come down to us in a condition which shows serious interference with the original form. There are editions of all the works by J . G. Schneider (Leipzig, 1818) ; critical edition by IVimmer (Leipzig, 1862); of .the Characters by Casaubon (Leyden, 1592) and by J ebb (187 0). B. L. GILDERSLEEVE. Theoph'ylact (surnamed Srnocxrrx) : author; b. at Locri, of Egyptian descent; went to Constantinople in 610 A. D., held various oifices during the reign of Heraclius, and died there about 629. His extant works comprise I-Itstortce JlIaurtct't Ttberz't I222pe2'atort.s Ltbre' VIII. (first edited with a Latin translation in 1604, latest ed. by Immanuel Bekker, Bonn, 1834), which gives a minute account of the Emperor Maurice’s wars from 582 to 602; eighty-five letters divided into morales. rnstz'cre ct amcttortre (Venice, 1499) ; and Ques- ttones Phystere, edited by J . F. Boissonade (Paris, 1835). Revised by S. H. JACKSON. ’I‘he0phy1act: archbishop ; b. at Euripus, on the island of Euboea; seems to have gone early to Constantinople, where he obtained great reputation for learning, and was appointed teacher to Constantinus Porphyrogenitus. In 1078 he was make Archbishop of Achrida, in Bulgaria, and took up his residence at Achrida, where he died after 1107. He was a prolific writer, and his collected works were published in a splendid edition by Maria de Rubeis (4 vols. fol., Venet., 1754-63, reprinted in Migne’s Pa.t/rolog't(t Grreca,lxiii.,lxiv.). I-Iis commentaries are really catenas derived mostly from Chrysostom and not original, but they are remarkably well done, and may be consulted with advantage. This remark applies especially to his commentary on the four Gospels, which was translated into Latin by Oilcolampadius (Basel, 1524). SAMUEL llfxcxurmv J ACKSON. The0p0m' pus (Gr. ®e61ro/mos) of Chios : Greek historian ; b. about 380 B. 0.; was banished from his native island in early life and took refuge in Athens, where he became a pupil of Isocrates, who said of him that he needed the bit as his fellow-pupil Ephorus needed the spur. Theopom pus had great success as a composer of show speeches, especially with his panegyric on Mausolus, King of Caria, but, like Ernoaus (q. 12), he is known chiefly as an historian. In his ]Ic'st0ry of Greece (‘E7\7\1)1/mot), twelve books, he took up the thread of narrative where Thucydides dropped it, and told the story of Greece from 410 to 394, the date of the battle of Cnidus. In his I-Itstory of Phz'le'p ((I>z7\L1r1rucot), fifty-eight books, he made the reign of Philip of Macedon the center. Besides these works an epitome of Herodotus in two books was at- tributed to him. and Anaximenes the rhetorician forged under his name a famous invective. Thfree-hearlecl (Tpucotpou/cs), in which Athens, Sparta, and Thebes were represented as the triple monster that had ruled and ruined Greece. Of all his work nothing is left save extracts and fragments; but an epitome of the Latin translation of his P72/tltjaptcet by Trogus Pompeius survives in the work of Justin. He was a vigorous writer, but first and foremost a rhetorician rather than an historian, and he may be set down as a bitter parti- san and a propagator of scandalous stories, which later gos- sips were only too glad to repeat. Fragments in Miiller’s .F7'(t[/)72.67LtCt Iitstortcornrn Gvrecornm, vol. i., pp. 278-333. B. L. GILDERSLEEVE. The0s'ophy [from Gr. 6eo<7o¢ta, knowledge of divine things, deriv. of 6e6ao¢os, wise about God; ®e6s, God + aoqbds, wise]: a name which, as specifying a religious philosophy, was originated by Ammonius Saccas in the third century of our era. The body of ethical, philosophic, and scientific doctrines to which that title applies is, however. as old as humanity itself, and contains everything that is true in all other and later systems. Esoterically preserved and trans- mitted in its entirety by adepts and initiates, from time im- memorial, their messengers--known to the world as “ great teachers " and “ saviours ”-—have, at periodic intervals deter- mined by cyclic law, exoterically taught as much of it as could safely be given out and which any considerable por- tion of our race could at such times receive and assimilate. Theosophy teaches a knowledge of the laws governing the evolution of the universe. It is not based upon assumed divine revelation, but- upon consciousness. It sees no un- solvable mystery anywhere, throws the words coincidence and chance out of its vocabulary, and aflirms the omni- presence and omnipotence of law and perfect justice. The- osophy postulates an Eternal Principle, unknowable except in its inanifestations, which is in and is all things, and which, periodically and eternally, manifests itself and re- TI-IEOSOPHY cedes from manifestation——evolution and involution. Its opposite poles in the manifested universe are spirit and mat- ter, which are coexistent and inseparable. In manifesting itself the spirit-matter dif1'erentiates on seven planes. which are of progressive density down to that within our sensuous perception, the substance in all being the same, but differ- ing in the proportions of its two compound elements. Through all thrill ceaselessly vibrations which are the inex- haustible impulse from the First Cause. These vibrations are distinct, each from all the others, and each always the same in mode upon every plane, but differing in rate ac- cording to the rarity or density of the substance of the plane. By means of these vibrations are brought about all forces-phenomena in nature, specialized diiferentiations and effects of creation, preservation, and mutation-—in the world of forms as well as upon the ethereal planes. Thus every atom of the universe is infused with spir.it, which is life in one of its phases of manifestation, and endowed with qualities of consciousness and intelligence--likewise phases of the spirit—-in conformity to the requirements of its dif- ferentiation. On the lowest material plane, which is that of humanity, the spirit focalizes itself in all human beings who permit it to do so. Its rejection is the cause of igno- rance, from which flow all sin, suffering, and sorrow; by its conscious acceptance man becomes partaker of the Divine Wisclom, “one with the gods," entering into possession of an ever-increasing power of consciousness, and attains oneness with the Absolute. This is the ultimate destiny of all be- ings; hence Theosophy affirms the perfectibility of the race and rejects the concept of innate unregenerable wickedness. From the theosophic point of view the world is compounded of the Egos or individual spirits, for whom it emanates from the Divine lVill; and its evolution is due to the im- pulse imparted by its spiritual element, that force manifest- ing itself from the beginning in the primary conditions of life——far below the sentient stage-—and having in the evolve- ment of higher forms, including man, the guidance and di- rection of intelligent, perfected beings from other and older evolutions. Hence man is deemed a conscious spirit, the flower of evolution; while below him, in the lower kingdoms, are other less-advanced classes of egos, all, however, on the way of ascent to the human stage, which they will eventu- ally reach when man has gone on still higher. The perfect- ing of self-consciousness is the object of evolution. By this man is enabled to reach more exalted stages of existence. And his conditionedmortal life is for the purpose of afford- ing him experience by which that self-consciousness may be developed and cognition of the spirit attained. Man is a spirit and requires vehicles with which to come in touch with all the planes of nature included in evolution, and it is these vehicles that make of him an intricate, com- posite being, liable to error, but at the same time able to rise above all delusions. He is in miniature the universe, for he is, as spirit, manifesting himself to himself by means of seven differentiations. Therefore he is characterized in Theosophy as a septenate or sevenfold being. His immor- tal being comprises a trinity, spirit (Atman), the spiritual soul or discernment (Bndclht), and mind (llfanas). This triad requires as vehicles or instruments through which to operate and gain cognition in matter four lower mortal principles. These are: The animal passions and desires, un- intelligent and productive of ignorance through delusion (Kama) ; the life-energy (Jtoa) ; the astral body (Ltnga Srtrtret), which is the connecting link between the ethereal principles and the corporeality; and, finally, the physical body (Sthnla Swrvlm). The principle designated as Jtea is a special differentiation for the energizing of the human being from the great ;omm'c ocean of the life-principle, which is one of the distinctive vibrations already spoken of, and a phase of manifestation of the spirit. It does not cease when the collective entity called man dies, but simply continues its vibrations in the myriad of lives that make up the cells of the body without animating them in harmonious aggregate action. The Ltnga Scwtm belongs to the astral plane of matter, which, being next above that of our tangi- ble world in refinement of its substance, is just beyond our normal sensuous perception. As the physical body is at death reabsorbed into the material elements whence it was drawn, so the astral body is eventually dissipated in and ab- sorbed by the substance of its plane; but its permanence is much greater than that of the gross body. During life it is from the earliest moment until the last the model upon which are moulded the physical molecules of which the body is composed, and through it the life-principle is enabled to TI-IEOSOPHY animate the aggregate mass as a collective entity. These lower four principles or sheaths are the transitory, perish- able part of man—-not himself, but in every sense the m- struments he uses——given up at the hour of death and re- built at every new birth. The trinity is the real man, the thinker, the individuality that passes from house to house, gaining experience at each rebirth, while it suffers and en- joys according to its deeds. In each successive _earth-life he is known to others as a new personahty, but In the whole stretch of eternity he is one individual, conscious. of an identity not dependent on name, form, or recollections of personalities. This doctrine of reincarnation 1s the very base of Theosophy, for it explains hfeand nature as no other hypothesis can ; and it is an essential to the scheme of evo- lution, for without such re-embodiment on the plane of ex- eriences and atonements there could be no evolution of the mman soul. The Ego returning to mortal life only goes into the family which either completely answers to its whole nature, gives an opportunity for its evolutionary progress, or is connected with it by reason of events in past incarnations and causes mutually created. Inseparable from the doctrine of reincarnation is that of Karma, or justice, sometimes called the “ ethical law of causation.” Mere entry into life is no fit foundation for just reward or punishment, which must be the deserts for prior conduct. But such consequent awards de- termine entry into life, and with unerring equity establish the sequence of good and evil happenings in requital of the past. Effect is always in cause, and thus the body, brain, and 1n- tellectual faculties furnished by reincarnation being prod- ucts of one’s own deserving, become the field from which must be gleaned the harvest planted by acts in the past. The law of Karma applies in physical nature as well as in ethics to solar systems, planets, races, nations, families, and individuals. \Vith reincarnation the doctrine of Karma ex- plains the misery and sufl'ering of the world, and no room is left to accuse nature of injustice. The misery of any na- tion or race is the direct result of the thoughts and acts of the Egos who make up the race or nation. If they did wickedly in the past, they must suffer the inevitable conse- quences. To this end they must go on incarnating and re- incarnating until the effects they caused have been ex- hausted. Though the nation thus sufiering chastisement should for a time disappear, the Egos belonging to it could not leave the world, but would reappear as the founders of some new nation in which they would continue to receive their karmic due. \Vith reference to post-morfem conditions, Theosophy teaches two states of existence somewhat analogous to the Christian “ purgatory” and “heaven.” The first, imme- diately subsequent to earth-life, is Kc/ma,-loha, where the immortal triad takes leave of the lower principles remain- ing after separation from the body. Thence the Ego passes into Dccachcm. The former is, as its name indicates, a place -—the astral plane penetrating and surrounding the earth- the latter a state of being, or rather of consciousness. In Kama-loka all the hidden passions and desires are let loose, and enough mentality is retained to make them tortures. When the astral body in which they cohere is disintegrated, as it is in time, they remain a sort of entity in the Jfama- Rupa, a form of still less materiality than the Liaga Sarfra. Eventually this too is said to fade out, leaving only their essence, the S/ca/ntlhas, fateful germs of karmic consequence, which, when the Ego emerges from the devachanic state, are by the law of attraction drawn to the new being in which it incarnates. Owing to the law of cohesion between the principles, which prevents their separation before a given time, the untimely dead must pass in Kama-loka a period almost equal to the length life would have been but for the sudden termination. Losing the body has not killed them. They still consciously exist in the astral body, and in the -ease of very wicked and forceful persons—some executed criminals, for instance—-may be even more harmful on the astral plane than they were in life. Prolonged kama-lokic existence is no injustice to the victims of accident. since death, like everything else, is a karmic consequence. Finally, it may be said of Kama-loka that it is the last conscious state of the thoroughly evil human souls bereft of the spiritual tie and doomed to annihilation (1/lc'z'Ifc7zi.). Having in life centered the consciousness in the 7m/mic principle, preserved intellect and rejected the spirit, leading persist- ent lives of evil for its own sake, they are the only danmed beings we know. Pure souls speedily pass from Kama-loka to the devachanic state. It is a period of rest : a real exist- ence, no more illusionary than earth-life, where the essence THERAPEUTZE 107 of the thoughts of life that were as high as character per- mitted expands and is garnered by the soul and mind. When the force of these thoughts is fully exhausted the soul is once more drawn back to earth, to that environment which will best promote its further evolution. No new ethics are presented by Theosophy, as it is held that right ethics are forever the same. But in the doctrines of Theosophy are to be found the philosophical and reasona- ble basis of ethics and the natural enforcement of them in practice. The present worldwide interest in Theosophy dates from 1875, when I-lelena P. Blavatsky, a messenger of the adepts, appeared in New York, initiated the theosophic movement, and, with Henry S. Olcott, lVilliam Q. Judge, and several other persons, formed the Theosophical Society. Other revivals of the ancient doctrine, occurring in the last quarter of each century during several hundred years past, are matters of historic record; but, as their times were not propitious, they amounted to little in their effect upon hu- manity at large compared with the importance this one has attained. The Theosophical Society, though its members generally, no doubt, subscribe to theosophic doctrine, is not dogmatic, but admits to membership all who can conscien- tiously accept its three avowed objects: 1. “ To form the nucleus of a Universal Brotherhood of Humanity without any distinctions whatever. 2. To promote the study of ancient and modern religions, philosophies, and sciences. 3. To investigate unexplained laws of nature and the psychical powers of man.” Starting with a membership of fifteen per- sons in 1875, it has spread all over the globe, until new it has hundreds of branches scattered through all the civilized and even the semi-civilized countries, and counts its mem- bers by thousands. Beyond its organization in importance, however. is the wonderful influence of theosophic teachings in coloring the literature, thought, ethics, and even scientific progress and religious expression of the world. The size of the society gives but a very imperfect idea of the extent of its work. The best books conveying instruction in detail concern- ing theosophic doctrine—but a meager skeleton of which has been offered in the foregoing—are the following : H. P. Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrz'ne (1888); Isis Ummilecl (1877); The Key to Theosophy (1889) ; William Q. Judge, The Ocean of Theosophy (1893) ; A. P. Sinnett, Eso2‘crlc Bud'clhz'sm (1883); Five Years of Theosophy, selections from The The- osoplzist (1885) ; Rama Prasad, 1Vaz‘ure‘s Finer Forces (1890) ; _PClld'72_/].(ll‘Z: (J udge‘s version) Yoga Aphorisms (1889). A score of theosophic magazines are issued in half as many languages. The leading one of the Theosophical Society in America is The Path, published in New York. WILLIADI Q. JUDGE. Thera: See SANTORIN. T]l81‘3ll10ll0S, tlie-1'5-n1’e“e-ne“ez (in Gr. ®17pa/.re’1/ns) : an Athenian politician whose name figures in all political trans- actions during the last years of the Peloponnesian war. now on the side of the demagogues. now on the side of the oli- garchs, and always in the clra-racter of a traitor. After the battle of Arginusre (406 B. e.), in which he held a subordinate command i11 the right wing of the Athenian fleet, he was or- dered to return to the scene of action and save as many as possible of the disabled galleys and their crews. A heavy storm set in, which made the execution of the order im- practicable, and a great number of Athenian citizens were drowned. In order to escape the odium of this incident, Theramenes speedily repaired to Athens and accused the commanders-in-chief of having taken no measures in the case. I11 404 B. 0. he was sent first to Lysander, who be- sieged Athens, and afterward to Sparta, to negotiate a peace, but he postponed the final conclusion of a treaty until the Athenians were reduced to such a degree that they were compelled to accept any conditions whatever. After the peace he was elected one of the thirty tyrants, but as he op- posed the violent measures of that body, he became sus- pected by Critias, was accused by him as an enemy of the state. and finally forced to drink poison. He was a man of eloquence, and, according to Diodorus, a disciple of Socrates. Revised by J . R. S. STERRETT. Tll81‘:l-])0ll't20 [:I.ut’t. : G1‘. Oeparrevraf, llt(?1‘., servants, deriv. of Gepourezien/, minister to, serve, deriv. of Gepctrrwv, at- tendant. servant] ] : a sect of Jewish contemplative ascetics, kindred to, though distinct froni, the Essencs. Their chief seat was on Lake Mareotis, the body of water immediately S. of Alexandria, in Egypt. They were of both sexes, strictly observed the Sabbath and other Jewish festivals, were ardent students of the Mosaic law, and claimed to 108 THERAPIC ACID have secret religious knowledge. Philo describes them in his treatise On a Contemplative Life, or on the Virtues of Suppliants (Yonge’s Eng. trans. of Philo, Bohn’s Series, iv., 1-20). Philo is the only writer to mention them—-a fact which has led some to deny their existence and to attribute to a Christian forger of the fourth century the mention of them by Philo. See the exhaustive treatise by Fred. C. Conybeare, Philo about the Contemplative Life (Oxford, 1895). SAMUEL MAOAULEY J AcxsoN. Therapic Acid: See Con-LIVER OIL. Theresa, ta-ra'sa"a, or Teresa de Jesus, SAINT : b. at Avila, Spain, Mar. 28, 1515, her full name being TERESA SANCHEZ DE CEPEDA; entered (Nov. 2, 1536) the Carmelite monastery at Avila, and in 1562 founded a reformed branch of Carme- lite nuns. She made a prolonged study of theology and wrote several mystical and ascetic treatises, which are ac- counted among the Spanish classics, and obtained her a great reputation. Among them are Discurso O Relacion de su I/icla (1562), an autobiography giving an account of her interior conflicts and visions; El Camino de la Perfeecion (1563); El Libro de las Fundaeiones; El Castillo interior, 6 las Jlforadas (1577), a mystic description of the heavenly life; and Santos Conceptos de Amor de Dios. D. at Alba, Oct. 4, 1582. She was canonized by Gregory XV. in 1621. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Theresi'na: capital of the state of Piauhy, Brazil; on the right bank of the Parnahyba river, 220 miles above its mouth in the Atlantic (see map of South America, ref. 4-G). It was founded in 1852, the capital being removed from Oeiras. The town is regularly laid out, but has no buildings of note and the trade is inconsiderable. The climate is some- what insalubrious, though less so than that of Parnahyba. Pop. about 8,000. H. H. S. Theresiopel, or Maria-'I‘heresiopel : See SZAEADRA. Theresop'olis : town of the state of Rio de J aneiro, Brazil; in a high valley of the Organ Mountains; 38 miles by railway from Nictheroy on the Bay of Rio (see map of South America, ref. 7-G). It was originally a German col- ony, named in honor of the Empress Theresa. On account of its delightful climate and magnificent mountain scenery it is a favorite summer resort, and no place near the capital better merits a visit of the tourist. In 1892 it was selected as the state capital, but subsequently this was changed to Petropolis. Pop. 6,000. H. H. S. Thereza Christina Maria: Empress of Brazil; b. in Naples, Mar. 14, 1822. She was a daughter of Francis I., King of the Sicilies, by his marriage with Maria Isabella, Infanta of Spain. In 1843 she married Pedro II., Emper- or of Brazil. Her unassuming goodness caused her to be generally beloved. The Brazilian revolution and the abdi- cation of the emperor were the probable causes of her death at Oporto, Portugal, Dec. 28, 1889. Of her children only one, Isabel of Braganea, survives. See PEDRO II. H. H. S. Thermaa [Lat., warm springs, warm baths : Gr. 6e’p,uau, warm springs]: essentially, structures of the Roman im- perial epoch consisting in general of large establishments in which baths of all sorts were provided. including large tanks for swimming, together with grounds for running, ball-play, etc., halls for similar exercises, porticoes for prom- enade and conversation, lecture-rooms, libraries, and prob- ably rooms for eating and festivity. Public baths existed before the time of Augustus in Rome and in other cities, but the earliest thermse erected was that of Marcus Agrippa. For the architecture of these structures, see ARcHrrEc'rURE. The service of these gigantic places of resort was performed by slaves in great numbers, and carried on by means of un- derground passages elaborately planned and systematized. Some of the underground structures of the baths of Diocle- tian in Rome have been explored, but it is probable that much remains to be known of them. Admission to the thermze was by means of a small fee, but at times the gen- erosity of the emperor or some public man opened some one thermue gratuitously for a time. The regulations about the hours of opening and closing, the separation of the sexes, the charge for admission and other details of management were frcquenlly varied, and many edicts concerning them are on record. There also remains much that is unknown in the matter of the arrangement of the buildings and the use of difiercnt parts; nor is it certain whether the admis- sion fee was payable for the use of the buildings, the porti- coes, etc., or for bathing only. See ROEAN ARcn;EoLoc\'. ltUssELL Sruneis. THERMAL SPRINGS Thermal Springs [thermal is from Gr. Gepuds, hot]: in general, springs which have a 'mean annual temperature higher than that of the region in which they are found. Many springs which maintain an even temperature through- out the year appear warm in winter and cold in summer, owing to changes in the temperature of the air. In most instances the designation thermal is restricted to springs where the temperature stands from 10° to 15° F. above that of the surrounding atmosphere. All observa- tions lead to the opinion that the cause of these high tem- peratures 1nust be found in the heated rocks below the sur- face. It does not follow that the waters themselves are necessarily derived from any deep-seated source. On the contrary, the waters of hot springs are mainly meteoric waters that have penetrated downward a sufficient distance to attain increased temperature by contact with heated rocks. In other words, the higher temperature is due to internal heat which is known to increase with depth. Nearly all thermal springs are found either in regions of orographic disturbance, where therocks have undergone great displacement through faulting and folding, or else in regions that have been subjected to volcanic eruptions. As lavas have been forced to the surface along lines of least resistance, it not infrequently happens that profound dis- turbance of strata and volcanic eruptions occur together in the same locality. All regions where hot springs are on a grand scale appear to have been at one time or another cen- ters of eruptive energy. This has been shown to be the case in so many instances that thermal activity and volcanic manifestations may be regarded as closely associated phe- nomena. In areas of eruptive rocks where the pouring out of lavas long since ceased, the occurrence of thermal springs is looked upon as evidence of the dying out of volcanic energy. Such heated waters testify to the slow cooling of underground lavas through long periods of time. In many localities eruptions have not taken place since Tertiary time, yet connected with them are boiling springs still active and discharging vast quantities of water. The amount of internal heat dissipated by this continuous action of hot springs and steam-vents must be very great. Distribution of Thermal S]n'ings.-Tlierm al springs occur in all parts of the world, and not one of the great conti- nental divisions is without them. Many of the larger islands of the world have hot springs, which are usually recognized even byprimitive inhabitants as possessing curative proper- ties for many forms of human ailment. In Europe hot springs are numbered by thousands; in France alone over 900 have been described, mostly in the Auvergne, a region of extinct volcanoes. In England, where all volcanic action ceased before the historic period, two hot springs have been noted for centuries. The spring at Bath is known to have remained nearly in its present condition ever since the occu- pation of England by the Romans. It maintains a tem- perature of 120° F., and according to the best estimates discharges daily 180,000 gal. of water carrying mineral matter in solution. At Buxton the temperature stands at 82° F. Hot springs extend along the Cordillera from the southern end of South America, through Central America, Mexico, the U. S., and well up into British Columbia. They are distributed over the Appalachians-—North Carolina and Virginia being noted for hot springs. In Virginia they are connected with the anticlinal axes and displacements in sedimentary strata. The regions where thermal activity is displayed on the grandest scale, with the most extensive out- flows of hot water, are Iceland, New Zealand, and the Yel- lowstone National Park. Within the restricted area of the Yellowstone Park there are between 3,500 and 4,000 hot springs, without counting innumerable steam-vents and fu- maroles. The cauldron of Excelsior geyser discharges 4,400 gal. of boiling water a 1ninute. Geysers are intermittent hot springs. See YELLOWSTONE PARK. Notwithstanding the wide distribution of thermal springs, there are extensive areas in which none exist. They are wanting in the Mississippi valley and over the Great Plains, and none are known along the coastal plain'of the South Atlantic States. Over large areas in Russia they appear to be absent. Their absence in these localities is accounted for by the fact that the sedimentary rocks lie nearly horizontal and show liltle disturbance. Ilot waters fail to reach the surf ace, and if any exist they flow olf underground. Prox- imity to the seacoast and elevation above sea-level appar- ently exercise no influence upon the distribution of thermal waters. In the elevated portions of the Andes, notably in Chili and on the high plateau of Tibet, hot waters flowing THERMIC FEVER from fissures in the rocks have been recorded by scientific travelers at elevations from 10,000 to 16,000 feet above sea- level. In the Yellowstone Park they are found over 8,000 feet above the ocean. Tem]9emtm'e.—At the surface the temperature of thermal springs varies from a few degrees above that of the air, up to the boiling-point. As a large number of springs are situ- ated less than 1,000 feet above sea-level, many of the boiling waters show a temperature but a little below 212° F.’ On higher plateaus and elevated mountain regions the boiling- point is reached at much lower temperature. In the geyser basins of the Yellowstone Park water boils at 198° F. Care- ful observations made by lowering self-registering thermom- eters into hot pools and geyser-vents gave some clew to in- creased underground heat. In the Upper Geyser Basin, at only '70 feet below the surface, the thermometer recorded 253° F., a rise in temperature due to the pressure of a super- incumbent column of water. Solvent Power.—ln general, the solvent power of thermal waters may be said to increase with temperature. Pressure also increases the power of hot waters to take up mineral matter in solution. Many of the relatively cool springs may have acquired their mineral contents at lower depths and consequently higher temperatures. Thermal waters which hold alkaline carbonates in solution have greatly augmented their solvent power for other mineral substances, notably silica, a common ingredient of boiling water in volcanic regions. The mineral ingredients of thermal springs are varied and embrace all substances found in what are usually designated natural mineral waters. Owing to their great solvent power nearly all thermal waters may be considered as mineral waters. In general, any classification of mineral waters based upon chemical composition would apply equal- ly well to thermal waters. ARNOLD HAGUE. Thermie Fever, or Sunstroke: fever due to excessive heat, but most commonly due to exposure to the direct heat of the sun; indirect solar heat or artificial heat may have the same effect. There is another form of disease which re- sults from excessive heat quite distinct in its characteristics from thermic fever in that the temperature of the body is depressed. This is generally called heat ea;hausz‘ion. In its mildest form it is represented by the weakness of feeble persons subjected to heat while under exertion. In severe cases there is profound depression, pallor, and in the most severe forms collapse and unconsciousness. The tempera- ture of the body is lowered sometimes to 95° F. Thermie fever, on the other hand, is characterized by high fever, the thermometer in severe cases registering as much as 112° and 115° F. The onset of the symptoms is usually abrupt, though vague distress or weakness may precede their devel- opment. The patient rapidly sinks into unconsciousness, is extremely restless, even delirious or maniacal, the surface of the body is red and covered with sweat, the eyes are suf- fused with blood, and vomiting and purging are frequently present. Unless the patient is promptly treated death en- sues from paralysis of the contro ling mechanism of respira- tion and circulation in the brain. The causes of heat ex- haustion and thermic fever have been the subject of much speculation, but it is now recognized that the important factor is the immediate effect of heat upon the nervous cen- ters at the base of the brain. \Vhatever lowers the vitality and resisting power of the system, such as ill health or fa- tigue, contributes to the development of these diseases, but the immediate cause is the heat itself. The treatment is different in the two forms. In heat ex- haustion the temperature of the body must be promptly ele- vated by the use of external heat, and stimulants, such as digitalis, atropine, and stryehnine, are demanded impera- tively. In the ease of thermic fever, on the other hand, re- duction of the excessive fever is the first requisite. For this purpose cold bathing, effusions of ice-water over the chest and body, or rubbing with ice must be resorted to, and should not be delayed a moment beyond necessity. Anti- pyrine is a remedy useful for the reduction of fever, but is not in the least comparable with cold water. \Vherc the circulation is failing digitalis should be given hypodermat- ically; and, on the other hand, in cases of great excitement of the circulation, venesection is used with advantage. After recovery from sunstroke or heat exhaustion there is often an abnormal susceptibility to the effects of heat, and meningitis or other diseases may follow in consequence of the attack or of the greater susceptibility resulting from the attack. W ILLIAM PEPPER. THERMODYNAMICS 109 Thermirlor, Fr. pron. tar’meVe'd6r’ [: Fr. from Gr. 6ep,uds, hot]: the eleventh month of the French republican calen- dar. It began on July 19 and ended with Aug. 18. Tlle1‘1n0-cllemistry [from Gr. 6e’p,m7, heat + Eng. chemis- try] : that branch of chemistry which deals with the inves- tigation of the evolution and absorption of heat in chemical reactions. Whenever a chemical change takes place there is either an evolution or absorption of heat, and a complete study of the change necessarily involves an estimation of the quantity of heat evolved or absorbed. Hess, of St. Peters- burg, was the first to reach results of importance by this kind of work. In 1840 he announced the fundamental law of constant heat summation, according to which the amount of heat developed in a reaction is the same no matter what the intermediate stages may be. Another fundamental law of thermo-chemistry is this: The amount of heat required to decompose a compound into its constituents is the same as the amount evolved in its formation. An immense num- ber of determinations have been made, particularly by Julius Thomsen, of Copenhagen, and by M. Berthelot, of Paris, and the laws referred to have been shown to hold good. While work of this kind is of undoubted value, it must be con- fessed that it has hitherto exerted but a comparatively slight effect upon the advance of the science of chemistry. See CHEMISTRY. IRA REMSEN. Thermody'namics [from Gr. 6ép/117, heat + 6151/a,ns, pow- er] : the science which deals with physical phenomena involv- ing either the development of heat or the transformation of heat into other forms of energy. The development of the science has been most rapid since the middle of the nine- teenth century, and its applications, which were at first con- fined to the problems of mass mechanics, now extend to such fields as electro-chemistry, thermo-electricity. and the vari- ous branches of physical chemistry. The following may be cited as examples of cases where the principles of thermo- dynamics are involved : The expansion of bodies when heat- ed; the development of heat by compression ; the transfor- mation of heat into mechanical energy in the steam-engine and other heat-engines; the dissociation of gases and of sub- stances in solution; the flow of gases ; fusion and evapora- tion; the infiuence of temperature changes upon the elec- tromotive force of a voltaic cell. The fundamental princi- ples of the science are usually stated in the form of the two laws of thermodynamics which are explained below. First Law.—The first law, although capable of expression in a variety of forms, is at bottom only a statement of the principle of the conservation of energy as applied to cases where heat is transformed or developed. Heat being a form of energy may be measured in ordinary mechanical units. (See ENERGY.) Thus 1 British thermal unit is de- veloped by the expenditure of 778 foot-pounds of energy, or 1 minor calorie :4'197 X 107 ergs. Similarly, when one calorie of heat is transformed, 4'19’? X 10'1 ergs are obtained in some other form of energy. The first law merely states that heat is a form of energy capable of transformation, and that the mechanical equivalent of heat is constant. The first law is often put into the following form : If a quantity of heat dQ is imparted to a body, this energy is expended (1) in increasing the internal energy of the body by raising its temperature or changing its state; (2) by causing the body to expand and so do external work. If dU represents the change in the internal energy and (ZIV the work done against external forces during expansion, then the law of energy requires that cZQ : (Z U + d W, (1) where dQ is supposed to be measured in mechanical units. If p and /0 represent the pressure and volume of the body, we have (Z IV: pdv, and the equation may be written in the more usual form dQ : d U + pdv. (2) Many thermodynamic problems may be solved by a direct application of the energy relations expressed by the first law. Among such may be cited those problems of hydrome- ehanics and Pxnumrrrcs (q. en), which involve heat trans- formations as well as ordinary mechanical considerations. The pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of a per- fect gas are found to be related by the equation Pt‘ : RT, (3) in which R is a constant depending upon the chemical con- stitution of the gas, '0 refers to the volume of unit mass, and T is the absolute temperature. The fixed gases obey this law with great accuracy, wlnle the relation is also approxi- 110 mately satisfied in the case of most vapors, provided they are at a temperature not too near the boiling-point of their liquid. If a gas is allowed to expand or contract under such con- ditions that the temperature is maintained constant, we have pu : RT: const. (4) In this case the expansion is isothermal. The first law makes possible the computation of the amount of heat which 1nust be supplied to the gas during expansion in order to keep the temperature the same. We have from (2) (ZQ : LZU + 10612). For a gas d U:cvdT, ev being the specific heat for con- stant volume, . ' . dQ : c,-dT +yodv. In the case of isothermal expansion, however, T is con- stant, i. e. d T : 0. Therefore dQ :pdv, and if the gas ex- - . RT pands from Q11 to '02 we have (remembermg that 1) : T) Q :/dQ :/Zi]JdL‘ T-6?:RTlog‘€ (5) The GXlD1’GSSlOH/PCZU represents the work done by the gas in overcoming the external pressure. Equation (5) states therefore that energy equivalent to the work done 1nust be supplied in the form of heat. \Vhen no heat is supplied to the gas during expansion its behavior is different. Work is then done at the expense of the internal energy of the gas, and the temperature falls. Under these circumstances the expansion is adiabatic. The condition that no heat is lost or gained during expansion leads to the equation dQ : 0 : dU+pdu : cvdT -l-pdv. This is equivalent to do c.-dT+RT—q)—:0. (6) If the gas expands from cl to 1:2, the corresponding tem- peratures being T1 and T2, we therefore have cv loge Z1 : R loge (7) T2 The constant R is equal to the difference (expressed in mechanical units) between the two specific heats of the gas; that is to say, R : cp — cV where cP is the specific heat at constant pressure. The relation between volume and tem- perature during the process of adiabatic expansion may therefore be put in the form 21 '11 r—1_ T2 (,2) -1. <8> or, making use of the relation given in (4), ])2=Z91(,7i)y, <9> . c where 7 represents the ratio 3. As an example of the application of these equations we may consider the case of the adiabatic expansion of air. The numerical value of 7 has been found by experiment to be 1405 for air as well as for other gases in which the molecule is supposed to consist of two atoms. If expansion contin- ues until the air occupies three times its original volume, we have from (8) ' Z? : (_.1)0-405 Q11 3 ' Assuming that the air was originally at the ordinary at- mosphenc temperature, say 20° C., its absolute temperature was T1 : 273° + 20° : 293°. The temperature T2 after ex- pansion is therefore T2 : 294(,§-)‘’'405 :: 148° (absolute), or A— 25° C. The air is therefore cooled by expansion from 20’ C. (68° F.) to — 25° C. (— 13° F). In cases where power is transmitted by compressed air the expansion is often ap- proximately adiabatic, and the cooling effect is a source of some trouble. See PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION. For other cases in which the first law may be directly ap- plied (e. g. the flow of gases through pipes, velocity of sound in gases, etc.), the reader is referred to treatises on hydro- mechanics. THERMCDYNAMICS Second Law.-—While mechanical energy can be com- pletely transformed into heat, the transformation of all the heat in a body into other forms of energy is in no case pos- sible. In general only a small fraction is capable of such transformation. The second law of thermodynamics af- fords a means of determining the availability of heat. The fundamental principle upon which it rests is the experi- mental fact that heat can not of itself pass from a colder to a warmer body. The consequences of this principle are more far-reaching than is at first apparent. The following example will afford an illustration of its application : Carnot’s Cycle-—A perfect gas may be utilized as a work- ing fluid in transforming heat into mechanical energy in the following cyclic process: Let the initial pressure and vol- ume of the gas be represented P by the co-ordi- nates AA’ and 0A’ of the point A in the dia- gram. The gas is allowed to ex- pand isothermal- ly until its pres- sure has been re- duced to BB’ and its volume 0 has increased to OB’. During ex- pansion the gas may be made to do work by driving a pis- ton, while an amount of heat, Q1, must be supplied from a “ source ” in order to keep the temperature constant. When the condition represented by the point B has been reached, the source of heat is removed, and the gas allowed to ex- pand adiabatically to 0. If the absolute temperature was originally T1, it will have fallen between B and O to some lower temperature, T2. Let the gas now be compressed iso- thermally at this temperature to D. During this process the heat Q2 developed by compression must be removed by a “refrigerator.” The gas is finally compressed adiabat- ically to the original condition A, when its temperature will be T1 as before. During the complete cycle the heat Q; has been given to the gas, while the quantity Q2 has been taken from it. The difference Q1 — Q9 represents the amount of heat that has been transformed into mechanical energy. It may be men- tioned in passing that the graphical representation here used affords an excellent means of following the various steps in such a process. Thus the area ABBL/1’, being equal to /i])d’U, represents the work done during the first expansion. Similarly the areas BOUB’, CDD’O", and DAA'D' represent the amounts of work done, either upon the piston or by the piston, during the corresponding ex- pansions or compressions. The area of the figure ABCD is a measure of the net work done by the gas in the course of the complete cycle. Graphical methods similar to this are frequently employed in thermodynamic problems. A consideration of the laws of perfect gases shows that under these circumstances --.- __-_--___-_.-___- /' / A’? Di Q__1___%__ .Q1_‘Qfl__T1_T2 Z11 T2_0’ 01 o. “ r, ' cl-o. The expression is the ratio of the work utilized in 1 drivingthe piston to the total heat energy supplied, i. e. the efficiency of the engine. Such a process is a reversible one. For if the expansions and compressions are made to occur in the reverse direc- tion, a quantity of work, Q1 — Q2, will be done by the piston and will result in taking the heat Q2 from the refrigerator and giving up Q1 to the source. It is clear that no heat- engine working between the temperatures T, and T2 can be more efficient than one that is reversible. For if this were possible, such an engine might be employed to drive a re- versible engine, using the same source and refrigerator, backward, and there would result a continual transfer of heat from the refrigerator to the source, i. e. from a colder to a warmer body. But this is contrary to universal expe- rience. The greatest possible efficiency which can be obtained in any heat transl'ormation is thus determined by the range of temperatures that can be used, and does not depend upon the working substance. For example, if heat is supplied at ,_ TI~IERl\‘IODYNAMICS 200° C. while the temperature of the refrigerator is 100° C., the highest possible efliciency is given by the expression T1 —_il_’2 100 T1 200 + 273 If steam is used as the working fluid this case would cor- respond to that of an engine receiving steam at a pressure of about 200 lb. and exhausting at atmospheric pressure. The efficiency practically attainable would of course be much less than that computed for the ideal case. In the cas_e_of any reversible cycle of operations in which the quantities 1 Q2, . . . etc., of heat are supplied at temperatures T1, T2, etc., it is found (remembering that Q is sometimes negative) that _/[Y1 172 By a reversible cycle is meant any series of operations which finally bring the whole system back into its original condition, and which can be performed in the opposite di- rection with all quantities reversed. If the temperature changes are continuous, equation (10) may be written 01‘ : 211 per cent. +...:(). (10) d0 _ T _ 0 (11) for a reversible cycle. Considerations which can not be discussed here show that C”? is a complete differential, i. e. the difierential of some quantity whose value is completely determined by the physical condition of a body, and inde- pendent of the manner by which the body was brought into that condition. This quantity is called the eu2fro])3/ of the body, and may be denoted by S [CZQ = dS]. The en- 11 tropy of a perfect gas may, for example, be found as fol- lows : From (1) (HQ : dU +pdc, but cZU: cvol’T, and since for a perfect gas pv : RT, we have pdv : RT%, S : cv log; T + R log 12 + const. (13) In other cases the determination of S presents greater difficulties. But the principle stated below may often be applied without a knowledge of the actual numerical value of S. By using the conception of entropy, the second law of thermodynamics may be stated in a very useful form as follows: In the‘case of any reversible process the total on- tropy remains constant; if the process is not reversible, the entropy of the system must increase. In estimating the total entropy, all bodies whose condition is in any manner altered during the process in question must be considered. As examples of non-reversible processes may be mentioned the development of heat by friction, or the expansion of a gas without overcoming outside pressure. In accordance with the second law, as stated above, the entropy of a system can never diminish. VVhen the phys- ical conditions of a system are such that its entropy is a maximum, the system must therefore be in equilibrium. It is this condition that enables the solubility of a salt, the dissociation of a vapor, the vapor tension of liquids or so- lutions, etc., to be determined by the application of the second law; for these are all cases of physical and chemical equilibrium. In the case of evaporation, for example, the development of vapor at the surface of a liquid continues until a certain definite vapor pressure, whose value depends upon the temperature, has been reached. The vapor is then saturated, and there is no tendency either for further evaporation or for condensation. Under these circum- stances the liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium with one another. The conditions necessary for such equilibri- um may be investigated by remembering that the entropy of the system must be at a maximum. Various l'a.ws in re- gard to the dependence of vapor tension upon temperature, substances in solution, etc., have been developed in this manner. The application of thermodynamics has been greatly ex- tended during the last few years. and it seems probable that this science will be a most valuable aid in the furt.her devel- opment of physics and chemistry. ERNEST l\InR.r.1'rT. .'. THERMO-ELECTRICITY 111 Thermo-electricity: the direct production of electric currents by means of heat. The process was discovered by Seebeck about 1821 or 1822 (Pogg. Ann., vi., 1826). Strictly, the phenomenon consists in the generation of electromotive force at the unequally heated junctions of two substances which are in some way dissimilar. Thus if a circuit be formed of an iron and a copper wire, and if the temperature of one junction be raised above that of the other, a current will flow across the warmer junction from copper to iron. The heated junction is the seat of an electromotive force of such direction that the iron is at a higher potential than the copper. A current, therefore, flows around through the circuit from the warmer iron across the cooler junction back to the warmer copper. For thermo-electric series, see EZect1'z'ce'iy from Heat under ELECTRICITY. The electromotive force of a thermal element is small, and depends not only upon the temperature difference of the two contacts, but upon the absolute values of their tem- peratures. Every combination of two metals has what is called a neutral temperature. At this temperature the elec- tromotive forces at the two junctions are equal and in oppo- site directions; hence there is no current. Thus for silver and iron the neutral temperature is 223'5° C. ; for copper and iron it is 2745"’ C. \Vhen the mean temperature of the two junctions is above the neutral temperature, the current is reversed. There is no current when fl equals z‘2 and when 4; (2.‘1 + 1.3) equals the neutral temperature. \Vith most pairs of metals, if differences of temperature be plotted as abscissas and electromotive forces as ordinates, a parabola will be obtained with its axis vertical. (See Elec- z.‘1'2'cz'z‘y f7*0m Heat, under ELECTRICITY. Therefore, from the properties of the parabola, E—e::b(T--t)9, (1) where E and T are the electromotive force and temperature corresponding to the vertex of the parabola, and b is a con- stant. In a few cases the parabola becomes a straight line, and in others the curve consists of portions of parabolas with their axes parallel and their verticesturned alternately in opposite directions. This relation between electromotive force and temperature led Lord Kelvin and P. G. Tait to adopt an elegant method of constructing a thermo-electric diagram. The diflerential coefficient of c with respect to 2‘ is, from equation (1), dc E I ‘>b(T— 1‘). (2) Now 3%, or the rate of change of the electromotive force with temperature, is the z‘72e7'mo-eZecz‘m'c _79ou'e1'. and, if this be taken as an ordinate, (2) is the equation of a straight line. If, then, this line for some standard metal be made to coincide with the axis of temperature, the lines obtained from observations on circuits of other metals with it will, in general, be straight lines also; and taken together they will +15 +1 +5 505 50 350 FIG. 1. form a thermo-electric diagram. The point of intersection of any pair of lines corresponds with the temperature of maximum electromotive force for this pair of metals. Thus the copper-iron lines cross at 2'74'5°. This is therefore the temperature at which the thermo-electric power of this pair becomes zero. It is also the point, therefore. corresponding to the neutral temperature for this pair. At a mean tem- perature a little below 2’”4'5° a small difl"erence of tempera- ture between the two junctions causes a current to flow across the warmer one from copper to iron; if the mean temperature is above 2'T4'5°, the current flows across the warmer junction from iron to copper. This phenomenon is known as ti:e1'mo-eZeeI‘r'zTc 'zIn2'crs2'ou. Fig. 1 is the thermo- electric diagram for several metals compared with lead. 112 THERMO—ELECTR-ICITY From the manner in which this diagram is constructed it follows that, if the cooler junction of a copper-iron couple be at 100° and the warmer at 200°, the electromotive force in the circuit will be represented by the area a b c d; but if the warmer junction be at 400°, the electromotive force will be numerically equal to the difference of the areas a b n and c’ d’ n. The intersections of some of these lines, palla- dium-copper, for example, lie beyond the limits of .Tait’s experimental diagram. The palladium-copper lines, if pro- duced, would intersect at — 170° C Dewar and Fleming have found, by means of the low temperature obtained with liquid oxygen, that thermo-electric inversion for this couple occurs at about -— 170° C. In 1834 Peltier discovered the phenomenon converse to the production of electromotive force by the application of heat. If a bismuth-antimony junction, for example, be ‘ heated, a current flows across from bismuth to antimony, or bismuth is positive to antimo- ny. Peltier discovered that if a current be sent across such a junction from B to A, Fig. 2, where B is bismuth and A an- timony, the junction is cooled; but if it goes from A to B, the junction is heated. The long arrow in the figure shows the direction in which the current is sent through from an outside source; the arrows at a and b show the direction of the electromotive force at the junctions. At a this electro- motive force is in the same direction as the current; hence at this point work is done on the current, and the heat of the junction is converted into the energy of a current. At b the electromotive force is negative, and the current does work on the junction and heats it. This accords with the general principle that the current gives up energy wherever it encounters a back electromotive force. This generation of heat is entirely distinct from that due to the resistance of a conductor, since the heat due to the Peltier effect is proportional to the first power of the current, while that due to ohmic resistance varies as the square of the current. Moreover, the former is a reversible phenomenon, while the latter is not. . _ . In order to explain the fact of electric inversion in such couples as copper and iron, Lord Kelvin assumed that the Peltier effect becomes zero at the neutral temperature. N 0 heat is then absorbed or developed at a junction at- this temperature, while heat is generated at the other junction, since the current there meets a counter-electromotive force. There is, therefore, no thermal energy at the junctions which can be converted into electrical energy; but since there is no other possible source of the energy of the cur- rent, Lord Kelvin was led to predict that heat is absorbed at parts of the circuit other than the junctions. This pre- diction he subsequently verified. Iii copper heat is absorbed when the current passes from cold parts to hot parts; in iron it is absorbed when the current passes from hot parts to cold parts. Consider a metallic bar, A B C, Fig. 3, which is heated at the middle, B, and cooled at the ends, A and C. Then the distribution of heat may be repre- sented by the curve a b c. But if a current be passed from A to C, then, in metals like copper, the curve of the distribution of heat becomes some- what like a’ b 0’. Since a current in copper absorbs heat as a liquid does in flowing from the cold parts to the FIG‘ 3' hot parts o_f a tube. electricity is some- times said to have specific heat. It is positive in metals like copper and negative in metals like iron. Thermal electromotive forces have their origin also at the contacts of solids with liquids and of liquids with liquids. The thermo-electric power of Zn—ZnSO.i is 000076 for a mean temperature of 135° (1.; that of Cu—CuSO4 is 000069 for about the same temperature. Since the liquid is posi- tive to the metal in both cases, and there is no appreciable electromotive force at the contact of the two, the tempera- ture coefficient of the electromotive force of a Daniell cell, which is composed of zinc in zinc sulphate and copper in copper sulphate, is the difference of the above two thermo- electric powers, or 000007. This conclusion is verified by experiment. Similar results with other cells show that the temperature coefficient in general is determined by the su- perposition of the several electromotive forces at the con- tacts of the dissimilar substances in the cell. HENRY S. CARHART. BaA bB F -i—» <—l—'__J \ Frlr FIG. 2. THERMOMETER Thermom’eter: any instrument for the measurement of temperature. The effect generally used for the purpose is the relative expansion of a liquid or a gas. The distortion of solids by F C R heat is also sometimes used. In the re earliest thermometer (Galileo, 1592, and Debbel, 1621) a glass bulb con- taining air was used, a bead of liquid in the stem separating the contained gas from the outer atmosphere. The movement of this bead along an ar- bitrary scale indicated the change of temperature. In the eighteenth cen- tury liquid thermometers came into use, among others the mercury-ther- mometer, which, in the hands of Fah- renheit (1714), of Réaumur (1730), and of Celsius (1742), reached a con- siderable degree of perfection. The scales of these three makers are re- lated to each other as shown in the following formula and graphically in Fig. 1: \ n° O.=§ n° R.::%n° F. + 32° F. The only other scale which need be mentioned is the absolute scale, some- times used in scientific work, for which see THERMOMETRY. All thermometers are based upon k 212° 82° llllllllllllllllllllllllll the same principle of scale-making- viz., the selection of two fixed points which are capable of accurate experi- mental determination and the divi- sion of the intervening portion of the bore into equal parts called degrees. Parts of the tube lying above and below the fixed points are divided into degrees of the same size. The fixed oints used in the construction of all ordi- nary thermometers are the temperatures of melting ice and of the steam within a vessel of boiling water when the pressure is 76 cm. of mercury. The scale of Fahrenheit appears to have been ar- ranged with reference to the uses of the physician, the attempt having been to make 100° correspond with the temperature of the human body; but it is always fixed by the use of the two points already mentioned. The form of the mercurythermometer, which is the result of nearly 200 years of experience, is briefly as follows: (1) An elongated bulb contain- ing pure mercury (B, Fig. 2), with walls of glass as thin as is compatible with safety, and a diameter somewhat less than that of the stem (S), in order to admit of its passage without pressure through any hole which snugly fits the tube of the thermometer. (2) An elongated stem of glass with a capillary bore, sometimes flattened to show the height of the mercury, but in the better forms cylindrical. The stem is sometimes of clear glass, sometimes of glass with a strip of milk-glass at the back. In all ther- mometers for scientific purposes it carries the scale, etched upon the glass. The bore should terminate above in a small bulb (b), which serves to receive any mercury which may be driven to the upper end of the bore. This minor bulb is also useful in the calibration of the thermometer. Estabhishment of the Fixed Poz'nts.—To find the melting-point of a thermometer, after the same has been filled with mercury, exclude the air by boil- ing the mercury within the bulb, seal the tube, and insert the bulb in broken ice, as shown in Fig. 3; then, after a sufficient interval (about twenty min- utes to thirty minutes) has elapsed, mark on the stem the position of the mercury; this gives the 1nelting-point of ice. To find the boiling-point, the appara- tus shown in Fig. 4 is used. It consists of a bath in which the thermometer bulb and a portion of the stern are sur- rounded by steam at the proper pressure. After adequate exposure, the height of the mercury is again noted. The scale of the mereury-t/iermomelfer is based upon the assumption that equal movements of the mercury along the stem indicate equal difi":erences of temperature. As is pointed out in the article on TI-IERMOMETRY ((1. 1).), this as- sumption fails of strict fulfillment from two distinct causes. tttl FIG. 1. FIG. 2. TH ERMOMETER The first of these is the irregularity of the bore, a source of error, which can be overcome by calibration and by making the divisions with equal cubic contents of bore, instead of making them of linear equality. The other difficulty arises from the fact that glass expands with increasing rapidity as the temperature rises, so that the relative coefiicient of expansion of the liquid with which the bulb is filled, even though that liquid possesses a perfectly constant coefficient, will vary with the temperature. This source of error, although it may be neg- lected in many of the uses to which the mercury-thermometer is put, is so seri- ous in its bearings upon experiments of precision as to have led to the abandon- ment of that instrument as a primary standard in favor of the air-thermome- ter. S7m'fte'ng of the Zero-point.-—A very troublesome error of the mercury-ther- mometer is the gradual rise of the zero- point with age. This effect, which often amounts in the aggregate to more than a degree of the centigrade thermometer, FIG“ 3' is due to the continued contraction of the glass of the bulb after fusion. This change, which is rapid at first, continues, although with diminishing inten- sity, for a very long time. It has been traced for at least twenty years. A sim- ilar shrinkage, through much smaller range, fol- lows every subsequent heating of the thermome- ter; so that an instru- ment which, after the de- termination of its zero, is placed in boiling water suffers a shifting of the zero from which it recov- ers only after a long time. Air - thermometers, on account of their compara- tive freedom from the in- fiuence of the variations in the coefiicient of ex- pansion of the bulb, have been universallyr adopted as standards of compari- son. They depend upon the laws of Charles and Mariette (see PNEUMATICS), which express the well-established fact that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, with a constant coefiicient of 003668, and inversely proportional to the pressure. The essential parts of the air-thermometer are the bulb (B, Fig. 5) and the manometer (M), by means of which the pressure may be regulated and measured. The usual procedure consists in holding the air with- in the bulb at constant volume, the mercury within the manome- ter tube being brought always to the same level (n). The temper- ature of the air within the bulb is computed from the pressure necessary to give it the volume in question. At very high temperatures this process has to be abandoned for fear of distending the bulb and changing its volume permanent- ly. For such experiments the pressure is maintained constant and the volume is allowed to vary. In the measurement of temperatures above 400°, porce- lain is substituted for glass on account of its greater refrangi- bility. Fig. 6 shows the form of bulb used by Barns in the calibration of thermo-elements for the measurement of high temperatures. It is of porce- lain, with a neck 40 c1n. long and only 0'1 cm. of internal FIG. 4. FIG. 5. THERMOMETRY 113 diameter. A re-entrant tube is introduced for the purpose of admitting the junction to be calibrated to a position near the center of the bulb. Special Forms of Z7L67”/)’L0’l7’L6l‘67‘S.-—-Tl16 thermometers de- scribed in the preceding paragraphs are standard forms. These are modified to adapt the in- strument to spe- cial purposes, and sometimes new principles are in- troduced. Among the nu- _ _ merous special forms of mercury-thermometers it is pos- sible to mention here only one or two of the best known. One such is the clinical ther- mometer, in which the stem is shortened between the zero and the range with which one has to do in determining the tempera- ture of the human body, by means of a small subsidiary bulb, as shown in Fig. '7. Other well-known special forms are the various maximum and min- imum thermometers, of which one of the most widely used (Rutherford’s) is shown in Fig. 8. The maximum recording device consists simply of a steel marker, which is pushed along the wide bore in front of the mercury column, and is left by the latter when it recedes. The minimum is recorded by means of an alcohol-thermometer con- taining a minute dumb-bell- shaped marker of glass, which fits the tube loosely, so that when the thermometer rises the liquid flows past. Upon the re- turn the surface film catches the marker, which is thus compelled to follow the receding column to its lowest point. Where it is desired to indicate temperatures in such a way that the scale may be easily read from a distance, distortion thermome- ters are sometimes used. They are analogous to the aneroid ba- rometer in principle, the same multiplying devices being used to carry a hand along a circular scale. Fig. 9 shows a familiar form. It consists of a strip of copper and one of steel fastened side by side and bent so as to form nearly a complete ring. The copper is on the inside. Differ- ence in the coefficients of expan- sion of the two metals distorts the double piece which is fastened at one end, and the slight movement of the free end is magnified by the simple device shown in the figure. The spiral spring secures a prompt return of the pointer. See CENTIGR-ADE Tnnnuonnrsn. E. L. N1cHoLs. FIG. 6. .> //4 -0» |=l=i'=l'|: I -1 F“ 1 _ - -"'5.-E2 2 s'.=.=!;:.lZ[-_2|'=|:= mu . FIG. 8. Therm0m’etry [deriv. of the'rm0mez‘e'r; Gr. 9e'p,u.77, heat + ,u.e"rpox/. measure]: the process of measuring temperature. The phenomena which are commonly utilized in thermom- etry are the change in length or volume under the action of heat, distortion of form from the same cause, the electro- motive force due to ditl‘erence of temperature between the junctions of a thermo-element or thermopile, and the change of electrical resistance which occurs in a metal when the same is subjected to variations of temperature. E.rpaoasz'on z‘i2er'm0'n2.e2‘e1's. on account of their simplicity, are the most widely used. They are also the earliest. Galileo having made air-thermometers with arbitrary scales in 1592. A nearly ideal substance for thermometry at ordinary tem- peratures is mereury. That liquid possesses a very low freezing-point (- 394° C.) and a higher boiling-point‘ than any other available liquid (357° C.). It has a sutficiently large coeflicient of expansion (0000181), as compared with glass (0000025), to afford ample sensitiveness; it is opaque 405 114 and an excellent conductor of heat. These properties have led to the adoption of mercury for all excepting a few special purposes, in spite of the fact that it does not pos- sess the one essential characteristic of a perfect thermo- metric medium, viz., an absolutely constant coeificient of ex- pansion. Only the permanent gases possess such a coeffi- cient, and these, while they are likely always to be used for purposes of reference and comparison, are ill adapted in almost every other respect for the purposes of practical ther- mometry. Smce, moreover, the performance of any liquid or gas thermometer depends not only upon the coeificient of the contents but also upon that of the bulb itself, the ac- curacy of the instrument is limited by the lack of uniform- ity in the expansion of glass. The error due to variations in the coefficient of the bulb are less important in the case of air thermometers, where the gas expands 140 to 150 times as fast as glass, than with mercury, where the ratio is only about 7 : 1. That mercury is a sufficiently good material to use in bulbs of ordinary glass is seen on comparing its co- efficient at different ranges with that of the latter substance. See Table I. : TABLE I.—-COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION OF MERCURY AND OF GLASS. MERCURY (ACCORDING TO ORDINARY GLASS (ACCORDING TO LEONARDT). RECKNAGEL). Range of temp. Mean coefi‘. (cubic). Range of temp. Mean coefl’. (lmear). 0° to 100° 0 00018092 0° to 10° 0 00000851 100 “ 200 000018094 0 “ 50 0 00000882 200 “ 300 0 00018129 0 "‘ 100 0 00000920 0 “ 150 0 00000959 0 “ 200 0 00000997 Happily glass is an artificial mixture. and its properties are to a great extent within the control of the manufacturer. Under the guidance of Abbe, of Jena, and other investigators, it has been found possible to adapt glass, by varying its com- position, to the varying needs of the optician, and also to reduce the changes in its coeificient of expansion. How marked the improvement is may be seen from Table II., in which are indicated the errors of two mercury-thermometers, the zero-points and boiling-points of which are correct and the bores of which between those points are divided into 100 parts of equal volume. One of these is a thermometer of Thuringian glass of the composition used in 1830-40, the other is a modern thermometer of the Jena normal glass. Both are compared with the hydrogen thermometers : TABLE II. TEMPERATURES. CORRECTION OF A THERMOMETER OF Hydrogen thermometer. Thurmgian glass. Jena normal glass. 0° 0 000° 0 000° 10 -0 086 -0056 20 -0 1-19 -0'091 30 —0‘101 -0'109 40 —0 213 -0 111 50 —0 206 -0 103 60 —0 201 -0 086 70 -0 171 -0 071 80 —0 127 -0 041 90 -0 069 —-0 018 100 0'000 0 000 Thermometric Scales. Many proposals have been made to establish thermometric scales based upon some absolute system, thermodynamic or other. In practice, however, it is found convenient to adopt an arbitrary scale with two points fixed; these fixed points being that of melting ice and of the saturated vapor above water which boils at a pressure of 76 cm. The familiar scale of Fahrenheit has this interval divided into 180 parts [+ 32° to + 212°], that of Réaumur into 80 parts [0° to + 80°], while the scale of Celsius, the “ centigrade ” scale of science, contains 100 divisions. The ratio of the three is therefore 1 E. :5 C. : §-R. To consider the case of the centigrade scale only, it is evi- dent that the 100 equal divisions between melting and boil- ing might be—- (1) Linearly equal divisions, (2) Divisions of equal content of bore, (3) True degrees of the centigrade scale. In a thermometer of truly cylindrical bore, filled with a thermometric substance with uniform coeificient, and hav- THERMOMETRY ing a bulb which likewise expands uniformly, the three methods of dividing the stem would be identical. ‘Actual thermometers, however, do not possess truly cylindrical bores. Calibration of the same by means of a detached thread of mercury shows in general a conical form, more or less irregular. The character of the bore can be shown graphically by means of a curve in which ordinates are re- ciprocals of the lengths of the thread and abscissas are dis- tances of the middle of the thread from the zero-point of the thermometer. Fig. 1 is such a curve, platted from meas- urements upon an unusually good thermometer. It is evi- dent that a scale made by dividing the bore between the melting and boiling points into 100 parts linearly equal will be inac- curate. All fine thermometers have 20 40 60 so the bore calibrated FIG. 1. for the purpose of determining the lengths of divisions. embracing everywhere equal cubic contents of bore. Such a scale is subject only to errors arising from variations in the coeificient of appar- ent expansion of the mercury. The size of this error, which depends upon the character of the glass, is given in Table ll. For the work of the highest precision, in which the errors of expansion can not be neglected, a direct compari- son is made with the air-thermometer. For other errors of the mercury thermometer and for details of its construction, etc., see THERMOMETER. The so-called absolute scale of temperature is based upon the following consideration: Given a thermometer contain- ing a perfect gas. Suppose the form of the thermometer to be cy- lindrical (Fig. 2). If this cylinder be placed in ice and in steam and the two fixed points noted, it will be found that the interval contains -l-9-5} of the contents of the tube. If new the tube be graduated in cen- tigrade degrees (all of equal length) and the graduation be carried down- ward past the zero, the 273d divi- sion below zero will coincide with the bottom of the tube. From this -—273° is called the absolute zero. It is a point lying considerably below the experimental range, which at present extends only to the tempera- ture of oxygen boiling under re- duced pressure, or to about -— 200° C. See, further, the article ZERO. The use of the expansion of solids in thermometry is chiefly confined to the measurement of high tem- peratures or pyrometry (see PYROM- ETER), the coeflicient being too small to afford suificient delicacy at ordinary temperatures, but the dis- tortion of properly constructed composite solids consisting of two or more solids with different coefficients is used with excellent results. Such instruments, for a description of which see THER.MOME'1‘ER, are adapted for indicating tem- perature changes rather than for precise measurement. They bear much the same relation to the mercury-thermometer that aneroid barometers do to the standard mercury-ba- rometer. It may be seen from the foregoing that the standard proc- ess iii thermometry is that in which the expansion of a gas is used. The manipulation of the air-thermometer, whether by the method of constant pressure or of constant volume, is, however, so complicated a matter that that instrument is used only for purposes of reference and calibration. Electrical thermometry, as indicated in ELEC'1‘R.ICI'1‘Y (g. v.), consists in the utilization of the electromotive force of a thermo-element for the determination of differences of tem- perature or of the change in resistance in a wire for the same purpose. These two methods are incomparably the most sensitive of known processes for the detection of minute differences, and it is in the measurement of the almost in- finitesimal heat quantities with which the student of radiant energy has to deal that they have chiefly been employed. CONTENTS OF UNIT- LENGTH OF BORE BOILING o POINT +100 CENTIGRADE ZERO ABSOLUTE ZERO FIG. 2. - 273° THERMOMETRY Both methods, however, furnish likewise the most trustworthy means of extending accurate and quantitative measurements to very low and to very high temperatures. Throughout both these extreme ranges, which lie beyond that of the mercury- thermometer, a properly calibrated thermo-element or re- sistance-coil affords quite as manageable a substitute for the air-thermometer as the mercury-thermometer does between 0° and 100°. For temperatures of 0° to —200° C. the most serviceable apparatus consists either of a coil of pure copper wire or of a thermo-element of platinum — platinum-irid- ium. Where the coil is used resistances are measured either with the Wheatstone bridge, of which the other three arms are known and are maintained at constant temperature, or by fall of potential. In the latter method, which has cer- tain advantages, the arrange- ment of the apparatus is that shown in Fig. 3, in which dia- gram B is a battery in closed circuit with the temperature coil, R, and compensated com- parison-coil, C. The sensitive galvanometer, G, can be placed in shunt with R or C at will, and it is the ratio of the deflections thus obtained which measures the temperature of R. The change in the resist- ance of copper with the temperature, which amounts to '40 to '42 for 100°, is ample for the purposes of such meas- urements, and determinations of the coeflicient for a wide range have shown a degree of constancy in that factor which leaves little to be desired. Thus Kennelly and Fessenden found for a copper wire a mean coefficient 0004065 be- tween 278° and 255'26°, with no deviation from that value comparable with the errors of observation. The researches of Dewar and Fleming led to a precisely similar result for the range of temperatures —200° C. . . . +100° C. The specimen of copper with which they performed their ex- penments gave a higher temperature coefiicient (000424), but the coeificient was found to be nearly constant through- FIG. 3. + 100° — 100° 0° FIG. 4. --200° out the entire range covered by their investigations. Fig. 4 shows the resistance curve for copper, the observations be- ing made at the temperatures of boiling oxygen, boiling ethylene, ice, and steam. It appears as the result of the study of that metal, therefore, that while different speci- mens of copper possess different coeificients, it is quite safe to assume that the coefiicient remains unchanged be- tween -—200° C. and +250° C. Since the coefficient is read- ily determined at ordinary temperatures, say between 0° and 100°, copper is one of the most satisfactory of materials for the electric determination of temperature. Comparisons of thermo-elements with the hydrogen-then mometer have been made, extending downward to the very lowest temperatures that can be produced by artificial means. By these experiments it appears that the electro- motive force of a couple, consisting of pure platinum and of an alloy of platinum with iridium (10 per cent.). one junc- tion of which is cooled, is very strictly proportional to the difference of temperature. This is the combination to be selected when the circumstances make it better to use a thermo-element. The difliculty of obtaining platinum of 115 sufficient purity, however, makes it desirable to use the method of the resistance coil whenever practicable. For the electrical measurement of very high temperatures the same two methods are used. Since, however, the only metals which are sufficiently re- fractory to admit of their employ- ment are plati- num and the met- als of the plati- num group, the choice of materi- als is confined to them and their al- loys. Barus has shown that the thermo-couple al- ready described (platinum and an alloy of plati- num and iridium), when the met- als are of the ut- most purity, gives an electromotive force very nearly proportional to the temperature almost up to the melting-point of platinum. Fig. 5 shows his curve of calibration up to 1,600°. The performance of thermo- elements in which commercial platinum is used is, however, altogether untrustworthy. Attempts have been made by Siemens, Matthiesen, Benoit, and others to utilize the change of electrical resistance of platinum for the measure- ment of high temperatures, but the results are most unsat- isfactory. See PYROMETER. When the thermo-electric couple is to be used for the measurement of temperature through whatever range, the arrangement of apparatus shown in Fig. 6 is an advanta- s00° 1e'00° FIG. 5. 400° a b FIG. 6. <—_ geous one. It is based upon the same principle as the meth- od given above for the use of the resistance coil—viz., the comparison of the electromotive force to be determined with one constant and known. The thermo-element, e, V, has the junction, c, packed in melting ice, while V is exposed to the temperature to be measured. It is in circuit with a suitable galvanometer, G-, through the switch, S. The points a and b in any circuit have a constant difference of potential. The galvanometer may be brought into shunt around a and b at will by means of S. The ratio of the de- fleetions due to differences of potential between a and b and between 0 and V affords a measure of the difference of temperature between junctions of the latter couple. The points a and b may be the terminals of a standard cell, the junctions of a thermo-element maintained in ice and boil- ing water, or two points upon a closed metallic circuit through which a constant current is flowing. II 6 THERMOPILE It should be noted that none of these electrical methods affords any direct or absolute measurement of temperature. They all depend upon calibration of the apparatus, that is to say, directly or indirectly, like all other thermometnc processes, upon comparison with the a1r-thermometer. See, further, Guillaume, T/2e’rmomét'rt'e dc I3/I'6'C'b8?,O’I?/; Barus, .Meas/mement of Ell?/lb Temperatures: Preston,_IIeat; Lar- den, Heat; and the chapters on thermometry 1n the_trea- tises of J amin, Wiillner, Miiller-Pouillet, V1olle, and W1nkel- mann. E. L. NICHOLS. 'I‘her’mopile : an instrument for the production of elec- tric currents by means of the added electromotive forces of a series of thermo-elements. A The action of a thermopile depends upon a principle which is elucidated in ELEC- TRICITY (q. 1).). Whenever a closed circuit consists of more than one metal, and there is a difference of tem- perature between the junc- tions or points of transition from one metal to another, a current will flow through the circuit as if generated by a difference of potential between the hot and the cold junction. By having several hot and several cold junctions in a circuit it is possible, by a proper arrangement, to sum up the differences of potential thus produced. Such a device is a thermopile. Thermopiles are of two classes: (1) for the study of radiation or of minute differences of temperatures ; (2) for the production of considerable current. In the first class large electromotive forces are desired. These are obtained by selecting metals situated at as great a distance from one another in the thermo-electric series as possible. Bismuth and antimony form the couple usu- ally chosen. These metals are worked into tiny slabs, and soldered together alternately with intervening strips of in- sulating material, as shown in Fig. 1. In such a series of thermo-elements, alternate junctions of which at H H, for example, can be heated while the other set lying be- tween C C remain cool, a difference of potential equal to the sum of those generated in all the single elements will be found to exist between the terminals A and B. Such an arrangement constitutes a linear thermopile, and a number of these are frequently gathered together into a cubical block, as shown in Fig. 2. This was the form of pile used by Melloni in his famous researches upon radiant heat. The cubical pile was incased in a metal tube with flaring ends, by means of which, when de- sired, rays from a source of radiation could be gathered upon one face of the pile. Fig. 3 shows the cubical pile of Melloni, mounted in the customary manner. One face is furnished with the funnel-shaped tube which is closed in the illustration. The other face is exposed to the radiation from a Leslie cube. FIG. 1. The pile is connected to an astatie galvanometer of the type used by Melloni. The requirements to be met in the construction of a thermopile of the second class are entirely different from THESEUS those of an instrument of the kind just described. The ma- terials must be capable of withstanding a high tempera- ture, and the electrical resistance must be low. Instead of antimony and bismuth, two more refractory metals are there- fore selected, generally iron and German silver. These are connected in couples so as to form a flat ring, with the junctions to be heated within and the cold junctions out- side, as shown in Fig. 4. A number of such layers, one above another, all connected in series and forming a hol- low cylinder, constitutes the pile or battery. A burner of the Bunsen type placed be- neath the axis of the cylinder heats the inner junctions. With such thermo-batteries very considerable currents may be generated in circuits of low resistance-—-suificient, for example, to perform electrolysis or to drive small motors. It has been shown, however, that this method of converting heat energy into electrical energy is of necessity a wasteful one, and that the thermopile considered as a thermal engine must always be of very low efficiency. E. L. NICHOLS. Thermop’ylae [: Lat. : Gr. ®€p;.LO7r1l7\Ctl, liter., Hot Gates; 6ep,u.6s, hot + 7l'l,))\(ll, gates]: a narrow defile between Mt. (Eta and the Maliac Gulf, leading from Thessaly into Locris. It was the only way by which an enemy could enter from Northern Greece into Hellas, and became celebrated as the scene of the heroic death of Leonidas and his 300 Spartans in their attempt to prevent the Persian hordes from passing through the defile. The locality is no longer a pass. as it has been widened by natural causes into a swampy plain. Revised by J . R. S. STERRETT. Theroigne de Mé1‘i(30l11"t, tc‘t’rwa‘ar”1-de-mci're"e'koor', as- sumed name of ANNE J osfzrnn TERWAGNE: revolutionist; b. at Marcourt, Luxemburg, Aug. 13, 1762; was educated in a convent, but went in 1789 to Paris, where she lived as a courtesan. On the outbreak of the Revolution she acquired influence over the mob, was conspicuous at the fall of the Bastile, and from her fiery speeches and boldness became known as the Amazon of the Revolution. Driven from Paris by an order for her arrest, she fell into the hands of the Austrians at Liege, and was imprisoned in Vienna for nearly a year. Restored to liberty, she returned to Paris, and became still more popular; but her fidelity to the Gi- rondists angered the partisans of the Mountain, whose vio- lence she strove to check. On May 13, 1793, she was seized by a rabble of infuriated women in the garden of the Tuil- eries, stripped naked, and whipped. This drove her mad, and she spent the rest of her life in La Salpétriere, where she died June 9,1817. See Fuss, Thé'rotgne cle Jlfértcone-t (1854). F. M. COLBY. 'l‘heremor'pha, or Theromora [theromorpha is from Gr. rtmpiov, mammal +,uop¢-h, form]: a group (order) of fossil rep- tiles which combines in a remarkable way the characters of both Batrachia and monotreme mammals. It appears in Carboniferous time and dies out in the Triassic. These fos- sils are found in America, Europe, and South Africa. Thesau’rus : See LEXICOGRAPHY and DICTIONARY. The’ seus (Gr. Onoefis) : in Grecian mythology, the national hero of Attica and the founder of the city of Athens ; a son of ]Egeus and ]Ethra. He was married first to Antiope, the queen of the Amazons, and afterward to Phmdra. He took part in the campaign of the Argonauts, in the Caly- donian hunt, in the battle with the Centaurs, etc., but his most famous exploit was the slaying of the lllinotaur. At- tica was bound to send annually a tribute of youths to Crete to be sacrificed to this monster. In order to put an end to this misery, Theseus repaired to Crete and won the affection of Ariadne, the daughter of King 1’[inos, who provided him with a clew to the labyrinth and a sword to kill Minotaur; he slew the monster and carried off ARIADNE (q. 0.), whom he afterward left on Naxos. Durin-g a revolution in Athens he fled to Scyros, where he perished by the treachery of King Lyeomcdes, but in 469 B. o. Cimon conquered Scyros and brought his bones back to Athens, where they were in- terred in the celebrated temple of Theseus. By the sculp- tors Theseus was sometimes represented as resembling Her- cules, with a lion’s skin and a club, though of a lighter and FIG. 4. THESIGER fleeter form and of a more elevated expression ; sometimes as resembling Hermes, with chlamys (a short cloak) and petasos (a cap). Revised by J . R. S. STERRETT. Thesiger: CHELMSEORD, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS TI-1EsIeER. Thesis : See ARSIS AND THESES. Thes'pis: a native of Icaria in Attica and a contempo- rary of Pisistratus; became the inventor of the Greek tragedy by introducing between the dithyrambic chorals at the fes- tival of Dionysus an interlocutor, or manner of actor, who now in monologues, now in dialogues with the leaders of the chorus, narrated, or gave a mimetic representation of, the incidents to which the songs referred. Nothing of his writings, if he wrote anything, has come down to us, but he seems to have been a serious person, and the curious picture of Thespis strolling about from place to place and entertain- ing people with shows from his wagon is due to Horace (Ars Poet/ica, 27 6), whose perspective of the history of lit- erature is very faulty. Revised by B. L. G1LDERsLEEvE. Thessal0’nians, First and Second Epistle of St. Paul to the: See PAULINE EPISTLES. Thessalonicaz See SALONICA. Thes’saly, or Thessa'lia [= Lat.: Gr. ®eo'o'aM'a, ®e'T'ra- Ma] : a large division of ancient Greece, bounded E. by the ]Egean Sea, N. by Macedonia, and W. by Epirus. The sur- face is a plain, inclosed on all sides by mountains-Pelion and Ossa on the E., Olympus and the Cambunian Moun- tains on the N., Pindus on the \V., and Othrys on the S. The soil is very fertile, and the land was in ancient times famous for its wheat and its fine breed of horses. The in- habitants were _/Eolians, but very early the Epirotes invaded and conquered the country, and made the inhabitants their slaves. The government was oligarchical, but very often disturbed by internal wars, which was the reason why Thes- salia never exercised any influence on the afiairs of Greece. It was conquered by Philip of Macedon, and passed from Macedonia into the hands of the Romans. After long sub- jection to Turkey, Thessaly was added to the kingdom of Greece in 1881 through the recommendation of the powers after the Russo-Turkish war. It consists of the nomarchies of A1-ta, Trikalla, and Larissa; total area. 5,073 sq. miles. Pop. (1889) 344,067. Revised by J . R. S. S'rERRE'r'r. The’ tis (in Gr. ®e’ns): in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris. She lived with her sisters, the Nere- ides, in the depths of the sea, and was a gentle and kindly goddess, ever ready to assist gods in trouble. So she cared for Dionysus when he was fleeing before King Lyeomedes. for Hephaestus when he had been hurled from heaven by Zeus, and she called Briareus to the assistance of Zeus when he was endangered by the machinations of Hera, Athene, and Poseidon. Both Zeus and Poseidon sued for her hand, but Themis foretold that she was destined to bear a son greater than his father. For this reason she was forced, to her great sorrow, to marry Peleus, a mortal man, but king of the Myrmidons in Thessaly. The gods attended the wedding in a body and brought gifts. Eris, enraged because she had not been bidden to the marriage, threw the apple inscribed “ To the Fairest ” among the wedding guests, and therefore to this wedding may be traced the origin of the Trojan war. Thetis was prevented by Peleus from fully carrying out her plan to make her only son Achilles immor- tal. In anger thereat she abandoned Peleus and returned to her home in the sea, but she ever followed the fortunes of her son with passionate sympathy. J . R. S. STERRETT. Theuriet, ti)"1'e"e’a’, ANDRE: poet and novelist; b. at Marly- le-Roi, France, Oct. 8, 1833; studied law in Paris, and re- ceived his licentiate in 1857 ; soon entered the office of the ministry of finances, and at the same time began his literary work with the verses In J11 e-morziam (1857). Subsequent poems are Le 0/1.02am des beds (1867) ; Les paysoms dc PA?’- See gonna, 179'? (1871); Le blew ct Ze nee"); (1873); Les mkls (1879): Le Z/L"u'2'e de la payse (188.2); Abs 0/2Ysea/we (1886); La ronrlc des scdsons ct des mots (1891). His novels are numer- ous, beginning with the .N0aveZZes 'z'?z.z‘.e3nz(>s (1870) and 111 He. G'u.t'gn0n (1874). and comprising among the latest the Olz.arnz.c d(mgere'1t.v (1891); Je/zmes ct ’U'IJG‘LYZ6S barbes (1892); and the C7m.a0e"1z.essc (1893). Dramatic productions are Jean-flla/rzIe (1871); La m(tt's(m dcs (Z(’/10.1) ]3(l/I'Z)@(tll/.1) (1885); R(tym0/aclc (1887), the two latter being drawn from his like-named novels. He has also contributed to various periodicals, and, as an art-critic, written Jules Bastien-Lcpage, Fhomme ct‘ Z’a')'it'sI.‘e (1885). J. D. M. FORD. THIERRY 117 Thian-Shan : another spelling of TIEN- (or T’1EN-) SHAN (g. en). Thibaudeau, t€e'b5'd6', Asrom CLAIRE: statesman and historian; b. at Poitiers, France, Mar. 23, 1765, where he subsequently practiced as an advocate ; was elected a deputy to the Convention in 1792; voted for the execution of the king without appeal to the people, but fell out, neverthe- less, with the Terrorists ; was chosen president of the Coun- cil of Five Hundred in 1796; became a member of the council of state under the consulate and empire, and was made a count in 1803, but was banished from France by the ordinance of July 26, 1815, and lived in Prague, engaged in mercantile business, till 1830, when he returned to France ; was made a senator by Napoleon in 1852. D. Mar. 8, 1854. Among other works, he wrote 1l[ém0t'2-es sur la C0m'e72tz'0n et la Dz'rectoz're (2 vols., 1824) ; Hisfoire générale de _Z\'TCt])0Zé- on Bonajxtrzte (1827-28) ; 1l[ém0z'1"es sur Ze Consulat ct Z’Em- pa”/‘e (10 vols., 1835); and illa Zn'0g1'a]9/zc'e,' mes ménzofies (published after his death, 1875). Thibaut, or Thibaud, te‘e’b5’: King of Navarre; b. at Troyes in 1201; a posthumous son of Count Thibaut of Champagne, and Blanche, daughter of King Sancho the Wise of Navarre ; was educated at the court of Philip Augustus ; took an active part in the political entanglements after the death of Louis VIlI.; became King of Navarre in 1234; made an utterly unsuccessful crusade in 1239; persecuted the Albigenses in his territories, which in other respects he governed well. D. at Pamplona, July 10. 1253. Among the 2f1'0uz'e‘1'es he occupies a high rank; sixty-six poems by him were published in 1742 by Lévesque de la Ravallie‘re, and eighty-one are found in Tarbé‘s Collection des Pcéfes chaonpenozls (1851). See Delban, Vic dc T7zz'Zmuz‘ (1850). Thibaut, ANTON FRIEDRICH J UsTUs: jurist; b. at Ham- eln, Hanover, of French descent, Jan. 4, 1774: studied law at Kiel. and in 1798 was appointed Professor of Civil Law, teaching there until called to Jena in 1803 ; in 1806 he was made Professor of Civil Law in the University of Heidel- berg, and remained there till his death, having some politi- cal offices conferred upon him without his seeking. He was a man of striking personality, and, in addition to'his great legal attainments, was a finished scholar and student of mu- sic. D. at Heidelberg, Mar. 29, 1840. His works have left a deep impress on German jurisprudence, the most important of them being Tizeorie cler Zogiscizen A ul-slegung cZes '/'ii2nz's072ea Rechfs (1799); Lfeber Besifz mzd T7627-(7']l)‘2(7lg (1802); and System des Pa'ncZe7rten2'ec7zz‘s (1803), besides numerous essays, and a book dealing with music. F. STURGES ALLEN. Thibet: another spelling of TIBET (q. I‘.). Thibodeaux, tib'5-do’ : town ; capital of Lafourche par- ish, La. ; on the Bayou Lafourche and the S. Pac. Railroad; 3 miles N. of Terre Bonne. and 55 ‘V. by S. of New Orleans (for location, see map of Louisiana, ref. 11-15‘). It is in an agricultural and a rice and sugar-cane growing region ; con- tains Thibodeaux College (Roman Catholic. chartered in 1859), Mt. Carmel convent, a State bank with a capital of $25,000, and two weekly newspapers; and has a number of important mechanical industries. Pop. (1880) 1.515; (1890) 2.078. Thick-knee: any bird of the genus @d1‘C7l€7)2'Il8, family (77z.a2'ad-m't'cZce or plovers. The thic <-knees are distinguished by the moderately long and straight bill (a little longer than the head). which is compressed and wedge-shaped at the ter- minal half, the linear open nostrils, some distance from the base of the bill, and the elongated ta-rsi (three or four times as long as the middle toe) covered with hexagonal scales. One species ((13. supe'rc2IlzTm'1Is) is a native of Peru: all the others are peculiar to the Old \/Vorld. They are migrator_v, and resort to the temperate regions to rear their young. They frequent mostly open inland plains. The common European species is GZ'(ZzTcn(>mus c2'epz'tans, which attains a length of about 17 inches. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Thierry, ti-d/ree’, JACQUES Nreoms AUeUsTIN: a brilliant historian of the “picturesque” school; b. at Blois, France, May 10,1795; educated at the college of his native town and the normal school of Paris; attached himself in 1814 with great enthusiasm to Saint-Simon, whom he assisted in his literary labors; became in 1817 a contributor to Le Cen- seur €Il‘7‘0])é(”IL. edited by Comte, and afterward to the 00'Il‘)")"l»-67'f)‘Cl'7L§‘(tI'8, in which he first published in 1820 his remarkable Lcffres su-/2' Z’H'1Is2f0z.'re de la France. but concen- trated himself more and more on the study of history, es- pecially that of France and England, and published in 1825 113 'r1-nass his I115-zfotre de la Conquéte rle l‘Angleterre par les iV0r- mamls (4 vols., 1860), which attracted great attention, and has been often republished, and translated twice into Eng- lish (1825 and 1847). In 1826 he became nearly blind, and could continue his studies only by the aid of secre- taries and of l1is friends, among whom were Armand Carrel and Fauriel, above all of his wife, Julie de Quérangal, known from several spirited essays in the Revue cles Dena; Jlfondes; they were married in 1831, but she died in 1844. Subsequently he lived mostly in his brother’s house, and died in Paris, May 22, 1856. He became a member of the Academy in 1830. To the latter period of his life belong Dia; Ans cl’l£tncles /n'storz'ques (1834), a collection of minor essays, and Réeits (Z88 Temps 'me'rom'ngt'ens (1840), both translated into English. By Guizot he was appointed to edit one part of the Collection des Jlfonaments tnéd/its de l’fIt'sz‘0e're rle France-—namely, Ithe Reeaell ales .ll’[on/aments einéollts de l’Hz'sto£re da Tiers Efazf (3 vols., 1849—56), which led him to write his Essai snr l’H"lstot're cle la Forma2.‘t'on ezf des Pro- gres cla Tiers ll‘la2f (1853 ; translated into English by Fran- cis B. \Vells, 1855). His (Envres completes were collected in 10 vols. (1856-60).—His brother, AMEDEE SIMON DOMINIQUE THIERRY, D.C.L., b. at Blois, Aug. 2, 1797, was appointed Professor of History in Besancon in 1828, prefect of the de- partment of Haute-Sa6ne in 1830, member of the council of state in 1838, senator in 1860. D. in Paris, Mar. 27, 1873. His writings, advocating the same principles as those of his brother, but less brilliant in execution, comprise fh'stoz're des Gclalolsjasq/a’a la Do1nt'nat’lon romaine (3 vols., 1828) ; H L'szf0z're cle la Gaale sons l’Aclnz"lnz'st1'(ufz'on, rovnaine (3 vols., 1840-47) ; J-1"ls1.’ot're d’Att¢la (2 vols., 1856); ltécits ale l’Hls- z‘oz're romaine (1860); Tableau cle l’_E'm]9t're romain (1862); Saint Je'r6me (2 vols., 1867); Saint Chrysostome (1872). Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. Thiers, ti-ar' : town; in the department of Puy-de-Ddme, France; 011 the Durolle; 23 miles E. N. E. of Clermont by rail (see map of France, ref. 6—G). It contains the Church of Le Moutier, portions of which date back to the seventh and eighth centuries. Among its manufactures are paper, including stamps and playing-cards, candles, and, most im- portant of all, the making of cutlery. Pop. (1891) 11,993. Thiers, LOUIS ADOLPI-IE: statesman and author; b. in Mar- seilles, France, Apr. 16, 1797; studied law at Aix; was ad- mitted to the bar in 1818, and began to practice as an advocate, but was drawn by his ambition as well as by his talents to politics and literature, and removed in 1821 to Paris. Here he became a contributor to the Const'ltat'lonnel, and his arti- cles attracted wide attention. In the meanwhile he made the acquaintance of Laflitte, and became prominent in liber- al circles. In 1823 he began to publish his I-Iz'stoe're de la Révolalion fran,ea'lse, finished in 1827 in 10 vols., and this book at once made his name popular throughout France. In 1830 he founded the lValz'onal in connection with Mignet and Armand Carrel, drew up the protest against the ordon- nances of July 26, and took an active part in the revolution which effected the change of dynasty in France. He was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies, held oflice in the ministry of Finance, and in 1832 became Minister of the Interior. For the next four years he virtually directed the policy of the cabinet, though he was not made Prime Minis- ter till 1836. He withdrew altogether from the Government in August of that year on account of the king’s opposition to his plan of an armed intervention in the affairs of Spain. On Mar. 1, 1840, he was again made Prime Minister. In the controversy between Mehemet Ali and the Porte, France supported the former, in the hope of reviving Napoleon’s policy in the East, and gaining the supremacy in Egypt and Syria, while Russia, Great Britain, Austria, and Prussia were bent on maintaining the integrity of the Ottoman empire. Thiers assumed a menacing attitude, and for a time it seemed as if France might go to war on behalf of her ally, but the king ‘refused to countenance extreme measures, and Thiers resigned Oct. 21. 1840. He retired from public life for sev- eral years ; visited England, Spain, Italy, and Germany, making preparations for his great work, II’lstoz're cln Con- salat el ale l’E'/n,m're (20 vols., 1845-62); but in the last years of the reign of Louis Philippe he resumed his work in the Chamber of Deputies. and made vehement opposition to the government of Gnizot, especially to its foreign policy. In the banquets which preceded the revolution of Feb., 1848, he took no part, but the popularity which he had partly lo.st during his own administration he fully regained when he came into opposition. As a member of the Con- THINOCORIDJE stituent and Legislative Assemblies he accepted the repub- lie, but advocated very restrictive measures. He voted for the presidency of Louis Napoleon. and fought a duel with a fellow deputy named Bixio, who had criticised him for his vote. Nevertheless, when the empire began to develop from the policy of the president, Thiers immediately went into opposition, and on Dec. 2, 1851, he was arrested, and shortly after banished from France. He returned, however, in Au- gust, but lived in retirement until 1863, when he was elected a member of the Representative Assembly by Paris. His criticism of the policy of the emperor, the Italian and Mexi- can wars, the rebuilding of Paris, etc., was often very severel though generally not very effective; he was almost the only member of the Assembly who opposed and condemned the declaration of war against Prussia, but after the downfall of the empire he developed an astonishing energy to save his country from utter ruin. On Sept. 17, 1870, he 'started on a tour to London, St. Petersburg. Vienna, and Florence in order to procure foreign intervention, and on his return in the last days of October he opened negotiations with Bis- marck concerning an armistice. After the capitulation of Paris and the conclusion of the armistice, he was elected a member of the National Assembly by twenty-six depart- ments, Feb. 8, 1871, and on Feb. 17 the Assembly chose him chief of the executive. On Aug. 31 his term of office was fixed at three years, and he received the title of “president of the republic.” He was very successful in negotiating the peace; he saved Belfort and one milliard for France. He was still 1nore successful in procuring the means of fulfilling the conditions of peace; the payment of the indemnification and the liberation of French soil from German occupation were effected in a surprisingly short time. The insurrection of the Commune was promptly put down, but his attempt at consolidating the “ conservative republic” by legislative en- actment failed, and on May 24. 1873, he resigned. He con- tinued a member of the Assembly, and in 1876 was elected senator for Belfort. D. at St.-Germain, Sept. 3, 1877. Among his other works are Hz'szfot're de Law (1826 ; Eng. trans., New York, 1859) ; De la Propr'Léz.‘é (1848) ; L’Homone ef la jlfazfiere (1875). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Thiersch, teersh, FRIEDRICH WILHELM: classical scholar and educator; b. at Kirchscheidungen, in Prussian Saxony, June 17, 1784; studied theology and philology at Leipzig and Gtittingen; privat docent in the latter university in 1809; professor of the Lyceum at Munich, and on the trans- ference of the University of Landshut to the Bavarian capi- tal in 1812 was called to the chair of Ancient Languages, which he held with great distinction till his death in Munich, Feb. 25, 1860. Thiersch has the credit of reviving classical studies in Bavaria by his masterly reorganization of the en- tire school system of the state. He founded the Philological Institute (Aota Philologormn Jllonaeenslmn, 4 vols.), pub- lished a once highly esteemed Greek Grammar, and numer- ous works on archaeological and pedagogical subjects, among which may be mentioned Ueber _(/elehwfe S0/ualen (3 vols.); Ueberclen gegenwéirirlgen Stand des dfienflqiclz en Unlferrte/tts in Deutsohlancl, flollancl, .l7'ranl.:rez'ch and Belgien (3 vols., 1838); Ueber die Epoehen der bfldenclen If/anst anz.‘er den Griechen (2 vols., 2d ed. 1820). See his Life and Worlas, written by his son Heinrich (2 vols., Leipzig, 1867). A. GUDEMAN. Thinoc0r’idae [Mod. Lat., named from Thz'no'coras, the typical genus; Gr. Ois. Bu/6s, heap of sand, sandy shore or bottom + /cdpvs, the crested lark] : a family of birds of uncer- tain alfinities peculiar to South America. The general aspect is somewhat quail-like ; the bill rather short, somewhat slen- der, broad at the base, and compressed forward, and with the upper mandible slightly decurved over the lower; nos- trils basal and lateral, and partly curved by a horny mem- brane; wings long and pointed; tail moderate and produced straight backward; tarsi stout or moderate, and with the in- vesting scales more or less small; toes four, the three ante- rior moderately long and free, the posterior small and ele- vated. The family name was proposed (by Prince Bonaparte in 1850) and has been adopted (by Kaup, Gray, etc.) for a group of birds confined to the temperate and colder regions of South America. They are generally supposed to be most nearly related to the sheathbills (Clrt'on'zIdt'clce), but this remains to be verified. They go about generally in pairs or small coveys. Their flight somewhat resembles that of grouse. Open plains seem to be their chief resorts. Eight species are known, belonging to the genera TlmInoeo- rus and Aflagen. hevised by F. A. LUCAS. THIN PLATES, COLORS OF Thin Plates, Colors of: the colors produced by inter- ference of light at the surfaces of thin layers of media dif- fering in density. \/Vhen light falls upon a soap-bubble, or a thin floating film of oil, iridescent hues are seen, which owe their existence to interference of light reflected from the upper and lower surfaces of the film. The same is ob- served when a thin crevice is produced in a transparent body like ice or glass. The film of soap-solution, or oil, or air, is optically a plate whose thickness deter- mines the tint ob- served. These phenomena were first studied by Newton, who investi- gated a film of air be- tween two surfaces of glass, one of which was plane and the other spherical with a long radius of curvature. Let AB be the plane surface, touched at O by the curved surface COD, whose radius of curvature, OM or P171, is R. Lett be the thickness of the film at any point, P, whose distance from a perpendicular at O is 7'. Then by geometry 7'9 : (2R — i)t I ZR! — LU"). Since i2 is exceedingly small in comparison with R, the formula may be written simply T2 = 212i. (1) Now suppose yellow light to be incident vertically from above at P. Some of it is transmitted through the film to the lower surface, and there reflected to join what is direct- ly reflected at P. The difference of path of the two por- tions is obviously 2i. If this retardation be such that the two portions become united with a difference of phase of a half wave-length, or any odd number of half wave-lengths, the resulting interference produces extinction (see INTER- FERENcE); but if this difference be a whole wave-length, or any even number of half wave-lengths, they conjoin to pro- duce brightness. This is true for all points where the thick- ness of the air-film is t, and these form a circle around 0 as center with radius 7'. It can be shown that when light is reflected at the boun- dary between two media of different density, if the reflection occur in the less dense medium there is change of phase, which has the same effect as if there were a retardation of half a wave-length. This occurs in the film of air at its lower surface. At the center, 0, where the glass-surfaces are in optical contact, there is hence a black spot due to in- terference. Around this is a succession of alternately bright and dark rings, according as the interference is with an even or odd number of half wave-lengths of retardation, including that due to change of phase. If the symbol A be used for wave-length, the successive values of 2t for the dark points will be 0, A, 2A, 3A. 4A, ete., while for the bright points they will be -}7\, ix, QR, etc. Substituting these values of 2i in the fundamental equation, 9'9 = 2i‘R, we have the means of calculating the wave-length of light, since R is known and 7‘ may be measured easily. If blue light be em- ployed instead of yellow light, the diameter of any given ring is found to be smaller. The wave-length for blue is hence less than for yellow. If white light be emploved there will be a succession of rainbow-rings with the full suc- cession of colors, each tint being due to the extinction of its complementary tint; but these spectra become wider and overlap each other with increasing distance from the center, becoming mixed, so that only a few remain visible. If these N ewton’s rings are viewed by transmitted rather‘ than re- flected light, as there is no change of phase by transmission, the central spot is bright. The presence of the film causes interference as before, but the ratio of reflected to trans- mitted light is small, so that the rings are wanting in clear- ness of definition. If the incident light be oblique instead of perpendicular to the surface of the film the rings are larger, and the formula is a little less simple than that just deduced. W. LE CONTE STEvENs. Thionville, ti-5n've“el’ (Germ. Dieclen/zo_fen, anc. Theodo- nis Villa): town of the aresent German province of Alsace- Lorraine; on the Mosel e, 19 miles N. of Metz, and in the midst of a broad level plain (see map of German Empire, ref. 6-B). It is a walled city of the old school of fortifica- tion, ranking under that system as a third-class fortress. After the investment of Metz by the Germans in 1870, Thion- THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES OF RELIGION 119 ville proved of annoyance to the besieging force, and after two days’ bombardment capitulated Nov. 24, 1870, with large stores of supplies. Although many buildings were destroyed, the defences were left almost intact. Pop. (1890) 8,928. Revised by M. \V. HARRINGTON. Third Estate: See EsTATEs, THE THREE; and FRANCE, HISTORY OF. Third Orders: See TERTIARIES. ‘-‘I’-‘I Thirion, teVe’ree on , EUGENE ROMAIN: historical painter; b. in Paris, May 19. 1839; pupil of Picot, Fromentin, and Cabanel; medals, Salons, 1866, 1868, and 1869; second-class medal, Paris Exposition, 1878: Legion of Honor 1872. His Jlloses (1885) is in the Luxembourg Gallery. YVorks in the museums in Bordeaux, Perpignan, Tours, and Lisieux; fres- coes in La Trinité, Paris. Studio in Paris. IV. A. C. Thirl’wall, CoNNoP, D. D.: historian; b. at Stepney, London, England, Jan. 11, 1797; displayed such extraor- dinary preeocity that at the age of eleven years his father, who was a clergyman. printed a volume of his compositions under the title Primii‘ice, or Essays and Poems on Various Subjects, etc. (1809); entered Trinity College, Cambridge, 1814, and in 1815 took the Craven and Bell scholarships; took the senior chancellor’s classical medal and graduated in 1818; became fellow and tutor of Trinity College; stud- ied law, and was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn 1825; published a translation of Schleiermacher’s Critical Essay on the Gospel of St. Luke (1825); took orders in the Church of England 1828; became rector of Kirby Underdale, York- shire; associated with Rev. Julius Charles Hare in translat- ing Niebuhr’s H isiory of Rome (2 vols., 1828); and as one of the editors of the Cambridge Philological lllziseum was for several years examiner for the classical tripos at Cam- bridge, and classical examiner in the University of Lon- don; wrote for Lardner’s Cabinet Cyolopaeclia a popular History of Greece (8 vols., 1835-40), afterward revised and enlarged in a library edition (8 vols., 1845-52); and be- came Bishop of St. Davids 1840, which post he resigned May, 1874. D. at Bath, July 27, 1875. He was chairman of the Old Testament company on Bible revision. He published a number of sermons, charges, letters, addresses, and essays, which, with other writings, were issued under the title Liz‘- erary and Theological Remains (3 vols., 1876-7 7), edited by Canon J. J. S. Perowne. His Letters were published in 1881 (2 vols.), and his Letz‘ers to a Friencl. edited by Dean Stanley, in 1882. Revised by S. M. JAcKsoN. Thirst [O. Eng. Pyrst, Imrsz‘ : O. H. Germ. (> Germ.) durst : Icel. ]~0rsfi : Goth. ]7(l/l,l,i’8Z‘6’Z:, thirst, deriv. of ]raz'u~sus, dry, withered, deriv. of ga,])"'ia9'scm, wither: cf. Lat. 2‘orre're, parch: Gr. 're'po'eo‘6aL, become dry : Sanskr. 2‘r._s, thirst]: a sensation normally caused by the need of water in the ani- mal system, and consequently relieved by drinking. The great thirst of cholera is also caused by a deficiency of water. But thirst also accompanies febrile excitement. This is only temporarily relieved by drinking. and unless contra-indicated by the symptoms small lumps of ice will usually relieve the thirst, and reduce the excessive heat with efficiency and without danger. The use of too much salt is another familiar cause, the explanation being in this case the excessive salinity of the blood. The great thirst of dia- betes is similarly induced. Revised by \V. PEPPER. Thirty-nine Articles of Religion: doctrinal formulas of the Reformation period. When the Reformation was fairly introduced into England under Edward VI. (1547-53), Archbishop Cranmer at first entertained the noble but premature project of framing an evangelical catholic creed in which all the Reformed Churches could agree in opposi- tion to the Church of Rome. then holding the Council of Trent, and invited the surviving continental Reformers, Melanchthon, Calvin. and Bullinger, to London for the pur- pose. Failing in this scheme, he framed, with the aid of his fellow Reformers, Ridley and La-timer, the royal chap- lains, and the foreign divines, Bucer, Peter l\Iartyr. and John a Lasco, whom he had drawn to England, the Forz‘3/- two Articles of Rafi;/ion for the English Reformed Church. After passing through several revisions they were completed in Nov., 1552, and published in June, 1553, by royal au- thority and with the approval of convocation. The re- establishment of the papacy under the short but bloody reign of Mary (1553-58) set them aside, together with the Edwardian Book of Common Prayer. Under Elizabeth (1558-1603) the Articles were revised and permanently re- stored. They were reduced to thirty-nine, and brought 120 into that shape and form which they have ever retained since in the Church of England. The Latin edition was prepared under the supervision of Archbishop Parker, with the aid of Bishop Cox, of Ely (one of the Marian exiles), and Bishop Guest, of Rochester, and approved by convocation 1562. The English edition, which is of equal authority, though slightly difiering from the Latin, was adopted by convocation in 1571, and issued under the editorial care of Bishop Jewel, of Salisbury, 1571. They were made binding on all ministers and teachers of religion and students in the universities, but subscription was not always enforced with equal rigor, and they were bitterly complained of by Non- conformists, who had scrupulous objections to the political articles. The Act of Uniformity under Charles II. imposed greater stringency than ever; but the Toleration Act of \Villiam and Mary gave some relief by exempting dissenting ministers from subscribing Articles XXXIV. to XXXVI. and a portion of Article XXVII. Subsequent attempts to relax or abolish subscription resulted at last in the University Tests A ct of 1871, which exempts all students and graduates in the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham, ex- cept divinity students and the holders of offices with clerical functions, from subscription, and throws these institutions open to persons of all religious denominations. The Thirty-nine Articles cover nearly all the heads of the Christian faith, especially those which at the time of their framing were under dispute with the Roman Catholics. They affirm the old orthodox doctrines of the Trinity and incarnation, the Augustinian views on free will, total de- pravity, divine grace, faith, good works, election, and the Protestant doctrines on the Church, purgatory, and the sac- raments of baptism and the Lord’s Supper. They are bor- rowed in part from Lutheran standards—namely, the Augs- burg Confession of Melanchthon (1530) and the \Vtirtemberg Confession of Brentius (1552), but on the sacraments, espe- cially the much-disputed doctrine of the real presence in the Eucharist, they follow the Swiss Reformers, Bullinger and Calvin. In the political sections they are purely English, and teach the Erastian doctrine of the spiritual as well as temporal supremacy of the sovereign as the supreme gov- ernor of the Church of England. They have therefore an eclectic and comprehensive character, which distinguishes the Anglican Church from the Lutheran and the strictly Calvinistic churches of the Continent and Scotland, and from the dissenting denominations of England. They have often been interpreted and misinterpreted in the interest of particular schools and parties, while all claim them as fa- voring themselves. They must be understood in their plain grammatical sense; and when this is doubtful, the Prayer- book, the two books of Homilies, the Catechism, and the private writings of the English Reformers and the Eliza- bethan divines must be called to aid. The doctrinal deci- sions in the Gorham (1848-50), Bennet (1870—72), and other controversies favor great latitude in their interpretation. The Protestant Episcopal Church in the U. S., after effect- ing an independent organization and episcopate in conse- quence of the American Revolution, formally adopted the Thirty-nine Articles of the mother Church at the General Convention held in Trenton, N. J., Sept. 12, 1801, but with sundry alterations and omissions in the political articles (Art. XXI. and XXXVII.), which the separation of Church and state made necessary. The only doctrinal difference is the omission of all allusion to the Athanasian Creed (Art. VlII.), which is also excluded from the American editions of the Prayer-book. The Twenty-five Articles of the Meth- odist Episcopal Church and the Thirty-five of the Reformed Episcopal Church are based upon the Thirty-nine Articles. LITERATURE.—C. Hardwick, Jfistorg of the Articles of Religion (Cambridge, 1851; 3d ed. 1876); Thomas Rogers, F/.c_yrosition of the Thirty-nine Articles (London, 1579 ; new ed. Cambridge, 1854); G. Burnet, History of the English Reformation (many eds.) and Frtposrftion of the Thirty-nine Articles (Oxford, 1845 and other eds.); Laurence, Barnpton Lectures -for 1834 (Oxford, 3d ed. 1838); E. If. Browne, Fw- position of the Thirty/-nine Articles (London, 1850; ed. by J. Williams, 1887, the best book); A. P. Forbes, An Fa:pla- nation of the Thirty-nine Articles (1867 ; 3d ed. 1887); Schaff, Crecds (vols. i., p. 292, and iii., pp. 485-522). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. THE THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES as revised by the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U. are as follows : ART. I. Of Faith in the Holy Trinity/.--There is but one living and true God, everlasting. without body, parts, or passions ; of infinite power, wisdom, and goodness ; the THIRTY—NINE ARTICLES OF RELIGION Maker and Preserver of all things, both visible and invis- ible. And in unity of this Godhead there be three Persons of one substance, power, and eternity—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. ART. II. Of the W'ord or Son of God, which was made very il[an.—The Son, which is the Word of the Father, be- gotten from everlasting of the Father, the very and eternal God, and of one substance with the Father, took man’s na- ture in the womb of the blessed Virgin, of her substance; so that two whole and perfect natures, that is to say, the Godhead and manhood, were joined together in one person, never to be divided, whereof is one Christ, very God, and very man; who truly suffered, was crucified, dead, and buried, to reconcile his Father to us, and to be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for actual sins of men. ART. III. Of the going down of Christ into Hell.——As Christ died for us, and was buried; so also is it to be be- lieved, that he went down into hell. ART. IV. Of the Resurrection of Christ.—Christ did truly rise again from death, and took again his body, with flesh, bones, and all things appertaining to the perfection of man’s nature; wherewith he ascended into heaven, and there sit- teth, until he return to judge all men at the last day. ART. V. Of the Holy Ghost.—The Holy Ghost, proceed- ing from the Father and the Son, is of one substance, maj- esty, and glory, with the Father and the Son, very and eter- nal God. ART. VI. Of the Sujficiencg of the Holy ;S’criptures for Salrat/lon.—Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation; so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man that it should be believed as an article of the faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation. In the name of the holy Scripture we do understand those canonical books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority was never any doubt in the Church. Of the lVames and lVum- ber of the Canonical Boohs.——Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, The First Book of Samuel, The Second Book of Samuel, The First Book of Kings, The Second Book of Kings, The First Book of Chronicles, The Second Book of Chronicles, The First Book of Esdras, The Second Book of Esdras, the Book of Esther, The Book of Job, The Psalms, The Proverbs, Eccle- siastes or Preacher, Cantica or Songs of Solomon, Four Prophets the greater, Twelve Prophets the less. And the other books (as Hierome saith) the Church doth read for ex- ample of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine; such are these following: The Third Book of Esdras, The Fourth Book of Esdras, The Book of Tobias, The Book of Judith, The rest of the Book of Esther, The Book of Wisdom, Jesus the Son of Sirach, Baruch the Prophet, The Song of the Three Chil- dren, The Story of Susanna, Of Bel and the Dragon, The Prayer of Manasses, The First Book of Maccabees, The Sec- ond Book of Maccabees. All the books of the New Testa- ment, as they are commonly received, we do receive, and ac- count thcm canonical. ART. VII. Of the Old Testament.—The Old Testament is not contrary to the New; for both in the Old and New Testament everlasting life is offered to mankind by Christ, who is the only Mediator between God and man, being both God and man. VVherefore they are not to be heard, which feign that the old fathers did look only for transitory prom- ises. Although the law given from God by Moses, as touch- ing ceremonies and rites, do not bind Christian 1nen, nor the civil precepts thereof ought of necessity to be received in any commonwealth ; yet notwithstanding, no Christian man whatsoever is free from the obedience of the Commandments which are called moral. ART. VIII. Of the Creeds.—The Nicene Creed, and that which is commonly called the Apostles’ Creed, ought thor- oughly to be received and believed ; for they may be proved by most certain warrants of holy Scripture. ART. IX. Of Original or Birth-sin.—-Original sin stand- eth not in the following of Adam (as the Pelagians do vain- ly talk) ; but it is the fault and corruption of the nature of every man, that naturally is engendered of the offspring of Adam; whereby man is very far gone from original right- eousness, and is of his own nature inclined to evil, so that the flesh lusteth always contrary to the Spirit; and there- fore in every person born into this world it deserveth God’s wrath and damnation. And this infection of nature doth remain, yea, in them that are regenerated ; whereby the lust of the flesh, called in Greek ¢p61/r),ua aapnés (which some do _, ,‘;\9IL.-_..._-n:n- THIRTY—NINE ARTICLES OF RELIGION 121 expound the wisdom, some sensuality, some the affection, some the desire, of the flesh), is not subject to the Law of God. And although there is no condemnation for them that believe and are baptized ; yet the Apostle doth confess, that concupisccnce and lust hath of itself the nature of sin. ART. X. Of Free 'Wlll.-—The condition of man after the fall of Adam is such that he can not turn and prepare him- self, by his own natural strength and good works, to faith, and calling upon God. Wherefore we have no power to do good works pleasant and acceptable to God, without the grace of God by Christ preventing us, that we may have a good will, and working with us, when we have that good will. ART. XI. Of the Justtficatton of 1l[an.—We are accounted righteous before God, only for the merit of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ by faith, and not for our own works or deservings. Wherefore, that we are justified by faith only, is a most wholesome doctrine, and very full of comfort, as more largely is expressed in the Homily of J ustification. ART. XII. Of Good Wor/es.——Albeit that good works, which are the fruits of faith, and follow after justification, can not put away our sins, and endure the severity of God’s judgment; yet are they pleasing and acceptable to God in Christ, and do spring out necessarily of a true and lively faith; insomuch that by them a lively faith may be as evidently known as a tree discerned by the fruit. ART. XIII. Of Worlt's before Just/lficatton.—\Vorks done before the grace of Christ, and the inspiration of his Spirit, are not pleasant to God, forasmuch as they spring not of faith in Jesus Christ; neither do they make men meet to receive grace, or (as the school-authors say) deserve grace of congruity: yea rather, for that they are not done as God hath willed and commanded them to be done, we doubt not but they have the nature of sin. ART. XIV. Of lVorl:s of SlL?9G7'G7‘O_QG/l’l07t—VOlll1'lt2‘t1‘Y works besides, over and above, God‘s commandments, which they call works of supererogation, can not be taught with- out arrogancy and impiety: for by them men do declare, that they do not only render unto God as much as they are bound to do, but that they do more for his sake, than of bounden duty is required: whereas Christ saith plainly, \Vhen ye have done all that are commanded to you, say, We are unprofitable servants. ART. XV. Of Christ alone without Stn.—Christ in the truth of our nature was made like unto us in all things, sin only except, from which he was clearly void, both in his flesh, and in his spirit. He came to be the Lamb with- out spot, who, by sacrifice of himself once made, should take away the sins of the world; and sin (as Saint John saith) was not in him. But all we the rest, although bap- tized, and born again in Christ, yet offend in many things ; and if we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. ART. XVI. Of Sin after Baptism.-—Not every deadly sin willingly committed after baptism is sin against the Holy Ghost, and unpardonable. I/Vherefore the grant of repent- ance is not to be denied to such as fall into sin after bap- tism. After we have received the Holy Ghost, we may depart from grace given, and fall into sin, and by the grace of God we may arise again, and amend our lives. And therefore they are to be condemned, which say, they can no more sin as long as they live here, or deny the place of forgiveness to such as truly repent. ART. XVII. Of Preclestlnatton and E'lectton.-—Predes- tination to life is the everlasting purpose of God, whereby (before the foundations of the world. were laid) he hath constantly decreed by his counsel secret to us, to deliver from curse and damnation those whom he hath chosen in Christ out of mankind, and to bring them by Christ to everlasting salvation, as vessels made to honor. Where- fore, they which be endued with so excellent a benefit of God, be called according to God’s purpose by his Spirit working in due season: they through grace obey the call- ing: they be justified freely : they be made sons of God by adoption : they be made like the image of his only-begotten Son Jesus Christ: they walk religiously in good works. and at length, by God's mercy, they attain to everlasting felicity. As the godly consideration of predestination, and our election in Christ, is full of sweet, pleasant, and uns mak- able comfort to godly persons, and such as feel in tiem- selves the working of the Spirit of Christ, mortifying the works of the flesh, and their earthly members, and drawing up their mind to high and heavenly things, as well because it doth greatly establish and confirm their faith of eternal salvation to be enjoyed through Christ, as because it doth fervently kindle their love towards God: So, for curious and carnal persons, lacking the Spirit of Christ, to have con- tinually before their eyes the sentence of God’s predesti- nation, is a most dangerous downfall, whereby the devil dost thrust them either into desperation, or into wretched- ness of most unclean living, no less perilous than des- peration. Furthermore, we must receive God’s promises in such wise, as they be generally set forth to us in holy Scripture : and, in our doings, that will of God is to be followed, which we have expressly declared unto us in the Word of God. ART. XVIII. Of ohtaz'ntng Eternal Salvation only by the Name of Ohrz'st.——They also are to be had accursed that presume to say, That every man shall be saved by the law or sect which he professeth, so that he be diligent to frame his life according to that law, and the light of nature. For holy Scripture doth set out unto us only the name of Jesus Christ, whereby men must be saved. ART. XIX. Of the Ohurch.—The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in the which the pure “lord of God is preached, and the sacraments be duly min- istered according to Christ’s ordinance, in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same. As the Church of Jerusalein, Alen;anclria, and Antioch, have erred; so also the Church of Rome hath erred, not only in their living and manner of ceremonies, but also in matters of faith. ART. XX. Of the Au.tho'm't3/ of the Church.—Thc Church hath power to decree rites or ceremonies, and authority in controversies of faith : and yet it is not lawful for the Church to ordain anything that is contrary to God‘s IVord written. neither may it so expound one place of Scripture, that it be repugnant to another. Wherefore, although the Church be a witness and a keeper of Holy Writ, yet, as it ought not to decree anything against the same. so besides the same ought it not to enforce anything to be believed for necessity of salvation. ART. XXI. Of tlze_4u2‘l2orz'f3/ of General Ooune2'ls.—[Tl1is article (which is given at foot *) was omitted, because it is partly of a local and civil nature, and because the remain- ing parts are provided for in other articles] ART. XXII. Of Purgator_z/.—The Romish doctrine con- cerning purgatory, pardons, worshiping and adoration, as well of images as of relics, and also invocation of saints. is a fond thing, vainly invented. and grounded upon no var- ranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the YVord of God. ART. XXIII. Of ll[z.'n2'ste'rzTng in the Oorzgregatz'on.—lt is not lawful for any man to take upon him the oflice of pub- lic preaching, or ministering the sacraments in the congre- gation, before he be lawfully called, and sent to execute the same. And those we ought to judge lawfully called and sent, which be chosen and called to this work by men who have public authority given unto them in the congregation, to call and send ministers into the Lord‘s vineyard. ART. XXIV. Of Spea.l.12'ng in the Cougregatzlon in such a Tongue as the People understanoletlz.—-It is a thing plainly repugnant to the Word of God, and the custom of the primitive Church, to have public prayer in the church. or to minister the sacraments, in a tongue not understanded of the people. ART. XXV. Of the Sacraments. Sacraments ordained of Christ be not only badges or tokens of Christian men‘s pro- fession, but rather they be certain sure witnesses, and ef- fectual signs of grace. and God’s good will toward us, by the which he doth work invisibly in us, and doth not only quicken, but also strengthen and confirm our faith in him. There are two sacraments ordained of Christ our Lord in the Gospel, that is to say, baptism and the supper of the Lord. Those five commonly called sacraments, that is to say, confirmation, penance, orders, matrimony, and extreme unction, are not to be counted for sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the Apostles. partly are states of life allowed in the Scrip- * XXI. Of the .4uthorz'ty of General CounciIs.—General councils may not be gathered together without the commandment and will of princes ; and when they be gathered together (forasmuch as they be an assembly of men, whereof all be not governed with the Spirit and Word of God), they may err, and sometimes have erred, even in things pertaining unto God. Wherefore things ordained by them as necessary to salvation have neither strength nor authorit_v, unless it may be declared that they be taken out of holy Scripture. 122 tures ; but yet have not like nature of sacraments with baptism, and the Lord’s Supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God. The sacraments were not ordained of Christ to be gazed upon, or to be carried about, but that we should duly use them. And in such only as worthily receive the same, they have a wholesome effect or operation; but they that receive them unworthily, purchase to themselves damnation, as Saint Paul saith. ART. XXVI. Of the U n'worth£ness of the Jvlzintsters, which hinders not the Eyfeet of the Sacra/nents.—Although in the visible Church the evil be ever mingled with the good, and sometimes the evil have chief authority in the administra- tion of the W'ord and sacraments, yet forasmuch as they do not the same in their own name, but in Christ’s, and do minister by his commission and authority, we may use their ministry, both in hearing the Word of God, and in receiv- ing the sacraments. Neither is the effect of Christ’s ordi- nance taken away by their wickedness, nor the grace of God’s gifts diminished from such as by faith, and rightly, do receive the sacraments ministered unto them ; which be effectual, because of Christ’s institution and promise, al- though they be ministered by evil men. Nevertheless, it appertaineth to the discipline of the Church that inquiry be made of evil ministers, and that they be accused by those that have knowledge of their of- fenses; and finally, being found guilty, by just judgment be deposed. ART. XXVII. Of Baptism.-—Baptism is not only a sign of profession, and mark of difference, whereby Christian men are discerned from others that be not christened, but it is also a sign of regeneration or new-birth, whereby, as by an instrument, they that receive baptism rightly are grafted into the Church; the promises of the forgiveness of sin, and of our adoption to be the sons of God by the Holy Ghost, are visibly signed and sealed; faith is confirmed, and grace increased by virtue of prayer unto God. The baptism of young children is in anywise to be re- tained in the Church, as most agreeable with the institution of Christ. ART. XXVIII. Of the Lord’s Snpper.—-Tlie supper of the Lord is not only a sign of the love that Christians ought to have among themselves one to another; but rather it is a sacrament of our redemption by Christ’s death; insomuch that to such as rightly, worthily, and with faith, receive the same, the bread which we break is a partaking of the body of Christ; and likewise the cup of blessing is a partaking of the blood of Christ. Transubstantiation (or the change of the substance of bread and wine) in the supper of the Lord, can not be proved by holy \Vrit; but is repugnant to the plain words of Scrip- ture, overthroweth the nature of a sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions. The body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten, in the Supper, only after an heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is faith. The sacrament of the Lord’s Supper was not by Christ’s ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshiped. ART. XXIX. Of the Wicked, which eat not the Body of Christ in the Use of the Lord’s Supper.—-Tlie wicked, and such as be void of a lively faith, although they do carnally and visibly press with their teeth (as Saint Augustine saith) the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ; yet in no- wise are they partakers of Christ; but rather, to their con- demnation, do eat and drink the sign or sacrament of so great a thin ART. XXX. Of both Kinds. The cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the lay people; for both the parts of the Lord's sacrament, by Christ’s ordinance and commandment, ought to be administered to all Christian men alike. ART. XXXI. Of the One OZ/ta/tton of Oh/m'st_fin'tshed rupon the C/ross.—-The offering of Christ once made is that perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction, for all the sins of the whole world, both original and actual; and there is none other satisfaction for sin, but that alone. \Vherefore the sacrifices of masses, in the which it was commonly said, that the priest did offer Christ for the quick and the dead, to have remission of pain or guilt, were blasphemous fables, and dangerous deceits. ART. XXXII. Of the Jllarrmge of P1't'ests.—Bishops, priests, and deacons are not commanded by God’s law, either to vow the estate of single life. or to abstain from marriage: therefore it is lawful for them, as for all other THlRTY—NINE ARTICLES OF RELIGION Christian men, to marry at their own discretion, as they shall judge the same to serve better to godliness. ART. XXXIII. Of Ea;oommnn*1'eate Persons, how they are to he a'vo'tded.——Tliat person which by open denunciation of the Church is rightly cut off from the unity of the Church, and excommunicated, ought to be taken of the whole multi- tude of the faithful, as an heathen and publican, until he be openly reconciled by penance and received into the Church by a judge that hath authority thereunto. ART. XXXIV. Of the T1'adt'ttons of the Ohnreh.——It is not necessary that traditions and ceremonies be in all places one, or utterly like; for at all times they have been divers, and may be. changed according to the diversity of countries, times, and men’s manners, so that nothing be ordained against God’s Word. \/Vhosoever, through his private judg- ment, willingly and purposely, doth openly break the tra- ditions and ceremonies of the Church, which be not repug- nant to the Word of God, and be ordained and approved by common authority, ought to be rebuked openly (that others may fear to do the like), as he that ofiendeth against the common order of the Church, and hurteth the authority of the magistrate, and woundeth the consciences of the weak brethren. Every particular or national church hath authority to or- dain, change, and abolish ceremonies or rites of the Church ordained only by man’s authority, so that all things be done to edifying. ART. XXXV. Of the Hem/it/tes.—The Second Book of I-lomilies, the several titles whereof we have joined under this article, doth contain a godly and wholesome doctrine, and necessary for these times, as doth the former Book of Homilies, which were set forth in the time of Edward the Se'a;th; and therefore we judge them to be read in churches by the ministers, diligently, and distinctly, that they may be understanded of the people. Of the Names of the Home'Ze'es.—1. Of the right use of the church. 2. Against peril of idolatry. 3. Of repairing and keeping clean of churches. 4. Of good works: first of fast- ing. 5. Against gluttony and drunkenness. 6. Against ex- cess of apparel. '7. Of prayer. 8. Of the place and time of prayer. 9. That common prayers and sacraments ought to be ministered in a known tongue. 10. Of the reverend esti- mation of God’s Word. 11. Of alms-doing. 12. Of the na- tivity of Christ. 13. Of the passion of Christ. 14. Of the resurrection of Christ. 15. Of the worthy receiving of the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ. 16. Of the gifts of the Holy Ghost. 1'7. For the rogation-days. 18. Of the state of matrimony. 19. Of repentance. 20. Against idle- ness. 21. Against rebellion. [This article is received in this Church, so far as it de- clares the Books of Homilies to be an explication of Chris- tian doctrine, and instructive in piety and morals. But all references to the constitution and laws of England are con- sidered as inapplicable to the circumstances of this Church; which also suspends the order for the reading of said homi- lies in churches, until a revision of them may be conven- iently made, for the clearing of them, as well from obsolete words and hrases, as from the local referenees.] ART. Xi XVI. Of Conseemt/ton of Bishops and ]l[e'nts- ters.—-The Book of Consecration of Bishops, and Ordering of Priests and Deacons, as set forth by the General Conven- tion of this Church in 1792, doth contain all things neces- sary to such consecration and ordering ; neither hath it any thing that, of itself, is superstitious and ungodly. And, therefore, whosoever are consecrated or ordered according to said form, we decree all such to be rightly, orderly, and lawfully consecrated and ordered. ART. XXXVII. Of the Power of the Ot/vtl ]VI(tgtst1'cttes.—- The power of the civil magistrate extendeth to all men, as well clergy as laity, in all things temporal ; but hath no au- thority in things purely spiritual. And we hold it to be the duty of all men who are professors of the Gospel, to pay re- spectful obedience to the civil authority, regularly and legi- timately constituted. ART. XXX VI ll. Of O72/m'st't(tn 1l1en’s Goods, which are not eommon.—-Tlie riches and goods of Christians are not common. as touching the right, title, and possession of the same ; as certain Anabaptists do falsely boast. Notwith- standing, every man ought, of such things as he possesseth, liberally to give alms to the poor, according to his ability. ART. XXXIX. Of (6 0/t7""li8li’li(b’l'b 1l[an’s Oath.—~As we con- fess that vain and rash swcarin g is forbidden Christian men by our Lord Jesus Christ, and James his Apostle, so we judge, that Christian religion doth not prohibit, but that a THIRTY TYRANTS man may swear when the magistrate requireth, in a cause of faith and charity, so it be done accordmg to the prophet’s teaching, in justice, judgment, and truth. Thirty Tyrants: a body of thirty magistrates in Athens (404—403 B. C.). They were appointed from the aristocratic party by the Spartans, victorious in the Peloponnesian war. The tyrants were guilty of the most cruel and shameless acts, and after one year were expelled by Thrasybulus. Thirty Years’ War: the name given to a succession ‘of wars (1618-48) begun as a struggle between Roman Catholics and Protestants, carried on as an attempt to establish the authority of the German emperor over the religious interests of Germany, and concluded as a struggle of the house of Austria to maintain its imperial power over domestic and foreign affairs. ~ ~ Causes of the War.-—By the Treaty of Augsburg (1555), which temporarily brought the strifes of the Reformation to an end, each of the German states was permitted to deter- mine the nature of its national religion. All subjects were permitted to remove from states in which their religion was forbidden to states in which it was oflicially sanctioned. But the inconveniences imposed on dissent by these provi- sions made disagreements inevitable. Protestantism contin- ued in Catholic states and Catholicity continued where it was under governmental prohibition. Protestantism throve, especially in Bohemia and Austria; but under Rudolf II. (1576-1612) a strong reaction, largely under the 1nfiuence of the Jesuits, set in. In 1608 the Evangelical Union and in 1609 the Catholic League were formed to protect their re- spective interests. The Emperor Matthias (1612—_19) gave certain guarantees of liberty, but in 1617 Ferdmand of Styria, who had been educated by the Jesuits, was crowned King of Bohemia. Persecutions at once began. Protestant churches were closed in Braunau and pulled down in Kios- tergrab. The Protestant estates met in Prague Mar. 5, 1618, and petitioned the Emperor Matthias, who sent messengers to declare their meeting illegal and to defend his own acts. The reply of the emperor was borne by Slawata and Marti- nitz, and received in the assembly-room of the castle. At the end of the altercation which ensued Slawata and Marti- nitz, with their secretary, Fabricius, were hurled from the castle window about 70 feet from the ground. The fact that all escaped with only slight injuries tended to increase the faith of the Catholics in the divine protection of their cause. Protestants and Catholics alike in all parts of South- ern Germany took up arms. The Bohem/tan W ar (1618—20).——After the events just de- scribed the concessions made to Protestants in Bohemia were withdrawn, and an insurrection followed. Freder- ick V., the Elector Palatine and a Protestant, was chosen King of Bohemia in 1619. Count Thurn repeatedly defeated the Catholic forces, but Frederick V. was a courtier rather than a soldier, and his motley army was totally routed by the army of Maximilian of Bavaria at Weissemberg Nov. 8, 1620. The same autumn and winter the Lower Palatinate was ravaged by an army of Spaniards under Spinola. The Protestants, utterly defeated in Bohemia, were given over to persecution. W'ar in the Palatinate (1621—°3).—Count Mansfeld and Duke Christian of Brunswick at the head of the Protestant forces showed great skill and energy in opposition to the Catholic armies on the Rhine. They ravaged the terri- tories of the Catholic League, and everywhere retaliated with energy for the tyranny shown by Ferdinand II_. in his dealings with the Protestants. Both sides fought with des- peration. The imperial commander TILLY (q. Iv.) defeated the l\'Iargrave of Baden at Wimpfen (May 6, 1622); also Christian of Brunswick at Htichst (June 30, 1622) and at Stadtlohn (Aug. 6, 1623). These victories might have ended the war but for two reasons. The Protestant princes in the north were beginning to be aroused, and Mansfeld and Christian, though dismissed by Frederick (July, 1623), refused to lay down their arms or leave the field._ They fought desperately on their own account in Alsace, in Lor- raine, in Holland, and in Saxony, supporting their armies as they went, and everywhere leaving desolation. The Da/m'sh-S(t.1'0n lVar (1624-29). The Danish king Christian IV. resented injuries inflicted on him by the em- peror, and, supported by a British subsidy, joined the Protestant cause in 1624. With the forces of Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick. he marched into Lower Saxony. Meautiine the Emperor Ferdinand had called for the help of \VALLENS'l‘EIN (q. 1).), who, with the army of Leaguers THIRTY YEA RS’ \VAR 123 under Tilly, now marched to the north. The Danes were routed in 1626 by Tilly at Lutter and Mansfeld by VVallen- stein at Dessau. The hopes of the Protestants would have perished but for the fact that Mansfeld, after an apparently overwhelming defeat, gathered together forces enough to con- duct a victorious raid or campaign through Silesia, Moravia, and Hungary. Meanwhile, however, the forces of VVallen- stein and Tilly overran North Germany and Denmark, and compelled Christian IV. to sign a treaty of peace at Lubeck May 12, 1629. The Swedz'sh- German I/Var (1630—36).—In 1629 Ferdinand issued the famous Edict of Restitution, according to which all estates that had been secularized since 1552 were ordered to be restored to the Catholic Church. The edict, unpopular with many Catholics, gave the greatest offense to the Protes- tants. Not content with this, Ferdinand fomented a revolt of the Poles against Sweden, thus intensifying the deep indig- nation that was already at the point of war. On July 4, 1630, GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS (q. /u.) landed with a Swedish army at Usedom, drove the imperialists out of Hecklenburg and Pomerania, and formed alliances with Hesse, Saxe-\Veimar, Magdeburg, Brandenburg, and Saxony. Tilly advanced against the new alliance, and stormed and sacked Magde- burg May 20, 1631, after a desperate siege. The city was given up to plunder, and the slaughter of the inhabitants became memorable. On Sept. 17, 1631, the armies met at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, and the army of Tilly was nearly annihilated. Gustavus now advanced to the \V., to the S., and to the E., traversing the Rhine and as- cending the valley of the Main, defeating his enemy on the Lech Apr. 15, 1632, where Tilly was slain, and en- tering Munich May 17, after having established organizers and supporters in every important city along his route. The brilliancy of this march startled Europe and laid the basis for a new Evangelical Union, with Sweden at the head. Ferdinand saw that the case was desperate. and thereupon recalled \/Vallenstein, whom he had previously disgraced, giving him practically unreserved powers. “Fal- lenstein rapidly collected an army, overran Bohemia. and marched N. into Saxony. Gustavus was obliged to follow. In the desperate battle of Liitzen (Nov. 16,1632)YVallen- stein was defeated, but the cause of the Protestants, while overthrowing the enemy, suffered an irreparable loss in the death of Gustavus Adolphus at the moment of victory. The Swedes, under Oxenstierua, preserved their advantages until at Niirdlingen, Sept. 6, 1634, the Protestants. under Bernard of Weimar, were totally defeated. The cause of the em- peror was thus reiiistated, and Saxony signed a treaty of peace at Prague May 30, 1635. The French-Suiedish IVar (1636——48).—RICHELIEU (g. ’L‘.), having broken the political power of the Huguenots and of the nobles in France, was now ready to advance to the third great object of his policy—the defeat of the ambitions of Austria. To secure the hearty alliance of France. Oxen- stierna yielded to Richelieu the direction of the war. The contest then became political rather than religious. \Vhile France united with Sweden, Denmark and Saxony united with the Emperor Ferdinand. Another set of generals then came into prominence. The Swedes under Banér held North- ern Germany, and, after penetrating Silesia and Bohemia, defeated the Austrians and Saxons in a great battle at vWitt- stock in 1636. The same army under Torstensson and Kdnigsmark gained further victories at Breitenfeld (1642) and Jankau (1645). Meantime Turenne and Condé devas- tated the regions of the Rhine, and. by repeated victories, drove back the imperial forces from the Palatinate and from Bavaria. These successes prepared the way for an invasion of Austria, which was about to take place when, after many preliminaries. the terrible struggle was brought to an end by the Peace of WESTPHALIA (q. 1'.) Oct. 24, 1648. As the fruit of this most terrible of modern wars, Protestantism was saved, but at a cost which it is ditlicult even to estimate. The popu- lation was greatly decreased: intellectually and morally the people suffered a great decline. Germany was disintegrated. and the material losses were such that a complete recovery had hardly taken place at the end of two centuries. Aurnonirins.-——Gai'diner. T71 z'rz‘;2/ Years‘ War( 187 4) : \Vard, The ffouse of .4'usirz'(z in the Th z'rz‘;y Years‘ ll'ar: Schiller. Geschz.'chz‘e des Dreéssz'[]y'5t7z2'z'gcn Krfegs (Leipzig. 1793) ; Gindely, Geschz'chI‘c des D2'ezYss1'{7_/'(i'I2Nye/22, Ii'rz'cgs (4 vcls., Prague, 1869-80; Eng. transl. H z'sz‘or3/ of the Th 2‘:'1‘3/ Yerrrs‘ IV(I/2', by Ten Brook); also by the same author, 1ZZusz‘12"z'e2'te Geschzfchte des Dre2Tss'zTgjdIw'z'ge'h Ii"r2Tegs (2d ed. 3 vels., Leip- zig, 1884). C. K. A1).-nus.~ 1 24 THISTLE Thistle [O. Eng. ]>istel : O. H. Germ. distil > Mod. Germ. distel]: any one of many stout spinous herbs of the family Compositaa and of the genera Cnicus, Carduus, Centaurea, Onopordon. A few have medicinal qualities, and some have fine flowers. The roots and leaves of some species were once eaten as food. The creeping thistle, commonly but er- ;‘ \\)“d\t -\ ‘ . z N‘ 3"‘{'-;/” '1 /_l I — Creeping or Canada thistle. roneously called the Canada thistle (Cnicus—or Card/uus— arvensis), is a noxious weed of European origin, now natu- ralized extensively in America. It is a perennial, with many long, running underground stems which come to the surface and give rise to new plants. T/Vhen these creeping stems are cut or broken each part produces a new plant. The plants tend to be dioecious, hence many produce no seeds. Revised by CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Thistle-bird: a name given to the American goldfinch (Spinus tristis), often designated the YELLOW-BIRD (g. v.). Theburn, JAMES MILLS, A. 111., D. D.: bishop; b. at St. Clairsville, O., Mar. 7, 1836; educated at Allegheny College, Meadville, Pa.; joined the Pittsburg Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church 1858; has been engaged in missions in India since 1859 ; was elected missionary bishop for India and Malaysia in 1888. He has published IVIission- ary Addresses; .tlIy flIissionary Apprenticeship (New York, 1884); India and Illalaysia (1892); Light in the East (1894); and The Deaconess and her Vocation. A. OSBORN. Tholuck, t6’look, FRIEDRICH AUeUsT GOTTTREU: theolo- gian and author; b. at Breslau, Germany, Mar. 30, 1799; studied theology and Oriental languages at the Universities of Breslau and Berlin ; visited England in 1825, and Rome in 1828; was appointed Professor Extraordinary of Theology at Berlin in 1824, and removed to Halle in 1826 as ordinary professor. He found the university given up to rationalism, but under his influence it largely regained its reputation for piety. His works, most of which have been often reprinted in Germany and translated into English both in England and America, were published at Gotha in a collected edition in 11 vols., 1863-72, and treat of Oriental subjects-Sufism/as, sive Theosophia Persarum pantheistica (1821); Blilten- samm lung aus der morgenlclndischen Itfystilc (1825) ; Specu- lativ Trinittltslehre des spcitern Orients (1826); exegetical— The Epistle to the Romans (1824; twice translated into English); The Gospel of John (1827 ; translated into Eng- ' lish by Kaufmann, 1836) ; The Sermon on the Jlfount (1833; translated into English by R. L. Brown, Edinburgh, 1860), etc.; historical— Vorgeschichte des Rationalismus (4 vols., 1853-62); Geschichte des Rationalismus (1865, etc.); ethical and dogmatical- Wahre ‘Weihe des Zweijters (1824; trans- lated into English by Ryland under the title of Guido and J‘/ulius, the Doctrine of Sin and the Propitiator) ; Stunden der Andacht (2 vols., 1840; Eng. trans., IIours of Christian Devotion, 1875). He was one of the most fruitful and in- liuential German theologians and authors during the second and third quarters of the nineteenth century, and better known in England and the U. S. than any other. He was original, brilliant, suggestive, eloquent, and full of poetry, wit, and humor. He can not be classified with any school. He was influenced by Pietism and M oravianism, by Schleier- macher and Neander, and even by Hegel. His elastic mind was ever open to new light. He was particularly admired as a preacher. He lives in the lives he inspired and guided, THOMAS not in the books he wrote. D. at Halle, Prussia. June 10, 1877. See his Life, by L. Witte (2 vols., Bielefeld, 1884-86). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Thom, JOHN HAMILTON: preacher and author; b. prob- ably in Scotland about 1810; became a distinguished min- ister of the Unitarian Church, and was many years pastor of the congregation worshiping in Renshaw chapel, Liver- pool ; author of St. Paul’s Epistles to the Corinthians (London, 1851; Boston, 1852); The Revelation of God and Itfan in the Son of God and the Son of Illan (1859); a IV./emoir of Rev. John James Tayler (1872), and other works; editor of The Life of the Rev. Joseph Blanco White, writ- ten by himself, with Portions of his Correspondence (3 vols., 1845) ; a book in which Dr. Liddon finds the beginnings of the Latitudinarian movement in the English Church. In 1839 he was associated with Dr. James Martineau and the Rev. Henry Giles in a course of controversial sermons deliv- ered at Liverpool which attracted wide attention at the time, and are still a landmark of exceptional importance in the history of Unitarian thought. D. Aug. 2, 1894. Revised by J . W. CHAnwIeK. Thoma, RICHARD: surgeon; b. at Bonndorf, in the Black Forest, Germany, Dec. 11, 1847; studied in the Universities of Berlin and Heidelberg, graduating M. D. at the latter in 1872; settled in Heidelberg and devoted himself to the study of pathological anatomy; was elected, in 1877, extraordinary professor of that science in the university. Subsequently he accepted the chair of General and Anatomical Pathology in the University of Dorpat. He has written several mono- graphs on pathological topics. S. T. A. Thomas, or Did’ ymus, SAINT [Thomas : Lat. : Gr. ®w,u&s, from Heb. Te’5m, liter., twin; Didymus= Lat. : Gr. Ai5v,u.os,lit61‘., twin] : one of the twelve apostles, of whose personal character and history nothing is known except by two or three allusions in the Gospel of J ohn. The most im- portant of these is his refusal to believe in the resurrection of Jesus until convinced by tangible proof. Two apocryphal works are ascribed to him—a “ Gospel” and “Acts ” (best ed. by Bonnet, Leipzig, 1883). He was represented by later so- called “tradition” as having preached in Ethiopia, Egypt, Parthia, or India, and in the latter country the CI-IRIs'riANs OF ST. THOMAS (g. v.), found by the Portuguese on the Mala- bar coast in the sixteenth century, claimed to originate from his preaching. This, however, is probably due to a confusion with a Nestorian or Manichaean missionary. Great efforts have been made by several Spanish, Mexican. and South American theologians to make it appear that the apostle evangelized America, and traces of his presence are pointed out in sacred caves and other sites from Paraguay to Mexico, in which latter country he has been formally identified by several native antiquarians with the Aztec divinity Quetzalcoatl. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Thomas, ARTHUR Gonmez opera composer; b. at Ratten, Sussex, England, N ov. 21, 1851 ; did not study music seri- ously until he became of age. In 1875 he went to Paris and studied two years, then returned to En gland and entered the Royal Academy, remaining there three years and twice gaining the annual prize for composition. His first opera, The Light of the I-Iarem, performed by students, led to his receiving a commission from Carl Rosa, for whose company he composed his opera Esmeralda, produced Mar. 26,1883, and a second opera, Nadeschda, was performed by the same company Apr. 16, 1885. He composed also The Sun Wor- shippers, a cantata for the Norwich festival of 1881, an or- chestral Suite de Ballet, several smaller orchestral pieces, some church music, and many songs. D. in London, Mar. 21, 1892. D. E. Hnnvnv. Thomas, Ci~IAnLiis Louis AMBROISE2 musician; b. at Metz, then in France, Aug. 5, 1811; entered the Paris Conserva- tory in 1828; took many prizes, including the Prix de Rome in 1832; has been a prolific composer of cantatas and operas, and considerable chamber music, piano pieces, and songs; also a Requiem Mass and other sacred music; was appointed Professor of Composition in the Conservatory in 1852, and succeeded Auber as director July 6, 1871; elected member of the French Institute in 1851. His principal operatic works are Le Caiid (1840) ; Le Songe d’une Nuit d’Etb (1850); Ray- mond (1851); Psyche (1857); Ilfignon (1866); I-Iamlet (1868); and Erangoise de Rimini (1882). He was made a grand offi- cer of the Legion of Honor in J an., 1881. D. E. HERVEY. ’I‘homas, CYRUS, Ph. D.: etlmologist and entomologist; b. at Kingsport, Tenn., July 27, 1825; removed to Jackson THOMAS co., Ill., in 1849, and in 1851 was elected county clerk, being at the same time admitted to the bar. After practicing law at Murphysboro for several years he entered the ministry of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in 1864. From 1869 to 1874 he was naturalist on the U. S. Geological Survey under Prof. F. V. Hayden, and from 1874 to 1877 Professor of Natural Sciences in the Southern Illinois Normal Univer- sity, becoming also State entomologist of Illinois in 1875. He was a member of the U. S. entomological commission to investigate the destruction caused by grasshoppers in the West 1877-82, and then became ethnologist in the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, in charge of mound explorations. He has studied the Maya hieroglyphs as written in the codices and on the Central American inscriptions, and claims to have discovered the signification and phonetic rendering of a sufficient number of characters to form a key by which to determine the others. His most important works are Ac- rididre of North America (Washington, 1873) ; The Noxious and Beneficial Insects of Illinois (5 vols., 1876-80); Study of the lllanuscript Troano (2 vols., 1878-80); Notes on Cer- tain .Maya and Jlfezvican Jlfanuscripts (1884); Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices; Cherokees in pre-Columbian Times; The Shawnees in pre-Columbian Times; Catalogue of Prehistoric Wbrhs East of the Rocky It/[ountains ; ]PIound E:z;ploration of the Bureau of Ethnology ; and bulletins re- lating to the mounds. Thomas, EDITH IVIATILDA; poet ; b. at Chatham, 0., Aug. 12, 1854. She was educated at the Normal School at Geneva, 0. ; removed to New York in 1888. Her poems deal mainly with aspects of nature, and are very subtle in feeling and delicate in expression. Her published volumes include A New Year’s Jtlasque (1885); The Round Year (1886) ; Lyrics and Sonnets (1887); Babes of the Year (1888); and The Inverted Torch (1890). H. A. B. Thomas, GEORGE HENRY: soldier; b. in Southampton co., Va., July 31, 1816; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy in 1840 ; served in Florida against the Seminoles and in the Mexican war; was instructor at the Military Academy 1851-54, and in 1855 was appointed major of the Second Cavalry, with which he served continuously for the next five years. On the outbreak of the civil war Thomas, notwithstanding his sympathies and associations with the South, at once gave his adherence to the Union. Promoted to be brigadier-general of volunteers in Aug., 1861, and trans- ferred to the department of the Cumberland, he was for a time engaged in mustering and organizing the First Brigade; was given command of the First Division (Army of the Ohio) in N ov., 1861, and fought in the battle of Mill Springs (Jan. 19-20, 1862), which was the most important victory yet gained in the West and brought Thomas into general no- tice. He was promoted major-general of volunteers Apr. 2, 1862, and rendered valuable service in the ‘Nest and South. In the battle of MURrREEsBoRo (q. 1).) he commanded the center, and at CHICKAMAUGA (q. a), Sept. 19-20, 1863, he commanded the left wing where the great struggle took place for the repossession of Chattanooga, out of which the enemy had been manoeuvered. The record of Thomas‘s wonderful resistance for upward of five hours against the concentrated efforts of the enemy after the Federal right was routed forms one of the most remarkable events in the history of the war. He was given command of the Army of the Cumberland, and on Oct. 27 he was commis- sioned brigadier-general in the regular army. On Sept. 27, 1864, Thomas was detached from the main army in Georgia, and placed in chief command in Tennessee, with large dis- cretionary powers, as it was a matter of doubt what were the real intentions of the Confederate general Hood, who was moving northward in the hope of causing Sherman‘s withdrawal from Georgia. After a period of intense anx- iety in Washington over what seemed an unnecessary de- lay, Thomas checked Hood’s advance at Nashville, pursued him beyond the Tennessee, and destroyed his army. (See NASHVILLE, BATTLE OF.) The appointment of major-gen- eral in the regular army was (Dec. 15, 1864) bestowed upon him, and Congress tendered him a vote of thanks. During the remaining months of the war he contributed materially to the overthrow of the Confederacy by organizing raiding expeditions (resulting in the capture of Jefferson Davis in May, 1865) and by tiniel y aid to other departments. Ile com- manded the military division of the Tennessee (1865-66); the department of the Tennessee (1866-67); the third mili- tary district (Georgia, Florida, and Alabama), and the de- partment of the Cumberland (1867-69). From May 15, 125 1869, he commanded the military division of the Pacific, with headquarters at San Francisco, where his death oc- curred Mar. 28, 1870. Thomas, GEORGE HOUSMAN: illustrator and engraver ; b. in London, England, Dec. 7, 1824; served an apprenticeship to a wood-engraver; practiced that art in Paris, giving his chief attention to the illustration of books, in which he gained such popularity that his services were engaged to go to the U. S. to illustrate a newspaper; resided at New York 1846- 47; furnished designs for a number of bank-notes; returned to England on account of ill health; became one of the prin- cipal draughtsmen for The Illustrated London News. His best pictures were The Queen giring the liledals to the Cri- mean Heroes and The Queen and Prince Albert at Alder- shott. His illustrations to Thomson’s Seasons (1858) and to Uncle Tom’s Cabin were much admired. D. at Boulogne, France, July 21, 1868. Thomas, ISAIAH, LL. D. : printer and editor; b. in Boston, Mass., Jan. 19, 1749; lost his father in childhood; was ap- prenticed when six years of age to a printer, with whom he remained eleven years ; began business at Ncwburyport 1767 ; removed to Boston ; aided his former employer in es- tablishing in 1770 The 1I[assachusetts Spy ; became its sole editor and was connected with it until 1801 ; became ob- noxious to the British authorities on account of the sup- port given by his paper to the movements preparatory to the Revolution; transferred his printing-office to Worcester 1774; published a long series of reprints of popular English works, displaying good judgment in their selection, also Bibles and hymn-books; engaged in book-publishing and in printing The Earmer’s 1lIuseum, at \Valpole, N. H.; estab- lished an additional bookstore and publishing-house in Bos- ton in 1788, under the firm name of Thomas & Andrews; issued The II/[assachusetts 1l[agazine (8 vols., 1789-96) ; con- ducted for twenty-six years (1775-1801) the celebrated New England Almanac; was author of a carefully prepared H is- tory of Printing in America (2 vols., Worcester, 1810). He was founder and first president (1812) of the American Anti- quarian Society; endowed it, erected a building for its use, and gave it a valuable library. D. at Worcester, Apr. 4, 1831. See the IL/emoir by his grandson, Benjamin F. Thomas (Boston, 1874). Thomas, JEssE BURGESS, D. D.: clergyman; b. at Ed- wardsville, Ill., July 29. 1832, graduated from Kenyon College, Gambier, O., in 1850; began a course of theological study at Rochester Theological Seminary in 1852, but re- linquished it in consequence of ill health ; studied law, and was admitted to the Illinois bar 1855, and engaged in mer- cantile pursuits in Chicago for some years. In 1862 be en- tered the ministry in the Baptist Church as pastor of a church in Waukegan, Ill. ; in 1864 was called to the Pierre- pont Street Baptist church, Brooklyn, N. Y.; accepted a call to San Francisco in 1867; returned to Chicago as pastor of Michigan Avenue Baptist church in 1871; was pastor of the consolidated First and Pierrepont Street Baptist churches, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1874-77; became professor in Newton Theological Institution, Mass., 1887. Published The Old Bible and the New Science (New York, 1877) and Significance of the Historic Element in Scripture (Phila- delphia, 1883). Revised by W. H. WHITSITT. Thomas, JOHN, M. D. : physician and soldier; b. at Marsh- field, Mass., in 1725 ; became an eminent physician in his na- tive town and at Kingston; was surgeon to a regiment sent to Annapolis, N. S., 17 46, and on the medical staff of Gov. Shirley’s regiment 1747, but exchanged that post for the rank of lieutenant; attained the grade of colonel 1759; com- manded a regiment under Amherst at Crown Point 1760, and took part in the capture of Montreal the same year; enrolled himself at an early date among the Sons of Liberty; was a delegate in 1774-75 to the Massachusetts provincial congress, by which he was appointed brigadier-general Feb. 9, 17 7 5: received the ‘same rank from the Continental Con- gress June 22, and was promoted to be major-general Mar. 6, 1776 ; was in charge of the fortification of I lorchester Heights hlar. 4. 177 6, which led to the speedy evacuation of Boston by the British; succeeded at l\Iontgomery‘s death to the command of the remains of the army then besieging Quebec. where he arrived May 1, found the smallpox prevalent in camp, the forces reduced to less than 1,000 effective men, and was consequently forced to raise the siege and retreat. but was attacked by the epidemic near the river Sorel, and died at Chambly, June 2, 1776. 126 THOMAS Thomas. JOHN: architect and sculptor; b. at Chalford, England, i1I 1813 ; served an apprenticeship to a stonecutter; taught himself to paint sign-boards and engrave door-plates in order to earn a few shillings out of working hours; en- gaged in business with his brother; was an architect at Bir- mingham, and later at Leamington; executed a great num- ber of commissions for architectural and decorative sculpture, and ultimately undertook with great success the execution of works of sculpture of the highest class, among which were Jlfusiclora, Boarlicea, Lady Godiva, Una and the Lion, and several portrait-statues, including a colossal memorial of Shakspeare, and a famous majolica fountain exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862. He was also the archi- tect of the seats of several noblemen. D. at Maida Hill, Lon- don, Apr. 9, 1862. Thomas, JOHN J ., A. M.: agriculturist; b. near Aurora, Cayuga co., N. Y., Jan. 8, 1810; became, like his father, a dis- tinguished writer on agriculture and pomology; was assist- ant editor of The Genesee Farmer 1834-39, horticultural editor of The Albany Cultivator 1841-53, assistant editor of the same and of The Country Gentleman for many years from 1853 ; contributed to the Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society 1841-47 and to The Farm (New York, 1858); conducted The Illustrated Annual Reg- ister of Rural Afiairs (Albany, 1857-65), and was author of The Fruit Culturist (1846), which in later editions, under the name of The American Fruit Culturist, is one of the chief American pomological works: and Farm Implements, and the Principles of their Construction and Use (New York, 1859). D. Feb. 22, 1895. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Thomas, JOSEPH, M. D., LL. D.: lexicographer; brother of John J. Thomas; b. in Cayuga co., N. Y., Sept. 23, 1811; educated at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y., at Yale College, and in medicine at Philadelphia; resided in India 1857-58, engaged in the study of Oriental languages; spent some months in Egypt with a similar ob- ject; and became Professor of Latin and Greek at Haver- ford College, Pennsylvania. He was coeditor with Thomas Baldwin of a Pronouncing Gazetteer (Philadelphia, 1845), which in a revised edition was entitled A Complete Pro- nouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the Wbrlal (1855 ; revised 1861, 1866, 1880); and of A 1Vew and Complete Gazetteer of the United States (1854) ; published A 1*’/irstBooh of Etymology (1851-52) ; a volume of Travels in Egypt and Palestine (1853); A Comprehensive Jlleclical Die- tionary (1864); and Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography and Jkfythology (1870-71) ; contributed geograph- ical and biographical pronouncing vocabularies to \/Vebster’s dictionaries, and published an edition of Oswald’s Etymo- logical Dictionary. D. in Philadelphia, Pa., Dec. 24, 1891. Thomas, LORENZO: soldier; b. at Newcastle, Del., Oct. 26, 1804; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy in 1823; served in the Fourth Infantry in Florida until 1831, and again in the Florida war of 1836-37 ; on quartermaster duty at Washington 1837-38. Upon the organization of the adjutant-general’s department he was commissioned major and assistant adjutant-general, and served as chief of staff of the army in Florida 1839-40 ; at Washington, D. C., 1840- 46; served in the war with Mexico as chief of staff to Maj.- Gen. William O. Butler, both while in command of a divi- sion of volunteers and after his succession to the command of the army. In 1852 he became lieutenant-colonel, and served as chief of staff to Lieut.-Gen. Scott from Mar., 1853, to Mar. 7, 1861, when he was promoted to be colonel, and placed in charge of the adjutant-general’s office at Washing- ton; became brigadier-general and adjutant-general of the army Aug. 3, 1861, but from 1863 was employed on special duty in organizing colored troops, inspection tours, etc., un- til Feb., 1869, when he was retired from active service. At the time of President J ohnson’s controversy with Congress he appointed Gen. Thomas (Feb. 21, 1868) Secretary of War ad interim, but Secretary Stanton refused to vacate. D. in Washington, D. C., Mar. 2, 1875. Thomas, MARY F. (ilfyers), M. D. : philanthropist; b. in Maryland, Oct. 28, 1816 ; daughter of Samuel Myers, a (,)uaker associated with Benjamin Lundy in the first anti- slavery meeting held in Washington, D. C. ; married Owen Thomas in 1839 ; studied medicine, and graduated from Penn Medical College in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1854; was assistant physician in hospitals during the civil war; city physician and physician for the Home for Friendless \Vomen in Rich- mond, Ind. ; admitted to membership in the Indiana State Medical Society in 1876; was an earnest advocate of tem- THOMASI US perance for over fifty years ; in 1851 helped to organize the first woman’s rights society in Indiana, and held responsible offices in connection with the movement, State and national. D. at Richmond, Aug. 19, 1888. SUSAN B. ANTHONY. Thomas, PHILIP FRANCIS: lawyer; b. at Easton, Talbot co., Md., Sept. 12, 1810; educated at Dickinson College; ad- mitted to the bar 1831 ; elected to the State constitutional convention 1836; a member of the Legislature 1838 and 1843-45; member of Congress 1839-41; subsequently judge of the land-office court of the Eastern Shore of Maryland; Governor of Maryland 1848-51 ; comptroller of State treas- ury 1851-53; U. S. commissioner of patents 1860; succeeded I-Iowell Cobb as Secretary of the Treasury in President Buch- anan’s cabinet, acting as such from Dec., 1860, to Jan. 11, 1861 ; was elected U. S. Senator Mar., 1867, but not admitted to a seat on the ground of disloyalty; was elected a Repre- sentative in Congress 1874, 1876, and 1878, and in 1880 de- clined a renomination. D. in Baltimore, Oct. 2, 1890. Thomas, THEODORE: orchestral conductor; b. at Esens, Hanover, Germany, Oct. 11, 1835 ; received his first musical instruction from his father, a violinist, and made a success- ful public appearance at the age of six; removed with his parents to New York in 1845, and played the violin in concerts and orchestras; in 1851 made a concert tour as sole violin- ist. In 1855 he started a series of chamber-music concerts with William Mason, George Matzka, Joseph Mosenthal, Ferd. Bergner, and Carl Bergmann, which continued till 1869. In 1864 he began his first series of symphony concerts with an orchestra which he conducted until 1888, giving nightly sum- mer concerts in New York and making tours through the U. S. during the winter months. From 1878 to 1881 he was director of the Cincinnati College of Music. In the season of 1877-78 he was conductor of the New York Philharmonic Society, and in 1879 he was elected to this position for the second time, and held it continuously till 1890, when he went to Chicago. He has conducted the Cincinnati biennial festivals since their start in 1873. He was conductor of the Brooklyn Philharmonic Society in 1862, 1866 to 1870, and 1873 to 1890, when the society disbanded on his removal to Chicago. He was also conductor of the Mendelssohn Union, the New York Chorus Society (four years), and the great New York festival in the Seventh Regiment armory in 1882. He was conductor of the American Opera Company in 1885-87. In 1892 he was appointed musical director of the \rVorld’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago. D. E. HERVEY. Thomas, THEODORE GAILLARD, A. M., M. D., LL. D.: gy- naecologist; b. on Edisto island, S. C., Nov. 21, 1832 ; gradu- ated M. D. at the Medical College of South Carolina in 1852, and removed to New York city during the same year; served at Bellevue Hospital; elected Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women in the College of Physicians and Sur- geons, New York, 1862; visiting physician to Roosevelt and Bellevue Hospitals; surgeon to the Woman’s Hospital in the State of New York; president of the medical board of the Nursery and Child’s Hospital; president of the American Gynaecological Society 1879; honorary fellow of the Obstet- rical Society of London ; corresponding fellow of the Obstet- rical Society of Berlin, etc. ; has contributed largely to current medical literature. His chief work is Diseases of Women (Philadelphia, 1868), which ha.s been translated into several languages. Revised by S. T. ARMSTRONG. Thomas a Kempis: See KEMPIS, Tnonss )1. Thomas Aquinas: See AQUINAS, ST. THOMAS. Thomas, Christians of St.: See CHRISTIANS or ST. THOMAS. Thoma'sius, CI-IRIs'rIAN: jurist and theologian; son of Jacob Thomasius, a distinguished teacher and author; b. at Leipzig, Jan. 1, 1655. After studying at Frankfort-on-the- Oder and traveling in Holland, he became Professor of Law at Leipzig in 1681. Among the innovations of which he was author was the introduction of the German instead of the Latin language as a medium of university instruction, and the editing of a literary review which criticised with caustic wit and scholastic methods the proposition of the so-called territorial as a substitute for the heretofore current episcopal scheme of Church government. The fee of all that was purely speculative, his efforts in the sphere of the practical extended so far as to depreciate classical learning. In the Pietistic controversy he sided with Spener and his school in the criticism of the defects of dead orthodoxy, but unlike them. while believing in revealed religion, he offered no definite faith as a substitute for the ‘errors he exposed. THOMASIUS Regarding “superstition more dangerous than unbelief or atheism,” Tholuck pronounces him “the personified spirit of illuminism.” As a jurist, his efforts against prosecutions for witchcraft and the use of torture in obtaining evidence are worthy of enduring memory. Fleeing from Leipzig to escape arrest, he became one of the founders of the Uni- versity of Halle and Professor of Law there in 1694. D. at Halle, Sept. 23, 1728. See the Bt'og'rag9hy, by H. Luden (1805); article by Tholuck in Herzog’s Real-eneyelopddte; and Hagenbach’s Kt'1'chengesehtohte, v., 455-467. ‘ H. E. JACOBS. Thomasius, GOTTFRIED, D. D.: theologian; descendant of Christian Thomasius; b. at Egenhausen, Bavaria, July 26, 1802; studied at Erlangen, Halle, and Berlin; pastor in sev- eral places in Bavaria, finally at Nuremberg 1829-42; Pro- fessor of Dogmatics at Erlangen from 1842 until his death Jan. 24, 1875. He was a representative of the confessional reaction of the nineteenth century in Lutheranism. His great work on dogmatics from the christological standpoint, Chm'ste' Person n. lVerh, 3 vols. (1st ed. 1852-61 ; 2d 1856-63 ; 3d 1886), is a philosophical treatment of the Lutheran sys- tem, influenced to some extent by the school of Schleier- macher, and departs from the stricter Lutheran position, mainly on the doctrine of the Kenosts. which he ascribes to the divine nature. His Dogmengesohtohte (2 vols., 1874, 1876; 2d ed. 1890) is also a work of importance. especially valuable for its treatment of the development of doctrine in the Lu- theran Church. His strictly confessional but irenic charac- ter is indicated by his words: “ The name ‘ Lutheran,’ in my opinion, should not be used as though it referred to something alongside of or beyond what is catholic and evangelical; but we are rather convinced that in what is properly Lutheran we possess what is truly catholic, and what forms the true mean between the confessional ex- tremes.” HENRY E. J ACOBS. Thomas of London: same as THOMAS A’ BECKET. See BECKET, THOMAS A’. Thomas the Rhymer: See RHYMER, THDMAS THE. Thomaston: town; Litchfield co., Conn.; on the Nau- gatuck river and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 8 miles S. E. of Litchfield, and 10 miles N. of \/Vaterbury (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 9-F). It is principally engaged in the manufacture of clocks, cutlery, and brass goods, and contains the Laura Andrews Free Library, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a savings-bank, and a weekly newspaper. It was incorporated in 187 5, and in 1894 had an assessed valuation of $1,500,000. Pop. (1880) 3,225 ; (1890) 3,278. Thomaston: town; capital of Upson co., Ga.; on the Cent. of Ga. and the Macon and Birmingham railways; 16 miles S. W. of Barnesville, and 75 miles S. of Atlanta (forlo- cation, see map of Georgia, ref. 4—G). It is in an agricultural region, is principally engaged in the manufacture’ of car- riages, shoes, and furniture, is an important cotton and stock market, and contains five churches, the R. E. Lee Insti- tute, a State bank (capital $25,000), and a weekly paper. Pop. (1880) 570; (1890) 1,181. EDITOR OF “ TIMES.” Thomaston: town (incorporated in 1777) ; Knox co., Me. ; on the St. George’s river and the Maine Cent. Railroad; 4 miles W. of Rockland, the county-seat, and 12 miles N. of the Atlantic Ocean (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 9-D). It contains 6 churches, high school, 11 grammar, interme- diate, and primary schools, library, the Maine State prison, 2 national banks with combined capital of $210,000, a sav- ings-bank, and a weekly and 2 monthly periodicals. The town is connected with Rockland by electric railway, and is noted for its ship-building interests and lime manufactories. Pop. (1880) 3,017 ; (1890) 3,009. EDITDR OF “HERALD.” Thomasville: town ; capital of Thomas co., Ga. ; on the Sav., Fla. and West. Railway : 36 miles E. of Bainbridge, and 58 miles E. of Albany (for location, see map of Georgia. ref. 7-G). It is in a cotton and a wool growing region; is the seat of the South Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege (a branch of the State University); and contains the Young Female College, a public library. 3 State banks with combined capital of $361,000. a national bank with capital of $100,000, a branch savings and trust company, large cigar-factories, and a daily and 2 weekly newspapers. Large quantities of fruit and melons are raised in the vicinity. Pop. (1880) 2,555; (1890) 5,514; (1895) estimated, 7.000. EDITOR OF “ TIMES-ENTERPRISE.” Thomists : See AQUINAs, ST. THOMAS. THOMPSON 12.7 Thompson : town (set off from Killingly and incor- porated in 1785); I/Vindham co., Conn.; on the N. Y. and New Eng. Railroad (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 6—L). It is watered by the French and Quinebaug rivers; contains the villages of Thompson, East Thompson, \/Vest Thompson. Grosvenor Dale, North Grosvenor Dale, Mechanicsville, \Vilsonvillc, New Boston, and Quinebaug; and is principally engaged in agriculture and the manu- facture of cotton and woolen goods. The grand list in 1894 was $1,629,248. Pop. (1880) 5,051; (1890) 5,580. Thompson, AUeUsTUs CHARLES, D.D.: clergyman and author; b. at Goshen, Conn., Apr. 30, 1812; educated at Yale College, but did not graduate; studied theology at East Windsor Seminary and at the University of Berlin; became pastor of the Eliot Congregational church, Roxbury, Mass., July, 1842; accompanied Rev. Rufus Anderson on his visit to the American missions in India 1854-55 ; author of Songs in the Night (1845) ; The Jlferey Seat (1863) ; 1l[oram'an J11 is- sions (1882); Fntu/re Probation and Foreign _lI/zIssz'ons (1886) ; and of many other writings. Revised by G. P. FIsHER. Thompson, BENJAMIN: See RUMFORD, BENJAMIN THOM P- SON, Count. Thompson, DANIEL GREENLEAE: lawyer and writer; b. at Montpelier, Vt., Feb. 9, 1850; educated at Montpelier and at Amherst College ; began the practice of law in New York in 1872. His principal works are System of Psy- chology (2 vols., London, 1884); The Problem of Evil (1886); Social Progress (1889); Ph/ilosophy of Ficfion in Lz'2‘eratm'e (1892); with articles and addresses. J . M. B. Thompson, DANIEL PIERCE: author; b. at Charlestown, Mass., Oct. 1, 1793; removed to Berlin, Vt., in childhood; taught district schools 1815-16; graduated at Middlebury College 1820; was for some time a private tutor in Vir- ginia, where he studied law and was admitted to the bar; settled at Montpelier‘, Vt., 1824 ; became register of probate ; was clerk of the Legislature 1830-33 ; compiled the laws of Vermont 1824-34 (Montpelier, 1835); was county judge of probate 1837-40; clerk of the county 1843-45; afterward clerk of the Supreme Court and secretary of State 1853-55 ; author of several novels, chiefly illustrative of Vermont life and of Revolutionary history, among which were The Green Jl;[onnta/tn Boys (Montpelier, 1840; republished in Boston and London); Lucy lTosmer (1848); The Rangers (1851); Gwut Ga/rley (1857) ; and published a Hz'story of 1l[ontpeHer (1860). D. at Montpelier, June 6, 1868. Thompson, EDWARD MAUNDE: librarian and author; b. in Jamaica, May 4, 1840; was educated at Rugby School; appointed assistant in the British Museum in 1861 ; became keeper of the MSS. in 1878 and principal librarian and sec- retary in 1888. He has edited a number of medieeval Latin chronicles for the Camden and other societies; also Dz'a~ry of Rzichard Goals in Japan (for the Hakluyt Society, 1883) ; with Prof. R. C. Jebb, the facsimile of the Laurentian So hocles (for the Hellenic Society, 1885); and has written a andbook of Greek and Latin Pczlceogzvqohy (Interna- tional Scientific Series, 1893). Thompson, ELIZABETH (by marriage Lad y Butler) : paint- er; b.~ at Lausanne, Switzerland, about 1850; acquired ce- lebrity from her ainting of The Roll Call, exhibited at the Royal Academy, ondon. 1874, highly admired by the Prince of Wales, and purchased by the Queen ; visited Italy 1875 ; painted The Twenty-etg/zth Regiment at Quatre Bras and other military pictures, including The Battle of Balalrlara (1876), Inherma-n (1877). and The Camel (7orps (1894). In 1877 she married Capt. (afterward Maj.-Gen.) Sir \Yilliam Francis Butler. Revised by RUssELL STURGIS. Thompson, HENRY: author; b. in England in 1797 ; graduated at Cambridge, 1822; took orders in the Church of England; was for some years curate of \Vrington, Som- erset, and became in 1853 vicar of Chard, in the same coun- ty; author of a Life of Zlannah Jlfore (1838): A History of Roman L'zTte'ratm'e : and a part of the H zTsz‘ory of Greek L'z'te2'alure. in the E')2eyelop(r(l2'a Jlletroyiolltana, to which work he was a large contributor; also several religious works; translated Schiller‘s Jllairl of (h-leans and ll'illz'anz- Tell (1845). and Or1Tg'2.'n/al Ballacls by Living Authors (1850): wrote for the Lyra Il1'ess1Ian2Toa and its companion volume : edited The Complete lVo'rl‘s of flo/race, from the T art of Orellz'u/s (1853), and The (lomplete IVorks of Vz'rgz'l, from the Te.rt of Iieyne and IVngner (1854); contributed to a work on Occult [Sciences (1855). D. at Chard. Dec.. 187 8. Revised by H. A. BEERS. 128 Thompson. Sir HENRY, F. R. C. S. : surgeon ; b. at Fram- lingham, Suffolk, England, Aug. 6. 1820; studied medicine at University College Hospital, London, graduating M. B. in 1851 ; was appointed assistant surgeon there in 1853, sur- geon in 1863, Professor of Clinical Surgery in 1866, and con- sulting surgeon in 1874. In 1852 he gained the J acksonian prize of the Royal College of Surgeons for his essay on The Pathology and Treatment of Stricture of the Urethra, and again in 1860 for his essay on The Healthy and ]k[orbid Anatomy of the Prostate Gland. He was appointed surgeon extraordinary to King Leopold I. of Belgium in 1863, and to Leopold II. in 1866; made an officer Of the Order of Leo- pold in 1864, and promoted commander in 1876. For the success of an operation on King Leopold I. he was knighted in 1867. He is a member-of numerous British and foreign medical societies, and an enthusiastic advocate of cremation, and the popularity of that method of disposal of the dead in Great Britain is largely due to his efforts. He is an artist of no mean ability, and his paintings have been exhibited at the Royal Academy and the Paris Salon. Among his published works are Practical Lithotomy and Lithotrity (1863); Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Urinary Organs (1868); hlodern Cremation (1890); and the novels Charley Kingston/s Aunt and All But, which appeared under the pseudonym of Pen Oliver. S. T. ARMSTRONG. Thompson, HENRY DENMAN: actor; b. at Girard, Pa., Oct. 15,1833; removed in 1847 with his parents to Swan- zey, N. H., where he lived for a number of years. It was here that he studied the characters which many years after he introduced in his plays of Joshua Whitcomb and The Old Homestead. He made his first appearance on the pro- fessional stage at Lowell, Mass., in 1863 in The French Spy. He played on the variety stage and as an Irish comedian. He first produced Joshua IV/iitcomb in 1875, which was worked up from a variety sketch. His greatest success was in The Old Homestead, which ran continuously for four years until 1891, and had many long runs until 1895, when he retired from the stage. B. B. VALLENTINE. Thompson, JACOB : member of Congress and cabinet officer; I). in Caswell co., N. C., May 15, 1810; graduated at the University of North Carolina 1831 ; was admitted to the bar in 1834; settled in the Chickasaw country, Mississippi, in 1835; was a Democratic member of Congress 1839-51; chairman of the committee on Indian affairs; opposed the Compromises of 1850; Secretary of the Interior under Presi- dent Buchanan from Mar., 1857, to Jan. 7, 1861, when he re- signed in consequence of the order to re-enforce Fort Sumter being given without the knowledge of the Cabinet; Governor of Mississippi 1862-64, and subsequently aide to Gen. Beaure- gard and inspector-general for the department of Mississippi. 1). at Memphis, Tenn., Mar. 24, 1885. Thompson, Sir JOHN SPARROW DAVID: statesman; b. at Halifax, Nova Scotia, Nov. 10, 1844; educated at the Free Church Academy there; admitted to the bar in 1865. He was a member of the House of Assembly of Nova Scotia 1877-82; Attorney-General of the province 1878-82; Pre- mier and Attorney-General of the same from May 25, 1882, until July 25, 1882, when appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia; resigned Sept. 25,1885 to become Minister of Justice and Attorney-General of Canada, and was elected to the Parliament of Canada in 1885, 1887, and 1891. He was appointed Premier of Canada in Nov., 1892, upon the resignation of Sir John C. Abbott. He was a mem- ber of the senate of the University of Halifax; counsel on behalf of the U. S. Government at the fishery commission held under the Washington treaty which met at Halifax in 1877; assisted the British representatives on the fishery com- mission at Washington in 1887, and was knighted for his services in 1888. Sir John was one of the British representa- tives in the Bering Sea arbitration proceedings between the Governments of Great Britain and the U. S. which met at Paris in 1893, and became a member of the Queen’s Privy Council in 1894. D. at Windsor, England, Dec. 12, 1894. NEIL l\'IAcDo1\niI.D. Thompson, Josnrn PARRISH, D. D., LL. D.: clergyman and author; b. in Philadelphia, Pa.., Aug. 7, 1819; gradu- ated at Yale College 1838; studied theology at Andover and a.t New Haven; became pastor of the Chapel Street Congregational church, New Haven, Nov., 1840; was min- ister of the Broadway Tabernacle, New York, 1845-7] : was one of the founders of The N ew Eur/lander, a quarterly the- ological organ of the Congregational denomination, and of the New York Independent ; was a manager of the American THOMPSON Congregational Union and of the Home Missionary Society; originated in 1852 the plan of the Albany Congregational- ist convention ; visited Tgypt, Palestine, and other Oriental countries 1852-53; afterward devoted much research to Oriental subjects, especially Egyptology. In 1872 he be- came a resident of Berlin, Germany, and was an active member of its literary and scientific societies, frequently de- livering addresses and contributing papers to their publica- tions. These were published under the title American Com- ments on European Questions (New York, 1 884). Among 111 any other works were Lectures to Young Men (1846) ; Egypt, Past and Present (1856); ll/[emoir of Rev. David T. Stoddard (1858) ; Christianity and Emancipation (1863); .Man in Gen- esis and Geology (1869); Theology of Christ from his own Words (1870); Church and State in the United States 1874): Life of Christ (1875); The Workman: his False 7riends and his True Friends (1879). D. in Berlin, Sept. 20, 1879. Revised by GEORGE P. FISHER. Thom son, LAUNT: sculptor; b. at Abbeyleix, Queen’s County, reland, Feb. 8, 1833; removed to Albany, N. Y., 1847 ; began the study of medicine ; afterward was pupil and assistant of Erastus D. Palmer, the sculptor, nine years ; de- velo ed a remarkable talent for medallion portraits ; settled in ew York 1858, and became an Academician in 1862; member and vice-president of the National Academy of De- sign in 1874. Among his works are busts of Edwin Booth as Hamlet, Bryant, and Gen. Dix; a colossal statue of Na- oleon; an equestrian statue of Gen. Burnside, in Provi- ence, R. I.; and the statues of Winfield Scott, at the Sol- diers’ Home, Washington, D. C., and of Abraham Pierson at Yale College. The honorary degree of M. A. was con- ferred upon him by Yale in 1874. D. at Middletown, N. Y., Sept. 26, 1894. Thompson, MAURICE: author"; b. at Fairfield, Ind., Sept. 9, 1844. His childhood was passed partly in Kentucky and Georgia, and he served in the Confederate army during the civil war. He subsequently returned to Indiana and en- gaged alternately in civil engineering and in the practice of law at Crawfordsville. In 1885-89 he was State geologist of Indiana. In 1890 he formed an editorial connection with the New York Independent. Among his published writings are Hoosier flfosaics (1875); The IVitchery of Archery (1878); A Tallahassee Girl (1882); His Second Campaign (1882); Songs of Fair Weather (1883); At Lave’s E./rtremes (1885); Byways and Bird lVotes (1885); Sylvan Secrets (1887); The Story of Louisiana (1888); and A Fortnight of Folly (1888). H. A. BEERS. Thompson, MORTIMER: humorist: b. at Riga, N. Y., Sept. 2, 1832; studied for a time at University of Michigan, but left before graduating; was for some time connected with a traveling theatrical company ; became about 1852 a clerk in New York ; wrote some humorous letters for the Detroit Advertiser which procured him employment on the New York press, and subsequently became a popular lecturer, and published several humorous volumes which had a wide circulation under the pen-name of Q. K. Philander Doe- stichs, P. B. Among his books were Doestichs—- What he Says (1855); Plu-ri-bus-tah, a travesty of Longfellow’s Hiawatha (1856); History and Records of the Elephant Club (1857) ; and iV0thing to Say (1857). D. in New York, June 25, 1875. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Thompson, RIOHARI) WIGGINTON: jurist and Congress- man ; b. in Culpeper co., Va., June 9, 1809 ; received a clas- sical education; was a clerk in a store in Louisville, Ky.; afterward a school-teacher in Lawrence co., Ind., but studied law at the same time, and was admitted to the bar in 1834 and began to practice at Bedford, Ind. In the same year he was elected to the State Legislature of Indiana, and re- elected in 1835. In 1836 he became a State Senator; in 1841 was chosen to Congress, and again in 1844 and 1847. Vari- ous appointments which were offered to him by the admin- istration he declined, including that of minister to Austria, but took part very actively in politics; was a delegate to the Republican conventions of 1860, 1864, 1868, and 1876; in 1867-69 was judge of the eighteenth circuit of Indiana; entered President I-Iayes’s cabinet in 1877 as Secretary of the Navy; resigned in 1881 to become chairman of the American committee of the Panama Canal Company; au- thor of The Papaey and the Civil Power (New York, 1876) and a History of the Tarifi (Chicago, 1888). Thompson, ROBERT ANCHOR: clergyman and author; b. at Durham, England, in 1821 ; educated at Durham School THOMPSON and as an engineer student of Durham University; gradu- ated at Cambridge, 1844; was for some years connected with the astronomical observatory at Durham, and pub- lished a volume of his observations in 1849; took orders in the Church of England; became curate of Louth and (1854) of Binbrook, Lincolnshire, and in 1858 was chosen master of the hospital of St. Mary the V irgm at Newcastle- upon-Tvne; author of a volume of Sermons (London, 1853) ; of Christian Theism, the Testimony of Reason and Reve- lation to the Existence and Character of the Supreme Be- ing (London, 2 vols., 1855; n. e. 1863), which gamed the first Burnett premium (£1,800) among 208 competitors: An Essay on the Principles of Natural Theology (1857); Christ the Light of the World (1859); The Oxford Decla- ration (1864) ; and Thomas Becket (1889). Revised by S. M. J AcKsoN. Thompson, ROBERT ELLIS, S. T. D.: professor and editor ; b. near Lurgan, Ireland, Apr. 5, 1844; educated 1n the Um- versity of Pennsylvania and the Reformed Presbyterian Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa.; ordained by the Reformed Church in 1873; entered the Presbyterian Church with his presbytery in 1882 ; instructor in the University of Pennsyl- vania 1868-70; rofessor 1870-92; and since 1894 president of the Central igh School of Philadelphia. Dr. Thomp- son was editor of The American Presbyterian 1866-70; of The Penn Jllonthly 1870-80 ; of The American 1880-91; and since 1891 has been assistant editor of The Sunday-school Times. He was lecturer on protective tariffs in Harvard 1884-85; in Yale 1886-88; Stone lecturer in Princeton 1891. His publications are Social Science and National Economy (Philadelphia, 1874) ; third edition under the title Elements of Political Economy (Philadelphia, 1882) ; Hard Times and what to Learn from them (Philadelphia, 1877) ; Protection to Home Industry, Harvard lectures (New York, 1886): Relief of Local and State Taxation through Dis- tribution of National Surplus (Philadelphia, 1883); De Cioitate Dei .' the Divine Order of Human Society (Phila- delphia, 1891); and he has edited Dufiielcl’s Latin Hymn- writers and their Hymns (New York, 1890) ; The American Supplement to the Encyclopoedia Britannica (vol. i., Phila- delphia, 1883: vol. ii., 1884): Life of George H. Stuart, written by Himself (Philadelphia, 1889); The National Hymn-book of the American Church (Philadelphia, 1892); A History of the Presbyterian Churches in the United States (New York, 1895); and A First Book in Political Economy for the Use of Schools and High Schools (Boston, 1895). C. K. HOYT. Thompson, SILVANUS PHILLIPS: physicist and electrical engineer; b. at York, England, June 19, 1851 ; educated at the Royal School of Mines; in 1878 received the degree of D. Sc. ; in 1879 became Professor of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol, whence he was subsequently called to take charge of the department of electrical engi- neering in the Finsbury Technical College, London. He is the author of numerous memoirs: also of a volume en- titled Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Jllagnetism (1881); of a voluminous treatise on Dynamo-electric fila- chincry (1885; 4th ed. 1890); and of special treatises on the are-lamp, the electro-magnet, etc. E. L. NICHOLS. Thompson, SMITH, LL. D.: jurist; b. at Stanford, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1768; graduated at Princeton College 1788, and was admitted to the bar 1792, having been a student under Chan- cellor Kent at Poughkeepsie; practiced first in Troy, later in Poughkeepsie, and then in New York city. He was elected to the Legislature in 1800; was associate justice of the Sn- preme Court 1802-14; chief justice 1814-18; Secretary of the Navy under Monroe; justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S. (1823) till his death at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., Dec. 18, 1843. He left no permanent writings outside of his written decisions. F. STURGEs ALLEN. Thompson. THOMAS PERRoNET: political reformer; b. at Hull, England, Mar. 15, 1783; graduated at Cambridge in 1802; entered the navy as a midshipman in 1803, and the army as second lieutenant iII 1806; governor of Sierra Leone in 1808, but was so active in his hostility to the slave-trade that he was recalled in 1810. He accompanied Sir VVilliam Keir Grant as Arabic interpreter in his expedition up the Persian Gulf 1819, and assisted in negotiating a treaty with the Arab tribes by which the slave-trade was declared piracy. He was one of the founders of The Westminster Review (1824), and the author of pamphlets and articles on a great variety of subjects. His Catechism of the Corn Laws (1827) was one of the ablest of the attacks on the protective sys- THOMSON 129 tem. In the field of mathematics he published a Theory of Parallels (1844) and Geometry without Axioms; and in musical acoustics his Theory of Just Intonation (1850) was a valuable contribution. He became member of Parliament for Hull in 1835, and afterward sat for Bradford. D. Oct. 6, 1869. Thompson, WILLIAM HEPWORTH, D. D. : master of Trin- ity College, Cambridge ; b. at York, England, Mar. 27, 1810; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became a scholar 1830, fellow 1834, assistant tutor 1837, and tutor 1844 ; elected Regius Professor of Greek in Cambridge Uni- versity 1853; in the same year became a canon of Ely; on the death of Dr. Whewell in 1866 was chosen master of Trinity College. He edited William Archer Butler’s Lec- tures on Ancient Philosophy, also two of Plato’s Dialogues, with criticisms; was author of papers read before learned societies and of published addresses and sermons. D. Oct. 1, 1886. Thompson, ZAnocK: naturalist; b. at Bridgewater, Vt., May 23, 1796; graduated at the University of Vermont in 1823; was tutor there 1825; published a Gazetteer of Ver- mont (Hontpelier, 1824), an Arithmetic (1825), and a His- tory of the State of Vermont (Burlington, 1833) ; edited the Iris (1828) and The Green ilfountain Repository (1832) ; re- moved to Hatley, Canada East, 1833; was engaged as a teacher there and at Sherbrooke; published a Geography of Canada; studied theology, and took deacons’ orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church 1835 ; returned to Burlington, Vt., 1837; became a professor in the Vermont Episcopal Institute; published his chief work, The History of Ver- mont, .Natural, Civil, and Statistical (1841—43; appendix 1853); issued a Guide to La/re George, Lake Champlain, Alon- t-real, and Quebec (1845) and The Geography and Geology of Vermont (1848); State geologist 1845-48; Professor of Chem- istry and Natural History in the University of Vermont 1851-53 ; visited England as Vermont commissioner to the exhibition held in London in 1851, and published a Journal -of his trip (1851); appointed State surveyor 1853. D. at Burlington, Jan. 19, 1856. He had issued an Almanac as early as 1819, made for thirty-four years the astronomical calculations for lValton’s Register, and for some years those for The Vermont Register. A brief biography was published by Isaac F. Redfield (1856). Thompsonville: village: Hartford co., Conn.; on the Connecticut river. and the N. Y., N. H. and Hartford Rail- road ; 18 miles N. of Hartford (for location, see map of Con- necticut, ref. 7-H). It contains 5 churches, several schools on the consolidated system, a high school with library, a private bank, a trust company, and 2 weekly newspapers, and is known for its manufacture of carpets. Pop. (1880) 3,794; (1890) 4,673. EDITOR or “ THE PRESS.” Thoms, WILLIAM J OHN, F. S. A.: antiquary and bibliog- rapher; b. at Westminster, England, Nov. 16, 1803; was for some years a clerk in the office of the secretary of Chel- sea Hospital; was long a clerk to the House of Lords ; from 1863 to 1882 was deputy librarian to the House of Lords ; was for many years one of the most active members of the Soci- ety of Antiquaries; was secretary of the Camden Society 1838-73; and was the founder of lVotes and Queries, and its editor until 1872. Among his publications are A Collec- tion of Early Prose Romances (London, 3 vols., 1828; en- larged ed. 1858); Anecdotes and Traditions illustrative of Early English History and Literature. from A/S. Sourees (1838-39); a translation of Worsaae’s Pr-imeval Anz‘2'qui'ties of Denmark (1849); Choice Notes from lVotes and Queries (2 vols., 1859); and Human Longevity (1873). D. in Lon- don, Aug. 15, 1885. 'l‘homsen, CHRIsTEN J t'IR.cENsEN: archaeologist; b. in Co- penhagen, Denmark, Dec. 29. 1788. In 1816 he became di- rector of the newly established Museum of Northern An- tiquities in Copenhagen, which he arranged in a masterly manner, and with which he was connected until his death, May 21, 1865. In his Ledetraad til nordislc Oldl'yn.dighed (Guide to Northern Antiquities, 1836) he indicated the triple division of the prehistoric age, and prepared the way for the modern scientific study of the subject. D. K. D. Thomson, ANDREW, D. D.: clergyman and author; b. at Sanquhar, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, July 11, 1779; studied theology at the University of Edinburgh, and was appointed minister of Spronston, R-oxburghshire, in 1802. of the East church of Perth in 1808, of the New Gray Friars‘ church, Edinburgh, in 1810, and of St. George’s church, Edinburgh, 406 130 in 1814. D. in Edinburgh, Feb. 9, 1831. He was a man of great energy and considerable eloquence, and is remem- bered for his attack upon the British and Foreign Bible So- ciety for circulating the Apocrypha. He published numer- ous volumes of sermons. A posthumous volume of these contains his memoirs (Edinburgh, 1831; Boston, 1832). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Thomson, ANTHONY Tone, M. D., F. L. S.: physician and author; b. in Edinburgh, Scotland, J an. 7, 1778, son of the British postmaster-general of Georgia; graduated in medicine at Edinburgh University 1799; became a physi- cian in London in 1800; was a voluminous writer in period- icals on medical and literary subjects; edited The Medical Repository; became Professor of Materia Medica in Lon- don University, and of Medical Jurisprudence 1832, holding both posts until his death at Ealing, near London, July 3, 1849. Among his works were The London Dispensatory (1811) and Elements of llfateria Ilfedica and Therapeutics (2 vols., 1832-33). He edited Dr. Thomas Bateman’s Prac- tical Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases (7th ed. 1829), to which he added an illustrative Atlas of Delineations (1829); Eu- sebe Salverte’s Philosophy of Itfagic, Prodigies, and Appar- ent llliracles (2 vols., 1846; New York, 1847); and James Thomson’s Seasons (1847). Revised by S. T. ARMSTRONG. Thomson, CHARLES, LL. D. : patriot ; b. at Maghera, Derry, Ireland, Nov. 29, 1729; landed in 1741 at Newcastle, Del., with three brothers, his father having died on the voy- age; educated in an academy at Thunder Hill, Md. ; became a teacher in the Friends’ Academy at Newcastle; removed to Philadelphia, where he became an efficient teacher; was concerned in negotiations with the Iroquois Indians and Delawares, who named him “Truthtcller”; was secretary of the first Continental Congress; filled the same post to the successive Congresses until 1789; was chosen to inform Washington at Mt. Vernon of his election to the presi- dency ; resided during his later years at Lower Merion, Montgomery eo., Pa., where he died Aug. 16, 1824. He was the author of An Inquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians (London, 1759); of a valuable translation of the whole Bible, the Old Testa- ment portion being from the Septuagint (4 vols., Philadel- phia, 1808); and of A Synopsis of the Four Eoangelists, in their own Words (Philadelphia, 1815). Thomson, Sir CHARLES WYVILLE: b. at Bonsyde, Scot- land, Mar. 5, 1830; educated at Merchiston Castle School and University of Edinburgh. Appointed lecturer on nat- ural history in the University of Aberdeen in 1850, Profes- sor of Natural History in Queen’s College, Cork, in 1853, and in 1854 to the chair of Mineralogy and Geology in Queen’s College, Belfast, where he also had charge of the Natural History Museum. In 1860 the charge of instruction in bet- any and zo6logy was given to him, and in the same year he received the degree of LL. D. Here he remained until 1870, when he was appointed to the chair of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh, a position which he held until, on account of ill health. he resigned in 1879. D. in Edin- burgh, Mar. 10,1882. His early work was in the line of bot- any, but that for which he will longest be remembered is the exploration of the deep seas. After conducting several small- er dredging expeditions (those of the Lightning, 1868, and Porcupine, 1869, being most prominent) and demonstrating that life existed at the greatest depths yet reached by the dredge, he was appointed to the scientific charge of the well- known expedition of the Challenger, which sailed on its voy- age of circumnavigation Dec. 21, 1872, returning to England May 24, 1876. (See CHALLENGER Exrnnrrron.) After his re- turn he rcassumed the duties of his chair and at the same time labored on the collections of the voyage, publishing in 1877 two volumes of preliminary results relating to the Atlantic and in 1880 the general introduction to the zotilogical series of reports of the voyage. Among his numerous other pub- lications may be mentioned his Depths of the Sea (1873). J . S. KINGSLEY. Thomson, EDWARD, D. D., LL. D.: bishop; b. at Port- sea, near Portsmouth, England, Oct. 12, 1810. His parents removed to the U. S. in 1819, and settled at \/Vooster, O. He received a good classical education ; graduated in medi- cine at the University of Pennsylvania 1829; began practice as a physician at \/Vooster, but, experiencing a change in his religious views, became in 1833 a minister of the Meth- odist Episcopal Church; preached at Detroit, Mich., 1836; was principal of the Methodist Seminary at Norwalk, 0., 1837-44; editor of The Ladies’ Repository at Cincinnati THOMSON 1844-46; first president of the Ohio Wesleyan University at Delaware, O., 1846-60; editor of The Christian Adrocate from 1860 to 1864, when he was chosen a bishop. He was author of Educational Essays (1856) : Jlforal and Religious Essays (1856); Biographical Sketches (1856); Letters from Europe (1856); and Letters from India, China, and Tur- key (2 vols., 1870). D. at Wheeling, W. Va., Mar. 22, 1870. Revised by ALBERT OSBORN. Thomson, JAMES : poet; b. at Ednam, Roxburghshire, Scot- land, Sept. 11, 1700; studied for six years at the University of Edinburgh, with the design of entering the Church, but, abandoning this intention, went to London in 1724, where he was for several months tutor in a nobleman’s family. In 1726 appeared his poem lVinter, which speedily became pop- ular; Summer followed in 1727, Spring in 1728, and Au- tumn in 1730, completing The Seasons. In the interval he had published a Poem Sacred to the Afemory of Sir Isaac Newton (1727), and written Sophonisba, a tragedy, acted in 1729. He then traveled for two years as tutor to the son of Lord Chancellor Talbot. by whom he was rewarded with the post of secretary of briefs, and wrote a poem on Liberty (5 parts, 1735-36), which met with a very unfavorable recep- tion, and was subsequently considerably abridged. The Lord Chancellor dying in 1737, the Secretaryship was lost by Thomson, but he received from the Prince of Wales a pen- sion of £100, and some years later was rendered independent by the appointment of surveyor-general of the Leeward isl- ands, which, after paying the deputy who performed all the duties, brought him £300 a year. His works, besides those already mentioned, are Agamemnon, a tragedy (1738); Ed- ward and Eleanora, a drama (1739) ; Alfred, a masque, which contains the song Rule Britannia (1740); Tancred and Sigismunda, a successful tragedy (1745); The Castle of Indolence (1748), a poem in the Spenserian stanza, upon which he had labored many years, and which is his best work, though far less popular than The Seasons; and Corio- lanus, a tragedy, not produced until after his death. D. at Kew Lane, near Richmond, Aug. 27, 1748. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Thomson, JAMES : engineer and physicist ; brother of Lord Kelvin (see Tnonson, SIR WILLIAM) ; b. in Belfast, Ire- land, Feb. 16, 1822. The brothers, James and William, re- ceived their early education from their father, Dr. James Thomson the mathematician, who was one of the most re- markable teachers of his time. In 1832 the family removed to Glasgow, where the father had been appointed professor of mathematics, and Thomson continued his studies in the university classes. At the age of seventeen, he took the de- gree of M. A. in the University of Glasgow, with honors in mathematics and natural philosophy. He then decided to become an engineer, but serious ill health, which lasted for many years, prevented him from carrying out his plans in full. He continued to interest himself in engineering prob- lems, however, and perfected a number of inventions in the domain of hydraulics and pneumatics. Thomson’s mind was essentially philosophical and mathematical, and it turned continually even in the midst of his technical activity to questions of pure science. In 1849 he read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh a paper of the highest importance, en- titled Theoretical Considerations on the Efiect of Pressure in Lowering the Freezing-point of W'ater. His conclusions, subsequently verified experimentally by his brother, William Thomson, afforded the solution to the great problem of the movements of glacier ice, and threw much light upon plas- ticity, regelation, and various other phenomena. The dis- cussion of these matters, which had attracted the attention of Forbes, Faraday, Tyndall, and others, lasted for many years. It resulted in the recognition of the correctness of the principles laid down by James Thomson. Among his contributions to pure and applied science may be mentioned papers On the Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous States of Jlfatter; On the Flow of Waters in Rivers and Open Chan- nels; and On the Grand Currents of Atmospheric Circula- tion (Bakerian lecture for 1892). In 1853 Thomson was ap- pointed Professor of Civil Engineering and Surveying in Queen’s College, Belfast, a chair which he held for twenty years. He then became the successor of Rankine as Profes- sor of Engineering in the University of Glasgow, in which institution his brother William occupied the chair of Physics. In 1889 he was forced by partial blindness to resign his pro- fessorship, but his activity and interest in science continued to the end of his life. D. ‘in Glasgow, May 8, 1892. E. L. NIcHoLs. THOMSON Thomson, JAMES (B. V.) poet; b. in Port Glasgow, Scot- land, Nov. 24, 1834; brought up in the Caledonian Orphan Asylum; entered the British army as regimental schoolmas- ter, where he made the acquaintance of Charles Bradlaugh, then a private soldier, who in 1860 established The N ation_al Reformer, to which Thomson became a contributor. While stationed in Ireland he became engaged to a young girl whose sudden death cast a gloom over his life. Discharged from the army, Thomson devoted himself to literature, writ- ing chiefly for English radical periodicals and journals. He was for a time connected with Cope’s Tobacco Plant. H1s first work was published in Tait’s Edinburgh Magaeine un- der the pseudonym Crepusculus. In 1863 he pubhshed In The National Reformer the powerful verses To our Ladies of Death, and in 1874 his chief and best-known work, The City of Dreadful Night, republished with other poems in book-form in 1880. In 1872 he went to the U. S. as agent of the shareholders in what he ascertained to be a fraudu- lent silver mine; in the following year he received a com- mission from The 1Vew Yorlc World to go to Spain as its special correspondent with the Carlists. About this time he adopted the pseudonym Bysshe Vanolis—afterward short- ened to the initials “B. V.”—Bysshe being the commonly used Christian name of Shelley, Thomson’s favorite writer, and Vanolis an anagram of N ovalis, the pseudonym of F. von Hardenberg. He was a prolific writer. In later years the fits of depression and insomnia to which Thomson was subject led him to seek refuge from his misery in op1- ates and alcohol. D. in University College Hospital, Lon- don, June 3, 1882. A Voice from the Nile, with memoir by Bertram Dobell, was published in 1884; Shelley in 1885. See Life, by Salt (1889). A. GRowoLL. Thomson, JOHN: clergyman and painter; brother of Thomas Thomson, antiquary; b. at Dailly, Ayrshire, Scot- land, Sept. 1, 1778; studied theology in Edinburgh; be- came minister of Dailly, succeeding his father, in 1800, and of Duddingston, near Edinburgh, in 1805. He had begun the pursuit of art before entering the Church, and at Dud- dingston applied himself assiduously to study, becoming one of the great landscape-painters of Scotland, and in 1830 being elected a member of the Royal Scottish Academy. He also contributed papers on optics to the early issues of The Edinburgh Review. D. at Duddingston, Oct. 27, 1840. Thomson, JOSEPH JOHN: physicist ; b. in Manchester, England, Dec. 18, 1856; educated at Owens College, Man- chester, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. Since 1884 he has been Professor of Experimental Physics in Cambridge University. In addition to many scientific papers, Thom- son is the author of volumes on Vorterv illotion (1883) and on the A plieation of Dynamics and Physics to Chemistry (1888) ; a so of an important treatise entitled Notes on Recent Researches in Electricity and Jlfagnetism; the last-named work was written as a sequel to Maxwell’s Treatise on Elec- tricity and Jliagnetism, which Thomson edited with copious notes and comments in 1893. E. L. N101-IoLs. Thomson, KATHARINE (Byerly) : biographer; b. at Etru- ria, Staifordshire, England, in 1800; married Dr. ANTHONY T. THOMSON (g. o.) ; wrote several novels and many works of biography and anecdotical literature. The later volumes appeared under the pseudonyms of Grace and Philip W'har- ton, her son John Cockburn Thomson having aided her. D. at Dover, Dec. 17. 1862. Among her works were Alem- oirs of Sir Walter Raleigh (1830); M'emoirs of the Jaco- bites of 1715 and 1745 (3 vols., 1845-46); Recollections of Literary Characters and Celebrated Places (2 vols., 1854); and lVits and Beaua; of Society (2 vols., 1860). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Thomson, THOMAS: antiquary; b. at Dailly, Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1768 ; educated at the University of Glasgow ; became an advocate 1793, deputy clerk registrar of Scot- land 1806 ; principal clerk of session 1828, and president of the Bannatyne Club 1832; was one of the founders of The Edinburgh Review, and occasionally acted as its editor; was esteemed the most learned antiquary in Scotland, and as such is frequently referred to in the writings of Sir Wal- ter Scott. He edited for the Bannatyne Club some of the works of Sir Thomas Hope, John Lesley, Sir George Mac- kenzie, Sir J amcs Melville, Lady Griselda Murray, Sir James Turner, and other old Scottish writers, and superintended for the Maitland Club and the record commission other re- prints of the same character. D. at Shrubhill, between Edinburgh and Leitl1, Oct.2, 1852. A fllemoir (1855) was prepared for the Bannatyne Club by Cosmo Innes. 131 Thomson, THOMAS, M.D.: chemist; b. at Crieff, Perth- shire, Scotland, Apr. 12, 1773; educated at Stirling and at the University of St. Andrews; succeeded his brother, James Thomson (1768-1855), as editor of the third edition of the Encyclopaadia Britannica, Nov., 1796—1800; graduated in medicine in Edinburgh 1799; was for some years after 1802 the scientific editor of James Mill’s Literary Journal ; was the first to introduce the use of symbols in chemistry in articles for the Supplement to the Encyclopcedia, written 1798-99, and serving also as the basis of his System of Chem- istry (4 vols., 1802); first announced to the world Dr. Dal- ton’s atomic theory, which had been privately communicated to him in 1804, in the third edition of the same work (5 vols., 1807) ; was for many years a lecturer on chemistry, and con- ducted a laboratory for students; edited in London the An- nals of Philosophy (1813-22); became in 1818 Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. D. at Kilmun, Argyleshire, July 2, 1852. Among his works were The Ele- ments of Chemistry (1810) : The History of the Royal Society of London (1812); Travels in Sweden and Lapland (1813) ; An Attempt to establish the First Principles of Chemistry by Ecvperiment (2 vols., 1825); An Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity (1830) ; The History of Chemistry (2 vols., 1830) ; Outlines oflllineralogy, Geology, and .Zl[ineral Analysis (2 vols., 1836) ; and a recast of his earlier work on chemistry in three separate treatises—The Chemistry of In- organic Bodies (2 vols.. 1831) ; Chemistry of Organic Bodies. Vegetables (1838); and The Chemistry of Animal Bodies (1842).—His son THOMAS, b. in Glasgow, Dec. 4, 1817, was an assistant surgeon in the Bengal army, superintendent of the East India Company’s botanic gardens in Calcutta, and au- thor of I/Vestern Himalaya and Thibet, the Ivarratiue of a Journey through the Jliountains of .Northern India (1852). D. in London, Apr. 18, 1878. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Thomson, WILLIAM, D. D., F. R. S. : archbishop: b. at I/Vhitehaven, Cumberland, England, Feb. 11, 1819; educated at Shrewsbury School ; was successively scholar, fellow. tutor, and provost of Queen’s College, Oxford, where he graduated 1840 : was ordained deacon 1842 and priest 1843 ; was incumbent of the parishes of Guildford and Cuddesden; was appointed select preacher at Oxford 1848, and again 1856 ; preached the Bampton lectures on The Atoning IV02'h of Christ, viewed in Relation to some Current Theories (1853) ; became rector of All Souls’, Marylebone, London, 1855 ; con- tributed to the O.rford Essays (1855) and to Sermons at VVestminster Abbey for the IVorl:ing Classes (1858) ; was preacher of Lincoln's Inn 1858-61; was appointed cha lain to the Queen 1859, Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol ec.. 1861, and enthroned Archbishop of York Feb. 24, 1863 ; took an active part as a member of convocation in promoting ecclesiastical reform and church extension ; labored for edu- cational reform in Oxford University ; was a member of the Royal, Geographical, and Photographic societies; president of the Palestine Exploration Fund; examiner in logic and mental science to the Society of Arts, and in divinity at Ox- ford ; one of the lords of the privy council, governor of the Charter-house and of King’s College, London. D. at York, Dec.25.1890. As an author he is best known by his An Outline of the .Necessary Laws of Thought (1842; 9th ed. 1868), a text-book in several British and American universi- ties. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Thomson, Sir WILLIAM (Lord Kelvin) : physicist, mathe- matician, engineer, and inventor : b. in Belfast, Ireland, June, 1824; educated at the Universities of Glasgow and Cam- bridge. At the age of twenty-two years he was appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glas- gow, and still (1895) holds the chair. During the half cen- tury of his career as a teacher of physics he has published a very large number of papers touching nearly every impor- tant theme with which the physicist has to deal. His earlier papers upon the theories of electricity and magnetism were gathered together in 1872 in an important volume entitled Reprints 0 f Papers on Electrostatics and flfagnetism. M ore complete collections have since been made (1882-90) under the titles Jlfathematical and Physical Papers (3 vols.) and Popular Lectures and Addresses (3 vols.). Two long.and important articles published in the ninth edition of the En- cycloprrdia Britannica have also been reprinted under the titles On Heat and On Elasticity. In 1867 Thomson, in col- laboration with Prof. Tait. of Edinburgh, issued the first volume of A Treatise on iV(1'i’lll‘(‘tl Philosophy (2d ed. in two parts, 1879). This treatise, in which the effort was made to base a complete and exhaustive theoretical analysis upon the 132 THOMSON doctrine of energy, was never carried beyond the division of mechanics, but it contains much upon that subject that is of the highest scientific value. From 1846 to 1853 Thomson was editor of the Cambridge and Dublin Jlfathematical Jour- nal ; for many years also he has been the chief of the board of editors which conducts The Philosophical Jl[agazine. He was president of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science (1871), Of the Royal Society of London (1891), and of other societies. In 1872 he was made a fellow of St. Peter's College, Cambridge. Aside from his labors in pure science, Thomson has been active as an engineer and in- ventor. It was in great part due to his skill in solving the many intricate problems involved in submarine telegraphy that transoeeanic signaling became a practical success; and it was in recognition of that fact that he was knighted in 1866. Of his numerous inventions, many of which were made to meet the demands of the manufacture and operation of submarine cables, the best known are his quadrant and portable electrometers. compensated compasses for iron ships, various types of mirror galvanometer, the siphon recorder, a machine for the analysis of tidal curves, and a large num- berof commercial instruments for the measurement of elec- trical currents and potential differences. Thomson’s services as savant and engineer received high ofiicial recognition by his elevation to the peerage in 1892 under the title of Lord Kelvin. E. L. NICHOLS. Thomson, WILLIAM MOCLURE, D.D.: missionary and author; b. at Springfield (now Spring Dale), O., Dec. 31, 1806 ; graduated at Miami University 1826; spent one year in Princeton Seminary; was missionary in Jerusalem 1832— 33 ; in Beyrout 1833-76 ; and in 1877 returned to the U. S. He published The Land and the Boole, Biblical Illustra- tions drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and the Sceneries of the Holy Land (2 vols., New York, 1859; London, 1860; new ed. 3 vols., 1880, 1882, 1885). D. in Denver, Col., Apr. 8, 1894. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Thor [from Icel. P527‘, for *]>onrr : O. Eng. launor, Thor, thunder] : in Scandinavian mythology, the son of Odin and J ord. He ranked next to Odin, but was far more popular, as is evidenced by the many myths and names by which he is known. He was the protector of Midgard and of human industries against nature’s destructive forces personified by the giants, with whom he was in constant conflict. Thunder and lightning were caused by his riding in the clouds in his car drawn by two goats. His weapon of protection was his hammer Mjolner. He had steel gloves and a bell. Meging- j arder, which doubled his strength. His home was Thrudvang and his hall was called Bilskirner. His wife was Sif. Just as the Christians put a cross on gravestones, so the Scandina- vian heathens put the sign of Thor’s hammer (a cross) on their rune-stones. Thursday is named after Thor. See SCANDINAVIAN MYTHOLOGY. Rasnus B. ANDERSON. Thorac’ic Duct [thoracic is deriv. of thorax, from Gr. 0dpa£, breastplatc, cuirass]: the principal lymphatic vessel in the human body. It runs upward on the left side of the spinal column from the receptaculum chyli, and terminates near the junction of the left internal jugular and the left subclavian veins. It discharges into the blood-current the chyle and most of the lymph of the body. It is often rep- resented in the lower animals by a congeries of lymphatic vessels. Birds have two thoracic ducts, one on each side. Its outlet is provided with valves which prevent the ingress of blood, and the duct has other valves which allow the con- tents to pass upward, but not downward. Thoracos’traca [Mod. Lat.; Gr. 6dpa§, breastplate + iimrpaxoz/, shell]: a name sometimes employed for those Crus- tacea (Decapodd. Stomapoda, Schizopoda) in which the an- terior part of the body (eephalothorax) is covered with a carapace, and the eyes (except in Cumacea) are on movable stalks. See Mamcosrnaca. Thorax : See Cnnsr. Thoreau, thO'r<7, HENRY DAVID: author; b. at Concord, Mass., July 17, 1817; was the son of John Thoreau, of Con- cord, and Cynthia Dunbar, and the grandson of John The- reau, Of Boston. His grandfather was a prosperous merchant of Boston, who removed to Concord in 1800, and died there; his father was originally a merchant, but in middle life took up the business of pencil-making, at Concord, which he and his children carried on for half a century. Henry, his sec- ond son and third child, learned this art while fitting for college in his native town, and practiced it occasionally, with its allied art, the preparation of finely ground graphite, for THORILD electrotyping, until a year before his death. ‘He graduated at Harvard College in 1837, and for five or six years taught school or was a private tutor in Concord and on Staten Island, N. Y. He was an inmate of Ralph Waldo Emerson’s family from Apr., 1841, to May, 1843, and again from Sept., 1847, to Oct., 1848; and in the interval of these residences with Emerson was in his cabin by Walden Pond, from July, 1845, to Sept., 1847. After 1849 he lived with his parents and his sister Sophia at Concord until his death May 6, 1862. He had been in college a close student of Greek, reading most of the common authors, and also much of the earlier Eng- lish literature, with which he became very familiar. He read much and easily in Latin and French, and formed his own style on classic and French models, taking great pains with everything he wrote. He kept a journal from 1837 to his last illness, and made up his essays and books mainly from its many volumes, which were interspersed with verse, as are his two early works, the W eeh on the Concord and Mer- rimack Rivers (edited at VValden in 1846-47 and published in 1849), and Walden (written partly while living by the pond, but edited later, and published in 1854). These were the only volumes he published ; but many essays and a few poems were printed by him in magazines, which have since his death been collected and published in volumes. Four volumes have also been selected from his journals by his lit- erary executor, Harrison Blake, and two more are in prepa- ration. An im erfect collection of his letters and poems was edited by ‘merson in 1865, and a fuller volume of let- ters by F. B. Sanborn (Familiar Letters of Henry Thoreau) in 1894. No complete collection of his poems has been made, but Henry S. Salt, his English biographer, is editing a fuller selection than has yet appeared ; several of them, including translations from the Greek poets, are found in his Miscel- lanies, the last of a ten-volume edition of his works, pub- lished with a general index (1893-94). Although often stated, it is not true that Thoreau never voted or attended church, paid no taxes, and never used a gun. He lived simply, but seldom alone, always supported himself by the work of his hands or otherwise, was a good land-surveyor, naturalist, and mechanic, a good citizen, a valued friend, and devoted to the comfort of his family. He never married, partly from an early disappointment in love. but was intimate with ad- mirable women and the children of his friends. and was be- loved by them, as by most of those who really knew him. He was original and sometimes eccentric, but never misanthropic or morose. His intellectual and moral elevation is plainly seen in his writings, which have steadily gained in favor since his death. He is buried in Concord, near the graves of Emerson, Alcott, Hawthorne, and W asson, his congenial friends. See his Life (1882), by Franklin B. Sanborn, in the American Men of Letters Series, and a biography, The Poet Naturalist (1873), by Ellery Channing. F. SANBORN. Th0res’by, RALPH, F. R. S.: antiquary; b. in Leeds, Eng- land, Aug. 16, 1658 ; educated at Leeds School ; resided some years at Rotterdam, qualifying himself for the mercantile business, which he afterward successfully conducted, devot- ing, however, much of his time to antiquarian pursuits. D. in 1725. Author of Ducatus Leodiensis, or the Topography of Leeds (London, folio, 1715), of which a new edition was brought out by Dr. T. D. Whitaker (1816); Jlfuseum Theres- bianum. or a Collection of Antiquities in the possession of Ralph Thoresbg/, and Vicaria Leodiensis, or the History of the Church of Leeds (1724): all which are highly appreciated by topographers. He contributed to G1bson’s edition of Camden’s Britannia, Collins’s Peerage, Calamy’s Menzoirs of Dioines, and other works, and wrote 1nuch in the Philo- sophical Transactions. His Diary (2 vols., 1830) and Cor- respondence (2 vols., 1832) were edited by Rev. Joseph Hunter. Thoresen, tor’e-sen, ANNA l\IAGDALENA (Kragh) : novelist ; b. at Fredericia, Denmark, J one 3, 1819. The scenes of her novels and tales are laid almost exclusively in Norway, where she married in 1844 a country parson. The best of these are Fortcellinger (Tales. 1863) ; Signes Historic (Signe’s History, 1864; translated into English 1865) ; Solen i /Siljealalen (The Sun in the Silje Dale, 1868) ; Billeder fra Vestlrg/sten af Norge (Pictures from the West Coast of Norway. 1872) ; Iferluf .NordaZ, en Fortcelling fra det forrige Aarhundrede (Herluf Nordal. a Tale from the Last Century, 1879), and Jlfindre Fortoellinger (Short Tales, 1891). She is also the author of several dramas. K. Donen. Thorild. tor’ild, THOMAS: critic; b. at Svarteborg, Swe- den, 1759. After studying at Lund. he moved to Stockholm, where he remained, with the exception of a short time spent THORIUM at Upsala and in England, until 1793, when he was exiled for giving expression to advanced political views. He was afterward appointed to a professorship in the Swedish Uni- versity at Greifswald. He was one of the earliest of the revolutionary writers in Sweden, and his polemics with Kell- gren and Leopold are of immense importance. Hanselli published his Samlade S/erifter (2 vols., Stockholm, 1873-74). D. at Greifswald in 1808. D. K. Donen. Tho’rium, also Thori’num: one of the rare metals, dis- covered by Berzelius in 1828 in a Norwegian mineral which he called thorite, from the Scandinavian god Thor. Thorite is a thorium silicate, with the composition ThSiO4.2H2O. Thorium is a gray metallic powder, which burns with great brilliancy to snow-white infusible thoria, ThO2. Water does not act upon it, and nitric and sulphuric acids with dimcul- ty, though hydrochloric acid attacks and dissolves it power- fully. This is the statement of Berzelius, but Chydenius states that it is easily soluble in nitric and diflicultly in hydrochloric acid. Thorium occurs also in other minerals besides thorite, as orangite, as eolumbate in some pyro- chlores, as phosphate in monazite, and according to Chyde- nius in euxenite, as eolumbate and tantalate. Its atomic weight is 2326. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Thorn, or Thorn-bush : See CRATAEGUS. Thorn, torn: town of Prussia; province of West Prus- -sia; on the Vistula, 31 miles by rail E. S. E. of Bromberg (see map of German Empire, ref. 3-1). It was made a fortress of the first rank in 1878 by Prussia; has manufactures of cloth, linen, soap, tobacco, and gingerbread, and carries on an active trade in grain and timber. Copernicus was born here, and a bronze statue of him stands in the market-place. Pop. (1890) 27,018. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Thorn, FRANK MANLY: lawyer and U. S. official; b. at North Collins, N. Y ., Dec. 7, 1836; educated in common schools and at Fredonia Academy; studied law; clerk of the surrogate’s court in Erie County 1857-60; practiced law and did journalistic work until 1871; member county board of supervisors during 1871-80; chief clerk in the bureau of internal revenue in Washington, D. C., 1885; superintendent U. S. CoAsT AND GEODETIG SURVEY (q. o.) from July, 1885, to July 1, 1889. Thorn-apple: See DATURA. Thornback [i. e. back with prickles or thorns] : the name given in parts of Great Britain to the Rata clarata. This is a short-snouted ray, whose dorsal surface, especially about the snout and interorbital space, is covered with small spines, and along the middle of the back and tail with a row of large spines, resembling somewhat the thorns of a rosebush ; the male has further still larger thorns on the sides of the head and pectoral fins, and the female has numerous spines, each arising from a large roundish base. It is very abundant along parts of the British coast, and is the most esteemed as a table-fish of any member of the genus. It comes into shallow water in spring and summer, and is then taken in the greatest numbers. Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Thornbury, Gnonen WALTER: author; b. in London, England, in 1828; became contributor to periodicals at the age of seventeen; was connected with The Athenoenm 1851; studied art and occasionally practiced painting, but devoted himself to literature and produced some twenty-five volumes. D. in London, June 11, 1876. Among his works are Shake- speare’s England, or Sketches of our Social H'z'story dur- /ing the Reign of Elizabeth (2 vols., 1856); Songs of the Cavalters and Ronnclheacls (1857); Life in Spain (2 vols., 1859) ; Tar/cish Life and Character (2 vols., 1860); BI)‘/zftzislz. Artists from Hogarth to Turner (2 vols., 1860): Life of J. AI. W’. Turner, R. A. (2 vols., 1861); Ha-unteol London (1865); Two Centuries of Song (1866); Old and 1Vew Lon- don (2 vols., 1873-74); and Iflstorical and Legenclary Bal- lads and Songs (1876). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Thornton, Sir EDWARD, D. O. L., LL.D.: diplomatist; b. in London, July 17, 1817, son of Hon. Edward Thorn- ton, British minister in Portugal; was educated at Cam- bridge; entered the diplomatic service in 1842 as attache’ at Turin; successively held important places in the legations in Mexico and several South American states; was envoy to Brazil 1865-67; envoy to the U. S. 1867-81; a member of the joint high commission on the Alabama claims 1871 ; ap- pointed privy councilor 1871; and arbitrator of the Mexi- can and U. S. claims commission 1873. He was appointed British ambassador to Russia 1881, and to Turkey in 1884; retired in 1887. THORNYCROFT 133 Thornton, MATTHEW: signer of the Declaration of Inde- pendence; b. in Ireland in 1714. His parents emigrated to New England, living at Wiscasset, Me., and removing thence to Worcester, Mass. He received a classical education and studied medicine; accompanied Pepperell’s expedition against Louisburg as a surgeon 1745; became a physician at Londonderry, N. H., and a colonel of militia; was president of the convention which in 1775 assumed the government of New Hampshire: took his seat as a delegate to the Conti- nental Congress Nov. 4, 1776 ; signed the Declaration of In- dependence, though he was not a member at the time of its adoption; was afterward chief justice of Hillsboro Coun- ty, judge of the New Hampshire Supreme Court, and mem- ber of both branches of the Legislature and of the coun- cil (1785). He removed to Exeter in 1879, and shortly after became a farmer at Merrimack. D. at Newburyport, Mass., June 24, 1803. Thornton, Sir WILLIAM: soldier; b. in England about 1775; entered the British army as ensign 1796; became major 1806; was appointed military secretary and aide-de- camp to the Governor-General of Canada Aug., 1807; re- turned to England 1811; took part in the Peninsular war and \Vellington’s campaign in Southern France 1813-14; was sent to the U. S. and commanded the light brigade and advance of Gen. Ross’s expedition up the Chesapeake May, 1814; was severely wounded and made prisoner at Bladensburg ; was exchanged for Commodore Barney ; com- manded the advance of the British army sent against New Orleans in October, and the detached corps which operated on the right bank of the Mississippi in the battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815, when he was again severely wounded. He reached the rank of lieutenant-general in 1838. D. near Hanwell, England, Apr. 6, 1840. ' Thornton, WILLIAM THOMAS : publicist and miscellaneous author; b. at Burnham, Buckinghamshire, England, Feb. 14, 1813; son of Thomas Thornton, president of the Levant Company’s establishment in Constantinople ; educated in the Moravian settlement at Ockbrook, near Derby; was secre- tary to the British consul-general at Constantinople 1830- 35; was a clerk in the India House, London, 1836-56, when he was placed in charge of the public works department of that office, and in 1858 became secretary for public works in the India Oflice, a post which he held till his death. He was the author of Over-;populatz'on and /its Remedy (1845); A Plea for Peasant Proprietors (1848; 2d ed. 1873) ; Zohrab and other Poems (1854); ]l;[odern Ilfanichceism, and other Poems (1856); Olcl-fashtoneol Ethics and Common-sense l[etaphyse'cs; On Labor, its R'z'ghtful Dues and Wrong- ful Claims, its Actual Present and Possible Fm‘ure (2d ed. 1869) ; and a verse translation of the Odes of ]Torace (1878). D. June 17, 1880. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Thorntown: town: Boone co., Ind.; on the Rock river, and the Cleve., Chi., Chi. and St. L. Railway; 26 miles S. E. of Lafayette, 38 miles N. VV. of Indianapolis (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 6-D). It is in an agricultural re- gion, and contains a high school, a State bank (capital $25,- 000), and a weekly paper. Pop. (1880) 1,515 ; (1890) 1,530. Thornwell, JAMES HENLEY, D. D., LL. D.: clergyman and educator; b. in l\Iarlborough district, S. C., Dec. 9, 1812; graduated at South Carolina College, Columbia, S. C., 1831 ; studied and taught till the summer of 1834, when he spent some weeks at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.; was settled over a Presbyterian church in Lancaster, S. C., June 12, 1835; took the professorshi of Logic and Belles- lettres in South Carolina College in an., 1838; resigned to take the pastorate of the Presbyterian church in Columbia in 1840; in 1841 returned to the college as chaplain and Pro- fessor of Sacred Literature and the vidences of Christian- ity; from July to Dec., 1851, was pastor of the Glebe Street church in Charleston; returned again to the college, to be- come its president, in Jan.. 1852: in 1855 accepted the pro- fessorship of Didactic and Polemic Theology in the Theo- logical Seminary at Columbia. D. at Charlotte, N. C., Aug. 1, 1862. He was a man of rare critical acumen, of great personal magnetism, and the acknowledged theologian of the Southern Presbyterian church. He published several sermons and addresses; his Colleotetl Wrztings were edited by Rev. J. B. Adger and J. L. Girardeau (4 vols., Richmond. Va., 1871-73), and his Life andI Lez‘z‘ers by Rev. Benjamin M. Palmer (1875). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Tho1'nycl'oft, JOHN IsAAc, F.R.S.: engineer and naval architect; b. in Rome, Italy, Feb. 1, 1843; studied practical 134 THORNYCROFT engineering at an early age, and in 1863 designed the Ariel, which may be regarded as the forerunner of modern torpedo- boats ; went through the engineering course at Glasgow Uni- versity, and studied ship-building at Govan on the Clyde. He then became a builder of torpedo-boats at Chiswick, and has_ constructed a number of such boats for the British and other governments. Among his inventions may be men- tioned the turbine propeller for use in shallow-draught ves- sels. Mr. Thornycroft is the vice-president of the Institute of Naval Architects of Great Britain. Thornycroft, WALTER HAMO, R. A. : sculptor; b. in Lon- don, Mar. 9, 1850; was educated at University College School, London; in 1869 began to study at the schools of the Royal Academy, and exhibited first in 1871. In 1880 he made a success with a statue of Artemis, now in Eaton Hall, near Chester. Among his more important works are Teucer (1881), in the South Kensington Museum; The Sower (1886) ; The Atower (1894); Science (1891): a bust of S. T. Coleridge, in Westminster Abbey (1885); an equestrian statue of Ed- ward I (1885); and the national memorial to Gen. Gordon in Trafalgar Square. Thorold: town of Welland County, Ontario, Canada; 7 miles S. of Lake Ontario, on the Welland Canal (see map of Ontario, ref. 5-E). It is a station on the railway from St. Catharines to Port Colborne. Pop. 2,275. M. W. H. Thorold, ANTHONY WILsON,D. D.: bishop; b. at Hougham, Lincolnshire, England, June 13, 1825; educated at Queen’s College, Oxford, and graduated in 1847 ; was rector of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, London, 1857-68, minister of Curzon chapel, Mayfair, 1868, vicar of St. Pancras 1869, and canon residentiary of York in 1874. He was appointed Bishop of Rochester in 1877, and Bishop of Winchester in 1891. His Presence of Christ went through over twenty editions. D. in Farnham Castle, Surrey, July 25, 1895. Thorough-bass: in music, the mode or art of expressing chords by means of figures placed over or under a given bass. These figures indicate the harmony through all the other parts, and hence the name. Thorough-bass may be considered as the first department in the study of harmony. The term is sometimes taken in a larger sense, as equivalent to musical science. See FIGURED BAss and HARMONY. Thoroughwort: See EUPATORIUM. Thorpe, BENJAMIN: Anglo-Saxon scholar and author; b. in England i11 1782: devoted himself at an early age to the study of the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian languages and literatures; made a complete translation of the Edda (un- published); received a pension from the British Govern- ment. D. at Chiswick. July 19, 1870. Among his numer- ous works were a translation of Rask’s Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue (Copenhagen, 1830; new ed. 1865); Caedmon’s rlletrical Paraphrase of Parts of the Holy Scriptures, in Anglo-Saxon, with an English Translation, Notes, and a Verbal Index (1832); The Anglo-Saxon Ver- sion of the Story of Apollonius of Tyre, upon which is founded the Play of Pericles, with a Translation and Glos- sary (1834); Analecta Anglo-Saasonica, a Selection in Prose and Verse from Anglo-Sazton Authors of Various Ages, with a Glossary (Oxford, 1834; 3d ed. 1868); Libri Psal- morum Versio Antigua Latina, cum Paraphrasi Anglo- Saosonica, etc. (1835); Ancient Laws and Institutes of Eng- land, enacted under the Anglo-Saxon Kings from Ethelbert to Canut, with an English Translation of the Saxon (London, folio, 1840); The Holy Gospels in Anglo-Saxon, edited from the Original AIS. (Oxford, 1842; new ed. 1848; New York, 1846); Codex Eroniensis, a Collection of Anglo-Saxon Po- etry, etc., with English Translation and Notes (1842); The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church, etc., with an English Version (2 vols., 1843—46); The Iiistory of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings, translated from the German of Dr. J. III. Lappenberg, with Additions and Corrections by the Author and Translator (2 vols., 1845; new ed. 1857); Flo- rentii Wigorniensis Chronicon (2 vols., 1848-49); Northern Itfythology, etc., compiled from Original and other Sources (3 vols., 1851; new ed. 1863); Yule-Tide Stories, a Collec- tion of Scandinavian Tales and Traditions (1853); Pauli’s Life of Alfred the Great (1854); The Anglo-Saxon Poems of Beowulf, with a Literal Translation, Notes, and Glossary (Oxford, 1855) ; Lappenberg’s History of England under the Norman Kings (1857); The Anglo-Sarcon Chronicle, accord- ing to the several Criginal Authorities (London, 2 vols., 1861); Diplomatarium Anglicum Hioi Saaonici, a Collec- tion of English Charters, etc. (1865). THORWALDSEN Thorpe, JOHN: architect; b. in England about 1540; was the chief designer in what is known as the Elizabethan style of domestic architecture, having built Kirby House in North- amptonshire (1570); Burleigh, Holdenby, Audley End, and Ampthill; Longford Castle in Wiltshire, in the form of a tri- angle; Liveden Hall in Northamptonshire; Slaugham Place in Sussex; Holland House in London; the Strand front of Somerset House (1607), and many other edifices. A valu- able collection of his drawings exists in the Soane Museum, and offers the most complete example known of the methods of work of an architect and building surveyor of the six- teenth century. The particulars Of his life and date of his death are unknown. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Thorpe, THOMAS BANGS : journalist and artist ; b. at West- field, Mass.. Mar. 1, 1815; educated at the Wesleyan Univer- sity, Middletown, Conn.; studied art; resided in New Or- leans, La., from 1836 to 1853; edited a Whig paper there several years; raised volunteers for the Mexican war; was the writer of the first newspaper correspondence narrating military events on the frontier; published Our Army on the Rio Gra/nde (1846) and Our Army at flfonterey (1847); was an active political speaker in the campaign of 1848; became known under the pseudonym of Tom Owen, the Bee-hunter, as the writer of a series of tales of Western life, including Illysteries of the Backwoods (1846); The Hire of the Bee- hunter (1854) ; and Scenes in Arleansaw (1858) ; and became in 1859 editor and proprietor of The Spirit of the Times; published Lynde Weiss, an Autobiography (1854); A Voice to America (1855), and other works; and wrote a series of biographical sketches of American artists. His best-known painting is Niagara as it is. He was city surveyor of New Orleans during the administration of Gen. Butler (1862-63), and later became connected with the U. S. custom-house in New York city, where he died Se t. 20, 1878. evised by H. A. BEERS. Thorpe, THOMAS EDWARD, Ph. D., F. R. 8.: chemist; b. at Harpurhey, near Manchester, England, Dec. 8, 1845 ; was edu- cated at Owens College, Manchester, and the Universities of Heidelberg and Bonn ; was appointed to the chair of Chem- istry in Anderson’s College, Glasgow, in 1870, and to simi- lar positions in the Yorkshire College in Leeds (1874) and the Royal College of Science, South Kensington (1885). He has contributed a large number of papers on chemistry to the Philosophical Transactions, The Journal of the Chem- ical Society, the Reports of the British Association, IVature, and other scientific journals. He edited Coal: its History and Uses, and is the author of a Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, 3 vols.; Inorganic Chemistry, 2 vols.; Qualita- tive Analysis; Quantitatire Analysis; Chemical Problems; and Essays in Historical Chemistry. Thorpe, VVILLIAM: reformer; b. in England about 1350; received a good education; became a priest; preached the doctrines of Wiclif for twenty years from 1386; was impris- oned in Saltwood Castle, Kent, as a Lollard, 1407, and exam- ined before Archbishop Arundel, then Lord Chancellor, July 3 of that year. He wrote an account of his Ezcamination. which was widely circulated. and was condemned by an as- sembly of the clergy so late as 1530. The subsequent his- tory of Thorpe is unknown. I-lis Examination, which may be found in Foxe’s Boole of Ilfartyrs and in Dr. Christopher Wordsworth’s Ecclesiastical Biographies, is elegantly writ- ten, and is of great value as a picture of English society and manners in the time of Chaucer and Gower, and especially as a trustworthy summary of Lollard doctrines. ' Revised by S. M. J AOKSON. Thorwaldsen, tor’wa"ald-sen, ALBERT (BERTEL) : sculp- tor; b. at sea, Nov. 19, 1770. His father, Gottschalk Thor- waldsen, a native of Iceland, then on his way to Copenhagen, was a wood-carver and poor. Bertel‘s schooling was short and unprofitable until he was sent to the free school of the Academy of Arts at Copenhagen. There, at the age of seven- teen, a bas-relief of Cupid reposing gained the silver medal; at twenty a sketch of Ifeliodorus driven from the Temple gained the small gold medal; two years later he obtained the grand prize, which entitled him to receive the royal pen- sion, available for five years, beginning in 1796. In Mar.. 1797, he arrived in Rome. His model of Jason, which Ca-nova praised, attracted the admiration of an English connoisseur, Thomas I-Iope, who gave the artist a commission to execute it in marble. This was the beginning of a great career. The Adonis, begun in 1808, was not finished until 1832. It is the only one of Thorwaldsen’s statues which was entirely carved by his own hands. It is a triumphant answer to the charge THOTH brought against Thorwaldsen in his lifetime, that he could not work in marble. “ Not work in marble!” he said. “Tie my hands behind my back, and I will hew out a statue with my teeth!” The bas-relief, The Tr/'t'amphaZ Entry of Alex- ander into Baby/Zon, celebrated Napoleon’s entry into Rome in 1812. The familiar bas-reliefs lVtght and Jllo/rntng were modeled in 1815. The Venus Vtctrtx (1813-16) and the Mer- cury (1818) are, with the Adonis just mentioned, his most perfect works. In 1819 Thorwaldsen returned to Copen- hagen, and was received with great demonstrations. The well-known groups of Chmtst and the Twelve Apostles and John the Baptist preaelmng were completed in 1838 for the Church of Notre Dame at Copenhagen. Another visit in that year to Copenhagen, where he meant to live for the rest of his life, was cut short by the uncongenial climate. In 1841 he went back to Italy, stayed a year, then returned to Copenhagen, intending to remain for a short time only, but died suddenly of heart disease Mar. 24, 1844. The chief part of his fortune was left as a erpetual endowment for the museum at Copenhagen, whic is raised around his grave, and contains only his works. (See COPENHAGEN.) The best and most accessible works on Thorwaldsen are J. Thiele, Thorwaldsens Btograp7m'e (4 vols., Copenhagen, 1851-56; Am. ed., translated by Prof. Paul C. Sinding, New York, 1869); Thorwaldsen, sa Vie et son fihwre, by Eugene Plon, with two etchings and thirty-five wood-cuts (Paris, 1867; Am. ed. Boston, 1874, with the wood-cuts of the Paris ed.). Thorwaldsen’s works are very numerous—-205 as mentioned by Thiele—and of them, his colossal lion carved out of solid rock near Lucerne, Switzerland, commemorating the Swiss guards who fell while defending the Tuileries in 1792, and his bas-reliefs of 1Vz'ght and lllorntng, executed at a single sitting, are the best known. He may be considered as the chief of those modern sculptors who have tried to follow a purely classical tradition. Thoth [Egypt Tehatt, the measurer] : an Egyptian lunar deity, god of wisdom, whom the Greeks identified with Hermes. He was the god of HERMOPOLIS I\/IAGNA (Q. o.), the son of Ptah and Mut (other parents are also assigned), and husband of Mat, goddess of truth (also of Nephthys). He is represented as an ibis-headed man, and occasionally he is shown surmounted with a crescent moon and the sun-disk. He was regarded as the adviser and scribe of the gods, as the inventor of writing and of numbers, and as the measurer of time. He was believed to have been the author of the most sacred books, prayers, and laws (Diodorus, i.. 94, 75), and the B0070 of the Dead is ascribed to him. Hence he was the tutelary deity of scribes, and because of his knowl- edge of magic, one of the chief reliances of physicians, he was also their special god. He was regarded as the guardian, companion, and advocate of the dead, whom he accompanied to the “ Hall of Double Justice,” where he superintended the weighing of the heart of the deceased against the symbol of truth, and noted the result. To him the ibis and the cynocephalus ape were sacred, as were also the first month of the year and the sixth hour of the day. Few temples were reared to him, but in the eighteenth dynasty he was apparently held in special honor, as is shown by the fact that his name appears in that of Thothmes, “ son of Thoth.” See also HERMES TRISMEGISTUS. CHARLES R. GILLETT. Thothmes, Tahutmes, Tutmes [Tah'at't-/mes, son of Thoth] : the name of four kings (the fourth, fifth, sixth, and eighth) of the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty. I)uring the reign of the first king Egypt regained most of the ground, as regards both art and national power, which had been lost through the Hyksos invasion and domination. With the expulsion of these “shepherd kings” Egypt entered upon an era of foreign conquest which reached its furthest limits under Thothmes III. The booty which was brought back from various expeditions served to enrich both rulers and soldiers, and its evidences are seen in numerous buildings and temples in all parts of Egypt, but particularly at Thebes, the national capital. It was a period of renaissance and prosperity, and in matters of foreign trade and inter- course it marks an epoch in Egyptian history. Following in the footsteps of Ahmes (the Amosis of Mane- tho). THOTHMES I. made conquest of Ethiopia and established rule there after the pattern of Egypt. At the head of this government was a “ prince of Cush ” who was also frequently the heir—apparent to the Egyptian throne. To the eastward he pushed as far as the Euphrates, where he set up two stelae as the boundaries of his dominions. At home he was active in building, especially at Thebes, but most of his THOU 135 edifices have been obscured by the remodeling of his succes- sors or destroyed by time. His reign covered only nine years, and he left as his successors his son Thothmes II., his daugh- ter HATASU (q.o.), and also Thothmes Ill., a son by a concu- bine. After death he received divine hOI101’S.——THOTHMES II. reigned only a brief time, as coregent with Hatasu; and we know only of unimportant expeditions against the no- mads of the deserts that bordered Egypt on the E., and Nubia on both sides. He contributed to the architectural splendors of Thebes, but his name was erased from his monu- ments by his sister, who survived him.—THo'rHMEs III. was perhaps the greatest warrior produced by Egypt. After twenty-one years of joint reign with Hatasu, he became sole king, and he at once entered upon his warlike career. His efforts were directed toward the entire subjugation of West- ern Asia, and during the first twenty years of his sole reign there are records of fourteen campaigns to the East. He subdued Palestine, Syria, and a portion of Mesopotamia, to- gether with the region between the Euphrates and the Medi- terranean. He took Megiddo, Tyre, Kadesh on the Orontes, Carchemish, and a large number of other places, whose names he inscribed on the walls of the temple of Karnak. It is supposed that his dominion extended to the border of Asia Minor, and from Cyprus also he received tribute. At home he built on an extensive scale in various parts of Egypt from the Delta to the second cataract of the Nile. Thebes naturally received most of his attention, and there he labored princi- pally in extending the temple of Karnak, which he adorned with inscriptions that give a very complete record of his reign. Evidence of an intense hatred of his early coregent, Hatasu, is seen in the fact that he industriously erased her name. wherever it was possible. He was succeeded by Amenhotep II., whom he had previously associated with himself in the government. His reign covered about fifty-three years in all, of which for about thirty-one he was sole king. Dr. Mah- ler, of Vienna, using astronomical data, has calculated that his reign extended from Mar. 20, 1503, till Feb. 14, 1449 B. 0. —THOTHMES IV. was the son of Amenhotep II., mentioned above. His reign covered only seven years, during which he claimed to have waged war in Ethiopia, Syria, and Phoe- nicia. But the pompous style of the narratives of these ex- ploits throws doubt upon their historical trustworthiness. Early in his reign he cleared the great sphinx of Gizeh of the sand which had buried it, and erected between the paws a tablet 13 feet high. (See Srnmx.) He was followed by Amenhotep III. and his son Khunaten, and after them the kingdom became much weakened, till its power was again restored by Seti I. and Ramses II., the mighty kings of the nineteenth dynasty. CHARLES R. GILLETT. Thott. tot, BIRGITTE: scholar; b. in Denmark, 1610: the most learned woman and one of the greatest scholars of her time. Her chief work is a translation of Seneca (Sorii, 1658). which won admiration by its correctness and elegance. She also translated Epictetus and Cebes. In the preface to the Seneca she makes a strong plea for the intellectual rights of her sex. D. 1662. . K. D. Thou, too, JACQUES Aueusrn. de: historian; b. in Paris, Oct. 8, 1553: studied law at Orleans and afterward at Valence, under Cujas; traveled in Italy, Germany, and Holland ; and was made councilor to the Parliament in 1578, councilor of state in 1588. vice-president of the Parliament and keeper of the royal library in 1593. Henry III. and Henry IV. showed him great confidence, and employed him in many difiicult diplomatic and political negotiations; but under the regency of Marie de Médicis he felt himself to be slighted and retired from public life. He was a member of the Poli- tique party, a strong opponent of the League, and a sup- porter of the policy of toleration toward Protestants. being one of the promoters of the Edict of Nantes. D. May 7, 1617. His great work, H tstorta met Te'm]Jor2's, comprising the period from 1546 to 1607, written in Latin, and divided into 138 books, was published in part in 1604 and succeed- ing years: but the last part did not appear till 1620, when it was issued by his friends, Dupuy and R-igault, the latter of whom added a continuation or conclusion based on the papers of the author ; complete edition in seven folio volumes (London, 1733); French translation in sixteen volumes 4to (1734). Though the author betrays his sympathy with the Politiques, the work is in general impartial, and is one of the chief authorities for the period. He also wrote some Latin poems and an autobiography, edited by Masson (1838). See John Collinson, Lt'_fe of Thna-nus, 'w2't7z. some Account of his W7r2'ttn,gs (London, 1807). F. M. COLBY. 136 THOUGHT Thought: the mental processes of comparing, judging, and reasoning. The term thought is used to mark Off those mental states in which there is a breaking loose from par- ticular objects and the manipulation of general notions, concepts, signs, or terms. It involves APPEROEPTION (q. 22.), the relating function, primarily, but after it comes to work upon the more abstract material used in arguments, reason- ings, inferrings, and the like. 111 its nature, however, thought can not be held to differ from the lower exercises of mind seen in perception. The distinction is largely one of range and reach in the use of material. The lower animals seem to come only to a very small degree of thought. Psychologists distinguish certain stages in the process of thought, having mainly in view the degree of generality of the object to which the mind is directed. These stages may be given a further word under the names which they hold in popular language, i. e. conception, judgment, reasoning. Conception-In conception, the object which the mind is thinking about is a “general idea,” concept, or notion. It is a mental state which is equivalent in thought to more than one object in the external world. \Vhen, for example, a man speaks of the “place of the horse in the animal king- dom,” he is using a concept, “horse.” The psychological point at issue is the way the mind comes to have a state which thus stands not for any particular object—no one single horse-but for any of the objects which go in a class, large or small. General ideas are generally distinguished as “abstract,” i. e. when they designate a quality of objects, such as“ green,” “ sweet,” etc., independently of the kinds of objects to which this quality may apply; and concrete, or “ general,” in a narrow sense, i. e. when they refer to the ob- jects themselves. as to number, distribution, etc., independ- ently of the qualities which they possess, as, for example, the case given, “ horse.” The way that the concept arises on the basis of the perception of the particular objects which come first in mental growth is called “abstraction” and “ gener- alization ” in these two cases respectively. Judgment.-This term is usually applied to the mental procedure of asserting anything, as, for example, “ Socrates is mortal,” “ It rains.” The theory of judgments when they are thrown into statements called “ propositions” belongs to the ordinary or Aristotelian theory of Loero (g. 1).). The action of the mind in getting and using its judgments, how- ever, belongs to psychology. The theory most current on the psychological side looks upon judgment as just the mind’s own consciousness of the progress it is making with its con- ceptions. For example, the judgment “ horses eat grass” is looked upon by the newer theory as the mind’s expression to itself of the fact that the new quality or attribute of cat- ing in a particular way has to be added, in future cases when horses are thought of, to the concept which stands for this class of animals. There seems to be nothing added to the concept by the mere fact of judgment-that is, nothing ad- ditional to what is already there in the altered concept. But connected with this very growth of the concept there arises as a necessary part of the function itself the recogni- tion by consciousness of the addition being made to its con- tent, and this recognition of and assent to its own process constitute judgment. Consequently, the older school of psy- chologists who thought that judgment represented an entirely new function or faculty are no longer considered authorities; yet the newer school, represented by Brentano, Si gwart, Lotze (especially the first named), are disposed to think that the predieation of existence is always carried by the exercise of judgment, and that that is a new mental movement, since in conception the notion may or may not have the attribute of existence attached to it. The view of Brentano is prob- ably correct, as far as it finds in judgment the attribution of existence; but this attribution of existence is a fact of emotion, which becomes explicit at a certain stage in the development of conception, and then gives the form of con- scious recognition or assertion which we call judgment. Reasoning.-It is the process of reasoning which is usu- ally suggested by the word thought; and reasoning is, when psychologically considered, the most explicit form of the growth of conception, and with it of the direct assertion found in judgment. The detailed treatment of reasoning belongs to Locnc (q. v.); and it only remains to say in this connection that reasoning is again only a further stage in the growth of conception. In every piece of reasoning, in every argument, what we really have is an attempt to broad- en our conception of the subject reasoned about by adding to it certain new elements. We do this by discovering relations between concepts formerly held apart; and the successful THRASYBULUS union of such conceptions in one is what we call the “ con- clusion ” of the argument. So here again the old psychol- ogy is wrong in thinking that reasoning is a distinct faculty. It is only the general apperceptive or synthetic function of consciousness, as it works on more general and detached ele- ments of perception and conception. The reason, therefore. that animals do not show more reasoning power than they do is probably simply that they are not developed far enough, either in consciousness or in the brain complexity that ae- companies consciousness, to do much of the synthesis which thought embodies. LI'I‘ERA'I‘URE.——SQQ the references given under LOGIC; also the Psychologies of Brentano, James, H'o'ffding, and Baldwin. J. MARK BALDWIN. Thought-transference: See TELEPATHY. Thousand and One Nights: See ARABIAN NIGHTS. Thousand Islands: a group of about 1800 islands situated in the St. Lawrence river, near the outlet of Lake Ontario; famed for the beauty of their scenery, and annually visited by large numbers of tourists. Many have been chosen as sites for summer cottages. An expansion of the river, caused by the numerous islands obstructing it, is known as the Lake of the Thousand Islands. A belt of crystalline rock termed Laurent-ian gneiss, which unites the Adirondack hills of New York with a vastly larger area of a similar geological character in Canada, is crossed by the St. Lawrence, and owing to the unevenness of the surface of the rock and in- equalities in the depth of the glacial deposits spread over it, many islands were formed when the region became partially submerged. ISRAEL C. RUssELL. Thrace (in Gr. ®pqim7): in earliest times the entire and wholly indefinite region of country N. of Mt. Olympus, but later on the boundaries were in general these: On the N. the Danube, on the E. the Black Sea, on the S. the Helles- pont and Thracian Sea, on the VV. the Strymon. The Thracians belonged to the Indo-European family, and in earliest times had attained a relatively high standard of culture, as is indicated by the religious myths that originated in or were connected with Thrace, though they failed to keep pace with their southern neighbors. Little is known con- cerning the history of the country. The people were very warlike, living mainly by plunder and robbery, and were no- torious for their drunkenness. The Greeks planted many colonies along the coast of Thrace, but the Thracians never exercised any great influence upon olitical affairs in Greece. They were conquered by Philip an Alexander, and from the Macedonians the country passed into the hands of the Ro- mans, though it was not fully subdued until 26 B. O. J . R. S. STERRETT. Thrale, HESTER LYNOH SALUSBURY2 See Prozzr. Thrasher: a name applied in parts of the U. S. to the species of Turdiclce or thrush-like birds belonging to the gen- era Oroscoptes and Harporhynchus. Oroscoptes has the wings and tail of nearly equal length, the tail nearly even, and a slightly notched moderate bill. IIarporhynchus has the wings decidedly shorter than the tail, the tail long and graduated, and the bill not notched and diversiform, but generally quite elongated and decurved. The color is rather plain, generally brownish or ash above, whitish or spotted on the breast. The species include the sage-thrasher or moun- tain-mocker (O. montanus), the brown thrasher (H. rufus), Cape St. Lucas thrasher (II. oinereus), gray curve-bill thrasher (I-I. cureirostris), California thrasher (I-I. reclioieus, and red-vented thrasher (I-I. crissalis). Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Thrashing : See THREsHINe MACHINERY. Thrasybu’lus (in Gr. ®pao‘tBovA0s)2 son of Lycus of the dome Steiria, one of the leaders of the democratic party in Athens during the latter part of the Peloponnesian war. He was one of the associates of Thrasyllus at Samos, and was prominent in the attempt against the four hun- dred. He then fought under Alcibiades in the Helles- pent and elsewhere, and as trierarch took part in the battle of the Arginusae, being one of those ordered to pick up the shipwrecked sailors. He was banished by the Thirty Ty- rants and took up his residence in Thebes, where he planned his successful attempt to redeem Athens from the rule of the Thirty. From the fortress of Phyle as his base of op- erations he seized Munychia, the stronghold of the Piraeus, and finally succeeded in overthrowing the Thirty and in re- establishing a democratic form of government in Athens (403 B. c.). He served as general in Boeotia and at Corinth, \Croke, James. 567, A. D. 1620.) THREADWORM but without distinction (394 B. 0.). In 391 B. 0. he com- manded the Athenian fleet, and succeeded in restoring the Athenian prestige in the Hellespont, but was charged not only with embezzlement, but Wit-h treason as well. When his fleet was visiting Pamphylia his soldiers angered the people of Aspendus by acts of violence, and Thrasybulus himself was killed in his tent during the night. His death probably saved him from execution at Athens, a fate which overtook Ergocles, his fellow general. J . R. S. STERRETT. Threadworm: any nematode worm. See NEMATHEL- MINTHES. Threats : expressions of intention to inflict injury on an- other. At common law they are criminal offenses when directed against persons under the protection of a court. or when made against the life, reputation, or property of another for the purpose of extorting money from h1m,prov1ded they are of a nature calculated to overcome a firm and prudent man. (K/lng vs. Sontherton, 6 East. 126.) This subject be- came a matter of legislative regulation at an early day, and is governed wholly by statutes in each jurisdiction. Threats for the purpose of intimidating a public officer, or of prevent- ing a person from exercising his lawful callmg, or threats to publish a libel, or threats in a letter sent or delivered for the purpose of extorting money or annoying persons, are generally declared misdemeanors by these statutes. Threats which unlawfully interfere with one’s business are action- able as a tort. In an early English case the owner of a stone- quarry was allowed to recover damages against a party who by threats of bodily harm and of lawsuits frightened away plaintiffs workmen and customers. (Garret vs. Taylor. Threats may also interfere with one’s ersonal freedom to such an extent as to amount to FALSE MI>RIsoNMENT (q. 1).). See BQYCOTTING and CoN- SPIRACY. FRANCIS M. BURDIcK. Three Bodies, Problem of: the problem of determining the motion of three mutually gravitating particles. The dis- covery of the law of universal gravitation by Newton re- duced the question of the motion of the planets to one of almost pure mathematics. Newton himself was able to show, by a rigorous but intricate geometrical demonstra- tion, that if two bodies like the sun and a planet attract each other with a force inversely as the square of their mutual distance they will each describe a conic section around their common center of gravity. The planet being very small relatively to the sun, this common center of gravity would be very near the center of the sun, and the planet might therefore be said to describe a conic section around the sun. It was thus shown that, considering only the attraction of the sun upon the planets, each planet would revolve in an ellipse having the sun in one of its foci, which was Kepler’s first law of planetary motion. But since each planet is attracted by all the other planets, as well as by the sun, this motion in an ellipse does not repre- sent the mathematical truth, but only an approximation to the real motion. Hence mathematicians were led to pro- pound the problem more general than that solved by New- ton : Three bodies being projected in space with any oeloczlty and in any de'recte'on whatever, and then left to their mntulal attraction, to find the motion of each of them dnrz'ng all time. The general and complete solution of this problem was found to be beyond the power of mathematical analysis, for the reason that the curves described by the several bod- ies would be so irregular, subject to such constant variation, and changing so greatly according to the masses of the bodies, that it would be impossible to express them by any mathematical formula. It was, however, possible_ to find certain general laws to which the motion would be subject. The center of gravity of the three bodies would always move in a straight line with a uniform velocity. Certain relations were found to subsist between the masses of the bodies, their distance apart, and their velocities, and cer- tain great principles established relating to the secular changes as well as to the real permanence and stability of the solar system. See LAGRANGE. All this, however, did not suflice to determine completely the motion of any one body. In consequence of the impos- sibility of the general solution, the efforts of mathematicians have generally been directed, not to the general problem, but to two special cases of it which occur in the solar sys- tem. The first of these cases is that of the motion of two planets arourid the sun, in which the masses of the bodies are very small compared with that of the sun, while their motion takes place in nearly circular orbits. The deviations THREE RIVERS 137 of each planet from the average ellipse in which it would move if not attracted by the other, then admit of being de- termined with any required degree of accuracy, though not with mathematical rigor. The actual problem of planetary motion is, however, not simply that of three bodies, or two planets, but of nine bodies, there being eight large planets. But the solution of the problem of any number of planets involves no greater mathematical difliculties than are en- countered in the case of two, though the labor of the nu- merical solution is immensely greater. The other special case is that of the motion of the moon around the earth, under the influence of the attraction of the sun as well as of that of the earth. This is a more complicated case than that of planetary motion, because while the moon revolves round the earth both the earth and moon revolve together around the sun. But by the researches of Hansen and Delaunay this difiicult problem of the moen’s motion has been solved with nearly the same degree of accuracy as that of planetary motion. The efforts of several generations of mathematicians since the middle of the eighteenth century have resulted in the general problems of planetary and lunar motion being ren- dered comparatively simple from a purely mathematical point of view. But the problem of actually calculating the formulas necessary to determine the motion of any one planet is one of immense labor, the increased accuracy de- manded by modern astronomy having more than made up for the greater simplicity of the methods now used. The difficulty involved is indicated by the fact that the algebraic formulas by which Delaunay represents the position of the moon occupy 120 4to pages. S. N EWCOMB. . Three-chapter Controversy: an episode in the great Monophysite controversy. In order to win over the Monoph- ysites the Emperor Justinian issued in 544 an edict con- demning the so-called Three Chapters—the person and writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, the writings of Theo- doret against Cyril and in defense of Nestorius, and the letter of Ibas of Edessa to the Persian Maris. Though this condemnation involved a condemnation of the Council of Chalcedon (451), which had expressly aflirmed the ortho- doxy of Theodoret and Ibas, the Greek Church accepted the edict, as did also Pope Vigilius (540-555), while the whole Western Church rejected it and excommunicated the pope. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Three Estates: See ESTATES, THE THREE. Three Rivers (Fr. Trots Rz'v2'e1'es): city, port of entry, and chef-le'en of St. Maurice County, Quebec, Canada: 011 the northern bank of the St. Lawrence where it is joined by its tributary the St. Maurice (see map of Quebec. ref. 4-C). The Canadian Pacific Railway connects the city with Mon- treal, 95 miles distant, and with Quebec, 77 miles distant. There is also a branch of the Grand Trunk terminating here by means of a ferry from the other side of the river. The river steamboats make this a place of call during sum- mer. The town is one of the oldest in Canada, having been settled in 1634. It is an ecclesiastical center, with its cathedral, bishop’s palace, college, and convents. The old original parish church still stands. The city owes its growth to the development of the lumber-trade of the St. Maurice and its tributaries. The St. Maurice iron-works are 10 miles distant, and connected with the city by rail. The manufac- tures of Three Rivers are lumber, boots and shoes, and iron ware. The cathedral, with its massive spire, surrounded as it is by many handsome edifices, gives the city an imposing appearance as it is approached by rail. Some of the streets have an untidy appearance, while the system of water-supply and drainage needs improvement. The city sends one mem- ber to the House of Commons at Ottawa, and one to the House of Assembly at Quebec. There are 2 weekly newspa- pers, 3 branch banks, 3 Protestant churches, and several well- equipped schools. Three Rivers was in origin the fort or central station of the three great tributaries of the St. Law- rence ; hence. perhaps, the name, though it is generally thought to have been given on account of the two dividing islands at the mouth of the St. Maurice. Pop. (1881) 7,998 ; (1891) 8,334. J . M. HARPER. Three Rivers: village; St. Joseph co., Mich; at the junction of the St. Joseph, Portage, and Rocky rivers: on the Lake Sh. and Mich. S. and the Mich. Cent. railways; 8 miles N. of Constantine, and 25 miles S. of Kalamazoo (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 8-H). It has excellent water-power for manufacturing ; is in a lumber region. and contains 2 flour-mills. several saw and planing mills, foun- 138 THRESHER dries, agricultural-implement works, paper mill, pepper- mint-oil works, 2 national banks with combined capital of $114,000, a State bank with capital of $30,000, a free pub- lic library, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,525; (1890) 3,181. EDITOR or “ HERALD.” Thresher: See Fox SHARK. Threshing Machinery: machinery for the separation of grain from the straw. Pm?m1Jtt'vc Jlfethods of Threslmi/n.g.—There are two meth- ods of threshing without machinery—-one by blows which beat out the grain, the other by a kind of trituration which breaks its hold on the straw. The former appears to have been developed from the latter. The earliest method of threshing was doubtless that of treading the grain to and fro by horses or oxen—-a method in common use on the small farms in the U. S. and elsewhere, especiallyr for buck- wheat, and notably for clover. Another ancient method still in use in the Orient, but probably nowhere else, is that of drawing a sled back and forth over the unthreshed straw. The primitive method of beating out the grain was by means of a flail, an implement comprising a staff wielded by the thresher, and having at one end a swingle shorter, thicker, and heavier than the staff, to which it is connected by a flexible thong. The flail is uniformly used even now where only small quantities of grain are to be threshed. The best flails have staves made of ash and swingles of hickory; the staff in each case being provided with a wooden bow swiveled at its upper end in order that the swingle may be free to swing around the line of the staff, the swingle being attached to the bow by a looped thong made preferably of eel-skin, which best resists the great and continual strain and friction brought upon it. In threshing grain with straight straw, such as oats, wheat, barley, etc., the sheaves are laid in double rows with their heads turned inward and slightly overlapping. The thresh- er first threshes down the middle, beating out the heads. The bands upon the sheaves are then broken, and the whole is uniformly again threshed over. It is then turned or in- verted and flailed again. If the weather is damp, the straw is tougher and holds the grain more firmly; and in such cases the straw is shaken up with a pitehfork once or more as may be required, and repeatedly gone over with the flail. With buckwheat, in which the sheaves or stooks are of conical form, the stooks are placed upright, and the whole mass is beaten down u on the floor by first striking upon the tops of the stocks, t e straw being turned and shaken up as often as may be required, and repeatedly threshed until the grain is completely separated. Clover, beans, peas, etc., are flung promiscuously on the threshing-floor and turned and beaten until the threshing is complete. These last, however, are readily threshed by horses tram- pling upon them, an attendant turning the straw at one part of the floor while the horses are trampling at another. Early Forms of T/trashing .Mach1,'ne'ry.—-F1'om the very earliest times until a very recent period, the methods just described were the only ones by which grain was separated from the straw, unless the rude method sometimes used by warlike Celtic tribes of burning the straw and gathering the parched grain left behind be excepted; also that other method in which may be detected the faintest suggestion of the principle of modern inventions-—the hurdles made of planks or wide beams, stuck over with flints or hard pegs to rub the grain ears between them ; for it is only necessary to curve one of these planks to the arc of a circle, and bend the other to a complete cylinder revolving within the con- cave, to have an imperfect representation of the two essen- tial parts of a modern threshing-machine. It is to such beginnings that the principles of improved machinery may be frequently traced; and the 1nodern threshing-machine finds its inception in the pegged hurdles of the ancient Romans, just as the harvester had its beginning in the comb-like reaping-blade mounted on wheels mentioned by Pliny as in use among the Gauls. The first threshing-ma- chine that could in any sense be considered a practical suc- cess, and which was the prototype of those that led to the displacement of the hand-flail, was that invented by Michael Menzies. of East Lothian, in Scotland, who used a number of flails attached to a revolving shaft driven by a water-wheel. This machine succeeded in threshing very rapidly, but the high velocity required soon broke and destroyed the flails, and the mechanical resources of that time were not equal to the task of constructing an apparatus on this principle which would successfully stand the wear and tear of actual THRESHING MACHINERY use. Afterward, in the year 1758, another Scotchman, Michael Sterling, in Perthshire, co'nstructed another thresh- er, which appears to have been merely an experiment. This had a vertical shaft with radial arms working within a cylinder, the shaft being turned by a water-wheel. The sheaves were thrown in at the top of the cylinder and were beaten by the radial arms. This appears to have been of little utility, and was followed twenty years later by'another machine, in which a number of rollers were arranged around an indented drum, the drum being revolved and the rollers rubbing out the grain. This was manifestly impract-icable, as were also several modifications. At a later date another Scotchman, Andrew Meikle, devised a machine in which rollers and drums were retained, but in which beating was substituted for rubbing. The first machine of this kind was made in 1786, and appears to have been the earliest threshing- machine that was practically adapted to extended and suc- cessful use. In this, scutches were attached to the ‘drum, and arranged to strike the grain from the straw. At first this invention was adapted merely to detach the grain from the straw, and threw grain, chaff, and straw in a heap to- gether. But early in the introduction of these machines screens were added, and the grain, separated from the straw, was passed to a winnower. This was really a most notable invention, and the threshing of grain by a machine turned by horse-power or steam-power, which had been before at most an experiment, became an accomplished fact. This machine, as well as those that followed it, was expensive. A large one with suitable rakes and fanners for separating straw from the grain and chaff, and the grain from the chaff, cost £150 sterling at that time, when the purchasing power of money was at least three times what it is now. But such machines enabled one man to do the work of six, and se- cured 5 per cent. more of winnowed grain from a given weight of straw than was possible with hand-threshing. And as has been said: “ If 5 per cent. is added to the national produce, it is as great a gain to the public as if the national territories were increased one-seventh.” Notwithstanding the comparative excellence of these early British machines, they have been much changed, and the steam threshing-ma- chines exhibited at the annual agricultural shows in Great Britain are triumphs of mechanical engineering. Threshz'ng-mach/ines in the U. S.—In North America threshing-machines were early invented, but for the reason that most of the farms were newly cleared from the wilder- ness, divided into small fields, and almost necessitating hand-labor in all departments of agriculture, it is only since about 1840 that this class of machinery has been brought to any perfection. Among those earlier invented, the plan of rotary beaters or flails attached to a revolving shaft was the subject of much experiment. But a revolving cylinder provided with radial teeth or spikes, and working with a concave or section of a cylinder provided with similar but inwardly projecting teeth, comprised the beating mechanism which was first found uniformly successful, and which con- tinues in use. The changes and improvements have related for the most part to the mode of giving motion to this cyl- inder and to accessories for securing safety and convenience in the operation of the machine. Those which first came into common and satisfactory use had the cylinder actuated by intermediate gearing from a vertical driving-shaft, from the upper end of which extended radial arms. To the outer end of these arms was attached a whippletree, on which draught was exerted by a single horse. The four horses walked in a circular path, and thus gave rotary movement to the vertical driving-shaft and rapid rotation to the cyl- inder. The sheaves, unbound, were fed with the heads first into the space between the cylinder and its concave. In some of the first of these machines shaking screens were so applied as to sift the grain and chaff from the straw, the latter being carried and deposited by itself, while the former passed to the hopper of a fanning-mill, which cleaned or separated the grain from the chaff, while a graduated sys- tem of sieves separated the small seeds, pigeon-weed, devil’s- gut, etc. Many attempts were made to supersede this clumsy mode of driving the cylinder by an inclined endless belt constructed with transverse wooden lags, and driven after the manner of a treadwheel by horses. This plan has been adopted with success for small dog-power machines for churning. Many experiments were made to apply the same principle in various forms to the heavier work of driving a thresher. The first attempts of this kind were made at a foundry in the village of Fly Creek, N. Y. A resident of that place had succeeded in making a horse- ‘ THRESHING MACHINERY power on the plan just mentioned, which theoretically ap- peared to be perfect, but with which no steadiness of motion could be given to the cylinder. When the sheaves were not passing to the machine the apparatus ran too fast for the horses; when the sheaves were applied the apparatus choked. This was about 1830-35 ; the apparatus was laid aside, but shortly after a projector from the State of Maine came to the same foundry and had constructed afar ruder apparatus, which on trial gave a perfectly satisfactory motion to the cylinder. The constructor of the first-named device was not long in discovering that this was due to a balance-wheel placed on the main shaft of the horse-power. He added this useful appliance to the shaft of the previous machine, and from this was developed the Badger railroad horse- power, which for many years held its own as the most effi- cient power for driving threshing-machines. It is dlfiicult to explain the construction of this apparatus without elabo- rate diagrams. It consisted, in brief, of a framework car- rying at each side two endless cast-iron tracks situate in vertical planes. The endless belt was composed of two sys- tems of iron links arranged around the two tracks, and con- nected by the transverse lags or wooden bars which com- posed the traveling floor of the apparatus. Each link carried a broad-faced wheel resting upon the upper part of the adjacent endless track. The endless belt thus con- structed and arranged was of course in an inclined position, the weight of the horse walking thereon as upon a treadmill giving a motion to the endless belt, the wheels of which traveled upon and around the endless tracks, from which operation the designation “railroad ” was derived. A large broad-faced wheel constituted at once the balance-wheel to give steadiness of motion and the driving-wheel from which, by means of a belt, power was transmitted to the threshing- cylinder. At a later date the construction was much sim- plified, and what are now termed railroad horse-powers differ materially in construction from the first representa- tives of the class. In the use of this class of machinery much difficulty was at first experienced from the breaking or slipping of the driving-belt, which by relieving the horse-power from the resistance of the thresher was liable to throw the horses back out of the machine, with consequent injury and loss. This was remedied by an ingenious appli- cation of a lever arranged in such relation to the belt that the breaking of the belt lets fall the lever, and this in its turn actuates a brake that, coming in contact with the driv- ing-wheel, stops the motion of the endless platform. The ordinary threshing-machine in use in the Eastern States comprises either a portable steam-engine or a railroad horse-power for two or three horses, and a thresher composed essentially of the toothed cylinder acting in conjunction with the toothed concave. An endless shaker formed with trans- verse wires and operated like an endless belt conveys the straw some distance in the rear of the thresher, a vibrating motion given to the belt shaking out the chafi and grain, these latter being passed to a fanning-mill which separates the chaff, small seeds, ete., from the winnowed grain. These machines are commonly owned by some enterprising farmer, who, aside from the threshing of his own farm, journeys from farm to farm by appointment, and threshes either for a stated price per bushel or for a percentage of the grain itself, com- monly one-tenth. The large farms of the \Vest and the im- mense quantities of grain produced have called into existence far more elaborate apparatus, in which, however, the principle of operation is substantially unchanged. A thresher in use for a number of years in the Western States may be taken as a type of the improved threshing-machine in use in the Prairie States. In this the threshing-cylinder “ is made of skeleton form, having cast-iron heads, and the central an- nular brace of the same material; wrought-iron bars are ar- ranged on these parts, and form the circumferential parts of the cylinder, being held in position by the external wrought- iron rings. The bars carry the teeth, the shanks of which pass through holes in the bars, and are held by nuts firmly screwed upon their inner ends ; the uniformity in shape and size of the teeth arises from their being made by machinery properly shaped in dies under a drop-hammer. The con- cave is of cast iron, with slots in it which allow the grain to pass through to separate from the straw at the earliest pos- sible stage of the threshing operation. The straw as it leaves the cylinder is flung back, the grain being then shaken out by a vibrating shaker and its separation completed by an air-blast from a revolving fan.” In the Pacific States the peculiar dryness of the atmos- phere greatly facilitates not only the threshing but the THROAT DISEASES 139 reaping of grain; the standing grain, instead of crinkling down when ripe, as is the case in the Eastern States. stands straight for many weeks ; and this without the shaking out of the kernels incident to ripe grain in other portions of the country. It is, however, dry enough to thresh immediately; the threshers are driven by portable steam-engines, and the threshing is carried on in the open field. During recent years much attention has been given to straw-burning furnaces for steam-boilers of threshing-machines in the open field. By these the straw is used in generating the power which drives the thresher, and a comparatively waste roduct is made to cheapen the expense of the work. Straw-burning furnaces have been used in Hungary during a long period, and for many years the straw of the rice-fields in the Southern U. S. has been utilized in the same man- ner. A Californian apparatus for cutting, threshing, and winnowing grain in the field, devised many years ago. is constructed as follows : A large grain-frame is supported on two heavy driving-wheels, and has two lighter ones in front arranged as guiding-wheels. Projecting from the side of this frame is a platform like that of an ordinary reaper, but about 12 feet long. This runs at such height that the re- ciprocating sickle at the front will cut off the heads from the standing grain; the heads fall on an endless apron running longitudinally upon the platform, and are carried by this to a hopper that conducts them to a threshing-cyl- inder having a fanning-mill and straw-separator arranged behind it. The threshed and winnowed grain is thrown out from the fan-mill through a spout at the side directly into the mouth of a sack suspended under the spout. An attendant riding upon the platform ties the sacks when full, and throws them off upon the ground to be collected at leisure. The driving parts receive their motion from the large or driving wheel by means of suitable bands and gearing. This apparatus was designed to be drawn by ten horses, the management of which would constitute the greatest difficulty in the operation of the apparatus. Some- thing similar to this has been projected in Australia, where the peculiarities of the climate permit the immediate thresh- ing of the grain as soon as cut. The plan is not more audacious than that experimentally carried into effect about 1850 in Devonshire, England, of connecting a threshing and winnowing apparatus with a run of mill-stones. so that the grain was stripped from the straw, separated from the chaff, ground, and bolted at one continuous operation. JAMES A. WHITNEY. Thrift: the Awrzem'a elongafa, a European seaside and mountain plant, found also on British American shores. and often grown in gardens as an edging for flower borders. It has diuretic powers. A. Zatz'foZ2'd is a fine ornamental plant from Portugal. They are of the family Plumbaginacere. Thring, Enwann,A. M. : educator: b. in England, Nov. 21, 1821: studied at Eton; graduated at Cambridge 1847 ; took orders and served as curate for a time, always wishing to teach; went to Uppingham, Rutland, as head master Sept. 10. 1858, where he had a career as one of the most famous of English schoohnasters. D. Oct. 1887. He published four volumes of school sermons, L7’7z.ough{s on Life Science (1869); Edacmfion and School; T/L€0I‘]/ and Pracz"z'ce of Teaiclzzing (3d ed. 1886). besides poems and addresses. See Skrine, A Me22tor3/ of Edward 171 r2'ng (1889) ; Rawnsley, Ed- 'ZU(l/Pd Tlzring, Teacher and Poet (1889). C. H. THURBER. Thrips: See Physopoda», under ENTOMOLOGY. Throat Diseases: Although the specialty of the study and treatment of throat diseases is designated laryngology, it includes diseases of the posterior nares. the fauces, pharynx, and larynx. Exceptionally, some of these diseases may be suspected or even diagnosticated from symptoms only, as laryngit-is fro1n hoarseness, stridor, or aphonia; chronic ton- silitis from muffled voice and habitual snoring ; elongated uvula and papular pharynx from habitual spasmodic pharyn- geal cough. But physical exploration, the direct examination of the oral cavity and the passages to the posterior nares and larynx, is essential both to diagnosis and to correct treatment. Simple e.\'amination——the depression of the tongue by a spoon or tongue spatula—will suffice in many cases, exhibiting the tonsils, soft palate, uvula, posterior wall of the pharynx, and the top of the epiglottis. To discover the root of the tongue, the entire epiglottis, the true and false vocal cords, the chink of the glottis, and even the upper rings of the trachea and division of the bronchi, the laryngoscopic mirror must be employed. Laryngoscopy may be performed by the use of either bright sunlight or a concentration of artificial light. 140 THROAT DISEASES Specialists employ lamps with condensing lenses ; with such methods of illumination the examination is conducted in a dark room. A good light, whether the sun’s rays or artificial, is reflected, by a concave mirror held by the physician or FIG 1. worn upon a head-band, into the patient’s opened mouth. The patient’s tongue being drawn forward and gently held, a small circular or oval laryngeal mirror is introduced. There are several sizes of mirrors, varying from one-quarter to one inch in diameter ; they are attached to delicate handles at an angle, so that when passed to the back of the throat they catch the rays thrown into the mouth by the concave mirror, and reflect them downward, illuminating the larynx. The parts thus rendered luminous present a distinct picture in the small laryngeal mirror above them ; and this is seen by the observer. The laryngoscopic examination is easily accomplished after a brief period-of practice. More diflicult is the ex- ploration of the upper phar- ynx and the posterior nares, termed o*7m'n0sc0]Jy. The uvula has to be drawn for- ward, and the reflecting laryngeal mirror passed well back and turned upward. When correctly held, a dis- tinct image of the septum between the nostrils, and of the extensive corrugated surfaces of the naso-pharyngeal spaces, is transmitted to the eye (Fig. 3). Patients are easily trained to permit the presence of the throat mirror, and even to explore their own throats. The movements of the vocal cords are displayed best in uttering the sound ct (eh). All of these several connecting parts of the throat are rich- ly supplied with blood-vessels and lined by a mucous mem- brane, secreting mucus. They are therefore liable to hyper- secretion of mucus, or catarrh, which may be acute, sub- acute, or chronic; to active and passive congestions, inducing redness, heat, and swelling; to active inflammations, with formation of submucous abscess, erosion of the epithelial cov- ering of the mucous membrane, or ulceration and sloughing of its deeper layers. Such destruction of soft tissue may in- duce necrosis of the underlying hard structures, the nasal and laryngeal cartilages. In- flammation may terminate in an exudation of membranous character, as those of croup and diphtheria. Repeated congestions and inflamma- tions tend to engorge and hypertrophy the structures of the mucous membrane and glandular bodies embedded in it. The papillae of the back of the throat and of the columns of the fauces are very often thus enlarged. The surface is seen to be studded with prominent ovoid papules or tubercles, a condition often known as clergyman’s sore throat, and technically as papular pharyngitis. Polypoid growths of variable size de- velop in the nares, pharynx, and on and around the vocal cords—products of papular growth and of granulation. A most alarming and critical condition is acute oedema of the larynx. This is an acute inflammatory disease attended with great swelling, by oedema, of the submucous tissue. The distended, swollen structures overlap the opening of the glot- FIG. 2.—-Healthy larynx. THRUSH tis and occupy the ventricles of, the larynx, preventing in- spiration and threatening immediate death by suffocation. The laryngoscopic mirror definitely locates the seat of these dropsical sacs, and is the sure guide to eflicient scariflcation and evacuation of their contained fluid. The vocal cords may be affected by spasms, producing hoarseness, aphonia, and labored respiration, in which case the mirror detects the unusual approximation and irregular action of the cords, and excludes the presence of more seri- ous organic disease. One of the vocal cords may be found paralyzed, inactive, and relaxed, while the other remains nor- mal. Such paralysis of a cord may be due to inflammation or abnormal growth, or may depend upon lesions of the nerves in the neck, or again, coexisting with paralysis of half of the body, depend on a lesion of the brain. Ulcera- tion or inflammation may so seriously damage the vocal cords that cicatricial or scar-like tissues are formed, tending to contract and harden; in time the chink of the glottis be- comes contracted and narrow—termed stenosis of the lar- ynx. The aperture being no longer adequate for the ingress or egress of air, gradual suffocation must ensue unless sur- gical relief is afforded. Extensive destruction of the vocal cords often occurs from syphilis and epithelial cancer. The more accurate diagnosis of throat diseases, and intel- ligent study and classification by aid of laryngoscopy, have led to corresponding progress in treatment. Applications are no longer applied at random by probangs, uncertain of the condition that exists and of the parts which are reached. Remedies are applied with accuracy by various methods, with definite regard for the indications of each case. Astrin- gents—as tannin, iron, and silver—are employed to contract blood-vessels, lessen congestions, and relaxations of surfaces. Caustics are sometimes used, local applications are made to heal ulcers, and inflammation is checked by warm solutions and vapors, or in other cases by cold gargles or sprays. Ano- dynes are given to allay pain, either by the stomach or locally. Electricity is applicable directly to the paralyzed vocal cord. The knife is constantly of service in treating throat diseases, for the excision of the tonsils and uvula, opening abscesses, the scarification of oedema of the glottis, and for the opera- tions of tracheotomy and laryngo-tracheotomy, whenever, by inflammation, tumors, croupous or diphtheritic membrane, or whatsoeverobstruction, the larynx is closed to the pas- sage of air and death is imminent by suffocation. Of recent years the operation of intubation has been introduced. This consists in the insertion of a metallic tube directly into the larynx from the pharynx. In this way the larynx is kept open and suifocation prevented. See GATARRI-I, DIPHTHERIA, l\'IoU'rH, DISEASES on THE‘, QUINSY, and Toxeun. Revised by W. PEPPER. Thrombosisi See HEART Drsmsn. Thr0m’bus [Mod Lat., from Gr. 6pd,uBos, lump, clot of blood] : in pathology, a clot of blood within the blood-ves- sels or heart. Inflammations of the lining membrane of the vessels, altered states of the blood, and slowing of the cur- rent of blood are the principal factors which contribute to the formation of clots. Their appearance varies according as they are formed rapidly or slowly. Thus in the heart the clots which so frequently result from slowing of the current of blood have a yellow or white appearance, from the fact that the heavy red corpuscles are carried along by even a sluggish current, whereas the lighter white corpuscles cling to the walls and enter into the formation of the throm- bus. If the current is alternately slow and rapid, stratified or laminated clots result ; and if the stream is suddenly and completely checked, a red clot results. Thrombi in the ves- sels or heart tend to undergo softening or disintegration, and particles may thus be swept to distant parts of the cir- culation. On the other hand, under favorable conditions, and particularly in those in small vessels, thrombi become organized, and thus obliterate the lumen of the blood-vessel where they occur. This is the most important feature of thrombosis, for in this manner severed blood-vessels are ob- structed and haemorrhage permanently arrested. W. P. Tllrusll [l\/I. Eng. ]>r/u/sche < 0. Eng. ]>rysce : O. H. Germ. drosca < Teuton. "’-']a9'us-lea; cf. throszfle < 0. Eng. trestle: Germ. do-osscl < Teuton. *]orastaZa, : Lat. tw/rcle’la < Indo—Eur. *z.‘j1'zdeZct] : any one of various birds o.f the family TURDIDZE (q. 1).), a group of Oscines, which stands at, or near, the head of the class of birds, and includes many of the best songsters. They are birds of moderate size. well typified by the wood- thrush (T/arclus mustelmus) of the eastern parts of the U. S., a delightful songster and a near relative of Wilson’s thrush TH RUSH (T. fuscescens) and the gray-checked thrush (T. alieiaa). These birds resemble one another quite closely, being more or less olive brown above and white below, with blackish spots. The European song-thrush (Turdus musicus) is much like the wood-thrush on a larger scale. The common robin (lllerula migratoria) of the U. S. is a thrush, and so is its relative, the blackbird of Europe (171. merula). For the gol- den-crowned thrush, see OVENBIHD. F. A. L. Thrush: See MOUTH, DISEASES OF THE (Stomatitis hy- phomycetica). Thrush: an abscess in the sensitive frog of the horse’s foot. Cleanliness and the paring away of loose pieces of the frog are useful toward a cure. Carbolic-acid lotions or occasional sprinkling with calomel are also beneficial. Thucydides, thyu-sid’i-de"ez [: Lat. := Gr. ®ovn:v5t5ns]: Greek historian; son of Olorus and I-Iegesipyle, of the Attic deme Halimus. He belonged on one side of the house to an old aristocratic Athenian family, on the other to a line of Thracian princes. The year of his birth is uncertain, not much earlier than 470 B. 0., nor later than 454. He received an education that matched his lineage and his wealth; and the influences of Anaxagoras the philosopher and Antiphon the orator have been traced in his thought and in his style. The story that he heard Herodotus read his history at Athens is destitute of warrant, but not destitute of proba- bility. At the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war Thucyd- ides had reached what he calls the age of discernment, and in 423 commanded a detachment of Athenian forces, which was to operate on the Thracian coast, the region in which he had large possessions. Having failed to relieve Am- phipolis, he was condemned to death for high treason. and forced to withdraw from Athenian territory; nor did he receive formal permission to return until the end of twenty years, an interval which he spent partly on his estate in Thrace, partly in visits to the scene of hostilit-ieys, notably to Italy, Sicily, and Macedon. The time and manner of his death are alike uncertain. One account has it that he was assassinated-—cut off untimely, as was his history; and his silence as to the eruption of Etna i11 396 makes it probable that he did not long survive the end of the fifth century. The history of Thucydides. which covers twenty-one years of the Peloponnesian war, has come down to us in eight books, of which the eighth, in which the characteristic speeches are lacking, has not received the last hand of the author. This division into eight books is not the author’s division, and we read of other distributions, one into nine, one into thirteen books. A noteworthy break takes place at v., 26, which marks the opening of a second part. But the whole matter of the composition of the work of Thucyd- ides is disputed, some holding that the history was con- ceived and executed as a whole, others that the piecemeal composition has only been partially effaced by later revision. Thucydides is universally considered the first and greatest critical historian of antiquity, and claims for himself the credit of an exactness which is possible only to conscientious research as distinguished from hearsay report. His theme, as announced in the outset, is the war and its causes. It is a theme of which he has personal knowledge, and he sticks to it closely, indulging in few episodes, and excluding the sidelights of literature and art. His narrative is rigidly annalistic, year by year, summer by summer, winter by winter, to the detriment of effective grouping, and to the disgust of the rhetorical historians of a later day. Thucyd- ides brought to his task rare qualifications. He was a man of affairs’ and a soldier, and knew the springs of action even if he could not always work them. His vision was clear of superstitious glamour, his deity was “the strong god, the chance central of circumstance.” His aim was the truth, and this praise, though of late years eagerly disputed, can hardly be denied him. He saw and described the men of l11S time and the movements of his time as they were. His portI'aits of character abide not merely because of his artis- tic power, but because of their truth to life. His exhibit of the political forces at work commends itself the more be- cause of the impartiality of the form. He does not tell us what was thought, he bids us listen to the voices of the time, and the statesmen and the captains of the period are made to give abundant expression to the motives of the war. No less than one-fifth of the history is taken up with the speeches in which the thought of the times is dramatized. H1s_ narrative shows great variety. sometimes breathlessly rapid, sometimes lingering on each picturesque detail; now a lme-engraving, now a painting full of color. The story THUGS 141 of the Sicilian expedition is the most elaborate specimen of his art, the retreat of the Athenians from before Syracuse one of the most famous descriptions in all literature. His style is confessedly a hard style, and not undesignedly so. Those who attribute the clifiiculties of Thucydides to the crude state of Attic prose forget that he could be as simple as the simplest. The fact is that the harshnesses to which all manner of crabbed rhetorical names have been given are of the essence of his genius, are of the essence of his time. Thucydides mirrors more or less consciously in his style a period of conflict and distraction. EDITIONS.——I. Bekker (4 vols., 1821), also text ed.; Poppo (11 vols., 1821-40), also a smaller ed. revised by Stahl; Goeller (2 vols., 1826, 1836); Didot (3 vols., 2d ed. 1868); Thomas Arnold (3 vols., 8th ed. 1874); S. T. Bloomfield (2 vols., 1842-43); K. \V. Kriiger (2 vols., 1846-47, and often since) ; Classen (8 vols., 1862-76, and often repeated); new ed. by Steup in progress 1893 ; American translation and revision by Fowler, C. D. Morris, C. F. Smith, in progress: by Boehme- Widmann (5th ed. 1882). Noteworthy text editions by Stahl (2 vols., 1873-74) and van Herwerden (5 parts, 1877-83). To these may be added editions of single books and selections by Bigg, Croiset, Dougan, Frost, Goodhart, Graves, Holden. Lamberton, Marchant, F. Miiller, Rutherford, Schoene, Shilleto, Simcox, Sitzler, Tucker. 'I‘ranslated into English by Hobbes, Bloomfield (3 vols., 1829), Dale in the Bohn Li- brary, Crawley (1876), B. J owett with introductions, notes, etc., a monumental work in two volumes (1881). There is an important translation of the speeches by Wilkins (3d ed. 1881), and an admirable essay on the same subject by R. C. J ebb in Abbott’s Hellenica (1880). See also Betant, Leasicon Thucydideum (2 vols., 1843-47), and von Essen‘s remarkably complete Index Thucydideus (1887). B. L. GILDERSLEEVE. Thugs [from Hind. thag, deceiver, robber]: members of a religious fraternity of robbers and murderers which flour- ished in India from the fourteenth till the nineteenth cen- tury. They were worshipers of Kali (see HINDUISM), by whom they believed themselves to be commanded to mur- der and rob. Therefore they were utterly unconscious of wrongdoing, considering themselves priests of the goddess carrying out a pious work, for which they were rewarded with the ‘booty gained on their expeditions. They never committed a murder without solemn preparatory rites. prominent among which were the sacrifice of sugar and the consecration of the pickaxe, a symbolizing the tooth of Kzili. The origin of the sect is obscure. The earliest mention of thugs is in the History of Firoe Shah, written by Zia- ud-din Barni about 1356. It is there related that in 1290 a thousand thugs were captured in Delhi on the informa- tion of one of the brotherhood and transported to the island of Lakhnauti. Many of the methods of the fraternity are detailed by the Frenchman Thévenot in relating his travels through India in the years 1665-67. Thuggee (as the system is called) grew rapidly, owing to the extraor- dinary precautions of its members, and the want of national union among the tribes of India. Thugs were thoroughly organized, and had a special language (Ramasi) and secret signs by which they could recognize each other anywhere. By paying a share of their gains, they even received the sup ort, at least in secret, of many of the native princes. T Iey went about in bands of from ten to two hundred. Each man was allotted a special duty. There were the leader, the pick-bearer, entrappers, scouts, stranglers. and grave-diggers. It was the business of the entrappers to dis- cover rich travelers, and, representing their band to be mer- chants or pilgrims, to offer to go with them for mutual pro- tection against robbers or for the sake of each other's society. Having started on the journey, scouts and grave-diggers were sent out ahead to find a favorable spot and prepare a place for the burial of the bodies of those who were to be murdered. Often it would be many days before the oppor- tunity arrived, especially since the omens had to be au- spicious. llleanwhile the members of the band mixed on the most friendly terms with their victims—ate and slept with them, and worshiped together at the wayside shrines. When the chosen spot was reached each thug was at his post, and on a given signal from the leader the victims were strangled with the handkerchief (romdl). All witnesses were put to death. The bodies of the dead were buried, some- times being mutilated to hasten decomposition, or fastened down with stakes. The booty was divided among the band, a considerable amount being reserved for their tutelar god- dess. Those who did not know their real trade are said to 119, Tl-IULE have taken the leaders of these bands to be the ablest, most estimable, and amiable members of native society, and often even the families of the thugs were kept in utter ignorance of their true profession. Several unsuccessful attempts were made~by the British Government to stamp out this pest, until, in 1826, owing chiefly to the efforts of Lord William Bentinck and Capt. (afterward Sir) William Sleeman, the movement was started which within a few years utterly broke the power of the sect. This result was reached chiefly by admitting many of the fraternity as king’s evidence. See Sleema-n’s Ramaseeaua (Calcutta, 1836); Hutton’s Popular Account of the Thugs and Dacoits (London, 1857) ; and Meadows-Taylor’s Confessions of a Thug (London, 1839; new ed. 1879). F. M. SMEDLEY. Thule, thyu’le"e: the name which Pytheas (at the time of Alexander the Great) gave to a land which he discovered after sailing six days in a northerly direction from the Ork- ney islands. Later, the Romans used the name as a general signification for the northernmost parts of the habitable earth —-ultima Thule. What island Pytheas meant is unknown. Thumbscrew, or Tl1l1111bkil1: an instrument of judicial torture formerly used in various parts of Europe, but par- ticularly in Scotland. The thumb was compressed by a screw. Its last ofiicial use was in the trial and on the person of Principal Carstairs in 1682, after the Rye House Plot. Thiimen,ti‘1’men, FELIX, von, Baron: botanist; b. in Dres- .den, Germany, Feb. 6, 1839. He is known in botany for his many papers on the fungi, published mainly in Hedwigia, Flora, Grevillea, besides other journals, and the proceed- ings of learned societies between the years 1873 and 1891. He published four series of ezcsiccati, viz.: Die Pilze cles W'eiuszfochs, 25 species (1877); Herbarium llfycologicum CE’couomicum, 1,300 species (1872-79); Fungi Auslriaci Eassiccati, 1,300 species (1871-75); My/cotheca Uuiversalis, 2,300 species (1875-84). D. at Schiinau near Teplitz, Bohe- mia, Oct. 13, 1892. CHARLES E. BEssEY. Thunberg, toon’bétrch, CARL PETER: botanist ; b. at J on- ktlping, Sweden, Nov. 11, 1743; studied at Upsala under Linnaeus; resided at the Cape of Good Hope 1772-75, and in Japan 1775-78; returned in 1779 to Sweden; succeeded Linnaeus in 1781 as Professor of Botany at the University of Upsala. His principal works are Flora Japonica (1784); Prodromus Plautarum Oapeusium (1794-1800) ; Icoues Plautarum Japouicarum (1794-1805) ; Flora Capeusis (1807-13); and Resa uti Europa, Africa och Asia (4 vols., 1788-93). D. near Upsala, Aug. 8, 1828. C. E. B. Thunder: a rumbling or crashing noise heard after vivid flashes of lightning. Intense electrical discharges in the atmosphere, whether from cloud to cloud, from cloud to earth, or from cloud to cloud and then to earth, are fol- lowed after an appreciable interval by the sound which, on a small scale, is represented by the snap and crackle of an artificial electric discharge. The origin of the sound is in the violent sudden increase in volume of the air along the path of discharge. The exceedingly high temperature, suificient to make the air-column incandescent, causes tre- mendously rapid expansion and motion of the air. P. G. Tait shows that “such a sound-wave must at first be of the nature of a bore or breaker. But as such a state of motion is unstable after proceeding a moderate distance, the sound becomes analogous to other loud but less violent sounds, such as those of the discharge of guns.” Calculations have been made showing that if a cannon-ball could have im- parted to it a velocity of 100,000 meters per second we should hear something like the rumble of thunder instead of a whist- ling noise. Inasmuch as lightning flashes are of very vari- able dimensions, and as cloud-masses are also variable, and the air itself is of different density and purity at different times, all manner of sounds are produced, from the sharp crash to the prolonged rumble. As the sound-waves may be variously reflected, the original thunder-peal may be re- enforced, and, on the contrary, it may even happen that be- cause of interference a sound which if free would have been loud maybe deadened. The column of air thus suddenly heated and producing sound-waves may be several miles in length, though recent estimates make the length of the av- erage flash of lightning considerably below this. The be- ginning of the thunder may be ordinarily taken to deter- mine the nearest point of “ break—down” (or lightning) in the air and the duration of the thunder the length of the flash. Thunder may be heard from a great distance, but not so far as some artificial noises have been heard. J. J. Sym- THURBER ons has run to earth a number of so-called thunder-bolts, and concludes that the belief iii the fall of material sub- stances during thunder-storms is merely the survival of the belief in mythical bolts of irate Jupiter. Belemnites fre- quently preserved as thunder-bolts are really fossils. Some- times aerolites and meteorites fall during thunder-showers, but there is no necessary relation between them. Fulgurites or lightning-tubes are found where heavy lightning pene- trates into a bed of sand containing silex. The sand for a depth of several feet is fused into a glassy tube.‘ Many of these have been dug out in good preservation, and good specimens are to be seen in museums. A. MCADIE. Tllunder-storlllz a small short-lived local storm named from the intense electric phenomena which usually ac- company it, but which are probably rather a result than a cause. These storms favor warm latitudes, the warm sea- son, and the warm hours of the day. They are often ac- companied by a peculiar form of cumulus-cloud called thunder-head, and many are preceded by a short rush of wind outward, accompanied by a slight but shar rise in the barometer, and followed by cooler weather, a c lange of wind, and higher pressure. Others seem to have a well-de- veloped but small system of cyclonic winds. The rain which accompanies them is usually intense and the first drops are very large. It sometimes passes into hail. Thun- der-storms differ much in intensity, and under this name are probably included phenomena of very different char- acter. The classification is imperfect, but the best is the genetic one, according to which we have: (1) Stationary solitary thunder-storms, when in favorable topography a cumulus-cloud on a hot afternoon grows black below and begins to move only after the rain from it has begun. This type is the commonest in the tropics, where it gives most of the rainfall, occurs most frequently in hilly and mountain- ous regions in the temperate zone, may be very intense among mountains, especially in the arid regions, but shows no relations to “ highs” and “lows.” (2) Sporaolic thun- der-storms when over a large area, covering perhaps a mid- dle-sized State, a storm crops up here and there, especially in the warmer hours, travels eastward for a few hours, and then disappears. The critical area is a few hundred miles S. E., S., or W. of a “low,” forms in the morning, be- comes best developed in the afternoon, and disappears at night to reform the next day, if favorable, as far in advance of the preceding day as the “low” has traveled in the in- terval. This is a common condition in midsummer in the U. S., and the individual storms are dependent on topog- raphy. (3) Deployiug thunder-storms, those which travel in a rank in a straight or curved line, sometimes radiating from a point and covering a fan-shaped area. These are always a few hundred miles S. E. or S. of a “low,” are gen- erally more intense and longer lived than the preceding, and are independent of the lesser elements of topography. They are common in the U. S. and Europe, and may pass into hail-storms, thunder-squalls, or tornadoes. (4) Winter thunder-storms, the only ones that belong to the cold season. They are isolated, generally intense, often destructive, longer lived, and are rare in the U. S. They are essentially north- ern, nocturnal, and oceanic. l\fARK W. HARRINGTON. Thun (toon), Lake 0f: a body of water in the canton of Berne, Switzerland, at an elevation of 1,837 feet above the level of the sea; 10 miles long and 2 miles broad. On its eastern shore stands Interlaken, and beyond its northwestern shore—on the Aar, about a mile from its exit from the lake- the town of Thun. Both these towns are visited every sum- mer by a great number of tourists. Steamers ply on the lake. Thurber, CHARLES HERBERT, A. M.: educator; b. at Owego, N. Y., Mar. 24, 1864; graduated at Cornell Univer- sity in 1886; registrar of Cornell University 1886-88; taught in the Haverford College grammar school 1888-90; traveled and studied in France and Germany 1887, 1889, and 1890-91 ; during 1890-91 was also a special agent of the U. S. Bureau of Education; instructor in French, Cornell University, from 1891 to 1893, when he became principal of Colgate Academy and Professor of Pedagogy in Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. In 1895 he was appointed Associate Professor of Pedagogy in the University of Chi- cago, and Dean of the Morgan Park Academy. He has been editor of The School Review since 1893, is author of nu- merous magazine articles, and of The Hi_c]her Schools of Prussia and the School Conference of 1890 (in Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1889-90), and edited Gherardi del Testa’s L’ Oro e Z’Orpello (Boston, 1893). TH URBER Thurber, GEORGE, A. M., M. D.: botanist; b. in Provi- dence, R. I., Sept. 2, 1821; educated in the Union Classical and Engineering School in Providence; botanist to the U. S. Mexican boundary commission 1850, the collections resulting in Plantce Novce Thnrbem'cmce, by Dr. Gray; lec- turer on botany in the New York College of Pharmacy 1856-57; Professor of Botany and Horticulture in the Mich- igan Agricultural College 1859-63; editor of The American Agm'cuZtmn‘st 1863-90. He revised Darlington’s Agm_enZ- twml Botany, bringing it out under the title of A’/nemean Weeds and Useful Plants (1859); wrote the botanical arti- cles for Appletons’ Arneriean C‘?/clopcedia (1876-80) ; besides many papers in scientific journals and the proceedmgs of societies. D. at Passaic, N. J .. Apr. 2, 1890. CHARLES E. BESSEY. Thurgau, toor'gow: canton of Switzerland; bordering N. on the Rhine and the Lake of Constance. Area, 381 sq. miles. The surface is undulating, but not mountainous, ex- cept in the southernmost districts. The soil is very fertile and agriculture is the main industry pursued; several cot- ton and linen spinning and weaving factories are in oper- ation. Pop. (1888) 104,678, of whom 70'7 per cent. are Prot- estants. Capital, Frauenfeld. Thu’rible, or Censer [thnmble is from Lat. thnm"bnZnm, censer, deriv. of thus (or ins), thn’rz's, incense; censer is shortened from incenser, via O. Fr. from Late Lat. incen- sartnm, deriv. of e'ncen’sum, incense, deriv. of e'ncen’cZere, z'neen’snm, kindle, burn]: a vessel of silver suspended by four short chains, used in the services of certain churches. It is charged with burning charcoal, upon which incense is placed. The thurible is borne by an acolyte called the thurifer. See CENSER. Thiiringerwald, tii’ring-er-va”alt [Germ.. Thu ringian For- est] : a picturesque mountain range in Central Germany, extending along the right bank of the “Terra, from the influx of the Hdrsel, for about 60 miles, and joining the Franconian Forest in Northern Bavaria. Its highest point is Schneekopf, 3,460 feet high. It is covered with pine for- ests, and consists mostly of granite, porphyry, and slate, in- ters versed with rich veins of iron ore. It forms the south- ern oundary of THURINGIA (q. 11.). Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tlmrin'gia (Germ. T7z.ib2~zngen): the general name for that region of Central Germany which lies between the Hartz and the Thuringian Forest, the Saale, and the Werra, and which comprises parts of the Prussian province of Saxony and the Saxon duchies. The name originated from the Thuringii, who settled here, but since the fifteenth century it has had no definite political signification. Thurles, therlz: town ; in the county of Tipperary, Mun- ster, Ireland ; on the Suir ; 46 miles E. of Limerick (see map of Ireland, ref. 11- L). It has a Roman Catholic college, an establishment of Christian Brothers, two convents, a hand- some cathedral, and carries on an active general trade. Pop. about 4,850. Thurlow, EDWARD B.: lawyer and politician; b. at Bra- con-Ash, Norfolk, England, in 1732; entered Cambridge Uni- versity, but was compelled to withdraw for an act of dis- courtesy; entered the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar in 1754; established a reputation for ability and deter- mination. He entered politics, and after some vacillation sided with the Tory party, holding numerous offices, becom- ing Lord Chancellor in 1778, and taking his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Thurlow of Ashfield. He was averse to constitutional and economic reforms, and opposed violently the interests of the American colonies, as well as any attempt at suppression of the slave-trade. He lent only an insincere support to his party from 1788 to 1792, and in the last-men: tioned year he was at the instance of Pitt (one of whose measures he had captiously but violently opposed) dismissed from the office of Lord Chancellor, which he had again taken in 1783 when Pitt took oifice. Having been a few days be- fore made Baron Thurlow of Thurlow, he retired to private life, and died at Brighton, Sept. 14, 1806, without again ac- quiring any decided influence in politics. F. STURGES ALLEN. Thurman, ALLEN GR-ANBERY : lawyer ; b. at Lynch- burg, Va., Nov. 13, 1813 ; removed to Ohio in 1819 ; re- ceived an academic education ; studied law, and was admit- ted to the bar in 1835; was elected to Congress in 1844; elected judge of the Supreme Court of Ohio in 1851; was chief justice from 1854 to 1856; unsuccessful Democratic THURSTON 143 candidate for Governor of Ohio in 1867; succeeded Benja- min F. Wade in the U. S. Senate Mar. 4, 1869, and served till Mar. 3, 1881 ; was prominent among the candidates for the Democratic nomination for President in 1876, and in 1888 was defeated as Democratic candidate for Vice-Presi- dent of the U. S. Thurneysen, toor’ni-sen, EDUARD Renown: compara- tive philologist; b. at Basel, Switzerland, Mar. 14, 1857; studied at the Universities of Basel, Leipzig, and Berlin; privat docent, and later assistant Professor of Romanic Phil- ology, at Jena 1882-87; since 1887 Professor of Compara- tive Philology at Freiburg im Breisgau. His unusually complete command of the scientific detail of three provinces of Indo-European philology, namely, Romanic philology, Italic philology, and Celtic, coupled with a quick, fine in- sight into the historical mechanism of language, assigns him a prominent and fairly unique place among the au- thorities in the field of Italo-Celtic philology. He is the author of Ueber lfferlcunft /and Bz'Zdnng clcr Zateiniseizeoz Verba auf -2'0 (1879) : Das Verbnnz étre /and die franzds. Con- jugatto-n (188.2): Keltoronwniscizes (1884); Der Saim-ne'er and sein Ve/rhciltniss znm spdteren r6mz'sehen Volksrerse (1885); ill'z'tielz'm'selze Ve'rsZeh'ren, in VVindisch’s Iriscize Texte, iii. (1891); also articles in l(u7zn’s Zeifschrift and the Revue CeZz‘z'gue. BENJ. IDE WHEELER. Thurn 11nd Taxis, toorn’oont-taaks’is : the name of a no- ble family of the German empire, famous for its former pos- session of a monopoly of the postal service. It is descended from the della Torre (whence the name Thurn, a German translation of Torre), one of whom took the name de Tassis (Taxis) from the castle of Tasso. In 1516 Franz von Thurn established the first post between Vienna and Brussels, and in 1595 his descendant became ostmaster-general of the empire, securing for himself and 1is heirs the right of car- rying the mail throughout the imperial dominions. A cen- tury later the princely rank became hereditary in the fami- ly, but the postal privileges were gradually curtailed by the difierent governments, which granted extensive territories in compensation. The family has hereditary possessions in Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, \Viirtemberg. and Prussia. The last of these states arranged with the family for the abo- lition of the monopoly in 1867. F. M. COLBY. Tllursby, EMMA: concert-singer; b. in Brooklyn, N. Y., Nov. 17, 1857; studied under local teachers and in 1873 at Milan under Lamperti, and finally in New York under Ma- dame Rudersdorft‘; made a tour of the U. S. and Canada in 1875 ; first appeared in England May 22, 1878, at a Phil- harmonic Society concert; in 1879 sang in Paris; and in 1880-81 made an extended concert tour through Europe, everywhere with great success. Her voice is a rich and high soprano, ranging to E fiat in alt. Tllursday [M. Eng. T7zm'sde'zT, ]porsday (by anal. of Icel. ])5rscZagr), for earlier Thnnres daei < O. Eng. lannres clmg, Thunder’s (or Thor’s) day. See THOR]: the fifth day of the week. The later Roman pagans adopted the week of seven days and named the fifth day Jam's dies, J ove’s day; the name Thursday originated as a translation of this. Thurston, ROBERT HENRY, LL. D., Dr. Eng.: mechanical engineer, inventor, educator, and author; b. in Providence, R. I., Oct. 25. 1839. During childhood and youth he spent much time in the workshops of his father’s establishment, then devoted especially to the building of steam—engines. He graduated at Brown University in 1859 with the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy, and immediately entered the works of his father’s firm, spending some time as a designing engineer. In 1861 he joined the Engineer Corps of the U. S. navy, serving in Dupont‘s and Dahlgren‘s fleets throughout the war; was made engineer-in-charge of the Chippewa in 1863 when a second assistant engineer, and was later trans- ferred to the Dictator iron-clad, and commissioned first as- sistant in 1864. He\served as a Professor of Natural Philos- ophy in the U. S. Naval Academy from Jan. 1, 1866, to June, 1871, when he became Professor of Engineering at Stevens Institute of Technology, resigning in 1885 to assume the di- rcctorship of the Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering in Cornell University, where he still (1895) remains. Under his administration this college has grown in size and effi- ciency, and now has over 500 students and an equipment valued at nearly half a million dollars. He has been em- ployed on many Government commissions, as the U. S. sci- entific commission to the Vienna International Exhibition (1873); to Paris (1889); the U. S. commission to investigate 144 THYATIRA the causes of boiler explosions (1875); U. S. commission to test iron, steel, and other metals (1875-88) ; U. S. commission on safe and bank-vault construction (1891); U. S. board to report on best construction of iron-clad Puritan, etc. _He 1S a member of a number of American and European societies, has been first president of the American Society of Mechan- ical Engineers, and three times vice-president of the Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science. He has designed engines, boilers, and many kinds of machinery, and has written many treatises, among which are his IlIan- ual of the Steam Engine (2 vols., 1890-91); Illanual of Steam Boilers (1890); Engine and Boiler Trials (1890); History of the Steam-engine (1878) ; IVIatemals of Engineer- ing (3 vols., 1882-86). He has published over 250 papers, mainly on professional subjects. He translated Carnot s Re- fleasions sur la Puissance motrice du Fea, the basis of the modern science of thermodynamics, and edited the reports of the U. S. scientific commission to the Vienna Interna- tional Exhibition of 1873 (4 vols. 8vo, 1874-75), lns own re- port constituting the third volume. He has invented mag- nesium-burning lamps, army and navy signal apparatus, various forms of testing-machines for iron and other metals and to ascertain the quality of lubricants, some nnpro_ve- mcnts on the steam-engine, and scientific and engineering apparatus. He has performed much work in scientific re- search and in the investigation of engineering problems; his determination of the useful qualities of the alloys of copper and tin, of copper and zinc, and the ternary alloys of_the three metals; his studies of boiler-explosions; his examina- tion with his own apparatus of the laws of friction and of lubrication, as published in his Friction and Lost lVorh; his investigations of the laws of variation of engme-wastes_of heat and power ; and his studies in the field of commercial economy of steam-engines, are among the best known. He organized in 1872-73 the first laboratory for research in the applied sciences of engineering in the U. S. When organiz- ing Sibley College he made this a separate and prominent department of the institution. Thyatira: See AK-HISSAR. Thy’ ine Wood [thyine is from Gr. 6621/as, deriv. of 66cm, sacrifice] : a kind of wood mentioned in the Bible; probably the arar or sandarach wood, the wood of Callitris guadrwal- ois, a large tree of Barbary. This tree affordsthe resin called gum sandarach, and its timber is considered imperishable by the Turks, who floor their mosques with its planks. Thylacine: See 'I‘ASMANIAN WOLF and THYLACINIDZE. Thylacin'idee, or I)asyu’ridee [Thylacinidce is Mod. Lat, named from Gr. Thyla’cinus, the typical genus, from Gr. 61"/ME, 6b?wmos, sack, pouch (perh. with similation in the last syllable of Gr. icbwv, xv:/cis, dog); Dasyumdoe is Mod. Lat., iianicd from Dasyu'rus, another genus; Gr. oamis, shaggy-P obpd, tail]: a family of mammals of the order Jlfarsupialia and sub-order Dasyuromorpha, including the chief carniv- orous mammals of Australasia. The form varies in the sev- eral genera, the larger species much resemblmga dog ex- ternally, others an opossum, and the small species simulating a mouse in appearance, although anatomically they differ but little from each other. The snout is like that of a dog or acutely pointed; the ears moderate or large; the tail is generally more or less long, and the feet have separate toes, four or five in number. The teeth are well developed, and simulate those of the placental carnivores (dogs, etc.), and are in considerable number; there is no such distinction between molars and premolars as in placental carnivores, only the last premolars having deciduous predecessors; the premolars are compressed, conical; the canmcs gcnerally_welkdevel- oped and typical in form, and the incisors cylindroid and curved, and moderate or rather large. The skull superfi- cially has much resemblance to that of a dog, but is ‘of course radically difieren t. and exhibits the typical marsupial modifications of the mammalian skeleton, and the small size of the cerebral cavity is indicated externally by the absence of inflation; the palate has a pair of large longit-udmal_ va- ciiities between the true molar teeth of the respective sides. The stomach is simple, and there is no. intestinal caecum. The family is peculiar to the Australasian region, and its representatives there take the place in theecono_m y of nature held by the placental carnivores and insectivores in other parts of the world. The species are numerous. See TASMANIAN DEVIL and TAsMAiviAiv WOLF. Revised by F. A. LUOAS. Thyme [from O. Fr. thym < Lat. t_hy’mum : Gr. 6b,uou, thyme; cf. Bbew, to sacrifice, and 9603, mcense]: any one of THYSAN URA certain labiate half-shrubby plants of the genus Thymus. None is indigenous to America. Two kinds are cultivated in gardens, the common, T. uulgaris, and the lemon-scented, a variety of T. serpyllum or wild thyme. Both afford good bee-pasture. The leaves are used for flavoring soups and forcemeats; the volatile oil is sold for oil of origanum, which it closely resembles. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Thyme, Oil of : a volatile oil obtained by the distillation of the common thyme (Thymus oulgaris) with water. It usually is brownish red and has a thickish consistency, al- though when freshly prepared it is nearly colorless and is mobile. It possesses a pleasant pungent odor and an aro- matic taste, has a specific gravity of about 0'9, and is but slightly soluble in water, although it dissolves in alcohol and in ether. Oil of thyme contains two hydrocarbons, a terpene (C101-I16) and cymene (C10H14),and a phenol, THYMOL (g. 1).). These compounds are separated by submitting the Oil to fractional distillation. When oil of thyme is distilled with a mixture of 8 parts of chlorinated lime and 24 parts of water, chloroform is formed. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Thym’ol, also called Thymyl'ic Hydrate, Thymylic Alcohol, and Thymylic Acid [thymol is deriv. of thyme]: a homologue of phenol and an isomer of cymylic alcohol; formula, C1oH14O. It is obtained from the oil of thyme (see 'I‘PiYi\iE. OIL OF), of which it is the oxygenated camphor or stearoptene, by distillation. Thymol forms crystalline rhom- boidal plates that have a weak odor and a peppery taste. It fuses at about 111° F. to a colorless liquid which has a boiling-point of 446° E, and dissolves with difficulty in water, but easily in alcohol and in ether. By the action of chlorine, bromine, and nitric acid upon thymol, series of derivatives are formed. Thy'mus Gland [thymus is Mod. Lat., from Gr. 6b,u.os, a warty excrescence (so called from its resemblance to a bunch of thyine-6t,u.os), the thymus gland in the chest of young animals] : a ductless gland, with no known function, located in the neck below the thyroid gland, and in the chest be- neath the sternum, in the mediastinal space, as low as the fourth costal cartilage. It develops at the third month of foetal life, weighs 4 oz. at birth, and grows until the second year, attaining a length of 2 inches. Thereafter it atro- phies, and at the fourteenth or sixteenth year is obliterated, or its site marked only by a few fibers and a small depo- sition of fat. It has abundant blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, but endless research has failed to disclose posi- tively its use in either the foetal state or during childhood, though many investigators are of the opinion that the gland is connected with manufacture of blood in foetal life. The thymus of calves and lambs is called sweetbread, or neck- sweetbread. Revised by W. PEPPER. Thy’ roid Gland [thyroid, more properly thyreoid. froin Gr. evpeoeioiqs, shield-shaped: Ovpeds, a large oblong shield (deriv. of Obpa, door) + ei'6os, appearance, form : a glandular structure consisting of two lateral lobes, wit a connecting band or isthmus, situated on the anterior surface of the neck and attached to the sides of the larynx. The gland moves with the larynx in respiration and deglutition. The isthmus bridges across from the lower or basic portion of the lobules, and covers in its transit the front of the second and third tracheal rings. By this relation and its great vascularity it has an important surgical relation to the op- eration of tracheotomy. It has an external fibrous coat, which gives off numerous internal partitions and bands, so that the gland consists of communicating cavities like a sponge. The thyroid gland is ductless, and its functions are obscure. Very probably it aids in the manufacture of blood in foetal life, and after birth it would seem to have certain functions connected with the animal chemistry. Its removal or disease occasions peculiar metamorphosis of the subcutaneous tissues, known as myxoedema. The thyroid gland is the seat of goiter. Revised by W. PEPPER. Thysanop'tera [from Gr. Gboavos, fringe + nrepdv, wing] : a synonym of the group Physopoda, given in allusion to the fringe of hairs on the wings. See ENTOMOLOGY. Thysanu'ra [Mod. La-t.; from Gr. Gboavos, fringe + ofipd, tail] : minute wingless insects of considerable interest, since they retain some primitive hexapodan features. (See EN- TOMOLOGY.) Thus among the Cinara, Campodea shows the three portions of the thorax distinctly, while on the ven- tral surface of the abdomen are sac-like organs comparable to coxal sacs and on the first abdominal segment a pair of bud-like legs, thus indicating a former polypodal condition. TI Respiration is carried on by traeheae and by these ventral sacs, or, where trachea: and sacs are wanting, as in lsostoma, through the skin. In the Collembola, which with the Uinura composes the order, the end of the abdomen is furnished with a pair of stylets. These are bent under the body with the tip of the abdomen, and held by a pair of processes on the first abdominal segment. The apparatus serves as a spring, and has given rise to the popular name of springtails. In the Cinura the terminal processes may be developed into a pair of forceps, as in Iapya, or be very long or filamentous- as is usually the case. In some forms there may be as many as seven of these filaments. The body is in some forms cov- ered with many delicately marked scales of much interest to amateur microscopists. The Thysanura are found every- where, in moist earth, under stones, logs, in cellars—-where- ver, in fact, decaying vegetation occurs. One species is found on the snow of the Alps; other forms are even found on float- ing objects at sea or near shore on seaweeds. One form, popularly known as the silver-fish (Lepisma), occurs in old libraries, where it often does considerable damage by eating the paste of the binding of books. It also devours the siz- ing of the paper, destroying thus the printed matter. See Lubbock, Jllonograph of the Collembola and Thysanura; A. S. Packard, Synopsis of the Thysanura of Essex County; T. J. Oudemanns, Beitrotye zur Jfenntniss der Thysanuren uncl Oollembola. F. C. KENYON. Ti [:native (Polynesian) name]: a liliaceous tree-like plant of the genus Comlyline, found in the Pacific islands and in parts of Asia. Its leaves afford roofing for houses, food for cattle, and fiber for cloth. The sap yields sugar and a stimulating drink, while the roots, when baked, afford a valuable supply of food. Tia’ ra [: Gr. notpa, a Persian head-dress]: the papal crown, consisting of a ca of cloth of gold, encircled by three golden coronets, and surmounted by a mound and cross of gold. It is considered symbolical of the pope’s temporal authority. Tiahuana’ co : See INCAN ANTIQUITIES. Tiber [from Lat. Tiberis, Tiber; Ital. Tevere]: river of Italy, passing through Rome, the largest stream of the peninsula proper; rises in Mt. Fumaiolo, Tuscany, at an elevation of 3,830 feet, flows in a southerly direction, and empties into the Mediterranean 22 miles below Home ; length, 260 miles : area of basin, 6,225 sq. miles; breadth at Rome, 250 feet. The princi al affluent is the Nera, which descends from the Sibylline l\ ountains, and enters on the left about 100 miles from the mouth; above it and on the same side en- ters the Clitunno (Clitumnus), praised by the Latin poets, and below the Anio. On the right the most important af- fluent is the Chiana, which is connected by canal with the Arno. The Tiber is navigable for small steamers to the mouth of the Nera, and for larger ones to Rome. The river delivers at the mouth on the average 10,250 cubic feet of water a second, but in the highest floods this may amount to 60,000 cubic feet, and in lowest water is only 5,650 cubic feet. The floods of the Tiber have been formidable from the foundation of Rome, not only for their height, but for their suddenness and for the large amount of sediment car- ried. The Romans called the river flavus because of the yellow clay it carries. This has gradually extended the delta of the Tiber until the ancient port Ostia is now 4 miles inland and the port of Trajan is a marsh. The growth at the southern or principal mouth for the last 800 years has been 10 feet a year. At the northern mouth it is about a third as much. The branches to the two months embrace the ancient Sacred Isle, dedicated to Venus, now marshy and very unhcalthful. Between Rome and the sea the Tiber is practically an estuary, and the navigation of this was ap- parently easier in ancient times than now. MARK W. HARRINGTON. Tiberias, Lake of : See GENNESARET, LAKE OF. Tibe/rius (full name Tiberius Claudius Nero Cresar)z Roman emperor 14-37 A. D.; b. Nov. 16, 42 B. c. ; a son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. In 38 B. C. Livia was divorced from Claudius and married to Augustus, who thus became the step-father of Tiberius. Tiberius was large and strong of body, with handsome features, a man of sim- ple habits and reserved manners, not altogether without lit- erary taste, and with a decided aptitude for military affairs. He commanded successively in Cantabria, Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and Germany, and finished the wars promptly and with honor. From Germany, where he commanded after the TIBET 14:5 death of his brother Drusus, he returned in 7 B. c. to Rome. celebrated his second triumph, was chosen consul for the sec- ond time, and was the following year invested with the po- testas tribunitia for five years. His relations with Augustus soon became strained. He had divorced his wife Vipsania Agrippina at the emperor’s command and married Julia, the dissolute daughter of Augustus; and, disgusted by J ulia’s conduct, he withdrew to Rhodes, where he spent seven years in exile. By his mother’s exertions he was recalled to the court in 2 A. D., and in 4, all the male heirs of Augustus hav- ing died, he was adopted by the emperor and appointed his successor. The next ten years he spent mostly in wars on the northern frontier, and on the death of Augustus in 14 he succeeded to the throne. Except in the transfer of elec- tions from the people to the senate, Tiberius made no note- worthy change in the system of government instituted by Augustus. As an administrator he showed an earnest desire to correct abuses and to secure the welfare of all parts of the empire. The northern and eastern frontiers were strength- ened, strict discipline was enforced in the army, and consid- erable improvement was made in the government of the provinces, where Tiberius was always popular. Drusus, the son and heir of Tiberius. was poisoned in 23 by his wife at the instigation of Sejanus, the pretorian prefect, who di- vorced his own wife to marry the m urderess. Sej anus also in- duced Tiberius to banish the widow and sons of his brother Germanicus, the remaining heirs, and aspired to succeed to the throne himself. Always sensitive and distrustful, Tibe- rius was now morbidly suspicious and apprehensive, and in 26 retired to the island of Capri, intrusting the government to Sejanus, whose rule was almost absolute. Finally, how- ever, in 31, he suspected Sejanus, and gave orders to have him executed. Tiberius, however, remained at Capri, placing the management of affairs in the hands of Macro, Seja-nus’s successor as pretorian prefect. During all his later years the class of private informers (clelatores) was encouraged, and condemnations for treason became more and more com- mon. The last six years of his rule seem to have been a real reign of terror. Tiberius died at Misenum, Mar. 16, 3'7. The common view which represents Tiberius as a monster of vice and cruelty rests chiefly upon the authority of the historian Tacitus, a bitter critic of the imperial system. Re- cently there has been a growing tendency among scholars to question this estimate of Tiberius, or at least to limit it to the closing years of his life, when as " an old man of seventy, broken in body and spirit, betrayed, disappointed. morbidly brooding in solitude upon his wretchedness,” he may have allowed the bad elements in his character to gain control. C. H. HAsx1Ns. Tibesti, te”e-bes-tee’ (the Arab name; the native name is Tou): country of the Sahara, about. Mt. Tarso, between the parallels 18° and 22° N. and the meridians 15° and 18° E. Area about 60,000 sq. miles. occupied by Tibbus, numbering 12,000 according to the estimates of the traveler Nachtigal. It is a mountainous country, bare, infertile. and arid. but favored with summer rains. The population is tribal and nomadic, depending chiefly on the domestic animals, con- sisting of camels, asses, goats, and sheep. The flora is poor, but the fauna includes the dog-faced baboon, the hyzena, jackal, fox, gazelle, antelope, and many birds and insects. The ostrich was formerly common, but has nearly disap- peared. MARK W. HARRINGTON. Tibet (called by the natives Bod or Bodyul, and Bhot and Bhotiya in India): the high and massive table-land, but- tressed on the N. by the Kuen-lun or Kulkun and Altyn Tagh ranges, which mark a sudden descent to the deserts of Ea stern Turkestan and Gobi, and on the S. by the Himalayan range and the northern portion of British India (see map of China, ref. 5-C). It is one of the least-known countries of the world. Its area (651,500 sq. miles) can only be vaguely estimated, vast portions are as yet unexplored, and present geographical knowledge is based solely on the Jesuit survey (1708-18), and on the route surveys of a score or so of European trav- elers and trained Indian observers. Physical Features, Productions, Fauna. etc.—The dip and drainage of the Tibetan plateau is generally ea_st- ward, so the highest part of this vast laeustrine plateau is the western, where it adjoins the British feudatory state of Kashmir. Herc its mean level is from 16,000 to 17,000 feet above sea-level, and in the southwest angle thereof there spring three great rivers, the Sutlej. Indus, and Sanpur. which burst through the Himalayan chain at different points on their way to the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, 407 146 The last of these three rivers flows through Great or South- ern Tibet in a generally easterly direction for nearly 1,000 miles before it turns abruptly southward, and, piercing the Himalayas, emerges into British territory, where it as- sumes the name of Brahmaputra. A large belt of country N. of and parallel to the valley of the Brahmaputra is drained by another river which connects a chain of lakes and flows away to the E. It is believed to be the upper course of the Salwen, but the view is contested by some au- thorities, and the determination of this point, as well as of the precise sources of the Salwen, is an interesting geo- graphical problem that awaits solution. In Northern and Eastern Tibet, again, lie the sources of the Mekong or Cam- bodia river and those of the great Yang-tse-kiang and Hwang-ho of China. The lower courses of the Sanpur or Brahmaputra and Salwen drain the most populous part of Tibet; most of the remainder of the country, being too bleak and unproductive to support life, is either totally un- inhabited or else tenanted by bands of nomad Turk and Mongol tribes; the Tangla plateau, however, N. of Lhasa, and no doubt other parts of the country, affords luxurious pasture to antelopes and other game. An interesting analogy between the Andes and the Hima- layas was perceived by \Varren Hastings, India’s first gov- ernor-general, and has been elaborated by C. R. Markham, C. B., president of the Royal Geographical Society (1895), in his work Boyle and 1li[anning. Both the mountain masses of the Old and New World consist of three parallel chains; in both great rivers rise in the inner chain and force their way through the other two, while smaller rivers rise in the central cordillera and after lateral courses force their way through the outer chain. In both Peru and Tibet the staple product is wool, conveyed through numerous passes by the llamas and sheep used as beasts of burden. The chief mineral products of Tibet are gold, silver, salt, and borax ; the metals first named are fairly plentiful, but the jealousy of the lamas against foreign intrusion prevents any systematic working and export thereof, though gold mines exist at Thok-Jalung (32° 24’ 26" N. and 81° 87’ 38” E. of Greenwich) and in the northwest of the country. Among the principal domesticated animals are sheep, horses, yaks, and mastifis, while the wild fauna comprise bears, antelopes, musk-deer, and wild asses, and on the ex- treme northern confines of the table-land wild camels are occasionally found. CZimate.—The climate, as might be inferred from the ex- cessive altitude, is of Arctic rigor, and only the hardier cereals can be raised in the valleys, though in the E., where the streams enter upon a lower level, the vegetation becomes rather more assimilated to that of the contiguous quasi- tropical regions of Assam, Bhutan, and Western China. Inhabitants.—The inhabitants of Tibet, about three and a half to four millions in number, belong to the great Mon- golian family, and are described by the Abbé Huc (whose Souvenirs, dating from 1852, furnishes still a most graphic and intelligible picture of Tibetan life) as a people with small, contracted black eyes, thin beard, high cheek-bones, fiat noses, wide mouths, and thin lips. The skins of the upper classes are as white as those of the Europeans, but the ordinary complexion is tawny. They are of middle height and combine agility and suppleness with force and vigor. They are said to be brave in war, though the inferiority of their weapons and ignorance of the art of war placed them at an enormous disadvantage in the Sikkim war with Great Britain, the last hostilities in which they were engaged. Literature and Religion.—The literature is vast, including all the Buddhist canon of scripture, translated from the San- skrit, the Tripitalaa, or three baskets of precepts and other works, one list of which has been given by Csoma de Ktirtis, the Hungarian scholar. The art of printing by means of engraved wooden blocks has been known to the Tibetans for many centuries. Traces of the old religion called Ben or Pen still linger in the eastern province of Kam. It ap- pears to have been a worship of the powers of nature. Bud- dhism seems to have reached Tibet about the beginning of the seventh century, from both China and India. (See Lannusm.) The history of its development is full of inter- est, and at present the numerous hierarchy of Tibet plays the foremost part in national politics, besides supplying the educational requirements of the country, so far as any pro- vision may be said to be made for the same. Political Divisions and G0’ve1"nme')it.—Politically, Tibet is divided into four great provinces called Kam, U, Tsang, and Ari. The first named is in the E., and adjoins the Chinese TIBET province of Szechuen ; Ari is the mountainous region W. of the Mariam-la Pass, including Ladak; while U and Tsang or Utsang form Central or Great Tibet. and practically co- incide with the basin of the Brahmaputra river. Here are found the capital or sacred city of Lhasa and other impor- tant towns, besides the greater monasteries. Tibet is politically subject to China, but the enormous distance and difficulties of communication have naturally made the country more or less independent of the suzerain power. The visible sign of Celestial supremacy is the pres- ence of the two Chinese ambans or residents, with their military guard, at the capital. Appointments to the first olfices in the state are bestowed by the emperor, and in all measures of consequence reference is made to the court of Peking, but the internal government of the country is in- trusted entirely to natives, the executive administration be- ing in the hands of a regent and four ministers or council- ors called kahlons. The governors of forts and provinces are appointed by these, and the revenue is collected by offi- cers sent annually from Lhasa. The Dalai lama on attain- ing full age has in times past been invested with supreme authority by the Emperor of China, but for some years all the grand lamas have died in infancy, a circumstance that sheds a significant light on the methods resorted to by those who wish to keep the power in their own hands. The position of the grand lamas has been thus very similar to that of the popes of Rome, and the analogy is still more observable in the tenets and rites of the Roman Catholic and Tibetan religions, between which there is a striking similarity; this is probably due to the early Capuchin mis- sionaries who settled in Lhasa having introduced a knowl- edge of Catholic observances. The gylongs (monks) and annis (nuns) are found in huge monasteries presided over by abbots and scattered all over the kingdom, and indirectly possess much influence; the actual executive authority is, however, vested in jongpons, or district oflicers, under the supervision of the provincial governors. Trade and Commerce.—Lhasa, the capital, is the great central mart, and thither traders repair from China with silks, carpets, and hardware; from Mongolia come leather, saddlery, sheep, and horses; from Kam come perfumes; from Szechuen, tea; from Tawang, Bhutan, and Sikkim, rice and tobacco; from Nepal, broadcloth, silk, indigo, coral, pearls, sugar, spices, and Indian manufactures, while the latter, with saffron, also enter by way of Kashmir and Ladak. ’I‘-he merchants come in December and leave in March, be- fore the rivers become flooded, having provided themselves with silver and gold, salt, wool, woolen manufactures, furs, drugs, and musk. By the Nepal and Ladak routes Tibet exports large quantities of yaks’ tails, borax, gold, silver, and ponies. The great and inexhaustible staple of the country is wool, a remarkably fine quality of which can be largely produced on its vast plains and mountain-slopes. But for this trade it is essential that intercourse with India should be thrown open and all the passes through the Himalayas made free to trafiic, the live stock, which constitute the chief beasts of burden, requiring a large area of pasturage for their sup- port. Warren Hastings made wise and strenuous efforts to establish regular commercial intercourse between the two countries, but through neglect his policy was not continued ; the passes to the S. were sealed up, and it was not until after repeated efforts to remove the restrictions that a treaty be- tween China and Great Britain was negotiated in 1893, providing for the establishment of a trade mart at Yatung in the Chumbi valley. This arrangement was practically forced upon the Tibetans after their invasion of British Sikkim had been forcibly repulsed. But the military vic- tory was not followed up, the Tibetans were not much im- pressed, and the latest information is that the treaty, in consequence of the lama jealousy of foreigners, has prac- tically become a dead letter. The importance, however, of finding a Tibetan market for Indian tea makes it unlikely that the British will submit to be thus rebuffed; tea is a prime necessary of life in Tibet. and its eventual introduc- tion into the country and the complete opening up of the land to Western civilization and trade can be only a matter of time. History.-—Tl1e early history of Tibet is naturally obscure. It is said that a native king established the seat of govern- ment at Lhasa in 617 A. D. ; that he married a Chinese prin- cess of the Buddhist faith; and that he sent his minister to India, who returned with the Buddhist canonical scriptures, framed the Tibetan alphabet from the Devanagari of India, and commenced the translation of the canon from Sanskrit TIBET into the language of the country. For a long time there was a struggle for supremacy between the old nobility and the new hierarchy, in which, after several vicissitudes, the Buddhist monks gained the asccndency. It was during this early period of Buddhist rule in Tibet that the first Euro- pean visited the country. Friar Odoric, of Pordenone, be- tween 1316 and 1830, traveled through Shansi and Szechuen and reached Lhasa. Three centuries elapsed before another European visited the sacred capital. In the middle of the fourteenth century a great reforming lama, named Tsong- khapa, arose in Tibet. He forbade clerical marriages, pro- hibited necromancy, and introduced the custom of frequent conferences among the lamas. These reforms led to a schism in the Tibetan Church, the older sect being called Red Caps or Shukpas and the reformers Yellow Caps or Gelupkas, and since the reformation the latter have been in the ascendency. Gedun-tupba, another great reformer, who died in 1474, is said to have revived the spirit of Tsong-khapa, and with him the doctrine and system of perpetual reincarnation be- gan. Two grand lamas then arose, one called the Dalai lama, with his headquarters at Galdan, near Lhasa, and the other at Teshu Lumbo. A third grand lama, called the Taranath lama, is also mentioned as having his seat in the Khalka country in Mongolia. The first of the Jesuits who penetrated into Tibet was Antonio Andrada, who in 1624 set out from Agra and, scaling an appalling mountain, reached Rudok, in Tibet, and eventually made his way through Tangut to China. Other missionaries followed: Grueber and Dorville, who passed from China through Lhasa into India, and Desideri and Freyre, who also visited the capital. The Capuchin mission under Father della Penna was established at Lhasa in 1719. Just before they reached the capital the famous native survey had been com- leted, a work which formed the basis of d’Anville’s well- nown atlas. In 1717 an army of Dzungarians or Eleuths stormed Lhasa, but in 1720 order was restored by the Em- peror of China, Kang-hi, who established two residents at the capital as his representatives. It was.about this time that the Dutch traveler Samuel van de Putte made his remarkable journey from India to Lhasa and China and back again. In 1749 the Chinese residents put the Tibetan regent to death. The people, incensed, flew to arms and a massacre of the Chinese took place. A11 expedition was duly dispatched by the emperor, but timely concessions were made to appease the wrath of the lamas and people, and succeeding regents were more subservient to China. The Capuchin missionaries were expelled from Lhasa in 1760 and settled in Nepal, where some of them were eye-wit- nesses of the troubles ending in the Gurkha conquest of that country. At the same time the aggression of Deb Jud- hur in Bhutan led to British intervention and to subsequent attempts to mediate on the part of the Teshu lama of Tibet. This furnished an opportunity to I/Varren Hastings to dis- patch G. Bogle as envoy to Tibet in 1774 to conclude a treaty of amity and commerce between the two countries. The negotiations were most friendly, and after the lama’s death at Peking in 1780 a new mission was sent under Capt. Turner to do homage to the new lama, a child of eighteen months. In 1792 the Nepal regency, tempted by stories of the great riches in the the Teshu lama’s palace, determined to invade Tibet, and actually plundered Teshu Lumbo. The Chinese Government on hearing this dispatched a powerful expeditionary force under Gen. Sund F6, who de- feated the Gurkhas on the plain of Tingri Maidan, laid siege to Kuti, and finally routed the enemy 20 miles from Kathmandu, the Nepalese capital. The conditions of peace imposed were humiliating, and included the payment of an annual tribute to China and the dispatch of an embassy to Peking every five years. During this war the policy of the British under Lord Cornwallis was unfortunate, and led to the closing of the passes from Tibet into India, all the good results of Hastings’s negotiations being thereby lost. Nevertheless, Thomas Manning, the friend of Charles Lamb, in the guise of a doctor, managed in 1811 to get to Lhasa through Bhutan, a success doubtless due to his knowledge of Chinese, which enabled him to make friends with a Chi- nese general. In 1834 Golab Sing, of Jammu, afterward Maharajah of Kashmir, sent an army commanded by his general, Zorawar Sing, to invade Ladak. In 1841 this chief advanced into Eastern Tibet, but was utterly defeated by the Chinese Dec. 12 (almost simultaneously with the de- struction of a British division at Cabul). Three years later the French missionaries Hue and Gabet arrived at Lhasa and were well treated by the new regent, who had been TIBETAN LANGUAGE 147 installed in the place of one Si-fan, who had been dis- graced for complicity in the murder of three of the Dalai lamas. Subsequently Chinese jealousy prevailed, and Huc and Gabet were compelled to return to Europe. The Teshu lama, the same who had received Capt. Turner, died at an advanced age in 1854. The recent history of Tibet has been marked by but few conspicuous events. Numerous European travelers have entered the mysterious land from the west, the north, and the east, but none has been enabled to reach Lhasa. Among these may he mentioned Prejevalsky, Carey, Bonvalot, Rock- hill, Bower, and Miss Taylor. The endeavors of these and other travelers, however, seem only to have made the Tibe- tans more determined to keep out the dreaded foreigner. Their invasion of Sikkim in 1888 aroused the Indian Gov- ernment, which compelled the Tibetans to retreat and even- tually to sign a treaty recognizing Sikkim as British. BIBLIOGRAPHY.——ThG best general account of Tibet will be found in the Na7'rat'2.'ves of George Bogle and Thomas Illum- ning (London, 1879; 2d ed. by C. R. Markham). Capt. Tur- ner’s account of his mission (1800) is most interesting, and the works of Brian Hodgson, Archibald Campbell, Csoma de Kiiriis, and Joseph Hooker deal exhaustively with the sci- entific sides of the subject. Of late years the travelers above mentioned have all [particularly \Villiam Rockhill, The Land of the Lamas (New York, 1891) and Dz'ary of a Jour- ney Through Jllongolz'a and Tibet in 18.91 and 18.92 (Wash- ington, 1894)] written valuable works on Tibet, while the Indian native travelers, the Pundits Nain Singh and Kishen Singh, have recorded in the publications of the Royal Geo- graphical Society a mass of scientific, statistical, and general information. The 1Varratz've of a Jam-ney 2‘0 Lhasa, by Sarat Chandra Das. a confidential work and still unpub- lished, gives the latest authentic information regarding the capital and inner government of the country. For a copi- ous bibliography, see vol. ii. of Lansdell‘s Chinese C'enz‘raZ Asia (London, 1893; New York, 1894). CHARLES E. D. BLACK. Tibetan Language: the language spoken in Tibet. It is slightly agglutinative and monosyllabic, and forms words and sentences by the juxtaposition of roots and particles, except in the verb, in which changes in the roots are quite frequent. There is considerable resemblance between its dialects and those of Northern Burma. Its alphabet con- sists of ninety consonants, each with an inherent a (as in Sanskrit), and the five vowels a, e, 2', 0, and a. Tibetan be- came a written and literary language more than 1,200 years ago; yet on account of the religious or idolatrous reverence with which the written word is regarded by Buddhists, it has, with some few and insignificant exceptions, mamtained its written forms of sounds unchanged up to the present time, while the style and the oral speech have undergone considera- ble alterations. This clinging to the old, full ronunciation of many sounds characterizes Eastern and \ estern Tibet, while in Central Tibet, the rincipal seat of national civili- zation, a refined but somewhat effeminate pronunciation of the consonants may be observed; here also occurs the great- est diiference between the spoken and the written sound. In 632 A. D. the Indian Devanagari alphabet was adapted to the Tibetan language by the order of King Srongtsan Gam 0, who also ordered the sacred books to be translated into ibetan. The work of translation was carried on with remarkable zeal; and for the sake of uniformity, vocabularies of the Sanskrit proper names and of the technical and phil- osophical terms occurring in the original texts were pre- pared. King Srongtsan Gampo and his learned translators also issued books written in their native tongue, and, begin- ning with Tsonkhapa, the great reformer of the fourteenth century, native literature developed itself on a larger scale; even Mongolians write in Tibetan, as it is the language of the divine service. In the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury all the Sanskrit translations were collected in two large and voluminous works, to which were added the sa- cred and profane native publications of different periods. These compilations bear the title of Ifanj-]"m' (The Trans- lated Word of Buddha) and 1l’a.n7'ur (Translation of the Doctrine). The ](a'ny'm‘ contains 100 volumes, comprising 689 works, which are classed under seven divisions——disci- pline, transcendental wisdom, association of Buddhas, jewel- peak, sutras or aphorisms, deliverance or emancipation from existence,and Tan1"ra or mysticism. The Tan7"z¢1' comprises 225 volumes. divided into mysticism and discipline; its contents are of a more miscellaneous character. Tibetan is 14,8 TIBULLUS written from left to right. For printing capital letters are always used. The books are not folded, but consist of loose leaves laid between boards kept together by a string. Little is known of the non-religious literature of Tibet. One of the most popular works is the Hundred Thousand Songs of Milaraspa, a mendicant monk of the eleventh century. The Hungarian Csoma de Ktiriis was the first who brought (1832) Tibetan language and literature within the reach of European students. 111 1875 a German Moravian mission- ary, H. A. J tischke, published a most learned Tibetan-Ger- man dictionary, and a grammar in 1883. Tibul'lus, ALBIUS: poet; b. about 54 B. 0. ; was descended from an equestrian family of good standing in Roman society; accompanied Messalla, his patron, in 28 B. c. to Aquitania, and started with him on a mission to Asia, but, falling ill, got no farther than Corcyra. After these journeys he lived on his estates near Rome, devoting himself to poetry and literary occupation. D. probably in 19 B. c. Three books of elegies ascribed to him have come down to us in the MSS., but the third book is now often divided into two. The first book sings of the love of Delia, the second of Nemesis, both being assumed names. The third book is by a poet much inferior to Tibullus, who calls himself Lygdamus, and sings the praises of Nezera. The fourth book opens with a pane- gyrie on Messalla, in hexameters, which is universally pro- nounced by scholars to be unworthy of Tibullus. Critics are divided still as to whether elegies 2-6 which follow the panegyrie are by Tibullus. For the Sulpicia elegies 7-12, see SULPICIA. Editions by Dissen (Gtittingen, 1835, 2vols.); Bahrens (Leipzig, 1878); Miiller (1880); E. I-Iiller (Leipzig, 1885); and translated into English by Dr. Grainger (1752) and Cranstoun (London, 1872). On account of the genuine- ness and simplicity of their feeling, these poems belong to the best Latin literature contains. See also Sellar, Horace and the Elegiae Poets (Oxford, 1892). Revised by M. WARREN. Tibur: See T1voLI. Tic Douloureuxz a form of facial NEURALGIA (g. 1).). Tichborne Case: an English cause eéle‘bre, famous for its length, the estate involved, and the character of the per- sons concerned. It consists of two trials, one (in 1871) an action in ejectment by an impostor for the recovery of the Tichborne estates in Hampshire and Dorsetshire, England, valued at £24,000 yearly; and the other (in 1872) an action for perjury against the defeated impostor. The estate in question was that which had belonged to Roger Charles Tichborne, who was born in Paris in J an. 5, 1829, son of Sir James Tichborne, by his wife Henriette Felicité, a French woman of noble extraction. Roger con- tinued to live in Paris, having French tutors and speaking French rather than English as his native tongue. He was later sent to the Roman Catholic College of Stonyhurst, Eng- land, having been brought up a Roman Catholic, and here his education practically ended, he being, however, idle rather than dull. In Feb., 1853, he went to Paris to bid his mother farewell previous to his departure upon an extended tour, and on Mar. 4 sailed for Valparaiso. In Apr., 1854, he sailed in the Bella from Rio de J aneiro for New York, having previous to his embarking written a letter showing his in- tention to stay from home for two or three years. The Bella was lost at sea, and no person on board was ever heard of again, although her long-boat was picked up at sea. The will of Roger Charles Tichborne was proved and his estate placed in the hands of the executors. Roger‘s mother had become possessed of the belief that he was still living, and in 1862, after the death of her hus- band, she advertised in English and Australian papers for her son, and in 1866 a butcher who was then living at Wagga VVagga, Australia, under the name of Thomas Castro, but whose real name was Arthur Orton, asserted that he was the lost Roger, having been saved from the wreck of the Bella. After considerable correspondence between the im- postor and Lady Tichborne and the receipt of a remittance to defray his expenses, he went to London, where Lady Tichborne received him as her son. He was repudiated by the rest of the family, but was supplied with money by Lady Tichborne, and went about collecting witnesses and gathering information to be used in establishing his identity. Lady Tichborne died in 1868, but Castro had found so many believers in his claims that he raised consid- erable sums by selling bonds conditioned to be paid upon his coming into possession of his claimed estates. On May 11, 1871, he began an action in ejectment for the recovery TICKET OF LEAVE of the Tichborne estates. The trial lasted for 103 days, till M ar. 6, 1872, when he was non-suited, the jury declaring be- fore its close that they believed that the claimant was not Roger Charles Tichborne. Castro was then arrested upon a charge of perjury, and the trial was begun in the court of queen’s bench on Apr. 23, 1873, and lasted 188 days, until Feb. 28, 1874. ‘when he was found guilty of perjury and was sentenced to fourteen years’ penal servitude. For the purposes of the two trials the smallest details of the life of Roger and the claimant were investigated at an enormous expense, and it was proven by a complete chain of the strongest evidence that not only was the claimant an impostor, but that he did not even resemble Roger, nor have any intimate acquaintance with his affairs. It was shown that Castro was the son of a London butcher, and was born June 1,1834, and that his real name was Arthur Orton; that in 1848 he went to Valparaiso, where he took the name of Thomas Castro; that he later returned to London, and then went to Australia, where he led a disreputable life, one time as a horse-breaker, at another as a butcher, having married a servant girl under the name of Castro, J an. 29, 1865. It was proved that Roger left balances with two Australian bankers which Castro did not use ; that immedi- ately on his arrival in London he sought the Ortons, and sent photographs of his wife and children to them as being the wife and children of Arthur Orton ; that he was igno- rant of the circumstances of Roger’s life in France, and spoke no French; that Roger had a common education, while Castro was extremely illiterate; that Roger’s person was thin, his hair straight, and his ears closely adhering to the sides of his head, while Castro was enormously fat, an inch taller than Roger, and had large pendulous ears and curly hair. In 1895 Castro admitted, in a confession printed in a London paper, that he was an impostor, and that he was the original Arthur Orton. For a full account of the trials, see Morse’s Famous Trials (Boston, 1874); The Tichborne Romance: a Full and Ae- curate Report, etc. (Manchester, England, 1871, 2d ed.); The Tichborne Trial: the Summing-up by the Lord Chief Justice of England (London. 1874); Charge of the Lord Chief Justice of England in the Case of the Queen against Thomas Castro (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1874). F. STURGES ALLEN. Ticino, teI'e-chee’n6, or Tessin; the southernmost canton of Switzerland, on the Italian side of the Alps and on both sides of the river Ticino; borders on Lago Maggiore. Area, 1,088 sq. miles. Its northern frontier toward Uri and Grisons is formed by a range of the Lepontine Alps 12,000 feet high, branches of which cover the whole northern part of the canton. In the southern part the ground becomes low and the surface level. Dairy-farming and cattle-breeding are the principal occupations in the Alpine regions, and agri- culture and the cultivation of gra es. olives, figs, almonds, and melons in the southern part. op. (1888) 126,751, most of whom speak Italian and are Roman Catholics. Capital, Bellinzona. Revised by M. VV. HARRING'1‘ON. Tick : any one of various parasites of the higher animals. The true ticks (Iaodes) belong to the ARACHNIDA (q. 1).), order Acarina. They fasten upon the skin, and, burrowing the head beneath the surface, feed upon the blood, the abdomen meanwhile growing to enormous size. The name is also given other parasites belonging to the Diptera (flies), as the sheep-tick, horse-tick, and bird-tick, and in some of these parasitism has resulted in a loss of wings, the animal hav- ing a spider-like appearance. J . S. K. Tickell, THOMAS: poet; b. at Bridekirk, Cumberland, England, in 1686; was educated at Queen’s College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1710; became a friend of Addison, through whose influence he was in 1717 appointed Under-Secretary of State, and in 1725 was made secretary to the lords justices of Ireland, a post which he retained until his death. His principal works are The Prospect of Peace, a poem ; The Royal Progress, verses celebrating the arrival of George I.; a translation of the first book of the Iliad (1715); Kensington Garden, a poem (1722); a fine Elegy on Addison; and the popular ballad Colin and Lucy; besides which he contributed to The Spectator and The Guardian. D. at Bath, Apr. 23, 1740. An edition of his poems was published at Boston in 1854. Revised by II. A. BEERS. Ticket of Leave: originally a kind of permit or license given to British convicts transported to the Australian col- onies, by which they were allowed to be at large within a TICKETS certain specified territory. The ticket of leave was granted upon good behavior for a certain period of years, and was revocable upon misconduct. The term is now popularly ap- plied to what is technically called an order of license, whereby a portion of a convict’s time of imprisonment is remitted as a reward for industry and good behavior. This remission was first used in England, about 1840, upon the refusal of the colonies to receive convicts. Since the sen- tence of those convicts subject to transportation would be much more severe if they were imprisoned for the entire period, aportion of the terms of such as were not trans- ported was remitted; and afterward, when the form of pun- ishment was changed from transportation to penal servi- tude, the partial remission of sentences was made system- atic in order to induce industry and good behavior. F. STURGES ALLEN. Tickets: See TRAVELERS, LEGAL RIGHTS or. Ticknor, GEOEGE: literary historian and biographer; b. in Boston, Mass., Aug. 1, 1791; graduated at Dartmouth College in 1807; admitted to the bar in Boston in 1813; spent four years (1815-19) in study and travel in Europe, and during his absence was chosen (1817) to the Smith pro- fessorship of Modern Languages at Harvard; filled that post from 1820 to 1835, when he resigned; spent three years in Europe, chiefly engaged in preparatory researches for his principal work, to which he devoted several more years -of assiduous labor: published in 1849 in London and New York his flistory of Spanish Literature (6th American ed., 3 vols., Boston, 1888), which was translated into French, German, and Spanish, and accepted as the standard work on its subject even in Spain; printed some occasional es-- says, chiefly on educational topics, and several biographical sketches; wrote an elaborate Life of William .Hicleling Prescott (1864); contributed to various magazines and re- views; and was a munificent benefactor to the Boston Pub- lic Library, presenting it with 2,000 volumes in 1860. He was a member of the leading literary societies of Europe and the U. S. D. in Boston, Jan. 26, 1871. The 4th ed. of his History of Spanish Literature appeared shortly after his death under the editorship of George S. Hillard, who also published his Life and Correspondence (2 vols., Boston, 1876). See E. P. Whipple, Recollections (Boston, 1877), sec- tion on Ticknor. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Ticknor, WILLIAM DAVIS: publisher; b. at Lebanon, N. H., Aug. 6, 1810; became in 1832 a bookseller in Boston; subse- quently added a publishing business, which attained to great importance under the firm-name of Ticknor & Fields (sub- sequently James R. Osgood & Co., and still later Ticknor & Co.); published The Atlantic J11 onthly and The North Ameri- can Review, and made his office a center for the brilliant literary circle connected with that magazine, including Long- fellow, Holmes, Whittier, Lowell, and Saxe, whose poems ylv8eé*4e issued by the firm. D. in Philadelphia, Pa., Apr. 10, Ticonder0’g'a: township and village; Essex co., N. Y.: on the Cent. Vt. and the Del. and Hud. railways; 24 miles N. of Whitehall, and 100 miles N. of Albany (for location, see map of New York, ref. 2—J). The township contains depos- its of graphite, from which, for several years, the entire com- mercial product of this mineral in the U. S. has been ob- tained. The largest output was in 1891, when 1,559,674 lb., valued at $110,000, were mined. There are also extensive deposits of iron ore. The village and a part of the township occupy a lofty promontory between Lakes George and Cham- plain, Mt. Defiance, at the extremity, being 750 feet above the level of Lake Champlain. The outlet of Lake George is 4 miles long, has a fall of 220 feet in 2 miles,‘ and fill‘- nishes abundant power for manufacturing. Here are several foundries, machine-shops, extensive pulp and paper mills, large lumber interests, a national bank with capital of $50,- 000, and a weekly newspaper. Ticonderoga was prominent in colonial and Revolutionary history from its celebrated fortress, built by the French in 1755, and originally named Carillon (chime of bells) from the music of the neighboring waterfall. It was the headquarters of Montcalm in 1757; was unsuccessfully assaulted by Gen. Abercrombie July 8, 1758; occupied after a siege by Gen. Amherst July 30, 1759; captured by Ethan Allen May 10, 1775 ; retaken by Burgoyne July 5, 1777, and again by Gen. Haldeman 1780, but soon abandoned on each of the last two occasions. Pop. (1880) township and village. 3,304; (1890) township, 3,980; village, 2,267; (1895) township, estimated, 5,000. EDITOR or “ SENTINEL.” TIDES 14:9 Tidball, JOHN CALDWELL : soldier; b. in Ohio co., Va. (now West Virginia), Jan. 25, 1825 ; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy, West Point, 1848 ; appointed second lieutenant Second Artillery; served in Florida war 1848— 50; in explorations to Pacific coast 1853—54; on coast sur- vey 1854-59 ; captain Second Artillery May 14, 1861, in command of battery at battle of Bull Run, and in the opera- tions of the Army of the Potomac in the Peninsular cam- paign of 1862, the battles of Antietam, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, etc. ; appointed Aug., 1863, colonel Fourth New York Volunteer Artillery ; commanded the artillery of the Second Corps during the Richmond campaign, May to July, 1864, including the battles of the Wilderness and those around Spottsylvania; commandant of cadets, U. S. Military Academy, J uly—Sept., 1864; in command of artillery, Ninth Corps, Army of the Potomac, in siege of Petersburg, Va., Oct., 1864—Apr., 1865, in pursuit of the Confederate army, and in other operations terminating in Lee’s surrender; at close of war returned to duty with his company ; promoted major Second Artillery, Feb., 1867 ; commanded in Alaska 1868-71; superintendent of instruction at artillery school, Fort Monroe, Virginia, 1874-80; aide-de-camp to general of army 1880-84 ; promoted lieutenant-colonel First Artillery, June 30, 1882, and colonel of same regiment Mar. 22, 1885 ; in command of the U. S. artillery school and~post of Fort M on- roe, Virginia, Nov., 1883—J an. 25, 1889, when he was retired; breveted brigadier-general Mar. 13, 1885 ; author of Manual of H'eary Artillery Service (Washington, 1880) and of nu- merous professional papers. Tidemill: an apparatus for the utilization of the water- power of the tide. In some cases, as at the old London Bridge tidemills, the water-wheels, mill and all, were afloat, so that no adjustment of the wheels to the height of the water was necessary, and the tide was utilized both on its ebb and flow. In other cases dams are constructed which shut the water at high tide, and its outflow through a raceway gives motion to the mill; and during the return of the tide through the sluice its power may again be utilized. On account of the great expense usually involved in the construction of dams of sufiicient extent to retain the quantity of water necessary, and the usually moderate extent of the rise and fall of the tide, it is probable that in very few places in the world will it be found practicable to install tidemills in competition with steam-engines. A project for the continuous utiliza- tion of tidal power in connection with the training-walls to be constructed in the estuary of the Seine is described by P. Decoeur in the Procecdzngs of the Institution of Civil Engineers (1890). The method proposed is to have two basins separated by a bank rising above high water. within which turbines would be placed. The upper basin would be in communication with the sea during the higher one- third of the tidal range, rising, and the lower basin during the lower one-third of the tidal range, falling. The turbine proposed is of an improved model designed to utilize a large flow with a moderate diameter. One has been designed to produce 300 horse-power with a minimum head of 5 ft. 3 in. at a speed of fifteen revolutions per minute, the vanes hav- ing 13 feet internal diameter. The speed would be main- tained constant by regulating sluices. The available gross horse-power in such a design is estimated to be about one- thirtieth of the product of the area of the lower basin in acres by the square of the tidal range in feet. Revised by WILLIAM KENT. Tides [O. Eng. tid, time : O. H. Germ. zit > Mod. Germ. eeit. (See TIME.) Cf. Sanskr. a-diti, unlimited, timeless]: the motions of the waters of the ocean arising from the at- traction of the sun and moon. Those living on the shores of the ocean see it rise and fall regularly twice every day. For six hours the water rises, or flows: then, remaining stationary for a short time, it gradually recedes or ebbs for another six hours; after a short lull, called slac/0 'water, it again rises and falls as before. The rising sea is called the flood tide; the receding sea, the ebb tide. When the water is at its greatest height, it is lrigh zcater ; when at its lowest point, low /waz‘er. There are thus daily two high tides and two low tides. The time of high water and low water, at the same place, however, is gradually changing. The mean interval of time between two consecutive higi tides or low tides being really twelve hours and twenty-six minutes, and the hour of the day at which high water or low water occurs is later every day by an average amount of fifty-two minutes. _ Cause of the T/ides.-—-Though the dependence of the tides 150 upon the course of the moon seemed to point out their source, the real cause of these mysterious movements was not understood before the discovery of the law of gravita- tion by Sir Isaac Newton. Applying here this new princi- ple, Newton showed that the rise of the waters was due to the attraction of the moon and the sun upon the revolving globe of the earth. The moon, on account of its proximity, and notwithstanding its smaller mass, has an influence more than double that of the sun (100 to 38) ; its action is illustrated by Fig. 1. It attracts the solid earth as if the Low WATER. HIGH WATER I / I,’ Low WATER. FIG. 1. whole mass of the earth were concentrated at its center. But owing to the greater proximity of the region marked in the figure "high water ” to the moon, the attraction is there greater than for the center of the earth. Hence a tendency to a high tide in that region. On the side opposite the moon, also marked high water, the attraction is less than at the center of the earth. Hence the attraction draws the earth away from the water toward the moon, so that a high tide is produced there also. At the points marked low water the components of the forces shown by the dotted lines converge toward the moon. But for this convergence the attraction of the moon on the solid earth and on the water would be equal. But owing to the convergence the water is drawn toward the center of the earth, and thus low tides are produced. This is why there are two high tides and two low tides in the course of a day. There are thus always simultaneously and directly under the moon two high waters opposite each other, and two low waters at equal distances between them. Owing to the rotation of the earth, this permanent system of swells and troughs trav- els from E. to W. over every part of the ocean and of its coast, and explains the regular succession of rising and fall- ing waters, at equal intervals of time, which we call the tides. Spring-tides and Neap-tides.—The sun also asserts its attractive power on the ocean, and causes a similar system of four daily tides. Owing, however, to the great distance of the sun, the solar tides are much smaller, and mostly merged in, or masked by, the lunar tides. As the relative position of the moon and sun is constantly changing, the solar and lunar tides seldom coincide; but twice a month, at new moon and full moon, the sun and moon, being on a line with the earth, as shown in Fig. 2, act together, and cause an unusually high water, which is the sum of the lunar and solar tides. These are the spring-tides. High water is then highest, and low water lowest. When the sun is placed 00° from the moon (Fig. 3)—that is, at the time of FULL MOON. SPRING-TIDE. SPRING-TIDE. FIG. 2. the first and third quarter of the moon—its attraction acts against that of the moon, diminishing the height of the high tide and increasing that of low water. These are the neap-tides. High water is then lowest, and low water high- est. The proportion of the rise and fall in the spring-tides and neap-tides is nearly as 7 to 3. NEW MOON. TIDES Course of the Tidal Wwve.——If the ocean covered the whole earth with a uniform depth of water, the tidal wave, with its long crest extending from N. to S., would follow the apparent course of the moon, and travel from E. to W. around the globe in twenty-four hours. It would be great- est in the equatorial regions, and move there with a veloc- ity of over 1,000 miles an hour. But the continents which cut the ocean into several large basins oppose its passage, and in each of these basins the course of the tidal wave is subjected to great modifications. The regularity and velocity of the tidal wave depend upon the size of the basin, the depth of the water, and freedom from all obstacles op- posing its progress. Nowhere are these conditions better fulfilled than in the southern half of_the Pacific Ocean. There is formed what might be called the parent tidal wave,. which, advancing rapidly west- ward, enters the Indian and At- lantic Oceans, and seems to con- trol their tides. Tides in the Pacific 0cean.—In the middle and equatorial part of the Pacific Ocean the advance of the tidal wave is gradually slackened, and becomes very irregular when broken up by the numberless islands of the dent in the slow progress East Indian Archipelago. ll1OON- b FIRST QUARTER. I of the tide-wave between The influence of shallow ll New Guinea and Australia, THE MOON. water, and of friction on the bottom and on the coasts of the ocean, is evi- and in the Chinese Sea. Its rapid motion, on the NEAP-TIDE. contrary, toward the N. W. in the middle of the North Pacific shows the influence of deep and open water. Thence, however, the tidal wave ceases to be direct, and assumes the shape of a free reflected wave, which turns N. and E. toward the western coast of the North American continent. In the Southern Pacific, while NEAP-TIDE. I I I I \ I I I I MOON. THIRD QUARTER. FIG. 3. the main tidal wave seems _ to start on its westward course from the 90th meridian, it sends a reflected wave eastward along the western coast of South America, from which this coast seems to derive its tides. This meets, at Cape Horn, the Atlantic tide coming from the E. The course of the tides on the coast of Great Britain, in the Channel, and the German Ocean, as shown in the map of cotidal lines in that region (Fig. 4), illustrates'the retar- dation of the tidal wave in shallow and narrow \\’®(\(.\\lllliui / 5 3 § seas. The main tide- wave in the broad At- WEN‘ lantic moves on, unob- structed, around the British isles, reaching the Orkneys in four hours, and moves southward along the eastern coast of Scotland before the slackened tide-wave has forced its way through the Channel to Dover Straits. Each wave then continues its course, the first along the English coast, that from the Channel along the coast of Holland, causing tides at different hours on the opposite shores. 'SNV3'JO IV:-nus 3'.-nun-u am. NI MY&-WQTE 3H.l.. .40 BSEQOO 3H1. ‘JNIMOHS Q‘..\ %\ “dim mzu//1.I) ' bun ................................... n I o|:uqf, onoay M 'J'.un(Z5,¢ 1100141 [(1 aqq .n{;.ar.vu pzquma 5:1 46!!!!“ may 4010! -740 m wen my arm] 911;; an/n.v M 1111 p:aymrgr.r ran?‘ rl 9145 TIDES The Age of the Ttole.—This course of the tidal wave shows that the tides of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans are not generated in these basins, but are mainly derived from those of the Pacific Ocean. But the tide-wave takes some FIG. 4. time to travel over this vast extent. The map shows that in twelve hours the Pacific wave reaches Tasmania; in twelve hours more, the coast of India; another twelve or thirty-six hours brings it to the coast of North America; a few hours more, to the shores of Europe. Therefore the tide on the eastern shores of North America is not the one caused by the last passage of the moon over them, but the one which had its origin thirty-six hours before in the Pacific Ocean, and is therefore one day and a half old. It is two days old in London. The Height of the Ttcle.-The height of the tide depends very much upon local circumstances. In the midst of the Pacific it is scarcely more than from 2 to 5 feet, which may be considered as the natural height of the tide. But when dashing against the land and forced into deep gulfs and estuaries, the accumulating tide-waters sometimes reach a very great height. On the eastern coast of North Amer- ica, which is directly in the path of the great Atlantic wave, the tide rises on an average from 9 to 12 feet. In the Bay of Fundy, which opens'its bosom to receive the full wave, the tide, which, at the entrance, is 18 feet, rushes with great fury into that long and narrow channel, and swells to the enormous height of 60 feet, and even to 70 feet in the highest spring-tides. In the Bristol Channel, on the coast of England, the spring-tides rise to 40 feet, and swell to 50 in the English Channel at St.-Malo, on the coast of France. It is obvious that differences so considerable in the level of the water will cause strong currents, constantly varying in force and direction with the tide, such as those witnessed in Hell Gate, a few miles west of the point where Long Island Sound connects with New York harbor. To the same cause may be traced the dangerous whirlpools which have long been celebrated on various coasts. The famous Maelstrom off the Norwegian coast is but a tidal current rushing with great violence between two of the Lofoden islands, causing a whirling motion, which is reversed at every new tide. Such, too, in the Straits of Messina, are the classic Scylla and Charybdis, so much dreaded by the navigators of old, and many other whirlpools of less celebrity. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-The mathematical theory of the tides is TIECK 151 developed very abstrusely by Laplace in Mécantgue Celeste vol. ii. Much simpler and more modern is A1ry’s treatise on Tides and VVaves, forming a part of the Encyelopcedta Metropolttana (London, 1848). Yet later developments are found in Ferrel’s Ttalal Researches, published in the annual report of n the U. S. Coast Survey for 1874. Cmisfimuio Revised by S. NEWCOMB. \ Tidioute’ : borough; Warren co., Pa. ; on the Allegheny river, and the 5 West N. Y. and Pa. Railroad; 35 miles N. E. of Oil City, and 160 N. by E. of Pittsburg (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 2-C). It has large lumber and petroleum 0.{/2) interests, and contains several saw, planing, and grist mills, manufacto- ries of lumber, chairs, and hubs, a savings-bank, and a weekly newspa- per. Pop. (1880) 1,255; (1890) 1,328. Tieck, teek, LUDWIG2 poet; b. in Berlin, May 31, 1773; studied the- ology, philology, and literature at Halle, Gtittingen, and Erlangen; re- sided in Berlin 1795-99, went in the latter year to Jena, where he founded with the Schlegel brothers. Novalis, and others the so-called romantic school; returned to Berlin ; lived for a number of years at Frankfort-on- the-Oder; visited Italy in 1805 and England and France in 1817, and finally, in 1819, settled in Dresden, where he was made director of the court theater, and where he became the center of a large and select lit- erary circle. On the invitation of King Frederick William IV., who as- sured him a large pension, he went in 1841 to Berlin, and here assisted in the reduction of Antigone and other Treek plays. D. in Berlin, Apr. 28. 1853. In the literary career of Tieck, who has always been recognized as the head of the older romantic school. we can distinguish several periods. In his earliest productions the influences of the Storm and Stress period are decidedly noticeable, and his novel W'z‘llta.m Lovell (1799) is in this respect an especially interesting doc- ument of his literary development. The pronounced pre- dominancy of the imagination. which is quite apparent in his first productions, may be considered the chief character- istic of Tieck’s entire poetic activity. Thus, in accordance with the cardinal doctrine of romanticism which proclaimed the sovereignty of the poet's imagination, Tieck revived the medizeval legends and fairy-tales (Der blonde Echbert, Ha.2I- monsktnder, Jtfagelone, etc.); thus he wrote his fantastical comedies (Der gestte_feZte Kater, Prinz Zerbe'no, Dte verkeh rte Welt, etc.), and thus he was first attracted by Shakspeare as the poet of unlimited imaginative powers. The result of this one-sided accentuation of the imagination is the ab- solute lack of plastic power in Tieck’s earlier productions. none of which became po ular with his nation. Even his reproductions of medi:eva legends and fairy-tales are arti- ficial, and can not compare with the na'ive and truly popu- lar style of the fairy-stories of the Grimm brothers. Despite his vivid imagination, Tieck’s poetic genius was decidedly of a reflective nature, as may be seen from his Gedichte (1821), which lack the ring of the true lyric. A greater and more lasting influence was exerted by Tieck in his masterly trans- lations from the Spanish (Don Qu'zT.r0z‘e, 1799-1801), the Eng- lish (Shalkespea/re, Altengltscltes Theater, 1811), and the Middle High German (.l[znnelzIecler. 1803, Ulrich con Lich- tenstein, 1812), by his critical writings (Drama-t'zu'gz'sclze Bltitter, 1826, and Ifrthisehe Sehrzi_ften, 1848). and by his excellent editions of the works of Solger. Novalis, Lenz, and Kleist. During the last period of his literary activity he de- voted himself exclusively to the writing of novels. taking his subject-material partly from history (Dtelzterlebcn, a sort of biography of Shakspeare, Aufruhr in den (7e2-cnnen, etc.), partly from real life (l"zItt01'zla. Acco/r0'mb0/mt, J11 uszTl'a/- ltsche Leiden and Frenden. etc.), and producing a number of stories which will be read and enjoyed when his roman- tic productions are recorded in histories of literature only. !Arl>1stcr(1(1n1 flottcrdmn 152 TIELE See Schriften oon Laclwig Tieeh (20 vol_s., Berlin, 1828-46) ; R. Ktipke, L'uclwig Tieeh (1855) ; von Fr1esen,_Liidivig Tieolo (1871); K. von Holtei, Bmefe an Lziclwig Tieeh (1864); R. Haym, Romantisehe Schnle (1870). JULIUS GOEBEL. Tiele, tee’le, COR-NELIS PETRUSI theologian; b. at Ley- den. Holland, Dec. 16, 1830; studied theology at Amster- dam: became pastor at Moordrecht in 1853 and at Rotter- dam in 1856; professor in a seminary at Leyden in 1873; and Professor of the History of Religions in the University of Leyden in 1877. He has written many important theo- logical works. His O07)?/])Cb’I”(tiiU6 History of the_E'ggptian and flfesopotamian Religions (1869-72) and Outlines of the History of Religion (1876) have been translated mto Eng- lish and French; the latter also into German. Other works treat of the Gospel of John as a source of the life of Jesus (1855), the religion of Zarathustra (1864), and Baloyloman- Assyrian history (German trans. 1886-87). S. A. T. Tiel-tree: See TEREBINTH. T’ien'-Shan or Thian-Shan (celestial mountains) : a lofty mountain chain in Central Asia, in lat. 42° N. from lon. 70° to 90 E., forming the boundary between the Balkash basin and that of the Kashgar and Tarim, and lying partly in the Russian provinces of Syr-Darya and Semir_eche_nsk and partly in Chinese Turkestan. Its mean elevation is 10,000 to 12,000 feet, highest at the west, and descending in Chinese territory. There are several summits which reach 15,000 to 18,000 feet. The highest peak is Khan-Tengri (24,000 feet), on the Russo-Chinese boundary. M. W. H. Tientsin, teen'tsin’, Chinese pron. tyen’cheen' (literally Heaven’s Ford): a walled city and river-port of the prov- ince of Chihli, in China; capital of a department of the same name. The city is situated at the junction of the Grand Canal with the Pei-ho, 80 miles S. E. of Peking and 35 miles (by water 70) from Taku, at the mouth of the river; lat. 39° 10’ N., lon. 117° 3’ 55" E. (see map of China, ref. 3-J). Next to Peking it is the most important city of the province. Prior to 1872 it was merely a wei or mili- tary station for the protection of the river traffic. The city itself is comparatively small, its walls having a circuit of little over 3 miles, but its suburbs are extensive, and in them most of the business is transacted. The streets both within and without the city are narrow and filthy, and the buildings lacking in interest or beauty. Tientsin was desig- nated in the treaty made here in 1858 as a treaty-port, but was not opened to foreign residence and trade until J an., 1863. The foreign settlement, which is called Tsz’-cha- lin, or Red Bamboo Grove, is situated 2 miles below the city, and consists of three “concessions,” as in Shanghai, the French nearest the city, then the British (the largest and most important), and lastly the “American.” City, suburbs, and settlements are all inelosed in a circular ram- part, known as “ San-ko-lin-sin’s folly,” because thrown up in 1858 by the Tartar general Stmg-ko-lin-sin as a defense against the British forces. Since 1881 Tientsin has been connected by telegraph with Shanghai, Peking, and the chief cities of China, and with Europe. It is also connected by rail with the mouth of the Pei-ho, the Peh-tang coal mines, and Shan-hai-kwan and beyond. Though tl1e river is frozen over from the early part of December to the middle of March and later, the trade of Tientsin is considerable. In 1893 596 steamers (492,345 tons) and 42 sailing vessels (20,- 073 tons) entered port, and 595 steamers (492,341 tons) and 42 sailing vessels cleared. The net foreign imports amounted to 19,720,227 haikwan or custom-house taels (equals $20,- 706,238 U. S.), and the native imports to 12,888,973 haikwan taels (equals $13,533,417). The chief imports were cotton and woolen goods, metals, cuttlefish, matches, kerosene oil, railway materials, seaweed, Government stores (1,118,573 taels), sugar, opium (1,618 piculs), rice, chinaware, clocks, brass buttons, raw cotton, shcetings (manufactured at Shang- hai), silk piece-goods, tobacco, wheat, and poles. The orig- inal exports amounted to 5,960,947 taels, and included coal, pulse, dates, deer-horns, medicines, sheep and other skins, goatskin rugs, bristles, and straw braid. Population of the city and its suburbs estimated at 950,000. R. L. Tiepolo, te“e-a’p5-15, GIOVANNI BATTISTAZ painter; b. in Venice, 1692, or 1696; pupil of Gregorio Lazzarini, but in a peculiar way the student of Paolo V eronese and other great Venetians of an earlier day, and their follower. His life was spent in constant work, chiefly in Venice and its neigh- borhood. In 1761 he went to Madrid, it is said on special invitation of the King of Spain, and, although a very old _ of painters. TIERRA DEL FUEGO man, painted several large frescoes, one of which covers the ceiling of the throne-room of the palace, and has for its sub- ject the Jlfajestg of Spain. Fresco was Tiepolo‘s especial field, and he did wonderful things in it. He was the last man of the great Venetian school, an embodiment of the traditions of centuries, and almost a worthy successor to Tintoretto and Veronese; lacking in color, but in dextrous and varied composition and drawing one of the most able D. in Madrid, Mar. 27, 1770. Of his numerous large frescoes, besides several at Madrid, there are a num- ber at the Villa Valmarana, near Vicenza; at Udine, in the bishop’s palace, several large ones; at the Palazzo Lobia, in Venice, a series representing the History of Cleopatra. Painted in oil there are ceiling-pictures in the Church of Santa Maria del Rosario and the Church of Santa Maria dei Scalzi, both in Venice; an altarpiece in the former .church, and in the Academy of Venice another ceiling brought from a church at Castello and representing the In- vention of the Cross; also at the Hermitage, in St. Peters- burg, a large ceiling-picture, Cleopatra Feasting; also in the academy is a St. Joseph and Christ with Saints ; at the Santi Apostoli is a St. Lucy. In London, in the National Gallery, are two studies for altarpieces, and in Stockholm two similar studies. In the Louvre is a fine Last Supper, and a banner painted on both sides with a St. Jllartin and a Virgin and Child. RUSSELL STURGIS. Tieree [Fr.] : a stop in the organ, tuned a seventeenth (or two octaves and a third) above the diapasons. Tierney, teer’neVe, GEORGE: politician; b. at Gibraltar, Spain, Mar. 20, 1761 ; son of a London merchant; educated at Eton and at Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he graduated in law 1784; became a lawyer in London, but soon aban- doned law for politics ; published a treatise on The Real Sit- uation of the East India Compam , considered with refer- ence to their Rights and Privileges (1787); entered Parlia- ment in 1789; became a leader of the Whigs, and acquired celebrity as a debater and satirist; fought a bloodless duel with Pitt May 27, 1798; opposed the war with France; brought forward annually a series of resolutions in opposi- tion to those of the Chancellor of the Exchequer; was treas- urer of the navy 1803-04, and a privy councilor; Secretary of State for Ireland 1806; president of the board of con- trol 1806-07, with a seat in the cabinet; was the head of the opposition after the death of Ponsonby in 1817, and was master of the mint in the administration of Canning 1827- 28. D. in London, J an. 25, 1830. Tierra del Fuego, ti-er’ra“a-del-foo-5/g5 : an archi elago at the southern extremity of South America, separatet from the continent by the Strait of MAGELLAN (q. 21.). Length from N. W. to S. E., about 400 miles. Of the total land-area (over 21,000 sq. miles) at least four-fifths is included in the large island called King Charles South Land, Tierra del Fuego, or Fuegia. W. and S. of this are Desolation, Clar- ence, Navarin, Wollaston, Dawson, Londonderry, and nu- merous smaller islands and islets, all separated from the larger island and from each other by tortuous channels; a group at the southern end, separated by the navigable Le- maire Channel, includes Horn island and Cape Horn; and the Isla de los Estados is somewhat out-lying, toward the S. E. N. of the western mouth of the Strait of Magellan a group of very similar islands lines the coast; they belong, physically, to the Tierra del Fuego group, but those between the strait and Wellington island are distinguished as the Madre de Dios Archipelago. The Andes are continued into Tierra del Fuego, occupying the greater part of the small islands and the southwestern side of King Charles South Land ; some of the peaks are over 6,000 feet high and partly covered with perpetual snow, but there are no active vol- canoes. The bases of the mountains are covered with pine forests, and numerous glaciers descend from their sides. All the islands are very irregular and cut by deep fiords, affording the most magnificent scenery. The eastern part of King Charles South Land is lower and contains some good pasture-land. Gold has been found in paying quan- tities. The climate is damp, very changeable, and subject to violent storms and severe cold, especially from June to October. By the treaty of 1881 that portion of the archi- pelago lying E. of lon. 68° 34’ W. (the meridian of the east- ern entrance to the Strait of Magellan) is held by the Ar- gentine Republic; it constitutes the territory of Tierra del Fuego, with an area of 8,217 sq. miles; there are two or three small civilized settlements. The remaining surface belongs to Chili, and is included iii the territory of Magal- TIERRA FIRME lanes; at present (1895) it is unsettled. The Indian inhab- itants belong to three distinct races, but are classed together as Fuegians ; all are savages of a low grade, but inoffensive, subsisting on fish, seals, etc. They number about 8,000. FERNAO DE MAGALHKES (q. o.) discovered the archipelago in 1520. It is said that he named it, in allusion to the smoke from Indian watch-fires, Tterra dc flumos (land of smoke), and that Charles V. changed this to Tierra del Fuego (land of fire). HERBERT H. SMITH. Tierra Firme : See SPANISH MAIN. Tiers Etat : See ESTATES, THE THREE. Tietjens: See TITIENS. Tiffany, FRANCIS: clergyman; b. in Baltimore, Md.,Feb. 16, 1827 ; educated at Harvard College and at Harvard Di- vinity School ; pastor of Unitarian churches in Springfield and West Newton, Mass., 1852-62, and 1865-82 ; spent many years in Europe; has charge of the Indian department of the American Unitarian Association ; author of Life of Doro- thea L. Dta; (New York and Boston, 1890). J. W. C. Tiffin : city (founded in 1817) ; capital of Seneca co., O. ; on the Sandusky river, and the Bait. and O., the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L., and the Penn. railways; 34 miles S. W. of Sandusky, and 42 miles S. S. E. of Toledo (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 2-E). It contains 16 churches, public-school property valued at over $150,000, Heidelberg University (Re- formed, founded in 1850), with academical school, college, and theological seminary, public and university libraries, or- phan asylum, a national bank (capital $250,000), a State bank (capital $100,000), an incorporated bank with capital of $50,000, a private bank, and 2 daily, 3 weekly, and 3 monthly periodicals. There are woolen-mills, foundries, stone and tile works, machine-shops, agricultural-implement works, flour-mills, pottery and glass, straw-board, and em- ery-wheel works. Pop. (1880) 7,879; (1890) 10,801; (1895) estimated, 14,190. EDITOR or “ SENECA ADVERTISER.” Tiffin, EDWARD, M. D.: first Governor of Ohio; b. at Car- lisle, England, June 19, 1766 ; emigrated to the U. S. 1784, settling at Charlestown, Va.; studied medicine and took his degree at the University of Pennsylvania. He became a local preacher in the Methodist Church, but continued the practice of medicine. Having removed to Chillicothe, O., in 1796, he was elected to the Territorial Legislature, and when Ohio was admitted to the Union was chosen Governor (1803-07). He was U. S. Senator 1807-09 ; commissioner of the U. S. land-ofiice 1812-15, and subsequently surveyor- general of the Northwest Territory. D. at Chillicothe, O., Aug. 9, 1829. Three of his sermons, preached in 1817, were published in the Ohio Conference O17°er/tag (1851). Tifiis, tif-lees’: government of Russia; bounded N. by the Caucasus and S. by Turkey in Asia. Area, 15,306 sq. miles. Tifiis is a mountainous region, covered with splendid forests of oak, chestnut, and maple. The valleys are fertile and, though poorly cultivated, produce tobacco, cotton, in- digo, wheat, and all the fruits of Southern Europe. Pop. (1891) 800,875, mainly Georgians, Armenians, Russians, and Tartars. E. A. G. Tifiis: town; former capital of Georgia and now of the Russian government of Tifiis, on botl1 sides of the Koor (see map of Russia, ref. 12-F). It carries on simple manufac- tures and is famous for the skill of its workers i11 metals. It is the center of South Caucasian commerce between Russia. Persia, and Europe, and is connected by rail with Baku on the Caspian and Batoum on the Black Sea. Trade is most- ly in the hands of Armenians. It was almost totally de- stroyed by Mehemet Khan (1795), and was ceded to Russia by its last king, George (1801). In the vicinity are naphtha and thermal springs, the latter much frequented. Pop. (1892) 146,792. E. A. GRosvENoR. Tiger [via O. Fr, ttg-2'e, tg/gre (> Fr. t'2Tg're). from Lat. ttgrts : Gr. Tl’)/pL$‘Z cf. TIGRIS]: the name applied to certain uadrupeds. (1) Primarily and of right it belongs only to t e Felts tz'grz's, one of the largest of living Felzfdce, about equal in size and superior in strength to the largest lions, and more destructive and far more dangerous to man. Tigers have been known to measure over 10 feet in length, including the tail, and to weigh over 500 lb. It is peculiar in the devel- opment of spreading thick, whisker-like hairs on the sides of the head ; its tail is elongate and smooth-haired. and the color is a tawny yellow transversely striped with black. It ranges N. into Southern Siberia, and S. as far as the Spice islands. E. and W. its habitat extends from Persia to the TIGRANES II. 153 Pacific. It refers forests and jungles near river-banks for its abode. t is much dreaded by man, especially in parts . _ \\ \\\\.\\.\\\>.\\\\\ /’ *2. A.\ The tiger. of India. The tiger has been frequently induced to hybrid- ize with the lion in captivity. Old tigers sometimes acquire a great fondness for human flesh, and are then called “ man- eaters.” The hunting of the tiger is a favorite though peril- ous form of sport in Oriental lands. (2) The name is also sometimes applied by hunters to the American JAGUAR (Q. 12). (3) It is further transferred in Van Diemen’s Land to the striped Thylac'zInus cg/nocephalus, a carnivorous marsupial. See THYLACINIDE. Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Tiger-cat : any one of a large number of striped and spot- ted wildcats, mostly,rather small tropical animals, often ar- boreal in their habits. ‘ Tiger-flower : the Tz'g7'tcZ'ta pcwonta, a garden-flower of the family Iridaceze. It is a native of Mexico, and is culti- vated for its gorgeous blossoms, each of which lasts but a day. The garden forms known as T. conehtfiom and T. g9'and't']‘lo1'a belong to this species. Tigert. JOHN JAMES, M. A., D. D.: clergyman and author: b. at Louisville. Ky., Nov. 25, 1856 : educated in Louisville public and high schools, Vanderbilt University (1875-77), and Southern Baptist Theological Seminary; served in pas- torates of Methodist Episcopal Church South (1 ‘77-81) ; was Professor of Moral Philosophy in Vanderbilt University (1882-90); again a pastor at Kansas City, Mo. (1890-94); since 1894 has been editor of The llfethodtst Qzzarterly Re- view, Nashville, Tenn. He has published lqaozdboo/t of Logic (1885); The Preacher Hz'mseZf (1889): A Voice from the South (1892) : and Consttt'ut'z'onaZ History of A'me7'2'can Episcopal llfetlzodz'sm (1894). He also edited Summers’s Sysz‘ematz'c Theology (2 vols., 1887-88) and McTyeire‘s Ser- mons (1886). A. OSBORN. Tighe, ti, DIARY (BZac7zford): poet; b. in Dublin. Ireland, in 1773; married in 1793 her cousin, Henry Tighe, of Rosan- na, County Wicklow, a member of the Irish Parliament; published in 1805 for private circulation her Psyche. a poem of remarkable excellence, based on the story of Apuleius. D. at Woodstock, County Kilkenny, Ireland, Mar. 24, 1810. Her IVOME, which appeared in 1811, have passed through several editions. and she was the subject of a song by Moore and a poem by Mrs. I-Iemans. Revised by H. A. BEERS. 'l‘ig1athpileser: See Assvam. Tigra’nes II., THE GREAT : King of Armenia (96-55 B. 0.). He carried on successful wars against Parthia and the Se- leucidee. conquered all the country between the Euphrates and Mediterranean. and assumed the title of King of Kings. After twenty-two years of prosperity he was involved in war with Rome by his father-in-law, Mithridates. and was twice defeated by Lucullus, who took and sacked his capital, Tigranocerta (69 B. (7.). After a final defeat by Pompey (65 13.0.) he repaired to the Roman camp and in sign of sub- mission placed his tiara at the feet of the Roman general. He was compelled to pay 6,000 talents, but was allowed to retain Armenia proper. Armenia Minor was assigned to Deiotarus and most of Tigranes's foreign conquests were re- stored to their former rulers or incorporated in the Roman dominions. He was succeeded by his son Artavastes. E. A. GRosvENoR. 154 TIGRE Tigré, te"e-gra’: province of Abyssinia, between lat. 12° and 16° N. and lon. 37° and 40° E.; formerly an independ- ent state until conquered in 1855 by Theodore. Its capital is Adua, one of the principal stations on the caravan-route between Massowah and Gondar. Tigri, GIUSEPPE: author; b. at Pistoia, Italy, Nov. 22, 1806; entered the Church, but spent his life in teaching and writing; journeyed through Europe in 1861; was later an inspector of schools in Pistoia and San Mlniato, and finally a librarian in the former place, where he died Mar. 9, 1882. His chief work is the collection Oanti popola/ri foscani (Florence, 1856 ; 2d ed. 1860). He wrote also a didactic poem Le selve (1844); a novel. La selcaggia ale’ Vergiolesi (1870); several works treating of the mountaineer, Il mon- tanino toscano 'vol0nta1'i0 alla gaerra clell’ mdependenza ita- Ziana, 1859 (1860), Volonzfario e soldalo (1872), Oeleszfma (1880), and Mal/ilcla; a versified novel ; _and several treatises, such as Contra i icregiaclizi popolam (1870), and Da Fi- renze a Uonstavilinopoli e fllosea (1877). J . D. M. FORD. Ti'g~ris [: Lat. : Gr. Tiypas, from O. Per_s. Tigra (>_ Pers. Tir), liter., the Arrow, so called from its swlftness] : river of Asiatic Turkey. Under the name of Hiddekel, it was one of the four rivers of Eden. It rises in the mountains of Kurdistan, only 4 miles distant from the channel of the Eastern Euphrates. After a winding but generally south- eastern course of about 1,000 miles it joins the Euphrates at Korna. Together they form the Shatt-el-Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf nearly 100 miles distant. On its banks are the towns of Diarbekir, Mosul, and Bagdad, and the ruins of Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Opis. Its banks above Diarbekir afford pasturage to nomad tribes, and below Diarbekir are finely cultivated as far as Mosul. There the land on both sides becomes a desert. From Bag- dad to Korna the banks are steep and overgrown with high reeds and brush which form the haunts of beasts of prey. The upper Tigris as far as Mosul is navigable only by rafts and thence by small vessels to Bagdad, to which steamers of light draught ascend from the Persian Gulf. Its average breadth between Mosul and Bagdad is 200 yards, but the breadth, velocity, and depth vary with the season. Its great- est height is attained toward the last of May, and then rap- idly decreases in June. During a brief period (114—117) it formed the boundary between the Parthian and Roman empires. E. A. GROSVENOR. Til’ burg : town ; province of North Brabant, Nether- lands; 14 miles E. S. E. of Breda (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 7-F). It is the seat of a large cloth-manufac- turing industry, employing several thousand persons, and each family has a house of its own. Print-works, breweries, and tanneries are also in operation. Pop. (1893) 35,586. Tilden, SAMUEL JONES: statesman; b. at New Lebanon, N. Y., Feb. 9, 1814; studied at Yale College and the Univer- sity of New York; took the course of law at the latter, and was admitted to the bar in 1841. He became prominent in politics as an able champion of Van Buren’s administration, and at the same time won for himself a high place in his profession, amassing by a judicious investment of his earn- ings one of the largest fortunes ever accumulated in legal practice. During the most laborious period of his profes- sional life he was one of the leaders and most trusted coun- selors of the Democratic party. He was a member of the convention for a revision of the constitution of the State in 1846, and again in 1867. He also served two terms in the lower branch of the State Legislature—-first in 1846, and sec- ond in 1872. He was one of the foremost in the overthrow of the Tweed ring, and in the establishment of a reformed city government. (See TWEED, WILLIAM Manor.) In 1874 he was nominated and chosen Governor of the State of New York by a majority of more than 50,000 votes, defeating Gen. Dix, a Republican candidate, who had been elected two years before by a majority of 55,451. As Governor he ex- posed the iniquities of the canal ring and crushed its sway over the legislative, administrative, and judicial de- partments of the State. His was a reform administration and most successful in its results. In 1876 he was nomi- nated without considerable opposition by the national Demo- cratic convention for the presidency of the U. S. At the election he received a much larger popular vote than any other candidate, and 184 uncontested electoral votes. Only one additional electoral vote was required for his election, while twenty additional votes were required for the election of the rival candidate. Owing to differences of opinion as to the proper mode of counting electoral votes and passing TILES upon contested returns, the settlement of the matter was intrusted by Congress to a specially appointed tribunal known as the PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORAL COMMISSION (qua), which decided in favor of the Republican electors in every contested case, and certified to the election of Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate for the presidency. Impressed with the conviction that M1'. Tilden had been lawfully elected to the presidency, the Democratic party continued to regard him as its candidate for the succeeding election, in 1880, but he was obliged by failing health to decline the nomination and withdraw from public life. De- spite Mr. Tilden’s retirement the Democratic party seemed determined to nominate him for the presidency in 1884, pub- lic opinion refusing to concentrate upon any other candi- date, and it was not till he had again publicly declared his unalterable determination not to return to public life that his party made another choice. During the latter part of his life he spent most of his time at Graystone, his country home on the banks of the Hudson, where he died Aug. 4, 1886. After providing for his heirs Mr. Tilden be- queathed the bulk of his property for the establishment of the Tilden Trust to found a free library and reading-rooms in the city of New York. This clause gave rise to a long contest, which was decided on appeal in favor of the heirs on Oct. 27, 1891. Mrs. William B. Hazard, however, though entitled by this decision to half of the estate, relinquished over $2,000,000 of her share for the purpose of carrying out Mr. Tilden’s wishes. On Feb. 22. 1895, it was agreed by representatives of the Tilden Trust Fund, the Astor Library, and the Lenox Library to consolidate these in- stitutions into a single library to be known as the New York Public Library—Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Founda- tions. See John Bigelow, The Life of Samuel J. Tilden (New York, 1895). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Tiles [O. Eng. figel, like Germ. ziegel, an early loan-word from Lat. te'g/ala >Fr. taile : Ital. tegola : Span. teja]: originally, fiat slabs of baked clay. A tile is broader and thinner, a brick is thicker, and there is no absolute distinc- tion between the two; thus the thin ancient Roman bricks used for wall-facing are often called tiles or tile-bricks. In common usage tiles are of three principal kinds—roofing- tiles, tiles for walls and floors, and drainage tiles. Roof- ing-tiles may be divided into (1) flat, overlapping tiles, which are used nearly as shingle or slate is used, and which have either a projection made in the solid mass or holes for nails by which they are kept in position ; (2) pan-tiles, which are in section both convex and concave—that is, have an (1) curve, the convex part lapping over the concave part; and (3) ridge-tiles, which are used not only for the topmost ridge or crest of the roof, but also for the projecting hips. There are many varieties of each of these kinds of roof-tile ; thus one system of roofing provides flat tiles with small half- tubes of the same material to cover the joints between the fiat tiles, and adaptation of the principle of the ridge-tile to a kindred use. Roofing-tiles have sometimes been en- ameled, and are much better for being so, from the water- proof character of the enamel. Such tiles are also frequently in brilliant colors; roofs made decorative in this way are known both in Asia and Europe, and in ancient and modern times. Perhaps the most remarkable instance of a large roof made decorative in this way is St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna. In Western France during the Middle Ages and at the time of the Renaissance roofs were commonly decorated in this way with the addition of crest ornaments and épis made of the same brilliant enameled earthenware. Modern taste is rather for unglazed tile, and finds great beauty in the unpolished surface and the slight variation of tint, increased by the varying angles at which the tiles are laid. Unglazed tiles absorb water readily. All tiles are heavy, and necessitate an expensive roof structure. Tiles for floors and walls are of great variety in form and size and decoration. Old houses in the south of Europe, and even houses of no great pretension, have their rooms floored with tiles of red clay not finer than common bricks, but hard baked and practically a variety of terra-cotta. Throughout the Middle Ages hard-baked clay tile was in very common use for flooring, and the usual method of deco- rating this was to inlay clays of different colors in the body of the tile, yellow in red, and the like. Some of these tile floors still preserved are of great beauty. Down to the first half of the nineteenth century such tiles were in common use as far north as Holland. Paving with bricks passes im- perceptibly into tile-paving, and the sidewalks of Baltimore TILL offer many instances of hexagonal pieces of baked clay, which may be either bricks or tiles, according to their thick- ness. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries flooring, es- pecially of chapels, oratories in private houses, and other rooms considered especially notable, were paved with enam- eled tiles of great beauty, but extremely perishable. A few such fioors remain nearly intact in France and in Italy, as at the manor-house of Oiron, in the department of Deux- Sévres, at the famous castle of Ecouen, in the Cathedral of Ravello, and in the Church of San Domenico at Naples. These beautiful tiles were less used for wall-decoration, be- cause, in a room suffioiently important to call for rich orna- ment, the walls were usually in stone like the exterior, and because a protecting dado, if required, would naturally be of wood. In modern times, however, with the growing tendency to decorate closed and confined interiors with something more effective than plastering, there has been an increased use of tile, painted and glazed and decorated with large and brilliant patterns, or even elaborate pictures, the principles of design in which are akin to those of decorative windows. Thus Théodore Deck produced splendid wall- decorations covering whole sides of large rooms with admi- rably conventionalized landscapes, consisting each of per- ha s 800 square tiles. n all the above-mentioned instances the surface is smooth, but much beautiful wall-tiling has been made with fig- ures in slight relief. The Persians of the fifteenth and six- teenth centuries excelled in these. Such decoration has been traditional in Persia since antiquity (see Earthenware, Glazed and Enameled, under POTTERY AND PORCELAIN), and in that later epoch they produced what are probably the most beautiful wall-tiles ever made, sometimes in relief, but much more often smooth and painted with conventional flower-patterns. The use of these tiles extended to the Mo- hammedan nations of the West; the finest specimens known are in the mosques of Cairo, and similar examples occur as far W. as Spain. Tiles with figures in relief are made in the U. S. at Chelsea, Mass., Beaver Falls, Pa., Indianapolis, Ind., Trenton, N. J ., and Zanesville, O. Eneaustio tiles are those modern tiles made in imitation of the mediaeval ones mentioned above, diiferent-colored clays being inlaid upon a clay background and all fired together. The term has no particular significance, and must be considered as a mere trade-name. BIBLIoeRAI>rIY.—Medi:eval earthen warej\tiles are well treat- ed in Les Carrelages émaillés du filo;/en Age, etc., by Emile Amé; Turner and Parker, Domestic Architecture of the Jlliddle Ages (4 vols., 1851, etc.); Henry Shaw, ;S'_peci/mens of Tile Pavements (1852); Viollet-le-Duo, Dietionnaire Rai- sonné de l’Arehiteoture (for roof-tiles, see article Tuile; for fioor-tiles and wall-tiles, article Garrelage). Many works contain colored and other illustrations of fine ancient tiles; for Oriental ones see Prisse d’Avenne, L’Art Arabe; Bour- goin, Les Arts Arabes; for European specimens, see Ja- cobsthal, Sild-Italienisohe Fliesen-Ornamente, and Meurer, Italienische Majolika-Fliesen. RUSSELL STURGIS. Till: See DRIFT. Tillamook Rock : See Lmnrnousn. Tilland’sia [Mod. Lat., named by Linnaeus in honor of Dr. Elias Tillands, a Finnish botanist] : a genus of epiphyt- ic air-plants of the family Bromeliaoete. There are many species, eight of which are natives of the southern parts of the U. S. Of these, T. usneoides, the long or Spanish moss, is the best known. It is abundant in the more humid dis- tricts of the South, where it hangs in long festoons from the trees. Its central fiber is largely used in stutfing mat- tresses. The plant is used in making an ointment asserted to be a cure for haemorrhoids, and in winter it is eaten by cattle. Revised by CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Tillemont, te.“el’mor'I’, Louis SEBASTIEN LE NAIN, dc: ec- clesiastical historian; b. in Paris, Nov. 30, 1637; educated by the J ansenists of Port Royal; studied theology at the seminary of Beauvais; took holy orders in 1672. and be- came subdeacon at the St. Lambert; retired in 1677 to the monastery of Port-Royal, and, when the Government closed this institution in 1679, to his estate of Tillemont, between Vincennes and Montreuil, where he died Jan. 10, 1698. He wrote Jllémoires pour servir cl l’Hisz‘oire eeclésiastique des six ;oremiers Sieoles (16 vols., Paris, 1693-1712); Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont régné durant les sia; premiers Sieoles de l’ll'glise (6 vols., 1692-1738) ; Vie de Saint Louis (first published by the French Historical So- ciety, 6 vols., 1847-51). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. TILLODONTIA 155 Tillett, WILBUR Frsx, A. M., D. D.: clergyman; b. at Henderson, Vance co., N. C., Aug. 25, 1854; educated at Trinity College, North Carolina, Randolph-Macon College, Virginia, and Theological Seminary, Princeton, N. J .; en- tered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church South; was pastor at Danville, Va., 1880-82; Professor of Systematic Theology, dean of the theological faculty, and vice-chancellor of Vanderbilt University 1882-95. Besides frequent contributions to religious and secular periodicals, he has published Our Hymns and their Authors (1889) and Discussions in Theology (1890). A. OsBoRN. Tilley, Sir SAMUEL LEONARD, K. C. M. G.: statesman; b. at Georgetown, Queen’s County, New Brunswick, May 8, 1818; educated at the County Grammar School. He was a drug- gist until 1854; represented St. John, New Brunswick, in the Legislative Council of the province 1850-51, 1854-56, 1857-65, 1866-67 ; was a member of the Executive Council, New Brunswick, 1854-56, 1857-65, 1866-67; during those several eriods held the ofice of Provincial Secretary, and from IV ar., 1861, to Mar., 1865, was leader of the Govern- ment. He had a seat in the Parliament of Canada 1867-73, 1878-85; was appointed Minister of Customs for the Do- minion July 1, 1867 ; acting Minister of Public Works 1868-69 ; Minister of Finance for a short time in 1873, and from 1878 until 1885. He was lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick from Nov., 1873, until July, 1878, and was reap- pointed to the same oflice Oct. 31, 1885. He was a delegate to the Charlottetown union conference in 1864, to that in Quebec the same year, and to the London colonial confer- ence 1866-67. He was knighted in 1879, and received the degree of LL. D. from the University of New Brunswick in 1890. NEIL MAonoNALD. Tillman, BENJAMIN RYAN : politician; b. in Edgefield co., S. C., Aug. 11, 1847 ; was educated at Bethany Academy, and engaged in farming. He was Governor of South Caro- lina from 1890 to 1894, and was then elected U. S. Senator. As Governor he was well known for the difficult but persist- ent enforcement of the dispensary law, assuming for the State a monopoly of alcoholic beverages. Tillman, SAMUEL Esonnz soldier and educator; b. near Shelbyville, Tenn.. Oct. 2, 1847; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy J une. 1869; promoted second lieutenant Fourth Artillery; transferred to the Corps of Engineers as first lieutenant June 18, 1872; served on frontier duty in Kansas 1869-70 ; at the military academy as Assistant Pro- fessor of Chemistry, etc., 1870-73 and 1879-80, and as As- sistant Professor of Philosophy 1875-76 ; as assistant astrono- mer to the U. S. expedition to Tasmania to observe the transit of Venus 1874-75; as assistant engineer on the ex- plorations \V. of the 100th meridian (Wheeler survey) 1873-74 and 1876-79 in Arizona, New Mexico, California, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, and Montana; Professor of Chemis- try, Mineralogy, and Geology at the U. S. Military Academy since Dec. 21, 1880 ; author of Elementargj Lessons in Heat and Essentia-l Principles of Chemistry. JAMES l\‘lERCUR. Till0d0n’tia Mod. Lat.; from Gr. ¢iAAew, pluck, tear+ 680155‘, 586m-os, toot ] : a group of extinct Tertiary mammals, now regarded as forming a distinct order, possessing charac- ters intermediate between carnivores, rodents, and ungu- lates. In Tillotherium, the typical and best-known genus, the skull resembles in shape that of the bear. The orbits are confluent with the large temporal fossze, which are separated at the middle line of the skull by an obtuse sagittal crest. The nasals are stout, and expanded behind. The dental formula in the adult is incisors, 3:3;-canines, -if}-: premo- lars, 3-:3-; molars, *3-31%. The anterior incisors, both above and below, are large, curved, scalpriform, and faced in front with enamel. They grow from persistent pulps, and strongly resemble the corresponding teeth of rodents. The canines are small. The upper molars are peculiar, and the lower are of the palreotherium type. The brain-cavity is small. As in most Eocene mammals, the hemispheres are small, and extend but slightly over the cerebellum or over the olfactory lobes. The latter were large and projected well forward. The cerebellar fossa is large, expanded trans- versely, and extends above the cerebral cavity. The verte- brae resemble those of some carnivores; the cervicals were short, the lumbars large. The radius and ulna were sepa- rate and of nearly equal size. The scaphoid and lunar bones were distinct. The feet were plantigrade, apparently fitted for digging, and each had five toes. There was a well-marked third trochanter on the femur, and the tibia and fibula were distinct. The best-known species (T. fodiens, 156 TILLOTSON Marsh) was about two-thirds the size of a tapir. The genus Tillotherium represents a distinct family. A second family of this order is represented by Stylinodon, in which the molars are rootless, subquadrate in transverse section, and faced with enamel within and without. 0. C. MARSH. Tillotson, J OHN, D. D.: archbishop and preacher; b. at Sowerby, Yorkshire, England, in Oct., 1630; was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he was made a fellow in 1651. He was originally a rigid Puritan, and in 1657 be- came tutor in the family of Cromwell’s attorney-general, but at the Restoration went over to the Established Church, in which he took orders, and became in succession curate of Cheshunt, rector of Kedington, preacher at Lincoln‘s Inn, dean of Canterbury, prebendary of St. Paul’s, and, in 1691, Archbishop of Canterbury, having in the meanwhile served as clerk of the closet to William III. and as member of the commission appointed in 1689 to revise the English liturgy. He took an active part in measures in opposition to Roman Catholicism, opposed the declaration of Charles II._ in favor of liberty of conscience, and was an earnest advocate of the exclusion of the Duke of York from the succession. He ranks among the foremost of English preachers, and in lieu of preaching with the Puritan prolixity or the pedantic clumsiness of the Established Church he established the prac- tice of speaking in plain almost familiar style, while at the same time his culture commended him to scholars. He pub- lished during his lifetime several volumes of sermons, and left many more in manuscript, and for the copyright of these his widow received 2,500 guineas. Several editions of his Sermons, in twelve and fourteen volumes, were published. His complete works have been published (3 vols. fol., Lon- don, 1707-12, and 10 vols. 8vo, 1820), and many of his ser- mons have been translated into French and German. D. in London, N ov. 22, 1694. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Til'ly, JOHANN TSERKLAES, Count von: general of the Thirty Years’ war ; b. in the castle of Tilly, near Gembloux, province of Brabant, Belgium, in Feb., 1559 ; being a young- er son, was destined for the Church, and educated by the Jesuits, but preferred the military profession ; served under Parma in the Netherlands, and under Duke Philip Emanuel of Lorraine in Hungary, and was in 1610 appointed field- marshal by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. When the Thirty Years’ war broke out he was made commander-in-chief of the army of the Holy League; suppressed the insurrection in Bohemia after the battle of Prague Nov. 8, 1620; won the battles of Wimpfen and Hiichst in 1622, and Stadtlohn in 1623, and drove the Protestants from the Palatinate. He defeated Christian IV. at Lutter Aug. 27, 1626, and with Wallenstein forced the Protestants to the Peace of Liibeck. Appointed commander-in-chief also of the imperial army after the dismissal of Wallenstein in 1630, he stormed Magde- burg May 20, 1631. The brutal outrages committed by the Walloons and Croats on entering the city have left a stain on Tilly’s reputation, though it is questionable how far he was responsible for them. He was utterly defeated by Gus- tavus Adolphus at Breitenfeld Sept. 17, 1631, and again on the Lech Apr. 5, 1632, in which battle he was mortally wounded. D. at Ingolstadt, Apr. 20, 1632. F. M. COLBY. Til'Sit: town of Prussia, province of East Prussia; on the Niemen ; 65 miles N. E. of Kdnigsberg by rail (see map of German Empire, ref. 1-K). It is regularly built, and in a fertile and well-cultivated district. It manufactures cloth, hosiery, oil, paper, chemicals, has several sugar-refin- eries and important fisheries for eel and salmon, and carries on a considerable trade in grain, hemp, flax, wool, and horses. It is famous for the Treaty of Tilsit concluded be- tween Napoleon and the Czar Alexander in 1807 after the humbling of Prussia by the French. By this peace the foundation was laid for a Russian-French alliance, and Prus- sia lost nearly half of her territory. Pop. (1890) 24,545. 'I‘il’S0nburg: post-village, Oxford County, Ontario, Cana- da; on Big Otter creek; 16 miles N. of Port Burwell (see map of Ontario, ref. 5-C). It has good water-power, large lumber- ing interests, and is a station on the Grand Trunk and Michi- gan Central railways. Pop. (1891) 2,163. Tilt Cove : port of entry ; on White Bay, Newfoundland ; 230 miles by steamer N. W. of St. John. It is a picturesque village on the border of a lovely lake, and owes its im or- tance to a rich copper mine which is actively wor red. There is also a vein of nickel, occurring in a regular lode; the copper, however, is in pockets or bunches. The harbor is not very good. Pop. about 800. TIMBER AND TIMBER—TREES Tilton: town; Belknap co., N. H.; on the Merrimack and Winnipiseogee rivers, and the Concord and Montreal Rail- road; 10 miles S. W. of Laconia, and 18 miles N. of Con- cord (for location, see map of New Hampshire. ref. 8-F). It contains the villages of Tilton and East Tilton; has five churches, a national bank with capital of $70,000, a savings- bank, a union graded school, and the New Hampshire Con- ference Seminary and Female College; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of woolen goods, hosiery, and pulp. Pop. (1880) 1,282; (1890) 1,521. Tilton, Tnnononrm journalist; b. in New York, Oct. 2, 1835; was educated at the New York Free Academy (now the College of the City of New York); entered on journalism at an early age, and in 1856 was employed upon the New York Independent, to the editorship of which he succeeded upon the resignation of Henry Ward Beecher in 1863. In 1872, in consequence of disputes, his connection with The Inde- pendent was discontinued, and he established The Golden Age, a weekly journal, which he conducted till 1874. In that year he brought suit against Mr. Beecher, whom he charged with criminal intimacy with his wife, claiming damages of $100,000. The suit lasted six months, and the jury were unable to agree upon a verdict. He published The American Board and Slavery (1860); Memorial of ]L’[rs. Browning (1862); The King’s Ring (1866); The True Church (1867); The Sea;ton’s Tale and other Poems (1867); Sanctum Sanctorum, or Proof-sheets from an Editor’s Ta- ble (1871); Life of Victoria C. Wbodhull (1871); Tempest- tossed, a novel (1875) ; Thou and I, poems (1880), and other works. He was for many years a popular lecturer. Since 1883 he has resided in Europe. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Timaeus, ti-mee'1“1s(Gr.Tiuaios): Greek historian of Tau- romenium, in Sicily; b. 352 B. c. The greater part of his long life was spent in Athens, where he studied rhetoric under Philiseus, a pupil of Isocrates. D. in Sicily in 256. His IIistory of Sicily, in sixty-eight, or, according to others, thirty-eight books, told the story of the island from the old- est times to 264 B. C., and that of Italy and Carthage as well. Famous also was his chronological work The Victors of the Olympic Games (’O)\v,u1rioi/Dear). Timaeus was a closet histo- rian, and his writings showed a lack of familiarity with the practical problems of statesmanship. He made diligent use of his authorities, but he was a determined fault-finder, and for this ,censoriousness, as well as for his other shortcomings, he was mercilessly criticised by Polybius. His style found few eulogists. Fragments in iiller’s Fragmenta Histori- corum Grwcorum, vol. i., pp. 193-233. B. L. GILDERSLEEVE. Timber and Timber-trees [timber is 0. Eng. timbor, timber : O. H. Germ. zimbar, timber, house, room (> Mod. Germ. zimmer, room) : Goth. timrjan, build; cf. Lat. do- mus : Gr. 86,uos : Sanskr. dama, house, and Gr. 8e’,u.ew, build] : wood suitable for constructive purposes, as for making buildings and ships, or for furniture, tools, and the like; also the trees furnishing such material. The most romi- nent species of timber-trees used in the U. S. are tie fol- lowing: (1) Coniferous Dioision.—Of those of the Atlantic States and Canada, the most important, and for its uses the best in the world, is white pine (Pinus strobus), in England called Weymouth pine. Hard-pine lumber, variously called yel- low pine, pitch-pine, etc., is most largely furnished, and of best quality, by P. palustris, the long-leaved pine of the Southern States. P. rigida, the Northern pitch-pine, both in the Northern and Southern States furnishes a similar but inferior and generally smaller timber; and excellent hard pine is yielded by the short-leaved pine (P. echinata) ; while the loblolly-pine at the South (P. tceda) and the red or Nor- way pine at the North (P. resinosa) furnish a softer and less resinous lumber. Larch or hackmatack (Laricv laricina) of the North furnishes a very valuable lumber, important in ship-building. Next are the spruccs, with wood tougher than white pine, but more liable to shakes and splits. Black spruce (Picea mariana) has the widest range and yields the best lumber, especially prized for spars. White spruce (P. canadensis) is a smaller tree, and the wood inferior. Hem- lock-spruce (Tsuga canadensis) furnishes at the North a valuable but coarse lumber, very liable to shakes and of moderate durability. The balsam-firs, both the Northern species (Abies balsamea) and that of the mountains in the South (A. fraseri), are of no value for timber, being small trees, with soft wood, lacking strength and durability. Of the cypress tribe, the bald cypress of the Southern States TIMBER AND TIMBER—TREES (Taxodiurn distiohum) furnishes lumber of great size and much durability, but light and shaky; while the arbor- vitae or white cedar of the North (Thuja occidentalis) and that of the Middle and Southern States (Chamoecg/parts thyoides) yield small timber of exceeding durability, espe- cially for posts; and red cedar (Juniperus oirginiana) fur- nishes a red and fragrant fine-grained wood of the greatest durability and value. The yew occurs as a tree only in a limited part of Florida, as does its relative the stinking cedar (Torrcya tarvifolia), rendering their excellent timber practically unimportant. In the Pacific States and Rocky Mountain region the coniferous trees are numerous, and some are of immense height and girth. Of soft-wooded or white pines no one equals the white pine of the East. The sugar-pine (Pinus lambertiana), with its immense trunks, takes its place, but the wood is much coarser-grained. P. ponderosa, with its heavy wood, furnishes excellent hard-pine lumber, less resin- ous than the Eastern species; and there are several other species intermediate as to the character of the wood. For spruces, the Pseudotsuga taxifolia or Douglas spruce, of Oregon and California, is far the best of the race, as well as the largest. The hemlock-spruce and the larch are repre- sented by species very like the Eastern ; while the Menzies spruce (P/ioea sitchensis) surpasses the black spruce; and the balsam-firs are represented by several nobler species, which furnish better lumber. The cypress tribe is repre- sented by several cypresses of considerable value; also in Oregon and northward by an arbor-vitae (Thuja gigantea), vastly surpassing the Eastern species in size and value for timber, and in California by the famous redwood (Sequoia semperoirens), the light and reddish wood of which is in- comparable for building and excellent for interior finish. See SEQUOIA. (2) Amcntaceous Trees.—The oaks are the most impor- tant, and the most valuable species is the white oak (Quercus alba), which in the Atlantic States takes the place of the Q. robur of Europe. It grows to a height of 80 to 100 feet and a diameter of 6 or 7 feet, and yields handsome logs. The wood is of a pale-reddish color, straight-grained, compact, tough, strong, durable, and shrinks but little. It is used for frames of structures where strength and durability are required, coachmaking, coopering, ship-building, and for a great variety of purposes in the domestic arts. For cabinet- making and interior decoration it is highly valued. The other annual-fruited species come next to this in value— viz., chestnut-oaks, post-oak, bur-oak, etc. In the Southern States, along the coast, the live-oak (Q. oirginiana) repre- sents a peculiar type, and for ship-building is prized above all others, but it does 11ot give large timber. Its height is from 40 to 50 feet; diameter, 1 to 2 feet. The wood is yel- lowish when first cut, and deepens to a dark brown with age; it is hard, tough, strong, heavy, and very diflicult to work, on account of the grain being waved or twisted. The pores are minute, and the silver-grain very bright and dis- tinct. The biennial-fruited oaks have a more porous wood, unfitted for casks to hold liquids, less durable, and less strong. The best of them--viz., black oak (Q. veluti/na)—is found on poorer soils than the white oak, and grows to the height of 80 to 90 feet, with a diameter of 4 to 5 feet. The wood is reddish, porous, and coarse-grained. The outer bark is greatly used for tanning, and the inner bark, called quercitron, for dyeing. Red oak (Q. rubra) is used for similar purposes, though it is inferior in quality. Spanish oak (Q. digitata) and willow-oak (Q. phellos) are superior; and so are laurel or shingle-oak (so called because the wood was used for shingles). California and Oregon have oaks of peculiar species, some of them valuable timber-trees, but none which equal white oak. Chestnut (Castanca dentata) is a large tree, of the Atlantic States only, essentially of the same species as the European, yielding a coarse-grained and porous but durable lumber, easily worked, and valuable for wainscoting, etc. The mcdullary rays can not be traced in it. The American beech (Fagus atropunicea) has a very close-grained and hard wood, like that of the European spe- cies, of which joiners’ tools are made. Iron-wood (Ostrya) and horn-beam (Carpinus), as the names denote, have very hard wood, but they are rather small trees. peculiar to the Atlantic States, with corresponding species in the Old World. The hickory, in several species, is peculiar to the Atlantic States. The shell-bark or shag-bark (Hico-ria ovata) is the best, but all have a very tough and hard wood of remarkable strength, much prized for tools and the like. The walnut (Juglans) is known in the Atlantic States by 157 two species—i. e. white walnut or butter-nut (J. oinerea), the favorite wood for gunstocks and of late for wainscoting and cabinet-work, but a small tree; and black walnut (J. nigra), the most important of native woods for the cabinet- maker. a tree of ample size. The heart-wood is of a violet color when first cut, but upon exposure becomes dark. It is far‘superior to the European walnut; it is strong, tough, durable when seasoned, and not apt to warp and split. It has a fine and compact grain, and is susceptible of a high polish. The birches are valuable timber-trees of the second class, having a hard and fine-grained wood, valued by cabi- netmakers. Of the five species which in the Atlantic States and Canada form good-sized trees, the black or sweet birch, sometimes called cherry-birch (Betula lenta), is most prized, being excellent for furniture ; and yellow birch (B. lutea) is equally good, but lighter in color. Poplars or cottonwoods (Populus) make large trees. as do some willows, but the wood is weak, soft, and usually of no durability. (3) Other Deciduous Trees.—-Only the most important can be mentioned. Plane-tree, buttonwood, or sycamore (Platanus occidentalis of the Atlantic States, and a corre- sponding species in California) deserves notice on account of the size which the trunk may attain, but it soon becomes hollow, and the wood, which is handsome 011 account of the strong silver-grain, is useless for the purposes it would otherwise be well adapted for. The laurel family is repre- sented in the East by the sassafras, and in California by a laurel (Umbellularia cal/ifornioa), the light-colored and va- riegated wood of which is extremely beautiful. Elms are given only to the eastern side of the continent, and white elm (Ulmus americana) is the most noted species, a large tree, with handsome but not very durable wood. Slippery elm (U. l/oubescens) is a smaller tree, and the reddish wood is tougher. The ashes are timber-trees of the first class, of which there are six species in the Atlantic and two in the Pacific States. The yellowish wood is very firm and tough, but comparatively light, straight-grained, and easy to work. VVhite ash (Fra:rz'nus amerioana) is the best and most used, and is unexcelled for purposes where strength, elasticity, and durability are needed, and it is preferred to chestnut for interior finish. Black ash (F. nigra), a smaller tree, has tougher wood, easily separable into layers, and is therefore used for hoops and strong basket-work. American holly (I Zea: opaca) of the Atlantic States, like the European spe- cies, has a very fine-grained and compact white wood, used for ornamental cabinet-work, wooden screws, etc. Tupelo, pepperidge, or sour-gum trees (Nyssa) of two or three At- lantic States species, and sweet gum (Liguidambar styraci- flua), mostly have a very tough wood, of various uses, but not much used as timber ; and flowering dog-wood (Corn-us florida), although the wood is prized, is seldom large enough to form a timber-tree. The Kentucky coffee-tree (Gymna- cladus dio/icus) is a stately tree, of peculiar aspect, with handsome rosy or brownish wood, well suited for cabinet- work. Honey-locust is of little account, but the true locust (Robinia pseudacacia) affords a timber equal to live-oak and red cedar in durability, especially valued for treenails and in naval architecture generally. Maples are fine trees, of which one species on the Pacific coast and two or three on the Atlantic side are important for timber. Sugar-ma- ple (Acer saccharum) is much the most valuable, having a hard and close-grained wood, of light color and silky luster when polished, and the varieties called curled and bird‘s-eye maple are greatly prized for cabinet-work. The soft ma- ples, so called from the character of their wood, are the white or silver maple (A. sacclzarinum) and the red or swamp maple (A. Irubrum-), the former a large and the latter a medium-sized tree, the wood of which is used for lasts, for carvings, etc. Lindens or limes, in the U. S. commonly called basswood, of which there are two well-marked species in the Atlantic, but none in the Pacific States, are first-class forest-trees for size, and their soft and white fine-grained wood is excellent for coach-bodies, interior of cabinets, and various purposes where lightness with moderate strength is demanded. Tulip-tree (Liriodcndron z"ul'z'ioi_/'era), some- times called whitewood, but in the eastern part of the Mis- sissippi valley (where it abounds and develops its noblest proportions) commonly known as poplar, has a light and soft wood, like that of the linden, but more valuable and much more extensively employed for the same purposes. This noble tree is of the magnolia family, which in the eu- cumber-tree and in the great-flowered magnolia of the Southern States furnishes two other fine trees of the same character of wood, but of comparatively small use. 158 TIMBRE (4) Exotic Timber-trees.--Those of Europe are analogues of those of the U. S.—~i. e. different species of pine, larch, spruce, oak, beech, elm, ash, linden, etc., only the chestnut being the same or nearly so——but are far fewer in species and in kind, tulip-trees, gum-trees, locusts, hickories, sassa- fras, bald cypress, red wood, etc., being wholly wanting. As to foreign woods of tropical regions imported for the use of cabinetmakers-—such as mahogany, Spanish cedar (Ce- drela odorata), rosewood, lignum-vitae, and the like-——they are mostly treated under their names in this work. See FoREsTRY and PRESERVATION or TIMBER. BIBLIOGRAPHY.——-G. S. Sargent, Report on the Forests of lV'orth America (exclusive of Mexico), in vol. ix. of the tenth census of the U. S. (1884); Silva of North America (1891—). Asa. GRAY. Revised by CHARLES E. BESSEY. Timbre 2 See Acousrrcs and VOICE. Timbuc’to0: town of the Sudan, Central Africa: capi- tal of the Fulbe state Massina; 10 miles N. of the Niger, near the desert of Sahara, in lat. 16° 49’ N., lon. 3° 7' W. (see map of Africa, ref. 3-B). It is in an unhealthful and unproductive district; provisions have to be brought to It from distant places; but for the traffic between Northern and Central Africa it is of great importance, and although it has repeatedly suffered severely from being conquered and sacked by the Moors and by neighboring tribes, it has al- ways risen again and is still increasing. Dates, European manufactures, firearms, gunpowder, tobacco, and paper are brought here through Sahara and exchanged for gums, ostrich-feathers, gold-dust. and palm oil. The rapid de- velopment of its commerce has been hindered by the rivalry and jealousy between the British and French merchants. The town is poorly built; it consists mainly of one-story mud huts and, with the exception of a mosque dating from 1325, it contains few buildings worth noticing. It was for- merly surrounded by walls. The inhabitants, variously es- timated at from 5,000 to 20,000, are indigenous Negroes, but mixed with them are Tuaregs, Fulahs, Bambarras, Man- dingoes, Arabs, and representatives of the merchants of Mo- gadore, Morocco, Fez, and other places in Northern Africa. The city seems to date back to the twelfth century, but was visited by no European until Laing reached it in 1826. See Lenz, fZ’imba/eta, Reise darch Marocco, die Sahara, and den Sudan (2 vols., 1884) ; Constantin, Alger et Tornbouctoa (1885) ; Caron, De Port Louis an port do Tomboncloa (1891). Revised by M. W. I-IARRINGTON. Timby, Tnnonoan Rueenns, S. D., LL. D.: inventor; b. at Dover, N. Y., Apr. 5, 1822 ; he attended a common school, and early showed an inventive faculty; in 1841 submitted to the chiefs of engineering and ordnance a revolving battery to be constructed of iron, the first practical suggestion for the use of iron in the construction of military defensive works, and in 1843 filed a caveat in the U. S. Patent Office for “ a metallic revolving fort to be used on land or water, and to be revolved by propelling engines located within the same, and acting upon suitable machinery”; in 1862 he made an agreement with the contractors and builders of the original Monitor for the use of his patent covering the turret sys- tem. The most important of his patents are the cordon of revolving towers across a channel (1862) ; the mole and tower system (1880); the subterraneous system (1881); the tower and shield system (1885); and the hemispheroidal system (1889). He also originated in 1862 the plan of fir- ing heavy guns by electricity. Time [O. Eng. tima : Icel. firni : Dan. lid, time (an hour) < Teuton. *ti-, found also in *z‘i-(li > Germ. zeit, time : Eng. tide. See TIDES]: The measurement of time is of such im- portance in modern life that a description of the methods by which it is made and the principles which govern it will be interesting. Measurements of long periods, months, and years depend on astronomical phenomena, especially the motions of the sun and moon. Measurements of fractions of a day are made by observing the difT.erent directions of the sun, or in our time by clocks and watches. The longest unit of time which can be determined direct- ly by observation is the year. This is the time occupied by the earth in one revolution around the sun ; but, as shown in the article YEAR, there is a slight ambiguity as to the time when a revolution shall be regarded as complete. The sidereal year, which is properly that of the earth’s revolu- tion, is slightly longer than the solar year on which the sea- sons depend. Since it is the change of seasons which fixes the length of the year for practical purposes, the solar year is that universally used both in astronomy and in daily life. TIME The next shorter unit of time is the lunar month or the in- terval between one new moon and the next. As this inter- val is neither an entire number of days nor an aliquot part of a year, it is no longer used as a measure of time. It has given way in most nations to the calendar month. The most certain and exact measure of all is the day. This is the most obvious measure, because on it depends the alternation of day and night, and it is the most exact because the time of the earth’s revolution on its axis re- mains unchanged, so far as observation has yet shown, from century to century. If it varies at all the change does not amount to one-thousandth of a second in a century. The time of one revolution of the earth on its axis is called the “ sidereal day” because it is equal to the interval between two passages of a star across the meridian of a place. Ow- ing to the annual revolution of the earth around the sun the sidereal day does not coincide with the interval between two transits of the sun over the meridian. If the sun and the star cross at the same moment to-day, the sun will be nearly four minutes later than the star in crossing to-mor- row. In the course of a year the number of revolutions which the earth actually makes on its axis is one greater than the number of days ; hence the sidereal day can not be used for the purposes of daily life and the solar day must take its place. The true or apparent solar day is the interval between two transits of the sun over the meridian. Were this in- terval invariable no difficulty would be found in using the true solar day as a measure of time; but as a matter of fact it is always changing. Owing to the varying velocity of the earth in its orbit and to the obliquity of the ecliptic the difference between a transit of the sun and that of a star will sometimes change by 1nore than four minutes and sometimes by less than four minutes in a day. ‘Thus the solar days are a little longer at some seasons and a little shorter at others. , A hundred years ago, when men depended mainly on ob- servations of the sun, or on a sun-dial or a meridian-mark, for their time, the difference caused no trouble, but when accurate clocks and watches were introduced they had to be constantly set forward or back in order to keep time with the sun. Thus arose the distinction between mean solar time and apparent solar time, two quantities which may be defined as follows : Ap,/oarenl solar time is time measured by the actual pas- sage of the sun over the meridian. Owing to the variability of this measure, apparent time is a varying quantity. llfean solar time is defined by the motion of a fictitious sun called “the mean sun,” which is imagined to move with perfect uniformity, being sometimes behind the true sun and some- times in advance of it. The hours of this time are those measured by a perfectly regulated clock. The difference of these two times is called the equation of time. The diagram on the next page shows the way in which this equation va- ries in the course of a year. The straight line in the center of the diagram may be supposed to represent the equable course of mean time. while the curved line passes to the left or right of the straight one according as the sun is ahead of the mean-time clock or behind it. It will be seen that about Apr. 15, June 15, Aug. 31, and Dec. 24 the two lines cross; at those periods the mean-time clock and the sun coincide. From Dec. 24 until Apr. 15 the sun is be- hind the clock; the greatest difference occurs about Feb. 10, when the sun does not cross the meridian until about fifteen minutes past twelve by the clock. During May the sun is ahead of the clock, from June 15 to Aug. 31 behind it again, and then ahead of it from September until Decem- ber. About Oct. 27 the sun is so far ahead as to pass the meridian sixteen minutes before noon by the clock. Local Tirn/e.—-On the system of measuring the day by the sun, noon at any place is the moment at which the mean sun passes the meridian of that place. To speak with more exactness, it is the moment at which the place passes under the sun as the earth revolves. Owing to the roundness of the earth different places pass under the sun at different times; one may say, in fact, that noon continually travels around the earth, reaching every part of it in succession during intervals of one day. Noon takes about three hours to pass from New York to San Francisco. When it is noon at San Francisco it is one o’clock in the region of the Rocky Mountains, two o’clock in the Mississippi valley, three o’clock in the Atlantic coast, four o’clock in Labrador, eight o’clock at Greenwich, etc. Hence, when it is noon at any one place, say New York, it is later than noon at every point farther TIME east in longitude, and earlier at every point farther west. The difference is four minutes for every degree of longitude. So long as men did not travel rapidly this difference of time caused no inconvenience; but when railways were in- K-—----—-—---’.‘$’6f. PPARENT Manon . OF' THE -‘iun. O ,_| O A-V .X I O >- WASHINGTON 0 ca 7 m T" <1 3-" ._._.._~-__.._ _..;~_.._ ._....._ 2"N+:'w IM_lNiJI'ES FAST, ' |DEC.3l. Z0 15 ‘ |_._....._...i.__...._..i. HORIZONTAL Mimngs SLo'w.' ‘I0 I5 20 U'l Diagram showing comparison of mean (or clock) time with solar (or apparent) time, at the several seasons of the year. The perpen- dicular central line represents mean time, and the curved line solar time, at mean noon. If the central line be taken to repre- sent standard Eastern time, the dotted lines represent the local mean tune for New York and Waslnng ton. troduced it became a source of great confusion. The Bos- tonian visiting New York would find his watch eleven min- utes fast. If he traveled farther west he would find his watch more and more ahead of the local time at every sta- tion he reached. Every railway chose its own meridian for running its trains, and a traveler could never determine at what time by his watch a train was booked to leave unless he knew what meridian the railway time was referred to. To lessen this confusion what is called standard time was introduced in 1883. Standard Time.--T110 relation of standard time to local time is so little understood that some explanation is neces- sary. Suppose an astronomical clock to be set up some 6 miles E. of the Central High School of Philadelphia, across 159 the Delaware river. Let the observer be able to fire a can- non, the sound of which could in imagination be heard all the way to the Mississippi valley. He knows the exact instant when the mean sun reaches his meridian. This instant is for him noon. At this moment of noon he fires his cannon. It would take thirty-eight seconds for the mean sun to pass from the observer’s meridian to that of the High School. Supposing sound to travel instantaneousl_v. an obseri er at the High School would hear the gun thirty-eight seconds before his own noon. Of course the farther we move toward the W. the longer it would take the mean sun to reach us, and therefore the earlier in the day we should hear the sound. An observer at Pittsburg would hear the report about twenty minutes before noon, and one at Newark, O., at half-past eleven. But an inhabitant of New York would not hear the report until four minutes past twelve at that place, because the mean sun marked noon for him four min- utes before it marked noon for the observer E. of Phila- delphia. On the meridian of Boston the report would be heard at sixteen minutes past their noon, and on the me- ridian of Calais, Me., the difference would be half an hour. Thus between the meridian of Calais, Me.. and Newark, O., there would be a range of one hour in the local time. The rule for standard time then is simply this: That within this whole belt—that is, the belt included between the meridians of Calais, Me., and Newark, O., railways and the public shall use the time (which is called Eastern time) determined by the observer E. of Philadelphia, who, as we have placed him, is situated exactly 75° in longitude or five hours in time IV. of Greenwich. Going farther west, say to Cincin- nati, it will be more than half an hour before noon when the gun is heard—in fact, only twenty-three minutes past eleven. Therefore for Cincinnati a new meridian of 90° W. of Greenwich is taken, which passes near New Orleans, St. Louis, and Davenport. The mean sun crosses this me- ridian one hour after it crosses that at Philadelphia. and the moment of crossing is taken as noon, not only for all places on the meridian, but for all places Within half an hour E. or \V. of it; this time is called Central. At Denver the St. Louis noon gun would be heard at eleven o’clock. So we pass a new meridian near Denver, which is 105° \V. of Greenwich, and which the sun does not reach until two hours after it has passed Philadelphia, and one hour after it has passed St. Louis. The time of this meridian (called Mountain time) is used for all the places whose time does not differ from it by more than half an hour. A fourth meridian is that of 120° from Greenwich, and it passes near the Pacific coast, E. of Sacramento and Stockton. where the time is called Pacific time. The moment when the sun crosses this meridian is taken for noon for all places not more than half an hour distant from it E. or IV. Thus the trav- eler who wishes to know the time actually used at any rail- way station, or by the inhabitants of any city, has only to change his watch by one or moie entire hours, the minutes remaining the same. This is a great improvement on the old system, but every improvement in human affairs has its drawbacks, and stand- ard time is no exception. The drawback in this case is that noon corresponds to the transit of the mean sun only on the four standard meridians of Philadelphia. St. Louis. Denver, and that of a point a little E. of Sacramento. If people had to set their watches by the sun, as they did a hundred years ago, this would be a great inconvenience. It is, how- ever, little felt in these days of telegraphs and railways, when nearly every one to whom local time is important can set his watch by the clock of a railway station, or of a tele- graph office. It might also be inconvenient if the farmer in Ohio were obliged to take his mid-day meal by standard time, which for him would mean the time of St. Louis. But if he deems this of importance he has only to set his dinner hour at half-past eleven instead of twelve. It will then correspond to the middle of his mean day or to his noon. lf he is near the Peniisyli ania border, where the time of the Pliiladelphia meridian is used, and he waits until half- past twelve by his standard time he will have his dinner at true noon at his place. It must also be remembered in this connection that the almanac times of sunset necessarily correspond to the old local time, and not to standard time. Suppose, for example, that on the arallel of latitude for Philadelphia, which an- swers for how York, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Den- ver, San Francisco, and in fact for almost the entire range of the Middle States, the sun is put down in the almanac as setting on a certain day at twenty minutes past six. The 160 sun sets at Philadelphia five minutes after it does at New York, at Cincinnati thirty-seven minutes after it does at Philadelphia, and so on. It does not pass from place to place by jumps, but gradually, as the earth revolves. Twenty minutes past six, local time, at New York will be twenty-four minutes past six standard time, and so the standard time of sunset will differ four minutes from the almanac. At New- ark, O., the error will be nearly half an hour in either direc- tion, and although the almanac will give twenty minutes past six as the time of sunset, the standard time of sunset will be only ten minutes before seven. Hence if the almanac is used by the farmer to set his clock by sunset or sunrise, he must either use the local time of his own meridian or make a proper allowance, never more than half an hour, for the dif- ference between his own meridian and the standard meridian. In European countries, Greenwich time, six hours faster than Central time in the U. S., is used by the railways of Great Britain, Belgium, and Holland, and it is the legal time for all purposes in Great Britain and Belgium. Ireland uses Dublin time, and France that of Paris. Middle Euro- pean time, one hour faster than Greenwich time, is used on the railways in Sweden, Germany, Austria—Hungary, Servia, and Vllestern Turkey. It is the legal time for all purposes in Sweden and the German empire, and in 1894 was adopted in Denmark and Switzerland. Eastern European time, two hours faster than Greenwich time, is used by the railways of Eastern Turkey, Bulgaria, and Roumania. The time of the 135th degree of east longitude, nine hours faster than Green- wich time, is the otficial standard time used for all purposes in Japan. The Australasian colonies adopted standard time Jan. 31, 1895, thus making Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane time ten hours ahead of Greenwich time, while Adelaide, Perth, and Wellington are respectively nine, eight, and eleven hours ahead. Sidereal Time.—Owing to the revolution of the earth around the sun, the sidereal day, as already defined, is three minutes fifty-five seconds shorter than the solar day. To state the case with entire precision, 365'2422 mean solar days, which is the solar year, are equal to 3662422 sidereal days. In sidereal time the day is divided into twenty-four hours, the hour into sixty minutes, and the minute into sixty sec- onds, exactly as in solar time. The sidereal clock is one whose pendulum is a little shorter than that of the ordi- nary seconds clock, so as to keep sidereal time. All the units of this time are shorter than those of the solar time in the same proportion, and the sidereal clock gains one day in a year on the ordinary clock, which is a gain of nearly one second in six minutes. Once a year, at the vernal equinox, near Mar. 21. the two clocks agree. At all other times they differ. In astronomy, sidereal time is not used as a standard of measuring time, but only for finding or expressing the right ascensions of the heavenly bodies. S. N EWCOMB. Time, in music: rhythm. Music, every sound, and every rest or intermission of sound, necessarily occupies some por- tion of time. The duration of such sound or rest is not abso- lute, but relative—i. e. it is not measured by clock-time, but depends upon the rate or speed assigned to any piece of music by the composer or performer. When that rate is once de- termined, then the duration of each individual note or sound is also determined, as would be the case with the minutes and seconds of a clock if its rate of motion were subject to change. Notes and rests represent portions of time in the order of 1, ~§-, :1,-, 31;, etc. If the duration of the semibreve should be equal to 8 seconds of time, then the minim would occupy 4 seconds, the crotchet 2, the quaver 1, and so on; and if the duration of the semibreve should be arbitrarily fixed at more or less than 8 seconds, the shorter notes must all conform and preserve their relative propor- tions. This is the simplest and most elementary office of time in music. (See LARGE and NOTATION.) Notes written in a continued series without any regular divisions or peri- odical accent, would be umneaning and unfit for the ex- pression of musical sentiment and beauty, except in very rudimentary forms. Regularity of accent and rhythm is at the foundation of all excellence in modern music, which is therefore written in regular periods, phrases, etc., with smaller divisions into measures or bars. These measures are of several kinds, representing various styles of move- ment and peculiarities of accent, the leading idea being that musical sounds tend to fall into rhythmical groups of equal duration, and that these groups may be reduced into two classes, having one, two, or four times in a bar, and the other having three. Regularity of rhythm is an essential TIME element in all grades of musical composition. There is a certain degree of interest created in the mind even by the repeated strokes of a dru1n when marked off into groups by a periodical accent. In such a case there is no diversity of musical sound, but yet the mind receives pleasure from such regularly recurring accents or pulsations. A succession of such will naturally fall into groups of twos or threes, or, in technical language, it will be duple or triple, binary or terna- ry. Other distinctions, as imagined by musicians of the eigh- teenth century, are unreal and have no philosophical basis. The reduction of all musical times into the genera of duple and triple, says a writer, “ would long ago have been rec- ognized had music made advances equal to other arts and sciences.” Duple or common time (embracing also the quadruple) contains two or four equal beats in a bar, with the accent on the first part of each bar, and (in the latter) an inferior accent on the third beat. In ordinary common time each bar contains a semibreve, or shorter notes united- l_v equivalent to it in value. It is known by alarge C at the clef, with or without a stroke drawn through it. In church music this time is often written with two semibreves or four minims in a bar. The figures 3- indicate another mode of writing common time, every bar containing two-fourths (or the half) of a semibreve. These kinds of common time are essentially one. The car can detect no difference be- tween them if in performance a bar of one is made equal to a bar of the other in velocity. Thus the strain variously written at a, Z), c in 1 might be played by three instru- ments simultaneously without the least difference being per- ceptible even to the most critical ear. Ex. 1.—MM F : 80. (L _n L A I V lJL,, IO/1/1!/LQ /all l_iL_ Q l _4L" ll 1: I l I -I I1 I ILL! I-I F A H l_ (W L I [I [131 J r J F‘ l r n U f = so. b An l _ HG-. —-*—H- .e—:% as E-t-Q1911 t€<9——_r——F rl - C I I P ‘ m J E: 80. 0 F;li——;s j:Fn_—:l' WY? IILIA l T f—' Hi |_ I1 F\\l/ ' Fl " l l [1 J In regard to accent it was formerly assumed that in a bar with four equal beats the first only was accented, and in a bar of two equal beats the first was accented and the last unaccented. In actual practice, however, this nice distinc- tion vanishes. Albrechtsberger remarks that the difference between these two is not a real one, as “ a bar of four crotchets or beats is really only adouble bar of two-crotchet time.” Triple time contains three equal beats in each bar. Like common time, it may be written in minims, crotchets, or quavers, and marked as 3-, é}, and 9-, which figures give the time-value of each bar as compared with the semibreve. In old collections of music, pieces may be found in -1%; time, each bar containing only three semiquavers, or their value in other notes or rests. Compound time is a modification of the above simple times, produced by a mingling of the triple element with the duple or quadruple; as when the two crotchets of a bar in two-four time are turned into two groups of three quavers each, or when the same process is applied to a bar in three-four or any other triple time. See Ex. 2, at a and Z2. Ex. 2.-a téifig-lie: 1a.%a-—.:- Tiifr The for1ns of compound common time in most ordinary use are 5% and -S-, the former having 6 crotchets (or their value) in each measure, and the latter having six quavers (or their value). The times marked -13-°"’— (twelve quavers) and -}%- (twelve semiquavers) are less f1'eq11entl_y used by modern composers. The forms of compound triple time are clnefly §%, having the value of nine crotchets in each measure, and %, with the value of nine quavers. In the writings of the old masters, and even as late as the time of Beethoven, we find several other varieties of time (and various modes also of indicating the times already described), such as .‘l.°.3.‘i_~t _9 ll 1’-U71’-$14,$$1$_1_66—,.l-‘B34’ TIMOCREON OF IALYSUS. Much of the difficulty attending the study of musical time would disappear if it were borne in mind that the ear, and not the eye, is the proper judge in all questions of this nature. There are indeed certain reasons of conve- nience for writing common or triple time in four or five different modes, but the ear infallibly reduces them all to one, provided that they all proceed at the same rate. _ILvei'y- thing, in fact, depends on velocity, for in an aclag/to in two- crotchet time every qucwer may equal in duration a nmnt/n in moderately quick or four-minim time. The ear knows only one kind of common time; and the most experienced musician can not detect a difference between the groups at a, Z2, 0, and al in Ex. 3 when performed at the same speed. Ex. 3. /1 %_I€{§5€§;Z_YH§f-TjF5pt:_E-lfflgig-Eillfififiéfl U That the same remarks will apply to the several forms of triple time needs no demonstration. They are various only to the eye, but are recognized by the car as essentially one. Revised by DUDLEY BUCK. Tiiii0’c1‘e0li (Gr. Ti,ao/cpéwv) Of Ialysus, in Rhodes : a lyric poet who took sides with the invaders during the Persian war. He is famous for his poetical tirade against Themis- tocles, and for his enmity against Simonidcs, the friend of Themistocles, was pilloried by Simonidcs in a familiar epi- taph, which may be paraphrased : Hearty drinker, hearty eater, Hearty railer, hearty hater, Here I lie beneath this stone— Rhodian Timocreon. The chief fragments are found in Plutarch’s Life of The- mtstocles. See also Bergk‘s Poetre Lyrtct (1’/meet (4th ed. vol. iii., pp. 536-541). B. L. G. Time’ leon (Gr. TL,LL0)\6/(4)1/) : a native of Corinth and a mem- ber of one of the most prominent families of the city. He put to death his brother, Timophanes, who attempted to over- throw the democratic constitution of their native city and make himself tyrant. In 344 B. 0. an embassy arrived from Syracuse in Sicily, a colony of Corinth, and demanded the intervention of the mother city in the struggle between Hicetas and Dionysius the Younger, each of whom wished to become master of the city, and were ruining it by their strife. The aid was willingly granted, and Timoleon was appointed commander of the expedition. Although the armament was very small, he succeeded in expelling both Dionysius and Hicetas, established a democratic constitu- tion, repeopled the city, and brought it in a very short time into a most flourishing state. This excited the jealousy of the Carthaginians, and under the command of Hasdrubal and Hamilcar they sent an army of 80.000 men against Syra- cuse, but Timoleon, although his force nmnbered only 12,000 men, attacked them while crossing the Crimissus, routed them completely in 339 B. C., and a treaty was concluded by which the Halycus was fixed as the boundary between the Greek and Carthaginian dominions in Sicily. He also ex- pelled Hicetas from Leontini and l\’[amercus from Catana, introducing free constitutions in all the Greek cities of Sicily. The last years of his life he spent in retirement in Syracuse, living as a private citizen, though enjoying the greatest fame and honor througliout the Greek world. D. in 337 B. C‘. An annual festival was instituted in Syracuse in honor of his memory. Revised by J. R. S. STERRETT. Timon (Gr. Ti,uwx/): surnamed The Misanthrope; an Athe- nian citizen who lived at the time of the Peloponnesian war, and was embittered against mankind by the ingratitude of his friends. He is frequently alluded to by the comic poets of the period, was made the subject of one of Lucian’s most famous dialogues, and has been rendered especially familiar by Shakspeare’s play, which goes back ultimately to Lucian‘s dramatic sketch. Ttmont'um was the name of H ark A ntony‘s retreat at Alexandria and is the equivalent of “ growler_v.” B. L. G. Timon 0f Phlius: a man of letters who flourished at Athens about 275 B. c. His autliorship was varied and mul- titudinous, embracing poetry and prose, tragedies, satyr- drama, elegy, but he is chiefly known as a satirist or writer of Stllt (EiAAm). I-Iis brilliant satire was aimed at the dog- matic philosophers, for he himself was a skeptic, and the form which he employed, the heroic hcxameter, is notewor- thy, as it became the vehicle for the classic satire of Home. TIMPERLEY 161 The remains of Timon may be found in Diogenes Laertius, ix., 109-112. Ed. by Wachsmuth in Coljauscztlumjioests eptccc lucltl/unctce (1885). B. L. G. Timoor : another spelling of the name TIMUR (q. ’t'.). Timer. te"e-m5r’ : an island of the Malay Archipelago, the largest of the chain which stretches eastward from Java; be- tween lat. 8" 16’ and 10° 25’ S., and between lon. 123° 25’ and 127° 10' E.; area, 11,967 sq. miles. It is traversed from E. to W‘. by a range of lofty mountains, which everywhere show marks of volcanic agencies ; earthquakes are frequent. Along the shore the districts are very fertile and densely peo- pled, and in these rice, sugar, indigo, papaw, sago, pineapples, and cocoanuts are cultivated. Buffaloes, oxen, pigs, and fowls are plentiful ; turtles, pearl-oysters, and elegant coral are found along the shores; gold-dust and timber are ex- ported. The inhabitants are partly Malayans, partly Ocean- ian Negroes, and as the population belongs to two different races, in the same manner the fauna and flora of the island belong to two continents, to Asia and to Australia. The Dutch have a residency, Kupang, in the southwestern part of the island, the Portuguese, a district (6,290 sq. miles with about 300,000 inhabitants) with the chief town, Deli, in the northeastern. Revised by M. W. HxRRINcToN. Timor-Laut, -lowt’, or Tenim’ber Islands: a group of islands belonging to the Malayan Archipelago, and lying E. of Timor. Their area is estimated at 2,120 sq. miles ; their population at 20,000. The larger ones, Timor-Laut and Larat, are volcanic ; the smaller of coral formation. Birds are numerous and brilliant, especially cockatoos. Tiin0't]1eI1S (Gr. Tc,u66e0s) : the most admired Greek musi- cian of his day; flourished toward the close of the fourth century B. c. His innovation consisted in the use of a chorus in rendering the so-called Nome (1/6,uos) and in the employ- ment of mimetic action to enliven the delivery. B. L. G. Tiincihy, or Her(l’s-grass [timot/2 y is from Timothy Han- son, who carried the seed to the southern colonies of North America about 1720] : the Phleum pratensc, one of the best of forage-grasses, a native of Europe, and much cultivated there and iii the U. S. In Pennsylvania, ete., the red-top, Agrostzs vulgarzs, is called herd s-grass. Tnnothy will not stand close pasturagc, but affords fine crops of the best of hay. Tiliiothv [from Lat. Ttmo’z‘heus : Gr. Tip.<56eos one who honors God] : a disciple and companion of Pahl ; b. at Lystra or Derbe in Lycaoma, Asia Minor, probably about 20 A. D., the offspring of a Greek father and a Jewess; was carefull_v trained in a knowledge of the Jewish Scriptures by his mother Eunice and his grandmother Lois, who were Cliristians, but was not circumcised until Paul in his second missionary journey selected him as a companion. He became the most constant and devoted of Paul's numerous fellow workers; was regarded by him with truly paternal affection, and employed as “ the inessenger of the cliurclies,” as the apostles " other self,” in the execution of the most responsi- ble spiritual commissions, and was doubtless lns amanuensis in the preparatioii of most of the Epistles, his name being associated with Paul s, in a manner to suggest some degree of joint authorship, at the head of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, those to _the Philippians and Colossians, and the two to the rlliessaloiiians. W hether he shared in the voyage to Italy is uncertain, but he afterward appears at the side of Paul while a prisoner in Rome, and finally as overseer of the important. church at Ephesus, where Paul addressed him two canonical Epistles. His later history is unknown. as the tra- dition of lns inartyrdoin under Domitian rests upon no evi- dence. Revised by S. M. J xcxsox. Timothy, First and Second Epistles to: epistles ad- dressed by Paul to Timothy, the former in 64, the latter in 65 or 66, both from Rome. They are chiefly occupied with instruction in the duties of a spiritual teacher, mingled with some admonitions of a personal nature and some refer- ences to 'l‘imothy‘s personal history : and the Second Epistle is endowed with a peculiar interest from its references to Paul‘s anticipated martyrdom, this being probably the last extant production of his pen. With the similar letter to Titus they constitute the so-called Pastoral Epistles. Sec PAULINE Ei>is'rLEs. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. 'I‘im’perley. C. II. : printer and author; b. in Manches- ter, England, about 1794; entered the army, and was wound- ed at the battle of W'aterloo ; resumed his early occupation of engraver and copperplate printer, and in 1821 bccnnn‘ a letter-press printer; wrote Annalsofil1michcs1‘cr; _l’2'1'nz‘cr‘s ilfamml (1838) ; D/icttonary of P1'z'n1‘c2's and 1’/'z'n{z"ng, with 408 162 mnnon the Progress of Literature, etc. (1839 ; the second edition of 1842 includes the two last works) ; Songs of the Press, and other Poems relative to the Art of Printers and Printing . (1845). D. about 1848. Timrod, HENRY: poet; b. in Charleston, 8. C., Dec. 8, 1829. He was educated at the University of Georgia, stud- ied law and supported himself as a private tutor until the civil war, when he became war correspondent for The Charleston Mercury. and in 1864 assistant editor of The South Carolinian, at Columbia. The burning of Columbia during Sherman’s march to the sea broke up his business, and after two years of poverty and ill health he died at Columbia, Oct. 6.1867. His Poems, many of which were inspired by the war, were published i-n 1873 in New York, with a memoir by Paul Ha-yne. H. A. Tims, THOMAS DILLON: financier; b. at Castle Polland, Ireland. J an. 6, 1825 ; entered the civil service of Canada in 1858; in 1865 was appointed Government superintendent of engraving and printing of the first issue of legal-ten der notes ; in 1867 reported upon financial system for the Province of Quebec; same year placed in charge of Dominion afi°airs in Halifax; in 1868 appointed to inquire into the manage- ment of Government railways in Nova Scotia; 1868-72 or- ganized financial department and savings-banks in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; and 1872-73 established branch- es of the Finance Department and savings-banks in British Columbia and Manitoba. He was appointed financial in- spector of the Dominion in 1870, and is inspector of Domin- ion savings-banks and sub-treasurer and auditor of Gov- ernment railways. NEIL MAcno.\'ALo. Tim’sah, Lake [Arab. tinzscih, crocodile] '. previous to Nov., 1862, a small body of brackish water in the middle of the Isthmus of Suez, but since the completion of the Suez Canal a lake covering about 6 sq. miles. It is one of a series of lakes intersected by the canal (the Bitter Lakes, Lake Balah, and Lake Menzaleh), which appear to be the remains of an ancient strait separating Asia and Africa. It is supposed‘ to be a portion of the Keen-nr (great black water) on the eastern Egyptian frontier mentioned in the papyrus of the twelfth dynasty, now in Berlin, and also a portion of the “sea of reeds” across which the Israelites passed at the Exodus. (Miiller, As-ien and Europa, Leipzig, 1893.) On Lake Timsah is the town of Ismailia, which served as headquarters during the construction of the canal. ‘ Cl-IAR-LES R. G1LLE'r'r. 'l‘imu(1l1an’an Indians: a family of North American Indians named after an ancient town situated on St. J ohn‘s river, Florida. The Timukua term ati-mil/ca, rul-er, lord, embodied in the title, perhaps refers here to a preponder- ating influence of that town, like the word capital. The area occupied by these people during the sixteenth and a part of the seventeenth century coincided very closely with the northern portion of what is now Florida; and the south- ern part of the peninsula, held by Calusan and Tekestan tribes, must have used dialects cognate with the Timukua. The oldest map of the region gives the names of thirty-ei»ght villages, and other sources about twenty-two more. The names of the sixty towns are enumerated in the Seventh Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Ethnology. Nothing is known of the political subdivisions of this ancient people except the names of five head chiefs existing there in 1564: Saturiwa, I-Iolata Utina, Potanu, Onethcaqua, and H ostaqua. But these are only local designations of five con- federacies, for it was customary in those times to call chiefs by the names of their respective tribes. From the writings of the missionary Fr. Francisco Pareja (1612) it may be inferred that there existed at least seven dialects spoken by that people-Timukua, Potanu, Iiafi, the Fresh-water Dis- trict, Tucururu, Mocamu (on the coast), and Santa Lucia de Acuera. This last one probably corresponded with the dialect of the “ province ” of Asis, spoken on the west coast, N. of Cape Canaveral. To judge by the reports left by the chroniclers of the sixteenth century, these Indians were bold fighters and stubbornly opposed the Spanish invaders. About 1706 their villages were broken up by an armed mob from the Fnglish colonies during a war with the Spanish troops in Florida, and their remnants fled to the eastern shore of the peninsula. No trace of Indians speaking this language can be found, but in ancient times they must have been numerous. See De Bry, Brevis na/rratio (Frankfort- on-the-Main, 1591: sketches of the country and people, on- gravings, and map); Romans, Eris! and lVest Florida (New York, 1775) ;, Réné de LaudonniCrc’s report in French’s Hist. TIN Coll. of Louisiana (New York, 1869). See also INDIANS 01?‘ l\*oa'rn Annmca. . F. W. Honen. Timur’, or Tame~rlane' the latter name being a cor- {'3 I ruption of TIMUR LENK-that is, Timur the Lame) : Mongol conqueror ; b. about 1336 at Kesh, near Samareand, the son of a chief of a Mongol tribe and a descendant of Genghis Khan. In 1369 he became chief of his tribe, and from his capital, Samarcan'd', established a firm and orderly govern- ment in his dominions. He then set out on his career of conquest, which resulted in the subjugation of the whole of Central and Western Asia, from the Chinese wall to the l\Iediterranean and from the Siberian steppes to the mouth of the Ganges. In 1393 he stood on the banks of the Dnieper threatening Moscow, but he turned to the S., burnt Azof, and retreated into Asia. In 1398 he conquered Northern Hindustan, whence he sent an immense amount of booty to Samareand. and meditated pushing onward to the S., when he was called by the Eastern emperor and some of the princes of Asia Minor to aid iI1 repelling the Turks led by their great chief Bayazid (or Bajazet). On July 20,1402, the two huge armies, led by Bajazet and Timur, met each other on the plain of Angora, and the Turks were com- pletely routed; Bajazet himself was taken prisoner. In 1404 Timur prepared for a grand expedition to China, and in the beginning of the following year crossed the J axartes at the head of a large army of veteran troops, but died at Otrar, Feb. 17, 1405, and his empire soon became dismem- bered. His cruelty and that of his soldiers were beyond description. Thousands of his captives were put to death, and he is said on one occasion to have had an enormous pyramid built of the skulls of his slaughtered foes. As an administrator, however, he seems to have shown moderation as well as statesmanlike foresight and ability. See Histoire de Timur-Pei (4 vols., Paris, 1721; translated into French by Pietis de la Croix from the Persian text by Sharifu ‘d-Din). F. M. COLBY. Tin [O. Eng. tin : O. H. Germ. ein (> Mod. Germ. zinn) : Icel. tin (Fr. étain, Lat. stan’niim)]: a lustrous, white metal, not easily affected even by moist air at low temperatures ;. soft, malleable, of low tenacity, quite ductile at 212° F. (100° C.), a moderately good conductor of heat and electric- ity; not sensibly volatile at ordinary furnace-heat, fusing- at 442° F. (227'8° C.), having after fusion a specific gravity of 7292. Very pure tin in bl'ocks is sometimes disintegrated by extreme cold. It is one of the oldest of known metals, being mentioned in the Pentateuch, and obtained long be- fore the Christian era by the Phoenicians from the British isles, hence called Cassiterides (from Kaaah-epos, tin). Pliny’s stannmn was an alloy of silver and lead, perhaps also tin, which he called plumbwn albmn, white lead; the alchemists called it Jupiter, and gave it the symbol of that planet, it. The most important ore is the oxide, called cassiterite, tin- stone, and tin ore; it occurs in veins, when it is called mine tin, and also as rolled pebbles in alluvial deposits. furnish- ing excellent ore, known as stream-tin and wood-tin. It is generally a dark-brown mineral, very hard. of sp. gr. 6'4 to 7'1 ; crystallizing in tetragonal prisms, with pyramidal ends; generally has a high, vitreous luster, and contains 7867 per cent. of tin. A far less abundant and less valua- ble ore is stannite or tin-pyrites, a sulphide of tin, copper, iron, and zinc, with 272 per cent. of tin and 293 per cent. of copper. Native metallic tin has probably never been found. A little tin has been detected in meteoric iron, some zinc-blendcs, and several rare minerals. According to Charles M. Rolker, in The Jlfineral Re- sources of the United States for 1894 (U. S. Geological Sur- vey), the supply of tin has steadily increased from about 50,000 gross tons in 1886 to the following quantities in 1894:. England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..long tons 8,800 Straits Settlements, shipped to Europe and America .. 46,724 Straits Settlements, shipped to India and China . . . . . . . . 4,655 Banca, sales to Holland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.135) Billitong. sales to Holland and Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.764 Bolivian, imported into England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,482 Sing Kep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Mexico . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -10 Burma, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Portugal and Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950 Austria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82,045 To this should be added about 10,000 tons produced by the- Anstralasian colonies. TIN Rolker estimates that of this total 82 per cent. is derived from stream-tin. The principal source of tin is the Malay peninsula, and notably Perak, a state under British protec- tion on the west coast, Which is divided by three mountain- chains into three plains parallel to the coast-line, the Larut, Perak, and Kmta valleys. The deposits are alluvial, and although the tin-bearing stratum is regularly distributed throughout the deeper plains, it assumes proportions worthy of working only within a certain distance of the foot-hills. It is covered with 6 to 26 feet of unproductive overburden, and carries from 2 lb. and upward of tin-stone to the cubic yard. The tin-stone is generally deep brown, but is found whitish gray and rose in color in the Kinta valley. Perak produced in 1893 18,821 long tons of tin. Next to Perak in importance are the deposits of Selangor, a native state under British protection, the principal district being the Kwalla Lumpor. Sometimes as many as three stanmferous layers occur, running in depth from 3 to 40 feet; the average value of the gravel is 05 per cent. of tin-stone. The total product of Selangor in 1890 was 8,798 long tons. Some tin is also mined in Pahang, Malacca, Sunjie-Ujong, and in the Siam- ese states. In all of these sections coolie labor is employed in washing the gravel, and the majority of the diggings are worked by Chinese companies. In Burma tin is found on the Tenasserim river and its tributaries. The mines of the island of Banca are largely owned by the Dutch Government. They are washings, the tin-bearing layer of about 3 feet in thickness being covered by 25 to 35 feet of overburden. The average product per man per annum is 0'72 ton of tin. In the fiscal year 1891-92 Banca produced 5,755 gross tons of tin, the principal districts being Djebos, Blinjoe, Soengeiliat, Merawang, Pairg-Kalpi- nang, and Soengleisleian. Nearly all the metal coming from Billitong and the adjoining island of Sing Kep comes from alluvial diggings, the principal districts being Manggar, Poeding, and Linggar. The total product in the washing season 1891-92 was 6,384 gross tons. A sliding scale of pay- ing wages to the coolies prevails, they being guaranteed a minimum of $48.24 for the working year. Nearly every Australian colony produces some tin. In New South \Vales, which reached a maximum of 8,680 tons in 1883 and produced 2,637 tons in 1893, both lode-mining and stream-washing are pursued, the latter being more im- portant. Two groups of tin-drifts are known—-those of re- cent origin and the Tertiary deep leads capped by lava, in which the gravel is often so cemented together as to make crushing necessary. These Tertiary river-channels are at a depth of 20 to 137 feet, and vary in width from 18 to 400 feet. The stanniferous layer is usually 3 feet thick, but swells up to 13 feet. In Queensland, which produced 2,389 tons of tin ore in 1892, the leading alluvial districts are the Severn river and the \Vild river diggings. Tasmania has been an important tin-producer, and prom- ises to continue to be so. Its maximum product was in 1878, with 5,369 tons, the output in 1893 having been 3,129 tons of white tin. The alluvial deposits, which range in age from Miocene to recent, are in the northeast district along the valleys of the Ringarooma and George’s river. It is for lode-mining, however, that Tasmania is conspicuous, the principal dependence being large stockwerks or impregna- tions of granite low in tin, some of them paying for work- ing down below 1 per cent. of tin ore. The Mt. Bischoif is the most famous of these mines, having paid during a brief career 210 dividends, to 1894 aggregating £1,342,500. In 1892 the company worked 70,584 tons of rock and 960 tons of concentrated sands, which yielded 2,235 tons of black tin containing 6831 per cent. of tin. . Tin has been continuously mined in Cornwall from the time of the Phoenicians, and for many centuries was the principal source of supply for the world. The ore is found’ in the “ Killas," a metamorphic clay slate, and along its line of junction with granite. In some instances the mines have reached great depth, and some of them have penetrated to considerable distances under the sea. A number of them are still very remunerative, but on the whole the Cornish tin-minmg industry has declined in importance. In Bohvia tin deposits are met at intervals along the east- ern border of the Bolivian table-land from Lake Titicaca to near the Argentine boundary. The principal mines are those of the Potosi and Oruro, the tin being sometimes as- sociated with silver. Germany has old tin mines at Zinnwald, Kahlenberg, and Altenberg, Saxony, while Schlaggennald and Graupen were once famous producers in Austria. TINAMIDZE 163 In Mexico some mining has been done in the state of Durango. In the U. S. efforts at mining have been made in the greisen lodes on King’s Mountain, N. C.. at the Martha Cash mine, Irish Creek, Rockbridge co., Va., and at the Broad Arrow deposit, Clay co., Ala. In the Black Hills, S. D., very extensive prospecting has been done at Harney's Peak, and large works were built, but no production of any consequence has been recorded. For a brief period tin- mining was conducted at Temescal on the San Jacinto es- tate near Riverside, Cal., but the operation did not pay. Tin is reported also from Texas at Barringer I-Iill. Llano County, and on Herman and Willow creeks, Mason County, but no work has been done. The most important alloys of tin are britannia metal, 75 to 94 parts of tin, 5 to 10 parts of antimony, and 2 to 8 parts of bismuth; pewter, 4 of tin and 1 of lead; queen's metal, 9 of tin and 1 each of antimony, bismuth, and lead; fine solder, 2 of tin and 1 of lead; common solder, equal parts of each; coarse solder, 2 of lead and 1 of tin; speculum metal, 1 of tin and 2 of copper (but variable) with sometimes a little arsenic; bell metal, 78 of copper and 22 of tin, with sometimes a little zinc and lead; bronze, with less tin than bell metal. and with 3 to 4 of zinc; gun-metal. best with 9 of copper and 1 of tin: sheathing for ships. 32 of copper and 1 of tin; fusible metal, with 1 of lead, 2 of his- muth, and 1 of tin (fuses at 2007’ E): amalgam of tin and mercury for coating mirrors ; and Babbitt metal : type metal. also, for fine work, contains a little tin. Melted tin is used to coat sheet-iron (tin-plate) and copper; copper. zinc, brass. and iron can also be tinned in the wet way; and tin has been successfully deposited on textile fabrics. Phosphor-tin is largely used for the manufacture of phosphor-bronze. See TIN-PLATE. Conrouxns or Tm.—Stannous chloride, SnCl2. is formed by dissolving tin in hydrochloric acid; it is a powerful re- ducing agent, and is used as a mordant under the name of salt of tin. Stannic chloride, SnCl4, can be formed by heat- ing corrosive sublimate with tin filings, or by passing chlo- rine over melted tin. It forms with chloride of afnmonium a double salt, called pink salt, used for a red dye. An im- pure stannic chloride. formed by the action of nitric and hydrochloric acids on tin, is used for brightening and fixing red colors, under the name of nz'2‘ro-murz'ate of 2‘in. compo- sition, or tin solution. Stannous oxide. SnO, stannous hy- drate, SDQHQOS, and sesquioxide of tin. Sl1gOs. are unim- portant commercially. Stannic oxide, S1103 (putty powder), is formed when tin is heated above fusion in the air. It forms two hydrates; one of these, stannic acid, H-..SnO3, forms various stannates. the stannate of soda being used as a mordant in calico-printing; arsenic-stannate of soda is also employed. The other is metastannic acid, produced by the action of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1'3 upon tin. Dried at 212° F. (100° C.), it is H10Sn5O15. It becomes anhydrous on ignition. Monosulphide of tin, SnS. and sesquisulphide, Sn2S3, are of little interest. The bisulphide, SnS2 (mosaic gold), can be obtained by powdering an amalgam of 12 parts of tin and 6 of mercury, and heating it in a flask with 7 parts of sulphur and 6 of sal-ammoniac; other proportions are also used. Tin forms many other chemical compounds of little general interest. Revised by CHARLES Kmcnnorr. Tinam’idae [Mod. Lat., named from Ttn’amus, the typ- ical genus, from Fr. flnanzou, from the S. Amer. name] : a family of birds, the sole one of the order Cr;/z‘zzrz', contain- ing the tinamous, a group of remarkable species of small or medium size, peculiar to Central and South America. They are characterized by having the bones of the palate arranged as in the ostriches, the bones of the pelvis free behind. and a keeled sternum of peculiar attern. Although Huxley kept the Tz'nam2'd¢e with the ’mz'naz7e he recognized the importance of the above combination of characters, by mak- ing the group one of the four main divisions of that section. Others writers justly consider that the divisions .Raz‘z'tre and C(1rznaI‘(e are not natural. and that this fact is \\ ell shown by the Tz'n(1mzu7o3. Dr. Stejneger places them in the super- order Drom(eo,<7nm‘lur, just after the aptery xes, nhile Dr. ll‘i'u'bringer puts them in the A lector orniflzes, between the apteryxes and fowls. In external appearance the species re- semble the quails and partridges 1nore than any other famil- iar birds: the head is rather small, the neck rather short. and the back and tail depressed: the bill is rather slender and mostly straight, but more or less decurved at the tip. and with the upper mandible overhanging the lower: the 164 nuance base is covered with a membrane which encroaches on the nostrils ; the wings are rounded behind, concave, and short: the tail is short, and sometimes quite rudimentary, and more or less concealed by the decumbent coverts; the tarsi moderate or stout, and provided with large plates in front. the anterior toes well developed and entirely free, the posterior small and elevated or wanting; the claws are curved. The species differ in habits. some inhabiting the thickest forests and others open plains. They feed chiefiy on grains, and indeed resemble inanany respects the par- tridges, etc., which they replace in South America. The fe- males generally lay about a dozen (but some not more than half a dozen) eggs. which look as if polished, and are depos- ited in rude nests made on the ground. The young follow their mother as soon as hatched. There are about fifty spe- cies, distributed among the genera Ti'namas, _N0th0ce_re'as, C1'yptu.rus, R/2,2/nehotas, ivothoproeta, lV0th'un'a, Taomseus, Ea/l2'o1hias, and Tinamotis. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Tinamou: See TINAHIDEE. Tincal: See Box-xx. Tincker, l\IARY AGNES: novelist; b. at Ellsworth, Me., July 18, 1833. She was educated at the academy at Blue Hill, Me. ; became a Roman Catholic in 1863 and served as a hospital nurse at \Vashington during a part of the civil war. She afterward lived in Boston till 1873, when she went to Italy, returning to Boston in 1887. She has been a frequent contributor to The Catholic ll’0rlcl, and has pub- lished a number of works of fiction, including The House of Yorke (1872); Signor Jllonalclzfn/i‘.s Niece (1879); By the Tiber (1881): The Jewel in the Lotus (1884); Aaa'02'a (1885) ; and Two C01-onets (1889). H. A. BEERS. Tinctures [from Lat. tinetu/1‘a,a dyeing. deriv. of tin- gere, tine’tam, tinge, dye, whence Eng. tinge, tint]: in pharmacy, solutions of medicinal substances in alcohol. In their preparation the medicine should be dried and pulver- ized, and as a rule it is found advantageous to use diluted or aqueous alcohol as the solvent, as by this means numer- ous substances which are insoluble in anhydrous alcohol can be brought into solution; but many of the tinctures prepared in this way undergo acetous fermentation, which difficulty is best obviated by preserving them in well-closed and completely filled bottles. Maceration and digestion accelerate the preparation of tinctures, but percolation is extensively practiced. Occasionally the expressed juice of the plant is dissolved in alcohol, which method is especially applicable to the preparation of tinctures of narcotics, such as conium and belladonna. Revised by H. A. HARE. Tindal, MATTHEW, LL. D.: deistical writer; b. at Beer Ferris, Devonshire, England, in 1657; studied at Oxford, where he took his degree in 1676: became fellow of All Souls 1677, and in 1685 was made LL. D., shortly after which he went over to the Roman Catholic Church, but returned to the Church of England when the revolution of 1688 seemed imminent. After the revolution he held several legal positions, and received from the crown a pension of £200. Ile took an active part in the polemics of his day, and in 1706 published The Rights of the Church Asserted, in which he took ground against the prevalent High Church doctrines. This gave rise to sharp controversies, during which he put forth two Defenses, in which he treated of the obedience due to princes, the law of nations, the liberty of the press, and the rights of mankind in matters of faith. In 1710 he issued a pamphlet, the lVew I-Iigh 0/I/Zl’2'C7b t/u/mecl Old Pres- bg/terian. in opposition to the famous sermon of Dr. Sache- verell. The House of Commons ordered the productions of both controversialists to be burned publicly. In 1730 he put forth his most noted work, Christ/i(mit_1/ as Old as the Crea- ation, in which he argued that in Christianity there was nothing which human reason might not have discovered ' without a special revelation; this called forth a host of re- plies, and a defense by himself of the doctrines which he had advanced. He also wrote a second volume of his work, of which only the preface has been published. D. at Ox- ford, Aug. 16, 1733. Revised by S. M. Jxcxsox. Tindale, WILLIAM : See TYNDALE, W1LLIAn. Tinder [O. Eng. tg/nrler : O. II. Germ. zunta7'a (> Mod. Germ. zzmde/') : lcel. tamlr; cf. Germ. zitnclen, kindle]: a material, usually composed of half-lnlrned linen, formerly used in kindling fires. A flint and steel ignited the tinder, which inflamed in turn a sulphur match. Amadou, touch- wood, and touch-paper were substitutes for tinder. Tinea: See Fxvrs. TINOCERAS Tine’idee [Mod. Lat., named from Ti’nea, the typical genus, from Lat. ti’hea, worm, moth]: a family of Lepi- cloptera including many species, among them the moths so destructive to clothes. The developed insects are of small size, have a slender body, elongated, narrow wings, which when the insect is at rest are rolled round the body, and which are edged with long fringes; the maxillary palpi are very large, and the antennae are long and filiform. The larvae are elongate, and generally provided with numerous (14 to 18) feet, although occasionally entirely footlcss. They differ among themselves chiefly in the form and furniture of the head (whether hairy or naked), the development of the maxillary and labial palpi, and the form of the wings. The imagines are found mostly on the sheltered side of hedges, etc.; the larvae burrow in leaves, stems, grain, etc., of plants, as well as other substances, such as cloth. The most notable species are the clothes moth (Tinea fl(t‘litf7‘07t- tella), the carpet moth (Tinea tcqoetzella), and the grain moths (Tinea granella and Geleehia eerealella). The clothes moth is light buff, glanced with a silvery iridescence on the wings and tawny on the head. It makes its appearance in the Northern U. S. in May or June. The female lays her eggs in cloth, generally woolens, sometimes cotton, and whitish larvae are soon hatched therefrom. The carpet moth has yellowish-white but black-based fore wings, dark-gray hind wings, and white head. Benzine and carbolic acid, and pre- cautions as to cleanliness, are the best antidotes to the ravages of these little pests. Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Tine], EDGAR: composer; b. in Belgium, Mar. 27, 1854; educated at first by his father, who was a schoolmaster and organist. In 1863 he entered the conservatory in Brussels, and in 1873 carried off the first prize for piano-playing. He also at this time made his first essays on composition. In 1877 he won the Prix de Rome with a cantata De Kloohe Roelancl, and when Lemmens died in 1881 he succeeded him as organist of the church in Mechlin. He has com- posed some fine organ music, incidental music for Corneille‘s Polyeuete, and other works. His greatest work is his ora- torio St. Francis cl’Assisi to a text by the Flemish poet Lodewijk de Koninck. It has been performed in Berlin and New York. D. E. HERVEY. Tin-foil: See FoIL. Tinghai : See CHUSAN. Tinker’s Weed : See FEVERWORT. Tinne, tin'ne, ALEXANDRINA PETRONELLA FRANCINAI trav- eler ; b. at The Hague, Holland, Oct. 17, 1839, the only child of a rich English merchant; received an excellent education ; traveled after the death of her father through most European countries, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, etc., and settled in 1861 in Cairo. From Feb. 2, 1863, to Mar. 29, 1864, she undertook a grand journey of exploration from Khartum to the Bahr el-Ghazal, the western arm of the I/Vhite Nile. She invited Baron von Heuglin and Dr. Steudner to accompany her, and the valuable scientific results of the expedition were communicated in John A. Tinne’s Geograyvhieal Notes of an .E.’C])6CZ1/#6072 in Central Africa, in the T7‘(t7t8(tOii07t8 of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire (Liverpool, 1864); von Heuglin’s Die Timwsche Eajaeclition im west- licheh lYilq'aellgeZ2iet, supplement to Petermann’s ]l[ittheil- Izmgen (1865); and Th. Kotschy and Peyrit.sch’s Plrmtce Tivmecmce (1867). From Tripoli she started on another ex- pedition, Jan. 30, 1869, with the purpose of reaching the upper Nile through Bornu. but at Fczzan she was mur- dered by her Arab attendants, Aug. 1, 1869. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tinnevel’li : town and district of the southernmost part of Madras, British India (see map of Southern India, ref. 8—E). The former is an important Protestant missionary center, and contains a Hindu college. Pop. (1891) 24,768. Tine: same as Tmvos (q. 1).). ‘ Tinoe’e1'as[Mod. Lat: G1'.¢ivea0a¢, punish + 1ce’pas.horn]: a genus of extinct herbivorous mammals from the Eocene of \Vyoming and Utah, and the first known representative of a remarkable group now regarded as forming a distinct order, Dinocerata, so named from the best-known genus, Di'aoce'ra,s. This genus may be taken as typical of the order, and its principal characters are as follows : The skull is long and narrow, the facial portion being much pro- duced. It supports three separate pairs of osseous eleva- tions, some of which may have been the bony support for horns. They form the most conspicuous feature of the skull, and suggested the name of the genus, “the terrible- TIN-PLATE horned.” The smallest pair are near the end of the nasal bones ; a larger pair rise from the maxillary or check bones, in front of the orbits; while the largest pair are on the parietal bones, and are supported by an enormous crest, which extends from near the orbits around the lateral and posterior margins of the cranium, nearly surrounding a deep depression upon the crown of the head. The dental formula in Dinooeras is as follows: incisors, -3:-3-; canines, J,-:-l-; premolars, molars, The premaxillaries are toothless, as in ruminants, and may have supported a cal- lous pad also. as in that group. The upper canine teeth are deeply implanted in the maxillary bones. They are long, decurved, and trenchant, separated by an interval from the molar teeth, which are comparatively small. The lower incisors and canines were approximate, projecting forward, and separated from the small molars. The lower jaw sends down a massive process on each side near its extremity, ap- parently for the support and protection of the large upper canines while the mouth was closed. The cervical vertebrae are longer than in the elephant, while the legs are short and the skull elongated, so that the head could easily reach the ground. The feet were short and stout, and there were five toes before and behind, but the carpal bones form inter- locking series, and the astragalus articulated with both the navicular and cuboid bones. The metapodial bones are of moderate length, and their articular surfaces for the pha- langes nearly flat, or even concave, indicating but little motion in the toes. In the hind limb when at rest the knee-joint was straight, as in the elephant and man, instead of being considerably flexed, as in nearly all quadrupeds. The brain-cavity of Dinoceras, however, is the most re- markable feature of this remarkable genus. It proves that the brain was smaller than any more recent mammal, whether living or fossil, and was even less than in some reptiles. The entire brain was so diminutive that it could perhaps have been drawn through the neural canal of all the presacral vertebrae, certainly through the cervicals and lumbars. Besides the genera already mentioned, there was at least one other, Uintatherium, closely allied. These ani- mals were all large, some of them nearly equaling the ele- phant in size. O. C. MARSH. Tin-plate: sheet-iron or sheet-steel coated with tin. Terne-plate is sheet-iron or sheet-steel coated with an alloy of tin and lead, the latter predominating. The manufac- ture of tin-plate originated in Bohemia prior to 1600. Early in the seventeenth century it was introduced into Saxony. In 1625 Andrew Yarranton visited Saxony, and learning the methods of manufacture, started works on a small scale at Pontypool, Momnouthshire, England. but failed to continue the enterprise. In 1720 John Hanbury built a plant at Pontypool. This second start led to the de- velopment of the industry in \Vales, which soon dwarfed the production of the older centers, and gave the principality the unchallenged control until the industry was finally suc- cessfully introduced in the U. S. In 1872 and 1873 two firms, Rogers & Burchfield, of Leechburg, Pa., and the United States Tin Plate Company, at Demmler, near Pitts- burg, Pa., started the manufacture of tin-plate, but were forced to abandon it. It was not until the passage of the Tariff Act in 1890, which granted a protection of cents a pound under certain conditions, that the manufa-cture was started on a large scale by numerous concerns. The prin- cipal aid to its establishment was the low price of steel. For- merly the sheets to be coated were made of iron, the produc- tion of which involved a large expenditure of skilled labor. The introduction of steel as the new material, with ,its sub- stitution of machinery for labor, brought the labor cost per unit of product so much closer on both sides of the Atlantic that numerous works have been started since the passage of the Tariff Act in 1894, which reduced the duty to 12 cents per pound. Originally the sheets were made from iron produced with charcoal as a fuel, so that when pig-iron smelted with coke was puddlcd to make the sheets, the term “ coke tin-plates " was introduced to designate this method of manufacture. Now no charcoal is employed, so that the term charcoal plates refers merely to the quality, and openhearth and Bessemer steel have almost entirely superseded puddled iron. The method of manufacture maybe described as follows: The steel ingot as cast in the steel-works is rolled into a bar about 7 inches wide and froml3 to {,1 inch in thickness, which is sheared into lengths weighing about 19 lb. each. The bar after being heated is rolled as a single plate until it can be TIPPECANOE RIVER 165 easily doubled, that is, the sheet can be folded over. ‘When this point has been reached the sheet is folded over, reheated, and is then rolled doubled up. The reheating, doubling, and rolling is repeated three times, so that a pack is produced which consists of eight sheets. After the pack has been trimmed and squared the sheets are separated from one another. During the process of reheating and rolling the sheets have been covered with a layer of scale. The black plates, as they are called, must be cleaned by pickling in hot dilute sulphuric acid. This black-pickling is now done in machines, which also provide for the washing away of the acid adhering to the plates. The continued rolling has hardened the steel, but this is softened by annealing, which is accomplished by exposing the sheetsin tightly closed iron vessels to a dull red heat for a period varying from ten to twenty hours. I11 order to smooth the surface of the sheets they are rolled when cold, the operation being repeated if necessary. This hardens the steel, which is again annealed and finally is pickled, this “ white pickling” being done in a more diluted solution. The sheets are then ready to be tinned. The apparatus consists of a set of pots, heated by fire-places. The first operation is to plunge the plates into heated palm oil, to remove the moisture and heat the sheets. Then they are allowed to soak for a while in a pot filled with molten tin covered with palm oil. The tinman passes them over to the washman, who allows them to remain for a little while in a pot filled with molten tin. and brushes both sides care- fully. Finally they are passed into the patent pot filled with tin, in which a series of rollers revolve through which’ the plates pass singly, stripping ofi the surplus material and by their tension determining the thickness of the coating of tin. There are a number of different designs of such patent pots, among the leading ones being the Morewood, Leyshon, New- bold, and Norton. The plates are finally rubbed with bran and with sheepskin, are sorted, and are packed into boxes. The standard sizes are 10 inches by 14 inches. or 14 inches by 20 inches, the thickness or gauge varying. The latter is designated by arbitrary marks, IC being No.30 gauge. weigh- ing 107 lb. per box of 112 sheets of 14 inches by 24 inches ; IX is of No. 28 gauge, IXX of No. 26 gauge, and IXXX of No. 24 gauge. For several years lighter plates weighing 80, 85, 90, 95, and 100 lb. per box of 112 sheets, 14 by 24 inches, have been made. No exact statistics of production of tin-plate in VVales are available. The exports were 448.37 9 gross tons in 1891, and 379.172 gross tons in 1893. The British home consumption was estimated at 65,000 to 7 5,000 tons. The U. S. imported the bulk of the Welsh tin-plate. The maximum was reached in 1889, when the imports were 331,311 gross tons. In 1893 the quantity imported was 253,485 gross tons. Since 1891 the production of tin-plate in the U. S. has expanded very rapidly. It reached 123,606,707 lb. in 1893 and amounted to 84,726,746 lb. in the first six months of 1894. (‘IIARLES KIRQRI-IOFF. Tintoretto : See Ronnsrr, J Acoro. Tio’ga River: a river which rises in the west part of Bradford co., Pa. Its general course is northward through Tioga co., Pa. At Painted Post. Steuben co., N. Y., its waters enter the Chemung river. The upper part of Tioga valley affords much semi-bituminous coal of great value. Tipitapa (river): See NICARAGUA. Tippecanoe’ City: village: Miami co., O.: on the Great Miami river, and the Cin., Ham. and Dayton Railroad; 14 miles N. of Dayton, 14 miles S. of Piqua (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 5-C). It contains manufaetorics of paper, glucose, excelsior, flour, and brooms, a high school, a national bank with capital of 860.000, and a weekly news- paper. Pop. (1880) 1,401; (1890) 1.465. Tippecanoe River: a river of Indiana, rising in Tippe- canoe Lake, Kosciusko County. It pursues a devious S. W. course for 200 miles, and falls into the I/Vabash. On the banks of this river, at the present village of Battle Ground, in the county and township of Tippecanoe, Gen. Harrison fought and defeated the Indian tribes commanded by the Prophet, the brother of Tecumseh, Nov. 7, 1811. In the middle of the night, when the whole force, consisting of 300 regular troops and 500 militiamen, was asleep. the Indians suddenly made the attack upon the camp. A desperate fight ensued,the Indians several times advancing and retreating: but after daylight they were finally defeated and dispersed by the two mounted companies belonging to Ilarrison‘s force. They left forty of their dead on the field; llarrison‘s 166 TIPPERAH loss was sixty killed and twice as many wounded. On the following day the I?rophet’s city was visited ; it was found completely deserted, and was burned down. Harrison, never- theless, considered it prudent to effect a speedy retreat, more especially on account of the great number of wounded with which he was encumbered, and he consequently fell back upon Vincennes. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Tip’perah: name of a tribe, a feudatory state, and a district of Northeast British India. The tribe is of Tibet- Burmese relationship, occupies the parts of Bengal and Assam adjoining Upper Burma, and numbers about 60,000, of whom about two-thirds are in the principality, one-fourth in the British district, and the remainder in Assam. The native state is called Hill Tipperah by the British and lies in the extreme east of Bengal, adjoining Assam and Upper Burma with the district of Tipperah on the W. and N oakhali and Chittagong on the S. Area, 4,086 sq. miles. Pop. about 100.000. The raj ah belongs to the Tipperah tribe. The coun- try is hilly with much jungle and swamp and many rivers. Travel is chiefly by boat; the principal crop is rice; the government is despotic and patriarchal. There are no towns, and Agartala, the capital, is simply the residence of the raj ah. The district of Tipperah lies between the preceding and the river Meghna. Area, 2,491 sq. miles. Pop. 1,500,000. It is fiat and open. abundantly supplied with streams, many of which are aifected by the tide; is fairly fertile and princi- pally devoted to rice; and is traversed N. and S. by a rail- way. The capital is Comillah (pop. about 15,000), and the largest town Brahmanbaria (17,500). M ARK W. HARRINGTON. Tippera'ry: county; in the province of Munster, Ireland. Area, 1,659 sq. miles. For the most part, the county lies in the basin of the river Suir, and touches the Shannon on the N. W. The surface is generally level, and the mountains which diversify it are rather groups of peaks than portions of connected ranges. These mountains are the Galtees (3,000 feet high), Knockmeledown (2,700 feet), and Slieve- namon on the S., Keeper l\1ountain (2,100 feet) on the \V., and the Slievardagh Hills on the E. ; completely isolated is the curious peak the Devil’s Bit, the center and source of many popular legends. The soil is a rich calcareous loam, and in the district called the Golden Vale, around the town of Tipperary, is exceedingly fertile and productive. Agri- culture, especially dairy-farming, is the principal occupa- tion. Coal, copper, lead. and zinc are found, but not worked, and the formerly flourishing woolen-trade is nearly extinct. The antiquities of the county are numerous and interesting, both those from the Anglo-Norman and Celtic periods. The ruins of Holy Cross, in the city of Cashel, is a noble specimen of the monastic remains of the medizcval period, as the Castle of Cahir is of the military and baronial architecture of the same age. Pop. (1891) 172,882. Tipperary, the county-town, 110 miles by rail S. W. of Dublin, has a butter-market (see map of Ireland, ref. 12-F). Pop. (1891) 7,274. In 1890 a new Tipperary was founded, as part of a plan of campaign against land—owners, but proved a miserable fiasco in the following year. Tippoo’ Safhib: Sultan of Mysore; b. Nov. 19, 1749, a son of HYDER ALI (g. 2).) ; was instructed in European tactics by French otficers, and distinguished himself in the war against the British, defeating them at Perimba-kum Sept. 10, 1780, and on the banks of the Kolerun Feb. 18, 1782. On Dec. 7, 1782, I-Iyder Ali died, and Tippoo Sahib then prepared for a still more energetic prosecution of the war. Apr. 28, 1783, he took Bednore, and soon after also Manga- lore, but in the meantime peace had been concluded between Great Britain and France, so that Tippoo Sahib was com- pelled also to conclude peace at Mangalore Mar.11, 1784, but on advantageous conditions. He continued to intrigue against the British, and in 1790 the war was renewed. In spite of his brilliant tactics in laying waste the Carnatic al- most to the gates of Madras, and thereby for a time baffling his enemies, he was finally defeated, and was compelled in 1792 to sue for peace by ceding half of his dominions and paying 3,030 lakhs of rupees. However, he still intrigued with the French, a.nd when Napoleon landed in Egypt Oct. 18, 1798, the British East India Company determined to crush its enemy before it might become too late. On Feb. 22, 1799, the company declared war against Mysore, invaded the realm with two armies, and shut up the sultan in his capital, Seringapatam. Here he fell May 4, 1799, while fight- ing on the walls ; his dominions were confiscated by the com- pany, and the spoils fro1n his palace were carried to London. TIRESIAS During the last years of his reign, after 1792, his govern- ment was of a very oppressive character, but he was exceed- ingly popular among his subjects, and after his death he was considered a martyr to the faith of Islam by Mohammedans in general. Tipton : city; capital of Tipton co., Ind. ; on Cicero creek, and the Lake Erie and West. Railroad; 38 miles N. of In- dianapolis (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 5-E). It is in an agricultural region, contains new a court-house (cost $190,000), a jail (cost $35,000), canning factory, flour, saw, and planing mills, and stave factory, and has 2 private banks and 3 weekly newspapers. It is in a natural-gas belt. Pop. (1880) 1,250; (1890) 2,697 ; (1895) estimated, 5,000. EDITOR or “TIMES.” Tiptonz town (founded in 1840); capital of Cedar co., Ia.; on the Burl., Ced. Rap. and N. and the Chi. and N. W. railways; 40 miles N. \V. of Davenport, 42 miles S. E. of Cedar Rapids (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 5-K). It is in an agricultural region, and has 6 churches, large public- school building, a national bank with capital of $50,000, 2 State banks with combined capital of $75,000, 2 weekly newspapers, a carriage-factory, machine-shop, creamery, and poultry-packing establishment. Pop. (1880) 1,299; (1890) 1,599. EDITOR OF “ADVERTISER.” Tipton : town ; Moniteau co., Mo. ; on the Mo. Pac. Rail- way; 25 miles S. of Booneville, 27 miles E. of Sedalia (for location, see map of Missouri, ref. 4-G). It is in an agri- cultural region, with coal, lead, and zinc mines in the vi- cinity, and has a high school, several factories, a State bank with capital of $20,000, an incorporated bank with capital of $25,000, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 989 ; (1890) 1,253. Tiraboschi, teve-ra’a-bos'ke‘e, GIROLAMO: literary historian ; b. at Bergamo, Italy, I)ec. 28,1731 ; educated by the Jesuits, whose order he afterward joined. He taught in Brescia and Milan, producing in the latter university his Vezfera I]mm'- Z/iatormn monumemfa (1766), an account of the order of Hu- miliati. In 1770 Francis III., duke of Modena, appointed him librarian of that city, where he remained until his death June 4, 1794. The chief result of his labors in Modena was the great Storia dellco Letierat/u1"a t'fa,Zt'cmcz, (14 vols., 1770- 82 ; reissued, in an amplified and corrected form, 1787-93). Though now antiquated, it still remains an example of thor- oughness in method. His other monumental work is the Bibltoieca modenese (6 vols., Modena, 1781-86), devoted to the history of Modenese authors. This was followed by the JIL/'em01'/ie si0m'che moclenesi (1793-94), and a Codice diplo- mattco, which was in process of compilation at the time of his death. He worked upon the Enct'cZ0pedia italqianco and the Gtornale d’ItaZia, and issued many biographical and other monographs. The best edition of the Storia is that printed in Milan (16 vols., 1822-26). J. D. M. FORD. Tirard, te‘e’raar', PIERRE EMMANUEL: statesman; b. in Geneva, Switzerland, Sept. 27, 1827. of a French family; was educated in his native city, but moved in 1846 to Paris as chief of an exporting-house in jewelry. An open enemy of the second empire, he was elected mayor of the second arron- dissement of Paris Nov., 1870, and a member of the National Assembly Feb., 1871. After an energetic protest against the assumptions of the Commune, he resigned his mayorship and fled to Versailles. In 1876 he was elected a member of the Legislative Assembly, and took his seat among the repub- lican left. In 1879-81 he was Minister of Agriculture and Commerce and exercised considerable influence on the for- mation of the tarifi. He was head of the cabinet in Car- not’s administration 1887-88, and again 1889-90. D. in Paris, Nov. 4, 1893. He published Du Dévelomaement de la bty'oatem'e et de Z’0rfém'erie ])Cl/I‘ la Zt'Z)e¢'té das t/zltres dc Z’0r et de Z’argcmf (1868). F. M. COLBY. Tiree’, or Tyree: an island of Scotland, one of the Inner Hebrides; 13 miles long and 6 miles broad. It is low ex- cept on the S., where hills reach 400 feet, and destitute of wood, but affords good pastures. Oats. barley, and potatoes are raised, but the inhabitants are mostly engaged in fishing and rearing poultry. Pop. (1891) 2,600. Tire’sias (Gr. Tezpedfas) : a celebrated soothsayer in Thebes. He was blind, but understood the language of the birds, and lived to a great age. Even after his death he did not lose his power of prophecy. He had a famous oracle near Orche- menus, but after a plague it became silent. The Greek myth- ology tells many stories of the origin of his blindness and soothsaying power. TIRHAKAI-I Tir’hakah [H eb. : Egypt. Ta-h-r-q, Taharqa, Tahara- ga; the Tarlaos or Tarahos of Manetho]: an Ethiopian king (702—664 B. 0.); an ally of the Egyptian king Shabata- ka of the twenty-fifth dynasty against Sennacherib (Sanhe- rib) of Assyria, when the latter was subduing Syria and Palestine. The rumor of the approach of Tirhakah Into Palestine caused Sennacherib to hasten affairs connected with Hezekiah of Judah and himself to advance toward Egypt, but a sudden pestilence caused an abrupt retreat to Nineveh, where he was soon afterward assassinated. Later, Tirhakah deposed and killed Shabataka (693 B. C.) and usurped the Egyptian throne, becoming the last king of the twenty-fifth dynasty. The remainder of his life was ‘occu- pied with struggles against the Assyrian powcr and In at- tempts to achieve the freedom of Egypt. For his alhances with Hezekiah of Judah and other Phoenician and Syrian princes he was severely punished by Esarhaddon and Asur- banipal, kings of Assyria, who defeated l11IIl.Wll;hl.fl Egypt itself and pursued him as far as Thebes, causmg him to re- treat into Ethiopia (672 and 667 B. c.). According to Greek writers he was a great warrior, but his own l1sts.of con- quered peoples are evidently copied from those of hlS prede- cessors. He was active in building operations at Thebes, but particularly at his original capital, Napata, near Gebel Barkal, in Nubia, where he erected a temple. C. R. G. Tirlemont, tever'le-m5I'1’: town; in the province of Bra- bant, Belgium; on the Grande-Geete; 30 miles E. S. E. of Brussels by rail (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 10-F). The churches of St. Germain, dating in part from the ninth century, and Notre Dame, founded in 1298, are its chief architectural features. It manufactures machinery, woolen stuffs, hosiery, leather, soap, malt, and gin, and carries on an active general trade. Pop. (1891) 16,157. Tir’n0va: town: in Bulgaria; on the J antra, an affluent -of the Danube; 35 miles S. S. E. of Sistova (see map of Turkey, ref. 3-D). It was the capital of the Bulgarian king- dom until 1394, and continued to be the seat of the Bulga- rian patriarchate until its suppression in 1767. It has large d_veworks and manufactures cloth and copper utensils. Pop. (1893) 12,858. . Tiro, MARoUs TULLIus: the freedman and pupil of Ci- cero, to whom he became an amanuensis. He was also an author of some reputation, writing several works, including a life of his patron. To him is due the collection of Cicero‘s Letters. He is commonly believed to have invented the art of s'hort-hand writing, hence the name Notce Tironis or Ti- roniance. (See STENOGEAPHY.) It is believed he lived to the age of 100. Revised by M. IVAREEN. Tirol: another spelling of TYROL (q. 1).). Tirso dc Molina: See TELLEZ, GABRIEL MAEs'rEo FRAY. Tiryns, ti'rinz (Gr. Tipvvs): in Argolis; one of the most ancient cities of Greece. lts inhabitants appeared in his- tory for the last time at the battle of Platae-ae, but shortly thereafter the city was destroyed by the Argives, though its massive walls still exist to excite the wonder of the visitor. Tiryns was excavated by Schliemann in 1884. See his TT)‘;1/‘I28, but, better still, Schuchhardt. Sclilielna/nn’s Exca- 'vat'i0ns (London, 1891), and Perrot and Chipiez, I;/"istory of Art in Pr'ion'itive Greece (London, 1894). J . R. S. S. Tischbein, tish’bin, J OIIANN I-IEINRICII WILIiELM: paint- er; b. at Haina, Hesse, Feb. 15, 1751; received his first in- struction in painting from his father, uncle, and elder brother, who all were painters of reputation ; went in 1770 to the Neth- erlands, in 1779 to Rome, in 1787 to Naples, where he was director of the Academy of Painting from 1790 to 1799 : re- turned in the latter year to Germany and settled in Hamburg. He painted many portraits, among which is one of Lady Hamilton, and some historical and allegorical pictures, but he is most widely known as an engraver. The Hamilton col- lection of Greek vases, published first in Naples, was his work. Of his original etchings the largest collection is a series of illustrations from Homer, published at Giittingen 1801-04. D. at Eutin, July 26, 1829. RussELL Sruams. ' Tisch’endorf, Lonneorrr FRIEDRICH KoNsTANTIN, LL. D., D. C. L. : biblical scholar; b. at Lengenfeld, Saxony, Jan. 18. 1815; studied theology and philology at Leipzig 1834-38; was appointed Professor of Theology there in 1845. From an early period of his life he concentrated his study on a critical revision of the text of the New Testament; made extensive journeys in Europe, examining the materials for such revision contained in the various European libraries. and visited Egypt, the Sinaitic Peninsula, Syria, and Pales- 1.4.1. TIT 167 tine in 1844, 1853, and 1859. the last time at the expense of the Russian Government. From the monastery of Sinai he brought back the famous Codex Sinaiticus, the oldest Greek manuscript of the Bible, which is now preserved in St. Peters- burg, and was published in 1862 in 4 vols. fol. at the expense of the Emperor Alexander II. He has told the romantic story of its recovery in Die Sinaibiliel (Leipzig, 1871). The Codea: Sinait-icus is written upon vellum sheets of extreme fineness and beauty and consists of 346 leaves, of which 199 contain 22 books of the Old Testament and Apocrypha in the Septuagint version, beginning at the first book of Chron- icles, while the remaining 147 present the whole of the New Testament, the Epistle of Barnabas, and a part of the Shep- herd of Hermas. (To these should be added the 43 leaves of the Codex Friderico-Augustanus.) D. in Leipzig, Dec. 7, 1874. The principal results of Tischendorfs researches were several critical editions of the New Testament, but he also published Coder Eplzraer/i'i Syri (1843) ; Jllonuonenta Sacra Inedita (1846); Evangelium Palatinum Ineditum (1847) ; Codex Amiatinus (1850) ; Codex Claromontanus (1852); N ovu/n Testamentmn Vaticanum (1867); J][onu- menta Sacra Inedita, nora Colleotio (9 vols.. 1854-65); Aota A]9ost0lo'/"um Apocrypha (1851) ; Euangelia Apocrfzyl/oha (1853) ; Apooal,z/pses Apocryphce (1866); Reise in den Orient (2 vols.. 1845-46); Aus d em heiligen Lande (1862) ; and VVann wurden unscre Evangelien /verfasst .2 (1865; translated into English, When were our Gospels /written .9, and many other languages). His prolegomena to the 8th ed. of his larger Greek New Testament were completed in a remarkable man- ner by C. R. Gregory, who examined every uncial and very many cursive MSS. of the New Testament (Leipzig, 1884-94). Revised by S. M. J AcxsoN. TiS'1'i [: Heb. tz'slzri, deriv. of Chald. slzerd, open, be- gin]: the first Hebrew month of the civil year and the sev- enth of the ecclesiastical year. It corresponds to part of September and October. Tissapher’ lies: Persian satrap. He was appointed sa- trap of Lower Asia by Darius II. Nothus in 414 B. C. In the reign of the latter’s successor, Artaxerxes II., Tissa- phernes received the command also in Asia Minor after the death of Cyrus at the battle of Cunaxa. His attempt, how- ever, to punish the Greek cities which had supported Cyrus was unsuccessful. They were supported by the Spartans, and the Persians were defeated by Agesilaus in Lydia. Mean- while his treachery and cowardice had made him contempti- ble in the eyes of Artaxerxes. and on the instigation of Pary- satis, the king’s mother, he was assassinated at Colossze, Phrygia, in 395. Tissot, te7e's5', JAMES : genre-painter; b. at Nantes,France, Oct. 15, 1836; pupil of Lamothe and Flandrin ; medal, Salon. . 1866; first-class medal, Paris Exposition, 1889. He lived for a number of years in London and did not exhibit in the Sa- lon after 1870. He reappeared, however, at the Salon of the Cl1amp de Mars in 1894 with a series of pictures represent- ing the life of Christ. One of his earlier works, The ilfeeting of Faust and JU(ZI'QII6I'tt€, painted in 1861, is in the Luxem- bourg Gallery, Paris. \V. A. C. Tissues : See HIsToLoev and Fnanous TIssUEs. Tisza, tee'sa‘a. KOLOMAN BoRos.IEN6. von : statesman ; b. at Grosswardein, Hungary, Dec. 16, 1830; was educated for the civil service, and became a member of the Hungarian Reichstag III 1861. At first a leader of the moderate radi- cals, he founded a new liberal party made u ) for the most part of the followers of Deak, and controlled t 1e majoritv in the Reichstag. He held the portfolio of the Interior inithe ministry of \Venkheim, and on Oct. 21, 1875, became Prime Minister of the Hungarian cabinet, at position which he held for over fourteen years. Possessing the confidence of the majority of the nation, he has done more than any other Hungarian statesman in reorganizing the state and, while promoting harmony between his own and the imperial Gov- ernment, in raising the position of Hungary to one of con- trolling importance in the llapsburg empire. In 1876-78 he opposed the policy of Russia respecting Turkey, but ac- quiesced in the proposed Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a necessity of the war, and when the finaneial condition of the imperial Government prevented that occupation, he resigned with his co-ministers. Subse- quently, however. he resumed his office. which he held till 1890, retaining his seat in the new parliament. See Visi. Koloman Tisea (Budapest, 1886). F. M. COLBY. Tit : See Trrnousu. 168 TITANIC DIOXIDE Titanic Dioxide. generally called Titanic Acid (TiO2) [titanic is deriv. of 2‘z.tanium. See TITANIUM] : a com- pound which constitutes three distinct mineral species— octahedrite, broolrite, and rutile. A synonym of octahedrite is anatase, and a synonym of brookite is arhansite. Of the three mineral forms of titanic dioxide, rutile is far the most abundant. The commoner varieties have a peculiar reddish ' tinge, and a luster of a peculiar dark metallic brilliancy on the cleavages, which, with its high density, enables it to be distinguished at a glance by those expert in minerals. its hardness is between those of quartz and feldspar. rThe crystals are dimetric or tetragonal, and usually prismatic, sometimes acicular, and are found in the latter form pene- trating transparent quartz-crystals from side to side in a great many directions, like needles, forming interesting cabi- net specimens known as “ rutilated quartz.” In these cases the rutile needles have evidently been first formed, crossing a cavity filled with the menstruum from which they were deposited, in which the quartz has subsequently crystallized out from the same or some other menstruum. \ In the U. S. there are a great many localities in which rutile is found. Broohitc is trimetric or orthorhombic in crystallization, translucent, with cleavage less distinct than rutile, but hav- ing the same metallic adamantine luster. It has been found in small crystals in North Carolina placer gold, at Paris in Maine, and at Ellenville in Ulster eo., N. Y., and in a num- ber of foreign localities. At the celebrated mineral locality at Magnet Cove, Ark., it is found as the variety arhansite, so called by Prof. Charles U. Shepard, which is described as iron-black and opaque, though nearly pure titanic oxide, ac- cording to Whitney and Damour. Ootahed/rite, or anatase, is tetragonal like rutile, but with very different angles and cleavages. It is usually octahedral in form, highly lustrous like diamond, and sometimes mistaken for it in placer wash- ings. In North America, it occurs in dolomite at Smith- field, R. I. Revised by IRA Rnnsnx. Tita’nium [Mod. Lat., named in fanciful allusion to the Titans, from Lat. Tita’nes:Gr. Tvr8u/es, Titans]: an ele- ment first discovered by Dr. William McGregor, in examin- ing the mineral now called rnenaccanite, from Menachan in Cornwall, in 1701. It was afterward found by Klaproth (in 1794) in rutile, and called by him in 1797 titanium. Ti- tanium is quite an abundant element. For a long time cer- tain cubical crystals of a copper color found in blast fur- naces were believed to be metallic titanium, but Wiihler proved that these contain cyanogen and nitrogen. The ele- ment is obtainable by heating the double fluoride of titanium and potassium with sodium. It is described as a dark-green, heavy powder, which can not be burnished and is infusible. Titanium occurs in many minerals. The three minerals ru- tile, brookite, and anatase are all TITANIC DIOXIDE (q. /0.). I/llenaccanite or ilmenite, in which titanium was first dis-' covered, contains titanic dioxide with iron oxides. Sphene or titanite contains titanate and silicate of calcium. Perofs/cite is simple calcium titanate, and it is very common in mag- netic iron ores and many other minerals. Titanium forms three chlorides, TiCl2, a black powder, TiCl3, lustrous dark- violet scales, and a colorless transparent liquid tetrachloride, TiCl4. It is believed to form two compounds with oxygen, the sesquioxide, Ti2O3, and the dioxide, TiO2. The chief practical interest that attaches to titanium is in consequence of its frequent occurrence as a constituent of iron ores, chiefly of magnetite, which passes into ilmenite or menaecanite, the two apparently occurring mixed in all proportions, and called titaniferous iron ore. Such ores are liable to be very pure—that is. free from sulphides and phosphates—but, un- fortunately, it happens that the titanium is excessively dif- ficult to flux out .from the mass, tending apparently to form slags of very difficult fusibility, thus limiting their use great- ly. It has been reported that this obstacle has been over- come. - Revised by IRA REMsE.v. Titan0the'1'iuln [Mod. Lat-.; Gr. Trrdu, a Titan + Grypioz/, wild beast] : a genus of extinct mammals first found in the Mauvaises Terres, or Bad Lands, of South Dakota. The formation is Miocene, and the bones of this animal were the first fossils obtained from the region. Later researches in Nebraska and Colorado have shown that this genus is but one of an extinct family of herbivorous mammals including several genera, viz., Titanotheri am, Brontoth eriurn, Brontops, and others. The best-known genus is Brontotheriimi, and its principal characters are as follows : The skull is long and de- pressed, and resembles that of the rhinoceros. There is a pair of large horn-cores on the anterior part of the skull, in TITHES front of the orbits. They stand on the maxillary bones, and are placed transversely, as in .ruminants. The nasal bones are greatly developed and firmly co-ossified. They are pro- duced in front, and overhang the narial orifice. The dental formula is as follows: incisors, -32%; canines, %—I{~; premo- lars, sf:-js; molars, §-1%. The brain-cavity is small in pro- portion to the skull. The cerebral hemispheres did not ex- tend at all over the cerebellum, and but little over the ol- factory lobes. The neck was stout and of moderate length. The atlas is large, and much expanded transversely; the axis massive, and its odontoid process stout and conical. The lumbars are slender and smaller than the dorsals. There are four sacral vertebrae. The caudals indicate a long and slender tail. The limbs were intermediate in pro- portion between those of the elephant and the rhinoceros. The radius and ulna are separate. The carpal bones are shorter than in the rhinoceros, and support four stout toes. The fibula is separate from the tibia. There were three toes on the hind foot, of nearly equal size. None of the bones of the skeleton is hollow. The Brontotheridce near- ly equaled the elephant in size, but the li1nbs were shorter. The nose was probably flexible, as in the tapir, but evidently there was no true proboscis. All the remains yet known are from the Miocene beds of the Rocky Mountains, in South Dakota, Nebraska, \Vyoming, and Colorado. O. C. MARSH. Titans [from (and transl. of) Lat. Tita’nes :: Gr. Trr8wes]: in Greek mythology, the children of Uranus and Gina, num- bering, according to the most common record, twelve-—six male, Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Cronus; and six female, Theia, Rhea, Tethys, Phoebe, Mnemosyne. and Themis. Uranus feared his own children, and shut them up in Tartarus, but by the aid of Gzea they broke out of the prison, overthrew their father. and placed Cronus on the throne. The curse, however, which Uranus let fall on his children was fulfilled. Cronus was dethroned by his own son, Zeus, and the Titans were once more imprisoned in Tartarus, where the Cyclopes and l?Iundred-handed were set to watch them. Among their descendants were Atlas, Prometheus, Helios, Hecate, and Selene. Revised by J . R. S. STERRETT. Tite, Sir WILLIAM, F. R. S.: architect; b. in London, England, in 1802; educated at a private school ; was art-icled as a pupil to Mr. Laing, the architect of the custom-house; was intrusted with the rebuilding of the Church of St. Dunstan’s-in-the-East, which he executed so successfully in ‘the Gothic style, then recently become popular, as to gain a high reputation ; was employed to erect a Gothic church for the celebrated Edward Irving ; subsequently built many public and private edifices, including some of the largest railway stations of England and France ; became architect to the new Royal Exchange 1840; was for some time presi- dent of the Architectural Society and of the Royal Institute of British Architects ; was elected Liberal member of Parlia- ment from Bath 1855; was governor of the London and Westminster Bank and of the Bank of Egypt and member of parliamentary committees on banking, and was knighted in 1869. He published some essays and lectures, and was an- thor of a Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities found in the Eaca/cat/ions at the New Royal Ercchange (1848), and other miscellaneous writings. D. Apr. 20, 1873. Tithes [M. Eng. tithe, tethe < O. Eng. te‘o5a, liter., tenth, a tenth, for teog(e)5a; cf. Goth. tigus, a decade : Gr. 8em£s]: taxes, consisting of one-tenth of the annual profit of land, stock, or labor, which, instituted by Moses, was paid by the Jews for the maintenance of the Levites and in compensa- tion for their service in the temple (Lev. xxvii. 30-33 ; N um. xviii. 21-24). Of this tithe the Levites paid a tenth to the priests (Num. xviii. 26, 28). Deut. xiv. 22-29 enjoins the payment of a second tithe which was either to be eaten before the Lord, if it were in produce, or turned into money and the money spent for food to be eaten at the central sanctuary. In this feast the Levites shared. Every third year there was apparently a third tithe in kind which was to be eaten by all comers to the feast. Tithes were known also to Roman law, but are no part of New Testament legislation. In the Christian Church they were first enjoined about 350 as due for the support of the clergy, recommended by the Second Council of Tours, 567 (see l-larduin’s Councils, iii., 368), and first decreed by the Second Council of Macon, 585 (see Har- duin, iii., 461). They were not firmly established, however, in Germany, France, and England until the ninth century, and in the Scandinavian countries not until the eleventh century. Even before the period of the Reformation, but TIT1Al\T I especially after that time, the tithes became subjects of bar- gains, of buying and selling, like other property. Origi- nally they were paid in kind, but in the eighteenth cen- tury a certain sum of money was generally substituted. In France they were finally abolished by the Revolution. In England tithes were collected from early times in support of the Church. Such tithes up to the value of 408. must be aid. See J. Selden, Ht'st0?'3/ of Tiéhes (London, 1618); H. . Clarke, Ht's!0ry of Tithes (1891 ; 2d ed. 1894). See also Iil.EREDI'l‘AMEN’1‘S. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Titian, tish’an, or Vecellio, vd-chel’li-5, TIZIANO : paint- er ; b. at Pieve di Cadore, Italy, in 1477. At the age of ten years he was sent to Venice, where he first studied the prin- ciples of art with Sebastiano Zuccato ; he then worked with Gentile Bellini, but soon preferred the instruction of Giovan- ni Bellini, whom he left to work u_nder Giorgione. In 1507 Giorgione and Titian painted together at the Fondaco dc’ Tedeschi, decorating the exterior with frescoes. Titian was after this invited to Padua, where he executed three fres- coes in the building called the Scuola del Santo, the oratory or service-house of St. Anthony, in 1511. At the death of Giovanni Bellini, Titian received the order to continue the work in the hall of the Grand Council of the ducal palace at Venice, which Bellini had left unfinished, and the senate showed their satisfaction with the work done by conferring on him an otfice which brought 120 crowns a year and the obligation of painting for eight crowns the portrait of every doge created during his lifetime. Pietro Lando, Fran- cesco Donato, Marcantonie Trevisano, and the V eniori were all painted by the great master, who on account of the in- firmities of age was unable to portray the last two doges of his time. In 1517, at the call of Alfonso d‘Este, Titian went to Ferrara and executed several great works. among them the Bacchus and Ariaclne, and the Saerzjfice to the Goddess of Festwitgy and The Baeehcmal, both in the Madrid Gallery. Titian was employed by princely clients until 1523. He was then recalled to Venice to paint the Doge Gritti, and his fresco above a staircase of the ducal palace of St. Chm'st0pher em/ryrjng the Chriszf Chilcl is one of this period, and an example of his power in this branch of paint- ing. His marriage took place about this time, and in 1530 he was already a widower with three children. In 1530 Titian was called to Bologna to paint a portrait of Charles V., who had come there to meet the pope. He then went to Mantua with the Duke Federigo Gonzaga to execute several commissions for him. He returned i11 1532 to Bologna to paint a second portrait of the emperor, and was then re- warded by receiving the order of the Golden Spur, which brought with it the title of Count Palatine of the Lateran. Ten years later Titian was again called to Bologna to paint a portrait of Pope Paul III. In‘1545 he was in Rome, where he produced one of his most famous portrait-pieces, repre- senting the pope and his relatives the Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, and the Duke Ottavio Farnese, the pope’s relatives. Titian spent but one year in Rome, and must l1ave declined the post offered to him, according to Vasari, at the death of Sebastiano del Piombo by the holy father. In 1547 Titian was summoned to Augsburg by the emperor, who employed him to paint the portraits of the great or noble men around him there. Titian was in great favor with the emperor, and after two years of court life he returned to Venice much the richer, but always greedy of wealth, even showing him- self servile in his anxiety to obtain it. He returned to the imperial court in 1550. Philip II., King of Spain, showed himself as great a patron and friend of Titian as his father. WVe read of his writing an order to the governor of Milan to pay up the arrears of Titian’s pension of 400 crowns. granted by his father, but he seems to have been less ready to pay his own debts. for in Titian‘s letters, written in the last year of his life, he recalls to Philip the work of the past twenty years, for which he has not been paid. V asari wrote his notice of Titian during the painter‘s lifetime, and describes how he went to visit him in Venice, where he was still paint- ing i11 his house. Titian lived lruzuriously, and received all the princes and learned and famous men of his time. He had the most pleasant and courteous manners. He is the only painter who worked for a period of ninety years. He was carried ofi° by the plague Aug. 27, 1576. He had among his scholars his younger brother Francesco, his son Orazio, his nephew Marco, and his cousin Cesare. Among his most famous pictures are the Tribute Jlfoney of the Dresden Gal- lery; the Sacred and Profane Love. in the Borghese Gal- lery, Rome ; the Assumpz‘z'on of the I'z'rg1,')z, in the Academy TITIE-NS - 169 at Venice ; the P)'esem‘az‘t'072. of Gz'oz~cmm' Pesaro #0 Sr‘. Peter, in the Antwerp Museum ; the Entomhmenz‘, in the Louvre; and the Bacchus and Amadhe and Venus and Ado/m's in the London National Gallery. For further information, see Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Life and Times of Tzlfian (London, 2d ed. 1881) ; R. F. Heath, Tvificm, portrait and illustrations; S. Ticozzi, Vite clef Piitori dd Cadore (1819); J . Northcote, The Life of Teficm. W. J. S'1‘ILL.\1AN. Titicaca, tee-teve-kaa’ka“a: the largest inland lake of South America; on the confines of Bolivia and Peru, 12,545 feet above sea-level. Area, 3,200 sq. miles. The Titicaca, often called the Bolivian plateau, is the most remarkable of the high inclosed basins of the Andes. It is situated between the Eastern Cordillera, here called the Andes, and a broken and irregular western range, known collectively as the Cor- dillera Real; the latter includes the highest and most im- posing mountains in Bolivia, but has comparatively low passes between Lake Titicaca and La Paz. Northward, the basin is separated from the plateau of Cuzco and the Ama- zonian watershed by the V ilcafiota cross-range ; southward, other cross-ranges mark its limits with smaller mountain basins near the boundary of the Argentine Republic. The Titicaca basin is thus completely inelosed. It is about 600 miles long from N. to S., 150 miles wide, and has an area of probably 100,000 sq. miles. The average elevation is about 13,000 feet, but the surface is irregular, with isolated hills and low mountains, and partial cross-ranges. Much of the land is sterile, and the climate is so cold that most cereals will not grow ; yet the basin supports a considerable population, mainly of Aymara Indians, who plant potatoes, quinoa, etc. The most important Bolivian copper mines are situated in it, and it contains silver and other metals, and perhaps coal. Lake Titicaca is near the northern end. It is irregular in form, contains several small islands, and pro- jecting peninsulas nearly cut off portions on the southern and eastern sides. Near the eastern shore it attains in some places a depth of over 700 feet ; elsewhere, and especially at the southern end, there are extensive shallows, covered with tall reeds. For a long time the only navigation was by curi- ous Indian rafts or boats. made of bundles of reeds; small steamboats now ply between the southern end and Puno on the \V., whence a railway runs to Arequipa and Mollendo: this is one of the routes from the Pacific to La Paz. The islands, peninsulas. and shores contain many ruins, some of the Incan period, others (as the celebrated Tiahuanacu ruins in Bolivia) much older. Some of the most interesting re- mains are on the peninsula of Copacabana, near the south- ern end of the lake crossed by the boundary between Peru and Bolivia. This was a sacred place of the Incas, con- nected with many of their traditions. In modern times it has been celebrated for a chapel with an alleged miraculous painting of the Virgin, which is yearly visited by thousands of pilgrims. The reedy shallows were long the haunts of Urn Indians. who issued from their secret recesses to attack the Spaniards: the few who remain are harmless. From the southern end of the lake issues the Desaguadero, a deep and rapid river, 190 miles long, lying entirely in Bolivia. It empties into Lake Aullagas or Poopo, which is rather a swamp than a true lake, and has a much smaller area than Titicaca. Beyond this the waters are lost in swamps and sands. It is probable that the'whole basin was formerly filled with water. forming an inland sea. See Squier, Peru (New York, 1877). HERBERT H. SMITH. Titiens, or Tietjcns, tcet'yens, Tnnnnse CAROLINE J01-IAN- NA : singer: b. in Hamburg, Germany. of Hungarian parents, July 18, 1831. She appeared for the first time at the Ham- burg Opera in 1849 as Lucrezia Borgia, and achieved an immediate success. She went to I*‘rankfort, and in 1856 to Vienna, where she was also well received. Subsequently she was engaged for her Majesty‘s theater in London. She appeared as Valentine in The Hzlgzumots, Apr. 13, 1858. Her impersonation was much admired and each repetition of the opera increased her reputation. She afterward sang at Covent Garden and at Drury Lane, as well as at her Majesty’s theater, and remained in London until 1876, when she visited the U. S. In the same year she had a large bene- fit concert at the Albert Hall, London. Her last stage ap- pearance was made May 19, 1877, as Lucrezia. Her voice was a rich and sweet soprano, extending to the highest reg- ister. Her versatility was remarkable. and she sang i11 such completely opposite roles as Semiramide and Fides. Her voice was also well suited to sacred dramatic music and ora- torio. D. in London, Oct. 3, 1877. B. B. \'.'i1.Ln.\"1‘1.\’1<:. 170 'rrrm1:us Titin'ius: a Roman comic poet, who, after the death of Terence, was the first to exhibit the so-called Fabulce Togatce, the scenes of which were drawn from Roman life, and not based upon Greek plays. He was especially skillful in the delineation of character. Fragments of his plays, over 180 verses and fifteen titles, are collected by Itibbeck (Conn. Rom. Frag), pp. 133-160. M. WARREN. Titlark, or Pipit [titla-rh is tit, a small bird + larlr; pipit is a name given on account of its note] : any bird of the genus Anthus and group or sub-family Anthince. The titlarks are generally associated with at least the wagtails (jfotacillinre) in a family, flfotacilliclce, and contrasted with them by the comparative shortness of the tail (shorter than the wings), which is emarginated, and has the two central feathers shorter than the lateral, and all broadest near their ends, and boldly round at the extremities. They are American titlark. mostly grayish brown, and in the under parts variously streaked. Over fifty species are known, and almost every land has representatives of the group. They are birds of passage, insectivorous and graminivorous, rather fine song- sters, and graceful in appearance and movements. Three species are found in the U. S.—-namely, Anthus pensileanicus (American titlark or pipit), A. spraguei (Missouri skylark), and A. cercinus; a fourth species (A. pratensis, or European titlark) sometimes straggles into Greenland a-nd Alaska. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Title [from O. Fr. title > Fr. titre < Lat. ti’tulus, inscrip- tion, label, title] : in law, a word often used as synonymous with property, or right of ownership, but in its technical signification denoting the sources of such right, .or the facts and events whereby property in land or goods is acquired. In this sense the common law divides all titles to real prop- erty into two classes—bg clescenl and by purchase. Title by ' descent includes the single mode of acquisition through in- heritance; title by purchase embraces all other methods.‘ A more convement classification 1s that which places in one . group the several methods of acquisition of property, real and personal, by acts inter woes, and in a separate group the different modes of acquiring property on the death of the former owner. The first class will then include (a) original acquisition (accretion, finding, etc.) ; (Z2) lapse of time (pre- scription and limitation) ; (c) eminent clomain, or the taking of land by or under the authority of the State; and (cl) con- veyance (including gift as well as sale), which maybe effected in various forms, but is now, in the ease of real property, usually accomplished by deed, known as a grant, and, in case of personal property, by delivery or writing. In case (a) it is assumed that there was no previous ownership of the property; in cases (7)) and (c) the acquired title has no reference to such previous owners‘hip as may have existed ; while ((l) presents the ordinary case of the transfer of the right of property f-rom one to another. The second class comprehcnds the various modes in which the death of the owner operates to transfer property, viz. : (a) descent, (1)) ocez/pane;/,,(c) gift causa mortis, and (cl) wills. For more detailed information concerning the several modes of acquisition above enumerated, the reader should consult the several articles bearing those titles. See also l)ighy’s IIisfor;z/ of the Law of Real Property/, chap. x.: Sr-.l1ouler’s Personal Prope/'1;//, vol. ii.; and the treatises of Williams on Real Property and Personal Property/. Gnoaen W. limci-nvnv. TITUS, EPISTLE TO Titmouse, Tit, or Tomtit [titmouse < M. Eng. titcmose, titemase; tit, small, small bird + O. Eng. mclse, a kind of small bird; cf. Germ. meise, titmouse]: any bird of several species of the family Paridre. They are small birds with soft and lax plumage, a stout conical bill shorter than the head, the wings rounded and short, and the sides of the toes expanded into a palm. The group belongs chiefly to the Northern hemisphere, and more to the Old VVorld than to the New; North America possesses but thirty species and , J ‘a , (‘£4 ¢ ">‘.<’% 5 T I ‘. L-L . ' I c -_“éP_' I (it. s \ yr - ‘ t -,1 Y‘-‘F » .'.’. :\ ’ ii"-£7 'd§(:'\\' ea /’;., as - pg .. I‘ D I ’ I “'4-._ 4-eé’-it .;_." _ -L \ ~ The blue tit. sub-species out of nearly a hundred. They are mostly birds of dull plumage, although there are some exceptions, like the blue tit of Europe (Pa/rus cceruleus), which is blue and yellow. Parus u/'oll'weZ1eri, the species found in the western parts of the U. S., and its eastern relative, P. bicolor, are crested. The CAPE Trrnousn (g. ‘o.) is found at the Cape of Good Hope. One of the most familiar species is the CnIc1 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . 1,348,957 617 71,438,690 268,400- Montana . . . . . . . . .. 71,561 . . . . . . . . 3 444,640 . . . . . . . . . . . Nebraska . . . . . . . . . 470,795 . . . . . . . . 23 893,898 . . . . . . . . . . . New Hampshire. . . 379,046 . . . . . . . . 16 737,591 . . . . . . . . . . . New Jersey . . . . . . . 1,510.67 4,214 73 153,940 1,535,895 New Mexico . . . . . . 4,308 138 211,585 ' ,0O - New York . . . . . . . . 23,318.642 5,904,638 1,103.775,864 1,793,513,517 North Carolina. .. 94,643 2,924,494 5,415,930 891,215,385 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,933,724 10,918 370,410,333 2,102,160 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . 154,624 . . . . . . . . 7,680,841 . . . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania . . . . . . 21,517.330 15,178 1,198,425,323 5,001,590 South Carolina. . . . 13,705 . . . . . . . . 673.8 . . . . . . . . . .. Tennessee. . . . . . . . 91,328 . . . . . . . . 3,861,485 . . . . . . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175,900 580 9,511,362 139,000 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . 1,527,589 3,019,931 103,482,527 802,929,195 WVest Virginia. . . . . 1,121,362 34 67,342,256 13,400 IVisconsin . . . . . . . . . 1,911,509 . . . . . . . . 93,281,896 . . . . . . . . . . . Totals . . . . . . . . . 84,428,797 12,497,183 4,341,240,981 3,660,755,959 Average quantity of tobacco used for 1,000 cigars, 1944 lb. ; aver- age quantity of tobacco used for 1,000 cigarettes, 3'41 lb. Snafi has been made from a very early period, first and most largely by the Spanish. who prepared it with care and scented it with various materials. Next the Netherlands, Scotland, and England extended and popularized its use- For many years Scotch snuff has been the favorite in com-~ merce, and large manufactures have existed in Great Brit-- ain, with a moderate production in the U. S. The export and import of snuff have not been usually distinguished from manufactured tobacco; the amount, however, has been large, and the consumption in Great Britain larger than all elsewhere. The manufacture was originally conducted by grinding the leaf in conical mortars, and more or less was produced in all tobacco-consuming countries. It is new ground in iron mills by steam-power. The old and stand- ard brands of snuff were maecaboy/, originally from Marti- nique and Spain; rappee, or the French ; and that known as Scotch, or Lmulyfoot. rl‘here has been a great decline in the- use of snuff in Great Britain and Germany since 1850, and in the U. S., with local exceptions, an even greater decline. Revised by GEORGE C. Wxrson. TOBACCO, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RELATIONS or. —-The most important ingredient of the tobacco-leaf is the alkaloid rvieoti/ne, which is present, in the dried leaf, in quantities varying from 2 to 6 per cent. Pure nicotine- (CIOHHNQ) is a colorless. oily liquid of a strong alkaline re- action, disagreeable smell, and hot. acrid taste. It is vola- tile, infiammable, soluble in ‘ater, alcohol, ether, and oils. On exposure to light it turns to a reddish-brown color.. \Vith acids it forms crystallizable salts. isolated by two German chemists, Posselt and Rcimann. in 1828. It is a virulent poison, a single drop snfficing to kill a rabbit in less than four minutes. 1Yicot'1Iao2,/inc, or tobacco- ca'm])hor, is a principle obtained by distilling the leaves, whether fresh or dry, with water. This is a fatty substance, Nicotine was first _ TOBACCO occurring in the form of minute acicular crystals, having little taste, but a tobacco-like smell. Besides these princi- ples, tobacco contains albumen, resin, and gum, and an un- usual quantity (from 16 to 18 per cent. and over) of mor- ganic ingredients. Lime composes from 25 to 50 per cent. of the ash, and potash about 30. Nitric, phosphor-ic, and malic are among the acids that occur. By dry distillation tobacco affords a dark empyreumatic oily substance (oil of tobacco), of the peculiar strong smell of old, foul tobacco- pipes, and an exceedmgly acrid, sharp, disagreeable taste. This oil is apparently a complex substance, and, like meo- tine, is an exceedingly powerful poison. Tobacco-smo/re, ac- cording to careful analyses by Vohl and Eulenberg, contains no nicotine, but does contain the whole series of the pyridine (volatile) bases, whose conjoint effect upon the animal sys- tem is substantially the same as that of nicotine ; and also, among other ingredients, ammoniacal compounds, hydrogen cyanide, a number of organic acids, and of hydrocarbons of the benzene or analogous series. The efieczfs of tobacco upon the am'maZ system have been eriticallv studied by experimenting with nicotine upon ani- mals. This alkaloid is one of the most powerful of nerve- poisons, producing tetanic convulsions, followed by paral_v- sis, and death through failure of respiration. The cerebrum is little affected, and the pulse-rate, while first lessened, is afterward quickened. The pupil is contracted. In man, tobacco taken in sufficient quantity to show poisonous effects produces giddiness, faintness, and an indescribable feeling of sinking and misery. followed shortly by intense nausea, severe and long-continued vomiting, and great relaxation and feebleness of the muscular system. The skin becomes pale and moist, and the pulse exceedingly feeble. More or less of these effects may persist for a day and more after the poisoning. They are familiarly seen in young lads when first beginning to smoke. As to poisonous dose, there is none, for not only do different persons vary in their suscep- tibility to tobacco, but habit also makes an enormous differ- ence in the effect following a given dose; so that, as is well known, very large quantities of tobacco can be smoked or chewed without the development of any of the above-men- tioned poisoning. In sufficient dose, tobacco proves a dan- gerous and even fatal poison. The symptoms are, in gen- eral, an intensification of those just described——namely, intense nausea and vomiting, faiutness, muscular debility, cardiac failure, and general prostration. Often, too, there are violent pains in the abdomen, cramps, convulsions, and profuse purging. An injection per rectum of an infusion representing the strength of 30 grams of tobacco has several times killed, and death may take place within an hour from the time of receiving the poison. Extensive external appli- cations of tobacco may also cause poisoning, and even death. There is no antidote, and in cases of acute poisoning the stomach or bowels should be evacuated by appropriate means, and restorative agents employed, such as alcoholics, ammonia, the application of heat, friction, and artificial res- piration. Chronic 12028022 fag by tobacco, such as occurs from undue indulgence in the weed as a luxury, shows itself in dg/spepsz'a, the smoker experiencing loss of appetite, espe- cially in the morning, dry foul tongue and thirst; and in ozeroousness, as evinced by a general physical and mental restlessness, with undue susceptibility to external impres- sions, and by tremulousness of the muscles an d palpitation or irregular action of the heart. \/Vith smokers, also, a form of chronic irritability, and even inflammation, of the throat and tonsils is exceedingly common. Graver evils, such as pa- ralysis, mental decline, and loss of sight from wasting away of the optic nerve, have been charged to excessive. use of tobacco; but when we consider the enormous number of persons who indulge heavily in the weed, and the compara- tively rare occurrence of the affections in question, where there is not some other obvious and valid cause for the same, the claim that tobacco is to blame for the disease must be received with caution. Jlloderafe use of tobacco by persons with whom it “agrees” (i. e. does not produce obviously inju- rious effects) often calms and soothes the exhausted or irri- tated nervous system, hel as digestion, promotes the function of the bowels, removes t ic sense of fatigue, and tends to compensate for an insutlicient food-allowance. The popu- lar question whether good or harm follows the habitual use of tobacco is too broad to admit of a single sweeping answer. According to present physiological knowledge the facts bear- ing on this subject are as follows: In the first place, tobacco is not a general necessity for the human race ; for individ- uals, whole classes, and even entire races of men, ha\e at- 175 tained a very high physical and mental development with- out the use of the agent. In the second place, to young persons, under twenty-five years or so, tobacco, even in small quantity, is so apt to disorder health in some way or other that for such it should be considered generally harm- ful. Third, many persons, even adults, can never indulge at all in tobacco without being to some degree poisoned. For such individuals common sense teaches that the weed is to be regarded as wholly noxious. Fourth. an enormous number of persons can and do use tobacco (the actual quan- tity consumed varying with the individual) not only with- out apparent present disturbance of health. but with main- tenance of as full physical and intellectual vigor, freedom from sickness, and longevity, as are found with non-con- sumers. To say that such individuals, did they abstain. would be still more hearty or long-lived is to assert that which obviously can be neither proved nor disproved. Finally, the exigencies of our artificial civilization often demand a con- tinued overtaxin g of either the physical, intellectual, or emo- tional faculties, and in some such cases, especially where the sufferer is past the most vigorous period of life, tobacco in moderation often seems to counteract in some measure the evil effects of the strain, disposing to emotional and physical calm, removing fatigue, assisting digestion, and supplement- ing a scanty food-supply. If, then, the abatement of mor- bid symptoms and restoration of the bodily functions to their normal status be beneficial, we must accord to tobacco in the present instances the right to be regarded as a useful agent. But in connection with this topic it is proper to bear in mind the fact, that while tobacco in due moderation may be often apparentlyharmless, and even, under some circum- stances, useful, yet that to indulge in an excess which, for the individual, is injurious. is both easy and tempting, and, as a matter of fact, is an exceedingly common habit. Any tobacco-consumer, by reverting to the symptoms of chronic tobacco-poisoning detailed above, can easily determine for himself whether he is or not crossing the “ poison-line ” in his use of the luxury. As to the relative power of the vari- ous modes of consuming tobacco, it is probable that a given quantity of a given leaf will most promptly and powerfully affect the system if chewed, next if smoked, and least if taken as snufi‘. In the matter of smoking, again. less of the active principles will reach the mouth if the tobacco be smoked in a clean pipe than if a foul one be taken, and less with a pipe, if clean, of porous material, like meerschaum, and with a reasonably long stem, than where the same tobacco is smoked as a cigar or cigarette. With both pipe and cigar or cigar- ette, again, the last portion smoked is proportionately strong- er than the first, for it becomes saturated with a certain per- centage of the smoke-ingredients of the earlier portions, mechanically arrested in their passage. Actual 2'/zlzaicztiorz of tobacco-smoke. as practiced by many cigarette-smokers, apart from an injurious irritation of the air-passages them- selves, determines quick and full absorption of the volatile elements of the smoke, and so a maximum of effect from a given quantity of leaf. Partly for this reason. and partly because, from the convenience of the cigarette. cigarette- smokers are apt to keep their systems almost continuously under the influence of the weed. this class of consumers af- fords a proportionately high percentage of subjects of chronic tobacco-poisonin<>x There is no reason to charge deleterious effects upon the paper ordinarily used in cigarette-manufz1c- ture. The time of day and state of the stomach also modify the effect of tobacco, however used. the influence being com- paratively stronger earlier in the day or upon an empty stomach than in the evening or after a meal. I/l[cd1'ct')2aZ Uses.——In medicine tobacco is used solely for its relaxing influence upon the muscular system. Before the introduction of anzesthetics it was thus sometimes em- ployed in cases of visceral spasm. or where hernias or dislo- cations were to be reduced, but its use in these circumstances is almost obsolete. In tetanus the drug has been tried, and shows, as might be expected. a certain power in blunting the irritability of the motor tract of the spinal cord, and thus reducing the severity of the spasms. It has been given in this disease in the form of nicotine, administered by sub- cutaneous injection in doses of a small fraction of a drop. In asthma some sufferers find relief from smoking tobacco. but as a rule the remedy is not of much use. The most com- mon way of administering tobacco for medicinal purposes is b_v giving an infusion of the leaf by enema, but great pru- dence is necessary, as the drug thus introduced is a powerful and even dangerous remedy. Externall_v, lotions and oint- ments of tobacco have been used for various purposes, but 176 TOBAGO anything like an extensive application is in the highest de- gree dangerous, fatal poisoning havi-ng more than once oc- curred in consequence. EDWARD CURTIS. Teba/go (originally Talmeo or Tabago)z an island of the West Indies, 20 miles N. E. of Trinidad. Length from N. E. to S. \V., 26 miles; area, 114 sq. miles. It is essentially mountainous except at the southwestern end, but the high- est peak hardly exceeds 2,000 feet; portions are still covered with forest, the valleys and lower lands are well cultivated, the principal products being sugar and cacao. The island is generally regarded as one of the Caribbean group, but by its structure, fauna, and flora it is, like Trinidad, an outly- ing portion of the South American continent. It was seen by Columbus in 1498, was first settled by the Dutch (1632 and 1654). passed into French possession, and in 1763 was ceded to Great Britain. Since 1889 it has been a depen- dency of the colony of Trinidad. Tobago is evidently the island which Defoe describes as the home of his imaginary Robinson Crusoe. Pop. (1891) 18,353 ; this includes less than 200 whites. The capital and principal port, Scarborough, has about 1,200 inhabitants. HERBERT H. SMITH. Tobikhar’ Indians: See SHOSHONEAN INDIANS. T0l)ii3, B00k Of [T()l7'll : Lat. :2 G1‘. Tcvfiir, Twfietv, fl‘O111 (supposed) Heb. T5b7ztz‘h, liter., goodness]: an Apocryphal book of the Old Testament, found in the Septuagint. Scholars diifer as to the date when it was written, some making it as early as the fourth century B. 0., and others as late as the second century A. D. Old texts of it are extant in Greek, Aramaic, Syriac. and Latin, and texts not so old in Hebrew. It is canonical with the Roman Catholics and some of the Orientals. R. G. Tobler, ADOLE: Romance philologist; b. at Hirzel, in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, May 24, 1835; studied especially at Bonn under the guidance of Diez ; later visited Italy and Paris; was for a time a teacher in a cantonal school in Switzerland, and in 1867 at the University of Berne; but in the same year accepted a call to the Uni- versity of Berlin as extraordinary professor, where he still remains, having been made ordinary professor in 1870. Since 1881 he has been a member of the Berlin Academy. Among his published works are DC!/I‘8l6ll’Ll7?/g cler la/e'ln’lse7z.en Coajugrtt/lon, in Ilhre/2' 'r0mcln’r'sel2.en' Geslalézmg (1857); Ge- cllchz‘e eon Jehcm cle Conclet (1860) ; III/ltzfltellzmgen was all- fraa2o'slsehen 1-Tanclse72.7"'lflen, i. (1870) ; Vom f1'cmz(')'st'sehen Versbaa alter marl neuer Zelt (1880; 3d ed. 1894) ; Die alt- eenezlrmzi.sche Ueberselzung der Sp);/ile/re cles Dlonysz'us Cato (1883); Des Bach des Ugaeon cla Laoclho (1884); Des Uprzlcltgecllelrt ales Glrarcl Pazfeg (1886); Vermtsehle Bee'- zfrélge zar fI'(l)LZ58’l807b87t Go'a1nmc1,li7c(1886; a second series 1894; both reprinted with additions from the Ze'l'tsehm'f1f filr 7‘0l7t(l7tl86ll/6 P72//llologle, in which he began in 1894 a third series), besides many articles in various periodicals and in the publications of the Berlin Academy. Here may be mentioned also the volume AblbC(’I?/(ll?!/'12/,(]6’II/, I.le/rrn Prof. Dr. Adolf Tobler .2/ar Feler seiner fimfandzwcmzlgjdlwlgen T/ml/lg/.;ez'l als orclenllleher Pro_fessor an der Um'eersz'z‘c'lzf ]>’erZz'a eon clcln7.'l)aren Sclm.'llern in Ehre/rb'lel'ang (large- bmcht (1895). All his work bears the marks of a wide and thorough scholarship, and perhaps no other scholar has thrown so much light on questions of historical syntax in the Romance languages, notably for Old and modern French. E. S. SI-IELDON. Tebolsk’ : a government of Siberia, bounded \/V. by the Ural Mountains, and extending from the Kirgheez territory to the Arctic Ocean. Area, 539,659 sq. miles. The western and southern part of the country is occupied by spurs of the Ural and Altai Mountains, from which the land slopes toward the Arctic Ocean in one extensive plain. The north- ern portion of this plain, between lat. 66° N. and the ocean, is a frozen swamp L uring nine months of the year; the mid- dle portion, between lat. 58" and 66° N., is a forest region, inhabited by hunters and producing excellent fur; the southern portion is good agricultural land, where rye, bar- ley, oats. and the fruits of Middle Europe are raised. Iron, copper, silver, gold, and platinum abound in the Ural Moun- tains, and mines are extensively worked. Manufactures of leather, soap, and woolen fabrics, and an important transit trade between Europe and Asia, are carried on. Pop. (1889) 1,313,400. Revised by M. W. I‘IARR1N(lTON. Tobolsk: capital of the government of Tobolsk, Sibe- ria; at the confluence of the Tobol and the Irtish, in lat. 58" 12’ N. (see map of Asia, ref. 3-E). It is a handsome TODA town, though most of its houses are built of wood, and it carries on manufactures of leather, soap, and tallow, be- sides fishing and ship-building. Pop. (1891) 22,651. Tocantins, t5-ka“an-teens’: a river of Brazil, rising in Southern Goyaz, flowing with a general northerly course, and entering the Atlantic through the Bani, which may be regarded as its estuary. The Para receives, through the network of channels S. \V. of the island of Marajo, a large volume of Amazonian water, exceeding the outflow of the Tocantins proper; hence the Tocantins is commonly called a branch of the Amazon, and commercially it belongs to the Amazon system. The lower portion is very broad and lake- like. About 200 miles above the city of Para navigation is interrupted by a series of rapids; above these it is freely navigable for many hundred miles. On the western side it receives the great river ARAGUAY (q. 1).), which is also navi- gable for a long distance, and by its length. volume, and direction may be considered the true head. The upper To- cantins (so called above the junction of the Araguay) re- ceives many tributaries, the most important being the Ma- nuel Alves, which, with the main river, forms part of the boundary between Goyaz and Maranhao. Small steamers ply on the upper Tocantins and Araguay, and canoes pass the rapids to Para; ultimately this river system must form the outlet of Goyaz and Eastern Matte Grosso. The banks have hardly any inhabitants except Indians; rubber and Brazil-nuts are brought down to Para. Length (from Parfr), by the upper Tocantins, about 1,700 miles; by the Araguay, 1,900 miles. HERBERT H. SMITH. Teck: another spelling of Tox (q. 11.). T0c0l0g‘)’: See OBsTETRIcs. 'l‘ocquevil1e, Fr. pron. t5k’veel', ALEXIS CHARLES HENRI CLEREL, de: publicist; b. at Verneuil,Seine-et-Oise, France, July 29,1805; studied law, and in 1830 became an assistant magistrate. In 1831 he was commissioned to investigate the penitentiary systems of the U. S., which he visited in com- pany with Gustave de Beaumont. In 1832, having returned from the U. S., he resigned his office, and in 1835 gave to the public the first volume of his work De la Dém0er(ltt'e en Amérlque (On Democracy in America, 4 vols., 1835-40), which met with a brilliant success. About this time he married Mary Mottly, an English lady. De Tocqueville, though himself opposed to democracy, foretold its rapid growth in the world, and was the first to write a systematic work of political science on the facts of democratic govern- ment as observed in the U. S. In 1838 he was made a mem- ber of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, and in 1839 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He be- came a member of the French Academy in 1841. In 1848, having been elected to the Constituent Assembly, he lent his support to the cause of order. In 1849 he was Minister of Foreign Affairs from June 2 to Oct. 31. The coup d'étm.‘ of I)ec. 2, 1851, drove him from the public service. He published L’cmm‘en Régtme el la Ré'U0l'Llll0?L in 1856. His complete works. including his correspondence, were pub- lished in 9 vols. (Paris, 1860-65). D. at Cannes, Apr. 16, 1859. T0011’ yo: a town of the state of Lara, Venezuela; on the Tocuyo river; 40 miles ‘W. of Barquisimeto and 2,067 feet above the sea (see 1nap of South America, ref. 1—C). It is finely situated in a wide valley, and is the center of one of the most important agricultural districts of Venezuela; the exports are cofiee, hides, sugar, etc. It was founded in 1545. There are several tanneries. Pop. (1889), with the immedi- ate vicinity. 15,383. H. H. S. Toda, Tuda, or Tudayva: a singular race of people of Dravidian stock, inhabiting parts of the Neilgherry Hills in Southern India. In 1858 they numbered only 337 per- sons and they do not now exceed 750, yet they are the domi- nant people of their region. and receive from the inferior tribes a heavy tribute. They have a peculiar language. of doubtful relationship, which is unwritten. Their religion is the worship of departed spirits and of the sun. Their only industry is the herding of buffaloes for their milk and butter. They practice polyandry, all the brothers of one family having but one wife in common. The men, however, claim and receive, at certain seasons, the rights of tempo- rary husbands to the women of the subject villages. The Toda men are tall and well-proportioned, and in many re- spects area superior race of men. See Marshall, Plw'(>n0l- 0_(/1'32.‘ among the Toclas, containing a grammar by Pope (1873); Grigg, Jlfanu-al of the Nilg/L‘/rz' Ifills (1880). Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. TODD Todd, CHARLES Scorr : s‘oldier; son of Judge Thomas Todd; b. near Danville. Ky., Jan. 22, 1791; graduated at William and Mary College 1809; became a lawyer at Lex- ington 1811 ; took part as brigade quartermaster and judge- advocate of Gen. Winchester's division in the war of 1812; became captain of the Twenty-eighth Infantry May, 1813; was aide to Gen. Harrison at the battle of the Thames; was appointed assistant inspector-general Nov. 1, 1813, inspector- general (rank of colonel) Mar. 2, 1815; settled at Frankfort, Kv.; was secretary of State of Kentucky 1817, member of the Legislature 1817-18; editor of The Cincinnati Republi- can 1840, in which capacity he took a leading part in. the campaign in favor of his former commander, Gen. Harrison, to whose biography, prepared by Benjamin Drake (1840), he also contributed; and was minister to Russia 1841-45. D. at Baton Rouge, La., May 14, 1871. Todd, HENRY JOHN: clergyman and man of letters; 1). in England in 1763; graduated at Oxford about 1785 ; took orders in the Church of England; became successively a minor canon of Canterbury, vicar of Milton 1792, rector of All Hallows, London, keeper of the MSS. at Lambeth Palace 1803, rector of Settrington, Yorkshire, 1820, preben- dary of York 1830, and Archdeacon of Cleveland 1832. He edited Johnson’s Dictionary (1814), and the works of Milton (1801 ; 4th ed. 1843) and of Spenser (1805); wrote biographies of Milton, Spenser, Gower, Chaucer, Cranmer, and Bishop Walton; and An Authentic Account of our Translation of the Bible, and of the Translators (1834). D. at Settrington, Dec. 24, 1845. Revised by BENJ. IDE WHEELER. Todd, JOHN, D. D.: clergyman and author; b. at Rut- land, Vt., Oct. 9, 1800; graduated at Yale College 1822 and at Andover 1826; was pastor of the Congregational church at Groton, Mass, 1827-31, of the Edwards church at North- ampton 1833-36, of the First Congregational church in Philadelphia 1836-42, and of the First church at Pittsfield, Mass., 1842-72; was one of the founders of Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary, and for some years president of the trus- tees of the Young Ladies’ Institute at Pittsfield, where he died Aug. 24, 1873. He was the author of Lectures to Chil- dren (Northampton, 2 vols., 1834; 2d series 1858): Stuclent’s Jlfanual (1835) ; Truth made Simple (1839) ; The Young Jllan (1843); The Daughter at School (1854): Jlfountain Gems (4 vols., 1864) : IVoman’s Rights (1867) ; Sunset Land, or the Great Pacific Slope (1869) ; Old-fashioned Lives (1870), and other popular works, some of which, especially the Stuclent’s Manual, have had a large circulation, and ex- erted great influence in the U. S. and in Great Britain. See John Todcl, the Story of his Life, told mainly by himself (New York, 1876). Revised by H. A. Brmns. Todd, THOMAS: jurist; b. in King and Queen’s co., Va., Jan. 23,1765; received a good English education; was a soldier in the war of the Revolution; emigrated to Kentucky 1786; became a lawyer at Danville; was several years clerk of the district court, and subsequently of the court of ap- peals, of which he was judge 1801-06 ; was chief justice of Kentucky 1806-07, and a justice of the U. S. Supreme Court from Mar. 3, 1807. D. at Frankfort, Feb. 7, 1826. Todhunter, Isaac : mathematician ; b. at Rye, England, in 1820 ; studied at University College, London ; graduated in 1848 as senior wrangler at Cambridge, where he became a fellow and mathematical lecturer of St. J ohn’s College. He was the author of a series of text-books in elementary and higher mathematics which are remarkable for their clearness of exposition. D. at Cambridge, Mar. 1, 1884. T0d'idse [Mod. Lat., named from To’olus, the typical ge- nus, from Lat. *to’clu/s, plur. to'rli, a kind of small bird]: a family of birds peculiar to the tropical regions of America. They resemble in physiognomy and form the kingfishers (Alcecliniclcc), to which they are allied; the bill is moderately long (at least as long as the head) and much depressed, with the tip rounded or pointed ; the wings short and rounded ; the tail rather short ; the tarsi quite slender and long ; toes three in front and one behind; and the anterior syndae- tylous, i. e. united by their first joints; claws short and well curved. In most details of structure of the skeleton and other parts, so far as examined, they resemble the filo- moticlre and Alcediniolce. They dwell mostly in damp places in South and Central America and the \Nest Indian islands. Except in the breeding season, they remain generally single and alone. \Vhen at rest they sit in a crouched manner on the branches, with the head drawn in between the shoulders, and are so dull and stupid that they are easily approached TOK 177 and caught with the hand. They are nevertheless sulfi- ciently spry to catch insects that come near them. They are said to make their nests generally in holes in the ground, and to lay three or four eggs. Revised by F. A. Lccas. Todleben, t6t’lcZ-ben, FR-ANZ EDUARD IVANOVICH, Count: soldier; b. at Mitau, Courland, May 20, 1818; educated in the schools at Riga and at the School of Engineering in St. Petersburg; served in the Caucasus against Schamyl 1848— 51 ; was distinguished in the campaign on the Danube 1853- 54, and on the outbreak of the Crimean war in the latter year was ordered to Sevastopol on the invasion of the allies. To his genius in developing the inchoate works and in im- provising defensive expedients adapted to the peculiar cir- cumstances is attributed the successful defense by which the place resisted for nearly a year (349 days) the efforts of the allied armies. (See Snvasroron) For his distin- guished services at the siege he was breveted major-gen- eral and afterward held important positions in the En- gineer department. I11 1860 he became lieutenant-general and in the following year inspector-general of the Engineer service. When the Russo-Turkish war broke out in 1 77. he at first received no command in the field, being passed by for men of inferior ability, but the repeated disasters be- fore Plevna caused him to be summoned to give advice as to the best method of taking the city. Under his direction a regular siege was begun and the garrison cut off from supplies. In December the city capitulated and the entire army surrendered to the Russians. After the peace he was appointed governor-general of Odessa. D. at Soden, Ger- many, July 1, 1884. He wrote a valuable account of the defense of Sevastopol (French trans., Défense dc Sévastopol, ete., 1864). and a work on fortifications. See Kinglake, The Crirnean ll/Iar, and Life, by Kriihmer (Berlin, 1888). Tody : any bird of the family TODIDEE (g. r.). Tofana: See AQUA TOFANA. To'goland: the smallest of the German protectorates; on the Slave Coast, 'West Africa. It was placed under the German flag by Dr. Nachtigal (1884), and is, so far, the most prosperous of the German possessions in Africa. , Wedged in between French territory on the E. and the British Gold Coast on the W., it has about 35 miles of coast, and an approximate area of 16,000 sq. miles. Pop. about 500,- 000. Its roads to the interior are important routes to and from the thickly populated portion of the Sudan. The commerce is chiefly confined to a barter trade for palm oil and ivory, but all tropical products may be grown, and the forests abound with oil palms, caoutchouc, and valuable woods. An imperial commissioner controls public affairs: the local laws are made by a council of merchants. Thirty Negro policemen maintain order. About 100 vessels an- nually visit the coast trading-towns, of which the most im- portant are Little Popo, Bagida, and Lome. C. C. ADAMS. Togrul Beg: See SELJUHs. Tok: any one of the small black and white hornbills (Bucerotidre) of the genus Toccus, a group distinguished by ' ,/,_' _ 0-A ' —.--— ' ‘ ‘I, l <‘-K-=.=.‘-—_' 5-L—/*‘ -1--.-.-_-,/r'T3"' -". "/"P- _:ac==1—__$—-K V. =- "Ad,/W_I Q _/ ‘ _- —— -1 A - ..__ 5; _> - _ _ g _ . ._ . wf _ . . - {',,,/ ,-,~'_~,:.*;~_ "'2-=“"" /~~* '‘ ,_~_.:.';v_ " '-g+5»‘I__-_v’r1_ 4 1 1, _ ¢ “ _ ’ ‘\ -H#.'. 2 I - - a .',-'-‘-'*n¢£;. ‘- \ \ _ .- ._- -.-‘§!".:\'a'$'§.-";L§JI~'.I>’~‘.~;.'.-"-7." s®:h we -. +.-irislru-:ai;a_ ‘ \\ \ \ ‘\ The crowned tok. ) \\ a thin, compressed beak, and only elevated into a low, some- times obsolete, crest. Thcse birds are mostly found in 409 178 TOKAIDO Africa, occurring throughout the larger portion of the wooded districts, the exceptions being Toccus gingalensis of Ceylon and Toccus yriseus of Malabar. They live on fruit and in- sects and nest in holes of trees. The typical species, Toc- cus erythrorhynchus, is about 18 inches long, and has a bill of a deep-red color. F. A. L. Tokaido, t5-ki’d5 : the great coast highway between the two capitals of Japan, noted for its fine trees and pictur- esque views. Leaving the Nihon bridge in Tokio, from which point distances in the empire are measured, it pro- ceeds S. to Kanagawa. thence to Odawara, whence it ascends the I-Iakone pass (2,970 feet) and descends on Mishima. Afterward it keeps to the coast. passing through Shidzuoka, the residence of the deposed Tokugawas (see TOKUGAWA), until it reaches Nagoya. Thence it strikes inland across the Kisogawa valley, by Gifu and Ogaki to Hikone on Lake Biwa, follows the southeast shore line to Otsu, and reaches Kioto after traversing 132% ii (317 miles). The name is also applied to the provinces through which the highway runs. The inland or mountain road‘ is known as the Na- kasendo. J . M. DIXON. Tokat’ : town; in Asia Minor, in the vilayet of Sivas : in a beautiful and fertile valley on the Yeshil Irmak (anc. Iris), about 65 miles from the Black Sea (see map of Tur- key, ref. 4—G). Founded in the Middle Ages, it became an important trade center, but within a generation the main route has been directed to Trebizond, and Tokat has greatly declined. Its population of over 50,000 has diminished to less than 10,000. Manufacture of copperware is its chief in- dustry. At Guemelek (Comana), 3% miles to the N., Chrys- ostom died in exile (407). E. A. GROSVENOR. Tokay’ : small town of Northeastern Hungary, county of Zemplin; on the right bank of the Theiss, at the influx of the Bodrog (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 5-1). It is famous as the entrep6t of the celebrated Tokay wines, pro- duced in the neighborhood. Annual product about 260,000 gal. Pop. 4,480. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tokay Wines: See WINE and WINE-MAKING. To'kioz the modern capital of Japan; situated in lat. 35° 40' N., lon. 139° 45’ E. from Greenwich; area, nearly 30 sq. miles; pop. 1,150,011 (see map of Japan, ref. 6—E). Since IYEYASU (g. ea), in 1590, set up his residence here it has been the real government center of Japan, and is as- sociated with all the traditions of modern Japanese bureau- cracy. Its former name was Yedo (Estuary Gate) ; changed to Tokio (Eastern Capital) when the emperor removed his court hither in 1869. Up to the year 1400 its site was a swampy wilderness, but during the following century a cas- tle was built, and a village arose about it. Iyeyasu enlarged the castle, had the marsh drained, and when, after the bat- tle of Sekigahara, he became complete master of Japan, he converted Yedo into one of the most populous cities in the world by compelling the territorial nobles to spend half of the year within its bounds. The city became a congeries of fenced inclosures, within which the several daimios, with their retainers and servants, established themselves. At this period the waters of the bay approached much closer to the castle walls than they do at present, the siltings of the Sn- mida river having gradually formed the district known as Tsukiji, i. e. made ground, where the foreign settlement is, and the process continues. The center of the city is the castle, the meat of which, in the form of a spiral, incloses many square miles of the city and encircles the central building two and one-eighth times. This meat is a favorite winter haunt of wild fowl, while in summer the pink lotus makes a gorgeous display of color. In the troubles of the restoration in 1868 the central building of the castle, where the shoguns held their court, was burned down, and the emperor, after leaving Kioto, was obliged to make use of a daimio’s residence in the vicinity as a palace. In 1889, how- ever, the court removed to a new palace, in which the Japa- nese and Western styles of architecture are somewhat bi- zarrely mingled. This palace is on a less elevated but more extensive site within the inner walls of the castle. As a city, Tokio is loosely built, being, in fact, a collection of vil- lages and inclosures. Many of the houses, even in the heart of the city, have small gardens attached. Lying in an exposed position on the sea edge of a large plain, Tokio is a wind-swept city, and as the houses are mostly (formerly altogether) built of wood, disastrous fires sweep over it from time to time. In 1880, 1881, and again in 1892-to mention only more recent disasters—whole districts were laid in TOLAN D ashes. The authorities insist on the houses which line the main streets being built fire-proof. The business portion of the city lies in the flat ground between the castle and the sea, and is a network of canals. The Nihon bridge over the Yedo-gawa, a tributary of the Sumida, is the busiest spot in the empire, of which it is the center for purposes of mileage measurement. Here are the fish-market, the ware- houses of the steamship companies, the general post-office, etc. The two main parks of the city--Uyeno to the N. and Shiba to the S.—-are connected by a long th'orou~gh'fare, the backbone of the city. Along this route street-cars and omnibuses ply; elsewhere most of the passenger traffic is carried on in jinrikishas. At Uyeno and Shiba are two fine temples where the Tokugawa shoguns were buried al- ternately. Between the castle and Shiba lies the official quarter of the city, where cluster the Foreign Office, the War Ofiiee, the houses of Parliament, most of the foreign legations, the residences of the princes of the blood royal, etc. This quarter is quite European in its aspect. The central barracks and parade-ground, formerly here, have been moved out farther W. To the N. of the castle is the educa- tional quarter, where is situated the university with four handsome colleges and a library in brick, the grounds ex- tending to 10 acres ; here also are the higher Normal School and numerous private schools. All the ground W. of the castle is undulating, frequently with stee bluffs. The Su- mida river, which skirts the city on the I . E., is spanned by five long bridges, one of them of iron. On the flat ground across the river there is an extensive suburb. Tokio is a great commercial entrep6t, its situation at the head of its landlocked bay and near the mouths of three large rivers favoring its growth; but Osaka still remains the commer- cial center of the em ire. Politically and socially, how- ever, the influence of ‘okio is paramount. the empire flock here in crowds, to attend schools where they may acquaint themselves with foreign learning and see the wonders of modern civilization; indeed, there is said to be a floating population of this kind numbering at least 70,000. The garrison numbers 7,000. At Tsukiji there is a naval college; the anchorage is off the extreme southern suburb of the city, at Shinagawa, only vessels of light draught being able to make use of the harbor in the river. The city is lighted with electricity, and extensive water- works are in course of construction, the supply being taken from the TAMAG-AWA (Q. 11.). A small river, the Yodogawa, I flows into the meat at the northern suburb of Koishikawa, where is situated the imperial burying-ground. The cre- mat-ories of the city are found on the right bank of the Sumida E. of Uyeno. There are two terminal railway sta- tions-—at Shiba and Uyeno—connected by a loop suburban line. J . M. DIXON. Tokugawa, t6’ko‘€Ygaa'wa“a: a distinguished family which furnished a dynasty of -rulers to Japan. Founded in the twelfth century, it rose to greatness in the sixteenth century in the person of IYEYASU (q. 2).). From 1603 to 1868 a suc- cession of Tokugawa rulers held sway in Tokio, securing tranquillity for the country and encouraging those arts for which Japan is now famed. The representative of the line has filled the post of ambassador to Italy. J . M. D. Toland, J OHN: deistical writer; b. near Redcastle, Lon- donderry, Ireland, Nov. 30, 1669, of Roman Catholic par- ents; was originally called J ANUS J UNIUS, but changed his name while at school at Redcastle, where he also became a zealous Protestant, and under the atronage of some Dis- senters entered the University of Glasgow 1687; removed to that of Edinburgh, where he graduated M. A. 1690; studied theology two years at Leyden, with a view to be- coming a Dissenting minister; his first work, Christianity not Jllysterious (London, 1696; 2d ed. Amsterdam, 1702), was censured by convocation, replied to by Stillingfleet and many others, and burned by the hangman at Dublin; pub- lished an Apology for Jllr. Tolarzd (London. 1697); went to- Amsterdam; published there the first edition of Milton’s W'0rhs, Historical, Poetical, and Miscellaneous, with a Life (3 vols. fol., 1697-98), in which he made an indirect attack on the Gospels, which was replied to by Rev. Dr. Offspring Blackall, Bishop of Exeter, in a sermon preached before the House of Commons; wrote a rejoinder entitled Amyntor, or a Defense of _ZlIilton’s Life (1699), which occasioned a po- lemic with Dr. Samuel Clarke and others; turned his atten- tion to politics; wrote a pamphlet entitled Anglia Libera (1701) in favor of the succession of the house of Brunswick, which procured him the favor of the Princess Sophia at the- The youth of‘ TOLEDO court of Hanover, and employment in a quasi-diplomatic capacity at Berlin and other German courts; held a theo- logical discussion with Beausobre; returned to England and published Vindicins Liberins (1702), a new defense of his first book, in which he asserted his claim to be “a true Christian” and “ a good Churchman,” but in his Socinian- ism truly Stated (1705) avowed himself a pantheist; in 1704 published Letters to Serena (that is, the Queen of Prussia); resided abroad in the employ of Harley 1707—10, and was subsequently a voluminous pamphleteer in London. D. at Putney, Mar. 11, 1722. Among his numerous works were State Anatomy of Great Britain (1714); lVazrlrenils, or Jewish, Gentile, or M'a/wmetan Christianity, containing the History of the Ancient Gospel of Barnabas, etc. (1718); Tetradymus (four treatises, 1720); and a Life of Servetus (1724). A biography appeared in 1722, and a collection of his miscellaneous pieces, with a memoir, was published in 1726 by Peter des Maizeaux (again in 1747). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Toledo, Span. pron. t5-la'd5: one of the oldest cities of Spain, and the capital of a province of the same name (see map of Spain, ref. 16—E). It is built on a circle of seven hills 2,400 feet above the level of the sea, and inclosed on three sides by the Tagus, toward which the town presents steep and abrupt sides, while on the fourth side, where the ground slopes gently, it is defended by two walls—-an inner wall built by the Goths in the seventh century, and an outer built by Alfonso VI. in 1109—both profusely adorned with towers and gates. From 467 to 714 it was the capital of the Goths, from 714 to 1085 that of the Moors, and after 1085 it was the residence and capital of the kings of Castile. Its most remarkable edifice is the cathedral, the metropolitan church of Spain, founded in 587, and one of the most mag- nificent church buildings in the world, 404 feet long, 204 feet wide, and having its chief nave almost overloaded with sculpture. Besides the cathedral, the city contains 26 other churches, 37 monasteries, and other architectural monu- ments; but its general aspect is gloomy and almost deso- late. It contains a royal palace that was originally built by King Wamba, rebuilt by Charles V., altered by Philip II., then changed into a military academy, and burned in 1887. The splendor has become sepultzhral; the place, which once contained about 200,000 people, had in 1887 only 20,837. Its once flourishing industry has also died out, the only two branches of manufacture alive being those of sword-blades and confectionery. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tole’ do: town (founded in 1853); capital of Tama co., Ia.; on the Chi. and N. W. Railway; 20 miles E. of Mar- shalltown, and 50 miles W. of Cedar Rapids (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 5—I). It is connected with Tama by elec- tric railway; contains Baptist, Congregational, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, and United Presbyterian churches, 2 public-school buildings, 2 State banks with combined cap- ital of $100,000, and 2 weekly newspapers; and has brick and tile works, scale-factory, and other manufactories. To- ledo is the seat of VVestern College (United Brethren, char- tered in 1856), which in 1892 had 25 instructors, 409 stu- dents, a library of 5,000 volumes, 3 buildings, and property valued at over $100,000. Pop. (1880) 1,026; (1890) 1,836; (1895) 2,163. Enrron or “ CHRONICLE." Toledo: city (incorporated in 1837); capital of Lucas co., O.; on the Maumee river near its entrance into Maumee Bay; 53 miles S. W. of Detroit, and 92 miles WV. of Cleveland (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 1-E). At Turtle Light, 7 miles out, the bay expands into the broader waters of Lake Erie, within its limits affording one of the best harbors on the lakes. ‘ Lake Tral7ic.—Tl1e city covers an area of 28:]; sq. miles, extending for nearly 8 miles on the eastern and western banks of the Maumee, with a dock front of 25 miles. The largest steamers of the lakes reach these docks with cargoes of iron and copper ore, lumber, salt, fish, and other merchan- dise from the northern and western ports of Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron, and with goods and other tratfic from the southern and eastern ports of Lakes Erie, Ontario, and the St. Lawrence river. Converging from the city in all directions are twenty-three important railway lines. bring- ing hither for manufacture or distribution the coal deposits of Southwestern and Central Ohio, wheat and other cereals from the grain-fields of Indiana and Illinois, and ship-ti1n- her from the lumber regions of Northern Michigan and Canada. Toledo is also the terminus of the Miami and Erie Canal. The yearly shipments of wheat, corn, oats, TOLEDO WAR 179 and rye from Toledo amount to 38,000,000 bush. The city is one of the largest soft-coal markets in the U. S., and one of the greatest clover-seed markets in the world. Jtfanufactnres.-—The manufacturing interests are impor- tant and diversified. Here, where coal. ore, and limestone most chiefly meet, have arisen extensive works for the manu- facture of malleable iron and furnaces for the casting of plows, steam-boilers, car-wheels, and other requirements of iron in the industrial arts. One of the largest wagon-works in the U. S. is located here, and several extensive bicycle- works. besides factories for the manufacture of carriage- wheels and bent work. The milling interests are led by the winter wheat flour-mills of the National Milling Com- pany, with an output of 3,500 to 4,000 barrels daily. The grain interests are represented by several elevators, the larg- est of which has a storage capacity of 1,500,000 bush. Ship- building is carried on extensively. Local I nterests.—Toledo has an extensive system of water- works on the stand-pipe plan, constructed at a cost of more than $1,340,000. It has two natural-gas companies furnish- ing fuel to the city through 200 miles of distributing-pipe. There are 95 miles of electric street-railways. An electric belt-line on both shores of the river connects the villages of Maumee and Perrysburg, bringing them in rapid communi- cation with the city. Toledo has an extensive park system in process of development. The most popular of these parks is that at Riverside, with a fine pavilion and excellent yacht anchorage. Toledo has 356 miles of avenues and streets, with many fine pavements of asphalt and stone. It has 36 public-school buildings and 23 private and parochial schools, a nobly equipped manual-training school connected with the Central High School, and an elegant public library building containing 35,000 volumes. There are 13 banks, 87 churches, 4 hospitals, a soldiers’ memorial building, armory, new court-house, and U. S. Government building. History.-—The name the Lady of the Lakes, by which Toledo is so widely known, succeeded an older title, the Miami of the Lakes, by which it was known in its early history. The equable climate, with its superior fishing- grounds, made its site a favorite resort of the Miami Indians before its occupancy by the whites. Later it became an important trading-post, but it was not until the famous vic- tory of Gen. Anthony ‘Wayne at Fallen Timbers in 1794 that peaceful possession by white settlers became possible. Pop. (1880) 50,137; (1890) 81,434; (1895) estimated, 125,000. - Fnxxcns D. J ERMAIN. Toledo, to-la/d6, Fnxxcrsco, de: Viceroy of Peru; b. in Spain about 1515. He was a younger son of the third Count of Oropesa, was major-domo to the king, and later was sent to Peru as viceroy, entering Lima N ov. 26, 1569. During his administration he settled the disorders which had resulted from the civil wars, and a code of laws, partly founded on those of the Incas, was prepared; this code, known as the Libro de Tasas, was in force during the colo- nial period. The Inquisition was introduced in 1569. The persecution and death of the Inca Tumc AMARU (q. 11.) re- moved the last focus of opposition to the Spaniards, but the narrow and cruel policy shown in this affair produced a burst of indignation against the viceroy. He was relieved Sept. 23, 1581, and on his return to Spgin was severely re- buked by the king and imprisoned. . at Seville, Sept., 1584. H. H. S. Toledo War: a term popularly given to a contest ex- tending from 1835 to 1837 in regard to the boundary-line between the State of Ohio and the Territory of Michigan. According to the ordinance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest Territory, the line between the States of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois on the S. and the territory on the N. was to be an east and west line running through the southern point of Lake Michigan. An old map showed the southern end of the lake at 42° 32' N., while the true loca- tion is 41° 37’ 19", or about 64 miles farther S. V\"hen, in 1805, the Territory of Michigan was organized, the line through the southern point of the lake was adopted ; but when Indiana and Illinois were organized as States, the northern line was the one chosen. In 1812 Congress ordered a sur- vey, which was completed in 1817, establishing what was known as the Harris line. The line of the ordinance, claimed by Michigan, was known as the Fulton line. The people of Michigan were especially persistent, as the town, now the city of Toledo, was in the disputed belt. In 1836 the Legislature of Ohio passed an act organizing townships in this territory, which for many years had been under the 180 TOLERATION control of Michigan. Both State and Territory appealed to President Jackson in vain. The Governor of 0110 called out the militia, and Gov. Mason of Michigan took pos- session of Toledo. While matters were in this condition Congress, June 15, 1886, admitted Michigan as a State on condition of the acceptance of the Harris line and the northern peninsula, which formed a natural part of the Ter- ritory of \/Visconsin. This addition, subsequently bringing such great wealth of copper and iron to the State, was finally accepted as an equivalent for the disputed strip at the S., which went to Ohio and Indiana. After formal acceptance of these conditions, Michigan entered the Union as a State Jan. 26, 1837, and peace was restored. C. K. ADAMS. Tolerationz See LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS. Tolima, t5-lee’ma"a: a southern interior department of Colombia; between Cauca, Cundinamarca, and Antioquia. Area, 18,434 sq. miles. It embraces the upper portion of the valley of the MAGDALENA (q. 1).) between the Central Cordillera on the western frontier and the Eastern Cordillera on the E. Peaks in both these ranges, especially near their junction southward, rise above the snow limit, and nearly the whole surface of the department is mountainous. The climate ranges from tropical, near the river, to cold on the mountains, where there are wide stretches of bleak paramo. Gold, silver, and a little copper are mined, but agriculture and grazing are the principal occupations. The roads are very bad. Pop.about-230,000. Capital, Ibagtié. H. H. S. T0lima: a quiescent volcano of Colombia; in the central Cordillera of the Andes, near the confines of Tolima, Cauca, and Antioquia, and N. W. of Ibagué. It is the highest mountain in the republic, attaining 18,425 feet; around the central peak and crater are other volcanic vents. Tolima is especially interesting to geologists as one of the few volca- noes at a considerable distance from the sea. It showed signs of activity in 1595 and 1826 to 1829. H. H. S. Tollens, HENDRIK CAROLUSZOON : poet; b. in Rotterdam, Holland, Sept. 24, 1780. His education was not extensive, and all but the last ten years of his life were occupied by the necessities of his mercantile pursuits. In 1846 he was able to withdraw to a country estate at Ryswick, where his last years were given to letters alone. D. at Ryswick, Oct. 21, 1856. Tollens is perhaps the most generally popular of all the Dutch poets of the nineteenth century. He began writing very young, at first translating and imitating French plays; but later he grew discontented with his compositions of this time-the comedies De Brue'Zof't (1799) and Ge'em'g- hetd en baatzncht (1801), and the tragedy Konstantty'n—and refused to admit them among his works. From 1801 to 1805 appeared the first poems in which he showed his true bent- Idylten en minnezangen. In these we have the sentiment and reflection of the Dutch bourgeois clothed in a style often exaggerated, yet always such as to go to the popular heart. In 1808-15 appeared his Gedtehten; in 1816, Tafe- reel van ole oveerwtnter/tng dew lVederZanders op Nova Zan- Z/Ia; in 1818, Romaneen, baltaden, en Zegenclen; in 1821, Nteawe Gecltchten; in 1840, Verstrootde Gedtehten; in 1848 and 1853, Laatste gedtohten. A. R. MARSH. Tolsto'i', ALEKSEE KONSTANTINOVICI-I, Count: author; b. in St. Petersburg, Aug. 24, 1817. He was well educated. was for a short time in the diplomatic service, traveled ex- tensively, served as a volunteer in the Crimean war, and for the last eighteen years of his life held a high position at court. He wrote but one novel, Kn/Zaz (Prince) Se//'br'Zany*t (trans. by J. Curtin. 1893), a work somewhat in the style of Scott, with a well-told story, strongly drawn characters, and presenting a vivid picture of one of the most striking periods of Russian history. This same wild time is per- trayed in Tolsto'i’s fine trilogy, The Death of Ivan the Ter- rible (1865), .Tsar Fedor Ioanov/teh (1868). and Tsar Boris (1870). The first and the best of these plays has been translated into English verse (F. Harrison, London, 1869). Tolstoi also wrote a short, strong drama called Don Juan, besides another unfinished one, Posadn/th. As a lyric poet he ranked with the best of his day. being especially successful with his ballads and popular verses. D. near St. Petersburg, Sept. 28, 1875. Complete works, 4 vols., 1890-91. A. C. C. Tolstoi, Count Luv (or LYOFF) ALEKSEEVICII (LEV, pro- nounced lyoff, : English LEO, which is sometimes used): novelist; b. on the family estate of Iasnaia Poliana. in the government of Tula, Russia. Sept. 9 (N. s.). 1828 ; entered the University of Kazan in 1843; left without graduating after TOLTECS three years. Having visited the Caucasus in 1851, he joined the army and took part in various guerrilla expeditions. It was now that he began to write. After the war in the Crimea, in which he served, he gave up military life and resided for a time in St. Petersburg and Moscow, traveled twice in Europe, then in 1861, the year before his marriage, retired to his country estate, which has since been his per- manent home. His works fall into three distinct periods. To the firstv belong his Detsvo (Childhood), Ot9'eehe.s'tv0 (Boy- hood), and I nnost (Youth), also his Kazaht (Cossacks), a de- scription of life in the Caucasus, his Seeastopol, and other military sketches. The second period is that of his two great novels Votna /1) 1l[e'r (War and Peace, 1865-68), an epic of Russian life, national and individual, at the time of the great struggle with Napoleon, and Anna Karentna (1875-78), a marvelous study of passion and its consequences. Soon after- ward Tolstoi began to give himself up to the mystical religious and philanthropic ideas which have so completely mastered him that it has been doubted whether he is to be regarded as perfectly sane. His doctrines have been proclaimed in Fly Confession, In what my Fa/tth Conststs (more usually known as ilfy Reltgton), a Commentary on the Gospel, and other works, many of them forbidden in Russia by the cen- sors. As he believes not only in non-resistance to evil and in asceticism, but in communism, the duty of manual labor, and of every one to live like the peasants, it is only with mis- givings that he has continued to write, hence all he has done has been with a didactic or polemical aim which has often detracted from its value. Still nothing can entirely quench his genius. Many of his tales for the peasants are admira- ble, and in even the poorest of his productions we often find pages of splendid power. The best known of his later works are the Death of loan lltoh (1884-86) ; The Krenteer Sonal a (1888); and his drama, I/‘last Tmy (Power of Darkness). Al- though the influence of his later ideas has created a sect. his reputation will probably depend on his earlier works, and especially on the two novels. Both of them, as well as the shorter productions that preceded them. display a combina- tion of keenness of realistic insight and wealth of poetical imagination, of a wonderful breadth of view with perfect handling of minute detail, seldom rivaled in all literature. The mastery of style is complete, though the author takes no pains to polish it, any more than he cares to spare us trivial incident. In his story K71/oztae'n /6 Rabotnth (Master and Man, New York, 1895) he seems to have returned to his for- mer 1nanner and to show no diminution of power. Most of his works have been translated into English and other mod- ern languages (in English by Dole, Miss Hapgood, etc.). Among the best-known studies of them are those of de Vogue, Ernest Dupuy, Lemaitre, G. Brandes, Matthew Ar- nold, Rallston, etc. A. C. Coomnea. 'I‘o1’tees, or T011360’ as (so called from their principal city, Tollan, supposed to be Tula, in Hidalgo): an Indian tribe, said to have occupied portions of the Mexican plateau during several centuries prior to the advent of the Aztecs. The little that is known of this race comes from Aztec tra- ditions or pietographic records as they were collected by Spanish writers soon after the Conquest. It is related that they came from the north, making temporary settlements at various points, and finally fixing themselves at Tollan about A. D. 661. Lists of their chiefs or “kings” are extant, but these are of very doubtful value ; the hero-god, Quetzalcohuatl, is said to have lived in their cities before his final disappear- ance. About 1013 the Toltecs were overthrown by savage tribes. They then migrated southward and do not appear further in the Aztec accounts, but the Quichés and other Maya nations which appear in Guatemala about this time are supposed by some to be their descendants. The ac- counts of the Toltecs are so vague and contradictory and so mixed with evident fable that many etlmologists have been inclined to deny their existence altogether; others suppose that they were a small Nahuatl tribe settled at Tula. Those who accept the traditions in their fullest sense claim that the Toltecs ruled a powerful empire extending over a great part of the plateau, and that the Aztec civilization, re- ligion, arts, and picture-writing were derived from them. Probably the truth lies between these extreme views. It is certain that some of the Mexican monuments, notably the great pyramid or mound at Cholula, are older than the Aztec period, and traditions generally assign these to the Toltecs. Ruins near Tula indicate communal structures similar to those of Arizona. Unfortunately nothing is known of the Toltec language, hence the supposed relationship with Tow BALSAM the Maya race is conjectural, and the semi-mythical Quiché records adduced in its support have only thrown the whole subject into more confusion. HERBERT H. SMITH. Tolu’ Balsam [named from Told (or Santiago de Told) in Colombia, South America, whence it is obtained] : a balsamic juice obtained from Myroxylon toluifera, a lofty tree of the family Legumvlnosce. The tree averages 70 feet in height, with a straight trunk rising 40 feet without branching. The balsam is obtained by slashing the bark of the stem through to the wood in many places, and allowing the juice which spontaneously exudes to collect in small calabashes fixed to the tree. The balsam when fresh is a light-brown, thick, resinous substance, but by keeping concretes into a solid, brittle in cold weather, but easily softened by slight warmth. It has a delicate and fragrant odor, most per- ceptible when the balsam is warmed, and a correspondingly pleasant taste. Its most important constituents are an amorphous resin and cinnamic acid. Balsam of tolu was used by the natives when South America was first explored, and was introduced into Europe in the latter part of the sixteenth century. This balsam has scarcely any medicinal virtue, but is largely used in pharmaceutical preparations and extemporaneous prescriptions to impart to mixtures its agreeable odor and taste. The official preparations of it are a sirup and a tincture, and it is an ingredient of the com- pound tincture of benzoin. Revised by H. A. HARE. Telu’caz capital of the state of Mexico, in the republic of that name; 32 miles W. S. W. of Mexico city (45 miles by railway); in a basin of the plateau; separated from the lake valley by a range of mountains (see map of Mexico, ref. '7—G); 8,653 feet above the sea. It is well built and clean. and the climate is cool and salubrious. The town has considerable manufactures. At the time of the conquest it was an important Aztec pueblo, and tradition assigned its foundation to the Toltecs. Pop. (1892) about 17,000. The Nevado de Toluca, a few miles S. of the city, is an extinct volcano over 15,000 feet high and capped with snow. It has been frequently scaled. It is said that on a clear day both the Pacific and the Gulf may be distinguished from its summit. HERBERT H. SMITH. Tol'uene, also called Toluol, Hydride of Benzyl, Hy- dride of Tolyl, and Methyl Benzene [t0Zuene, etc. are derivs. of tolu] : a hydrocarbon, formula C7HS, discovered in 1837 by Pelletier and Walter in the oily product of the dry distillation of resins. It is obtained by the dry distillation of tolu balsam and many resinous bodies, by the action of potash on benzylic alcohol, and by heating toluic acid with lime; but is most readily prepared by collecting the portion of coal-naphtha which distills between 212° and 248° F., agi- tating it with sulphuric acid, and redistilling, and collecting the part that goes over between 226° and 230° F. Toluene is the second member of the benzene series of Hvnnocannoxs (q. /0.), as is shown by its formation from monobrom-ben- zene by the action of methyl iodide. It forms a mobile liquid of sp. gr. 0883 at 32° F., and boils at 230° F. It is soluble to some extent in alcohol, in ether, and in the fixed and volatile oils, and dissolves iodine, sulphur, and many resins. A large number of substitution products of toluene are known, the most interesting of which are those of chlo- rine and nitric acid. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Tolu'ie Ac-id, also called Toluolic Acid and Toluylic Acid [toluic is deriv. of tolu]: an aromatic homologue of benzoic acid and an isomer of methylic benzoate, formula CBIIBOQ; produced by the action of nitric acid on cymene or xylene, and by the action of sodium and carbonic acid on bromotoluene. In a pure state it is colorless and tasteless. The fusing-point of the acid is 347° F.; at a higher tem- perature it sublimes without decomposition, forming fine needles. ‘When heated with lime, toluic acid is decomposed into TOLUENE (g. /0.) and carbonic acid. It is monobasic, and forms crystalline salts. '1‘0lu'idine, or Amide 'I‘0l'uene [zf0Zut'(Z2'ne is deriv. of tolu]: an isomer of benzyl-amine, produced by reducing nitro-toluene with ferrous acetate or sulphuretted hydro- gen; formula C-,I-IQN. It dissolves in boiling water, and in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. From a dilute alcoholic solution it crystallizes in large colorless laminae, which evaporate somewhat at the ordinary temperature of the air, and possess a burning taste. Toluidine fuses at 104° F. to a liquid which boils at about 388° F. It imparts a slight blue color to reddened litmus, and forms a series of compounds with many of the acids. TOMB 181 Tomah : city ; Monroe co., Wis. ; on the Chi., Mil. and St. Paul Railway; 42 miles E. of La Crosse, and 4'7 miles S. \V. of Grand Rapids (for location, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 6-0). It is in an agricultural, lumbering, and cranberry-growing region, and contains 10 churches, the U. S. Government school for the Winnebago Indians, railway-bridge works, ‘a private bank, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,245 ; (1890) 2,199. Enrron or " J OURNAL." Tomahawk [from Amer. Ind.; cf. Algonkin tomeizagen : Mohegan Zfumnahegan : Delaware Zomoz'heccm] : strictly, the war-club of the North American Indians, but for a long time the name has been given, probably through misappre- hension, to the war-hatchet, originally of stone. Europeans introduced steel tomahawks, which were sometimes so made as to serve as tobacco-pipes, the handle forming the stem. The natives used them as battle-axes, and possessed great skill in throwing them so that the edge would strike first. Toma’to [from Span. tomate, from Mex. t0'ma2‘Z]: any plant of the genus Lycopersicum of the family Solcmacecc, indigenous to the Andean region. The common tomatoes are ofispring of L. esculentum, which was introduced into Europe in the middle of the sixteenth century. The fruit, also called tomato, although formerly known as love apple, was at first regarded with suspicion and was grown for orna- ment, although there is a record of its having been eaten as early as 1583. The suspicion arose from its relationship to henbane, belladonna. nightshade, and other virulent poi- sons of the Solanacecc (nightshade family). This fear of the plant was not wholly overcome until well into the nine- teenth century, and even in the last quarter of the century the fruit has been considered to be associated with the ro- duction of cancer. Few fruits are more healthful than the tomato, and it ranks next the potato in economic impor- tance among garden products. A chief reason for the popu- larity of the plant is the excellence of the canned tomatoes, which are consumed in enormous quantities. The output in the U. S. in 1893 was 4,456,443 cases, of two dozen cans each. The tomato needs a warm, quick soil, and the fer- tilizers should be such as give much available food, in or- der that the plant may make the most of the early season. There are a number of books and bulletins upon tomato- growing, some of the latter dealing with the forcing of the crop under glass, which is a growing industry. The leading books are Tomaz‘o Caliure. by Day. Cummins, and Root, and Lt'm‘-ngston and the Tomato (Columbus, 0., 1893). L. H. BAILEY. Tomato Blight: See Bmenr. Tomb : a burial-place of permanent character or of some pretension, especially a structure destined to contain or to cover the body of one to whom some honor is intended to be done; therefore generallya somewhat ornamental monu- ment. In the widest sense. cenotaphs are also tombs be- cause standing for the actual tomb itself, or, in the case of persons lost at sea or the like, as being the only tomb pos- sible. Tombs are often arranged to contain or to cover a number of burial-places; thus the Roman COLUMBARIUM (q. r.) is the tomb of a large number of persons; the tomb of Augustus and that of Hadrian were arranged with many burial-places. and modern funeral structures set up in the large cemeteries are intended for the burials of a whole family. The great pyramids of Egypt were tombs, and the tombs of another type, the mastabas (see lllxsnnx), though less in size were more elaborate in decoration. Grecian tombs were simple and tasteful, as became a race of such strong common sense and such exceptional gifts i11 art. The sim- ple fiat stone set up at a grave was often carved with all the skill that the time could afford, and these stelaa are found with inscriptions and decorative sculpture. In Athens, after the Peloponnesian war, unusually large gravestones were set up, and some of these are decorated with sculpture of the greatest beauty. The famous stele of Dexileos, upon which is represented in high-relief the young warrior mounted, riding down his enemy, is over 6 feet wide and nearly as high; and others are nearly of the same dimen- sions. The reliefs upon these very often represent peaceful groups, where personages sit or stand as if in conversation. Sometimes the idea of a farewell, or of regret, is suggested. Sometimes a marble vase with delicate reliefs carved upon it was set up at the grave. Large edifices built as monu- ments to the dead are not found in Greece. but were com- mon in semi-Greek lands of Asia. The most famous of them was that of King Mausolus of Caria. See lllxusomvu. The monuments erected by the Romans are celebrated in 182 TOMB story and tradition, but their form is often altered beyond recognition, even when their mass remains. The Castle of St. Angelo (that is, of the holy angel), in Rome, is the mauso- leum of the Emperor Hadrian, stripped of its sculptures, its marble colonnades, and its probably conical superstructure, _ and crowned with defensive works which make of it a very defensible citadel. The older mausoleum of Augustus, some vestiges of which exist half a mile away, had received the remains of the emperors who succeeded him, until its niches were filled ; so Hadrian erected the still more gigantic struc- ture for himself and his successors in office. Private tombs, onlv inferior in splendor to these imperial ones, remain for study outside the walls of Rome, and the round tower known as the tomb of a Caecilia Metella had been robbed of its roof and built up into a fortified tower with medizeval battle- ments, exactly as has been done with the great imperial structures within the walls. Smaller private tombs lined the great highways of approach to the city gates. At Home those of the Appian VVay are well known, ruined as they are. At Pompeii a long street of tombs 1S found outside of the gate leading to Herculaneum, and others like it are known to exist near other gates. This means that, as burial within the walls was forbidden or made difficult, the place next easiest of access was chosen for the erection of showy memorial structures. For smaller receptacles and such as were deposited within the greater tombs, see SARCOPHAGUS, Rouxx Aacmnonoev, and CATACOMBS. The tombs of the Middle Ages and of the Renaissance are often of a refined beauty which no Roman work could approach. Both in Northern Europe and in Italy the burial monuments of the later Gothic style are of wonderful in- terest, and the art of the period can not be understood with- out a serious study of these structures. What are known as altar-tombs are large sarcophagus-like masses set on the church-fioor, and commonly having a life-size effigy of the departed in bronze or stone lying upon the top. These were simple in early times, as may be seen in the_Temp_le church in London, the cross-legged knight in his cham mail forming the only adornment; but in the fifteenth cen- tury such tombs become splendid combinations of decora- tive art of many kinds, as in the Burgundian monuments of about 1400, now in the Dijon l\/Iuseum, and those which remain where they were first set up in the Church of Brou a century later, at Bourg-en-Bresse. The famous monu- ment of Ilaria del Carreto (1406) in the cathedral at Lucia is made of a Roman sarcophagus upon which the lovely re- cumbent statue of the lady by J acopo della Quercia is placed. Tombs of this character and only less beautiful than these exist by hundreds in Italy, France, Spain, Eng- land, and parts of Germany. Still more stately are the out- of-door tombs, but there are few of these. The most impor- tant group of them is in Verona, in the crowded little church- yard of Santa Maria Antica, where splendid pillared cano- pies crowned with blunt spires, which in their turn carried equestrian statues aloft, cover the sarcophagi of the princes of the house of La Scala. Nowhere is the beautiful sculp- tured detail of Italian Gothic more perfectly seen than here. The Castelbarco monument. standing upon the wall of the churchyard of San Pietro Martire, also in Verona, is worthy of comparison with the La Scala tombs. Verona is rich in Gothic wall-tombs as well; and these exist in great number in Venice and Florence, and in scores of smaller towns in North Italy. I/Vall-tombs of the Gothic period are known in the north, but here they approach rather the type of the altar-tomb with a canopy over it; they project more into the church, they are rarely confessed as upright wall-pieces. There are a few such, however, and these are of great beauty and value. The wall-tomb reached its highest development during the Italian Renaissance. In Florence the Marsuppini monu- ment in Santa Croce and that of Lionardo Bruni in the same church, and the two monuments by Mine da Fiesole in the C.‘hurch of Badia; Mino’s tomb of Bishop Salutati in the (lathedral of Fiesole; the tomb of Alessandro Tar- tagni in San Domenico, Bologna; and finally the two superb structures in Sta. Maria del Popolo at Rome, the tombs of Cristoforo della Revere and the Cardinal di Castro, are enough to cite. All these were sculptured and put up be- tween 145() and 15()5; and a long list might easily be made of such splendid structures still existing and another list of equally precious ones destroyed. _ _ A complete treatise on tombs would require an analysis of the sculpture with which they are adorned. This is pe- culiarly the case with those of the post-Renaissance times, TOMBS for the architectural design grows feeble and meaningless in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, and the statues, busts, and groups in marble are by far the most important part of these works of art. The same conditions obtain in the nineteenth century. The diminished power of decorative design, characteristic of the epoch, makes it especially difficult to secure a fine monument, because there is no practical purpose to be served. and no strong leading in one or in another direction afforded the architect. But good sculpture can be had. Accordingly, the tombs in modern cemeteries are generally without merit, although some memorial statues and groups are valuable. Witli respect to modern structures the term is generally used in the sense of a somewhat large interior, opening out of which are receptacles for coifins, the whole being either excavated in a hillside with a front of masonry in which the door is arranged or built above ground like a chapel or made by a combination of the two systems. In some cases a similar chapel-like structure is erected above or in con- nection with a single grave; but as a general thing the term is confined to family vaults of some pretension. Memorial structures erected in cemeteries above or near a grave are more often called monuments (see l\IoNUiiENT) ; but when these are long and low, in general shape like the altar-tombs of the Middle Ages, the word tomb is sometimes employed to describe them. In some cases a family burial-place is merely excavated and built below ground, with a slab on the surface which can be raised, and to these also the word tomb may be applied. In short, any structure which is es- sentially the receptacle of dead bodies or which contains and covers such receptacles, is, if built in advance, perma- ,nent, and of some pretension, a tomb. The difference be- ’tween a grave and a tomb is, then, that the grave is a simple excavation to be filled up when the coffin has been depos- ited and the tomb is more elaborate, including something of the nature of a building. The large modern cemeteries contain many tombs in addition to the more numerous gravestones and monuments. Some of the larger tombs are occasionally used for divine service on set occasions, such as anniversaries. These buildings are more commonly a parallelogram in plan, with receptacles for coffins built at one end, the space not so occupied being reserved for vesti- bule, chapel, and the like. fhe form of an octagon has also been used, the entrance occupying one of the sides, while the receptacles for coflins are arranged, three or four in the height of the wall, on the other sides. The light in such a case comes from above and the central chamber is covered by a cupola or similar roof. All such chapel-like tombs need to be built in a permanent way of solid materi- als which defy weather. because such a structure is not cer- tain to be cared for or even visited frequently after the lapse of a few years. It results from this that a certain un- usual architectural pretension is common to them, and that in the U. S. tombs may be built of cut stone or marble with vaulted roofs and bronze or wrought-iron doors in the neighborhood of towns whose houses and churches are gen- erally of wood. RUSSELL STURGIS. Tom’ bac [from Portug. tambaque. from Malay tamlwigal, copper, from Sanskr. ta‘/zma'ha, made of copper, deriv. of tdm/ra, dark red, copper-colored, copper] : any one of several different alloys of copper and zinc, with about 85 per cent. of copper. An English tombac gave copper 8638 and zinc 1361. A German tombac gave copper 84 and zinc 155. The alloy of copper 845 and zinc 155 is very malleable and ductile. Dutch metal, pinchbeck, imitation bronze, prince’s metal, and Mannheim gold are similar alloys. A u~he'te tombac, or w7m'te 60])]J6’I', has been made, containing copper 75 and arsenic 25. Tombig’ bee River: rises in Northeastern Mississippi, and after a very indirect S. by E. course of 450 miles in Mississippi and Alabama, joins the Alabama river 45 miles above Mobile, and the stream below the junction is called Mobile river. It is navigable to Aberdeen, Miss, 410 miles from Mobile Bay. Revised by I. C. RUSSELL. Tombs, Sir HENRY, K. C. B., V. C. : b. in Gloucestershire, England, in Nov., 1824; educated at the Sandhurst Military College and at Addiscombe; entered the service in 1842, when ordered to join the Bengal Artillery, and soon en- gaged in the Gwalior campaign 1843-44. and subsequent ac- tive operations; appointed to the artillery staff and engaged in the Sutlej campaign 1845-46; and the Punjaub campaign of 1848-49. On the outbreak of the Indian mutiny. Tombs was a brevet major in command of a troop of horse artil- TOMBSTONE lery; ordered to join the army for besieging Delhi, he led the force which captured the Eedgah and commanded the horse artillery at the final assault. Under Sir Colin Camp- rbell he was then engaged in the Oude campaign at Luck- now, etc. He was made lieutenant-colonel J an., 1858; colo- nel the following July, and named Commander of the Bath. Besides the many medals of honors heretofore won, the Victoria Cross was now added. He commanded the Bhutan expedition, and was named K. C. B.: major-general 1867. D. at Newport, Isle of Wight, Aug. 2, 1874. Tombstone: city; capital of Cochise co., Ariz.; on the Ariz. and S. E. Railroad ; 19 miles S. by E. of Benson, and 30 miles N. by W. of Bisbee (for location, see map of Arizona, ref. 15-O). It is in an agricultural and a rich silver and gold mining region, and has a daily and 2 weekly newspa- pers. Pop. (1880) 973; (1890) 1,875. Tomcod [either Tom + cod, or (by analogy of Tom and coal) from Fr. taeaacl, whiting pout : Amer. Ind., liter., plenty-fish]: in the U. S., any small codfish of the genus Mterogadas. The tomcods, in external characters, do not differ from the large codfishes, the anus, however, is under the last rays of the first dorsal fin, instead of being under the first ones of the second, and the skull is essentially dif- ferent. The species on the eastern coast is the well-known J11’. tomeodas, that on the western (California, etc.) the 11!. proximas. The species are not of much economical impor- tance, although the eastern one at least is brought in con- siderable quantities to the eastern markets. They are often caught from wharves. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Tomlinson, CHARLES, F. R. S.: scientist and author; b. in London, Nov. 27, 1808; became science lecturer at King‘s College School, London. He has presented to the Royal Society many original memoirs and papers on scientific matters, and has written treatises and articles for cyclopae- dias and magazines, as well as several scientific text-books. He is an advocate of the view that the culture of a scientific man is very defective unless it is modified by a study of literature. In 1849 he published a translation of Goethe’s Iferman and Dorothea (2d ed. 1887), in 1874 a volume on The Sonnet, and in 1877 a translation of Dante’s In-ferno. He is also the author of a volume of original sonnets (1881) ; Amusements in Chess; and Essays Old and ZVew (1887). Tomlinson, HERBERT: physicist; b. at York, England, Nov. 18, 1845 ; educated at Christ Church, Oxford, and took honors both in mathematics and natural science at his de- gree in 1868; was appointed demonstrator of natural phi- losophy at King’s College, London, in 1870. He has pre- sented a number of memoirs to the Royal Society, The Phtlosoy/v7m'caZ illagaezhe, etc., on magnetism, electricity, elasticity, internal friction of metals, torsional vibrations, viscosity of air, etc. Tom-mase’o, NICCOLA2 author; b. at Sebenico, Dalma- tia, Oct. 9, 1802; went in 1818 to Padua, where he studied law ; later for a time i11 Milan. and then in Florence, where he enjoyed the friendship of Vieusseux and contributed ar- ticles to the Antologta. On account of an article wrongly supposed to be written by ‘him he was obliged in 1834 to leave Florence, and went to France, where he published va- rious writings, notably Dell’ Italta (2 vols., 1835), the novel It daea d’Atene (1837), and Relations ates a'm.Z2assaoZears 'vé'n'tt'tens sur Zes afi“ae'res de F'rahce aw X V16 sieele (2 vols., 1838). In 1838 he went to Corsica, where he collected ma- terial for his Lettere dt Pasquale Paoit (1846). and the Cor- sican songs published in his Oantzi p0])0Za’/"21 ztosca/222?, 002-si, 'tZZ'z.'rte't, great (4 vols., 1841-42). He then went to Venice, where he remained about ten years. Early in 1848 he was arrested, but was liberated by the people, and became min- ister of instruction in the provisional government and later went as an envoy to Paris. The return of the Austrians to Venice in 1849 caused his retirement to Corfu. In 1854 he went to Turin, where he undertook work on the great Dtzio- narto delta Ztngua t'taZt'(m.a, published under his name and that of Bellini, but not completed till some years after his death. In 1860 he was elected a deputy, but resigned, re- fusing to hold any public office. In 1861 he established himself in Florence, where, in spite of blindness. he con- tinued his literary labors. D. May 1, 1874. Among his numerous publications, religious, philosophical, philological, critical, and political, to say nothing of verse and fiction, besides what has been mentioned above, are the D1Iz'z'ona'rzTo dc-II stnontmt (1830 and since); C(>2n/221.e'n,to a Dante (1837); Stadt crt't'z‘e't (1843); Rome et Ze more/ate (1851); Le Lettere TON 183 dt Santa Caterina da Stena (4 vols., 1860); H seeonrlo estlto (1862); Naooi stuctt su Dante (1865); Storzia e£vz'Ze nella Zetterarta (1872), etc. E. S. SHELDON. Tompkins. DANIEL D.: Vice-President of the U. S.; b. at Scarsdale, \Vestchester co., N. Y., June 21, 1774; gradu- ated at Columbia College 1795; was admitted to the bar of New York city 1796; was elected to the Legislature, and also to the convention for revising the State constitution 1801; was a member of Congress 1804-05: appointed judge of the New York Supreme Court 1804 ; was Governor of the State 1807-17; was conspicuous as an advocate of Jeffer- sonian principles and an opponent of the banks; com- manded the third military district during the war of 1812- 15, to the success of which he contributed by his energy in calling out troops and equipping them for service, but by his carelessness in keeping accounts was afterward charged with being dishonest; recommended by a special message of Jan. 28, 1817, the abolition of slavery in New York, which was effected by an act to take effect July 4, 1827; was cho- sen Vice-President of the U. S. 1816 on the ticket with Monroe, and re-elected 1820, when he was an aspirant for the presidential nomination ; was chancellor of the Univer- sity of New York ; delegate to the State constitutional con- vention of 1821, and for a time its president. D. on Staten Island, June 11, 1825. Tompson, BE1\'JAMIN; poet; b. at Braintree, Mass., July 14, 1642, graduated at Harvard and taught school at Cam- bridge. He is remembered as the author of New EngZancZ’s C’rz'sz's, a long poem on King Philip’s war, written about 1675, the prologue of which has been often reprinted. D. at Roxbury, Mass., Apr. 13, 1714. H. .‘ . B. Tomsk : government of Siberia, bounded W. by Tobolsk, E. by Yeniseisk, and S. by China. between lat. 49" and 61° N., and between lon. 75° and 903 E. The surface is one vast plain sloping from the Altai Mountains, which occupy the southernmost part. The foot of the mountains is cov- ered with extensive forests of oak, cedar, and pitch trees, and on the adjacent steppes live large droves of wild horses and herds of oxen. \Vhere agriculture is pursued, in the central parts of the government, good crops of rye, barley, oats. hemp, and flax are raised, as the climate generally is mild. The northern part is marshy, and partly covered with somber forests of fir and pine. The inhabitants live as nomads: hunting and fishing form important occupa- tions. In the southern part an extensive mining business is carried on. Gold-washing is in many places very re- munerative. The mineral wealth is considerable, and an important transit trade between Russia and China is carried on on the large system of lakes and rivers which the gov- ernment contains. Area, 331,159 sq. miles. Pop. (1889) 1,299,729. Revised by M. \V. HARRINGTON. Tomsk : capital of the government of Tomsk, Siberia; on the Tom, an affluent of the Obi; in lat. 560 29' N.; 2.809 miles E. of St. Petersburg (see map of Asia, ref. 3—F). It is well built, has some handsome edifices, important foundries, tanneries, soap-factories, and other manufact-ures. and car- ries on, besides its transit trade. an active trade in furs, grain, and cattle. The Siberian University was opened here in 1886. Snow falls in October, and in December mercury freezes, but the summer is beautiful and the climate gener- ally healthful. It was almost destroyed by fiood and fire on May 16, 1890. Pop. (1891) 41.632. Revised by M. W. EIARRINGTON. T0m’s River: village: capital of Ocean co., N. J.; on Tom's river, and the Cent. of N. J. and the Penn. railways; 4 miles from Barnegat Bay, and 52 miles E. of Philadelphia (for location, see map of New Jersey, ref. 5-13). It is a popu- lar summer resort; contains 5 churches, graded public schools, 3 hotels, national bank with capital of $50,000, and 2 weekly papers; and is engaged in agriculture, cranberr_v- culture, coasting trade. and the shipment of fish, oysters. and clams. The village was founded in early colonial days, contained large salt-works, was a noted retreat for privateers in the Revolutionary war, and was burned by the British Mar. 24, 1782. Pop. (1890) 1,147; (1895) estimated with sub- urbs, 3,000. Enrron or “ NEW J ERSEY CouE.iEn.“’ Tomtit: See Trrnousn. Ton [O. Eng. I‘unn.e, tun. large vessel : O. H. Germ. tmrna > Hod. Germ. tonne] : a measure of weight and capacity in Great Britain and the U. S. As the former it is equivalent to 20 cwt., and as, in Great Britain. and in the U. S. custom- houscs, the hundredweight is reckoned at 112 1b., the ten 184c TONAWANDA contains 2,240 lb. In the domestic commerce of the U. S., however, it has become customary to reckon only 100 lb. to the cwt. and 2,000 lb. to the ten; and this usage, in some of the States, has received the sanction of law. Thus in the Revised Statutes of the State of New York it is pro- vided that “the hundredweight shall consist of one hun- dred avoirdupois pounds, and twenty hundredweight shall constitute a ton.” This law was passed in 1851. By act of Congress, when not specified to the contrary, the ten is to be construed as meaning 2,240 lb. The ten of 2,240 lb. is commonly called “the long ton,” that of 2,000 lb. “the short ton.” The old shipping ton of France was 2,158'43 lb., and the metric ton is 2,2046 lb. As a measure of the carrying capacity of a ship the ten is 40 cubic feet. This is called actual tonnage. The register ton is 100 cubic feet. The words ton and tan are etymologically the same, but the former orthography is usually applied to weights and the latter to liquid measure. The tun in old British ale or beer measure was equal to 216 gal. of 282 cubic inches each, and in old British Wine measure to 252 gal. of 231 cubic inches each. A tun of water of the larger of these measures weighs a little over 2,200 lb.; and hence it is supposed that the ten weight was originally derived from the tun measure, of which it is a rough equivalent. '1‘onawan'da: village; partly in Erie and partly in Niag- ara cos., N. Y. ; on the Niagara river, the Tonawanda creek, the Erie Canal, and the N. Y. Cent. and Hud. River Rail- road; 11 miles N. of Buffalo (for location, see map of New York, ref. 5-C). It contains a number of manufactories, principally of lumber, and a union school with library, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a State bank with capital of $200,000, and a weekly newspaper.--The village of Noarn TONAWANDA (post-office, Tonawanda) has lumber interests, manufactures of merry-go-rounds, etc., and has a daily paper and 2 State banks with combined capital of $200,000. Pop. Tonawanda (1880), 3,864; (1890) 7,145; North Tonawanda (1890), 4,793. Tone [from Fr. ton < 0. Fr. ton < Lat. to'nas : 761103, a stretching, tension, cord, tone, sound, deriv. of 'rei1/cu/, stretch] : in music, a word having for its primary meaning a sound, or the impression made on the car by a vibrating string or other sonorous body. The derivative meanings of the term relate to the qualities, relations, or conditions of such sounds, as (1) their place on the scale, a high tone or a low tone; (2) the interval made by two sounds, as a major or a minor tone; (3) any special quality of a sound, as a fine, clear, rich, sweet, or feeble tone. ln a more technical sense a tone (or whole tone) means one of the steps of the scale, as C—D, G——A, etc. The words step and half-step are much better as scientific terms than whole tone and semi-tone, as the former are not easily confounded in a student’s mind with the idea of quality of sound, as is the case with the word tone. Revised by DUDLEY BUCK. Tone, THEOBALD WOLFE: patriot; b. in Dublin, Ireland, June 20, 1763 ; educated at Trinity College, Dublin; studied law in London ; was called to the bar at the Middle Temple 1789 ; wrote a number of pamphlets to expose English mis- government in Ireland ; was an ardent sympathizer with the doctrines of the French Revolution; promoted the combina- tion of the Irish Roman Catholics with the Protestant Dis- senters in opposition to the British Government; founded at Belfast the first society of United Irishmen 1791; became secretary and agent of the Roman Catholic committee 1792; was involved in secret negotiations with France, on account of which he went to the U. S. 1795; resided a few months at Philadelphia and at Princeton, N. J . ; sailed for France Jan., 1796 ; aided the French Directory in fitting out Hoche’s rejected expedition to Ireland, in which he was appointed rigadier and adj utant general; served in the Bavarian army 1797 ; was captured in Sept., 1798, on board a French squadron bound for Ireland; was taken to Dublin, tried by court martial, and sentenced to death, but committed sui- cide by cutting his throat Nov. 19,1798.—-I-Iis eldest son, IVILLIAM THEOBALD WOLFE TONE (b. in Dublin, 1791), was educated by the French Directory; served in the French army; emigrated to the U. S. in 1816; served a few years in the army; d. in New York, Oct. 10, 1828. He published several works, including the A'aloZ)io,r/raplmy of his father (Washington, D. C., 1827; new ed. London, 1892). Toner, -Iosnrn lflnnnnrrn, M. D. : physician and author; b. in Pittsburg, Pa., Apr. 30, 1825 ; graduated at the Jeffer- son Medical College in 1853; in 1855 took up his residence at Washington, D. C.; is a member and officer of many TONGUE medical societies and other learned associations; in 1872 founded the Toner lecture, in charge of the Smithsonian In- stitution, to encourage the discovery of new truths in medi- cine ; has contributed largely to medical literature and to medical biography; and devised a system of symbols to indicate geographical localities, which has been adopted by the Post-office Department. Among his numerous publica- tions are Abortion in its lklcdical and Moral Aspects (1859) ; .MaternaZ Instinct, 01' Love (Baltimore, 1864); and a Dic- tionary of Deceased American Physicians. Revised by S. T. Anmsraone. Tonga Islands: See FRIENDLY ISLANDS. Tongaland : another spelling of AMATONGALAND (g. /0.). Tongue [O. Eng. tango : O. H. Germ. zanga (> Mod. Germ. zange) : Icel. tanga : Goth. taggd < Teuton. tang- : O. Lat. din’gaa > Lat. Zin’gaa < Indo-Eur. dngh-]: the or- gan of the special sense of taste, situated on the floor of the mouth. This body consists of muscles by which it can be protruded, retracted, and curved upward, downward, and laterally. The base or root of the tongue is attached below to the hyoid bone, and the tip of the tongue, when in- active, rests forward against the inner surface of the lower incisor teeth. The tongue consists of two sym- metrical halves, with a fibrous middle septum ; hence one side may be par- alyzed and the other active, as in cases of apoplexy. The upper surface or der- .'’l '.>-''‘ H . , \ ',,,- - / / ' . \\ \ \\ H , U \ //,5 ' -' \ I 1- 1‘-~ , \ sum of the tongue is essen- /;‘_,__;//. ‘\\‘.:=\.g\g\ tially the seat of taste. (See , ' ’ Q \~@‘'-.;\\ - . // /C ’ , II; I . I: \\ \ figure of taste-bulbs 111 Y . HIsToLoeY.) It is covered by delicate processes or pa- pillae, which contain the ultimate ramifications of blood-vessels and the ter- minal fibers of the nerves of sensation and taste. The fore part and sides of the tongue derive their sense of taste from the gustatory branch of the fifth nerve. The base of the tongue and sides and the larger papillae receive their special sense through the lingual branch of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve. The facial nerve also has an in- fluence upon taste, paralysis of this nerve impairing the special sense. The papillae vary in size and length on different parts of the tongue-—broad, circum- vallate near the base, fungi- form and filiform -on the ante- rior part. Food and viands of decided flavor can be definitely tasted and distinguished by a single papillae, as found when applied through cylindrical glass rods. It is claimed that only the circumvallate and fungiform papillse contribute to the sense of taste, the fili- form to sensation. Sensation (tactile) is more acute in the tongue than elsewhere in the body. Thus Valentin found that distinct perception of two \\Q \\:;°‘\ \Q\1<, FIG. 1.—The tongue. FIG. 2.—Papil1ae of tongue : loops of vessels and nerves. needle-points was obtained at the tip of the tongue when the points were separated only '483 of a Paris line (-3-; mch), the most sensitive part elsewhere, the tip of the fin- TONIC ger. requiring '603 of a line. The several papillae are im- bedded in the corium or body of the mucous membrane, which corresponds to the cutis vera of the skin, and are covered with scaly epithelial cells. The tongue may be inflamed from various causes, as hot drinks and irritants. It is often the seat of apthm, ulcers, cankers, the result of catarrh of the mouth. A curious form of inflammation sometimes occurs on one lateral half, usually the left, of the tongue (hemiglossitis). There is decided swelling of the affected side. The disease seems of nervous origin. The coated tongue may be due to a relaxed, flaccid, and pale condition of the papillae, and when noticeably C0&t6d*hELS an accumulated stratum of thickened saliva and rapidly exfoliated epithelial cells; the yellow color is the result of the fatty metamorphosis which the cast-off cells speedily undergo. When the stomach is inflamed or irritable, the papillae of the tongue will often appear as distinct points. The tongue is occasionally attacked by epithelial cancer. Ranula is a cystic tumor beneath the tongue, due to occlu- sion of some one of the salivary ducts. Exceptionally, in infants the fraenum or fibrous cord beneath the tongue is too short; the tongue-tied infant can not nurse well, and when older speaks imperfectly ; the cure is by cutting. Revised by W. PEPPER. Tonic : in music, the keynote, or prime of a scale. Tonics [from Gr. 'ro1/ucds, deriv. of 1'61/0s, tension, force, strength, tone, deriv. of 0'61:/cw, stretch. See TONE] : in medicine, a term used to refer generically to the means em- ployed by the physician to remove the condition of debility, general or special. Nourishing food, fresh air and exer- cise, cold bathing, etc., are thus spoken of as having a tonic effect. Drugs, such as directly improve nutrition, or indirectly accomplish the same end by exciting the appetite and increasing digestive power, are called tonics. The most prominent examples of the former are iron, which in anaemia directly stimulates the manufacture of the red blood-corpus- cles; cod-liver oil, which operates as a fatty food of unusu- ally easy assimilation; ;_oh0sph0rus, which in some cases of nervous exhaustion or functional nervous derangements seems to improve the nutrition of the nerve-structures ; and preparations of some of the metals, as silver, zinc, mercury, arsenic, which in peculiar conditions of malnutrition tend in some unknown way to determine the nutritive processes back into the healthy channels. Of the drugs which are tonic by improving digestive power, the most serviceable are vegetable bitters, as cinchona and its alkaloids, gen- tian, columbo, quassia, nux vomica, etc.; aromatics and spices; acids, both mineral and organic; and weak alcoholic beverages in very moderate quantity. The list might be greatly extended, for it is a general property of irritants that, taken internally in small doses, their irritation tends to increase the activity of the digestive organs and the se- cretion of the digestive fluids. Revised by H. A. HARE. Tonic S01-fa System : a musical notation, and the meth- od of teaching music which grows out of it. It is called a natural system, because it treats music properly as hav- ing but one scale or alphabet of seven tones. The other scales are but replicates of this. No lines and spaces are used. It consists of the letters d, r, m, f, s, l, t, which are the initials of the Guidonian syllables doh, ray, me, fah, soh, lah, te (the last changed from se). These notes are applied to all keys alike, in accordance with the tonic principle in music. Tones above the octave are represented by a figure at the top of the letter (d1, d2, etc.) ; tones below the octave by a figure at the bottom of the letter (s1, s2, etc.). The signs for time (rhythm) are based upon the law of accent. A strong accent is represented by aperpendicular line before a note (|); the weak accent is represented by a colon (z); a medium accent by a shorter, thinner line (i). The space between any two accents represents a beat or pulse. The space between two strong accents represents a measure. A dash between two accent-marks shows that the previous tone is to be continued. The four principal forms of measure are herewith given as illustrations: Two-pulse measur Four-pulse measure. e. {id:m|d:—-Ill {|d:m|s:m|d:--|-—:-ll} Three-pulse measure. Six-pulse measure. {ld:m:s|d:-:—|l} {idzmzs | d1:s:m|d:-:-|-:—:—|]} In these measures each pulse is supposed to represent a quarter-note. The shorter notes are represented by divisions of the spaces; eighth-notes by a dot in the middle of the space (Id . dz); sixteenth-notes by a comma in the middle of the half-space (| d, d . d , d :) ; triplets by inverted com- TONIKAN INDIANS 185 mas (I d . d . d z). Other forms are shown by combinations of these signs. Silences (rests) are indicated by the absence of notes in the pulse divisions (| d: I). In the tonic sol-fa system the world’s standard of keys is recognized, but no sharp or flat signatures are required. The pitch of a tune is indicated thus at the beginning: Key C, Key G, Key F, etc. Chromatic tones are represented by the old chromatic names written out. The sharps are de, re, fe, se, le; the flats are ra, ma, sa, la, ta. No naturals, double sharps, or double flats are required in tonic sol-fa, as they are only necessitated by the complex nature of the staff notation. The germs of the tonic sol- fa.notation were first used by Miss Sarah Glover, of Nor- wich, England, as early as 1 1812. In 1841 John Curwen, 1" a young Congregational cler- gyman of London, saw its 8 d; f educational value, and there- after devoted his life chiefly TE m to its development. Through f ta his genius the tonic sol-fa 16 system became not only a m complete musical notation, but also a perfect education- al method. He introduced 1- many original devices. One was that of indicating each ‘ \\ f9 1-,, tone of the scale by a posi- (1 tion of the hand, which en- ables the teacher to exercise t, a class in one and two parts in all keys. Another device is the modulator, by which 1. scales and keys are repre- sented or pictured in their true relationships, as shown 5. in the diagram. This de- . vice, combined with the sim- ‘in ml plicity of the notation, re- duces to a minimum the dif- ficulties of modulation, or transition, as the tonic sol- faists prefer to call it. If the key is changed to the domi- nant (fifth) the soh is changed to doh, and the other sylla- bles to correspond; thus with any passing change of key that may occur. As a result of this simplicity the tonic sol-fa notation becomes a revelation of the harmonic mys- teries of classical music. All vocal music (oratorios, masses, glees, etc.) is printed in this notation in England, and is sung with facility by the common people. Whether the notation is of equal value in instrumental music is a ques- tion that is not yet decided. Its value in that is not so self-evident; yet time may prove that its educational power is equally needed with the keyboard as with the voice. The introduction of tonic sol-fa into the U. S. dates from the publication of a monthly journal, the Tomb Sol-fa Ad- vocate, by Theodore F. Seward, in 1881 (since discontinued), and the preparation by him of text-books of the system adapted to the needs of the American public. The relation of tonic sol-fa to the staff notation may be aptly compared with the relation of the Arabic figures to the Roman nu- merals. As these figures reduced mathe-matics to a simple expression, and brought its principles within reach of the common mind, so does tl1e tonic sol-fa notation change the relation of music to the entire human race. Tnnonoar. F. SEWARD. <1‘ f‘ t m' 1 r: 8| dl T0n'ikan Indians: a linguistic stock of North Ameri- can Indians, whose historically known tribes lived in close proximity to one another, and appear to have spoken dia- lects not widely differing. About the year 1700 one tribe lived in Avoyelles parish, La.; another, E. from there; at the Tonica Bluffs, on the eastern bank of the Mississippi river; and a third, near the junction of the Yazoo and Mis- sissippi. Politically. these latter belonged to tl1o Ohicasa confederacy. The Tonicas on Tonica Bluffs were steadfast allies of the French colonists. All Tonieas had the reputa- tion of being warlike. A connected history of their migra- tions, wars, and other deeds can not be composed from docu- 186 TONK ments now extant, and the Tonicas now living are all to be found in Avoyelles parish, about a mile from Marksville. In 1886 the number of those who spoke or remembered their paternal language did not exceed twenty-five. See Pierre Margry, Déeourerzfes, iv., 180, 362, 398, v., (Paris, 1883); B. French, I-Iistorieal Colleeiwns of Lemma/nu’, iii., 35 (New York, 1846) ; and T. J etferys, History of the French Dome'm'ons in North and South America, i., 145, 146 (Lon- don, 1760). See also Innmns or Nonrn Amnmcx. J. W. PownLL. T0nk: city and state of Rajputana, British India. The state is of very irregular outline, occupying the western slope of the basin of the upper Chambal river. Area, 8,889 sq. miles. Pop. (1891) 380,069, mostly Hindus. The ragah IS a Mohammedan Pathan. The city is in lat. 26° 11’ N., len. 75° 50’ E.; 1,468 feet above sea-level, and a mile from the banks of the Banas river, an affluent of the Chambal (see map of Northern India, ref. 6-D). It is a large town, capital of the state, surrounded by a wall, and protected by a fort. It is a progressive city, and many important hygienic im- provements have been introduced. Pop. (1891) 46,069. 1\1ARK W. HARRINGTON. T0n'ka Bean [ionlece is from Guianan tonea, the native name] : the seed of a noble leguminous tree of Guiana, the De'pte'rt':e (or Coumarozma) oclorata. The tree grows to from 60 to 90 feet in height; the pods, about 2 inches long, are almond-shaped, and the single seed, over an inch long, is shaped like a large kidney bean and shiny black in color. It abounds in the fragrant principle coumarine, with the composition (.‘18H6O4; is used in scenting snuff and tobacco, and in perfumery. It is also employed to keep moths from woolens. In medicine, it re- lieves the paroxysm of whooping- cough. Revised by H. A. HARE. Ton'kawan Indians [so named - r -. 3:-- ;"- .-.- ._=~; .- \ _ ‘ -’-‘_-*2- ':-rl “’-—:»-:"_, ‘€E\ . - -; _ A 1-'. 1 ‘ \~ __:. _ .é . _ ..,; , -J1“ ‘ 1-1'---_‘_ ‘J.-e-_,_ from a word of the Weko or Hueco .“ language, tonkcmeeya, which 1S said ,6 .:,\:, _ "' I ' to signify many staymg together] : ';,'."1" a linguistic stock of North Amen- ! can Indians calling themselves Tit- " e‘ , I - W---\ ~ ~ skan watitch, mcltgenoas people (of Texas). Besides the main Tonka- wa, two tribes are re ort-ed to have spoken dialects of t eir language, the Mayeyes and the Yakwal, or cZm'fi‘ed people. Fragments of this people appear in many parts of Central and Southern Texas——on the Brazos river, in Fayette Coun- ty, and near Corpus Christi. Before they removed to the Oakland reserve, Oklahoma (1884), they were living around Fort Gritfin, Shackleford County, the men serving as scouts to the U. S. troops stationed there. Their pristine home may have been nearer the Rio Grande. In their language they distinguish certain terms used by “old people ” from those employed by the younger generation. They have thirteen clans, partly with totem names. They are first mentioned as Tancaoye, in 1719. In 1862 half of their num- ber were massacred 3 miles S. of Anadarko, Indian Ter- ritory (now Oklahoma), by surrounding hostile tribes. Their population in 1890 was seventy-eight and in 1892 they were settling on farms allotted to them by the U. 8. Government. They are nicknamed Man~eaters by all the tribes living around them. The pronunciation of the Tonkawan language is easily acquired by Americans and Mexicans. The inflection of their verb is complex and polysynthetic. Verbs and ad- jectives reduplicate their first syllable to assume a distribu- tive signification. The personal pronoun possesses a dual, Tonka bean (Dz'pi‘eri.'1: odorata). Half of the one-seeded pod. and the substantive is inflected by a number of case post- See INDIANS or Nonrn AMERICA. J. W. POWELL. Tonnage: a measure of the capacity of a ship, used for the purpose of registry at her port and for levying harbor and other dues. A c-cording to the rule of measurement pre- vailing in Great Britain prior to the year 1835, it was arbi- trarily assumed in the so-called “ old measurement” (0. M.) that the depth and the breadth of the ship were equal. One step in obtaining the cubic contents of a ship was to multi- positions. TONNAGE ply the length by the square of the breadth, and the tonnage dues were levied accordingly. This rule led ship-builders to build vessels that were narrow and deep, and accordingly dangerous in rough weather, as well as highly faulty in their plan of structure. The British Parliament adopted in 1835 a new plan, suggested by Mr. Riddle ofthe Royal Hospital, Greenwich. The statute of 1835 was modified in 1854. and the Merchant Shipping Act of that year (17 and 18 Vict., e. 104) is the basis of the legislation existing in the U. S. The rules established by law in 1799 in the U. S. continued in force until they were superseded by the act of May, 1864. The principle of the latter is to establish at the outset a mode of ascertaining the length, breadth, and depth of the ship, as well as a tonnage deals for the purpose of measurement. This is the upper deck of ships of less than three decks, and the second from below in those hav- ing three or more. The length of the “tonnage deck” is then ascertained by the following rule: Measure the length of the vessel in a straight line along the upper side of the ton- nage deck from the inside of the inner plank, average thick- ness, at the side of the stem, to the inside of the plank on the stern timbers, average thickness, deducting from this length what is due to the rake of the bow in the thickness of the deck, and what is due to the rake of the stern timber in the thickness of the deck, and also what is due to the rake of the stern timber in one-third of the round of the beam. The “tonnage length ” as thus ascertained is then divided into a number of equal parts, depending upon that length. The statute thus creates six classes of ships (five in the British system) for the purpose of measurement. The principle of the classification is to begin with vessels not exceeding 50 feet in “tonnage length” (measured by the prescribed method), and to divide them into six equal parts (four in the British system), increasing the number of parts by two for each increment of 50 feet. Vessels belong- ing to these classes are then respectively divided into six, eight, ten, twelve, fourteen, and sixteen parts, according to their length. The next thing is to find the “transverse area” of the vessel. For this purpose the depth of the ship is to be measured at each oint of division as above given, accord- ing to a prescribed) rule. If the depth at the 1nidship di- vision of the length do not exceed 16 feet, each depth is to be divided into four equal parts. “Then measure the in- side horizontal breadth at each of the three points of division, and also at the upper and lower points of the depth, extend- ing each measurement to the average thickness of that part of the ceiling which is between the points of measurement. Number these breadths from above, numbering the upper . breadth one, and so on down to the lowest breadth; mul- tiply the second and fourth by four, and the third by two ; add these products together, and to the sum add the first breadth and the last or fifth; multiply the quantity thus obtained by one-third of the common interval between the breadths, and the products shall be deemed the transverse area.” When the midship depth exceeds 16 feet, the “trans- verse area’1 is obtained by dividing each depth into six equal parts, instead of four, and with corresponding changes in other respects. This mode of reckoning gives the “transverse area” at each point of division of the length of the vessel, as already noticed. The final step is to obtain the register tonnage. For this purpose the “transverse areas” found as above are num- bered, beginning with the extreme limit of the length at the how. The even-numbered areas are multiplied by four, and the odd, with the exception of the first and the last, by two. These products are added together, and to the sum the first and last “transverse areas,” if they “yield any- thing,” are added. The quantities thus obtained are to be multiplied by one-third of the common interval between the areas. This product is the cubical contents of the space under the tonnage deck. Divide it ‘by 100, and the quotient is the “register tonnage,” subject to certain special addi- tions now to be named. Additions (in accordance with a fixed rule) are made to the tonnage under deck, as above ascertained, in case there be a break, a poop, or any other permanent closed--in space on the upper decks or spar deck available for cargo or stores or the “ berthing” or accom- modation of passengers or crew. The same addition is to be made when a vessel has a third deck or a spar deck, the tonnage of the space between it and the tonnage cleele being ascertained in a specified way. In ascertaining the tonnage of o-pen vessels the upper edge of the upper “strake” (line of planking extending TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE from stem to stern) is to form the boundary-line of meas- urement, and the depth is to be taken from an athwart-ship line extending from the upper edge of such strake at each division of the vessel’s length. The register of the vessel at the custom-house must ex- press the number of decks, the tonnage under the tonnage deck, that of the between decks above the tonnage deck, and that of the poop or other inclosed space, each sepa- rately. It is deemed of such importance that the registered tonnage should be known that the law provides that it shall be deeply carved or permanently marked upon the main beam of the vessel, and so continued, or it shall no longer be recognized as a registered vessel of the U. S. No vessel need be registered for tonnage that is used for cabins or state-rooms, and constructed entirely above the first deck, which is not a deck to the hull; nor do the provisions con- cerning this kind of measurement apply to any vessel not required by law to be registered or enrolled or licensed, un- less otherwise specially provided. This system has been adopted with slight modifications by nearly all European countries. and by Haiti in 1882 and Japan in 1884. It was adopted essentially by the Interna- tional Tonnage Commission at Constantinople in 1873, which fixed the dues to be levied on ships passing through the Suez Canal, the main point of difference being in the rules with regard to the deduction of engine-room. Displacement tonnage is found in the same way as regular tonnage, ex- cept that the measurements are made along and from the load water-line, and the final cubic contents are divided by 35. This system is generally considered the fairest measure for the tonnage of naval ships. It has been adopted offi- cially for the war-ships of France, Great Britain, the U. S., and other nations. For yachts, tonnage is measured accord- ing to rules which are framed for the purpose of determin- ing time allowances in racing. The rules vary with each yacht club and association, but are mainly modifications of the old measurement tonnage. Revised by R. A. ROBERTS. Tonnage and Poundage: an ancient tariff on imports and exports levied by the sovereigns of England, nominally for the defense of the realm and the maintenance of the sea-power of the kingdom. This tariff had its origin in the royal dominion over the ports and waterways of the kingdom, which involved the right to regulate commerce and to impose such restrictions and charges upon the same as the public safety and interests should require. (See Ton- NAGE DUES.) By virtue of his royal prerogative, Edward I. (A. D. 1303) levied on all foreign merchants trading in English ports a duty of 2s. per tun on imported wine (which went by the name of hutlerage or tunnage), and 3d. per pound sterling on all other imported and exported mer- chandise. This tariff was in the reign of Edward III. con- verted by Parliament into a subsidy granted to the king, and British as well as foreign merchants were subjected to its operation. From that time on to the final destruction of the royal prerogative in the matter of customs and reve- nue by the Long Parliament, the legal status of this tariff remained unsettled. It was, as a matter of fact, habitually voted to the sovereign, usually for life, by Parliament, and, on the other hand, it was as regularly exacted during the ear- lier years of reigns in which Parliament neglected—some times for several years—to take such action. During the Tudor régime no question was raised as to the right of the crown to levy tonnage and poundage. It was only when the conflict between the Commons and the royal prerogative reached an acute stage, in the reigns of the first and second of the Stuarts, that the legal and constitutional right of the king to levy this tribute was seriously called in ques- tion. The tax derives its great historical importance from the part it played in the downfall of Charles 1., who, in consequence of the refusal of the Commons to make him the usual life grant thereof, levied it without parliamentary sanction. The Commons remonstrated, and even went so far as to denounce as a traitor any one who should presume to collect or to pay the tax (A. D. 1628-29), but the remon- strance was disregarded and the imposition continued. The Long Parliament succeeded, however, in breaking up this practice by the Tonnage and Poundage Act, which received the royal assent on June 2.2, 1841, and the right of Parlia- ment to grant or withhold the tax has been practically un- disputed ever since. Tonnage and poundage continued to be levied, under the authority of parliamentary grants, for longer or shorter periods, until the final abolition of the tax by the Customs Consolidation Act (passed in 1787). TONNAGE DUES 187 A good, brief statement of the origin and history of this tax is given in Medley’s English Constitutional History. For its hearings on the constitutional struggle of the seven- teenth century, see S. R. Gardiner’s admirable History of Jdngla/ha’ (especially vols. vi., vii., and ix.) and his Constitu- tional Documents of the Puritan Revolution. Gnonen W. KIRcHwEY. Tonnage Dues : a duty or impost levied by the state on merchant vessels as a fee for the privilege of using the har- bors of the state. This tax was formerly based on the num- ber of tons of freight actually carried by the vessel, and was assessed separately for every time that a harbor was actually entered, but it is now measured by the registered tonnage of the vessel, ascertained in the manner set forth in the article TONNAGE (Q. 11.), and is usually commuted into an annual tax. Duties levied by maritime states, by way of toll or tribute, upon all vessels using the territorial waters of the state, are of great antiquity, and flow doubtless from the proprietary rather than the political conception of sovereign rights. From this-which was strictly the ancient and mediaeval- point of view the sovereign was looked upon as a great property-owner, owning the bays, straits, and harbors, as well as the seashore and the highways, as portions of the royal domain, and he had the same right to exclude a stranger that any land-owner has to protect himself and his property against trespass. The principle is thus laid down by Azuni, the distinguished author of The .d[aritimc Law of Europe (1795) : “As the right of sovereignty along the sea- shore fiows from the territorial domain, the sovereign exer- cises his natural and legitimate empire when he forbids the vessels of strangers to enter his ports or roads, or prescribes to them certain limits for their approach. He has acquired this right by the sacred and inviolable law of property.” This right to exclude strangers from the proprietary waters of the state was ordinarily commuted into a tribute arbi- trarily exacted for the use of those waters, and this tribute ultimately took on the form of a toll or custom for the maintenance of the guard of the sea and to defray the cost of maintaining the roads and harbors. Accordingly, in the work above referred to, the rule is laid down as follows: “ Wlaritime nations have also a right to impose such contri- butions and imposts on the territorial sea as they may judge necessary to defray all the charges and expenses which the public security and the convenience of navigation require." It is to this principle that the practice of the Athenians in levying tribute on all ships passing through the I-lellespont, and of the Byzantines upon all ships entering the Euxine. is to be referre . In the parliamentary records of the reign of Richard II. (1377-99) i11 England it appears that a tribute or custom was imposed on every ship that passed through the Northern Admiralty (i. e. " in the sea stretching itself from the Thames mouth all along the eastern shore of England toward the northeast ") for the pay and maintenance of the guard or protection of the sea. This was imposed on stran- gers as well as upon subjects, and was at the rate of 6d. a ton upon every vessel that passed by. In modern times all of these exactions have generally been reduced to the single duty or tax imposed on vessels for the use of harbors, the term “ tonnage dues ” being now usually coextensive in mean- ing with harbor dues or port dues, although there is nothing in the rules of international law to prevent the imposition of maritime dues for other purposes. The principle is rec- ognized by all of the authorities from Grotius to Hall. It is thus laid down by Sir Travers Twiss : “ Every vessel which casts anchor within the jurisdictional waters of a nation be- comes liable to the jurisdiction of that nation in regard to all reasonable dues levied for the maintenance of the general safety of navigation along its coasts.” The laws of the leading commercial nations vary a good deal in respect to the amount and the manner of levying tonnage dues, the tendency of modern legislation being strongly in the direction of the reduction and ultimate aboli- tion of imposts of this character, as constituting a serious restraint on free commercial intercourse. The most note- worthy step in this direction is that which was taken by the Congress of the U. S. in 1886, in passing the Reciprocity Act of that year. By that act the U. S. invited the other com- mercial nations to adopt the policy of abolishing all light- house dues, tonnage taxes. and similar burdens on commerce, and agreed to abolish tonnage taxes on vessels from the ports of any country which should grant immunity from similar burdens to vessels from ports of the U. S. This gener- 188 TONQUIN ous and enlightened policy has thus far (1895) been adopted only by Germany and the Netherlands, though it can not be doubted that it will soon become the rule of commercial in- tercourse throughout the civilized world. By virtue of earlier legislation, reciprocal arrangements for the remission of port charges or harbor dues have been entered into by the U. S. Government with most of the West Indian and Central American nations and colonies, and, so far as the mail-steamships between the U. S. and Brazil are concerned, with the latter country also. With these exceptions. every vessel belonging to the mer- cantile marine of the U. S. engaged in foreign trade—vessels employed in the fisheries alone excepted—-must pay annually into the Federal Treasury a tonnage tax or duty at the rate of 30 cents per ton. Vessels belonging to foreign states between whom and the U. S. ordinary commercial relations exist pay at the same rate as domestic vessels. But such vessels, not of the U. S., are also subject to a further duty, denominated “light money,” of 50 cents per ton. This is levied and collected in the same manner as strict tonnage duties. Ships built within the U. S., but belonging wholly or in part to subjects of foreign powers, are required to pay at double the above rate. This anomalous provision has been much criticised as being a part-—and perhaps the least consistent and defensible part—-of the illiberal shipping laws of the U. S. (See David A. Wells, Our ll/Ierahcmt ll1'am'ne.) Vessels of the U. S. engaged in domestic commerce are ex- empt from tonnage duty. This is the case even though such vessels, trading on the northern frontiers, should touch at intermediate foreign .ports. Yachts belonging to a regular- ly organized yacht club of a foreign nation extending like privileges to yachts of the U. S. are also admitted free. (See U. S. Rev. Stat-., secs. 1722, 2793, 2931, 3110, 4150-4154, 4216, 4219—4227, 4320, 4335.) From the report of the commis- sioner of navigation on Oct. 18,1894, it appears that the amount collected and paid into the Federal Treasury as ten- nage tax during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, was $539,028.47. The proceeds of the tax are applied to the support of the Marine Hospital service. The supreme control over the public territorial waters of the U. S., which belonged primarily to the several States, was by the Constitution surrendered by them and conferred upon the Federal Government. That instrument (Art. I., Sec. 10) expressly forbids any State to levy tonnage duties without the consent of Congress. This consent has never been given nor, it is believed, has it ever been invoked. The best authorities regard the present state of congressional legislation as open to grave objection, as being unnecessarily vexatious, unequal, and therefore unjust in its operation, and not based on sound scientific and commercial principles. In particular it is urged that the tax should be levied on the gross rather than the net tonnage of vessels, and that the same rate of duty should be adopted by all the leading com- mercial nations. For a particularly intelligent discussion of the subject, with a draft of proposed legislation, the reader is referred to the report of the commissioner of navigation for 1894, above referred to. GEORGE W. KIRCHWEY: Tonquin, ton’keen’, Tonkin, or better Tongking (lit., Eastern Capital): a French dependency of Indo-China, on the Gulf of Tonquin, S. of China, N. of Annam, and E. of the Shan States, but the latter boundary is uncertain. Area about 34,740 sq. miles. It consists of a delta which is dense- ly populated and highly cultivated, and a mountain region which is covered with forests and very sparsely inhabited. The delta is that of the Song-Koi or Red river, which bi- furcates at Sontai and incloses between its numerous arms grassy level fields, easy to cultivate, fertile, and covered with villages, cities, and rice-fields. The northern branches con- nect by canals with the Tai-Bin river, thus combining the two deltas into one, and the latter stream is the more navigable. The capital is Hanoi, a city of Chinese aspect, having about 150,000 inhabitants. The chief port is Haiphong, near the coast. The principal crop is rice, but the sugar-cane, cotton, and tobacco are extensively cultivated. There are copper and iron mines of good promise, and coal mines are worked at I-Iongay, near Haiphong, and at Kebao. In 1892 the im- orts were valued at 28,432,772 francs, and the exports at 10,735,850 francs. The transit trade to and from Yunnan amounted to 4,990,000 francs in imports, and 3,180,000 francs in exports. The latter trade is by the Song-Koi, and great expectations are entertained as to its future. Tonquin is yet commercially dependent on the British colonies of Hong- TONSILLITIS kong and Singapore. A railway is under construction from the head of navigation on the Song-Thuong northward to Langson, near the Chinese frontier, which, when opened, is expected to furnish another important trade route. The road begins at Phu-lang-Thuong, 12 miles N. E. of Bac-ninh, and is to be about 60 miles long. The climate of Tonquin is hot, but not unwholesome; the people are very poor, suspicious, avaricious, industrious, and skillful. The inte- rior trade is largely in the hands of Chinese. The country was annexed by France in 1884, but remains turbulent. Pop. about 9,000,000, divided among fourteen rovinces and 8,000 villages. MARK W. ARRINGTON. Tonsilli’tis, or Tonsilitis [t0nsz'ZZt'tt's is Mod. Lat., from Lat. tonstllrc, tonsils (as the form tonsilitis is from Eng. ton- sil) + -it/is, a medical termination used to denote inflamma- tion] : an acute or chronic inflammation of one or both ton- sils, involving the epithelial, glandular, or connective-tissue structures, or more than one of these. The inflammation may be excited by some infectious micro-organism that gains access to the tonsils by the nasal passages or by the mouth ; or it may be due to the effects of some specific disease, such as scarlatina, smallpox, or syphilis, which lowers the resist- ance of the tissues; or it may be due to some constitutional disease, such as gout; or it may be caused by a fungus. In acute tonsillitis the affected glands become red and enlarged, and if suppuration occurs (see QUINSY) the swelling may be so great as almost completely to block the throat. In chronic tonsillitis the symptoms are similar to those men- tioned, but the course of the disease is slower, and often the distended gland vesicles, filled with a yellow secretion, pre- sent the appearance of small abscesses. The disease is usu- ally preceded by malaise, chill, and fever; there are a sense of constriction in the throat, a difficulty in swallowing, a thick voice with pain on talking, and often inability to open the jaws. The pain in swallowing may be intense, and the enlargement produced by the inflammation may stretch a muscle (staphylo-salpingeus) which is attached to the orifice of the Eustachian tube and cause pain in the ear and im- pairment of hearing. The inflammation may extend from the tonsils and involve the anterior and posterior palatine folds, the soft palate, the uvula, and sometimes the epiglottis or the larynx. The salivary secretion becomes viscid and is expectorated with difliculty. The tongue is heavily coated, the breath is foul, there is no appetite, and there is often severe aching pain in the limbs. A first attack is more se- vere than a subsequent one, and a case that ends in sup- puration is more severe than one that terminates by resolu- tion. If the inflammatory symptoms do not subside within five or six days the condition is likely to be that known as quinsy; often resolution will terminate the inflammation in the period mentioned, but a chronic enlargement of the tonsils remains. Catarrhal tonsillitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane covering the gland, and if the lacunae are involved it is called follicular or lacnnar tonsillitis; the lacunae be- coming filled with an inspissated yellow or cream-colored mass of epithelial cells, pus, and micro-organisms, and in rare cases these masses undergo calcareous degeneration. If the gland tissue itself is inflamed the disease is called paren- chymatous tonsillitis. If there is an eruption of small vesi- cles on the tonsils the condition is called herpetic tonsillitis. A circumscribed or general membrane may be formed on the tonsils in diphtheritic tonsillitis caused by the Klebs- Loeffler bacillus, as well as in the mycotic tonsillitis caused by the Lepfothflrz; buccalis and other fungi. The diagnosis of the disease is usually easy because the symptoms indicate that the throat is afifected, though occa- sionally rheumatic pains involving the entire body are so severe that the throat pain sinks into insignificance and is not mentioned. If a membrane has formed on the tonsils its characteristics can only be determined by bacteriological examination. While, as a rule, the prognosis is favorable, there may be serious complications in consequence of suppuration and ulceration into the internal carotid or external maxillary artery, with haemorrhage; or there may be suffocation from oedema of the larynx or from a discharge of the pus into the air-passages. Rarely there are complications of the kidneys, or paralysis similar to that following diphtheria. The disease is treated by keeping the patient quiet, giving from 5 to 10 grains of sodium salicylate made from oil of wintergreen every one or two hours until the fever and mus- cular pains are relieved, and disinfecting the throat by gar- TONSILS gles of hot water containing five drops ofcarbolic acid and a teaspoonful of sodium bicarbonate (cookmg-soda) 111 a cup- ful of water. If the throat is too painful to gargle, inhala- tions of five drops of tincture of benzoin poured on boiling water may be taken. In chronic tonsillitis the patient may be given cod-liver oil, or sirup of the hypophosphites made according to Dr. Churchill’s formula; generous diet and bathing should be associated with the treatment; and if the tonsils do not become smaller it is necessary to cut them or to apply the galvano-cautery as recommended by Dr. Charles H. Knight. Chronic enlargement of the tonsils should not be allowed to take care of itself, as it is a fruitful source of ear trouble and of recurrent inflammation. S. T. ARMSTRONG. Tonsils : See HISTOLOGY (The Digestive Organs). Tonson, J ACOB: publisher; b. at Holborn, London, Eng- land, in 1656; was apprenticed to a bookseller; set up busi- ness for himself as a stationer in Chancery Lane, near Fleet Street, in 1678; published that same year some of()tway’s and Tate’s plays and Dryden‘s Troilns an_cl_ Cressula; was thenceforth the regular publisher of the writings of Dryden, who edited for him the famous llfiscellanies; brought out the first good edition of Milton’s poems; in 1703 a Caesar, admitted to be the handsomest specimen of English typog- raphy to that date, and in 1709 the first complete octavo edition of Shakspeare; established his shop at Gray’s Inn Gate 1697, and at the Shakspeare Head in the Strand 1712; had a warehouse in the Savoy and a printing-ofiice in Bow Street; was printer to the excise, publisher t-o most of the fashionable authors of the day, and stood at the head of his trade; was secretary to, and one of the founders of, the famous Kit-Kat Club, for whose use he built a room at his villa at Barn Elms on the Thames, which became a place of assembly for the wits. He retired from business in 1720, and devoted himself to the management of an agricultural estate. D. at Ledbury, Apr. 2, 1736. His collection of por- traits of the members of the Kit-Kat Club, by Sir Godfrey Kneller, is kept intact by a descendant at Bayfordbury Park, I-lertfordshire. Tonsure [via 0. Fr. from Lat. tonsn’ra, a shearing, clip- ping, deriv. of toncle're, ton'swn, shear, shave]: in the R0- man Catholic and Oriental Churches, the shaving of a por- tion of the hair from the head of an ecclesiastic. In the Roman Catholic Church the size of the tonsure is not uni- form, but its place is at present upon the crown of the head. This is the tonsure of St. Peter. In the ancient Irish and British churches the tonsure of St. James, in which the front part of the head was shaved as far back as a line passing over the top of the head from ear to ear, formerly prevailed. In the Eastern churches anciently the whole head was shaved. The tonsure is one of the preparations for orders, and it is regarded as symbolizing the crown of thorns worn during our Lord’s Passion. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Tontine: the name applied to a financial scheme for se- curing to the surviving members of an association a propor- tional share of the profits of those who have died within a stated interval. The name is derived from Lorenzo Tonti, a Neapolitan banker, who proposed to apply this principle in order to raise a fund for the French Government in 1653. The subscribers to the loan were to receive interest from the first, and as deaths occurred the shares of the survivors would be continually increased. The French parliament refused to permit the scheme, but subsequently public ton- tines were established in France and Great Britain, and pri- vate tontine enterprises were carried out in these and other countries. A tontine insurance policy is one in which the policy-holder agrees in common with others t-o receive no profits til.l after a certain number of years, and to forego surrender value if he gives up his policy. See LIFE-INSUR- ANCE (Tontine Dioiezv, write]: the representation of the natural features of a portion of bilities of $171,976. The city was laid out in 1854, incorporated in 1857, and made the State capital in 1861. Since 1885 there have been no saloons in the city. The financial condition of Topeka is exceptionally good. Pop. (1880) 15,527; (1890) 31,800; (1895) estimated, 33,500. H. G. LARIMER. Topel’ius, ZACHARIAS: poet and novelist; b. near Ny Karleby. Finland, Jan. 14, 1818. After graduating at the University of Helsingfors (1840) he became editor of the .HeZsz'ngfors Te'dm'ngo.r (1842), which he made a great force in Finnish literature, retaining his connection with it until 1860. He was Professor of Finnish History at his alma mater from 1854 until 1878. His earli- '1 est publications, which appeared in his journal, '\ consisted of tales and lyrical poems, the latter \ of which were collected under the title of Ljung- blommor (Heather Flowers, 1845-54). In these as well as in Stinger (1861) and Nyt blad (New Leaves, 1870),.the influence of R-UNEBERG (q. o.) is marked. Topelius has also written a number of dramas-—Efter femtio ctr (Fifty Years Later, 1851); Regina af Emmerzfz (1854); and a vol- ume of Dra,mal‘z's/ca di/tier (1863). Many of his children’s stories have been translated into Eng- lish. But the work by which he is best known at home and abroad is Fri/Zfshdrens Beréitzfelser (The Surgeon’s Stories, 6 vols., 1872-74), a collec- tion of tales dealing with the history of Sweden and Finland during the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries. D. K. DODGE. Tophet: See GEHENNA. Tophiz See GOUT. Topknotz a name given in Great Britain, or at least in British books, to flat fishes (PZewro- neat/idre) of the genera Zenogoyatems and Scoph- thalmas (or Ph7'yno'rhombus). _ They are so called \.\: F , \ R . o / \_/ “ $53 1 \ V D /h V I -w,/-. ,- ' h » - . I / _ 4 - 2 VA ‘ “‘\ ‘ , - - _ I\ -\\ l \ ,1 /\ \ _Q3\\\ ‘ C ' _-g 31 _ - / 4 if . ,_, U4 \ / ./ I “ \ J ,/,//////, ./ .///,¢/' 0/ from a long filament on the head. These do not agree _in special characters, although they resemble each other in physiognomy, the wide (high) oval body, ciliated l¥\\\\'¢ \ sx ’\ \.I’-///. N} . "“°'ii\°\“l.i¢\.isi.""~“\\ ,.,.flallllL,.;;-‘ t”‘I't‘i§i"f~@>>>-lllillll'l‘l' -l< ‘I-:1‘. “, ' .' _‘\ H st P M . \\l\\\l*,\ Miiller‘s topknot. scales, sinistral and fringed eyes, narrow interorbital ridge, and long based ventrals. They rarely exceed 7 or 8 inches the surface of the earth on a map, or the natural features themselves. The construction of a topographical map in- volves the field and offiee operations of surveying, and the delineation on paper, by means of shading or signs, of the outlines and elevations of the surface. For popular purposes the representation of hills and mountains by lines drawn along the declivities is very com- mon, the steepest slopes being made the heaviest. While this indicates at once to the eye the elevations, it gives little idea of their absolute or relative heights, and hence the method of contours is more generally employed by engi- neers. In this method the surface is supposed to be inter- sected by a series of horizontal planes, and the lines of intersection, called contours, are determined ill the field by levels and measurements and then plotted on the map. The figure, which shows a portion of the Yellowstone Park about 7 miles by 8 miles in area, illustrates the contour method of representing topography, all points on the line marked 8000 being 8,000 feet above ocean-level. The con- tours are drawn at intervals of 100 feet i11 vertical height. and the closer together they are the steeper is the slope. If lines be imagined to be drawn perpendicular to the con- tours they will indicate the direction of the drainage, and it will be seen that all of the creeks cross the contours at right 192 TOPOLIAS angles. By the help of accurate contour maps profiles in any direction can be constructed, and much preliminary work in the location of roads be advantageously done. In addition to the representation of the elevations and streams, topographical maps generally include roads, houses, swamps, and cultivated land. Special signs, mostly con- ventional, are used for different kinds of crops, as also for sand, grass, and trees, so as to furnish a picture somewhat similar to that which the country would present if viewed from a balloon. Along the coast are shown the shoals, reefs, high and low water lines, together with contours of the beds of the harbors and sounds. Colored topographical maps, in which water is represented in blue, streets in yel- low. fields in green, and houses in red, are frequently made when not intended for reproduction. The field work of topography is usually based on a tri- angulation, while the details are mapped by means of the plane-table or stadia. The topography and hydrography of the coasts of the U. S. has been mostly done by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and a portion of that of the interior by the U. S. Geological Survey. Several States have made topographical maps in connection with their geological surveys. The cost of topographical work ranges from $5 to $25 per sq. mile, depending on its accuracy and completeness. See COAST AND GEODETIU SURVEY, GEODESY, HELIoTRoPE, HYPSOMETRY, LEVELS AND LEVELING, l\IAP, PLANE-TABLE, STADIA MEASUREMENT, SURVEYING, and TRI- ANGULATION. MANsEIELD l\1ER.RIMAN. Topolias : See Comrs. Topolebam'pe Bay: a bay of the Gulf of California, in the northwestern part of the state of Sinaloa, Mexico. It forms an excellent landlocked harbor, and is bordered by plains which could be profitably cultivated but for their dryness; there is no fresh water, and the nearest stream available for irrigation is the Rio Fuerte, 25 miles N. It has been proposed to make the bay the terminus of a rail- way line from Eagle Pass. In 1886 several prominent socialists of the U. S. planned to establish a socialistic col- ony on or near the bay. A company called the Credit Foncier of Sinaloa was chartered under the laws of Col- orado, the leading promoter being A. K. Owen, an engineer who had already been interested in the railway scheme. It was proposed to sell shares to colonists, who should all be employed by the company, receiving in payment scrip which could be used in purchasing supplies, etc., under the principle of state socialism. The company, or community, was to own all lands and conduct all business; a model town was planned, and it was expected that the company would build the railway or a part of it. Several hundred colonists joined the enterprise and went to the bay at dif- ferent times, beginning in Dec., 1886. They suffered great- ly, owing to the difficulty of procuring water and food ; an attempt to make an irrigation ditch failed; the colony was divided, part of it joining a company which had been formed in Kansas, and most of those who remained (1895) are set- tled near the Rio Fuerte. The company’s scrip is now near- ly or quite worthless, and as a socialistic scheme the plan has failed. It is fair to say that this was partly owing to the unsuitable nature of the land. H. H. SMITH. Top-shells : a collector’s name for species of shells of the family Twrlrlm'dce, especially Turbo ’77’LCl7'7)l/07‘Cl/Zf’ll8, which has a turbinated solid shell with convex whorls. They are found in tropical seas. The family name is derived from the Latin tmlo, a whipping-top, in allusion to the shape of the species, which is more or less conical or pyramidal. T0p’s6e, VILI-IELM CHRISTIAN SIGURD: novelist; b. in Denmark, 1840. His best-known work is Jason mccl clet gyl/lnc S/t"z'/ml (Jason with the Golden Fleece, 1875), the authorship of which was for a long time kept secret. In Nzll'ldsblllcclc7' (Contemporary Pictures, 1876) he portrays with marked force some of the social abuses of our time. Fm Amcrlloa (1872) gives impressions of the U. S. with greater fullness and insight than are commonly displayed by Danish travelers. Three volumes of Collected Tales were published in 1890-91. D. K. DODGE. Toqueville: another spelling of TocoUEvILLE (q. a). Torbanitez See FUEL. Torbay: a fishing-town of Newfoundland, 7 miles N. of St. John’s. The anchorage is poor. Pop. about 1,300. Torbert, ALFRED Tnonas ARcIIIMEnEs: soldier; b. at Georgetown, I)el., July 1, 1833; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy July 1, 1855; assigned to the Fifth In- TORENO fantry ; served on frontier duty in Texas and Florida 1856- 57, on Utah expedition 1857-60. In the civil war he was engaged, Apr.—Sept., 1861, in mustering New Jersey volun- teers into service, and Sept. 16 was appointed colonel of the First Regiment, which he led in the Virginia Peninsular campaign of 1862 ; assigned to command of a brigade in the Sixth Corps Aug. 28, 1862, and engaged in the second bat- tle of Bull Run, at South Mountain (wounded), and Antie- tam. Promoted to be brigadier—general of volunteers Nov. 29, 1862, he was on sick leave until June, 1863, when again in command of brigade in Sixth Corps, and engaged in the battle of Gettysburg July 2-3, and subsequent operations of that corps during the winter of 1863-64. In the Richmond campaign of 1864 he commanded the cavalry, remaining with Gen. Grant’s army during Gen. Sheridan’s raid on Richmond, and first division on the latter’s return May 25, being engaged in the frequent actions from May 15 to Aug. 1864. He was chief of cavalry of the middle military division, and engaged in all the operations in the Shenan- doah campaign Aug., 1864—Jan., 1865, and frequently in command; in command of the Army of the Shenandoah Apr.—July, 1865, and of various districts in Virginia till mustered out of the volunteer service J an. 15, 1866. Brevet major for gallantry at Gettysburg, lieutenant-colonel for Hawes’s Shop, colonel for Winchester, brigadier—general for Cedar Creek, and major-general for gallant and meritorious services during the war. Resigned his commission of captain Fifth Infantry Oct. 31, 1866 ; was U. S. minister resident to Central American states 1869-71; consul-general to Ha- vana 1871—73; and U. S. consul-general in Paris 1873-78; was lost at sea off the coast of Florida, Aug. 29, 1880. T0l‘0ll-W00(l; the Amy/1'/ls flom'clcma, a small tree or shrub of South Florida, having shining leaves, clusters of yellowish-white flowers, and a resinous juice. It belongs to the family Bm'se7'ace0c. Tordesillas, t5r-del-se‘el’ya"as (in Portug. Torclesz'lhas), Convention Of: an important treaty signed by the envoys of Spain and Portugal, at the town of Tordesillas in the former country, June 7,1494. It related to the rights of conquest of the two countries, and had the most important results. The popes, in several bulls, had given authority to Portugal to conquer and settle Africa and the East Indies. Soon after the discovery of western lands by Columbus, Pope Alexander VI. issued his celebrated bull of May 3, 1493, in which he divided the world by a meridian “100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde islands,” and gave to Spain authority to conquer all lands W. of this line, re- serving those E. of it for Portugal. By the convention of Tordesillas it was agreed that the divisional meridian should be moved to “ 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands.” Very unexpectedly this gave to Portugal the coast of Bra- zil discovered a few years after. Spain could not reason- ably contest the claim, and Brazil was settled by Portuguese. Unfortunately, the terms of the treaty were vague in not mentioning any particular point of the Cape Verde islands from which measurements could be taken, and in not speci- fying the length of the leagues, several being then in com- mon use; thus disputes arose as to the position of the merid- ian, and remains of these have come down to our time. Again, as conquests were pushed E. and W., the two nations eventually met on the opposite side of the globe, and here the uncertainty was increased by the defective means then available for determining longitude. For example, the Philippine islands were claimed and held by Spain on the supposition that they lay within her hemisphere; in reality, they were in that assigned to Portugal. H. H. SMITH. Tore'no, t5-ra’n6, JosE MARIA QUEIPo DE LLANO RUIZ DE SARAVIA, Count of: statesman and historian ; b. at Ovi- edo, Spain, Nov. 26, 1786 ; took an active part in promoting the uprising of Spain against Napoleon 1808; was sent to England to negotiate for assistance; was a prominent mem- ber of the Cortes at the restoration of Ferdinand VII., but, like most of his companions of liberal opinions, was soon driven into exile; was recalled to Spain by the revolution of 1820; again went into exile on the triumph of absolutism 1823; returned to Spain after the death of Ferdinand 1832; became Minister of Finance under the regency 1834, presi- dent of the council and Minister of Foreign Affairs 1835, but retired in September and went into voluntary exile. D. in Paris, Sept. 16, 1843. He was the author of an important work on the Spanish war of independence, II'1Is2f0¢'/zla del Le- ocmlamicnto, G werm 3/ Rcrol/acllén cle Espcwta (Madrid, 5 vols., 1835-37). F. M. Comsv. 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Thormodr Torfason, his true name] : antiquary ; b. at Engii, Iceland, May 27, 1636; studied at the University of Copenhagen; was sent by Frederik III. to Iceland in 1662 to collect manu- scripts of the sagas ; made royal antiquary in 1667 and royal historiographer for Norway in 1682, but was compelled. to resign on account of having committed manslaughter in self- defense. He was the first to apply the Icelandic literature to the study of Scandinavian antiquities and history. The most remarkable of his writings are Series regum Dcmrice (1702) ; Ile'storz'a Ve'nZcmcZe'ce cmtvlquce (1705) ; Grcenlanclia cmzfz'qua (1706) ; I11/isior/zlca Rerum l_Voreegeearum (4 vols., 1711). D. Jan. 31, 1719. Revised by D. K. DODGE. Torgau, t6r’gow : town ; in the province of Saxony, Prussia; on the Elbe ; 70 miles S. S. WV. of Berlin by rail (see map of German Empire, ref. 4-G). It is strongly fortified, and con- tains barracks, hospitals, magazines, and other military es- tablishments; also manufactures woolen and linen fabrics and hosiery. Pop. (1890) 10,860. T01'ii, t6’re“e-ee’ [lit.,bird-perch, or bird-rest]: a construc- tion in wood, stone, or bronze, found in front of every shinto shrine in Japan. It consists of two pillars, set one on each side of the roadway, and joined at the top by two cross-ba_rs, the uppermost of which projects at either_end, usually with an upward curve. In all pure Shinto shrmes the torn is of unpainted wood; it was originally a perch for the sacred fowls who gave warning of daybreak. Later, especially under the sway of Buddhism, the torii came to be looked upon as a mere portal. The Buddhists were fond of paint- ing it red. M. D1xoN. T0rna’do [Span., meaning turned, twisted] : a small, local, short-lived, but very violent storm, occurring iii the warm season, in the warmer hours of the day, and in very moist air. The tornado is most noteworthy for the very high ve- locities attained by the innermost part of its whirl, reaching, as far as can be judged by its effects, a speed of 200 or more miles an hour, and consequently exerting a pressure of 200 lb. or more to the square foot on structures opposing the motion. The conditions preceding a tornado are generally those of a thunder-storm exaggerated, and active agitation is sometimes seen beforehand in the clouds. ‘When the storm is formed it has a long, slender funnel extending from the clouds toward the ground. This defines the area of great- est velocity of wind, and where it reaches the ground the destructive effects are greatest. The tornado is often ac- companied by intense electric phenomena, and accompanied or followed by torrential rain, sometimes by hail. The path is usually but a few rods wide and a few miles long, and it is generally directed from S. \V. to N. E. The dest-ruct-ive effects are experienced only close to the path of the funnel, and are somewhat more severe on the south side of the cen- tral path than on the north side. The duration at any spot is but a few seconds. Definite forecasts of storms whose en- tire destructive area is not a square mile are hardly practica- ble, but the smallness of this area makes the probability very small that any given spot will ever be traversed by a tornado. Tornadoes occur in the temperate regions generally, where there is enough moisture. In the U. S. they are most usual E. of the Great Plains, in early spring in the South, in late spring and early summer in the Northern States. The al- leged greater frequency of tornadoes in late years is an illu- sion due to the greater perfection of the news-collecting and distributing agencies, and to the greater attention paid by the public to meteorologic phenomena. The theory of tornadoes presents many difficulties, but they are undoubtedly small vertical wind systems, with a long vertical axis, with contra-clockwise rotation at the ground. Many other local storms are erroneously classed with them, as squalls, derechos, riband-winds, rolls with horizontal axes, etc. A serious source of confusion is to be found in the fact that these local storms are popularly called cyclones. A cyclone is several hundred miles in diameter and only a mile or two deep, with a thickness, therefore, only F-E,-Uth part or so of its diameter. A tornado is only a few scores of feet in diameter and at least several hun- dred feet high. The first is general, large, and may last several days; the second local, small, lasting at most only an hour or two. l\IARK W. HARRINGTON. T01" neat: river of Northern Europe, forming the boun- dary between Sweden and Russia; rises in Lake Tornea, in Sweden, flows southward, and enters the head of the Gulf of Botlmia after a course of 230 miles. It is rapid, and cele- brated for its beautiful cataracts and salmon-fisheries. TORONTO 19 3 T0r011't0: the capital of the Province of Ontario, and the largest city on the Canadian side of the Great Lakes ; on a large and finely sheltered bay on the north shore of Lake Ontario, in 48“ 39’ N. lat. and 79° 28’ W. lon. (see map of Ontario, ref. 4—D). The city was founded in 1794 by Maj.- Gen. John Graves Simcoe, first governor of Upper Canada, who gave it the name of York, in honor of the Duke of York, second son of George III. About fifty years earlier the French had built a trading-post (Fort Rouillé) close to the site of the city, but this was subsequently destroved. Even in Simcoe’s day little trace of the stockade remained, if we except the name Toronto—“ the place of meeting "- which the Indians gave to it and the region about, and which was adopted for the city in 1834. The determining factor in the location of the city was obviously the spacious harbor, which gave promise of safe shelter for the fleet and shipping of the lakes, besides the advantages of fine central position, lying directly northward of the mouth of the Niagara river, and close to the Indian highway, by the Humber and Holland rivers, to the Huron country and the trapper’s and reg/ageur’s lake route to the far West. Later years have justified the selection of the site, and made tributary to the city’s commerce the trade of the Ontario Peninsula and of the vast and fertile plains of the Canadian Northwest. Toronto is 39 miles S. E. of Hamilton, at the head, and 160 miles S. ‘W. of Kingston, at the foot, of Lake Ontario. It is 380 miles from Montreal and 500 miles from New York. Area, Plan, a//id General Feaz‘ures.—Although not pictur- esque, in the sense that Montreal and Quebec are pictur- esque, for it lies too flat, Toronto is not lacking in natural and artistic beauty. Its chief adornment is its fine water front, as seen from the harbor or from the island. a large sandbank 6 miles long, which protects it from the lake. It covers an area of nearly 18 sq. miles, and includes within its municipal boundary, besides the city proper, the once outlying suburbs of Brockton, Parkdale, Sea-ton Village, Yorkville, and Deer Park. The site has a rising inclina- tion toward the northern limits, 2%; miles from the water front. The shore front extends from the river Humber, 011 the W., to Norway, in rear of Scarboro Heights, on the E., a distance of 5% miles. Sz‘reez‘s, Parks, and Buz'ZcZz'ngs.—Tl1e1*e are over 300 miles of streets within the compass of the city, the names of many of them denoting an English origin. As a rule, they are well paved and lighted, are neatly laid out, regularly built, and cross each other, almost without deviation, at right angles. The business area lies adjacent to the water front and the esplanade, which is monopolized by the lake traffic and the railways. The residential portion lies chiefly to the northward, bisected by the city’s great artery-Yonge Street—-which extends to the northern limits of the countv of York. This part is adorned by many attractive streets, the chief of which are Jarvis, Sherbourne, Church, Bloor, St. George, and Beverley Streets, all of which contain many fine churches, elegant villas, and prettily ornamented grounds. The business section is chiefly between Front and Queen Streets, and, extending parallel with the lake, from York Street to the market. The notable buildings within this area are the court-house and municipal buildings (in course of erection, 1895), the custom-house. the post-office, the Board of Trade building, the Bank of Montreal, Domin- ion Bank, Canadian Bank of Commerce, Canada Life, and Confederation Life buildings, Union Station (general rail- way terminus), the offices of the leading newspapers, several fine hotels and clubs, and the varied 1narts of industry. ex- change, and wholesale and retail commerce. Toronto is rich in public parks, gardens, drives, theaters. and places of recreation and resort. High Park, in the western section, is the largest, and Queen’s Park is the most accessible and attractive. One of the most popular summer places of amusement is the island which lies off the city front, and which bears the same relation to Toronto that Coney Island does to New York or New Brighton to Liverpool. The other open-air resorts, other than the public squares, com- prise the Horticultural Gardens, Riverdale. Bellwoods, Keteham, and Stanley Parks, and the exhibition-grounds and garrison common. Instr‘!zz.z"£0ns.—Tl1e principal educational institution is the National University. In St. James‘s Square are situated the Provincial Educational Department, the Museum and Art Rooms, and the Normal and Model School buildings. Here are the headquarters of the educational system of On- tario. In the Queen‘s Park, approached by a wide street, a 410 194, TORONTO mile long, lined with chestnut-trees, is the University and College of Toronto. Affiliated with the university are the theological colleges adjoining, viz.: the Roman Cathohc College (St. Michael’s), the Presbyterian College (Knox), the Methodist (Victoria), the Baptist (McMaster Hall), and Wyc- liffe College, the theological trainine"-school of the Evangel- ical section of the Church of England. Besides the latter, the Anglican communion has, in Trinity University, a fine academical institution and training-college, giving instruc- tion in divinity, law, arts, music, and medicine. Higher ed- ucation has an historic institution in Upper Canada College, at Deer Park. It was founded in 1829, and was modeled after the great public schools of England. Law has its representa- tive home in Oseoode Hall, situated on Queen Street West, where are the great law courts of the province, together with the Convocation Hall and library of the Law Society of Up- per Canada. The public and high schools are fifty-three in number, and the city‘s annual assessment for their mainte- nance is. independently of the provincial Government grants, about $500,000. These schools employ 462 teachers, two- thirds of whom are women, besides ninety-five teachers in kindergartens. The total registered attendance in 1893 was 32,319; the average daily attendance, 23,127; and the cost per pupil, on the basis of average attendance, $12.98. Besides the cost of education proper, the city taxes itself heavily on behalf of art, industrial, and night schools, and has equipped and maintains, on a liberal scale, a large number of hospitals, charities, and other eleemosynary institutions. The more important of these are the Toronto General Hospital, the Protestant Orphans‘ Home. the Girls’ and the Boys’ Home, the Sick Children’s Hospital, the Home for Incurables, the House of Industry, the House of Providence, the Convales- cent Home, the Homoeopathic Hospital, Women’s Medical College, Industrial Refuge, and Mercer Reformatory. The parliament buildings of the province, a massive structure in the Queen’s Park, contain, besides the single-chambered legislature, the library, the parliamentary committee-rooms, and departmental offices. Government House, the resi- dence of the lieutenant-governor of the province, is on King Street, at the intersection of Simcoe Street. The churches are many and beautiful. The older representative places of worship include St. James’s Cathedral and St. George’s church (Episcopal), St. lWIichael’s (Roman Catholic), Knox and St. Andrew’s (Presbyterian), Jarvis Street (Baptist), and Zion church (Congregational). There are not less than 150 places of worship, exclusive of mission-houses and the head- quarters and branch barracks of the Salvation Army. The handsomer structures of a later date include St. Albans Cathedral (Episcopal); St. J ames‘s, St. Andrew’s, Central, Westminster, and Bloor Street (Presbyterian); St. Alban’s, St. Paul's, and Broadway Tabernacle (Methodist) ; Bond Street and Hazleton Avenue (Congregational) ; and College Street, Immanuel, Bloor Street, and Walmer Road churches (Baptist). Government and Ftnanee.—The municipal affairs are ad- ministered by a mayor and board of twenty-four aldermen, representing the six wards into which Toronto is divided, aided by an executive committee drawn from the alderman- ic board and committees in charge of the various civic de- partments. The annual civic disbursements exceed $6.000,- 000, about half of which is raised by taxation, a considerable sum in addition from fees, licenses. water-rents, and rent- als from corporation property. The deficiency is made good from the sale of the city’s debentures. Toronto’s total net debt at the close of 1893 was about $16,500,000, against which the city owns property and other assets to the esti- mated value of $12,000,000, a large amount of which (the city water-works) is revenue-producing. The value of the assessable real and personal property rose from about $62,- 000,000 in 1883 to $150,766,035 in 1893, on which, in 1893, the tax rat.e was 17;}; mills. The gross revenue from taxa- tion in 1893 was $2,525,644; from other sources $766,447. C0/nmeree and Bctrtlctng/.——'l‘o1'onto shares with Montreal the repute of being the center of Canadian finance. In these two cities are the headquarters of the great banks of the Dominion, whose total assets, available in the main for the transactions of commerce, exceed $240,000,000. The city is the chief field of operation for twenty-eight loan companies and building societies, with a combined paid-up capital of over $20,000,000. Of great service also to the in- dustrial and commercial interests of the city are the opera- tions of the great Canadian and foreign fire and life insur- ance and loan and savings companies. As a commercial center the city has, if we except Montreal, at the head of TORPEDINIDAE tide water, no rival in the Dominion. The richest province in Canada is tributary to Toronto, and her trade ramifica- tions extend not only from the Atlantic to the Pacific, but to other colonies of Britain, as well as to the chief foreign ports. It is diflicult to ascertain with accuracy what is the aggre- gate volume of the annual trade. In 1894, according to an official report, the value of imports was $17,731,843, the duty $3,641,140.99, and the value of exports $3,984,462. Comrnuntecdtons, .ll[cmufaetures, ete.—-The industries in- clude the manufacture of marine engines, boilers, furnaces, stoves, heaters. safes, track and bridge spikes, bolts, nuts, carriage-irons, forgings, lead-piping, shot, saws, barbed wire, farm and factory implements, tools, threshers. white lead, paints, colors, sewing-machines, pianos, organs, silver-plate ware, domestic, church, and office furniture, paper-hangings, window-shades, etc. There are excellent facilities for ship- ping and transport, and throughout the season of navigation steamers maintain communication with the principal routes of travel, and trade is carried on over the whole chain of lakes. Railways radiate also from the provincial capital in all directions. I-1'/tstorg/.—In 1884 Toronto commemorated the fiftieth year of its incorporation as a city, and in 1894 it commemo- rated the hundredth anniversary of the passing of the Con- stitutional Act of 1791, which set apart the province of Upper Canada and gave rise (1794) to the embryo capital. V)/hen Gen. Simcoe and the advance guard of civilization appeared on the site of the city, all that there was of human interest to greet the new comers were two families of Mississaga Ind- ians. By the close of the century, however, much was ac- complished. Toronto was fortunate, in its beginnings, in receiving among its sturdy early settlers a considerable con- tingent of United Empire Loyalists. During the war of 1812 the town was twice sacked and burned by U. S. troops, though on one occasion at serious loss to the invaders. Be- covering from this disaster, and receiving considerable acces- sions to its population, the town advanced apace. In 1834 it rose to the dignity of an incorporated city, having mean- while largely extended its limits and gained a population of 10,000. Presently Toronto passed into its high preroga- tive era and accompanying period of political discontent, the issue of which was the rebellion of 1837 and the hard- won measures of reform, culminating in self-government. WVith the union (in 1841) of the two old Canadas, and the confederation (in 1867) of all the British North American provinces, Toronto forged ahead. and, aided by the railways, extended her bounds, increased her wealth, and made large additions to her population. At confederation she became the capital of the newly named province of Ontario and the seat of the provincial Government. Population, ete.—In 1871 the population was 56,092; in 1881 it had increased to 86,415 ; in 1891, with the incorpo- rating of its outlying suburbs, the population rose to 181,- 220. A special census, taken early in 1895, places the popu- lation at 188,914. The city returns three members to the House of Commons at Ottawa, and four members to the provincial Legislature of Ontario, which meets annually at Toronto. Aurnonrrrns.-— Toronto of Old, by Henry Scadding, D. D. ; Toronto Old and New: I-Ie'stor'tea,l, Desertptt/ve, and Ptetortal, by G. Mercer Adam; lllustraled Toronto. the Queen C/tty of the IV est, by the same ; Toronto, Past and Present, by Henry Scadding, D. D., and J. C. Dent ; Annual Report for 1894 of the Toronto board of trade; Annual Reports of the city treasurer and city engineer for 1893; Annual Report for 1893 of the Toronto public school board; and Monetary] T/lmes, Trade Review and Insurance C'hrone'cle for 1894. G. Mnncnn ADAM. '1‘0r0nto: village; Jefferson co., O.; on the Ohio river, and the Penn. Railroad; 9 miles N. of Steubenville, the county-seat (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 4—J). It is principally engaged in manufacturing fire-brick, sewer-pipe, terra-cotta building materials, and pottery, and contains a private bank and a daily and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1890) 2,536. EDITOR or “ TRIBUNE.” T0l‘])0(1ill'i(1€B [Mod Lat-., named from Torpe’do, the typ- ical genus, from Lat. t0rpe’do, torpe’de'ne's, torpedo, cramp- fish, liter., a numbness, deriv. of torpe're, be stilf, numb] : a family of skates (see RAI/E) noted for their electrical powers, which have caused them to be called cramp-fish, numb-fish, etc. About twenty species are known, but those most stud- ied belong to the genus Torpedo, three of which occur in Europe and one (T. ocetdentalts) on the east coast of the TORPEDO U. S. In these the body (including the pectoral fins) is a broad, rounded disk, the large fieshy tail resembling that of a shark. There are two dorsal fins on the tail, and the ven- The torpedo. tral fins are distinct from the disk. The mouth is of mod- erate size, the teeth pointed, and the skin smooth. The elec- trical organs, apparently formed by a metamorphosis of parts of the adductor and common constrictor muscles, occur on either side of the head, and receive their nerve-supply from the fifth (trigeminal) and tenth (vagus) nerves. Each organ consists of numerous hexagonal prisms, extending from the dorsal to the ventral surface of the body. The walls of these prisms consist of connective tissue in which run nerves and blood-vessels, while the prisms themselves are filled with gelatinous substance in which are “electrical plates” in which the nerves terminate, and which are apparently the modified motor end plates of the muscle. While the anato- my and physiology of these and other electrical organs have been extensively studied, the physics of the electrical gen- eration is as yet unknown. The current produced will de- flect a needle, decompose water, ete., and its production is under the control of the will. It is probably employed by the fish as a means of offense and defense. See F. Bell, Arch/iv Aomt. ea. Phys. (1878, 1876); Du Bois-Reymond, Jflonatssc/L. Bc1'Z2,'n. Akad. (1881) ; Ewart, Philos. Trans. (1888, 1892); Got-ch, Philos. Trams. (1887, 1888); different views are maintained by Fritsch, Die eZe7»szf1'z‘sclzen Fische (Leipzig, 1887-90). J . S. lirxesmr. Torpedo : See Tonrsnrmnzs. Torpedo Boats and Vessels: those whose function in battle is the use of torpedoes as a principal weapon. or whose general employment is connected with the transpor- tation of torpedo-supplies and with the maintenance of other torpedo boats and vessels in a state of efficiency. The classification of torpedo-vessels and torpedo-boats in the order of size, and employing such names as have sur- vived among a somewhat perplexing variety at one time in use, is as follows: torpedo de'p6t-ships, torpedo-gunboats or TORPEDO BOATS AND VESSELS 195 in cradles on the upper deck in readiness for hoisting out at short notice and in quick time, powerful derricks and steam or hydraulic machinery being installed for this purpose. The torpedo depot-ship serves as a movable base from which these boats may operate, departing from an attack on an enemy anywhere within their radius of action, and return- ing after the attack has been concluded. Torpedo depot- ships are armed with a light-gun battery for defense and with automobile torpedoes for attack, and carry a supply of torpedoes and torpedo-stores, not only for themselves and for their own particular flotilla of boats, but suificient to meet the demands of other boats of the squadron to which they may be attached. They are also equipped with forges and with the tools of a machine-shop, and are available for other repair-work than that of torpedo-boats alone, being of general utility in light repairs of the ships of the squad- ron and of their engines. They also carry submarine mines, with all the appliances for handling and planting them in any port to be defended, and the electrical appliances re- quired for their operation. The Vulcan in the British navy and the Foudre in the French furnish two good examples of the torpedo depot- ship. The Vulcan has a displacement of 6.620 tons at a mean draught of 22 feet. Her length is 350 feet and breadth of beam 58 feet. A complete protective deck is fitted, having a thickness of from 2-5 inches to 5 inches over the ma- chinery. The indicated horse-power on her trial was 10,- 250 maximum, and her speed 18% knots. Her radius of action is calculated at 3,000 miles for a speed of 18 knots, and 12,000 miles at 10 knots. The torpedo armament con- sists of automobile torpedoes, for whose ejection four launch- ing-tubes are installed, two above and two under water. The gun armament comprises twenty rapid-fire guns. She carries on deck six torpedo-boats, two countermining launch- es, and a steam-pinnace. Two heavy cranes, 65 feet in height, worked by hydraulic machinery, are used for hoist- ing the boats in and out. She is well equipped with work- shops and machinery for making repairs. The Foudre has a displacement of 5.970 tons at a mean draught of 20 ft. 2 in. Her length is 370 ft. 8 in., and breadth of beam 51 ft. 2 in.; protective deck, 1'7 to 3'4 inches thick; indicated horse-power, 11,400; speed, 19 knots. Armament, automo- bile torpedoes, for which five launching-tubes are installed, and sixteen rapid-fire guns, of which eight are 3'9-inch cali- ber, four are 9-pounders. and four are 3-pounders. She is designed to carry ten torpedo-boats. Torpedo-gu'nb0a.fs. or to/2-pedo-vessels, are a class which oc- cupy what may be called the middle zone between the cruiser and torpedo craft. They are smaller in tonnage than cruisers of the third class and have a much lighter gun armament, and are, on the other hand, at the extreme of size and of weight of ordnance in the torpedo-boat category. They are of-especial importance and value in being suiti- ciently large to keep the sea for a long period, patroling the coast and guarding home ports against sudden attacks Dryad ; torpedo-gunboat of the Halcyon class. torpedo-vessels, seagoing torpedo-boats, and first, second, and third class torpedo-boats. Torpedo dép6t-s/tips, otherwise known as torpedo-boat transports, torpedo supply and repair vessels. torpedo sup- ply-ships and floating machine-shops, ete., are primarily de- signed to carry to any required distant point numbers of the smaller or third-class torpedo-boats, which are stowed by the torpedo-boats of the enemy that might be otherwise unopposed. They may also serve with efficiency as scouts and dispatch-vessels accompanying a cruising squadron. The Halcyon, of the British navy, is given as the latest im- proved individual of this type. The principal dimensions are as follows: Length, 250 feet; breadth of beam. 30 ft. 6 in.; displacement, 1,070 tons at a mean draught of 9 196 feet. Indicated horse-power, with natural draught, 2,500; with forced draught. 3,500. Mean speed on measured mile, with natural draught, 175 knots; with forced draught, 19 knots. The torpedo armament is of 18-inch I/Vhiteheads, to be launched from five tubes, one tube fixed in the bow and four tubes mounted, two on each side on training-carriages. Two 4'7-inch rapid-fire guns constitute the gun armament, one on the forecastle and one abaft the mainmast. The steaming radius of action of the Halcyon class is 2,500 knots at 10 knots an hour. To the Argentine Republic belongs an enlarged and im- roved vessel of the Halcyon type. the Patria, built by the aird Brothers, of Birkenhead. The displacement is 1,183 tons. Five launching-tubes for torpedoes are installed, and she carries a rapid-fire gun armament of two 4'7-inch guns, four 8-pounders, two 3-pounders, and two machine-guns. Estimated maximum speed, 20 knots. Closely allied to the torpedo-gunboat is the German tor- pedo division-ship, in which is also found the equipment of a torpedo supply and repair vessel. This type of vessel is built by Schichau. A summary of the especial character- istics required in these division-ships will serve to indicate their style of construction and the varied nature of the du- ties to be performed by them. As a class they are intended to serve the purpose of guiding a fleet or division of sea- going torpedo-boats; to have the same or even greater speed than ordinary boats; to be capable of safely riding out any gale; to be able to take on board a full inventory of stores and spare gear for a whole division ; to be able to quarter a reserve force of men to replenish crews of boats reduced by casualties ; to be fitted with complete workshop arrangements, smiths’ forges, etc. ; and to be provided with hospital accommodation for the sick and wounded. In com- mon with other torpedo vessels and boats, they are to be armed with automobile torpedoes and rapid-fire guns to enable them to take an active part in an engagement ; they are to be of sufficiently strong construction to enable them to ram a hostile torpedo-boat; to have as little draught as possible; to show little surface above the water, thus hav- ing small visibility and offering a small target to the ene- my; to have large coal-carrying capacity and economical engines, to enable them to make long and fast voyages ; and to be cheap in first cost and in maintenance. Division into as many water-tight compartments as practicable, and means for rapidly freeing themselves of water are not omitted. Two of these having been built for the German Govern- ment, they gave such satisfaction that others were speedily ordered. They were 180 feet long and of 22 feet beam, with a displacement of about 250 tons. Each vessel, built throughout of the best steel, is divided into twelve water- tight compartments. The fixed torpedo-tubes, apparatus for launching, a.nd the crew space are forward; abaft this is the workshop, fitted with all necessary tools and appli- ances; then come the boiler and engine rooms ; aft are quarters for the commanding and other officers; next is the hospital ; and next are the quarters of mates, etc. Store-rooms and coal-bunkers are judiciously distributed, the latter completely surrounding the boilers and engines. Launching-tubes and rapid-fire guns are distributed to best advantage 011 deck. The engines, working at 270 revolu- tions a minute, developed an indicated horse-power of 2,000. The speed on trial was 21 knots, the boat being fully equipped and carrying coal for 2,500 knots at the rate of 10 knots an hour. In a special storm trial for eight hours at full power against a very high sea and a gale of wind, a speed of 18 knots was maintained. A similar but larger boat of 300 tons dis- placement and 3,000 indicated horse-power, and of estimated speed of 21 knots an hour, was ordered by the Austrian Gov- ernment. In addition to services of guidance and care of the boats of its division, a torpedo division-ship will find useful em- ployment in picking up the enemy at times when the ter- pedo-boats might be quite unable to find him ; and also, by virtue of its weight and strength, in clearing passages through booms and in sweeping away nets from a protected vessel. The latest size of this vessel in favor in Germany is of 220 tons displacement at a mean draught of 9'8 feet, 1853 feet long, and 216 feet beam. In addition to the torpedo armament they carry a gun armament of six 37-millimeter llotchkiss revolving cannon. ;S'eag0z'ng torpedo-beads, often called torpedo-boat destroy- ers and torpedo-boat catchers, are the largest size of tor- pedo-boats designed to act independently and with a large TORPEDO BOATS AND VESSELS radius of action, but without embodying any provision for the repair or maintenance of other torpedo-boats. In these, as in all other torpedo craft, the leading idea of construction has been to install the highest possible power in the smallest possible space compatible with seaworthiness, and to build with the lightest materials consistent with strength. Emu- lation has been great between maritime nations and among the builders of each nation to produce the boat of highest speed. Victory, resting from time to time with Thornycroft, or Yarrow, or VVhite, of England, with Normand, of France, and with Herreshoff, of the U. S., now appertains to Thorny- croft in the record of the torpedo-boat destroyer Boxer, which ran over the measured mile during her oflicial trial at the amazing rate of 30354 knots per hour, equal to 3495 statute miles. The accomplishment of such a result as this has been made possible only by the closest study of scientific princi- ples, and their application in shaping the lines of the hull and in designing the machinery so that the maximum of power should prevail with the practical minimum of size and displacement. In no class of marine architecture has progress been more marked and persistent than in the de- velopment of torpedo-boats. Each improvement in naval construction and in marine steam-engineering has been in- corporated whenever applicable. In these boats, of all classes, are found exemplified the best modern ideas. Twin screws of powerful lines are driven at a surprisingly high rate of speed by multiple-expansion engines, generally in- stalled in pairs, fed with steam by a number of multitubular boilers whose heating surface is relatively large in com- parison with the amount of water-space in the boilers. A large grate surface, with closed fire-rooms and forced draught-, permits the generation of steam in sufficient quan- tity to run the boat in a very short period of time after starting the fires, and maintains the steam in quantity and in pressure for all demands made by the engines at their highest rate of speed. The fuel is selected with the great- est care that the best results may be obtained, hand-picked coal of the best quality being the fuel _commonly employed at present. Liquid fuel, such as petroleum and other hy- drocarbons, finds many advocates, but its successful use has not yet been established. Safety arrangements are in gen- eral use. not only in the form of water-tight compartments and great pumping-out power to insure against sinking in case of a damaging wound to the underwater body, but in and around the boilers and engines, to provide immunity from total crippling should any of these important adjuncts be injured. Each engine and each boiler is isolated from the rest, being placed each in a separate compartment, and the steam-piping so connected that they may act in unison or independently one of another. If one engine or any one of the boilers is crippled, it may be shut off from the rest without stopping the boat or withdrawing from action. Many boats have safety arrangements in connection with the boilers, such that in the event of the bursting of a boiler-tube, the furnace-doors are closed automatically, and the escaping steam finds its way out through the smokestack, being shut off from the fire-room, thus saving the firemen. In some boats, also, the furnace-doors are so constructed that in case of the flooding of any boiler compartment, the furnace- doors of that boiler may be closed water-tight and steam maintained in the boiler for a considerable period of time by the coal remaining in the furnaces. Protection to the inmates of the conning-towers is given by steel plating, and in the larger beats the machinery and boiler compart- ments are also steel plated, and they are additionally pro- tected in all boats by the coal, which is stowed in bunkers surrounding the vital parts of the boat. The Boxer belongs to what is known as the I-Iavock type of torpedo-boat destroyers. The British naval estimates for 1894 provide for forty-two boats of this type, inaugurating a build- ing programme which proposes sixty-four of these boats in all, on the basis of four for each battle-ship completed for the Channel and Mediterranean squadrons. The contracts for building these boats have been distributed among a large number of builders, and such as have been completed up to date have been marvels of success. The I-Iavock, a Yarrow boat, the pioneer of the class, recorded a speed of 27565 knots on her trial. The Hornet, also a Yarrow construction, made 28 knots over the measured mile. Following this, the Daring, a Thornycroft boat, made a mile at the rate of 29268 knots an hour. Finally, the Boxer, also built by Thor- nycroft, attained the greatest speed known, of all vessels of whatever size, at the figure already given——30'354 knots. TORPEDO BOATS AND VESSELS All boats of the Havock type follow very closely the general features of the original type, with the exception of certain minor changes in the design, and in a slight increase of size Each contractor has been allowed to in- The dimen- in the later boats. stall his own type of machinery and boilers. ——-'-”';_.%/’/'—-:~:";:‘—-—'__(‘—-lg’-:-—_'=__T:T'/,"'7‘-F ,_,--—-:-f:\-— - _ _-__ A-__/_,__-._. 197 vantages of this large number of boilers are the avoidance of material diminution of the power developed in the event of the disabling of one boiler, and the facilitation of the re- moval of the boilers when necessary in making repairs. The Hornet’s eight boilers weigh 43 tons. as against 54 tons, the ___;_:f_ i_~"' _ ’ ___ __ _—‘- 1,-'_,-— - —=~ ,LJ.____’»—.'_—'___,~——’”___’_-—,—=———-/—’-'_w___-:—'————_’_¢-= TeH T116 sions of the Havock are as follows: Length on the load-water line, 180 feet; breadth of beam, 18 ft. 6 in.; displacement. 220 tons at a mean draught of 6 feet. The motive power consists of two triple-expansion engines, fed by two boilers of the locomotive type, with a grate surface of about 100 sq. feet, and a total heating surface of about 5,000 sq. feet. She has three-bladed twin propellers. Her radius of action is about 3,500 knots at a speed of 10 knots an hour. The tor- pedo armament consists of 18-inch \Vhitehead torpedoes, for the launching of which three tubes are fitted, one fixed in the bow and two on training-carriages, one on either side of the upper deck. Transportation of the torpedoes about the deck is facilitated by a transporting carriage which runs on a railway from the conning-tower forward to the launching- tubes aft. The gun armament consists of one 12-pounder I-Iotchkiss rapid-fire gun, mounted on top of the conning- tower, and two 6-pounder rapid-fire guns. abaft the turtle- back. A search-light is mounted on the upper deck. The complement for this type of torpedo-boat is forty-two men all told. Of the important changes in construction affecting the seaworthiness of the boat, the turtle-back may be noted as being carried much farther aft than in preceding torpedo- boats. In the Havock and others of the class the turtle-back extends to abaft the conning-tower, where it meets two high bulwarks and two low deck-houses, which give additional protection from water coming on board, to the deck abaft the conning-tower. Another novel feature is the construc- tion of what is practically a double bottom in the forward part of the boat. This is effected by a water-tight flat at the level of the water-line, running from the eyes of the boat to the forward boiler-room bulkhead, the space under this fiat being divided, by cellular construction, into lockers for :-¥_ — The boilers of the Dar- weight of the Havock’s two boilers. ing and Boxer are the Thornycroft improved water-tube boilers. In the trial of the Daring the mean indicated horse- power developed was 4.573, with a maximum of 4,842, and the average number of revolutions of the propellers a minute, for a three hours’ run over the measured mile, was 387. In her turning trials the boat’s tactical diameter was found to be about 500 feet. and the time occupied in making a com- plete circle, at 210 revolutions, was 1m. 56s. A serious de- fect was found in the column of flame. which rose to a height of from 12 to 15 feet above the smokestacks when the boat was running at high speed, and which would render the boat visible at a great distance at night, and would offer an ex- cellent target for the enemy. , A typical French boat of this general class, although much smaller, is the Chevalier, a Normand boat, of 125 tons displacement, with an average speed of 2722 knots on a two- hours’ trial. Her length is 154 feet: beam, 154 feet; and extreme draught, 6'2 feet. The armament consists of two 18-inch deck torpedo-tubes and two 1-pounder rapid-fire guns. Two Thornycroft boilers furnish steam for two triple- expansion engines, whose cylinders are respectively 158. 236, and 355 inches in diameter, with 158 inches stroke. Either one or both of the boilers can be used to feed steam to the engine. First and Second Class Boats.—It is generally conceded, as the result of experience derived from many trials under all circumstances of weather and sea, that the minimum length necessary to an effective seagoing torpedo-boat is 150 feet. Boats under this length are properly classified, in the decreasing order of size, as first-class. second-class. and third-class torpedo-boats. The limiting lines of size and of . ' ' " 5 _- ____ Q-_' ~'\ 1:‘ .1 _. >.:=‘._:h—‘ _\ i E‘_P'~_- ;. --T -=-‘-:.>. - r -_i-_ 1-.,. H __\_ “_ 2 -' ‘ """ -I ’>§.‘.r‘~\'. .1 ‘_ --- ‘ “'="r,'-.\-‘_‘_§.>,~-. _ - I ‘. .. .__ §=—_'_ -*=-_--——'—"' M ‘ " aFI~-e-If ‘ 4 y_ —~’__ _'_ “' _- - ---— > _ _-F-¢~_‘__~_\ M x ___.._P__,__.__-‘ —_m:1d;=i———"_-"" 5 - I -‘-_-:Z‘—-— R Mousquetaire ; French seagoing torpedo-boat. ammunition, stores, etc. The boat has in all about twenty water-tight compartments, all connected to the bilge ejec- tion. The I-lavock has two boilers of the locomotive type, with two smokcstacks. The I-lornet has eight water-tube boilers of the Yarrow type, with four smokestacks. The ad- tonnage in the three classes differ somewhat among dillerent nations, but it may be generull_v stated that first-class boats are, as a rule, of from 100 to 80 tons displacement, second- class boats of 50 tens or less, and third-class boats of 15 tons and under. First and second class boats find their place in 198 TORPEDO BOATS AND VESSELS "\ ~A[’___/ MAIN Lfllkifl .... \, l’ZhZ€'lZ4£20Y Caumnc ‘ TUIIEP sum: :3 C) C) AFT CABIN ‘L \ 1 V, i 1 1 1 € ‘_ QOQOQOQOE/OE’ C OVQVO <_) 2:00 q“U':,::-L Z _ 5' 9:b9-:'_‘.,_-,9°°,J/-?::. ° ° "°°“n°a“n sq?‘ F 0 ; -\' \,: 5.. _\_--_". ‘q \,\'l\‘'‘ ‘.- L V *__°° _-_- __ __ DA “'1': figs" lg‘ 3‘-=P sro/25 R00/n l l l I '1 1 5' é U ll. V Profile and plan of a first-class torpedo-boat. s<;; £‘I—"_,. I ,- , 9 '-—‘ Q fl :2 55 A ;////,--- Q . a r (IQ =.-_,—-‘Q -_ l Izl== E if I § 1 m st _ [E l \ ,__I I _ \ l | _ ‘O0 / \ I Q Z i ' l,l?—;;; ~ ea -' a I--= ° Al @| O 4 @ I’/“HI =* ' o°l' '‘ _ IUDI an , 3.30%. , C) Eiiifloffizziil E E>(g§qE§J O OD@BO TORPEDOES the home-defense of ports. Stationed in numbers in differ- ent ports, or massed at threatened localities, by inland water- ways, where such routes of communication exist, their pres- ence would be a constant menace to an investing naval force, which, however powerful, would always be in danger of destruction whenever opportunity might offer for a sortie of the torpedo-boats. The following dimensions are those of one of the most recently constructed first-class boats: Length, 140 feet; breadth of beam, 15 ft. 6 in.; displace- ment, 110 tons at a mean draught of 5 ft. 4 in. ‘ She has en- gines capable of developing 2,000 indicated horse-power, and her maximum speed is 23'8 knots. Her torpedo armament is of 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes, for the launching of which three tubes are installed. The gun armament con- sists of three 3-pounder rapid-fire guns. The'rd-class boats are designed to be carried on the upper decks of battle-ships, or of torpedo-boat transports, to be hoisted out when occasion for their employment arises. The third-class boats for the U. S_. S. Maine and Texas, two for each ship, are excellent examples of the most ad- vanced type of construction of this class of boats. The dimensions of the boats for the Maine are as follows: Length on water-line, 58 ft. 6 in. ; breadth of beam, 9 ft. 1 in. ; displacement, 14% tons. The boats are completely decked over, with the exception of two water-tight cockpits, one forward and one aft, and are divided into seven water-tight compartments. The boilers are water-tubular, with 12 sq. feet of grate surface and 440 sq. feet of heating surface. The engines are quadruple expansion, compounded, of the inverted, direct-acting form. A speed of 18 knots with 200 indicated horse-power is expected. The radius of action, at 10 knots an hour, is calculated as 500 knots. The torpedo armament is of 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes with one bow tube for launching, and the gun armament consists of one 1-.}-inch rapid-fire gun. The complement is five men all told. The material of which the boat is constructed is steel. With the object in view of reducing the weight as much as possible, the Yarrow Shipbuilding Company has recently built, for the French torpedo-boat transport Foudre, an aluminium boat, 60 feet long and of 9 ft. 3 in. beam, and of a displacement of 10 tons; speed, 20?,» knots. The de- crease in weight over similar boats built of steel is about 2 tons, and the gain in speed is about 35; knots. Snlnnartne boats are still practically in their infancy, al- though the idea is an old one. See the article SUBMARINE NAVIGATION. The U. S. S. Vesuvius and the Destroyer, a boat sold by the Ericsson Coast-defense Company to the Government of Brazil during the war of the rebellion in that country in 1894, stand as unique examples of ingenious systems worked out to a practical accomplishment, but not yet generally adopted. The Vesuvius has a battery of three pneumatic guns designed to fire projectiles, known as a'e'rial torpedoes, to an extreme range of one mile. These projectiles contain a large charge of high explosive which detonates, either on impact with the enemy, if a direct hit be made, or shortly after entering the water, with a torpedo effect, if the hull be missed. The Destroyer has for its leading feature an Erics- son submarine gun, fixed in the line of the keel and point- ing directly ahead, from which a projectile containing a heavy charge of high explosive is discharged by gunpowder impulse. The projectile explodes on impact with the hull of the enemy below the water-line. The effective maximum range of this gun is 600 feet. See NAVY, SHIPS or WAR, etc. GEORGE F. W. HOLMAN. Torpedoes [from Lat. torpedo, torpedo-fish, to whose shocks its destructive explosions may be compared]: sub- marine devices containing explosives and designed to de- stroy hostile shipping. They are either contrivances pro- pelled through the water so as to strike the enemy’s ship or more or less stationary submerged mines, each so arranged as to be set off when a ship is over it. The germ of the idea is found in the Greek fire of the ancients, from which the torpedo has been naturally developed since the introduction of gunpowder into warfare. Ht'stor1,'cal Notes.—The earliest “infernal machine” on record dates from the siege of Antwerp in 1585, where an Italian engineer, Zambelli, destroyed an important bridge laid by the enemy over the Scheldt, by setting adrift against it four scows, each carrying a masonry mine heavily charged with gunpowder. Ignition was to be effected either by a slow match, or by a gun-lock discharged by clockwork after the lapse of a certain time. One of these floating mines TORPEDOES exploded against the bridge with tremendous effect, and thus stimulated investigation in a new field of warfare. Other similar attempts were made during the next two centuries by the French, British. and Russians, but, like the fiasco be- fore Fort Fisher in the civil war in the U. S., they usually proved to be failures. The condition now regarded as essen- tial in attacks directed against shipping, that the charge shall be submerged, was totally ignored. To an American engineer officer of the Revolution, Capt. David Bushnell, the credit is due not only of experimentally developing this prin- ciple, but also of devising a submarine boat, by which the first attempt to apply it to the destruction of an enemy was ever made. By iis fertility of invention and persevering efforts to perfect the new weapon he justly won the right to be considered the originator of submarine mining as prac- ticed at the present time. His first practical trial was made in 1776, use being made of his submarine boat, navigated by Sergeant Ezra Lee. The attack was directed against the Eagle, the flag-ship of Lord Howe, lying in New York har- bor, and the vessel narrowly escaped destruction. In 1777 Bushnell caused the blowing up of a prize schooner, lying at anchor astern of the frigate Cerberus off New London, by means of a drifting torpedo which he had directed against the latter, and which was ignorantly taken on board the schooner. In the following winter he set adrift many tor- pedoes to annoy the British fleet in the Delaware, thus giv- ing occasion to the so-called Battle of the Kegs, which was commemorated in a humorous song by Hopkinson, the au- thor of Hail Colzmtbia. Twenty years later Robert Ful- ton revived the general ideas of Bushnell, and attempted to introduce submarine warfare in the French navy. He made a submarine boat named the Nautilus, by which in Aug., 1801, he blew up a launch in the harbor of Brest—the first instance on record of a vessel destroyed by a submerged charge of gunpowder. Rejected by France, he next induced Great Britain to organize an abortive “ catamaran ” expedi- tion against the French fleet lying at Boulogne. Although supported by Pitt, and successful in experimentally destroy- ing the brig Dorothea by a drifting torpedo, his projects were finally rejected by the British Government as unsuited to the interests of a nation that enjoyed the sovereignty of the sea. Fulton returned disappointed to the U. S., where, after some successful experiments, he finally met a like re- pulse, largely through the active opposition of Commodore Rogers of the navy. He ultimately abandoned his efforts in submarine mining, as his attention became absorbed in steam- navigation. Although Fulton began his experiments by em- ploying a submarine boat, experience led him to abandon this device. As finally rejected by the U. S. Government, his system included four classes of torpedoes: (1) Buoyant mines, anchored in the channel to be defended, and exploded by a mechanical device set in action by contact with the ene- my’s hull. (2) Line-torpedoes, designed to be set adrift and fouled by the cables of the hostile fleet at anchor. (3) Har- poon-torpedoes, to be discharged from a gun, and thus at- tached to a vessel and fired by clockwork. (4) Block ship torpedoes, to be carried on booms projecting from vessels of a peculiar type, and exploded by contact with the enemy. The modern system includes all these devices in a modified form, except the third—a fact which suificiently shows how far Fulton was in advance of his age in appreciating the ca- pabilities of submarine warfare. In the war of 1812 several abortive attempts were made by individuals to employ Ful- ton’s system against British shipping in U. S. waters, but the Government took little interest in the operations, and no -success was achieved, although considerable alarm was ex- cited in the fleet of the enemy. During the next thirty years torpedo warfare was neither forgotten nor neglected in Europe, as many writings abun- dantly prove, but it was left to C01. Samuel Colt, of Hartford, inventor of the revolving pistol which bears his name, to make the next great advance. It consisted in introducing, as the igniting agent, electricity, at that date considered rather as atoy of the philosopher‘s laboratory than as a prac- tical force in engineering. Colt began his torpedo experi- ments in 1829 or 1830, and after years of labor elaborated a system of buoyant submarine mincs,to be planted quineun- eially in the threatened channel and operated by electricity. To convey the current he devised one of the very first sub- marine cables ever attempted, which in the winter of 1842-43 he successfully laid across East river, New York harbor. Gutta-percha was then unknown as an insulating material, and Colt employed a wrapping of cotton yarn soaked in as- phaltum and beeswax, and, when used in exposed localities, 199 inclosed in a leaden tube. When designed for torpedo pur- poses, each cable included two separate conductors, which, ii a entering the mine, were united by a fine platinum wire im- bedded in gunpowder. The operator, by sending at pleasure a strong current of voltaic electricity through this bridge, heated the platinum to redness and determined the explo- sion. For convenience of manipulation the shore-ends of the cables were all led to a casemate. The sketch shown in Fig. 1 was found among Colt‘s papers after his death, dated 1836; it represents one of his devices for igniting the mines at the proper instant, although it is of course applicable only to an elevated site. A secret believed to relate to a method of mak- ing the vessel telegraph her own position died with him. This sketch explains itself. One set of conductors from all the cables are united and permanently attached to a single pole of a powerful battery. The other conductors lead to a 1nap of the channel, and each is secured at the point corresponding to the known position of its mine. The reflector is arranged to throw the image of the hostile ship upon the map, and as it passes over a wire terminal the operator with his other battery-wire closes the proper circuit and explodes the ter- pedo. Colt’s experiments extended over a period of about fourteen years, the latter part of the time under the auspices and at the expense of the Government. He destroyed sev- eral vessels at anchor, and finally, on Apr. 13. 1843, accom- plished the feat of blowing up a brig under full sail on the Potomac, operating his battery at Alexandria, 5 miles dis- tant. This decisive trial was witnessed by many members of Congress and by the President, and its success at that date stamps Colt as a man of extraordinary ability. The time, however, was not yet ripe for the introduction of the new weapon, and, like those of his predecessors, Colt‘s plans were ultimately rejected by the Government. The idea of submarine warfare, although dormant, was by no means dead, as various tentative devices prove; but it was not until the Schleswig-Holstein rebellion in 18-18 that they appeared in actual warfare. Prof. Himly, of the Kiel University, then obstructed the entrance to the harbor of that city by barrel mines of his own invention, operated from the shore by electricity. No attack was attempted by the Danish fleet. The Anglo-French war with Russia in 1855 furnished the next occasion for the application of submarine mines to harbor defense. Sebastopol, Cronstadt. and Swcaborg were protected in this manner by devices of Prof. Jacobi. Un- fortunately for the success of his system, the charges were too small (25 lb.), and although explosions occurred under two or three British frigates, no serious damage was done. The fuze consisted of a small bottle of sulphuric acid imbed- ded in a mixture of potassium chlorate and sugar: the me- chanical breaking of the bottle by contact with the vessel effected ignition. The great improvement of placing the igniting apparatus within the torpedo, independent of ex- ternal levers, is due to Prof. Jacobi, who also made use of electrical mines to be fired by an operator on shore. Some abortive attempts at submarine mining were made by the 200 Chinese in the war with Great Britain in 1857-58, but they resulted in nothing. The Italian war of 1859 gave occasion for Col. von Ebner, of the Austrian Engineers, to employ in the defense of Venice a system of electrical mines more carefully elaborated than any which had preceded it, but no opportunity for practically testing its merits occurred. It was reserved for American engineers to demonstrate upon a grand scale the important part which t-he modern torpedo can be made to play in maritime warfare. The civil war of 1861-65 offered conditions peculiarly favorable to its development. The Southern Confederacy was pos- sessed of no fleet worthy of the name, while a long line of seacoast and many navigable rivers exposed its territory to easy assault by water. It could, therefore, well afford to sacrifice most of these routes of communication, provided they could be closed to the war-vessels of the Union. Every variety of torpedo became, therefore, admissible. After some preliminary trials, the service was formally legalized in Oct., 1862, and an efficient bureau was estab- lished at Richmond, which continually extended the scope of its operations until the end of the war. Seven U. S. ironclads, thirteen wooden war-vessels, and seven army- transports were destroyed by torpedoes, and eight more vessels were more or less injured. The Confederates lost four vessels by their own mines, and a fine ironclad, the Albemarle, by the counter-operations of the U. S. fleet. This wholesale destruction occurred chiefly during the last two years of the war; and if at its beginning the system had been as well organized as at its close, the influence which might have been exerted upon the naval operations of the Union forces can hardly be estimated. The details of the Confederate system were published to the world soon after the end of the war, and formed the basis for further investigation and development in many nations. The sev- eral devices may be grouped in five distinct classes—station- ary torpedoes or submarine mines, automatic drifting tor- pedoes, infernal machines, offensive spar-torpedoes, and sub- marine boats. Sicltlonamy Torpecloes, often called Sea-me'nes.—To form an obstruction in the channel which shall stop the enemy, —__~—___—_~ _ _-__._—___._ ‘_-_ /I .- 1 q‘ \\\\\ L‘ ‘ \; ,; _~__ L‘ I '//,R.’§x‘-.- \\__ _-_ '-9;//_’.\ I-“I ':.- .____V,\ FIG. 3.—Swaying boom and turtle torpedoes. FIG. 2.—Frame and pile torpe- does. either by his actual destruction or by his fear of it, is the object of this class. Several types were used. The frame- torpedo was one of the most simple. Each shell weighed about 400 lb., and contained 25 lb. of gunpowder. The fuze, consisting of a vial of sulphuric acid i1n bedded in po- tassium chlorate and sugar, was placed in the loading-hole, protected by a thin lead cap to be crushed by the vessel. The pile-torpedo, a similar pattern of mine, also shown on the figure, was found in the water-approaches to Savannah. The swaying-boom torpedo was a marked improvement upon this device, since, being free to move, it was not so easily discovered by dragging. To render it still more ef- fective, it was often attached by a line to a “turtle” con- - taining a fuze made upon the principle of an ordinary can- non-primer. The attempt to grapple and raise the boom- torpedo exploded this auxiliary, which was planted in front, so as to be well under the bottom of the enemy. The charge of the boom-torpedo was about 70 lb., and of the turtle 100 lb. ; the whole device was called the devil-catcher. Another approved pattern was known as the Singer or Fretwell tor- pedo, invented by Singer and introduced by Fretwell. The principle of its action was similar to that of the “turtle,” the charge (50 to 100 lb.) being fired by a percussion-cap acted upon by an external plunger released when the in- verted saucer-cap was thrown off by the touch of the enemv. The weakening of the spring under continued tension, arid TORPEDOES the growth of seaweed and shellfish, were found to destroy efliciency after the torpedo had remained a fewr weeks in position. To obviate this difiiculty-which is inherent to all mechanism acting externally—Gen. Rains. when in charge of the laboratory at Augusta, Ga., devised a fuse priming said to consist of fulminating mercury and fulminating silver, which was exceedingly sensitive, a slight blow being sufficient to cause detonation. Fuzes contain- ing it, protected against FIG. 5.Barrel-torpedo. FIG. 4.—Singer‘s torpedo. moisture by a lead cap easily crushed by contact, were used in his barrel-torpedoes. These torpedoes contained from 70 to 120 lb. of gunpowder, conical ends of light wood being added to increase flotation and to strengthen the case. The Rains fuze served its purpose well, and was used in land- mines, in hand-grenades, and in several types of torpedoes. Lastly, electrical mines, to be fired by the act of an opera- tor on shore, were employed; but the difliculty of procur- ing the requisite insulated cable restricted their use, and it is worthy of note that no attempt was made to make them automatic. The charges employed were usually enormous, amounting to 2,000 lb. of gunpowder. The Commodore Jones was destroyed on May 6, 1864, by a torpedo of this type. It was planted in a narrow part of the channel of James river, in about 35 feet of water, and was operated from a pit on the river-bank containing a small Bunsen battery. The Commodore Jones was allowed to advance safely over the mine, which was reserved for the flag-ship, but, the operator hearing the order given to return prepar- atory to a more thorough search for torpedoes, the vessel was blown up as she backed down stream. She appeared to be lifted bodily by the explosion, and was utterly de- stroyed, more than three-fourths of her crew being killed 01' wounded. Aatomatz'c Dr2,'fzfz'ng Torpedoes.—This class was especially designed for rivers where the current, setting in one direc- tion, could be depended upon to sweep the apparatus down to the hostile fleet, and perchance to bring it into contact FIG. 6.—Drifting torpedo. FIG. 7.—Current torpedo. with some vessel. Night was often selected for the attempt. but the ease with which a ship at anchor may be protected by nettings rendered the several devices of little avail. The snnple form shown in the figure was used in great TORPEDOES numbers on the James river. A piece of slow-match was arranged to burn down the tube to the charge. These tor- pedoes were often caught by nets, but did no damage. A more complex arrangement is shown in Fig. 7. This tor- pedo was often set adrift, connected to a log by a knotted line, which, fouling the anchor-chain, would bring the former to rest under the bottom, when the current acting on the wheel would release the plunger and determine an explo- s1on. Infernal Maehtnes.—This class of torpedoes is not gen- erally considered to come within the limits of legitimate warfare as practiced at the present day, because it subjects non-combatants to great peril without any previous warning. It was designed to be smuggled on board the Union war- vessels or transports, and thus to efiect their destruction. Two types were employed. The most simple was known as the coal-torpedo. It consisted of a metal case containing several pounds of gunpowder, cast and colored to resemble closely a lump of coal. When ignorantly thrown into the furnace it caused the explosion of the boiler. The Grey- hound was destroyed in this manner on the James river, as were also several transports on the VVestern waters. The other type was known as the horological torpedo. It con- sisted of a case containing a large charge of gunpowder and a clockwork arrangement set to run for a certain time, at the expiration of which it released a plunger and fired the charge. A disastrous explosion was caused in the army powder-fleet at City Point in 1864 by an arrangement of this character which was placed on board one of the barges by a spy. At Mound City a similar explosion was effected. Ofienstve Spar-torpedoes.-This form of the weapon af- forded the best opportunity for the display of personal gal- lantry, and several oflicers won distinc- tion_in its use. An outrigger spar from 20 to 30 feet in length carried a tor- pedo designed to be brought in contact with the enemy‘s hull and exploded in a hand-to-hand conflict. The Confed- erates early supplied ram-torpedoes to their ironclad fleet, but a lighter pat- tern was chiefly used, operated from a special craft termed Davids, by reason of their small size and insignificant ap- pearance as compared with their adver- saries. The type used at Charleston was built of boiler iron and was about 35 feet long, shaped like a cigar, with a low combing to exclude the waves. Small engines driving screw-propellers gave a maximum speed of about 7 knots per hour. The torpedo was of copper, charged with about 50 lb. of fine gun- powder. Under cover of the night these boats approached the hostile fleet, trusting to suddenly dart alongside and discharge the torpedo with impunity in the confusion and alarm created by their sudden appearance. Another type of this class of boats consisted of an ordinary steam-launch equipped in a similar manner. Several of the Union war-ves- sels—the New Ironsides on Oct. 5, 1863, . the Memphis 011 Mar. 6, 1864, the Min- 7 nesota on Apr. 8, 1864, and the Wabash 2 on Apr. 18, 1864-narrowly escaped de- struction, and the Confederate ironclad Albemarle was sunk at her moorings by this mode of attack. The latter feat was performed by Licut. Cushing, U. S. navy, and for its exceptional gallantry it deserves a special description. The ' boat was an ordinary steam -launch 'I equipped with a \Vood and Lay torpedo ’ and a brass howitzer. This torpedo was provided with an air-chamber, and at the proper moment was to be detached from its boom and allowed to rise under the enemy. A strong pull upon the lan- yard then released the ball, which, fall- ing on the percussion-cap, ignited the charge. Licut. Cushing, with a crew of thirteen officers and men, advanced 8 miles up the Roanoke river, passing the Confederate pickets undiscovered. On approaching the Albemarle, moored to the wharf and pro- FIG. 8.-Spar-torpa do. ',I.\\ \\\\\ \ \ I1 Ass. '~'~k\\\\ \ fZT_\'I"_~.'fi FIG. 9.— Vood and Lay. torpedo. 201 tected by a pen of logs about 30 feet from her side, he sud- denly darted upon her, and under a heavy fire exploded his torpedo against her bottom, thus sinking her. Most of his party were captured and some were drowned ; Lieut. Cush- ing himself and one man escaped by swimming and thread- ing the swamps to the Union lines. The Schleswig-Holstein war of 1864, although short, af- forded an opportunity for employing defensive mines, and one of the invading vessels was sunk through their agency. The Paraguayan war of 1864-68 furnished the next occa- sion for submarine warfare. Immediately after the Bra- zilian fleet entered the waters of that state a fine iron- clad, the Rio de J aneiro, was sunk by two torpedoes against which she had struck. Subsequently a division of the fleet ran past the batteries of Curupaity, only to find itself en- trapped between two lines of torpedoes, one in front and the other planted in rear, after the passage, to bar the re- treat ; the defective nature of these obstructions alone pre- vented a serious disaster. Later in the war the Tamandaré was crippled by a submarine mine. The Paraguayan tor- pedoes belonged to the anchored or drifting class, and the sulphuric-acid fuze was largely used. In the war between Austria and Italy in 1866 the harbors of Venice, Pola, and Lissa were obstructed by mines—the latter after the attack by the Italian fleet. N o hostile trial of their efficiency was made. During the Franco-German war of 1870-71 no con- spicuous use was made of torpedoes, but the German ports were protected by them, and the French contributed a new device to the list. It is known by the name of the “ ball of Verdun,” devised by Capt. Bussiere, of the engineers, to de- stroy a military trestle-bridge thrown by the Germans over the Meuse a short distance below the fortress. It consisted of a large sheet-iron sphere over 3 feet in diameter, heavily charged with gunpowder and provided with a clockwork train, which after a certain time was to discharge a pistol and thus ignite the mine. It was but little heavier than water, and was carefully adjusted so as to make the center of figure and of gravity coincident. A body fulfilling these conditions will be rolled along the deepest part of the channel by the current, and will, of course, be ‘far more difficult of detection than a floating object. The capitula- tion of the fortress prevented a trial of its efliciency, but many letters were introduced into Paris during the siege by similar balls caught by nets spread for the purpose. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 the Russians made de- cisive use of torpedoes. Through their agency the armored fleet on the Danube was held in check without the aid of a single Russian war-ship, and successful invasion was ren- dered possible. The channel was obstructed by mines at strategic points, and an attack with spar-torpedoes upon the fleet where it had taken refuge in the Matchin branch resulted in sinking the monitor Duba Saife and so com- pletely demoralizing the Turks that no further attempt was made to defend the river. For this gallant exploit the names of Lieuts. Dubasofi and Chestakoff will remain asso- ciated with that of Cushing. The Russian ports on the Black Sea were defended against an overwhelming superiority in naval power, directed by Hobart Pasha, through the moral influence of their submarine defenses. A Turkish gunboat. the Suna, was sunk by a contact-mine at the Sulina mouth of the Danube. Eight attacks were made by the Russians, use being made of spar, Harvey, and \Vhitehead torpedoes. Two of them were successful. In one a steamer was sunk at Batoum on Jan. 25, 187 8, by a VVhitehead torpedo, the first triumph of the weapon on record. Two failures had pre- ceded, one by the British cruiser Shah against the Peruvian Huascar on May 29, 1877, and the other by the Russians at Batoum on Dec. 20, 1 77. In the war between Chili and Peru in 1880-81 both parties made use of torpedoes, but without noteworthy results, except perhaps to throw dis- credit on the Lay torpedo. During the Franco-Cliinese hos- tilitics in 1884-85 two naval vessels were sunk by the French with spar-torpedoes. proving that this weapon is not wholly superseded. During the Chilian revolution of 1891 several attempts were made with Whitehead torpedoes, one of which was successful in sinking the battle-ship Blanco Encalada and over 150 of the crew. During the war between Japan and China i11 1894-95 submarine operations played only a subordinate part. At the battle of the Yalu, the Chinese fired four or five torpedoes iiiefiectively, while their adver- saries appear to have made no attempt to use the weapon. At the attack on \Vei-hai-wei. the Japanese torpedo flotilla entered the harbor on two successive nights, and succeeded in sinking three or four vessels, two of which were armored .202 ships of war. No effective use of submarine mines is re- ported. _ . From the foregoing résume it is apparent that torpedoes are no longer to be regarded as experimental devices, but that they have become recognized weapons of maritime war- fare, admitting of very varied applications. They may be employed offensively in the combats between hostile vessels, or they may be used defensively to repel an apprehended at- tack upon a harbor or district by preventmg the passage of the enemy’s squadron through the channel of approach_. En- tirely different principles of construction and of manipula- tion mark these two classes of the weapon. The former re- quires the technical skill of a sailor to move the charge into position and explode it within destructive range. The latter differs in no essential respect from the mines so long em- ployed in the defense of land fortifications. Accordingly, in Great Britain, the U. S., and some other countries possessing an extended seacoast, the service of torpedoes has been di- vided between the navy and the engineers of the army-the former operating offensively afloat, and the latter defensively from the shore. The U. S. naval war college is at Newport, R. I., where the needful investigations are conducted, and where classes of officers receive regular instruction in the use of the new weapons. The naval torpedo station also is at Newport, but at this instruction is given to seamen qualifying for the grade of seaman-gunner only. The army school is at Willets Point, New York harbor, where the sub- ject is experimentally studied, and where the oflicers and the enlisted men of the engineers are exercised in all the duties of defensive submarine mining. While in general the line of demarkation between the two services is thus plainly marked, some of the weapons—such, for example, as fish-torpedoes steered by eleetricity—-may be conveniently operated either from land or from shipboard, and they would be used in war either by army or navy as occasion might olfer. Ofierzs/Joe Torped0es.—In offensive torpedo warfare many devices have been proposed from time to time, and subjected to systematic trial by naval offieers. The Harvey torpe- do belongs to this type. The ,. QM _ r _ __ charge is contained in a nar- 4 ' ‘E . ' row copper vessel, encased in ,1) ,2 : ' wood strapped with iron, and 'lllll|||lil"" rgk‘ so ballasted as to ride verti- ¢' ) cally in the water. A tow- ~ line of wire rope passes from . the slings of the torpedo through a block on the yard of a fast steamer to a reel fitted with a brake on her deck. The enemy is passed at full speed, with the torpedo diverging at an angle of about 45° from the quarter, and the course is so directed as to bring the weapon in contact with his hull. Just before striking him the torpedo is made to dive by suddenly slack- ing the tow-line, and then to rise under his bottom by checking it with the brake. Explosion is effected through the agency of the projecting levers, which when struck either detonate a contact fuze or close an electric circuit, and thus cause the passage of a powerful current through a platinum fuze. These torpedoes are made of various sizes, one of the largest patterns being 4'5 feet long, 2 feet deep, and 6 inches wide, designed to contain 100 lb. of guncotton or dynamite. The requisite flotation is given by the cork buoys, a a’, as when at rest the torpedo sinks by its own weight. This weapon was devised by a skillful sailor, Capt. Harvey, of the Royal Navy, and he claims that it can be successfully used on the high seas even during a gale; but although formerly adopted by several European nations and highly commended. it failed in the Russo-Turkish war (1877—78) and has passed out of use. A more successful type of offensive torpedo is that known as the Whitehead. The idea developed by this weapon is due to an otficer of the Austrian marine artillery, but the first practical trials were made in 1864 by Robert Whitehead, superintendent of iron-works at Fiume, acting upon the suggestions of Capt. Lupis, an oiiicer of the Austrian navy. The torpedo has undergone great improvements between that date and the present time, and the right to use it has been purchased by the U. S. and by most European nations. The latest type consists of an iron and steel vessel in the shape of a spindle of revolution. It is driven by a propel- ler moved by compressed air. The 18-inch pattern adopted by Austria is claimed to have a speed of 32 or 33 knots for a run of 437 yards, and of 30 knots for one of 875 yards. FIG. 10.—Harvey torpedo. TORPEDOES The latest British pattern carries a charge of 250 lb. of guncotton of 12 per cent. moisture, with a 16-02. detonator of dry guncotton. The torpedo can be projected from a launching-tube or started by hand, and is capable of regu- lating and preserving its depth and direction. within nar- row limits. in still water; but cross-currents or seaweed may introduce large variations. It can be set to explode on con- tact or after a definite time, and either to sink or rise to the surface after finishing its course. The Schwartzkopff torpedo is essentially a Whitehead encased in phosphor- bronze instead of steel. The Howell torpedo, devised by a U. S. naval ofiicer, and patented in 1871, has been slowly developed until it has become a formidable rival of the Whitehead, from which it differs chiefly in motive power. This is derived from the rapid revolution of a heavy fly- wheel transmitted to the propeller shafts by beveled gear- ing. A speed of 22 knots and, what is more important, an inherent directive force giving great precision of fire are claimed. The U. S. Naval Department has purchased sev- eral Howell torpedoes for service, as well as Whiteheads. Submarine rockets, carrying explosive charges and started from submarine guns, have received and are receiving at- tention, both in the U. S. and in Europe. Such a weapon, if its course can be successfully controlled, will be especially dangerous in the combats of ironclad vessels at short range, since the blow, being delivered under the armor, can not fail to achieve decisive results. The fish-torpedo steered and controlled by electricity was first patented by Lieut.-Col. Ballard, Royal Engineers, in Aug., 1870, and again by Lieut.-Col. Foster, U. S. Engineers, in 1872. It has been independently elaborated by Mr. Lay and H. J. Smith in the U. S., and by Col. von Scheliha in Russia. The claim to priority in the invention has been the subject of litigation; but the decision of the com- missioner of patents (June 13, 1873) has awarded it to Mr. Lay, whose boat has also been brought most conspicuously before the public. This type of torpedo consists essentially of a boat of the \Vhitehead class, which carries and unreels a coil of insulated wire through which the electric current from a battery on shore or on shipboard can be passed at will to certain eleetro-magnets. By closing and breaking the circuit, and reversing the direction of the current, valves connected with the motive power are controlled, and thus the rudder may be put to starboard or port, and the engine may be started or st.opped. In this manner the motion of the fish is under perfect control from the instant of starting. The motive power may consist of liquefied carbonic acid. or ammonia, or compressed air, or steam peculiarly applied. The boat may be made to move at the surface or below it. Her position is known to the operator from two small flags carried near the water-level, which at night are replaced by two lanterns shaded in front so as not to be seen by the enemy. Any of the modern explosives may be employed, and detonation results from the action of a mechanical fuse or of a circuit-closer and battery. The Lay torpedo proper has been superseded by later patterns; it was a surface boat driven by liquefied carbonic acid. Exposure to pro- jectiles and freezing of the motive power during expansion were among its inherent defects. They have been obviated in its successors. the Wood-Haight and the Patrick, by sub- merging the torpedo under an unsinkable float and by heat- ing the carbonic acid during the run with sulphuric acid and lime placed around the pipes. A mile has been trav- ersed in an oificial trial at a speed of 19 miles per hour. A controllable torpedo was proposed by Capt. Ericsson, who supplied his motive power to the engine by a flexible tube drawn after the boat. This motive power was compressed air generated by an engine near the operator; and by regu- lating the supply the boat was steered without the aid of electricity. A movable torpedo invented by Mr. Sims has been developed at Willets Point since 1879. All parts vulnerable to machine-guns are submerged. It is moved and controlled by electricity conveyed by a cable from a dynamo on shore to an electric motor on board. The charge is 400 lb. of explosive gelatin. The boat, carrying 11,000 feet of cable, had attained in 1885 a speed of about 10 miles an hour in a run of 2 miles, the turning radius not exceed- ing 300 feet. This was accomplished with a difference of potential at the poles of the dynamo under 350 volts, and a current under 35 amperes. In 1886 Mr. Edison became as- sociated with Mr. Sims in the invention. A new experi- mental boat was prepared carrying 6,000 feet of cable, and with improved electrical conditions (1,200 volts and 30 am- peres). With this torpedo a speed of about 19 miles an TORPEDOES hour for a short run has been obtained : but that these con- ditions do not overstrain the insulation resistance of any cable the boat can carry has not been proven. The full range of 11,000 feet is regarded as essential in a torpedo suited for defending the harbors of the U. S. The Brennan torpedo has been developed by the Royal Engineers at Chat- ham, and has been adopted by the British Government. The motive power is supplied by unreeling piano-wire from two drums on board to two drums on shore, the latter driven by a steam-engine of 100 horse-power. A speed of 20 miles an hour, a range of 1'5 miles, and limited lateral control are claimed. The depth of submergence is regu- lated by a modified Whitehead device, and the position is known from a single steel mast. The charge is 200 lb. The torpedo is operated from an elevated site with the wire in air. Among other experimental torpedoes of this class may be named the Victoria, the Berdan, and the Halpine. The proper field of this weapon appears to be the protection of mine-fields, through which it can pass without doing in- jury. To a eounterminer their anticipated attack would be disheartenin 0'. The complexity inherent in their construc- tion, and the consequent large percentage of failures in their attempted runs, have heretofore militated strongly against tl1eir adoption in actual service. Defensive Torpedoes.—To understand the full importance of the submarine mine in defending the great seaports of the U. S. against hostile fleets, it is necessary to consider the changes in ships of war which immediately preceded its introduction. Before the invention of the screw-propeller, vessels in attacking forts were at the mercy of winds and currents; and long experience proved that one gun ashore was more effective than many afloat. Moreover, since stone walls were more resisting to shot and shell than bul- warks of oak, the rule introduced into land defense soon after the invention of gunpowder, that no masonry must be exposed to a direct fire of artillery, could be ignored in water-batteries, thus rendering it easy to mass the guns and provide a heavy fire against hostile shipping, even where the site was restricted. The screw-propeller, followed shortly after by armor-plating and big guns afloat, effected a radical change in the conditions of the problem. The fieet was now free to steam rapidly past the batteries under favorable conditions not before practicable. The class of guns required to assail the armor-plating with a reason- able chance of success was far more bulky and difficult to manoeuver than the former armament of the forts; more- over, it was considered that earthen parapets and substan- tial traverses must take the place of the compact masonry easemates heretofore in use. The defense thus found itself at great disadvantage. The hostile ships of war, more un- der control, less vulnerable, and possessed of much higher speed, were to be encountered by guns more unwieldy, and, in most of the harbors, much fewer in number from the naturally contracted sites available for the earthen batteries. The attention of military engineers was thus urgently di- rected to the devising of some obstruction which, by holding the enemy under fire and depriving him of the comparative immunity resulting from a high rate of speed, should restore to the defense its lost superiority. The modern submarine mine has accomplished this vitally important object. Evi- dently, if through its influence the guns can be fired 100 times at a slowly moving ship, instead of once at a rapidly passing enemy, the effective ower of the battery is multi- plied more than 100 times. ndependently, therefore, of its own destructive power, the defensive torpedo has become an essential auxiliary of the land gun. Indeed, they are in- separable in a judicious system of harbor defense, for, while the former is necessary to developing the full power of the latter, the latter is no less essential in protecting the former against the operations of the enemy; for it is an admitted principle that electrical submarine mines can not defend themselves without the aid of flanking guns to keep off boats, and of a fort secure against assault wherein to place the necessary batteries and operating apparatus. The tri- fling expense and superior power of this combination as compared with monitors for harbor defense has effectually disposed of the latter, which at one time were popularly be- lieved to be the only dependence in the future for protect- ing the great seaboard cities of the U. S. against the dan- gers of a bombardment. They are how reduced to the grade of a useful auxiliary reserve force, which should not be neglected in a few of the large harbors. The navy is thus released from an irksome confinement to a defensive warfare in ports, and is free to strike effective blows where 203 the enemy may be most vulnerable to attack, and where he will fear something more than a simple repulse as the result of an unfortunate naval action. Some of the more important of the recent improvements in submarine mining are the following: The modern explo- sives (see EXPLOSIVES) have largely superseded gunpowder, because greater power with less bulk may thus be secured. The latter is an important matter, since upon the size of the torpedo depends the depressing efiect of the current, and hence the amount of buoyancy necessary to keep the case always high enough to be touched by the enemy in passing. This buoyancy of course regulates the weight of the anchors and the size of the mooring connections, and, in fact, the principal dimensions of the system. The increase in in- tensity of explosive action is also important, for efforts are being made to give increased strength to the hulls of war- vessels by employing iron in the form known as the double- cellular bottom, thus reducing the destructive range of the torpedo, and exacting the employment of more powerful charges. In England experiments upon the Oberon, a ves- sel of this type, have shown that the horizontal destructive range of guncotton in charges even as large as 500 lb. is re- stricted to a few feet. This charge was fired on the bottom iii 48 feet of water at horizontal distances from the ship of 100, 80, 60, 50, and 30 feet, and finally vertically under her side. Although she was much shaken and injured by some of these shots, only the last burst through the double bot- tom and sunk the vessel. At the engineer school of de- fensive submarine mining at \/Nillets Point, N. Y., a long series of trials has been conducted to determine the effective range of different charges of various explosives sunk at dif- ferent depths below the surface; and by the careful meas- urements of several hundred explosions the matter has been successfully brought within the scope of mathematical analysis. The formulas and results have been made public, and they confirm the fact of restricted destructive range. Electricity is now chiefly used as the igniting agent in submarine warfare, because this enables the obstructed channels to be safely traversed by friendly vessels. The mines are usually arranged to be fired at will, or automat- ically by the touch of the vessel. By the use of proper fuzes (see FUZE) ignition may be effected with certainty. To cause the explosion to occur automatically by the touch of the vessel, a device called a circuit-closer or circuit-breaker, according to the circuit chosen, is employed. Many inge- nious devices have been proposed. Even for contact-mines unconnected with the shore. and hence under no control, electricity is now available for ignition; and its use largely reduces the danger of handling and planting the mines. A small battery is placed in the torpedo or in a hollow anchor under it, and its circuit is closed by the enemy. In the matter of torpedo cases, experience has shown that metal, usually steel, 1nust be employed where the mines are to remain submerged for long periods. Wood in such cases can not be trusted to exclude water, although lager—beer kegs supply a good temporary expedient. It is an essential condition that the form shall be symmetrical, in order to reduce the tendency to rotary motion to a minimum. W’ ire rope is found to supply the best moorings. The electric current is conveyed by armored cable, not unlike that em- ployed for the Atlantic telegraphs. To avoid a multiplic- ity of cables, as well as to reduce cost, several different cores are often united in a bundle and included in a com- mon armor. V/Vhile the details of the system of submarine mines in use in the U. S., as elaborated by the writer at Willets Point, are not made public, its general features were exhib- ited at the Centennial Exhibition at Pliiladelphia in 187 , and are as follows: Two types of electrical mine are in use, the ground and the buoyant. The former is employed in comparatively shallow water. and consists of a case resting upon the bottom and containing a large charge of dynamite. Floating near it, but so far below the water-surface as to be concealed from view, is a buoy carrying a circuit-closer to regulate the current through a fuze imbedded ill the former. The buoyant mine is designed for use in deep water. and consists of an anchor holding in position a torpedo floating just below the surface; the latter contains the charge of dynamite, the fuze, and the circuit-closer. If desired, the latter may be carried by a separate buoy so placed that when touched by outriggers or other torpedo-catchers, the mine will be directly under the vessel. The channel to be defended is thickly studded by lines of these mines. so ar- ranged with respect to each other that no vessel can pass 20-1 TORQUATUS without coming in contact with one or more of them. Sin- gle-conductor electric cables running from each mine com- bine in multiple cables, and are extended through a subter- ranean gallery to a secure bombproof casemate within the fort, where is placed the apparatus by which, at the will of the operator. the mines may be fired by judgment, or be rendered either inert or automatically explosive when struck by a vessel. The system is arranged to permit easy electrical tests, by which any injury at once becomes known, as well as its nature and locus. Wires also extend from the casemate to flanking guns, so that if a boat succeeds by night in cutting a cable or in disturbing a mine, by so do- ing it draws upon itself a heavy automatic discharge of can- ister, grape, or shrapnel, according to its distance from the fort. Electric lights are arranged to sweep the lines of mines, and thus give additional security against hostile op- erations conducted under cover of the darkness. The case- mate is connected by telegraph with a lookout, so that the whole system is under the perfect control of an oflicer who can see what is required, and instantly give the needful or- ders. For instance. a vessel might be chased by an enemy’s cruiser. She could pass with absolute safety the mines, which for her pursuer would at once become deadly engines of destruction. Detailed maps and plans for the torpedo defense of all the most important channels in the U. S. have been care- fully prepared by the board of engineers for fortifications, and are on file in the engineer department at ~Washington. The casemates and galleries for the introduction of the cables have been actually constructed at several forts. Large stores of torpedo material are being accumulated at Willets Point, where engineer troops receive the training needful to prepare them, in case of sudden war with a maritime power, to plant and operate the defensive mines along the extended seaboard of the U. S. HENRY L. ADBOT. 'l‘orqua’tus. TITUS MANLIUS: a member of the celebrated patrician family, the Manlian gens, of ancient Rome; received his surname TOEQUATUS in 361 B. o. for slaying a gigantic warrior among the Gauls in single combat on the Anio, and ornamenting himself with the neck-chain (torques) of the fallen foe. He was several times consul and dictator, and finished the wars with the Latin League. During one of his campaigns he forbade all single com bats. His son, never- theless, fought with a Latin warrior and slew him, but when he returned to the camp and laid the spoils at the feet of his father, he ordered him to be punished with death; hence the expression, flfdnltanct e'nzperta, common in Latin literature.—-Another member of the same family, LUOIUS MANLIUS ToEQUATUs, was a conspicuous member of the Pompeian party in the civil war. He was praetor when the war broke out in 49 B. o., fought under Pompey at Dyrra- chium, went to Africa after the battle of Pharsalia, and was taken prisoner and killed at Hippo Regius in 46 B. c. He was a friend of Cicero, and is introduced by him in his dialogue De F/tntbus as the advocate of the Epicurean phi- losophy. Revised by C. H. HASKINS. T 01" quay: town; in Devonshire, England; on Tor Bay, an inlet of the English Channel, 23 miles S. of Exeter (see map of England, ref. 15—E). It contains St. John’s church, a fine example of modern Gothic architecture, a town-hall, a museum, and a theater. On account of its equable cli- mate, freedom from fogs, and beautiful scenery, it is much frequented as a health resort and watering-place. It has a good harbor, which is used as a yachting station. Pop. (1891) 25,534. Torque [from Lat. tor'ques, a twisted neck-chain, deriv. of torgue’re, twist]: a twisted and bent rod, often of gold, worn as a personal ornament upon the neck by the an- cient Celts and other rude races of the Old I/Vorld. Torquema’da (Lat. Turrecrerndtd), JUAN, de: cardinal; b. at Valladolid, Spain, in 1338; entered the Dominican order of friars in Va-lladolid 1403; was present at the Coun- cil of Constance 1417 ; afterward pursued the study of the- ology at the University of Paris, where he graduated 1424; became an instructor there; was successively prior of the Dominican convents at Valladolid and Toledo; was called to Rome by Pope Eugenius IV., by whom he was made master of the sacred palace 1431; was papal theologian at the Council of Basel, where he contributed to the con- demnation of the doctrines of Wycliffe and Huss, and advo- rated the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception; partici- pated in the same capacity in the Council of Florence 1439, where he drew up the project of union between the Greek TORREN S and Latin Churches, for which-he received from the pope the title of defender of the faith and the rank of cardinal; attended the Council of Bourges 1440; became Bishop of Palestrina 1455, and of Sabina 1464. D. in Rome, Sept. 26, 1468. He was the author of Jlfedttattones (1467) ; Ezrposetto breets ct ut/tlts super toto Psalterto (1470), which were among the earliest productions of the press at Rome ; Qures- ttones Sptrttualts Convtvtt 1)6t’t6’tCl8])7‘(Ef6’I'6’Itt88 super Eran- geltts (1477); Cornmentanlt tn Decreturn Grattant (Lyons, 6 vols., 1519) ; of a treatise on the Church and the authority of the pope, on the body of Christ against the Bohemians, on penance, on the Council of Florence, on the Immaculate Conception, and other works. Revised by J. J. KEANE. Torquemada, JUAN, de : historian; b. at Valladolid, Spain, about 1545. When a young man he went to Mexico, where he entered the Franciscan order; he became an adept in the Nahuatl language, was professor in the rI‘laltelolco Col- lege, and from 1614 to 1617 was provincial. Torquemada is best known for his voluminous Monarqu/la Indtana, (3 vols. folio, Seville, 1615 ; 2d ed., l\/ladrid, 1723), which gives a vast amount of information on the Mexican Indians, their re- ligion, laws, customs, traditions, etc. Much of this is valu- able ; but it is badly arranged, and is loaded down with ir- relevant matter. He died in Mexico about 1625. H. H. S. Torquemada, TOMAS, de: inquisitor-general; b. at Val- ladolid, Spain, about 1420 ; became a Dominican monk and prior of the monastery of Santa Cruz at Segovia; was ap- pointed by Ferdinand and Isabella first inquisitor-general of Spain 1483 ; was confirmed in that post by Pope Innocent VIII. in 1487 ; labored with great vigor and success in organ- izing the Inquisition throughout Spain, especially at Seville, Cordova, J aen, and Ciudad Real; drew up the code of pro- cedure subsequently followed, and was influential in caus- ing the expulsion of Jews and Moors from Spain. The number of persons burned during his administration has been greatly exaggerated by Llorente and others. Oscar Peschel and Gams have calculated that not more than 2,000 persons suffered that death in Spain from 1481 to 1524, and not all of those for religious motives. See Gams, Ktrclz en- geschtchte Spantens, vol. iii., part ii., p. 72. Torquemada was as much a servant of the state as of the Spanish Church in his conduct as grand inquisitor, since the Spanish In- quisition was largely a civil and political institution. In his later years his authority was curtailed by the a point- ment of four colleagues by orders of Pope Alexanc er VI. D. at Avila, Sept. 16, 1498. Revised by J. J. KEANE. T01" re del Gre’c0 [Ital., Tower of the Greek, the Greek’s Tower] : town of Italy, province of Naples; on the eastern coast of the Bay of Naples, at the foot of Vesuvius, whose eruptions have destroyed it several times (see map of Italy, ref. 7—F). It was always rebuilt, however, and it is very celebrated for its wine and fruits; funny, anchovy, sardine, and coral fishing are carried on with energy by the inhab- itants. Pop. 21,580. Torre dell’ Annunzia'ta [Ital., Tower of the Annun- ciation]: town of Italy, province of Naples; at the foot of Vesuvius, 12% miles S. E. of Naples (see map of Italy, ref. 7—F). It is chiefly noted for its thermal springs and its manufactures of arms. Pop. 20,000. 'I‘0rre1’li, AC1-IILLE: dramatist ; b. in Naples, Italy, May 5. 1844; began early to write for the stage ; was a volunteer in the Italian army in 1866; became director of the theater of San Carlo in Naples in 1878. His first piece, the comedy Chi muore, 5/taco, was written when he was sixteen. It was fol- lowed by numerous more or less successful plays-—Il buon oecclrto tempo; Cuore e corona; Prtma clt nascere (1862); Jlpreeettore del re (1863); La '2ne'sse'one (t6tZCt donnct (1864); La rerttd (1865); Glt onestt (1867); I mare'te' (1867); La _frclge'le'td (1868); La moglte (1870) ; Nonnct sceleratd (1870) ; It colore del tempo (1875); Trtste realtcl; Scrolttnd (1880): and others. He has also published a collection of lyrical poems, which he styled Schegge. J. D. M. FORD. Tor'rens, ROBERT: economist; lo. in Ireland in 1780; be- came major-general in India ; was for some years a member of Parliament, where he was a vigorous supporter of the Re- form Bill, and acquired note as a political economist. llis theories had great influence on the statesmen of his time. His views on the corn-laws were finally adopted by Sir Rob- ert Peel and his supporters. D. May 27, 1864. Among his numerous treatises were an Essen] on .Moncy and _P(1per Currency (1812); Essa_r/ on the E.vternrd Corn-trade (181.5); Essay on the Productwn of lVeaZth (1821); The Budget, It TORREN S Series of Letters on Financial, Commercial, and Colonial Policy (1841-43); Tracts on Finance and Trade (1852), and several single Letters on similar subjects addressed to promi- nent statesmen. F. M. CoLBY. Torrens, WILLIAM ’l‘oansns ll/ICCULLAGH2 statesman and author; b. at Greenfield, County Dublin, Ireland, in Oct., 1813; son of James McCullagh; graduated at Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, 1834; sat in Parliament for Dundalk as an ad- vanced Liberal 1848-52; was elected from Yarmouth Mar., 1857, but was unseated on petition ; was returned for Fins- bury in J uly, 1865, and sat for that borough in four con- secutive parliaments; was prominent during the American civil war as an advocate of the Union cause ; aided Disraeli in 1867 to carry his Household Suffrage Bill, to which he procured the addition of the ledger franchise; introduced in 1868 the Artisans’ Dwellings Bill, which was carried after protracted debates; obtained in 1869 an important reform in the management of pauper children by the poor-law guardians in London, and secured in 1870 the adoption of the Extradition Act, and in the same year proposed the crea- tion of the London school board. He assumed in 1863 his mother’s name, Torrens. D. in London, Apr. 26, 1894. He was the author of The Use and Study of Jfistory (Dublin, 1841); The Industrial History of Free Nations (2 vols., 1846) ; Memoirs of Richard Lalor Sheil, with Anecdotes of Contemporaries (2 vols., 1855) ; Life and Times of Sir James Graham, Bart. (2 vols., 1863) ; The Lancashire Lesson (1864); and Our Empire in Asia: how we came by it (1872). F. M. COLBY. Tor’ res Strait: the channel which separates New Guinea or Papua from Australia. It is 80 miles broad, but covered with islands and full of shoals and reefs, which make its navigation difficult. It was discovered by Torres in 1606. Torres Ve’dras: a town in the province of Estremadura, Portugal; 26 miles N. of Lisbon (see map of Spain and Por- tugal, ref. 17—A). It is best known from the lines of defense constructed here by Wellington in 1810. These consisted, when completed, of 152 distinct works, arranged in three lines. and extended from the Tagus to the sea. They were provided with an armament of 534 pieces of ordnance, and their garrisons were calculated at 34,125 men. The allied army fell back and entered their line Oct., 1810, holding the invading forces at bay till Mar., 1811, when the latter retired discomfited. Torrey, JOHN, M. D., LL. D.: botanist; b. in New York, Aug. 15,1796; graduated in medicine in College of Phy- sicians and Surgeons, New York, 1818; was Professor of Chemistry, Geology, and Mineralogy in the Military Acad- emy, West Point, 1824-27, of Chemistry and Botany in the College of Physicians and Surgeons 1827-55, and of Chem- istry and Natural History in the College of New Jersey 1830- 54; was U. S. assayer in New York 1853-73 ; was one of the founders of the New York Lyceum of Natural History, of which he was for many years president, and at the request of which he prepared, as early as 1817, while still a medical student, a Catalogue of Plants growing spontaneously within Thirty Miles of the City of New York (Albany, 1819); pub- lished vol. i. of a Flora of the lVorthern and llfiddle States (New York, 1824). and a Compendium of the same (1826); was appointed botanist of the geological survey of New York 1836; published a monograph on the Cyperacere of lVorth America (1836) ; began in 1838, in connection with‘Dr. Asa Gray, the publication in numbers of a Flora of 1Yorth America, which had reached the close of the great natural order Compositoe when i11 1843 the vast accumulation of materials compelled its suspension; published the Flora of the State of New Yorh (2 vols., 1843-44), forming vols. vi. and vii. of the ZVatural ffistory of that State; edited Dr. L. D. de Schweinitz’s Monograph of the 1Yorth American Species of the Genus Caren: (New York, 1825), and Dr. John Lindley’s lntroduction to the iYatu/ral System of Botany (New York, 1831), to which he added an Appendi;z;; from 1822 to 1858 he edited most of the numerous reports of U. S. surveying and exploring expeditions; was an original mem- ber of the National Academy of Sciences and a founder of the_To_rrey Botanical Club; was a frequent contributor to periodicals and the proceedings of learned societies; was many years a trustee of Columbia College, to which he pre- sented his valuable herbarium and botanical librarv. D. in New York, Mar. 10, 1873. ' Torrey, J osnrn, D. D. : educator ; b. at Rowley, Mass, Feb. 2, 1797; graduated at Dartmouth College in 1816, and at TORSION 205 Andover 1819; was pastor of a Congregational church at Royalton, Vt., 1819-27 ; Professor of Greek and Latin in the University of Vermont, Burlington, 1827-42; Professor of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy 1842-67; and president of the university 1863-65; author of a posthumous volume of lectures, A Theory of Art (1875) ; editor of the Remains (1843) of President James Marsh, and of the Select Sermons (1861) of President \/Vorthington Smith, to both of which he prefixed Jlfemoirs ; and translator of Neander’s General H is- tory of the Christian Religion and Church (Boston, 5 vols., 1854), accompanied by elaborate and scholarly notes. D. at Burlington, Nov. 26, 1867. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Torrey’ a [Mod. Lat., named in honor of Dr. John Torrey, a botanist]: a genus of trees of the order Coniferaz, allied to the yews (family Taxacece). T. californica is a fine orna- mental species ; T. taxifolia of Florida has a durable, strong- Torreya tarifolia : Leaves half the natural size ; staminate and pis- tillate aments enlarged ; fruit and a section reduced. scented, heavy, and close-grained wood and horizontal, whorled branches. It sometimes attains a height of 50 feet. Eastern Asia has several species. T. myristica has a useful timber. The seeds of T. nucifera afford an oil used in cook- ing food. When burned the leaves and wood of the torreyas give off a powerful and disagreeable smell. Revised by CHARLES E. BESSEY. Torricelli, tor-re"e-chel’1e”e, EVANGELISTAI physicist; b. at Faenza, Italy, Oct. 15, 1608; studied mathematics and phys- ics in Rome under Castelli, and in Florence under Galileo, whom he succeeded in 1642 as professor at the Academy. D. in Florence, Oct. 25, 1647. In 1644 he published his Opera Geometrica. His most remarkable discovery is that of the barometer, sometimes called the Torricellian tube. Torrington: town ; Litchfield co., Conn.; on the Nauga- tuck river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 20 miles N. of Waterbury (for location. see map of Connecticut, ref. 8—E). It has 8 churches, 20 public schools, high school, public library, Y. M. C. A. building, a private and a savings bank, a daily and a weekly newspaper, extensive brass-works, and manufactories of hardware, sewing-machine needles, bi- cycles, and woolen goods. It was incorporated in 1740 and made a borough in 1887, and is celebrated as the birthplace of John Brown, the abolitionist, and of Samuel Mills, the pioneer of American missions. Pop. (1880) 3,327 ; (1890) 6,048; (1894) school census, 7,500. Enrron or “ Rnersrnm’ Torsion [from Lat. torque're, tor’tmn, twist]: the twist- ing of a bar or shaft around its axis. In the figure is seen a horizontal bar with one end rigidly fixed in awall and the other sub] ect to a vertical force, P, acting with a lever arm, <_>,O6 TORSION BALANCE BC. The product P X B0 is the twisting moment whose tendency is to cause all horizontal lines on the surface of the bar to assume a spiral form. This moment is resisted by the sum of the moments of the internal shearing stresses which exist in any cross-section. If the bar be circular and of a diameter cl, and if S be the shearing unit-stress at the circumference, then ' 7rd3S PXBC: 16 which is the fundamental formula for the discussion of round solid shafts. The most common investigation is that of the transmis- sion of power by shafts. If H be the number of horse- powers transmitted and ’)'L the number of revolutions per mm- . II ute, the unit-stress, S, for a round solid shaft is 321000 W 3 __ and the diameter required, cl, is 685 j/%, in which, for 7 proper security, S may be taken at about 2,500 lb. per square inch for cast iron, 5,000 for wrought iron, and 7,500 for ordinary steel. Hollow forged steel shafts are coming into use for ocean steamers, their strength being greater than solid shafts of the same sectional area. If D be the exterior and cl be the interior diameter, these may be investigated by the formula DH _ O ___—___._ S__ 321000 n(D4_d4). For example, if D : 17 inches and d : 11 inches, and 16.000 horse-powers be transmitted at fifty revolutions a minute the value of S will be found to be about 25,000 lb. per square inch, which is too high avalue for ordinary steel, but which would be a safe unit-stress for nickel-steel. MANSFIELD MERRIMAN. Torsion Balance: an apparatus for measuring delicate electrical or other attractions and repulsions. The attrac- tion or repulsion is measured by the resistance offered to it by the torsion of a metal wire or a filament of spun glass, quartz, or other fiber. By this means Coulomb discovered the laws of electrical attraction and magnetic force, and Cavendish deduced a value of the density of the earth. See EARTH (Don.s-Hy and Jlfass). Torsk, or Dorse [zforslo = Dan. :Icel. ]>or.sl:r, codfish : Germ. dor-sch]: a name applied to the cusk (Br;-o.s~2m'us blrosme), a food-fish of Northern Europe and the eastern coast of the U. S., and also to the Baltic cod (Gaolus oalltlrlas), another food-fish of Northern Europe. They belong to the cod-famil y, and are eaten fresh, or more generally are salted and dried. The Pacific coast of the U. S. has another torsk, Bros- mophyoz's marglnalzls. F. A. L. -T01" stensson, LE-NNART2 soldier; b. at Torstena, \Vcst Gothland, Sweden, Aug. 17,1603; was educated as a page at the court of Gustavus Adolphus, whom he accompanied in 1630 to Germany; distinguished himself greatly as com- mander of the artillery in the battle on the Lech in 1632; was taken prisoner before Nuremberg Sept. 3, 1632, and kept for six months in a damp, subterranean dungeon in Ingolstadt by Maximilian of Bavaria; was appointed com- mander-in-chief of the Swedish army in Germany in 1641, but was compelled by the gout to resign his command in 1646; returned to Sweden; was made Count of Ortala by Queen Christina and governor-general of the province of \Vest Gothland. D. at Stockholm, Apr. 7, 1651. See De Peyster’s Torslenson, New York, 1886. Tort [from Fr. fort, wrong < Late Lat. lortum, liter., neut. of lor'lus, twisted. crooked. perf. partic. of to1'(_]/we're, twist] : in English law, such an unlawful invasion by one person of another’s rights which are created by law as was remediable by a common-law action. A husband or a wife wrongs the other by marital unfaithfulness; a parent wrongs his minor child by unreasonable chastisement; but in neither case is a tort committed. Neither wrong could be remedied by a civil action at common law. The injured spouse might ob- tain a divorce; the parent might be prosecuted criminally. It is apparent, therefore, that procedure has played a part in fixing the limits of this branch of the law. Again, one who sells and delivers property to another upon the latter’s promise to pay a fixed sum therefor at a fixed date has a right to the stipulated payment. The purchaser’s refusal to pay, however, is not a tort, but a breach of contract; the right which is invaded was created by the agreement of the TORT parties, and not by the law. One who unlawfully invades another’s right to personal security, by ASSAULT AND BAT- TERY (q. 1).), or by defamation (see LIBEL AND SLANDER), or by a NUISANCE (g. o.) to health, or his right to personal lib- erty by false imprisonment, or his right to private property, commits a tort. The rights which are interfered with in all these cases do not originate in any agreement to which the wrongdoer is a party, but are created by the law. I] is liability for the damage caused by his wrongdoing does not rest upon his consent, as in the case of a breach of contract. N or, in English law, does it rest upon the moral quality of the act. The actor may be free from actual blame and yet be a tort-feasor. See Tnnsrxss. In certain cases, the wrongdoer may be sued on contract or in tort, at the option of the injured party. This is true wherever the contract creates a relation out of which springs a legal duty independent of the contract obligation, as in the case of lawyer and client, of consignor and factor, of shipper and common carrier. The carrier who fails to de- liver goods received by him may be sued either on the con- tract of shipment or in tort for breach of the com mon-law duty to carry safely and deliver. Acts or omissions of this class are sometimes called quasvi torts. Taylor vs. illum- o/zestor, etc., Ry/.. 11 Times Law Reports 27, A. D. 1894. Scotch la/w employs the terms delicts and quasi delicts instead of torts and quasi torts. These terms were defined by Lord Watson, in a recent case that went up to the House of Lords from Scotland, as follows: “ Delicts proper em- brace all breaches of the law which expose their perpetrator to criminal punishment. The term quasi delict is general- ly applied to any violation of the common or statute law which does not infer criminal consequences, and does not consist in the breach of any contract, express or implied. Cases may and do often occur in which it is exceedingly dif- ficult to draw the line between delicts and quasi delicts. The latter class, as it has been developed in the course of the present century, covers a great variety of acts and omis- sions, ranging from deliberate breaches of the law, closely bordering upon crime, to breaches comparatively venial and involving no moral delinquency.” (Palmer vs. lVe'olc Steam Slmjajalozg 00., 1894, Appeal Cases 318.) It is clear from this extract that delicts and quasi delicts are not sy- nonymous with torts and quasi torts. For a full discussion of the nature and classification of torts, the reader is referred to Holmes, The Common La./zo, Lectures 3 and 4; Markby, li'lemcnz‘s of Law, chap. xvi.; Pollock, .Torls, bk. i., eh. i.; Ringwood, Outlines of the Law of Torts, chap. i.; VVigmore, Ana.l;z/sls of Tort Rola- tlons, 8 I;lm'ua1*cZ Law Zieelow 200, 377. FRANCIS M. BURDICK. EUROPEAN LAw.—Among the private or civil actions of tort (ea; dcl/lolo) given by the Roman law were actions for the recovery of penalty, actions for the recovery of penalty and damages (aollones m/la‘l(e), and actions for the recovery of damages simply. Modern European law generally treats the prosecution of penalty as a matter of criminal law. and confines the action of tort to the recovery of damages. lllany of the Roman actions of tort have therefore become criminal actions, and even where the prosecution is insti- tuted only at the demand of the person injured the penalty goes to the state. See LIBEL AND SLANDER (History of Libel and Slrmclor). It was the general rule of the Roman law that no one was liable for damages ea; clolloto unless wrongful intent (clolus) could be shown or inferred. Mere negligence (or1l,'oa.)cre- ated no liability unless a duty of diligence had been as- sumed, and then damages were recovered on the contract, or (]tl(l8’l em oonlrclcltl, not on tort. In the case of damage to property, however, the Zero Aqail/la departed from the rule and imposed liability for damage occasioned by care- lessness. Modern European legislations have generally ex- tended the principle of the lea: ./1qmIl"ltt, and impose lia- bility for all injuries to the person or to property occasioned by negligence. (See Code lVapoléon, § 1382, at sog.; Aus- trian Code, 1295, cl seq.; German Draft Code, § 704.) The recovery of damages is excluded when the injured per- son consented to the injury ; when the person who inflicted the injury acted in self-defense, or under orders which he was legally bound to obey ; also when he was doing what he had a right to do, and (according to some legislations) when he erroneously supposed that he was acting within his rights, provided the mistake was an excusable one. (The German Draft Code declares that a mistake of law may be excusable.) Insanity of course excludes liability; drunken- TORTOISE ness does not. Infancy (which lasts until the completed sev- enth year) excludes liability; after that it is a question of the intelligence of the wrongdoer. For damage done by children and lunatics, their parents or guardians are re- sponsible if by due surveillance they could have prevented the injury. For the torts of employees within the general scope of their employment the employer, at French law, is held to the same responsibility as a parent; it is incum- bent on him to prove that he could not have prevented the injury. The German codes make the employer liable only when he has chosen unfit persons or has failed to exercise due superintendence. Analogous responsibilities are regu- larly imposed upon the owner for damage done by animals or things ‘(defective buildings, machinery, etc.). At Roman law, as at the English common law, the heirs of a person willfully or negligently killed had no claim for dam- ages. The modern codes generally recognize such a claim, and treat the amount of damages as a question of fact. In place of a lump sum to be paid to persons who were dependent upon the deceased for their support, modern German legis- lation 'provides for an annuity, limited to the number of years during which support could legally have been claimed from the deceased, and to his expectancy of life at the time the fatal injury was received. All actions for the recovery of actual damages descend to the heirs of the injured person and run against the heirs of the tort-feasor. The period of limitation is usually a short one ; but when the tort-feasor is enriched by his tort, the quasi-contractual claim for the recovery of the unjust enrichment does not expire with the limitation of the ac- tion of tort. I\lUNROE SMITH. Tortoise [M. Eng. z‘orz‘uce; cf. 0. Fr. iorzfiis, crooked, and torzfue, tortoise < Vulg. Lat. t0r2fu’ca, deriv. of z‘01"tus, twisted, crooked. So called from its crooked feet] : a name sometimes applied to any species of turtle, but more correct- ly restricted to those belonging to the family Tesiudimdcc, a group whose members are distinguished by their club feet, strictly terrestrial habits, and, as a rule, high, arched carapaces. There are something like fifty species of tor- toises, inhabiting the warmer portions of the globe, the most remarkable being the large black species found on the Galapagos islands and Aldabra. Although of uniform color these vary in form and proportions, and belong to very dis- tinct species of the genus Tesfudo. At least five species oc- cur on the Galapagos, each confined to a particular island. The shell of some specimens measures over 4 feet in length, the animal weighing as much as 800 lb. They feed entirely on vegetables, are good eating, and yield an excellent oil. Tortoises of this kind formerly abounded in Mauritius and Reunion, but “they have been eaten off the face of the earth,” and the same fate threatens the tortoise elsewhere. The GOPI-IER (q. '0.) of the Southern and Southwestern U. S. is a true tortoise, but, as the name is more commonly ap- plied to the pouched rat, care must be taken to specify that the gopher in question is a tortoise. There are three spe- cies, Gopherus polyphemus, G. agass£zz'£, and G. berZcmdr'er£, the first named being the common Florida species. ' ‘ F. A. Lucas. Tortoise-plant: another name for ELEPHAN'r’s Foor (q. in). Tortoise-shell: the overlapping scales which cover the carapace of Erezfmoehely-s ¢j'2nb7-icafa, a large turtle found in the tropical Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and E’. squama.z‘.a, a similar species found in the Pacific. They are popularly known as hawk’s-bill turtles. Tortoise-shell is remarkable for its plastic quality, which enables the artificer to give it almost any desired shape while under the influence of heat. Pieces of the shell may even be welded together, and the filings and chips are moulded and shaped as desired when heated to the proper temperature. Tortoise-shell is chiefly used for making combs, toilet articles, etc., and inlaying boxes. It is successfullyimitated by artificial compounds, such as celluloid, of much less cost. It is customary in some regions to apply heat to the back of the living tortoise, and then remove the plates, but the crop of shell which replaces the first is thin and of inferior quality. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Torto’na (Lat. Dcrtona) : town ; province of Alessan- dria, Italy; about 12 miles E. of the city of Alessandria, on a hill nearly 900 feet above the sea (see map of Italy, ref. 3-0). It was once strongly fortified, but its la.st defenses were destroyed in 1799 by Napoleon, after the battle of Ma- rengo. The cathedral, dating from 1575, contains some valu- able pictures. The principal industries are silk-reeling and TORTURE 207 tanning, and there is a local trade in grain and wine. Pop. about 7.150. Torte’ S21: an old, well-built, fortified and busy town in the province of Tarragona, Spain; on the Ebro; 40 miles by rail S. W. of Tarragona; in a fertile and well-cultivated district (see map of Spain, ref. 15-I). Its cathedral, occupy- ing the site of a mosque built in 914, contains much carved work and marbles that are worthy of examination. Other public buildings, including the episcopal palace and town- hall, are commonplace. Tortosa has manufactures of paper, leather, soap, and pottery. Its fisheries constitute the most important industry. Pop. (1887) 25,192. Tortrie'idaez a family of insects. See LEAF-ROLLERS. Tertricidae [Mod Lat., named from T07‘l‘)”lYE (T oriric-), the typical genus, 1iter., twister, from Lat. z‘orgue're, tor’- tum, twist]: a family of serpents of the sub-order Zbrz‘m'- cina. They are worm-like in appearance ; have no constric- tion separating the head and trunk; the head is shielded above; the maxillary bones have alveolar ridges and teeth ; the pupils of the eyes are round ; the body is covered with smooth scales; the tail is short and conic, and there are rudiments of posterior extremities. The family has few spe- cies, and is mostly confined, and thus restricted, to South America, Southern Asia, and Australia. The typical spe- cies, _T0rfm'a: sag/tale, is sometimes known as the coral snake, but is not to be confounded with the Ela/,m'(Za2, which are also frequently designated by the same name ; it is a South American species. The Oriental species belong to the genus C'ylz'ndrophz's. and are said to be viviparous. See Giinther, Ann. and May. Nat. Hz'sz‘., vol. i., p. 428, 1868. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Tortu’ga (Fr. T02-tue): an island of the ‘Vest Indies, N. of the northeastern extremity of Haiti, to which it belongs. Area, about 80 sq. miles. It is separated from the main island by the Tortuga or Tort-ue Channel, 5 miles wide; the surface is broken, but not very high. It was long the most noted resort and settlement of the buccaneers, where they established a rough form of government; eventually the French adventurers accepted a royal governor from their country ; passing the channel they conquered and occupied the western part of Santo Domingo, now the republic of Haiti. H. S. Tortugas, Florida: See DRY Toarueas. T01‘tll1‘e [: Fr. < Lat. 2‘07'f'u'ra', a twisting, a wrenching. racking, writhing, deriv. of z‘o?'q'ue'rc, 1‘01'1/mn, twist]: the infliction of severe pain: specifically, the infliction of se- vere pain for the purpose of punishing or inflicting revenge, or for the purpose of extracting or forcing evidence or con- fessions in criminal or ecclesiastical trials. Torture for one purpose or another has been practiced during all ages and among all or nearly all peoples. Among savage races it is most commonly used either as a means of ORDEAL (g. r.) or as a means of inflicting revenge or punishment upon cap- tured enemies. As a means of forcing religious conformity, the infliction of torture was carried to an almost incredible extent of cruelty in the later Middle Ages and down to the eighteenth century, especially in Southern Europe, where the INQUISITION (q. 1*.) was unchecked in its use. Judz'cz'al z‘0'rz‘u're. as it is called when administered by or under the direction of the courts of law during the trial of causes, has been chiefly directed to the purpose of compell- ing an accused person during his trial either to confess his crime, clear up contradictions in his previous testimony, dis- close his accomplices, reveal other crimes of which he may have been guilty but has not been accused of, or to purge him of the disability of INFAMY (g. r.). Judicial torture is rarely used during that stage of a people’s existence when ordeals are used, but has very commonly succeeded to the use of ordeals, judicial torture being essentially a product of civilization rather than barbarism. Although torture is now no longer a part of the jurispru- dence of any modern Christian nation, yet until about the end of the eighteenth century, it formed a recognized part of the jurisprudence of European nations, excepting Great Britain and Sweden, and the rules for its application were developed into a regular system as a part of the principles of jurisprudence. Among the ancients it appears not to have been practiced among the Hindus, the Hebrews, or the Egyptians. Among the Greeks, however, the use of torture was thoroughly un- derstood and permanently established; as a general rule no freeman could be tortured, but only slaves and those 903 TORTURE who were not members of the body politic of the state. There were various exceptions. as in the case of flagrant political offenses, and among the Rhodians the torture of free citizens was not forbidden. The people acting as the supreme power, or a despot, could of course decree the torture of any one irrespective of privilege. The evidence of slaves, however, was inadmissi- ble, except when given under torture, and either party to a controversy could demand the torture of his opponent’s slaves. The principal modes of torture among the Greeks were the wheel, the rack, the sharp comb, the vault, into which the witness was thrust bent double, the burning tiles, the heavy hogskin whip, and the injection of vinegar into the nostrils. In the Roman law. upon which the subsequent European systems which recognized torture as a part of their juris- prudence were based, the general principles governing the administration of torture were the same in the earlier days as those of Greece. In later times under the emperors, al- though nominally still restricted in use to slaves, except in certain specified cases, torture was in fact not infrequently applied to freemen contrary to law; and its use could be authorized in any case by order of the emperor, which power was freely used. There appears to have been no limit set upon the application of torture, but the extent to which it might be carried seems to have been in the discretion of the tribunal ; and in Rome, as in Greece, its use was not restricted to criminal cases in respect of slaves, but they might be tor- tured in any case except for the purpose of testifying against their master. The modes of torture generally authorized by the Roman law were the rack, the scourge, fire in its various applications, and hooks for tearing the flesh. The barbaric races of Europe with whom the Romans came into contact adopted more or less of the Roman prac- tice of judicial torture; and the Visigoths established a sys- tem of torture which continued uninterrupted in Spain from the period of their settlement down to modern times, and their legislation on the subject has been to a great extent a model for other European nations. Generally, however, the use of torture was slow in replacing the barbaric systems of ordeal and sacramental compurgation, and it was not till the latter half of the thirteenth century that the first traces of legalized torture appeared in France, and in Germany it was not used until the fifteenth century, its introduction being powerfully aided by the then increasing rigor and systematization of the Inquisition. The influence of the Church during the Middle Ages upon the use of torture was to aid in its prevalence, and to add ingenuity in devising new cruelties to be inflicted upon the tortured, although in the earlier centuries St. Augustine, Gregory I., and Nicholas I. had denounced it, and its use had been forbidden. The Church, so far as it could, adopted the Roman law, and torture was inflicted mostly as a means of forcing religious conformity or extorting a confession of heresy. Originally the infliction of torture seems to have been left by the ecclesiastical tribunals to the ordinary civil tribunals, but later they exercised it themselves under a per- fected system of rules which culminated in the INQUISITION (g. 1).), and served as a basis and excuse for the wide exten- sion of the use of torture in civil cases, and furnished innu- merable varieties of new forms of torture of unspeakable cruelty. As a result of the interference of the Church the clergy were generally restricted from torture at the hands of the civil courts, the clergy in Catholic countries being specially favored, and the immunity obtained being practi- cally about the same as that accorded to the nobility. In any case, however, the torture inflicted on the clergy by the civil tribunals was of a milder character than that inflicted upon laymen, and much more decisive proof was required before submitting them to torment. If clerical executioners could be had they had the privilege of demanding that they should be tortured only by them. Torture as administered even by the Church, however, was 1nore cruel than the fair construction of the rules of the Church regulating the sub- ject. Owing to the secrecy of its infliction, the helplessness of the accused to prosecute or punish illegal tortures in- flicted, and the specious casuistry countenanced in the eva- sion of the rules, the extent to which torture was carried in any instance, and the cruelties inflicted, rested practically in the discretion of the judges or executioners. The rules themselves generally spoke of it as dangerous and uncertain, and depending largely for its results upon the question of physical strength. The rule that a confession made under torture could not be used against an accused, except it was TOTAL ABSTINENCE afterward confirmed by voluntary confession, was in effect nullified by repetition of the torture upon a subsequent re- traction of the confession until the tortured person finally yielded and gave the desired voluntary confession. From the thirteenth century on the use of torture in- creased until it finally became established as a permanent part of the judicial machinery of European nations, except- ing in England and Sweden. Although torture was never a part of the common law of England as a means of obtain- ing evidence, there is roof that it was practiced for that purpose under Henry VIII. and his children, and also dur- ing the reigns of James I. and Charles I., not only in politi- cal cases, but in the case of common crimes. Either with or without royal authority torture.was in fact frequently in- flicted, especially in the case of alleged witches, and why it did not become a recognized part of the jurisprudence there as well as elsewhere in Europe it is diflicult to say. Sir James Fitzjames Stephen says: “Probably the extremely summary character of our early methods of trial, and the excessive severity of the punishment inflicted, had more to do with the matter than the generalities of Magna Charta or any special humanity of feeling.” In the British colonies the use of torture was never legally recognized, and only a few sporadic instances of its use oc- curred, such as the infliction of PEINE FoR'rE ET DURE (q. 1).) upon Giles Cory, in Salem, Mass., in 1692. Although the system of torture was recognized as a legal means for obtaining evidence for so many centuries. there was never any time when its cruelty was not generally rec- ognized and its use justified as a measure deplorable but necessary for the protection of society; and, from the first until its abolishment, there were those among the foremost thinkers who not only denounced its cruelty, but exposed its uselessness and the utter unreliability of the testimony ob- tained by its use. Its extreme use and the horrors of its practice during the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries finally led to a revulsion of feeling, and judicial torture was at length abandoned during the latter half of the eighteenth century, although in some countries it continued to be le- gally recognized and occasionally practiced, until the early part of the nineteenth century. It was swept away in Sax- ony in 1783, and about the same time in Switzerland and Austria; in Russia it was partly abolished in 1762, and fin- ally in 1801 ; in Wiirtemberg it was abolished in 1806, in Ba- varia in 1807, in France in 1789 (being temporarily restored in 1814), in Hanover in 1819, and in Baden in 1831. See Henry C. Lea’s Superstttz'on and Force (Philadelphia, 1870); Stephen’s History of the (]re'me'nal Law of England; Jar- dine’s Readtng on the Use of Torture tn the Crumnal Law of England, previously to the Commonwealth. F. S'rUReEs ALLEN. Torn Dutt: See DUTT, TORU. Torula Cerevisiae: the name first given to the yeast- plant. See FERMENTATION (The Yeast-plant). Tory [from Ir. toe'rz'dhe, pursuer, searcher, plunderer]: a name applied to the Roman Catholic outlaws who lived in the bogs of Ireland during the reign of Charles II.; after- ward extended (1679) to all those, whether English, Scotch, or Irish, who were opposed to the bill excluding the Duke of York from the succession. It was thus sought to imply Roman Catholic sympathies on the part of those who fa- vored the duke’s succession. Finally, the name came to designate the anti-Whig party in British olitics; but as a formal designation it has been replaced by ‘onservative since 1830. In the war of the Revolution in the U. S. the loyalists were called Tories. Tosa-riu: the name of a Japanese school of painting, which traces its origin to Fujiwara no Tsunetaka, a native of Tosa, who flourished about the year 1200 A. D. It is a branch of the native or Yam ato school, and is the least of all affected by Chinese influences a.nd the fullest of na'ive con- ventions. It is historical in spirit, dealing with famous events in mythology and history, and picturing historic scenes, and was especially cultivated at Kioto. J. M. D. Tosti, FRANCESCO PAoLo: song-composer; b. at Ortona, Italy, Apr. 9, 1846; studied, practiced, and taught music in Italy until 1875, when he first visited London; made annual visits until 188% silnce which time he has reniained there ')ermanently. - e Ias writ ten very man 0 u ar songs in ltalian, French, and English, his most yp(I))p1ll3l£L1' one being For Ever and f or Ever. D. E. H. Total Abstinence: See ABSTINENCE, rl‘oTAL. TOTEMISM T otemism: a system of beliefs, worship, and social obli- gations, found in savage communities in nearly every part of the world. The word totem, by some authorities spelled ote, possessive otem, by others toodaim, or dodaim, is from the Ojibway dialect, in which it signifies a family or tribe. As new used in ethnology it means a species or class of ani- mals or plants, or, rarely, of inanimate objects, which is re- garded by a horde, clan, or individual, with superstitious respect. A totem must be distinguished from a fetish, which is always an individual object. The savage believes that he is descended from his totem, and that it helps and protects him in all the affairs of life. As arule, he will not injure, kill, or eat the totemic animal or plant. Even when the totem is a highly dangerous species, as one of the venom- ous snakes, or the scorpion, it is regarded without fear, and in this case men suspected of being untrue clansmen may be subjected to a practical test. If they survive the deadly bite of the totemic serpent their fidelity is established. The Clan Totem.-—Wherever totemism prevails it is asso- ciated with kinship and with tribal subdivisions. Clans are named from their respective totems and identified by rude images or symbols. The North American Indians E. of the Rocky Mountains commonly carved or painted totemic signs on their huts, or embroidered them on tents and blankets. (See Totemism under INDIANS OF NORTH AMER- ICA.) The Alaskan tribes carve them elaborately on the totem posts that guard their houses. In Australia and the Pacific islands tattooing and scarring are methods commonly employed. Not infrequently the totem is painted on the skin and then burned in. Most of the mutilations and adorn- ments characteristic of savagery, such as the breaking of teeth and the wearing of feathers, horns, claws, and beaks, have intimate association with totemism. Sometimes the totem is a part only of the natural object, as among the Omahas, where the buffalo is subdivided into head, shoulder, side, tail, each being the totem of a sub-clan. These split totems, so called, indicate the subdivision of what was once a single clan. As a Rdigion.-—Di1'e penalties are supposed to follow any disrespect toward the totem. Some clans even avoid look- ing at their totem. The Elk clan of the Omahas believe that if any clansman were to touch the male elk he would break out in boils and white spots. The Red Maize sub-clan believe that if they were to eat the red maize they would have running sores around the mouth. The Samoans gen- erally thought that death would follow any injury to the totem. So in Australia sickness and death were supposed to be the penalties for eating the totem. Everywhere the totem is worshiped and propitiated, and in many parts of the world, notably in Samoa. the dead totem is mourned for and buried like a dead clansman. Throughout North Amer- ica, South America, and Africa totemism had become, be- fore the invasion of the whites, an elaborate ceremonial re- ligion, having its festivals, dances, processions, fasts, and mysteries, its medicine-men and priests, and its secret soci- eties, carefully guarding the sacred tradition. Social Aspect of Totemism.—Totemism is inseparably bound up with the social organization of savage communi- ties. Marking the limitations of right and obligation, it is an essential factor in primitive law. Men and women own- ing the same totem must defend one another and redress one another’s wrongs. Absolute prohibition of marriage be- tween man and woman of the same totem is the rule. Mc- Lennan believed that the explanation of exogamy must be sought in totemism, but it is probable that totemism serves merely as a means of extending an exogamy previously ini- tiated. (See Soe1oLoeY.) Yet we are not warranted in as- suming that clan totems were the earliest totemic forms. Clansmen generally have their individual as well as their clan totems. The American Indian boy usually took as his guardian totem or “ medicine," to protect him through life, the first animal of which he dreamed during the long and solitary fast observed on attaining maturity. But on the Isth- mus of Tehuantepec when a child was expected the relatives drew on the floor figures of animals, one after another, and the one that remained when the infant was born became its totem. A somewhat similar custom prevailed in Samoa. It is probable that the development of clan totems out of indi- vidual totems was the first step in the evolution of the clan itself. See SOCIOLOGY. Nothing is certainly known of the origin of totemism, and none of the theories that have been advanced has proved satisfactory. Herbert Spencer argues that plant and ani- mal worship grew out of ghost-worship through a confu- TOTTEN 209 sion of names. Tyler attaches chief importance to the habit of personifying all objects, which is characteristic of the child and of the primitive man. (See ANIMISM.) McLen- nan has suggested that imitations of animal forms and habits, and consequent nicknamings of neighboring hordes by each other, may afford an explanation. Perhaps in some combination of imitation with those dreams in which the savage imagines himself transformed into an animal is to be found the key to his belief that he and his totem are of one kin. _L1TERATURE.—J . F. McLennan, papers in Forz‘nig7u‘Z 3/ Re- view (Oct. and Nov., 1869, and Feb., 1870); J. Q. Frazer, Totemism (Edinburgh, 1887); L. H. Morgan, Ancient So- ciety (New York, 1878); E. B. Tylor, Ila/rly History of llfanlcind (London, 1870); Sir John Lubbock, Origin of Civilization (London, 1884) ; IV. Robertson Smith, Kinsizip and ilfarriage in Arabia (London, 1885); A. Lang, Custom and flfyz.‘/i (London, 1884); and Re_7901'I.‘s of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington. FRANKLIN H. Grnnmes. Tot/ila: king of the Ostrogoths; chosen in 541 after the defeat and capture of Vitiges at Ravenna by Belisarius. He besieged and conquered Rome in 546, and extended and consolidated the Ostrogothic empire in Italy after the recall of Belisarius in 549, but was defeated and mortally wounded in the battle at Tagina by Narses in 552. Totipalmataa : See Srsexxoronns. Totis, 01‘ Dotis (Hun. Tata): market-town; in the county of Komorn, Hungary; near the Danube : station of the Buda- pest-Bruck Railway (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 6—G). It consists of the town proper, of the upper town, a11d Tovaros; is situated on a great lake; has a fine castle belonging to the Esterhalzy family, a Piarist college with a classical gymna- sium, and other schools, sulphur springs, rich marble-quar- ries, numerous mills, spirit-factories, a large sugar-factory, and a leather-factory. There are remains of an old castle inhabited by King Mathias Corvinus. Considerable forests, vineyards, and pastures are in the vicinity, which is rich in Roman antiquities, coins, urns, etc. The town was founded about 994. Pop. 10,290. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. 'I‘otonicapam' : a town of Guatemala, 60 miles IV. N. W. of Guatemala city; on the plateau near the foot of a high mountain (see map of Central America, ref. 3-D). It was a Quiché pueblo before the conquest, and here the tribe gath- ered to resist the march of Alvarado. Most of the inhabit- ants are Indians, and some of the better class claim descent from Quiché chiefs. Pop. 20,000. It is the capital of the department of Totonicapam, which has an area of 552 sq. miles and a population (1889) of 158,419. H. H. S. Totten, JOSEPH GILBERT: military engineer; b. at New Haven, Conn., Aug. 23, 1788: graduated at the U. S. Mili- tary Academy July, 1805, and commissioned second lieu- tenant in the Corps of Engineers: aided his uncle, Jared Mansfield, in the survey of Ohio and the \»Vestern territories, resigning from the army 1806; returned to the army, and Feb. 23, 1808, was reappointed a second lieutenant of engi- neers, and was engaged on the construction of Castle VVill- iams and Fort Clinton, New York harbor, 1808-12. At the beginning of the war with Great Britain, Totten (cap- tain in his corps, July 31, 1812) was assigned to duty as chief engineer of the army under Gen. Van R-ensselaer in the campaign of 1812, on the Niagara frontier. He was sub- sequently chief engineer of the army under the connnand of Gen. Dearborn, in the campaign of 1813, and of the army under Gens. Izard and Illacomb in the campaign of 1814 on Lake Champlain; was breveted major June. 1813, and lieutenant-colonel Sept. 11, 1814; at the close of the war returned to duties in connection with the national coast defenses, and served chiefly at Newport, R-. I., where he had charge of the construction of Fort Adams, and continued until Dec., 1838; advanced to the grade of lieutenant- colonel in 1828 : appointed colonel of the Corps of Engineers and chief engineer Dec. 7, 1838, and took up his residence in \Vashington. Col. Totten assumed in 1847 the imme- diate control of the engineering operations of the army des- tined to invade Mexico, directing in this capacity the siege of Vera Cruz. For his services he was breveted a brigadier- general Mar. 29, 1847, then left the active army and re- sumed his station at Washington, but was appointed one of the commissioners for arranging the terms of capitulation. On Mar. 3, 1863, he was promoted brigadier-general and chief of engineers, and on Apr. 21, 1864, breveted major- general for long, faithful, and eminent services. During 411 210 ToTTENvILLE the whole time of his chief-engineership he labored inde- fatigably to bring the ports and harbors along the whole seaboard into a defensible condition. In addition to the manifold duties of his office, involving the inspection and supervision of the Military Academy, Gen. Totten was an active member of the lighthouse board from its organiza- tion in 1851 ; a regent of the Smithsonian Institution from its establishment in 1846; a corporator of the National Academy of Sciences, created in 1863, and one of the harbor commissioners for the cities of New York and Boston. In 1815 Totten modeled an embrasure for casemated batteries which remained unchanged until 1858, but the casemate continued a subject of study and experiment during most of his life, establishing his right to be considered the inven- tor of the American casemate, and led to the construction of the embrasure subsequently introduced into the U. S. seacoast forts, and known as the Totten embrasure. He ublished Essays on ffyclraalic and other Cements (New York, 1842). D. in Washington, D. C., Apr. 22, 1864. Tottenville : village; Westfield town, Richmond co., N. Y. ; on Staten Island Sound, Raritan Bay, Prince’s Bay, and the Staten Island Rap. Trans. Railroad ; 20 miles S. W. of New York city (for location, see map of New York, ref. 8-A). It contains 4 churches, a graded public school, 2 weekly newspapers, manufactory of dental goods, a print- ing, electrotyping, and bookbinding establishment, saw and planing mill, ultramarine-factory, fire-brick and retort works, and several shipyards. Many New York business men live here. The village contains the Billopp mansion, built many years prior to the Revolutionary war, and in which Lord Howe had a conference with John Adams, Benjamin Frank- lin, and Edward Rutledge, a committee of Congress, con- cerning the possibility of a return of the colonies to British allegiance. Pop. (1894) 2,563. EDITOR or “ STATEN ISLAND TIMES.” Toucan : See RHAMPHASTIDZE. Toueey. ISAAC, LL. D.: jurist; b. at Newtown, Conn., Nov. 5, 1796; received a private classical education; was admitted to the bar 1818 ; representative in Congress 1835- 39 ; States attorney for Hartford co., Conn., 1842-44; Gov- ernor 1846-47; U. S. Attorney-General 1848-49; U. S. Sena- tor 1852-57 ; and Secretary of the Navy under President Buchanan 1857-61. D. at Hartford, July 30, 1869. Touch [deriv. of the verb touch, from O. Fr. tochier, toqaer (> Fr. teacher), from Teuton. *takkon, move sud- denly> Germ. zacken, twitch, shrug, quiver, start]: the sense by which contact or pressure upon the surface of the body is perceived. Bell and Magendie established the dis- tinction of motor and sensory nerves issuing from the an- terior and posterior roots, on either side respectively of the spinal cord. Through these, from every part of the body, the sensory nerves, having received impressions at their bud-like, tactile ends, return impressions to the spinal axis and to the brain; the nerves of the head communicating directly. This power is developed to a variable degree upon difierent surfaces, the tactile sensibility of some, as the finger-tips and tongue, being very acute, other parts being relatively obtuse. The acuteness of touch is due in part to the number and distribution of nerve-fibers, in part to habitual education of the part. The part which has the most finely educated touch, the tips of the fingers, may be far less susceptible to pain, to heat and cold, or to tickling. The tactile sensibility of parts is measured by means of needle-points in arms movable upon a graduated bar-the instrument termed the " aesthesiometer.” The shortest dis- tance on the surface at which distinct perceptions of the two points are felt gives the diameter of the so-called “ Weber’s circles” of sensibility. From the experiments of Valentin the following will suffice to illustrate. The unit of measure is a line, one-twelfth of an inch : Tip of tongue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0483 of a line. Palm of forefinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0'603 “ " “ little finger . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0'733 “ Surface of lip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1'500 “ “ “ eyelid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3'833 “ Skin of ch eek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4'541 “ Forehead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6'000 “ Back of hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6966 “ Lower part of thigh . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10-208 “ Leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13708 “ Middle of forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17'083 “ “ “ back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24-208 “ TOULMIN The finger, tongue, toes, and other surfaces may be highly educated. Each artisan in his special line acquires won- derful tactile recognition of the kind and quality of fabrics, minute sizes, shapes, and relative smoothness of surfaces. The blind learn to read the raised alphabet, recognize per- sons by feeling their features, and manufacture various ar- ticles, many of delicate structure. In the sensitive tactile part at the finger-tip the touch-corpuscles, or nerve termini, are situated near the surface, constituting sensitive papillae; , as many as 108 have been found in one-fiftieth of a square inch. See HIsToLoGY and SENSATION. Revised by J . MARK BALDWIN. Touch-paper: a loose bibulous paper which is soaked in solution of saltpeter and then dried. It was used in light- ing fires with flint and steel, and is sometimes burned in a room to relieve the paroxysm of asthma. Touchstone: See JASPER. Touehwood, or Spunk: (1) the dried fungus Poly/poras igniarias, used in getting fire with flint and steel; also em- ployed as a port-fire. (See AMADOU.) (2) Also the decayed and crumbling wood of the ash or willow which has under- gone dry rot. It is used for the same purposes as the fore- going; and it is remarkable that close examination shows that such wood is always the seat of a growth of fungi much like that referred to above. All the varieties of spunk are much improved by wetting with solution of po- tassium nitrate or chloride and then drying. Spunk, al- though a native product of the U. S., is also imported from Europe. It is also called punk. Tougaloo' University : an institution of learning at Ten- galoo, Madison co., Miss., established by the American Mis- sionarjr Association in 1869 and chartered by the State in 1871. It trains colored youth of both sexes, and has as its object the development of Christian character and of such intellectual and manual skill as shall enable young colored people to become eflicient leaders in the uplifting of the Negro race. In the heart of a section called “ the Black Belt,” because of the density of the Negro population, it is admirably located to reach those for whom it is intended. It has ample grounds-a plantation of 500 acres-and plain and substantial buildings. From the first it has combined handwork with headwork. It has new college preparatory, normal. theological, grammar, agricultural, manual-training, nurse-training, and musical departments, with a model pri- mary school as a practice school for the normal students. A strictly pedagogical course of two years is part of the normal work. The John F. Slater fund trustees have given Tougaloo $3,000 yearly for its normal and manual work. Until the adoption of the new State constitution in 1890 the normal department was in part supported by the State. The enrollment for 1894-95 was 379, with 23 instructors and officers. The school has no endowment, but is supported by the American Missionary Association. FRANK G. WooDwoRTH.. T0ul'min, HARRY: jurist; son of Rev. Joshua Toulmin; b. at Taunton, England, in 1767; was several years a Dis- senting minister at Chorobert, Lancashire; settled at Nor- folk, Va., 1793; was president of Transylvania College 1794-96; secretary of State of Kentucky 1796-1804; was appointed judge of U. S. district court of Mississippi 1804; passed his later years in Alabama; assisted in framing the constitution of that State, and served in its Legislature. He was the author of A Description of Kentucky (1792); Col- lection of the Acts of Kentucky (Frankfort, 1802); Magis- trate’s Assistant, A Digest of the Territorial Laws of Ala- bama (Cahawba, 1823); and other publications, and aided James Blair in the preparation of his Review of the Crimi- nal Law of Kentucky; (1804). D. in Washingl on co., Ala., Nov. 11, 1823. Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Toulmin, JOSHUA, D. D.: clergyman and author; b. in London, England, May 11, 1740; educated at St. Paul’s school and at the Dissenting academy of Dr. S. M. Savage; was for some time minister of a Dissenting congregation at Colyton, Devonshire; became in 1765 pastor of a Baptist church at Taunton, where he also conducted the business of a bookseller; subsequently adopted Unitarian views; be- came prominent in their advocacy, and was pastor of Dr. Priestley’s church at Birmingham from 1804 to his death there July 23,1815 ; author, among other works, of Memoirs of Faustus Socinus (1777) and Dissertations on the Internal Emldences of Christianitg/ (1785); was editor of D. Neal’s History of the Puritans (Bath, 5 vols., 1793-97), with notes TOULON and a memoir of the author, and subsequently published as a supplement An Historical View of the State of the Protes- tant Dtssenters in England under Ktng William (1814). A volume of his Posthumous Discourses was published in 1818. Revised by J. W. CHADWICK. Toulon, too’l6n’: town; department of Var, France; 42 miles E. .S. E. of Marseilles (see map of France, ref. 9-H). It is at the head of a narrow but deep inlet of the Mediter- ranean, from which it rises like an amphitheater on an ac- clivity, leaning against a row of lofty hills which encircle the bay. Next to Brest, Toulon is the principal naval sta- tion of France, and a fortress of immense strength. It is surrounded by a double-bastioned wall, and all the com- manding heights in the neighborhood bristle with forts and redoubts. The harbor is double; one part, given up to commerce, is lined with convenient quays; the other, ar- ranged for naval purposes, is surrounded with ship-building docks, cannon-foundries, ropewalks, magazines, arsenals, schools, hospitals, barracks, and naval establishments of every description ; and this part of the harbor is separated from the roadstead by hollow but bombproof moles lined with batteries. Toulon carries on a considerable trade with Algeria. Pop. (1891) 77,747. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Toulouse, too’looz’: city of France; capital of the de- partment of Haute-Garonne; in a fertile plain on the Ga- ronne and the Canal du Midi; 160 miles S. E. of Bordeaux (see map of France, ref. 9—E). The streets in the older por- tions are narrow. crooked, and badly paved, the houses built of brick and without any characteristic style, though the broad quays and boulevards that have taken the place of the old walls are handsome thoroughfares. Of the cathedral, ded- icated to St. Stephen, the nave dates from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the front facade from the fifteenth. The Church of St. Sernin is one of the most beautiful Ro- ." . .1 i ‘ ‘L, si | llmli.-‘/»e‘\. ' “Q .1’ ) , -.- Hl éeji ' 4 r-'~ I ' - . , I J . ( _, . E I" ‘ ‘ L , - .- ..‘. I ¢_ ;-_ -3"--J‘ ‘-1 " ' -_ -'—'- " ."""' ‘ ’E=:3~r-.;' .-.-. \¥l u illl "' l " 'l _m ‘).__-'93-‘ _..:-_;..q¢‘ , ‘ ___,_. €“~ ;!n, V I fE—-, , . I ‘ ‘ _ ' U‘ “ r ‘ \ 1 1 >"\ \\ n I ’ . ‘ ’ \ . ‘ _l _ i _p _ ,-\ I‘ - \ I ~ ‘n I ‘ 1 . '-_- I Y: . U -. >_ SW we , _ u ~§_ - , i I ‘Q 1;; "' " ‘ ' " 1 .\: 0-‘ “ ‘ . i ‘ ' I, ' - . _< ' r - H; R‘ ' 3 ~ I i | : I ~ '\‘ ‘ ‘ 2 Q‘ ‘ , ._ _ :_ -= ,5, ::. . . .. -f’ , _ ‘ 4%‘ . Q “Q 6 ‘I ~ \',.3'_:.' _. 3" ‘I \ \ '\ \ I I \ . ,\; I Q \ I I ‘ AA“, E ~ , J '. ' |“'- .‘ , | ’ ‘ . I ' " “' i ‘ ~ ' ‘. 1 ‘ " 1. ‘I at __ I ‘- '- " ‘ , .;. _-_v ,4, I -s" \, - ' Q ‘<2:-1-E'l_-' '- \. ‘ ’ """" g ‘} Ix?‘ 9‘ _.. I I __-;,._ ‘I ’7|r—fl Church of St. Sernin. manesque structures in France, begun in the eleventh cen- tury, completed in the fifteenth, and with a tower 250 feet high. There are many buildings of unusual interest and the promenades are attractive. Toulouse is the residence of an archbishop, and has seminaries, monasteries, etc., a court for the departments of Haute-Garonne, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Ariége, a commercial court, faculties of theology, medi- cine, and law, many special and general schools, a noted museum, a public library of over 60,000 volumes, and numer- ous benevolent institutions. It also has military schools, ar- senals, powder-factories, etc. The manufacturing industry is important, especially in cloth, woolen and cotton fabrics, machinery and agricultural implements, candles. oil, soap, oilcloth, paper, tobacco, etc. The commerce is very active, TOURMALINE 211 especially in grain, wine, marbles from the Pyrenees, wood, etc. Four large fairs for cloth, woolens, and cattle are held annually. Pop. (1891) 149,791. Toulouse was the name of an ancient French family which ruled independently over the city and the country along the Garonne. In 852 the possession was made a dukedom, and for some time it was united to the countship of Auvergne and the dukedom of Aquitaine. In 1208 Pope Innocent III. waged war against Toulouse, conquered the country, and gave it to Simon of Montfort. His successor, pressed hard by the legitimate heirs of Toulouse, transferred his rights to Louis VIII. of France. and a war ensued between this king and Duke Ray- mond VII. The country was finally incorporated with France by Philip III. On Apr. 10, 1814, the French under Soult were defeated by ‘Wellington in a battle before Tou- louse. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. T011’ raco, Turacou, or Turakoo [from the native name] : any one of the plantain-eaters (JPIasophagz'dce) of the genus Tarae/as, a group of large birds peculiar to the warmer parts of Africa, and characterized by their red and green plu- mage and conspicuous erect occipital crest. The wings are rounded; tail rather long. The touracos go in small flocks, dwell in the woods, and feed on fruit. The red pigment of the feathers (known as turacin) is soluble in water, and the birds are temporarily paler after bathing. F. A. L. Touraine, too’ran’: an ancient province of France, in ' the central part of the country, on both sides of the Loire, with Tours for its capital, consisting of the present depart- ment of Indre-et-Loire and part of Vienne. It was inhabited by the Turones when Caesar arrived in Gallia, and was an- nexed to the French crown in 1204. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes it suffered very much, as most of its in- habitants were Protestants. Tourcoing, toor’kwar'i’: town of France, department of Nord; 10 miles by rail N. E. of Lille (see map of France, ref. 2-F). It is a large manufacturing place, where great quantities of wool, cotton, and flax are spun and woven into various kinds of fabrics; its breweries, distilleries, and sugar-refineries are also important. Pop. (1891) 65,441. Tourgee, toor-zha’, ALBION WINEGAR: author; b. at. I/Villiamsfield, O., May 2, 1838; educated at the University of Rochester, New York; served in the U. S. army in the civil war, and was twice wounded; after the war, settled in the practice of the law at Greensboro, N. C., and at the South- ern loyalist convention in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1866, pre- pared the report on the condition of the Southern States. He was judge of North Carolina superior court in 1868-74. With Messrs. Barringer and Rodman he prepared A Code of Civil Procedure for 1V0/rth Carolina (1868); author of A FooZ’s Erranot (1879); B7'tc/ts without Straw (1880) ; Hot Plough- shares (1883) : An Appeal to Caesar (1884); Black Ice (1888); Letters to a King (1888) ; With Gauge and Swallow (1889); Pactotus Prtnze (1890); Jlfzwrale Eastman (1892): and An Outtngwzith the Queen of 1:/earts (1894). In 1882-85 he edit- ed Our Continent, a weekly paper published in Philadelphia. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Tourjee. EBEN! musician and teacher; b. at Warwick, R. I., June 1, 1834; at a very early age displayed great talent for music; at the age of thirteen was organist of a local church; when seventeen went to Providence, opened a music-store. and began teaching; in 1859 went to East Greenwich, R. I., and founded the Musical Institute; in 1863 went to Europe for further study; returned in 1867, and removed the Musical Institute to Boston and renamed it the New England Conservatory of Music; in 1869 received the degree of Doctor of Music from VVesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.; in 1872, with P. S. Gilmore, organized the World’s Peace Jubilee. He held many places during his life and edited a number of musical works. D. in Bos- ton, Apr. 1, 1891. D. E. HERVEY. '1‘o1ll‘1naline [Cingalese tnramalt : the first gems of it be- ing brought from Ceylon]: a mineral found in granitic and nietainorphic rocks. and occasionally furnishing fine gems. It is a complex silicate of aluminium, with about 10 per cent. of boric oxide and smaller amounts of other oxides. its varying composites giving rise to different varieties. It oc- curs in brittle, prismatic crystals, usually three-, six-, or nine-sided, which have a hardness of 7'5. Its color is usu- ally black, but when found in limestones it is often rich brown. Tourmalines of blue, green, pink. and red colors occur. frequently with two or three colors in the same crys- tal. These colored crystals, when transparent, make beauti- 2,12 TOURNAMENT ful gems and have received distinct names. The black is called sehorl, the white achroife, the red rubeZZe'te, and the ‘blue vlndrfcolite or, when clear, Brazz'lz'an sa,pphe'/re: and dif- ferent shades of green, Brazilian emerald and B'razz'Zt'an ehmysoliite; and the yellow, Ceylon pere'dot. Fine red and green tourmalines occur at South Paris and other Mame localities, in the San J aeinto Mountains, California, in Minas Geraes, Brazil, and the island of Elba; pink and red in Mada- gascar and Southern California; brown and red in Carinthia and Ceylon. The mineral is remarkable also for its optical properties, and is used for experiments in polarized light. The colored tourmalines of Maine are treated of in pub- lished works by Dr. A. C. Hamlin, whose collection of them, as well as those of others, has become the property of Har- vard University. See also GEM and PRECIOUS STONES. GEoRGE F. KUNZ. Tournament, or Tourney [tournament is M. Eng. tur- nemenzf < 0. Fr. zfornez'emenzf, deriv. of zfo/rnez'er, turn round and round, tilt, tourney; tourney is from 0. Fr. lf0'rne@', de- riv. of f0T7L6'i67’]Z a friendly contest at arms among the war- riors of noble birth in the Middle Ages. The term is gen- eral, and denotes the gathering of the nobles and knights, the challenging and settling the terms, and the armed strug- gles themselves, the whole sometimes lasting for many days. All the lodgings in the town would be taken up by visitors, each intending combatant, and perhaps each man of knightly rank, hung out his pennon or banner from his windows, the lists were laid out and fenced in and fitted with seats for ladies and others, and the combats were arranged with care and fought under exact supervision. This was the condi- tion of the tournaments of the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- turies; before that these gatherings were less ceremonious, and indeed were less frequent, and were often forbidden, not only by the Church, but by kings, as by Philip the Fair of France and Henry III. of England. This would seem to point to much greater danger to life and limb from the earlier tournaments, and it is certain that the arms of war were more used in these than afterward. In fact, the dis- tinction must have been hard to make at first between the judicial duel (see ORDEAL) and the friendly contest between two (see J oUs'r); and in like manner a tournament must have resembled a pitched battle at a fixed place and time, fought to establish a noble’s right to an estate or to a title, or merely out of bravado. When, however, the tournaments had become matters of regulation, the arms used were ex- actly specified and were generally blunt and pointless swords, maces, or clubs of wood, and for the tilting—match, lances with heads divided into three or four blunt points. The de- fensive armor was enormously heavy, because the rider was not to dismount, but only to run so many courses with the lance and to strike so many blows with the sword or mace. In this way the tournaments became more and more occa- sions for unbounded display of wealth and splendor, and less and less serious and dangerous as contests of armed men. The death of Henry II. of France, by an accident in the tilt, in 1559, is generally thought to have put an end to tournaments in France ; but throughout Europe the chang- ing conditions of warfare and the more critical temper of the revival of learning (see RENAISSANCE) were making them impossible. The name lingered on in England as applied to riding at the ring-—that is, the trying to carry off a ring on the point of the lance, and the qaz'nZaz'n——that is, the game of charging a figure which revolved when the shield was struck, and flung a bag of sand at the rider, who had to be active to escape it. BIBLIOGRAl’I~IY.—LéOI1 Gauthier, La Ohevalernie; Sir S. T. Scott, The Brt'zf1,'sh Army; Viollet-le-Due. D’£ctionna1Ire da Ilfoln'lz'er, vol. ii. (Ginqnieme Partie, Jeax, Passetemps) ; I-I al- lam,M£ddleA Ages; Lacroix, Vie ilfiliia/We et ReZt'g'iease an Moyen Age. RUssELL STURGIS. Tournay’: an old but very handsome and interesting town of Belgium, province of I-lainaut; 35 miles W. S. W. of Brussels (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 11—B). It is on the Scheldt, which here is crossed by several ele- gant bridges and lined with quays which are planted with trees and afford beautiful promenades. Tournay contains many fine edifices, among which the cathedral in the R0- manesque style is the most remarkable, and important manu- factures of carpets, porcelain, hosiery, lace, and liqueurs. Pop. (1891) 34,442. Revised by M. W. H.ARRING'I‘ON. Tournefort, toorn'f5r’, JOSEPH Prrro.v, de: botanist; b. at Aix, France, June 5, 1656; studied botany and traveled extensively in Southern Europe; was made professor at TOURVILLE the Jardin des Plantes in Paris in 1683_; went to the Le- vant with the support of Louis XIV. 1700-02; was appointed Professor of Medicine at the College de France. His Ze'- ments de Botam'que (3 vols., 1694) be translated in 1700 into Latin, Instt't'zttt'0nes Red Herbarice, and this translation was republished with additions by Jussieu in 1719, and trans- lated into English (London, 1719-30). He also wrote His- zfoz're des Plantes gm‘ naelssent ana: Environs de Paris, aveo Zear Usage dans la ]lIe'deez'ne (1698), enlarged by J ussieu in 1725, and translated into English by Martyn (London, 1732), and Voyage da Levant (2 vols., 1717; translated into Eng- lish, 1741). D. in Paris, Nov. 28, 1708. Revised by CHARLES E. BEssEY. Tourneur, toor-ner', CYRIL: an Elizabethan dramatist, the dates of whose birth and death are uncertain; author of two powerful but extravagant plays, The Reoengerls Trag- edy (1607) and The Athewt’s Tragedy (1611), and of a pc- culiar poem entitled The Transformed ./lfetamoeyahomis (1600). His works were edited by Churton Collins in 1878 (2 vols., London). T0111" niquet [:Fr., deriv. of toarneey turn]: an instru- ment for checking the flow of blood from wounds or during surgical operation by means of pressure applied to the principal artery supplying the blood. A rude but often very useful tourniquet may be made by tying a handkerchief around the wounded limb between the heart and the wound, passing a stick through the handkerchief, and then twisting it till the flow of blood is checked. In the more effective forms a pad is strongly pressed against the main artery by means of a screw. Revised by W. PEPPER. T0l1'1'0, JUDAH: philanthropist; b. at Newport, R.I., June 16, 1775; son of Rev. Isaac Touro, a rabbi of the synagogue at Newport; engaged in mercantile business; settled in New Orleans as a merchant in 1802, and acquired a large fortune; served as a volunteer at the battle of New Orleans 1815, where he was severely wounded; gave liberally of his for- tune during his lifetime, and at his death, which occurred in New Orleans, Jan. 18, 1854, bequeathed most of his prop- erty to the public charitable institutions of that city. Among them was the Touro Almshouse, occupied during the civil war as barracks for colored troops, by whom it was burned. Tours, toor: capital of the department of Indre-et-Loire, France; 147 miles by rail S. W. of Paris (see map of France, ref. 5—E). It is on a small strip of land between the Cher and the Loire, which here is crossed by one of the most magnificent bridges in Europe, built in 1765-77 by Bayeux, and lined with handsome quays and finely planted prome- nades. It has a magnificent Gothic cathedral, several other remarkable edifices, and good educational institutions. Silk manufactures were established here by Henry IV., and dur- ing Richelieu’s time more than 40,000 persons were em- ployed in this branch of industry; but the revocation of the Edict of Nantes drove the workmen into exile, and gave the city a blow from which it never recovered, though its manu- factures of silk-stuffs, ribbons, serges, pottery, and confec- tionery are still extensive. The town has given its name to the famous battle between Charles Martel and the Saracens in 732. The latter were decisively defeated, and Western Europe was saved from subjection to the Mohammedans. During the war with Germany Tours was the seat of the national Government from Sept. 11 to Dec. 10, 1870. It was occupied by the Germans on Jan. 19, 1871. Pop. (1891) 60,335. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tours, BERTHOLD: composer; b. in Rotterdam. Holland, Dec. 17, 1838; received his first instruction from his father; afterwards studied at Leipzig and Brussels, and thence ac- companied Prince Galitzin to Russia. He went to London in 1861 and has since resided there, composing, teaching, and playing in orchestras and bands. He has composed much church music, services, and anthems, which are im- mensely popular, and also many very popular songs, much good organ music, a number of pieces for piano and also for the violin, and has made piano arrangements of many vocal and orchestral scores. D. E. I-IERVEY. Tourville, toor’veel', ANNE HILARION DE OOTENTIN, Count de: admiral; b. at Tourville, department of La Manche, France, Nov. 24, 1642; was educated for the navy, and made a captain in 1667 ; distinguished himself in the battle of Agosta 1676; commanded the vanguard in the battle of Palermo 1677 : made several successful expeditions against the pirates of Northern Africa 1682-88 ; was created a vice- admiral in 1689 ; defeated a Dutch-English fleet off the Isle TOUSSAINT LOUVERT URE of Wight in July, 1690, and pursued the English to the mouth of the Thames; attacked a Dutch-English fleet superior to his own off La Hogue May 29, 1692, and was beaten after twelve hours’ fight; was made a marshal in 1693, and de- feated and destroyed a Dutch-English fleet off Cape St. Vincent on May 26, 1693. On the outbreak of the Spanish war of succession he was made commander-in-chief of the united naval force of France and Spain in the Mediterranean, but died in Paris May 28, 1701. See Delarbre, Toureille et la Jllarine de son Temps (1889). F. M. COLBY. Toussaint Louverture, too’san’loo'var’tilr’ (or L’0uver- ture), DOMINIQUE FRANCOIS; revolutionist; b. near Cap Fran- cais, Haiti, in 1743. He was a Negro and originally a slave on a plantation belonging to the Jesuits; they gave him the rudiments of education, and passing into the hands of a creole planter he was made overseer. He did not take part in the insurrections until 1791, when he protected the flight of his master before joining Jean Francois. With the latter he went over to the Spanish Dominicans in 1793, but in 1794 he deserted to the French republicans, carrying with him a large force of blacks. This step gave the republicans over- whelming power, and as Toussaint was now the acknowl- edged leader of the Negroes and could turn the scale as he leased, he became the most influential man in the island. e was made commander-in-chief and deputy governor, and the French commissioner, though nominally the highest offi- cer, was left with only a semblance of power. Mainly through Toussaint’s generalship the British, who had aided the roy- alists, were forced to evacuate the island in 1798. Their com- mander, Gen. Maitland, surrendered the posts directly to Toussaint, refusing to recognize the French commissioner. Soon after an insurrection, secretly incited by Toussaint, drove the commissioner from the island; the mulatto Gen. Rigaud, to whom he delegated his powers, was defeated by Toussaint in 1799, leaving the latter undisputed master of the western or French part of the island. He used his power with great moderation, protected the whites, and pro- claimed a general amnesty. As the only available means of restoring agricultural prosperity he forced the Negroes to work on the plantations, securing to them, however, a part of the profits. The eastern part of the island having been ceded to France, he occupied it in 1801. Finally, in July, 1801, he promulgated a constitution which made him presi- dent for life. Under his rule the island was unquestion- ably prosperous, and he had won not only the respect but the enthusiastic devotion of the Negroes. An admirer of Bonaparte, he modeled his actions and conversation after him, and claimed to have seized the supreme power in the same manner. One of his numerous letters to the First Con- sul was superscribed, “The First of the Blacks to the First of the Whites.” Bonaparte paid no attention to these let- ters, and when Toussaint threw off all semblance of subjec- tion to France he organized an expedition under LECLERC (Q. 1).) to reduce the island to obedience. During the early part of 1802 Toussaint made a desperate resistance, finally capitulating in April. He was pardoned, but two months afterward was arrested for alleged conspiracy and sent a risoner to France. He died in captivity at the castle of oux, near Pontarlier, Apr. 27,1803. HERBERT I-I. SMITH. Tow: See FLAX. TOWan’da: borough; capital of Bradford co., Pa.; on the Susquehanna river, and the Barclay and the Lehigh Val. railways; 82 miles N. W. of \Vilkesbarre (for location, see map of Pennsylvania. ref. 2—G). It is in an agricultural and dairying region ; has electric and gas lights and water- supply from springs 16 miles distant ; and contains the Sus- quehanna Collegiate Institute (Presbyterian, chartered 1850), 2 national banks with combined capital of $275,000, a daily, a semi-weekly, and 4 weekly newspapers, an extensive toy- factory, several foundries, planing-mills, and piano, car- riage, and furniture factories. Pop. (1880) 3,814 ; (1890) 4,169 ; (1895) estimated, 4,500. MANAGER or “ REVIEW.” Tower : a building or member of a building, simple and compact in its form, cylindrical or prismatic; generally, though not always, higher than wide. The towers of an an- cient fortress (see CASTLE and FOR'I‘IFICA'l‘ION) are to be con- sidered partly as flanking works, projecting from the cur- tain walls in such a way as to allow of a cross-fire of arrows and the like, and partly as higher structures commanding the t.op of the curtain walls. In Greek and Roman city walls, and in medheval castles and towns previous to the thirteenth century, the towers are nearly always higher than the walls and serve both the purposes cited above. In the TOWER 213 later fortresses of the Middle Ages they are often of the same height as the walls. The evolution of defense against the old means of attack had led to a complete freedom for the garrison of movement from point to point of defensive works, and the towers were often mere bastions, parts of the wall and of the same height with it, as notably in the fa- mous BASTILE (q. 1).) of Paris. Height alone is, however, of great utility in defense against attacks by sapping and by escalade, and accordingly the donjon of a castle was gener- ally a very lofty and partly isolated tower. In the Italian cities lofty square towers were erected for defense; hun- dreds of them existed in a single town; but of these very few remain, the greatest number being at San Gimigniano, in Tuscany, though several others exist at Bologna (see LEANING Townes), at Arezzo, and elsewhere. The small strong buildings of border barons in the Pyrenees, in Ger- many, and on the English-Scottish frontier, are commonly in the form of towers ; some few of these remain in a partly ruined condition. In parts of the Caucasian mountain coun- try and in Afghanistan whole villages exist of which each im- portant house has a tower of defense into which the family may retreat in case of a violent attack. Church towers, on the other hand, being intended primarily for belfries, are made high so as to lift the mouths of the bells well above the church-roof and all surrounding buildings. From this original utilitarian form they passed into one of the chief means of decorative architecture in the Middle Ages, and of this great height was a necessary feature in most cases, al- though in some English parish churches the tower is hardly higher than its own breadth across the buttresses. Through- out the north of Europe the church tower was generally closely united with the mass of the church, and in some cathedrals as many as six, in one case eight, towers formed part of the original design. In Italy the tower was always a belfry or eampamle, and was almost wholly detached from the church building. Small towers forming part of larger masses of building are generally called turrets or tourelles, from the French word of the same meaning. These are often carried on cor- beling and in projection from the main wall; they frequent- ly contain winding stairs and often serve as watch-towers; oriel windows also are sometimes built in the semblance‘ of such éourelles. The round towers 0 f Ireland are slender, near- ly cylindrical, but built generally with a slight taper, roughly built of stone, and always very near to a church. Only about a dozen remain nearly complete, but there are more than a hundred of which ruins exist. Their purpose has never been satisfactorily explained, though many works have been devoted to them. See Rouxn Toweas. RUSSELL Sruneas. Tower, ZEALOUS BATES: soldier and military engineer; b. at Cohasset, Mass., J an. 12, 1819; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy at the head of his class, and was ap- pointed second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers July 1, 1841. After a brief service as assistant with the board of engineers he was recalled to West Point Aug., 1842, serving as assistant professor until Apr., 1843, and as principal as- sistant professor of engineering Apr.—Aug., 1843, when, re- turning to duty with his corps, he served as assistant en- gineer in the construction of the defenses of Hampton Roads, Va. He served with distinction in the war with Mexico, especially at Cerro Gordo, Contreras, and Chapulte- pec, and in the assault and capture of the city of Mexico. During 1848-61 he was engaged in the construction of for- tifications at Portland, Me., and Portsmouth, N. I-l.; of the defenses of San Francisco, Cal., and as member of the board of engineers for the Pacific coast. He was promoted major of engineers Aug. 6, 1861, and assigned as chief engineer to defend Fort Pickens; breveted lieutenant-colonel for gal- lant services ; and commissioned brigadier-general of volun- teers from Nov. 23, 1861, the date of its bombardment. As- signed to command of a brigade in the Army of Virginia in 1862, he was engaged in the battle of Cedar l\Iountain Aug. 9, and subsequent operations during Pope‘s campaign in Northern Virginia, and was severely wounded at the second battle of Bull Run. For gallantry at Cedar Mountain he was breveted colonel, and the brevet of brigadier-general was conferred on him for Groveton. From July 8 to Sept. 8, 1864, he was superintendent of the U. S. Military Academy . In Sept, 1864, he was appointed chief engineer of the de- fenses of Nashville; was engaged in the battle of Nashville Dec. 15-16, 1864; and from Oet., 1864, was inspector-general of the fortifications of the military division of the Mississippi; chief engineer of the military division of the Tennessee July, 214 TOWER CITY 1865-Jan., 1866 ; breveted major-general Mar. 13, ' 1865. Returning to duty in J an., 1866, with his corps in which he had attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel Nov., 1865, he was a member of various engineer and special boards, and during 1866-67 had charge of the construction of the defenses of Portsmouth, N. H. ; in May, 1867, was appointed amember of the board of engineers for permanent fortifications and river and harbor obstructions; became colonel of engineers J an., 1874; and was retired at his own request Jan. 10, 1883. Tower Cit : cit ; Schuylkill co., Pa.; on the Williams Valley Railroid ; 1I miles W. S. W. of Tremont, and 24 miles W. of Pottsville, the county-seat (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-H). It is in an agricultural and coal- mining region, and has a building and loan association and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1890) 2,053. Tower of London : the ancient citadel of the city of Lon- don, standing, as the Louvre does in Paris, on the banks. of the river, immediately below and outside of the city, which it once defended. Its government has been mtrusted since the days of the Conqueror to a high officer called the con- stable, which office has been held by the Duke of Welling- ton, Field-marshals Sir John Burgoyne, Sir George Pollock, and Sir William Gomm. The oldest portion is the isolated donjon or keep called the White Tower, built by Wilham the Conqueror, and contains an interesting chapel of the same period. This is now surrounded by a rampart and meat, with inner wall (the Inner Bail), flanked by half-circle towers, each of which has a distinctive name, as the Bell Tower, the Beauchamp Tower, Wakefield Tower (where are kept the regalia), Bloody Tower, Bowyer Tower. There is also within the inclosure the Horse-armory, a museum of ancient armor; St. Peter’s church, where are interred the remains of Anne Boleyn, Katherine Howard, Dukes of Som- erset (“The Protector”) and Northumberland, Lady Jane Grey and her husband, and many other celebrated victims kg ,.. '__i ll “ll; . W . u I . -. ‘I -: msc. ‘Y.:.ll' ll llll The Tower of London. of the headsman. Closely adjacent to the Tower is Tower Hill, the famous place of execution for persons delivered from the Tower to the sheriffs of London for execution. Here suffered (among others) Bishop Fisher, Sir Thomas More, Lord Guilford Dudley, Earl of Straiford, Archbishop Laud, Algernon Sydney, and (1747) Lord Lovat, the last person beheaded in England. Queen Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey were beheaded on scaffolds within the Tower, the site of which is shown, as also the block on which the former suffered. Within the Bloody Tower took place the murders of the princes, sons of Edward IV., and, elsewhere within the precincts, of Henry VI., of the Duke of Clarence, of Sir Thomas Overbury, and of the Earl of Essex. Towers of Silence: the structures on which the modern PARSEES (g. 12.), in accordance with the tenets of their faith, dispose of the dead by allowing them to be devoured by TOWLE vultures. This disposition of the corpse is a very ancient one in Iran. and it is inculeated in the AVESTA (g. o.) as en- joined by Zoroaster. Allusions to the customs are found also in Herodotus (i., 140), who describes it as Magian, and elsewhere in the classics. According to the Zoroastrian re- ligion the elements, fire, earth, and water, were sacred, and not to be defiled; the dead body, as full of corruption and pollution, could not therefore be burned, buried, nor thrown into the water, but was exposed on mountain heights, upon structures called duh/imas, as a prey to the dogs and birds. The modern Parsee ddhhmot, or tower of silence, is a structure from 60 to 90 feet in diameter, and from 20 to 30 feet in height, somewhat resembling a gasometer. The interior raised floor upon which the dead bodies are placed is divided, like the spokes of a wheel, into three concentric rows of troughs (paois they are called), the outer for men, the mid- dle for women, the inner for children. The center or hub is a great pit (bhdndar), some 30 feet in diameter, into which the denuded bones, parched and dried in the Oriental sun, are later deposited, and there crumble into dust. All flow and exudation of putrid matter is carefully conducted through disinfecting channels, so that the earth is preserved from defilement, and the sanitary laws are preserved. N 0 one is allowed to witness the descent of the “ heaven-sent ” birds; the body, it is said, is quite stripped of flesh in an hour or two. Remains of ancient Zoroastrian dahhmds are to be seen in Persia, for example, at Teheran, and the principal towers of silence in use to-day by the Parsee community of India are found on Malabar Hill, Bombay. See Dosaithai Framji Karaka, History of the Parsis, i., 199-210 (London, 1884); Modi, A Tower of Silence (Bombay, 1885). A. V. WILLIAMS J AcKsoN. Towianski, to-vee-aan’ske"e, ANDREAS: impostor; b. at Antoszwiniec, Lithuania, Jan. 1, 1799; studied at Wilna, and made himself conspicuous early in life by his mystical enthusiasm and pre- tensions of receiving divine revelations; practiced law at Wil- na 1818-26. After wandering around in Europe, he went to Paris about 1841, and obtained com- plete control of Mick- iewicz, the great Po- lish poet, especial- ly by the marvelous manner in which he cured his insane wife. He actually formed a sect which accepted him as a Messiah, but was expelled in 1842. He then tried to get a foothold in Brus- sels, in Switzerland, in Rome, but in vain. From Rome he was expelled as an impos- tor, and, returning to Switzerland, he gave up his role of a proph- et, settled in‘Zurich, and died there May 13, 1878. See Se- menke, Towianshi et sd doctrine (Paris, 1859). Mickiewicz wrote in his favor L’église ojficielle et le Messiamisme (2 vols., Paris, 1842-43). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Towle, tol, GEORGE MAKEPEAOE: journalist and author; b. in Washington, D. C., Aug. 27,1841; graduated at Yale College 1861, at Harvard Law School 1863; practiced law in Boston 1863-66; U. S. consul at Nantes, France, 1866-68, and at Bradford, England, 1868-70; managing editor of the Boston Commercial Bulletin 1870-71 ; State senator of M as- sachusetts in 1890-91 ; author of Glimpses of .History (1865) ; Henry the Fifth, King of England (New York, 1866); American Society (2 vols., London, 1870); Beaconsfield (1878); Certain Men of Jllarh (1880) ; England and Russia in Asia (1885); England in Egypt (1886); Young People’s History of England (1886) ; The Nation in a lVutshell (1887) ; Young People’s History of Ireland (1887); and The Liter- TOWN ature of the English Language, of which he had finished two of its three volumes at the time of his death. He also contributed to English and American periodicals. D. at Brookline, Mass., Aug. 8, 1893. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Town [O. Eng. tun, inclosure, fence, village, town : O. H. Germ. zim, inclosure (> Mod. Germ. zaun, hedge, fence) :Icel. tun, inclosure, house ; cf. Celtic dunum in names like Lugd1Z- num, Lyons] : a word of varying signification, both in pop- ular speech and in legal usage. In its broadest sense, it includes not only every sort of municipality, without regard to size, origin, or form of government, but also populous districts which are destitute of self-governing powers. It has this generic signification in some statutes. The House of Lords has declared that a town exists, within the mean- ing of that word in a railway statute, “ where there is such an amount of continuous occupancy of ground by houses that persons may be said to be living as it were in the same town or place continuously.” (London Ry. vs. Blachmore, L. R. 4 H. L. 611.) See also the Towns Improvement Clauses Act, 1847 (10 and 11 Vict., c. 34). As a generic legal term, however, it ordinarily includes only municipalities; that is, political subdivisions less than counties established for local government. It is employed in this sense in § 23 of Magna Charta (“neither a town nor any person shall be distrained,” etc.) as well as in modern statutes. (Banta vs. Richards, 42 N. J . L. 497.) The common-law definition of the word, in this sense, is“ a place with a constable or a church.” Baron Parke in Elliott vs. South Dev. Ry., 17 L. J . Exch. 262. As a specific term it is used (1) to designate a municipal- ity, which is not a city nor a borough nor a village, without regard to its size or form of government. It is so employed in 13 of Magna Charta-“ all other cities and boroughs, an towns, and ports.” It has this meaning in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and some other States, as well as in the Federal statutes relating to town sites on the public lands. (U. S. R. S., §§ 2380, et seq.) (2) In some of the States munici- alities are divided into cities, towns, and villages; those having 2,000 inhabitants or more, for example, are declared to be cities; those having less than 2,000 and not less than 500 are towns; those having less than 500 are villages. (See Miss. Code of 1892, § 2911.) Even in such States, however, the term is sometimes used in statutes in its generic sense, and includes unincorporated settlements. (llfurphy vs. State, 66 Miss. 46.) So variable is the import of this word that its signification in any particular enactment must depend large- ly upon the occasion and purpose of the law. (Broome vs. Tel. Co., 49 N. J . L. 497.) (3) Again, the term designates a territorial subdivision, which is the unit of local adminis- tration. In this sense it is employed by Blackstone, who asserts that it is synonymous with tithing or vill. (1 Com- mentaries, 114.) It bears this meaning in New England, in New York, and in several of the \Vestern States. At first, the New England town consisted of clusters of inhabitants dwelling near each other, but as soon as the territorial boun- daries of these village communities were fixed the term was applied to the territory or district. The term township was used interchangeably with town. For example, the General Court of Plymouth ordered, in 1637, that “ Ducksburrow shall be a township, and unite together for their better se- curity, and to have the privilege of a town, only their bounds and limits shall be set and appointed by the next court.” Townsnrr-In New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and some other commonwealths, as well as in Canada, the word township is used exclusively to designate this primary division of the State. In the Federal statutes relating to public lands, however, and in the nomenclature of the new western States, the township is a territorial subdivision, made by the intersection of meridians and parallels 6 miles apart, and containing an area of 36 sq. miles, but is not a political subdivision. It has no functions of local government. The origin of towns, their political powers and duties, and their relations to counties and to States, can not be treated adequately in an article of this kind. For informa- tion on these topics, the reader is referred to Commonwealth vs. City of Rozcbury, _9Gray (l\iass.) 451, and note by the editor, now Mr. Justice Gray; Hill vs. Boston, 122 Mass. 344; Webster vs. Town of Iforwinton, 32 Conn. 131; Johns Hoplcins Studies in IIistory and Political Science, series i. to viii. inclusive; Howard, Introduction to the Local Con- stitutional History of the United States (1889); De \/Volt,’ The Town ll/Ieeting (1890); Adams, Study of Church and Town Government (1892); Genesis of the llfassachusetts Town, 2 Proc. Mass. Hist. Soc., vii., 172-264; The Anglo- TOWNSHEND 215 Saxon Township, by Ashley, Quarterly Journal of Econom- ics, viii., 345; Chalmers, Local Government (London, 1883); Bryce, American Commonwealth, ch. xlviii.; Stubbs, Con- stitutional History, vol. i., ch. v.; Stubbs, Select Charters, part i. FRAxc1s M. Bunmcx. Townley, CHARLES: archaeologist; b. at Townley Hall, Lancashire, England, Oct. 1, 1737, of a Roman Catholic family ; received his education on the Continent under the tutorship of the celebrated John Turberville Needham; re- sided at Rome 1765-72, engaged in the study of antiquities, and enjoying in that pursuit the advice and experience of Winckelmann and other celebrated archaeologists; devoted his large fortune to the formation of a magnificent collec- tion of ancient art, which he subsequently largely increased through his agents and by the purchase of the Nollekens collection, and arranged his museum in two houses which he purchased in Park street, Westminster, where he died J an. 3, 1805. The Townley Marbles were purchased by the nation for £20,000, and in 1814 his bronzes, coins, and gems were also acquired for £8,200. They now form part of the Greece-Roman collection in the British Museum, of which in- stitution Mr. Townley had been a trustee. He was the author of Antiquities discovered at Ribchester (London, 1800). Townley, JAMES: clergyman; b. in Manchester, England, May 11, 1774, of parents belonging to a Wesleyan congrega- tion; became a local preacher at the age of nineteen, and was a regular minister from 1796 to 1832. He became sec- retary-general of the Wesleyan Missionary Society in 1827, and presided over the conference at Sheffield in 1829 and over the Irish conference in 1830. He was well versed in all bib- lical matters, and wrote, among other works, the excellent Illustrations of Biblical Literature, exhibiting the Llistory and Fate of the Sacred VVritings, from the Earliest Period to the Present Century, including biographical notices of translators and other eminent biblical scholars (3 vols.,Lon- don, 1821; 2 vols., New York, 1842). D. at Ramsgate, Dec. 12, 1823. Townsend: town (incorporated in 1732); Middlesex co., Mass.; on the S uannacook river, and the Fitchburg Rail- road ; 22 miles . of Lowell, and 44 miles \V. N. VV. of Boston (for location of county, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H). It contains the villages of Townsend, West Townsend, and Townsend Harbor; has a high school, 12 public schools, public library, a national bank with capital of $100,000, and an assessed valuation of over $1,000,000; and is principally engaged in cooperage and the manufacture of furniture. Pop. (1880) 1,967 ; (1890) 1,750. Townsend, GEORGE ALFRED: journalist; b. at George- town, Del., Jan. 30, 1841; graduated at the Philadelphia High School 1859; became news editor of the Philadelphia Inquirer, and subsequently city editor of the Press. He was correspondent for the New York Herald and I/Vorld during the civil war, and was in Europe 1866-67 reporting the Austro-Prussian war and the Paris Exposition for Amer- ican newspapers. He was for several years from 1868 on the staff of the Chicago Tribune as editorial writer and cor- respondent; and has been a successful lecturer and a gen- eral contributor to periodicals under the pen-name of Gath. He has published several volumes, including Campaigns of a Non-combatant (1865); Poems (1870); IVashington, Outside and Inside (1871); Tales of the Chesapeake (1880); The En- tailed Halt (1884); Katy of Catoctin (1886); and Il[)'8. Rey- nolds and IIamilton (1890). . A. BEERS; Townsend, LUTHER TRACY, D. D. : clergyman and author; b. at Bangor, Me., Sept. 23, 1836; graduated at Dartmouth College in 1859: studied theology at Andover, where he graduated in 1862; adjutant in the army in 1863-64, from 1873 to 1893 Professor of Practical Theology in Boston Uni- versity, and since 1893 pastor of Mt. Vernon Place Metho- dist Episcopal church, Baltimore. Among his numerous works are Sword and Garment (1871); Credo (1873); The Arena and the Throne (Boston, 1874); The Chinese Problem (1876); Supernatural Factor in Religious Revivals (1877 ; Art of Speech (2 vols., 1880-81); Jtlosaic Record and ilfodcrn Science (1881) ; Bible Theology and Ilfodern Thought (1883); Real and Pretended Christianity (188-1); The B ible and other Ancient Literature in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Bible llfiracles and Ilfodern Thought (1891); Outlines of Theology (1893). Revised by ALBERT Osnonx. Townshend, CHARLES, second Viscount Townshend: statesman; b. at Rainham, England, Mar. 10, 1674; suc- ceeded to the peerage on the death of his father Horatio, 216 TOWNSHEND the first viscount, Dec., 1687 ; was summoned to the privy council in 1707; was joint plenipotentiary with Marlbor- ough (1709) at the conferences of Gertruydenburg for nego- tiating a peace with France, and ambassador to the States- General of Holland 1709-10 ; signed the Barrier treaty at The Hague Oct. 29, 1709; resigned his embassy and returned to England on the fall of the Whig ministry 1712; was censured by the House of Commons for having signed the Barrier treaty, and declared by vote of the same House a11 enemy to the queen and kingdom; entered into correspondence with the Elector of Hanover, who on his accession to the throne of England made him Secretary of State and Prime Minister Sept. 14, 1714; resigned that post, and was appointed Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland 1717, but never took possession of that ofiice; became president of the council June, 1720, and was again Secretary of State from Feb. 10, 1721, to May 15, 1730, when he retired on account of differences with his brother- in-law and colleague, Sir Robert Walpole. D. at Rainham, Norfolk, June 21, 1738. Townshend, CHARLES: statesman; grandson of the sec- ond viscount; b. in England, Aug. 29, 1725; entered the House of Commons 1747, where he acquired prominence by an eloquent speech on the Marriage Bill 1753. In 1754 he became a lord of the admiralty, but was dismissed for an attack on the ministry in the following year. A supporter of Pitt, he was appointed treasurer of the chamber in Dec., 1756, and in the following spring became a member of the privy council, but in 1760 ranged himself on the side of Bute, and was rewarded with the post of Secretary of War (1761-62). He was for a time in opposition to the Grenville ministry, but toward its close accepted the office of paymaster of the forces (1765), and supported Grenville’s Stamp Act of that year. He was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer and Lord of the Treasury by Pitt Aug. 2, 1766; and was virtually Prime Minister during the retirement of Pitt. His last act was to introduce the celebrated resolutions for taxing the American colonies in 1767. D. in Oxfordshire, Sept. 4, 1767. For the instability of his political opinions he was commonly known as the “ Weathercock,” but he had an immense parlia- mentary reputation for oratory and wit. His character has been largely discussed by Macaulay (who said “he was a man of splendid talents, of lax principles, and of boundless vanity and presumption ”) and by historians of the American war, especially Bancroft, and has been made the subject of a special biography, Charles Townshend, Wit and States- man (1866), by Percy Fitzgerald. F. M. COLBY. T0wnsl1end,CHAUNcY HARE: author; b. in England in 1798; educated at Eton; graduated at Cambridge 1821; took orders in the Church of England, but from ill health never engaged in active professional life. He devoted him- self to poetry, literature, and art; formed valuable collec- tions of pictures and other objects of art; gave much time to the investigation of mesmerism, in which he was a firm believer, and spent much of his life at his villa of Monloisir at Lausanne, Switzerland. D. in London, Feb. 25, 1868. By his will he bequeathed most of his art collections to the South Kensington Museum, and left a sum of money and the care of his MSS. to Charles Dickens, requesting him to ublish such extracts as would illustrate his religious views. ickens accordingly issued in Dec., 1869, The Religious Opinions of the Rev. Chauncy Townshend, published, as cli- rectecl by his Will, by his Literary Esvecutor. Mr. Townshend was the author of works on mesmerism and several volumes of poems. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Township : See Town. TOWnSVil1e: town of Queensland, Australia; 700 miles N. W. of Brisbane, on Cleveland Bay; lat. 19° 16' S., lon. 147° E.; E. terminus of railway to Hughenden (see map of Australia, ref. 3-1). It is a rapidly growing town, the out- let of a rich agricultural district, but has a poor harbor, which, however, is being improved. It is at the mouth of Ross creek, and climbs Melton Hill, an elevation of about 1,000 feet just behind. It has numerous churches and schools, a hospital, an orphan asylum, a large concert-hall; has spe- cial provisions for immigrants in great numbers, and an ex- cellent water-system. Among the industries are a soap-fac- tory, a foundry, and two distilleries. The railway to the W. is rapidly developing the inland basins of the Herbert and Diamantina rivers. Pop. (1891) 8,564; with the suburbs, 15,015. MARK W. HARRING'1‘ON. Toxremia : another name for septicsemia or blood-poison- 1ng. See BLOOD-POISONING. TOXICOLOGY Toxicol’ogy [G12 ¢o§zx6v, poison (for 'ro£ucbv ¢ctp,u.anrov, poison for smearing arrows, deriv. of 'r6£0V, bow) + Ad’)/os, discourse, reason] : the science of poison-s. It treats of the nature and properties of poisons, their effects upon the ani- mal system, their detection, and the legal questions con- nected with poisoning. A poison is any substance which. either introduced into or arising in the body, is capable of exercising chemical or vital effects deleterious to health or life. What we speak of as vital effects are probably based upon chemical actions, but of such nature that present means of examination will not reveal them. Much de- pends upon the quantity of the substance acting upon the body; small doses may be tolerated, large quantities poi- sonous. ' The action may be local or general. Among poisons af- fecting particular parts of the body are such as are cor- rosive. The symptoms may terminate with the local dis- turbances, or secondary general symptoms, such as fever, de- pression, or collapse, may result from the effects of the local disorder rather than from a generalized action of the poison. When the action of poisons is general there is always a dis- semination through the blood, which may act simply as a carrier or may itself be altered by the poison. Entrance into the System.-—Poisons may gain access to the system by subcutaneous inoculation, through open wounds, through the mucous membrane of the stomach, of the rectum, or of the vagina, and sometimes through the unbroken skin; and the order in which these avenues are named is that of the rapidity of absorption in each. Vol- atile poisons may enter the system with the inspired air, and rarer modes of poisoning, such as from the urethral surface, from the eyes, nose, etc., have occasionally been noted. Circumstances afiecting the Action of Poisons.—Every poison must be in li uid or gaseous state to act. Solution may be effected in t e stomach, but at times the stomach and intestines free themselves before the solid poison is dissolved. Sometimes elimination is so rapid and absorp- tion so slow that poisoning does not ensue, and thus a sub- stance may be intensely toxic when injected beneath the skin, though harmless in the stomach. The question of ab- sorption depends much upon the character of the poison. Some, particularly certain salts of the heavy metals, exer- cise so much local change by chemical reaction with the solid tissues that they are absorbed in very small amounts. After absorption, the effect of poisons depends largely upon the animal species acted upon and qpon the individual. It is well known that certain individua s gain by repeated usage a high degree of immunity from the action of certain poisons, such as alcohol, opium, or the like. This immunity may sometimes be inborn; and, on the other hand, there may be marked idiosyncrasy in the opposite direction, so that the individual is affected profoundly or in a peculiar manner by even minute doses of the poison. The remarkable toler- ance of entire races for certain poisons is illustrated by the comparatively trivial effects of opium in India. The evi- dence of the investigation (1893-95) of the British Govern- ment shows that the enormous consumption of opium by the natives of India does not lead to anything approaching the evil effects that would result from a like consumption by European races. Alcohol is comparatively trivial in its effects on Europeans as compared with certain savage races among whom it has been introduced. The fate of poisons introduced into the system varies greatly. Some are absorbed in an unaltered state, circulate in the blood, and are excreted without any change in the urine, sweat, or other excretions. In many cases, however, chemical changes occur, by oxidation, reduction, or various forms of combination. In many cases substances violently poisonous may thus undergo changes which deprive them of toxic properties, as in the case of alcohol, which is soon broken up by oxidation. The place in which the greatest destruction occurs is probably the liver, and in the same organ very frequently a storage of the poison occurs for a time, so that only minute quantities reach the blood at a time, and serious results are prevented. Symjotonis of Poisoning.—These depend upon the nature of the poison, its mode of introduction, and the concentra- tion of the solution or mixture taken. There are in general two groups of cases: (1) those in which intense tissue changes are present, and in which the resulting symptoms are irrita- tive or dependent on absorption of abnormal products of tissue destruction; and (2) those in which the anatomical changes discovered are trivial as compared with the violence TOXICOLOGY of the symptoms, which mainly spring from the nervous s stem. yI. Of the first group there are first those in which the poi- son acts upon some external surface—-that is, some surface which may be reached without the entrance of the poison into the blood. (a) The most common form is that in which corrosives act upon the skin, causing redness, vesiculation, or various degrees of necrosis. (b) A most important group of cases is that in which some irritant, most commonly mineral, poison sets up gastro-enteritis (inflammation of the lining of stomach and bowel). The symptoms in such cases are pri- marily irritative-—nausea, vomiting, pain, and purging-the dejecta being mucous, serous, and often bloody. Later, as a result of the copious evacuations, or of reflex nervous influ- ences, depression and collapse ensue. (0) Gaseous irritants, or more rarely liquids, gain access to the respiratory tract, and set up intense inflammatory changes with violent cough, ex- pectoration, and difliculty in breathing. Sometimes they occasion dropsical swelling of the mucous membranes of the larynx—.cedema of the larynx--and thus lead to the most intense obstruction to breathing, ending in suffocation. Of the same large group of poisons acting by tissue change there is a second class in which the poison gains access to the blood, and occasions alterations in that important fluid, or circulating in it leads to pathological changes in various organs. (a) The blood-poisons act in two ways: some enter into combination with the haemoglobin of the blood, destroy- ing its functional activity, and cause dyspneea, cyanosis, stupor, and unconsciousness; others occasion more profound alterations of the blood, and when rapidly acting lead to cya- nosis, jaundice, haemoglobinuria, and rapid destruction, while the more slowly acting ones produce a gradually increasing anaemia. (b) The class in which the solid tissues are attacked by poisons carried in the blood is variable in the symptom- atology, according as one organ or another is involved. In all the pathological changes in the organs are much the same, cloudy-swelling, fatty degeneration, and necrosis (given in the order of severity) being the alterations produced. When the liver is afiected, enlargement of the organ and jaundice are noted, as in phosphorus-poisoning; when the kidney is attacked, albuminuria, bloody urine, or hzemoglobinuria, and other pathological characters of the urine are seen, as in turpentine or eantharides poisoning; when the heart muscle is involved, failing circulation, collapse, and sudden death may ensue, as in some cases of phosphorus-poisoning or chloroformization. II. Finally there is the second large group of poisons in which marked tissue changes are not found at the portal of entrance or within the body, but in which profound nervous symptoms are observed. The symptoms vary infinitely with the part of the nervous system afiected, with the peculiar activit of the poison (physiological action), and with the indivi ual susceptibility of the person affected. Excite- ment, cramps or convulsions, delirium, rapid pulse, and in- creased rapidity of the breathing may mark one group of cases, while another presents depression, sleep, stupor, or coma, with depression of the general organic functions; but all grades of severity and shades of demarkation exist to distinguish the individual poisons. Diagnosis of P0"ls0nzIng.—-'l‘l1is must be made by taking the sum of the evidence of all kinds. A thorough discussion of this intricate subject in all its medico-legal relations is obviously impossible within the limits of this essay, but the following are the essential points to be borne in mind: In the first place, the diagnosis of poisoning can not be made with infallible certainty from the symptoms alone, for there are no symptoms absolutely distinctive of any single poison. Neither does the mere fact, taken by itself, of the presence of a poisonous substance in the stomach. the excreta, or even the tissues of the dead body, necessarily prove that the illness or death was occasioned by the poison. On the other hand, neither does the absence of characteristic symptoms or lesions, or failure to detect the presence of poison, rove that the case is not one of poisoning. Presumptive evi ence of oisoning is afforded by the following circumstances: (1) Sudden onset of the symptoms in a previously healthy individual, especially shortly after taking food. drink, or medicine. Still stronger is the presumption where several persons, so partaking, are similarly and simultaneously at- tacked. (2) Correspondence of the symptoms with those known to be produced by some poison. (8) Finding of a poison in the stomach, excreta, or tissues of the dead body. Proof of the presence of a poison may be obtained by chem- ical tests, physiological experiments upon animals with the ' suspected matters, etc. 217 But as regards chemical testing, which is very properly regarded as the means of getting most certain proof, it is important to know that in a body dead from poisoning chemistry may for many reasons utterly fail to detect any traces of the poison. This, because for some poisons no definite test has yet been found, and with others because the poison may have wholly disappeared by reason of volatility, or by being vomited, excreted, or de- composed during life, before the analysis is begun, to such an extent as to be no longer within the power of chemical means to detect. Hence in judicial cases it is not always necessary to demonstrate, quantitatively, a fatal dose within the person of the poisoned individual. (4) Outside corrobora- tive circumstances. Examples are the finding of charred clothing and corrosion of the lips in a case of suspected sul- phuric acid poisoning; proof of possession of the suspected poison by the administrator; finding of motive for the poisoning; proof of administration by direct or circumstan- tial evidence. From the more or less perfect chain afforded thus by the evidence from the symptoms, the results of analysis, and corroborative circumstances. the diagnosis of poisoning is made with greater or less certainty. Treatment of Poz'som'ng.—The aim here is to prevent ab- sorption or local injury by combined attempts at bodily re- moval of the poison and chemical neutralization of its poisonous property, and then to combat the effects by gen- eral medical means. With inoculated poisons, as in bites from venomous reptiles or rabid animals, the part should be instantly washed, and then thoroughly sucked either by the mouth or a cupping-glass. At the same time, where prac- ticable, a ligature should be tied tightly around the limb near the wound and between it and the heart. Then in dangerous cases the wound should be thoroughly cauterized with a red-hot iron, or powerful caustics. In the use of these care must be taken not to injure any large artery or important organ. \Vhere the poison is swallowed, the stomach should be evacuated with the least possible delay, and, if there be one, the antidote to the poison should be immediately given. For emptying the stomach the means are emetics and the stomach-pump. This should be done even though the drug itself had already caused some vom-- iting and had been in the stomach for some time, for the vomiting is only rarely complete enough to insure removal of all of the poison swallowed, and absorption may be so slow that some of the substance may still remain in the stomach after a long interval. Of emetics, the best is the chloride of apomorphia, because it is prompt, thorough, un- irritating, and, most important of all, because it will act if only put under the skin. One-fifteenth of a grain in solu- tion in a little water should be injected under the skin by the hypodermic syringe, or double the quantity given by the mouth. Other useful ones are the following: Cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), in the dose of 2 or 3 grains, repeated if necessary; zinc suJ])ha1‘e (white vitriol), dose fro1n 15 to 20 grains; common ground mustard, a dessert-spoonful diffused through a tumblerful of water; powdered alum, a teaspoonful. taken dry, mixed with sugar, in molasses, or in water. Ipecac is a safe and unirritating emetic, but is rather slow. Dose, 20 or 30 grains of the powder, or from 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls of the sirup or wine. These doses are for an adult, and must be duly reduced for children. In all cases where an emetic is given, its action should be assisted by free drinking of nauseous potions, as warm water, warm salt water, or warm chamomile tea. The stomach-pump is invaluable where emetics fail to thoroughly empty the stomach, but in corrosive poisoning the stomach-pump should not be used for fear of perforating the corroded or softened walls of the stomach. VVhen employed, water is to be repeatedly pumped into the stomach and then out again. In irritant poisoning, after evacuation of the stem- ach, copious draughts of bland and viscid fluids should be taken to sheathe the walls of the alimentary canal from the action of the poison. Such are mueilages, oils, flaxseed tea, milk, white of egg, barley-water, etc. As regards antidotes, the special substances to be used will be mentioned in con- nection with each poison. In general, antidotes act by chemically transforming the poison, while still in the stem- ach, into a comparatively innocuous compound. Thus for acids allmlies are to be given, and, rice rersd, for alkalies, acids. whereby a salt is formed devoid of the caustic effect of either of its components. For the irritant metallic salts. albumen, as white of egg, is given to form the comparative- ly insoluble, and therefore inert, albuminate of the metal. In poisoning by vegetable alkaloids the antidote is I‘mm~z'n 218 (tannic acid), or a vegetable infusion containing the same, such as strong green tea, infusion of galls, of cinchona, of blackberry-root, logwood, rhatany, etc. Here a rather in- soluble tannate of the alkaloid is formed. But yet the eflicacy of antidotes is generally small; they can not reach such of the poison as has been already absorbed, and with irritant poisons they generally come too late. Effects of the poison necessarily vary greatly. In all cases, besides such local treatment as may be necessary, the special tendency to death should be recognized and intelligently combated by appropriate means. Detection of poisons in medico-legal questions requires the most careful application of all chemical tests as well as of physiological experiments. The materials removed must be sealed or locked by the examiner to prevent any possible suspicion of tampering. All known tests must be tried, and in metallic poisoning the metal should be obtained from the tissues if possible. All vessels employed and the reagents must be absolutely clean and free of contamination. SYSTEMATIC TOXICOLOGY. Systematic toxicology is concerned with the classification and study of individual poisons. The best classification is that based upon the symptoms, and we may distinguish the (a) irritant or corrosive poisons, which act locally; (b) paren- ehyma poisons, which cause little local trouble at the portal of entrance, but decided inflammatory and degenerative changes in the organs of the body, principally the glands; (c) the blood-poisons, whose symptoms result from chemical or morphological changes in the blood; and (d) nerve- poisons, which produce marked symptoms, but little or no discoverable anatomical change. I. Corrosive Poisons.-—These produce a local death or necrosis of tissue, and reactive inflammation beneath and around. The extent and depth of the process depend upon the individual poison and its concentration. The most com- mon poisons of this group are the acids and alkalies. They may act on the surface of the body, causing most painful destruction of the skin and deeper tissues, or internally with production of intense gastro-enteritis and collapse. The treatment consists in the neutralization of the poison and in the application of bland liquids to protect the inflamed surface. In the case of acids weak alkalies, such as mag- nesia, chalk, soap, dilute ammonia solutions, lime from the plastering of the wall, and the like may be used; in the case of alkaline poisoning, dilute vinegar or acetic acid, or lemon juice is generally at hand. After the poison has been neutralized, mucilaginous drinks, milk, the white of eggs beaten up with milk or water, and the like are given; and remedies administered to quiet irritation. The results of external application of corrosives are treated like burns, by soothing and protective applications. Among the indi- vidual poisons of this group sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) is probably the commonest, and most serious. It is frequently thrown in the face with criminal intent, or accidentally ap- plied or swallowed. Linear scars of a yellowish-brown color on the face, radiating from the mouth if the poison is swal- lowed, are the characteristic indication. The clothing is charred where the acid has come in contact with it. When the poison reaches the digestive tract the most intense gas- tro-enteritis is set up. lllitric acid is less intense. It pro- duces yellowish areas of corrosion and internally violent gas- tro-enteritis. Oxalic acid and the soluble oxalates (salt of lemon and others) cause marked irritation of the mucous membrane, and also nervous symptoms from action on the brain. The ordinary alkalies are not antidotal, as the ox- alates are soluble. Lime forms an insoluble oxalate, and is therefore the most useful antidote. Hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid act similarly to the others of this group, as does also carbolic acid; but the latter occasions specific nervous symptoms as well. Of the alkaline poisons caustic potash and soda are common forms, because of their use as lye. Concentrated ammonia is another common form. The symptoms are of the same irritative nature as in the case of acids. Chlorine, bromine, nitric oxide, and other substances in vapor form act as violent irritant poisons of the respira- tory tract. II. Parenchyma Poisons.—There are innumerable exam- ples of this group, but only a few of the more common can be referred to here. In concentrated form most of them cause irritation of the stomach and intestines, but the more specific action is due to their solution and absorption by the blood, and the subsequent action on the organs. The symptoms in the several cases are so varied as to require separate description. TOXICOLOGY Arsenic is a very common poison of the accidental and homicidal kind. Arsenic is used as a coloring-matter or for other commercial purposes in the forms of Scheele’s green, Schweinfurth green, Brunswick green, Paris green, orpi- ment (yellow arsenic), and realgar (red arsenic). Green, yellow, and red wall-papers, carpets, and other house-fur- nishings may be colored with these, and the dust very often occasions slow arsenic-poisoning. Fowler’s solution (con- taining arsenite of potassium) is very poisonous. It is often prescribed by physicians in concentrated form, and over-doses may be used by careless persons. See ARSENIOUS OXIDE. Acute arsenical poisoning is generally manifested in the form of violent gastro-enteritis with pain in the abdomen, vomiting. purging of a watery character, cramps in the legs, and finally collapse with the attendant symptoms of this condition. The symptoms in such cases soon resemble those of Asiatic cholera, and the diagnosis may be extreme- ly difficult. In other cases the abdominal symptoms are almost absent, and collapse alone or delirium and coma with convulsions may lead to rapid death. In either form the course of the case is rapid and generally fatal. The fatal dose of arsenic may be placed at from 0'1 to 0'15 gramme. Arsenic may act as an external poison when brought into contact with the skin or mucous surfaces in concentrated form or as solid arsenious acid. In this case the lesions of a violent caustic are present, but absorption of the poison does not take place to any large extent. The treatment of acute arsenical poisoning consists in the administration of emetics, in careful washing out of the stomach, and subsequently the administration of an antidote. The best is a freshly prepared hydroxide of iron made by adding magnesia to a solution of sulphate of iron. Chronic arsenical poisoning is exceedingly common, more so, perhaps, than is generally supposed. In these cases the source of poison is most frequently wall-paper, colored lamp- shades, clothing, tapestries, etc., and the poison enters through the stomach or respiratory tract. Chronic catarrh of the stomach, persistent cough, sneezing, throat troubles, and conjunctivitis may be present. In more serious or pro- tracted poisoning, paralyses, general deterioration of health, or pigmentation of the skin are noted. Phosphorus-poisoning is due in all cases to the common yellow phosphorus, the red being wholly insoluble and in- active. The common sources from which this poison is derived are phosphorus matches, rat-poisons, and the phos- phorated oil of the chemists. In chronic cases, mainly workmen in match-factories are afiected. The symptoms of acute phosphorus-poisoning are usually those of a severe ' gastro-enteritis, with eructation of gases having a phospho- rescent odor, and a luminous character when seen in the dark, and of vomiting of materials presenting similar char- acters. Enlargement of the liver, a jaundiced hue of the skin, and the appearance of leucine and tyrosin in the urine are among the more distinctive symptoms. Later, loss of consciousness, collapse, coma, and convulsions may be pres- ent. Amounts over 015 gramme are usually fatal. The treatment of acute phosphorus-poisoning consists in the removal from the stomach of every trace of the poison, and the administration of ozonized oil of turpentine, of solutions of ozone in water, or of permanganate of potash. In chronic phosphorus-poisoning, catarrhal conditions of the respiratory and digestive tract are noted, but more characteristic is a form of necrosis of the lower jaw-bone, which is not uncommon among workmen in match-manu- factories. Lead is perhaps the most common of all mineral poisons. Acute cases are mainly due to ingestion of acetate of lead, the carbonate, oxide, or chromate; and manifests itself as an intense gastro-enteritis, with white vomiting and dejec- tions of a black color. In more subacute cases, where small quantities of poison are repeatedly inhaled or swallowed, lead colic is apt to occur. In this condition there is intense constipation, with twisting pains in the abdomen. a certain amount of cachexia, and a blue line on the gums at the junc- tion of the teeth. Acute lead-poisoning may occur in persons exposed to the odors of fresh paint, and is very often met with in painters and others engaged in occupations in which lead is used. In these, however, the subacute form (lead colic) is more common than the truly acute. In still more chronic cases, cramps of the limbs, paralysis (particularly of the forearms), and marked cerebral disturb- TOXICOLOGY ances may be developed. Disturbances of sight, chronic Bright’s disease, and gout are results of protracted lead- poisoning. Cases of very chronic and insidious lead-poison- ing may occur from obscure causes, such as the drinkmg of water conducted in lead pipes, the use of cosmetics contain- ing lead, and eating canned food contaminated by the lead of the solder. Water containing saline materials is not apt to be contaminated by the lead pipe, because of the precipi- tation of an insoluble incrustation in the pipe. Pure spring water, however, is more dangerous. In acute cases the treat- ment consists in em tying the stomach, and the administra- tion of a soluble su phate, which precipitates an insoluble sulphate of lead. Epsom salt answers this purpose, and acts as a purge as well. In more chronic cases the same purge may be employed, and iodide of potash is useful to ehmmate the lead from the system. .Mercary-poisoning is similar to lead-poisoning in its va- rieties and symptoms. Very acute poisoning, with violent gastro-enteritis, results from the ingestion of the corrosive sublimate. Non-corrosive or irritating preparations may produce no local disturbance, but occasion soreness of the mouth, sponginess of the gums, and free flow of sahva With swelling of the salivary glands (mercurial salivation). In very chronic cases, particularly where small particles of va- por or dust containing mercurial compounds are inhaled, nervous symptoms are common, such as tremor, headache, and cerebral disturbances. The fatal dose of corrosive sub- limate is not definitely determined; 05 gramme has proved fatal, and 1 gramme has been recovered from. Treatment in acute poisoning (as by the bichloride) de- mands the administration of egg-albumen, milk, or other albuminous materials. In chronic cases, iodide of pot-ash is given to eliminate the mercury, and if ptyalism is present, atropine and opium are useful. In addition to these there are a number of other less im- portant forms of mineral poisoning, such as those by anti- mony, copper, zinc, iron, silver, and chromium. Among the vegetables belonging to this group ergot takes the principal rank, for the symptoms of which see ERGOTISM; but it may be said at this place that there are two forms: that in which acute poisoning occurs, and in which gastro~intestinal symp- toms, with sleepiness, delirium, and coma, play a part, and chronic poisoning, which is apt to affect large communities of people, particularly during periods of famine, and which may occasion a form of gangrene or irregular nervous dis- turbances. III. Blood-poisons-The number of these is very great, but none of them is of such great importance as to merit ex- tended discussion. Carbonic oxide gas, bisulphide of carbon, sulphuretted hydrogen are among these. Somewhat more important are the various cyanogen compounds, such as prussic acid, cyanide of potash, oil of bitter almond, and ferrocyanide of potash. These may lead to rapid death in the course of a very few minutes, with loss of consciousness, intensely disturbed respiration, and great weakness of the pulse. When the poison is taken in less quantity, prelimi- nary dizziness, nausea, ringing in the ears, and other mild symptoms may precede more serious disturbances. Chlorate of potash, nitrobenzol, aniline, and nitroglycerin are analo- gous in action. Among the vegetables the poison mushroom Amanita phalloicles and certain others less well-known act similarly upon the blood. IV. Nerve-poisons.—Finally, there is the great group of oisons which act through the nervous system, and which or the most part cause no definite and recognizable changes of structure. Many sub-classifications have been attempt- ed, but the actions of the individual poisons are so varied in some directions and so similar in others that it is best to attempt no subdivisions. Opium and its principal alkaloid, morphine, are perhaps the most common of all poisons used for suicidal an homi- cidal purposes. The better qualities of opium contain from 12 to 20 per cent. of morphine as well as other alkaloids. Some of the preparations of opium are specially apt to be taken by accident or design, such as the tincture (lauda- num), the extract, and the solution of morphine. Paregoric contains so little opium that it is dangerous only for chil- dren. The fatal doses can not easily be estimated, as idio- syncrasy plays a more Jrominent part in the action of this drug than of any other. Children bear it very badly. From 02 to 0'4 gramme of morphine and from 2'0 to 4'0 grammes of opium may be taken as surely fatal doses. Habit will develop tolerance for these or even greater quan- tities in some persons. 219 Acute opium-poisoning is marked by a preliminary stage of mild or considerable cerebral excitement, in which, as a rule, pleasant emotional stimulation predominates. Later, drowsiness, sleep, and complete unconsciousness follow in order. In the first stage the pulse is excited, and the skin dry and warm; in the second the pulse is weak and irregu- lar, the skin grows cold and moist, and with growing stu- por the muscular power and reflexes are completely lost. The pupil is more and more contracted, until just before death, when paralytic dilatation may occur. The respira- tions become slower and slower, until the individual breathes but once a minute, or even less frequently. The skin be- comes livid, and the patient dies gradually and quietly of failure of the respiratory power. In some persons the pri- mary stage of stimulation may alone occur, and wild deli- rium or convulsions may be the only symptoms. Treatment.—The stomach must be promptly emptied, and repeatedly washed with water. Tannic acid may be given as an antidote, but permanganate of potassium has been found decidedly useful. Cerebral stimulants should be given to combat stupor, such as coffee, atropine, or strych- nine. The patient must be kept awake by cold douching or other means, and electrical stimulation of the respiratory muscles or artificial respiration should be practiced. Forced artificial respiration will save many cases apparently dead. Chronic Opium-poisoning.-——Opium eating and smoking are scourges of the East, but the consumption of opium or morphine is a common habit in Western countries as well. In the East the results are comparatively trivial. Among Europeans and Americans there is gradual deterioration of health, more and more craving for the drug, and intellectual deterioration. Eventually death ensues from exhaustion and disturbance of the gastro-intestinal tract. The treatment can only be carried on with satisfaction in institutions where abstinence can be enforced. Regulation of the general health and tonics must be used as adjuvants in the treatment. ChZoraZ.——This substance is in frequent use as a hypnotic, and has often been taken as a poison. The symptoms in acute cases are those of deep sleep, without a previous stage of excitement such as opium produces. pass into deep coma, and sudden heart failure is not rare. The treatment consists in the rapid removal from the stem- ach, and in the administration of strychnine, atropine, and other stimulants. Chronic chloral-poisoning leads to symp- toms not unlike those of chronic alcoholism in some per- sons; more characteristic, however, are certain eruptions in the skin, weakness of the heart, with rapidity of its action, and emaciation of the individual. Chloe-oform and ether are the well-known anaesthetics. In overdoses these act as narcotic poisons, and sometimes chronic poisoning is acquired as a habit. The symptoms in the case of etherization or chloroformization may be divided into two stages, like those of opium-poisoning. In the first the patient is excited, the heart is accelerated, the respira- tion is rapid, and the face flushed. In the second con- sciousness becomes more and more disturbed, until the pa- tient is wholly insensible, the muscles are relaxed, and the reflexes are wanting. If pushed too far absolute paralysis of the vital functions may occur, and the patient dies of failure of respiration or of the heart’s action. If these sub- stances are taken into the stomach they act as local excit- ants and irritants. Certain persons acquire the habit of inhaling or of drinking ether and chloroform, but such are comparatively rare. Alcohol is perhaps the commonest of all poisons, and may manifest itself as an acute or chronic intoxicant. The de- tails are given under the headings INIOXICATION and INE- BRIETY (qq. ea). Afropine, the alkaloid of belladonna, in overdose pro- duces delirium, flushing of the skin, dryness of the month, dilatation of the pupil, and sometimes convulsions. \Vide differences exist in different persons with regard to the tol- erance for this drug. The smallest dose which has proved lethal is 0095 gramme in a child of three years, and 0195 gramme in an adult. The treatment consists in the removal of the poison from the stomach, the administration of tan- nic acid as an antidote, and of morphine to combat the symptoms. Cocaine is derived from the Emythro.rg/Zon coca. The symptoms produced by overdoses are rapidity of the heart, cold sweat, nausea, and vomiting, followed by vertigo, un- consciousness, and delirium. The pupils are dilated. Death occurs in collapse. The fatal dose may be placed at 1 gramme. The patient may. 220 TOXIGLOSSA Morphine may be used as an antidote in the earlier stages, while stimulants will be required in the later stages. Chronic cocaine-poisoning presents many of the symptoms seen in chronic opium-poisoning, and the treatment is the same. Strychnine is the alkaloid of the Strychnos nuo;-oomica. In toxic doses it produces intense excitement of the spinal cord and general nervous system, leading to cramps and convulsive seizures resembling those of tetanus. The slight- est irritation, as by a breath of wind, may throw the patient into a violent convulsion, in which the body is bent back- ward, resting upon the heels and head. The patient as a rule remains conscious until shortly before death, when cyanosis may be present from tetanic arrest of respiration, and coma may be developed. The fatal dose for adults is from 0'03 to 0'1 gramme. The treatment consists in rapid evacuation of the stomach and the administration of chloral and opium. There are many other vegetable substances which act upon the nervous system in similar manner, and some of these, like aconitine, nicotine, and eurari, are intensely toxic. The more important, however, have been named. Animal Poisons.-There are a number of animal poisons, such as the venom of serpents, tarantulas, etc., which are properly considered in this place. The action of these is rather complex. There is, in the first place, decided local irritation at the point of the sting or bite, leading to swelling, redness, and oedema, and, in severe cases, it may be to gangrene. Then the poison after its access to the blood may occasion serious destruction of that fluid. with the pro- duction of such symptoms as jaundice, cyanosis, haemaglo- binuria (the blood coloring-matter appearing in the urine), and finally haemorrhage into the tissues or from the free surfaces; and, finally, there are general symptoms, due on the one hand to the blood-poisoning and on the other hand to direct action upon the nerve-centers. Among these general symptoms are dyspnoea, vertigo, extreme prostration, loss of power of the muscles, slowing of the pulse, with weakening of the heart’s action, and finally col- lapse. Death may occur rapidly, or after a period of pro- longed prostration. The treatment of such poisoning con- sists, in the first place, in the application of a tight band on that side of the point of injury toward the body, so as to shut off rapid absorption; in the second place, the de- struction, by the knife or cauterizing agents, of the area of inoculation; and, in the third place, of the administration of remedies, such as ammonia, alcohol, or strychnine, to sup- port the system. The poisons in question are albuminous substances, which may be extracted from the liquid secre- tion of the poison glands by glycerin and other agents, and even dried and preserved. Putrefactive Poisons.—Many instances have been re- corded in technical literature, as well as in the public prints, of poisoning of families or communities of persons by food which has undergone some change of a putrefactive character. The foods most apt to give rise to such poison- ing are meat, sausage, and cheese. The poisons in these cases are spoken of as ptomaines, and numerous forms have been described. The actions of these are as dissimilar one from another as are those of the various vegetable alkaloids, and there is a strong resemblance in action of some of these ptomaines to certain of the vegetable alkaloids. Not only this, but there is a close relation in chemical reaction of some of them, so that it becomes a matter of the greatest medico-legal interest to determine the minute differences between these animal poisons and the vegetable alkaloids. See Vaughan and Novy, Ptomatnes and Leueomaines. WILLIAM PEPPER. Toxiglos’sa [Mod. Lat.; Gr. '1-ogucdu, pertaining to an ar- row, hence poison + 77\63o'o'a, tongue]: a group of molluscs, including the cone-shells, the augur-shells (Terel2rz.'doe), etc., in which there is frequently a poison apparatus in con- nection with the lingual ribbon. Toxodon’tia [Mod Lat., plur. of To’a:odon: Gr. '1-6501/, bow + 6806s, 5561/'ros‘, tooth]: a sub-order of extinct mam- mals whose remains have been found in South America. They were most nearly related to the perissodactyle ungu- lates, but differed in several characters. and especially the teeth, showing affinities with the Proboscidea and Rodentia. The molars of the upper jaw were broad, and extended sev- erally into an externo-anterior angle; those of the lower jaw were narrow, and continuous in a uniform row; the incisors were diversiform in shape as well as the mode of insertion and number; the feet are mostly unknown; the hind feet, however, had the astragalus at its anterior face inclined TRACADIE obliquely inward, and articulating in front only with the navicular, and the calcaneum had an extensive upward-ex- tended surface for the articulation of the fibula, and a large lateral process articulating in front with the astragalus. Two families-the Towodontidce and Typotheriidce—repre- sent the sub-order. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Toxodont’idae: a family of placental mammals of the order Torrodontia, which formerly flourished in South America, and which were especially distinguished by their teeth, which consisted of large incisors, very small canines, and strongly curved molars, all with persistent roots. Only one genus, Tozcodon, is known. It was composed of large- sized mammals which lived in South America during the later Tertiary epoch. The remains first obtained of Toacodon platensis were found by Darwin during his sojourn in the Banda Oriental, near the Sarandis, a tributary of the Rio Negro, about 120 miles N. W. of Montevideo, and were known to the natives as giants’ bones. Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Toxot’idae [Mod. Lat., named from To’xotes, the typical genus, from Gr. 70567179, bowman, archer, deriv. of 765011, bow] : a family of fishes of the order Teleocephali and sub- order Acanthopteri, remarkable for the power of “shoot- ing” water at insects, etc., to insure their capture. The family is represented by but two known species—Toa:otes jaculator (see ARCHER-FISH for illustration) and Toxotes microlepis-in the East Indian and Polynesian seas. These (or at least the former) catch insects and other small ani- mals which rest on aquatic plants or those growing on the banks near their uarters, by protruding their mouth into a tubular form and1 shooting drops of water, and it is said they can hit insects thus at a distance of 3 feet and more. This habit is a source of amusement to the natives, and the fishes are kept to give evidence of their skill and industry. They attain a length of about 6 or 7 inches. Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Toy, CRAwFoRD HowELL, D. D., LL. D.: educator; b. at Norfolk, Va., Mar. 23, 1836; graduated at the University of Virginia 1856; attended the University of Berlin 1866-68; was Professor of Hebrew in Southern Bapltist Theological Seminary 1869-79 ; since 1880 Professor of I ebrew and other Oriental languages and Dexter lecturer on biblical literature in Harvard University; translated and edited the volume on Samuel in Lange’s Commentary on the Bible; edited Prof. Murray’s Origin of the Psalms (1880). He is author of The Religion of Israel (Boston, 1882; 3d ed. 1884); Quotations in the New Testament (New York, 1884): and Judaism and Christianity, a Sketch of the Progress of Thought from Old Testament to New Testament (Boston, 1890). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Toynbee, ARNOLD: philanthropist; son of Joseph Toyn- bee, a well-known aural surgeon; b. in London, Aug. 23, 1852; spent two years at a military college, but left and en- tered Oxford, and after taking his degree proceeded to Lon- don. Having a keen sympathy with the laboring classes, he took up his residence in Wliitecliapel, and devoted him- self to improving the condition of the poor, addressing audiences of workingmen, and taking part in religious work. His health was undermined by his incessant labors, and the strain incidental to the delivery of two lectures against Henry George’s Progress and Poverty was the immediate cause of his death in 1883. From the inspiration of his ex- ample arose Toynbee Hall, founded in 1884, as the outcome of a scheme, framed by members of Oxford and Cambridge Universities, to provide education and the means of recre- ation for the people of the poorer districts of London, and to consider and support plans calculated to promote their welfare. It is a center of social life and organized effort to elevate the masses by educational work, loan exhibitions of pictures, etc. There is a regular force of fifteen residents, besides a body of associates, men and women, who come at intervals to take charge of classes and clubs. In connec- tion with Toynbee Hall are Wadham House and Balliol House, where students and workers reside. Similar institu- tions, called college settlements, have been founded in the U. S. See UNIVERSITY SETTLEMENTS. R. A. RoBERTs. Trac'adie [Micmac Tracadiesh, or Heron island]: town of Gloucester County, New Brunswick; near the mouth of Tracadie river, and on the Gulf of St. Lawrence; 20 miles S. of Shippigan (for location, see map of New Brunswick and Quebec, ref. 3-I). It has good fisheries of herring. salmon, and cod. Here are about twenty lepers, formerly more nu- merous, and the disease is said to have been introduced from TRACHEA Mitylene in 1758. Tracadie contains a Trappist monastery and a convent of Sisters of Charity. Pop. about 1,200, mostly Acadian. M. W. H. Tra'cl1ea [Mod. Lat., from Lat. tra’chz'a= Gr. 'rpaXeTa, liter., the rough one (scil. &p1-npta, artery, windpipe)]: the tube which in all air-breathing vertebrates carries the air from the oral cavity to the lungs. It begins on the floor of the throat and extends backward until it divides into two parts $ 3) a \ Os ,, -'i’“,.;..., > ”€£',§ll\\\‘ . v e / .. \ Human trachea dividing below into the bronchi the laryngeal cartilages. At its upper end (broneln) connected with the right and left lungs. In its wall are numerous incomplete rings of cartilage; these be- ing to prevent collapse and at the same time, by reason of their incompleteness, to allow the oeso hagus to compress them during the swallowing of food. he term trachea has also been applied to the air-tubes which penetrate the body in insects and spiders. These have also a ringed appear- ance, due to a corrugation of the lining membrane, and not, as was formerly thought, to the presence of a spiral filament. See EN'roMoLoeY. J. S. KINGSLEY. Trachea' ta [Mod. Lat., from TRACHEA (g. 11.)]: a group of ARTHROPODA (q. '0.) recognized by many authors, embracing those forms which respire by air-tubes which penetrate the body. Under this head are included the insects ARACHNIDA and ll/IYRIAPODA (qq. 'v.). The later discoveries go to show that this division is unnatural, and that there are at least two distinct kinds of tracheze in the group. Tracheids: See HISTOLOGY, VEGE'PABLE. T1‘£N3llB0t' 0111)r [Mod. Lat. traehe’a = G1‘. 'I'pa;(e'ia+'1'e'p.z/en/, cut]: opening of the trachea by incision or puncture for the free ingress and egress of air when respiration is labored or suffocation is imminent from laryngeal obstruction. Older writers treat the subject under the title bronchotomy. The operation is chiefly demanded when the larynx is ob- structed by the membrane of croup or diphtheria, is the seat of acute oedema or dropsy, is closed by the impaction of foreign bodies, or is contracted by previous inflammation or ulceration. It may also be performed to permit the es- cape of foreign bodies accidentally passing the larynx and entering the trachea and bronchial tubes. When goiter of great size compresses the upper part of the trachea, trache- otomy affords relief. Older writers advocate opening the trachea before employing artificial respiration in cases of asphyxia by noxious vapors or drowning, but this is seldom done. The air-passage may be opened at either of three points. Laryngotomy, the operation highest up and involv- ing least danger, is preferable when membranous or other obstruction does not exist below the larynx; it consists in opening through the crico-thyroid membrane. Incision a little lower, cutting the cricoid cartilage and one ring of the trachea, is termed laryngo-tracheotomy, while incision of one or more rings of the trachea below the thyroid gland is strictly tracheotomy. The operations are most easily per- formed on thin, long-necked children; infants with short TRACHYPTERIDZE 221 necks and corpulent persons present difiiculty. The inci- sion is always longitudinal, and iii the median line over the elected point of opening, the cutting being cautious and progressive; at every step vessels should be pushed to one side rather than out, as bleeding delays the opera- tion, and the entrance of blood into the air-passage endangers life by causing asphyxia by clot, or at a later period by exciting broncho-pneumonia. When the trachea is fully exposed, it is firmly held with a sharp hook or tenaculum and in- cised, and a tracheotomy tube or canula, provided with a fenestrated, hollow pilot-trocar as a guide, is inserted, the guide being re- moved as soon as the tube is in place. The canula is usu- ally of silver or rubber, curved so as to descend in the air- passage. An inner tube is provided, slightly longer than the outer one. Mucus or membrane obstructing the end may be removed by withdrawing and cleansing the inner tube. The tube is retained in the wound by means of a tape around the neck, and should be worn until all danger from the original disease is past and the larynx is again free. Tracheotomy is performed more frequently than for- merly, and with increasing success. It should not be left till too late; should be carefully performed at a point below all obstruction; the tube should be of large size, adequate to admit air freely; an attendant should be constantly at hand to keep the tube open; the patient should breathe a pure but warm and moist atmosphere, and should be supported by abundant but easily assimilated food and by tonics. Revised by J onn ASHHURST, Jr. Trachin’idaa [Mod. Lat., named from Tracht’nus, the typical genus, from Gr. Tpaxzis, rough, rugged] : a family of marine teleost fishes containing the forms known in Eng- land as weevers and kindred types. The body is elongated, narrowed from shoulders to tail, and compressed ; the scales very small; lateral line high up and continuous; the head terminates in a conical snout; eyes lateral, but separated by a narrow interval, and far forward; the operculum has a strong acute spine arising from its upper surface and pointing backward; villiform teeth are developed in bands on the jaws and palate; the branchial apertures are con- tinuous below ; branchiostegal rays in six pairs; the dorsal is represented by two fins, the first short and sustained by a few diverging spines, the second elongated and with branched rays; the anal is very long, and composed of articulated rays; the caudal distinct; the pectorals large, and com- posed of branched rays; the ventrals are approximated to each other and jugular, and have each a spine and five rays; pyloric appendages are developed in small number (about six); the vertebral column has the normal number of ab- dominal, but an increased number of caudal vertebrae (A. 10-11 + C. 25—31). The family is composed of a few species, chiefly found in the European seas (where are three) and along the western African coast, but one occurs along the coast of Chili. By most authors these species have been combined in one genus (T'rachtnns), but they have been dis- tributed among three by Bleeker. They are considerably feared by fishermen and others on account of the formi- dable opercular spines, with which they can inflict severe wounds. These spines are generally cut off when the fishes are caught, and thus they are exposed for sale. The species are of ineonsiderable economic importance. For illustra- tion, see GREAT W EEVER. Revised by F. A. Lucas. 'l‘rachomaz See GrRANULAR- Lms. TI‘iI(3II_YPtGI"I(IfB [Mod. Lat., named from Traehgp'terns, the typical genus; (IT. 1-paxzls, rough + 1m-epév. fin] : a fam- ily of teleost fishes of the order Teteocephati and sub-order .z1cant7z.opte1't. The body is very long and exceedingly compressed, and gradually diminishes in height from head to tail ; the skin is naked ; the lateral line is low and con- tinuous; the head is oblong and compressed; the eyes lateral, and in anterior half of head; the opercular bones unarmed, scaleless, and with radiating st-riae: the mouth has a small cleft; the teeth are feeble ; branchial apertures confluent below; branchiostegal rays in six pairs: dorsal fin very long, extending the whole length of the back, divided into a very short elevated anterior portion and a Tracheotomy tube. 222 TRACHYSTOMATA remaining continuous fin, all the rays of both of which are flexible spines ; anal wanting: caudal undeveloped, or com- posed of an enlarged upward-directed upper and a rudi- mentary lower portion; pectorals small; ventrals thoracic or absent; there are five gills, and also well-developed pseudobranchiae, "situated in a pouch formed by a fold of the mucous membrane (Trachypterus) ; ” pyloric appendages are developed in large number; the skeleton has compara- tively little consistency; the vertebrae are very numerous. This family is composed of large-sized, extremely com- pressed, and thin fishes, which are inhabitants of the deep or open seas, and rarely stranded on shore or otherwise caught. They are probably widely distributed; specimens have been observed from time to time in many parts of the European seas, as well as in the Bermudian archipelago, the Australasian seas, the East Indian seas, and on the west coast of North and South America. The large species have doubtless in part given rise to the belief in a sea-serpent, and been mistaken for such, as they well might from a dis- tance on account of their size, some species of Regalecus at- taining the length of 20 feet. Nearly twenty species of the family are known. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Traehysto’mata [Mod Lat.; Gr. Tpaxls, rough + <1-rdaa, mouth]: agroup of amphibians by some considered as a sub-order of Gradtentta or Urodela, and by others (e. g. Cope) as an independent order. It has been constituted for the reception of the family Strenz'dce, and is characterized by the absence of the basioccipital, supratemporal, supra- occipital, and vomer; there are no maxillary or palatine arches. The frontals and premaxillaries are distinct, as are also the propodial bones and caudal vertebrae. There are but two species in the group, Siren lacertlna and Pseudo- branchus strtatus, both from the southern parts of the U. S. F. A. LUCAS. Trach’yte [from Gr. q-paxzis, rough, rugged]: aphanitic or glassy rock, usually porphyritic, having chemical com- position similar to that of syenite. Constituent minerals are potash-feldspar (sanidine), some lime-soda-feldspar, and one or more ferromagnesian minerals—-biotite, hornblende, augite—besides others in small amount. Abundant alkalies lead to the crystallization of sodalite and nephelite, when the rock grades into PHONOLITE (Q. 1).). When quartz is present in small amount the rock is quartz-trachyte; with increasing quartz it passes into RHYOLITE (q. 7).) and pantel- lerite. Trachytes may be rough and porous, or compact and dense, or glassy, dense vesicular, or pumiceous. Non-porphy- ritic trachytic glass, or trachytic obsidian, is distinguishable from rhyolitic obsidian, the more common kind, only by its chemical composition. Trachytes are usually light-colored rocks, but may be any shade of gray to black. Many rocks formerly called trachyte are andesite, being rich in calcium and in lime-soda-feldspar. The name trachyte was intro- duced by Hatiy in 1822 for light-colored, porous, and rough lavas of the Auvergne with glassy feldspars. Afterward it was applied to any rough lava with prominent glassy feld- spars. Modern petrographic usage restricts it to the defi- nition given above. Trachytes are much rarer rocks in the U. S. than andesites. They occur in Montana, VVyoming, South Dakota, and Colorado, and are better known in Italy, France, and Germany. J . P. IDDINGS. Tracta’rianism: the Anglican doctrinal and religious system promulgated in the Oxford Tracts for the Times; the principles of the movement known as the Oxford Movement and afterward as the Catholic or Anglo-Catholic Reriual. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century the distinctive principles of the Church of England were main- tained with little zeal, and public worship and church edifices evidenced laxity and neglect. The old High Church party still existed, but inactive and in the background. Evan- gelicalism dominated, but had spent much of its force. Constant attacks were made on the doctrines and liturgy of the Church, neological teachings were imported from Ger- many, and unfavorable political changes seemed imminent. The first marked sign of a reaction was the appearance of John Keble’s Christian Year and its phenomenal popularity. Keble was a strong Tory and High Churchman and a brill- iant scholar, but very modest and retiring. Richard Hur- rcll Froude, Keble’s pupil, and of a more aggressive disposi- tion, brought under Keble’s influence John Henry Newman, till then known as an Evangelical. In 1833 the changes connected with the Reform Bill threatened the Church. The Government had suppressed ten bishoprics in Ireland, and disestablishment and alterations of the Prayer-book TRACTARIAN ISM were feared. In view of the agitation against the Church, Keble preached July 14 a university. sermon, which was published under the title Nattorzal Apostasy, and was re- garded by Newman as the start of the movement. In the same month a meeting to begin an agitation in defense of the Church was held at the parsonage of Hugh James Rose, editor of The Br'ltz'sh Jlfagaztne. Addresses presented to the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1834, one signed by 7,000 clergy and the other by 230,000 heads of families, counter- acted the movement toward disestablishment. The publi- cation of the Tracts for the Times, prepared by different authors and far-reaching in their influence, began Sept. 9, 1833. The first sixty-six tracts were short apers, some original, but mostly extracts from eminent Ang ican writers, especially of the seventeenth century, and from Ante-Nicene fathers. The opening paper struck the key-note. To re- store the vigor and authority of the Church it was neces- sary to reaffirm her divine institution and historical con- tinuity, and so the doctrine first emphasized was that of the apostolic succession. In the course of 1834-35 Dr. Edward Bouverie Pusey, a man of influential position, massive learning, and quiet solidity of character, joined in the preparation of the tracts, which now became carefully di- gested theological essays or catenae of authorities, and of considerable length. The teaching of the tracts seemed novel and strange to many. The Anglican understanding of the Catholic Church as one historical body with an or- ganism perpetuated by the apostolic succession, and with a doctrinal system inherited from the past and defined by councils accepted both in the East and West, of which body the Anglican Church was a living part with her own author- itative usages and formularies, was a conception strange alike to Roman Catholics, who considered the historical Church as conterminous with the papal obedience, and to dissenting Protestants and the general public, raetically ignorant both of Church history and of the actual) existence of the great Greek Church, ancient, orthodox, and non- Roman. The points especially insisted on by the Tracta- rians in addition to apostolic succession (the grace of the sacraments, and therefore belief in baptismal regeneration, the real presence in the holy Eucharist, and the power of the keys in absolution) were therefore regarded by many as Romish. Tract-arian strictness in fasting and favor shown to clerical celibacy were viewed in the same light. During the publication of the tracts Newman was the most prominent figure in the movement. His wonderful powers as a preacher and writer and his immense personal influence over the Oxford undergraduates made him especially influ- ential and prominent. As the movement progressed differ- ences began to appear among its adherents. Some laid aside former feelings against Rome and began to respect and even admire her. Some began to have misgivings as to the Catholicity of the Anglican Church. William G. Ward occasioned many com laints by anti-Anglican and pro- Roman articles in The rtttsh C/m'te'c and by his book, Ideal of a Chr"lste'an Church (1844). After several occurrences which had intensified feeling against the Tractarians, Tract N0. XC., the last of the series, appeared in 1841. It dealt with the Thirty-nine Articles from the Tractarian point of view. The Articles had, at the time of the Reformation, been accepted by Anglicans unfavorable to Protestantism as well as by the others, but were afterward considered distinctively Protestant and even Calvinistic. When Newman, therefore, undertook in this tract to show that they were capable of being understood in a Catholic sense, his treatment was taxed as dishonest and tending to Romanism. The tract was condemned by the hebdomadal board of the university, which refused to wait for his defense. After this and other troubles Newman in 1845 entered the Church of Rome. In this step he was followed by others, a number seceding soon after him and others at various dates. These defections were held by those unfavorable to the movement to demon- strate its Romish character. On the other hand, the state- ment has, been made that “ one large parish church would hold them all” (i. e. all the converts from Anglicanism to Romanism since Newman). Other leaders of the move- ment, including the two greatest, Keble and Pusey, re- mained steadfast Anglicans. Both approved of Tract No. XC.. and its positions have since been widely accepted by Anglicans. The movement, at the time apparently much injured, survived its losses and became vigorous again. As usey was now its most prominent figure it was for a number of years termed Puseyism. One very valuable outcome of the TRACT SOCIETIES D movement, begun as far back as 1836, was the series of trans- lations entitled Library of the Fathers of the .HoZg Catholic Church anterior to the Division of the East and West. In its new stage, since 1845, the Anglo-Catholic revival has assumed a more and more practical character in the in- stitution of guilds, religious sisterhoods and brotherhoods, and parochial missions, improvement of church music, 1n- troduction or revival of hymns and opular devotions, restoration and building of churches. ‘ince 1848-50 there has been also a revival of ritual, grounding itself especially on the ornaments rubric of the present English Prayer-book as re-enacted in 1662, directing the retention and use of the ornaments of the second year of Edward VI. Those most prominent in this revival were called Ritualists, and met not only with popular opposition, but with litigation and special legislation, subjecting them to lay judges. A number _of priests were even imprisoned for their ritual, and societies were formed to prosecute and to defend them. In a case in 1888-90 (appeal 1892), a bishop (Dr. King, of Lincoln) was tried before the Archbishop of Canterbury, a case 1m- portant as reviving such exercise of authority. But the general result, whatever the action of these courts, has been the extension of the ritual impugned. All the principal phases of the Tractarian and Anglo- Catholic movement have reproduced themselves in the Episcopal Church of the U. S. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—NeWn1a.I1, Apologia pro Vita mea (Lon- don, 1864 and 1888); Lezfters and Correspondence of J. H. .Newman during his life in the English Church, edited by Anne Mozley (2 vols, London, 1890) ; a Jlfemoir of the Rev. John Keble, by Sir J . T. Coleridge (Oxford, 1869) ; T. Mozley, Rem-iniscences, chiefly of Oriel College and the Oxford ll! ove- ment (2 vols., Boston, 1882); Dean R. \V. Church, The Oas- ford ilfovement (London, 1891); Life and Letters of Dean Church, ed. by Mary C. Church (London, 1894); Canon Henry Parry Liddon, Life of E. B. Pusey (posthumous, 4 vols.: three have appeared ; London, 1893-94) ; Wilfrid Ward, W'ill- iam George Ward and the Oxford Jllovement (London, 1889) ; W. G. Ward and the Catholic Revival (London, 1893). LEIGHTON Hosxms. Tract Societies [tract is from Lat. iraczfdtus, a touch- ing, handling, treating, treatise, deriv. of tractdre, handle, treat] : societies for the publication and circulation of relig- ious literature, other than the Scriptures, which are dis- tributed by organizations called BIBLE SocIErIEs (q. v.). The word tract, though commonly applied to small, un- bound pamphlets, includes also, by derivation and early usage, any treatise or bound volume for general circulation, of whatever size. Long before the invention of printing, the importance of multiplying copies of the best religious writings was recognized, for the sake of both preserving and diffusing them, and the early Reformers made great use of them, the timely invention of printing opening the way for a rapid growth of this method of doing good. European Societies.—In the eighteenth century the ‘friends of religion began to associate themselves for greater efficiency in this work, three societies having been organized before 1701 by members of the Church of England—one “for the propagation of the gospel in New England and America,” another “ for foreign parts,” and the third for “promoting Christian knowledge.” In 1750 was formed the first tract society in which different denominations united—the Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor. In 1793 the Religious Tract and Book Society of Scotland was formed. In May, 1799, the Reli- gious Tract Society was organized in London, and has since become the largest and most efficient tract society in the world. The first year its entire receipts were £2,340; now (1895) its annual income is about £175,000, and its grants £29,000. It has issued a total of over 18,000 different pub- lications, large and small. Its publications at home and abroad are in 212 languages, and amount to a total of 3,000,- 000,000 copies. Besides this great and undenominational society, each religious denomination in Great Britain has a publication board of its own; and the opponents of religion ave adopted the same means of disseminating their views. There are also tract societies in which Christians of all de- nominations unite, at Paris, Lausanne, Toulouse, Brussels, Geneva, and some other points on the continent of Europe; also at various foreign missionary centers. Societies in the U. S'.—In the U. S., where common school education and a free press have formed an eminently read- ing community, tracts and volumes on religion appeared 223 early and in great numbers, and societies for printing and circulating them were at length formed—the Methodist Book Concern in 1789; the Massachusetts Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge, at Boston, in 1803 ; and other societies in Boston, New Haven, Middlebury, Vt., New York, Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Hartford. Prominent among these was the New York Religious Tract Society, organized in 1812, and afterward continued in the American Tract Society, New York; and the New England Tract Society, organized in 1814, which in 1823 changed its name to the American Tract Society, and in 1825 became a branch of the national society of the same name, then instituted. In the present American Tract Society Christians of all de- nominations in the U. S., and most of the local tract associa- tions then existing, united to publish and circulate whatever would best “ diffuse a knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ as the Redeemer of sinners, and promote the interests of vital godliness and sound morality ”-with only this restriction, that it should be “ calculated to receive the approbation of all evangelical Christians.” Such men, of twenty different denominations, have always been found among its officers, its laborers, and its warm friends and supporters. For the first two years only brief tracts were published, for adults and for children. The issue of volumes, however, was intended from the first, and in the third year volumes began to ap- pear. In the fourth year monthly tract distribution began to be practiced by many churches and church unions. In the eighth year was begun an attempt to supply every family in the Southern and Western States with one or more vol- umes. The next step was the organization of a system of colportage, in 1841, to carry the Gospel to the doors of neglected, scattered thousands—at least one-third of the en- tire population of the U. S.—who would never seek it and whom churches did not reach. Each colporteur was to visit every family in his district, induce them to purchase or ac- cept Christian books or tracts, and by his teachings and prayers do as far as possible the work of a Christian pastor. At one time over 600 men were so employed during the whole or a portion of the year. Another notable point in the progress of the society is found in the establishment of its periodicals. three were The American Jlfessenger, the Amerilranischer Botschafter, and The Chilcl’s Paper. To these have since been added the Deatselzer Volksfreund (or German Peoplels Friend), an eight-page illustrated weekly; The Illorning Light, a small illustrated paper for beginners; Apples of Gold, a weekly for the youngest readers; and Light and Life, a series of monthly tracts. The aggregate circulation of these papers is about 2,500,000 yearly. The distribution of tracts in foreign languages forms a large and very impor- tant branch of the society’s work. Its home presses print in more than thirty foreign tongues for the millions of immi- grants that swarm into the U. S., and for many foreign missions. Among results may be mentioned the printing of over 8,000 distinct publications, of which over 1,900 are volumes and the others tracts, handbills, wall-rolls, etc. Among the publications for l1ome use are 1,560 in seventeen foreign languages—German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Swedish, VVelsh, Dutch, Danish, Bohemian, Polish, Arme- nian, Hebrew, German-Hebrew, Lithuanian, Finnish, and Hungarian-for immigrants, for many of whom scarcely any other Christian literature is provided. Of the period- icals 231,000,000 copies have been issued. Of the other home publications, over 31,000,000 volumes have been printed and over 3,150,000,000 pages of tracts, literature which has had an immense influence. Annual grants to the destitute are made to the amount of over $30,000 worth of the society’s home publications, forming a total of $2,180,000. Besides large amounts thus transmitted by shipping to foreign na- tions, a total of over $720,000 in money has been granted to aid the missionaries in heathen lands to print books which the society approves for their work; and thus 4,600 publica- tions, including 800 volumes, have been printed by its help abroad, in 151 languages. Since the organization of the system of colportage the society has circulated 15,000,000 volumes, and its agents have made over 14,000,000 family visits. The total amount received in donations and legacies, and expended in the charities of the society, is over $6,000,000; and the sales amount to above $13,000,000. Besides these undenominational societies, each of the lead- ing denominations in the U. S. has its own board of publica- tion. WILLIAM W. R-AND. The first ' 221 TRACY Tracy: city; Lyon co., Minn.; on the Chi. and N. ‘W. Railway; 165 miles S. W. of St. Paul (for location, see map of Hinnesota, ref. 10—B). It is in a noted wheat and corn belt, and contains 7 churches, a public school with twelve de- partments, electric lights, water-works, a State bank with capital of $35,000, a private bank, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 322; (1890) 1,400; (1895) estimated, 2,500. EDITOR or “ REPUBLICAN.” Tracy, tra“a’see’, ANToINE LOUIS CLAUDE DESTUTT, Count de (commonly called Destutt de Tracy) : philosopher; b. near Moulins, France, July 20, 1754; was educated for the army; was a member of the States-General in 1789 ; joined the revolutionary party ; served in the army under Lafayette; was, nevertheless, arrested, but was released after the fall of Robespierre; was made a senator under the empire, but voted for the deposition of Napoleon; opposed the reactionary measures of the restoration. D. at Auteuil, Mar. 9, 1836. He was a commander of the Legion of Honor, and a mem- ber of the French Academy. He published Grammaire générale (1803) ; Logique (1805; often reprinted) ; Tra/Jté dc la rolonté et de ses efiets (1815) ; Zéments d’z'déologz'e (4 vols., 1817-18), containing a full representation of his philosophical system; Essa/i sur la génie et les ouvrages dc Jllontesq/Men (1828). As a philosopher he was a follower of Condillac and a representative of the sensualistic school, whose principles he, in common with the other members of the society of ide- ologists at Auteuil, pushed to their last consequences. Tracy, tra'si, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN: lawyer and statesman; b. at Owego, N. Y., Apr. 5, 1830; educated in the common schools and Owego Academy; admitted to the bar 1851; district attorney for Tioga County 1853-56; member of the State Assembly 1861 ; appointed by the Governor in the spring of 1862 to recruit for the Union army; personally recruited the 109th and 137th Regiments; accepted the colonelcy of the former; participated in the battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania; on account of ill health was obliged to go North to recuperate; on recovery became colo- nel of the 127th Colored Troops, and commanded the mili- tary post at Elmira; obtained the rank of brevet brigadier- general; resumed practice of law at the close of the war in New York city; U. S. district attorney for eastern district of New York 1866-73; associate justice New York State court of appeals 1881-83; appointed bg President Harrison Secretary of the Navy, Mar. 5, 1889. n the expiration of his term he resumed the practice of law in New York. C. H. THURBER. Tracy City: village; Grundy co., Tenn.; on the Nash., Chat. and St. L. Railway; 20 miles S. by N. of Cowan (for location, see map of Tennessee, ref. 7-G). It is on the sum- mit of the Cumberland Mountains, in a coal-mining and coking region, and has railway car and repair shops, foun- dry, steam sawmill, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) estimated, 1,200; (1890) 1,936. Trade-mark: a mark by which one’s trade or wares are known in business. The rules of law governing this subject have been developed during the nineteenth century. Lord Chancellor Hardwicke declared in 1842 that while every trader had his distinctive mark or stamp, he knew of no precedent for enjoining one trader from using another’s mark, and he thought such a precedent would be mischiev- ous. Such a precedent was established, however, by Lord Eldon in 1803 (Hbgg v. 1i'z'rbg/, 8 Ves. 215), and was followed by a very rapid growth of this branch of the law. STATUTES AND TREATIES.——T1‘a.de—lna.I‘l(S have become the subject of modern legislation and international conventions. In Great Britain the principal statutes are the Merchandise Marks Acts of 1887 and of 1891 (50 and 51 Vict., c. 28, and 54 and 55 Vict., c. 15). The earliest legislation by the U. S. Congress on this subject was enacted in 1870 as a part of an act to revise the statutes relating to patents and copyrights. Its constitutionality was soon attacked and the Supreme Court decided against its validity, holding that a trade-mark is neither an invention, a discovery, norawriting, and hence was not within Art. I., §-8, cl. 8, of the U. S. Constitution; also that the statute in question was not a regulation of com- merce with foreign nations, or among the several States, or with the Indian tribes (see Art. I., § 8, cl. 3), but was a regu- lation applicable to all trade. (U. S. v. Steflens, 100 U. S. 82.) The court declared that the property in trade-marks, like the great body of the rights of person and of property, rests on the laws of the States. At present there is an abundance of State legislation on this subject. Later acts of Congress are TRADE—MARK limited to trade-marks used in commerce with foreign na- tions or with Indian tribes, and are therefore constitutional. (See Act of Mar. 3,1881, 21 U. S. Statutes at Large, ch. 128.) Section first of the last-named act provides that owners of trade-marks used in commerce with foreign nations, or with Indian tribes, provided such owners shall be domiciled in the U. S., or located in any foreign country, or tribes which by treaty, convention, or law, afiord similar privileges to citizens, may obtain registration of such trade-marks by re- cording in the Patent Office the prescribed statement and by paying $25 to the U. S. treasury. The reciprocal privi- leges referred to above have been secured by special treaties, one of the latest of which is the treaty with Denmark of June 15, 1892, or by the International Convention for the Protection of Industrial Rights, adopted at Paris Mar. 20, 1883, to which the U. S. became a party July 3, 1887, and which was reproclaimed June 22, 1892. 27 U. S. Statutes at Large, Treaties, p. 119. Its N azfure and Par ose.—These were set forth with clear- ness and precision by ustice Strong in a leading case in the U. S. Supreme Court. The office of a trade-mark is to point out distinctively the origin or ownership of the article to which it is affixed. This may in many cases be done by a name, a mark, or device, well known, but not previously ap- plied to the same article. But though it is not necessary that the word adopted as a trade-mark should be a new cre- ation, never before known or used, there are some limits to the right of selection. This will be manifest when it is con- sidered that, in all cases where rights to the exclusive use of a trade-mark are invaded, it is invariably held that the es- sence of the wrong consists in the sale of the goods of one manufacturer or vendor as those of another, and that it is only when this false representation is made, or the necessary tendency of defendant’s acts is to deceive the public, that the party who appeals to a court of equity can have relief. Hence the trade-mark must either by itself or by association point distinctively to the origin or ownership of the article to which it is applied. The first appropriator of a name or device which points to his ownership, or which, by being as- sociated with articles of trade, has acquired an understood reference to the originator or manufacturer of the articles, is injured whenever another adopts the same name or device for similar articles, because such adoption is in effect repre- senting falsely that the productions of the latter are those of the former. Thus the custom and advantages to which the enterprise and skill of the first appropriator had given him a just right are abstracted for another’s use, and this is done by deceiving the public, by inducing the public to pur- chase the goods and manufactures of one person supposing them to be those of another. The trade-mark must there- fore be distinctive in its original signification pointing to the origin of the article, or it must have become such by as- sociation. There are two rules which are not to be over- looked: No one can claim protection for the exclusive use of a trade-mark which would practically give him a monop- oly in the sale of any goods other than those produced or made by himself. If he could, the public would be injured rather than protected, for competition would be destroyed. Nor can a generic name, or a name merely descriptive of an article of trade, of its qualities, ingredients, or characteris- tics be employed as a trade-mark, and the exclusive use of it be entitled to legal protection. Canal 00. v. Clarlc, 13 Wallace 311. It will be observed that the foregoing decision bases the protection of trade-marks on the power of the courts to pre- vent fraud. Such is deemed to be the correct view in the U. S. (C'/mdwic/c v. Oovell, 151 Mass. 190.) The later English cases, however, place emphasis on the property element in a trade-mark, and no longer conceive of the wrong to be re- dressed “as a species of fraud, but as being to an incorporeal franchise what trespass is to the possession or right to pos- sessiqn of the corporeal subjects of property.” Pollock, Torts, p. 26 . The right to use a trade-mark is not confined to a manu- facturer or producer of goods. One who exercises skill and fidelity in the selection of goods, or who bleaches goods, or is a shipper, a commission merchant, a seller or a carrier, may acquire the right to a trade-mark which serves to dis- tinguish his vendible commodities from those of others-to authenticate them as the signature authenticates a letter. When Acqm'red.--It is sometimes said that a trade-mark must have been used for a considerable period before its adopter will be protected. The better view appears to be, however, that as soon as the mark is adopted and used as a TRADESCANT trade-mark in connection with vendible articles, the right to protection is complete. Cope v. Evans, L. R. 18 Eq. 143 ; Shaver v. Shaver, 54 Ia. 208. Ea;amples.—As stated above, a name or device which is generic or descriptive of the article, its qualities, ingredients, or characteristics can not be monopolized as a trade-mark. Accordingly, the courts have refused to protect the use of such terms as Cherry Pectoral, Toffe Tulu, Rye and Rock, Straight Cut, Cresylic Ointment, Iron Bitters, Ferro-phos- phorat-ed Elixir of Calisaya Bark; while they have protected Cottolene, Bromo-caffeine, Lacto-peptine, Sirup of Figs, and others. The decision in such cases often turns on a question of fact. Is the term, claimed as a trade-mark, either origi- nally descriptive of the article, or had it, before its adoption as a trade-mark, become incorporated into the language so as to be descriptive of the article‘? If either of these ques- tions is answered in the affirmative, the term can not be pro- tected as a trade-mark. (Chemical Co. v. Meyer, 139 U. S. 540; Kearly v. Brooklyn Chemical Worles, 142 N. Y. 467.) On the other hand, if the term is employed in an arbitrary or fanciful manner, the person first adopting and using it in connection with his wares will be protected. The word “ Ideal,” therefore, applied to fountains has been held a valid trade-mark, so La Favorita applied to flour, so Falstaff and Phil. Sheridan applied to cigars, and Roger Williams applied to cotton cloth. Devices, symbols, or pictures may be used as trade-marks. For example, a star, an elk’s head, a picture of a boy doubled up with cramps, a peculiar grouping of letters, an arbitrary combination of numerals such as 3214, may be used to indi- vidualize the goods made or dealt in by a particular person, and become a valid trade-mark. Letters or numerals, how- ever, can not be monopolized to indicate quality. Ordinarily a geographical name can not be turned into a trade-mark. If it is used in an arbitrary or fanciful sense, it may be protected, as in the case of Vienna bread, or C0- lumbia Hotel ; and in Britain, certainly, it will be upheld if it has acquired a secondary signification in connection with a particular manufacture, as in the case of Glenfield starch. (lVotherspoon v. Currie, Law Reports, 5 House of Lords 508.) The name of a mine or of a mineral spring may become a valid trade-mark for its product, where the one asking for protection is the exclusive owner of the spring or mine. “ Carlsbad salts,” “ Clysmic water,” “ Hunyadi Janos,” “ Apol- linaris ” and “ Congress water ” are examples. How Lost and Transferred.—The owner of a trade-mark may lose his right to it by abandoning it, that is, intention- ally discontinuing its use. It is incumbent on one alleging abandonment to show by clear and unmistakable evidence that the right has been relinquished. If the owner is guilty of laches in proceeding against persons infringing his trade- mark, he may lose his right to an account for part profits, but does not lose his right to an injunction. ZlIcLean v. Flem- ing, 96 U. S. 245. A trade-mark is a subject of commerce and may therefore be sold and transferred, unless such disposition of it works a fraud upon the public. If it is personal, that is, if it owes its value to the personal skill of a particular individual, it can not be transferred, as it is inseparable from that which gives it its value. Oftentimes a trade-mark is an incident of a particular business. In such cases a sale or devolution of the business carries with it the trade-mark without any express mention of it. Upon the dissolution of a partner- ship each partner has the rigl1t to use a firm trade-mark un- less he has vested the others with an exclusive right to this firm asset. (Merry v. Hoopes. 111 N. Y. 415.) The treatises upon this subject are numerous. Among the best are Bar- clay, Law of France relating to Trade-marks; Sebastian, Law of Trade-marks (London, 1890); and Browne, Law of Trade-marks (Boston, 1885). FRANc1s M. Bumncx. Trad'escant, J OHN: traveler and naturalist; b. in Hol- land about 1570; traveled through various countries of Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa, making a collection of objects of natural history; was in 1608 settled in Kent, England; subsequently established a botanic garden at South Lambeth, where he added largely to his collection of curiosities; was the means of acclimatizing several use- ful lants in England; was employed by several of the nobi ity to lay out their gardens, and in 1629 was ap ointed gardener to Charles I. D. at Lambeth in 1638.-— is son OHN, b. at Meopham, Kent, in 1608, added largely to the collection by his travels, in the course of which he visited Virginia, and published in 1656 a descriptive catalogue TRADES—UN ION S 225 under the title Museum Tradescantium, or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth, near London. D. Apr. 22, 1662. The museum was given by the younger Tradescant to the antiquary Elias Ashmole, and became the nucleus of the celebrated Ashmolean Museum, presented to the University of Oxford 1682. Revised by C. E. BESSEY. Trade Schools: See SCHOOLS. Trades-unions: societies of workingmen organized ehiefiy to assist members in contest with employers to secure rights and privileges. They are a natural evolution of the ancient guild into more definite, better organized, and larger societies than the guilds were._ Origin of Trades-unions.—They made their appearance about the middle of the eighteenth century, by which time mere temporary combinations of workmen to resist em- ployers’ exactions and to raise wages crystallized into per- manent local societies which were virtually trades-unions. They were at first confined each to its own trade. Each town then separated its union from every other, and isolated societies were the only unions. These were at first sup- ported by voluntary contributions, but as each union hard- ened into permanency and began to have regular needs, a specified tax was laid upon members and a treasury was established. Later the features of benefit societies were added to attract new members, but the union still retained its primal object as a fighting organization to resist injuries and to secure privileges, the usual objects of every organiza- tion in history from the church and the state down to the family and partnership. Trades-unions differ in no way from other combinations of men for self-protection and self- aggrandizement. In their benefit society features unions agreed to give help to members out of work, for sickness, or other legitimate cause, to pay burial expenses for members and their wives, and sometimes to give superannuation allowances, insur- ances against accident, and the like. By such provisions unions secured more members and larger funds. But these objects were not the chief purpose of the unions. That was and continues to be the adjustment of relations between men and masters in a way favorable to the men, and the points for which the men are combined were in general al- ways the same, namely, higher wages, shorter hours, provi- sions against physical dangers connected with work, and equalization of work among different bodies of workmen so as £30 prevent over-supply in one and scarcity of work man- ot er. English Trades-unions.—It was in England that trades- unions took their rise. The reason of this rise in England rather than elsewhere was because there the wages system consequent on the development of the factory first came into general use. Then for the first time laborers were grouped in large bodies, and this grouping tended naturally to asso- ciations for mutual help and protection. The old indus- trial body had been slack, personal, intermittent, and had called into existence temporary coalitions of workmen for specific purposes which dissolved themselves as soon as those purposes were accomplished. But with the advent of the factory system, with its regular wage payments and promo- tion of stable habits, workmen began to improve their condi- tion. With the increase of production their average wealth increased, and this turned their occasional coalitions into permanent institutions. English law for centuries bore hard upon all labor combinations and punished them as conspira- cies. The common law from time immemorial and many express statutes down to 1825 made them criminal. Work- men were forbidden even to discuss wages rates, hours of labor, contracts between employers and employed, or to try to induce their fellows to join them in efforts to increase wages. In fact they were absolutely forbidden to work out their own interests in any reasonable way down to 1825. Between 1776 and 1814, however. the inventions of Har- greaves, Arkwright, and \Vatt brought about a vast increase of production, which was succeeded as always by increase of wages. Workmen were gathered into cities and began to consult together. The result was an accession of force which, though against the law, made it possible for them to com- bine and discuss. Parliament at last began to listen and statutes were passed recognizing the legality of combinations of workingmen. In 1815 the ten-hour movement started, which won its victory in 1847. In 1867 special factory laws protecting children and women were passed; in 1875 laws to improve laborers’ houses and preventing payment in com- modities were made, and to-day labor finds itself intrenched, 412 226 protected, and favored on all sides, with political parties bidding against each other for its support and vote. Labor Representation in ParZz'ament.—In 1874 the first labor member of Parliament, Thomas Burt, was elected in England. He was president of the N orthumberland Miners’ Association. In 1885 the labor interests elected ten members; in 1886 _thirteen members. In 1892 seventeen were returned, among whom was Sir Charles Dilke. Up to 1886 these mem- bers were all representatives of unions of skilled laborers. They stood rather for defensive than aggressive measures. In the elections of 1895 the labor party received a severe blow in the defeat of most of its candidates. Trades-nniont'sm since 1886.-—Since 1886 the development of trades-unions in Great Britain has been most important. A great step was taken in the organization of unskilled labor, which dates from the London dock strike of 1889. Joseph Arch had organized rural laborers between 1870 and 1875. Benjamin Tillett and Thomas Mann organized the dock workmen, and by a strike succeeded in raising their wages to sixpence an hour. This has been followed by the so-called new unionism, a movement to organize unskilled labor every- where in the United Kingdom. This unionism is aggressive, and elected four members to the House of Commohs in Aug., 1892. It goes for the eight-hour day, for “one man, one vote,” payment of members of Parliament and election ex- penses by Government, simplification of procedure in law courts, better factory acts, and other valuable measures. The British unions extend to every department of industry, and are now the fourth estate of the realm. In 1883 Great Britain had 195 unions of 253,088 members, and funds amounting to £431,495 sterling. In 1886 the membership had increased to 800,000, and in 1893 was 1,507,026, or 398 per cent. of the entire population. Continental ZV'a¢e'0ns.—-In Germany trades-unions of a type diifering from the British began to appear in 1868, laws against combinations of workmen having been repealed in 1866. General unions were first formed, and afterward local unions under the direction of the general unions. They originated with the professional classes, and in 1869 had 267 societies in 145 towns with 30,000 members, dimin- ished to 20,000 in 1872, but have since increased. They tend much to theories, unlike British unions, which are for busi- ness only. They easily become socialistic, get into politics, and begin to decay because they gain so little of practical benefit to their members. In 1875 France had seventy unions forbidden to meddle with politics. Switzerland and Bel- gium have many unions in a flourishing condition. Italy has had them since 1865, but they are still subject to some legal disabilities. Poorer countries have none, and all con- tinental trades-unions are more interested in views than in gains of wages or shorter hours as a rule, and are therefore ineffective. Fifteen national organizations, with over 52,000 members, were represented at the International Typograph- ical Congress held at Berne, Switzerland, in 1892. It was resolved to create an international strike and traveling bene- fit fund, and to agitate for uniform wages and less hours. The next international congress was appointed for 1897. Trades-unions in the United States.-—Colonial history shows no labor-unions among its scattered populations. Unions rise in cities, and not till 1840 did the U. S. possess a city of a population of 500,000. Local labor-unions arose, however, from 1800 to 1825. Notably the New York So- ciety of J ourneymen Shipwrights, organized Apr. 3, 1803; the House-carpenters of the City of New York, in 1806; the New York Typographical Society, 1818—with Thurlow \Veed for a member. In Boston the Columbian Society of Shipwrights and Calkers of Boston and Charlestown was given a charter in 1823 “ to have and use a common seal, to make its own by-laws, manage and apply its funds, promote invention and improvements in its arts, assist mechanics with loans of money, and relieve unfortunate mechanics and their families.” Local labor-unions multiplied between 1815 and the be- ginning of the civil war (1861). These local unions also began to extend to men of the same trades in other cities as the railway developed increased ease of intercourse, and finally the idea of a general national union began to be mooted, though with indifferent success. In these move- ments the best men among the most skillful laborers took the lead. Boston, New York, and Philadelphia were most prominent in the struggles of labor during those years. In 1820 George Henry Evans and his brother Frederick arrived in New York from England, and soon began to influence laborers with their ideas of land reform, holding that men TRADES—UNIONS should have only the use of land, and rent should be abol- ished. They published The Worhingnzen’s Advocate be- tween 1825 and 1829, probably the first labor paper pub- lished in the U. S. The General Trades-union, established in New York in 1833, was the first central labor-union in the U. S. Its objects were “to guard against encroach- ments by aristocracy, to preserve natural and political rights, to elevate moral and intellectual conditions, and to estab- lish the honor and safety of industrial vocations.” The right of laborers to combine for protection was asserted, and the position that general trades-unions would diminish the num- ber of strikes and lockouts was maintained. One rule was that “ no trade or art should strike for higher wages without the sanction of the convention.” In 1831 Stephen Simpson published in Philadelphia The W'orhz'ngmen’s Jllannal, with the motto “Governments were instituted for the happiness of the many and not the bene- fit of the few,” and to show that “labor is the source of wealth and industry the arbiter of its distribution.” The writer had no notion of the economic laws which determine distribution, giving to each his own with small regard to civil laws or society resolutions. Seth Luther published An Address to Worhvlngmen in 1832 of greater value, in which he recounted the miseries of workmen of that day. They worked from twelve to fifteen hours per day, begin- ning often at half-past four. Children eleven years of age and women were treated with incredible brutality, beaten, and maimed, and mangled. Wages were low, from 65 to 71 cents per day. The press was hostile, and employers everywhere denounced trades-unions and combined to sup- press them; $20,000 was raised among Boston merchants for that purpose, so ignorant were they of their usefulness. A workingman’s convention in 1830 nominated Ezekiel Williams for Governor and gave him 3,000 votes. Their party was later called Locofocos and joined the Democrats, who favored them more than did the Whigs. Their work and principles show an advanced stage of social thought, though mixed with many uneconomic ideas, such as the abolition of “wages slavery,” the inalienability of homes, abolition of laws to collect debts, and the natural right of man to the soil. Other notions, as the abolition of im- prisonment for debt, equal rights of women, abolition of slavery, general bankrupt laws, were more reasonable, and some of them have taken their places on the statute-book. The New England Association of Tanners, Mechanics, and other Workingmen was formed in 1831, and met in Bos- ton Sept. 6, 1832. The labor movement began to enlist much sympathy now among literary people--William El- lery Channing, Robert Rantoul, Horace Mann, and the like ——who laid stress on education. Their sympathy was grate- ful, their help very small, since what was needed was not words but more things and greater roduction. Poverty could only be abolished by wealth, and) poverty was the dis- ease to be cured. Dates of O9'gan’5zaz‘z'0ns.—-In 1850 the Typographical Union appeared, and in 1852 used first the prefix National, then International. At first New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Maryland, and Kentucky were represented in it; now it extends through all the States and some Territories. At first opposed by employers, it is now welcomed and sup- ported by most and endured by all. Labor organizations were formed by the hatters in 1854, iron workers in 1858, machinists in 1859, and others organized later till twenty- six trades had national unions in 1860, and many have been added since. International unions Were formed by cigar- makers (1864), engineers (1864), masons (1865). Unions were also formed by conductors (1868), wool-hatters (1869), furni- ture-workers (1873), locomotive firemen (1869), horseshoers (1875), granite-cutters (1877), coal-miners (1885), bakers (1886), carpenters, plasterers, tailors, glass-workers, boiler-makers, bookkeepers, bottle-blowers, plumbers, piano-makers, switch- men, spinners, stereotypers, lithographers, and finally mes- senger-boys. At length women also caught the spirit, and organized their various callings, till now the unions are everywhere. In 1872 eight-hour leagues began to be formed, and they are now very extensive. Already many trades have secured the nine-hour and some the eight-hour work-day. In the U. S. trades-unions, though numerous, were local and con- fined to their own special trades until Mar. 3,1859, when the National Union of Machinists and Blacksmiths was called together in order to make a more extended organiza- tion. It met in Philadelphia and took into consideration a long list of workmen’s “ wrongs,” such as “ the payment of TRADES-UNION S wages in orders,” the taking on of too many apprentices, and the peremptory dismissal of workmen. It recognized, however, the real identity of interests between employers and employed. The success of this meeting led one of the moulders, \V. H. Silvis, to call another for permanent organization. The same Mr. Silvis also called to order the first national union of all trades-unions on Feb. 22, 1861. During the civil war the National Labor-union fell into abeyance, but was revived in 1867, though with little enthusiasm at first. It pushed forward the homestead law, however, and in June, 1868, it succeeded in getting the eight-hour labor-day adopted by Congress as the standard time of Government employees. It adopted a platform, reciting a long list of grievances en- tailed upon labor by the existing scheme of society, and so deployed into politics, with the usual result of such depar- tures from the proper field. The National Labor-union fell into neglect during the years from 1870 to 1873, and threat- ened to disappear. A general convention was called at Cleveland, 0., on July 15, 1873, to prevent this, under the new name of an Industrial Brotherhood, which passed the usual denunciatory resolutions, and called a second meeting on Apr. 14, 1874, at Rochester, N. Y. But, entering the do- main of politics with a very radical programme, this or- ganization perished as the previous one had, and was dead in 1875 from mere “neglect and indifference.” Trades- unions properly so called still flourished, but the National Union, to eflfect by law that amelioration of the laborers’ condition which could be accomplished only by an increase of production, fell to pieces for want of a sufficiently prac- ticable purpose. Kai his of Labor.-—On Dec. 9, 1869, the Garment Cut- ters’ nion of Philadelphia dissolved itself, and divided its money among its members. On the 28th of the same month some of the ex-members of that body met and formed the first association of the Knights of Labor. To save its mem- bers from the temptations of the saloon this body resolved to combine reasonable pleasure with business, and had re- freshments served at its meetings. The trades-unions had become social, and like most social institutions began to succeed, since a social trend is always better than a political one. The order was made secret, and care was taken to avoid the admission of unfit persons as members. In July, 1870, this organization was opened to others beside gar- ment cutters, and soon began to assume wide relations. It was simply an evolution of the ordinary trades-unions to an extraordinary extension, and carried with it, therefore, that relation to practical business affairs which the more ambi- tious national brotherhoods had lost in politics. Its secrecy and the consequent limitation of its members gave it an un- usual interest to workmen. One of its expressed objects was to harmonize labor and capital. It discountenanced strikes, idleness, and frivolity, and was to labor for the rime object of securing to every man the fruits of his toil. t arose out of the irrational readiness of the trades-union- ists to strike all round for the grievance of one man without considering the injuries which the strike might work to all. The unions thought only of the workman: the Knights of Labor began to consider the community. It really marked a step in advance over all previous organizations in the field of thought, inasmuch as it displayed a consciousness of social duties belonging to the mechanic apart from any mere quar- rel with his employer, duties which might lead him to waive his own wrongs in deference to the greater evils to be suf- fered by society in case he insisted upon his contention. This organization also sought to occupy a higher intellec- tual plane than any before it. It set to work to compile facts about the classes belonging to it, to learn their work, wages, and mode of living, to keep a record of the number of its employed and non-employed, to encourage men to know the laws of the land, and to learn to read and write at least their own names. The second branch of the Knights of Labor was organized on July 18, 1872, and by Jan., 1876, it had over 100 societies from all kinds of trades, extending as far W. as I/Vyoming. In 1877 it took part in the great strike on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad to resist a 10 per cent. reduction of wages, which resulted in losses of $5,000,000. Four hundred and fifty- six assemblies were in existence in 1877, and in June, 1878, a national body of Knights of Labor was organized. lt adopted the platform of the deceased Industrial Brother- hood at Reading, Pa. Laborers still remained under the common misconception that “ the development of aggregated wealth” threatened to increase the poverty of the masses TRAGACANTH 227 and their degradation, which is much like saying that plenty of rain is the cause of drought, or a big crop 1n a tobacco- field tends to sterilize a corn-field. In 1881 the knights dis- carded the rule of secrecy. Many of their ideas are good, as that “ Politics are always too late, coming only after the evil is done—-that they must be superseded by education.” They would have spoken better if they had said “ Education is too slow; we must de- vote ourselves to production and increasing our own wealth —the rest will come.” The establishment of labor bureaus in different States occupied the knights’ attention with such success as to create such bureaus in twenty-eight States, and finally the U. S. bureau of labor was established in 1884, a really signal step in advance for the civilization of the U. S. In 1888 the Department of Labor was further created at \Vashington, and at last there was begun a reasonable gov- ernmental attention to the main interest for which govern- ment exists at all, and that is the increase of the means of living among the people. The eight-hour problem is now the main consideration of trades-unions. The alien-labor law, long seriously contended for, is already in force. The American Federation of Labor.—This organization originated in Nov., 1887. In 1891 it claimed to have 4,458 local unions under its control, included in seventy-four gen- eral unions, under Samuel Gompers, president. Its general objects are the same with other unions, namely, short hours, higher wages, protection of laborers in factories and on active duty, prevention of unprepared and useless strikes, preven- tion of the labor of children under fourteen years of age, passage of laws to improve the laborers’ condition, equaliza- tion of men’s and women’s wages for the same work, and the like. Between it and the Knights of Labor there is more or less antagonism, arising from their attempting to cover much the same ground as universal organizations. The knights desire a centralized system, while the Federa- tion of Labor wishes to leave the different trades-unions in. a position like that of the separate commonwealths in the U. S., each with its own government. In most matters the two organizations aim at similar results, but with different machineries. Neither of them has as yet attempted the or- ganization of unskilled labor in the U. S., where the diffi- culties would be enormous owing to diiferences of nation- alities in the laboring classes and the constant influx of laborers from all countries. Many of these importations, unfortunately, are far below the level of organization as yet. Benefits of Tmdes-mzi0ns.—George Howells enumerates the benefits of trades-unions to workmen as follows : (1) Dis- cipline arising from subjection to rules and laws. (2) Unity, which gives strength. (3) Social restraint, inducing sobriety. (4) Thrift, arising from frequent discussions of ways and means. (5) Emulation among members, who ridicule drones and botchers. (6) Educational eifects springing out of dis- cussions of important subjects and political issues. Mr. Howells, however, fails here to include the benefits for which the unions chiefly exist, namely, to raise wages and shorten working hours. STARR HOYT N101-1oLs. Trade Winds: See Wmns. Tradu'cianism [from Lat. trdduas, tra'ducis, a vine- layer trained for propagation, deriv. of trad'u‘cere. lead across, lead along, train, propagate]: the theory that the human soul is derived from the souls of the parents, as the body is from their bodies. Tertullian, Athanasius, Gregory Nazianzen, and the Lutheran theologians are Traducians. generally holding that the parents are the divinely ap- pointed means of a divine act of creation. Augustine leans toward this view, although careful not to commit himself to it. During the Middle Ages, however, creationism, or the theory that each soul is a separate creation and joined to the body just after its conception. was the orthodox view, and is the prevalent view in the Roman and Protes- tant Churches. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Trafalgar: See CAPE TRAFALGAR. Trag’acanth [from Lat. fragaca/n’z‘7zum, deriv. of traga- can'tha : Gr. 'rpa-yaixaufla, a shrub producing tragacanth; 'rpoi')/09. goat + &r< g ‘ / ll] /1 /' ,y///,f;;‘,;;1i/I/''' / // /%?;~{/I/I / . ‘ : \ ,- rfin ’// - ~'f'//'4’//W.////’/7 * . ~/////// _/,,-7,////// .,''////,,’///1:/&,¢I;A,%7fl,'',¢‘// ', / 1/ /7)‘ / 5/ , / '/// / / ,/// -/-'-’/'//’/4'' M /I/M .1-’//’,/"f’//{'1'//1:/1‘/J5//7/.37” .,->’¢;‘//;//""=//;%Z/11/%%fi%%W K‘ ' ‘ " ‘ .. /M’/”’5y";;;;;Z7//W/ /(T. ’ ' . :. "_ I - . ,. H . ii ,1 ‘NI///li(£_+!_ -_ FIG. 7.—Bedell-Ryan revolving contact-maker. ploying a contact-maker (see Fig. 7) which closes a circuit once in each revolution of the armature of the generator, and thus enables measurements to be made at any desired phase of the alternation. (Methods of measurement are de- scribed in vol. ii. of Nichols‘s Labomtovy Jlfamtal of Physics and A pplied ]VIecham'cs.) The connections for a transformer test by this method are shown in Fig. 8. Curves thus ob- tained are shown in Fig. 9, which indicates in a complete manner the action of a transformer. (The curves here given were taken from a hedgehog transformer.) The primary current lags considerably behind the primary electromotive force. The secondary electromotive force is almost exactly 233 opposite in phase to that of the primary. The efliciency may be obtained by computing the primary and secondary \ I ll“: \-||‘\- SWITCHBOARD c: u_:u_-F _ ‘ R3 I +++++++aa TRANSFORMER \/\/\/\/\./\ “:LiL>_O__ R2 P. CUR. 3 VOLTMETER ' ' SECONDARY LOAD RACK HOLDING 60‘50-VOLT LAMPS CONTACT MAKER FIG. 8.—Connections for transformer test by method of instantane- ous contact. power from the instantaneous values of current and electro- motive force. The results of a test upon a transformer pos- sessing exceptionally high efliciency and good regulation are shown in Fig. 10. FIG. 9.—Transformer curves by method of instantaneous contact. The theory of the transformer may be analytically de- veloped from the two equations for primary and secondary electromotive forces : dI dI E1 :.R1I1 dI dI 0=R2I2 +L2d—t”+IM—dt‘. These express the relation that the electromotive force in a circuit is equal to the electromotive force to overcome re- sistance, the counter electromotive force of self-induction and the back electromotive force of mutual induction. The coefficients of mutual induction, Jlf, and primary and sec- ondary self-induction, L1 and L9, are : ll-,[._ 4WS1S2A#. _ ————————-Z , 4 S ‘*’A L1 : “W 2 F‘; SIQA L1 : 234 TRANSFORMER Here S1, S2 denote primary and secondary turns; A, Z, and /1 denote area, length, and permeability of the magnetic cir- cuit. The ratio of transformation is equal to the ratio of the number of primary and secondary turns. It is by this FIG. 10.—Efficiency and regulation curves. ratio that the potential is transformed up or down-—that is, the primary and secondary electromotive forces have the same ratio as the number of turns. Space will not here permit the'development of analytical theory. The results of analysis may, however, be well shown by a diagram in which relative magnitudes and phase relations are shown graphically. K '1')/F?"1"+L\i(;¢J'-’ 4,\ (- FIG 11.—‘Transformer diagram. I Such a transformer diagram is shown in Fig. 11 (Bedell and Crehore). Each line is drawn to represent the magni- tude of some quantity. The diagram is supposed to revolve with uniform velocity in a counter-clockwise direction. The value of a quantity at any instant is found by projecting u aon any fixed line of reference the line which represents it. The primary current is represented by UK. Ninety degrees be- hind this is OB, the electromotive force induced by the primary current in the secondary circuit, equal t-o Mall (where no :: 211-n, n being the frequency or number of com- lete alternations per second). The secondary current UT) ags by the angle 62 due to the secondary self-induction. The electromotive forces in the secondary are UE induced by the primary current CF due to self-induction, and_0—C the resultant pressure at the terminals. The secondary cur- rent induces the back electromotive force, W, ninety de- grees behind it in the primary. The primary electromotive f_t>I'_c:e, OK, is equal to the geometrical sum of three parts: 0G to overcome the back electromotive force, (717 ; (T to overcome resistance; and .HJ to overcome the self-induction of the primary itself. Evidently the secondary current is about opposite in phase to the primary electromotive force. The magnitudes of the various quantities are indicated by the lmes representing them. The angular positions of the lines represent the phase relations of the corresponding quantities. A transformer diagram of this sort can be con- structed for a particular transformer under given condi- tions, and the complete action of the transformer is thus shown by purely graphical methods. FREDERICK BEDELL. TRANSIT Transfusion of Blood [transfusion is from Lat. trans- fn’st'0, deriv. of r.“ransfun’dwe, transfn'snm, pour over; trans, across, over + fnn'dere, pour]: a surgical operation in which blood from a strong and healthy person, or from one of the lower animals, is injected into the veins of a feeble or anaemic patient. It is especially employed after severe puerperal hae-morrhage, great care being taken to exclude bubbles of air or clots, either of which is likely to prove fatal. The blood, either defibrinated or not, is usually in- troduced by means of a suitable syringe. This operation, though long known and at present recognized as a legiti- mate one, is not as yet very common; but it may be con- sidered as established that in well-selected cases, and when performed with proper skill, transfusion is an extremely useful and successful operation. The transfusion of warm saline solutions is almost if not equally useful and does not have the dangers of blood transfusion. Subcutaneous in- jection of saline solutions and rectal injections of water are scarcely less efficacious and prompt in action than trans- fusion in cases of hzemorrhage. Revised by W. PEPPER. Transit [from Lat. zfran'm'tas, a crossing, going over, deriv. of transfre, tran’sz'tnm, cross; trans, across, over + ire, go] : the passage of a planet over the disk of the sun, or, in a broader sense, the passage of any celestial body over an arbitrary point of reference. The transit vinszframent is an astronomical instrument used to determine the time of a star’s passage over a fixed great circle of the heavens, usually the meridian or the prime ver- tical. In the latter case the instrument is called a prime vertical transit. Roemer seems to have first used a transit instrument for the determination of right ascensions in 1675, and fourteen years after that he used it in the merid- ian for the determination of local time. A very excellent form of the most modern construction is shown in Fig. 1, III 34 vtk -- k 1-‘~1- I: ‘ I ll -2;-'—_ FIG. 1. where it’ represents a telescope of 3 inches aperture and 40 inches focus, which rotates around a horizontal axis a a’, and is composed of the frusta of two similar cones firmly secured to the hollow brass cube, e e’, at their larger bases. The axis, a a’, is also composed of the frusta of two similar cones terminating in two faces of the cube e e’ at right an- gles to the other two faces. This axis terminates in two pivots, [9 p’, 1-} inches in diameter, made of cast steel, which rest upon V-shaped bearings firmly supported by the cast- iron piers, n n’, which are firmly bolted to a base plate at b, which in turn rests upon three points, on m’ m", of which the point, on, is capable of a slight lateral motion by means of the screw, 8. The telescope is made conical in order to give TRANSIT it the greatest rigidity of form ; it is of brass, and may be elevated to any desired angle by turning it on its axis. The light from a lamp enters through an aperture in one end of the axis p’ and strikes a diagonal reflector, the tint of the reflected light of which is controlled by the milled head, 2', operating colored glasses, and the reflector is so in- clined as to reflect the light downward into the field of view; this is necessary to render visible a reticule of fine lines composed of spider’s web, placed in the focus of the object-glass at f. At night these lines are quite invisible without artificial illumination. The simplest form of this reticule of lines is shown in Fig. 2, where s is a star entering the field be- tween two horizontal lines. The vertical line 0 is sup- posed to coincide with the plane in which the instru- ment rotates: a Z) (Z e are four additiorial lines sym- metricallyr placed, and the time at which the star sis bisected by each of them, as at s’, is noted. The mean of these observed times is more nearly correct than the time obtained from the transit across a single wire, 0, would be. Five or seven wires are usually employed when the times are noted by eye and ear; this number is increased when the times are noted with a chronograph. To determine the local time, the instrument is set up in the meridian and accurately leveled. The‘error of the time- piece is found by noting the difference between the ob- served and true times of transit of stars across the merid- ian. It is assumed that the horizontal axis is approximately level, and that the reticule has been so adjusted as to make the telescope axis pass through the middle wire, and that the system of wires is perpendicular to the horizon. Transit C'z'reZe.—-The mural circle was formerly a com- panion to the transit instrument in a fixed observatory; but by attaching a large circle to the horizontal axis of the transit instrument the results formerly obtained by two instruments and two observers are now more accurately ob- tained by this single instrument, called the transit or merid- ian circle; the declination of a star being obtained from the circle reading, while its right ascension is obtained at the same time by observing its transit. Fig. 3 shows the transit circle of the Harvard College T Q q-' 0 G4 cu \/ \_,.,-L FIG. 2. FIG. 3. Observatory, built in 1870 by Troughton and Simms. The telescope has an aperture of 8% inches and a focal length of TRANSITS OF VENUS AND MERCURY 235 9 ft. 4 in. The telescope pivots rest on iron castings im- bedded in the solid marble block a a. Two circles 3 feet in diameter, graduated on silver to five minutes of arc, are at- tached to the axis, and move with the telescope. Four mi- croscopes, le 70 is It, provided with micrometers, read to tenths of a second of arc the distance of the last five-minute divi- sion on the circle beyond which the telescope has been moved to bring a star into the position 8 of Fig. 4 from the center of the microscopes. The microscopes are secured to a circular frame, which in turn is attached to the iron cast- ing which supports the bearings for the pivots. A simi- lar arrangement exists with regard to the circle on the other side of the telescope from the one shown in the draw- ing. Counterpoises at e e, working upon the levers, f f, di- minish the amount of the friction of the pivots against their bearings. Glass cases cover both the circles. For the purpose of easily finding an object, the small finding-circles at a were provided, but in practice it is found more convenient to use a long arm attached to the axis, which describes the are indicated in the lower part of the figure o. A lantern at Z throws its light by a system of reflectors upon the circle. ~ The framework at A is used for putting the striding-level in position. The instrument diifers from the usual form of transit circles in supporting the circles above the piers, in its system of counterpoises, and in the placing of the circles so near to the floor that they may be read without the inconvenience of using steps. These improvements are due to the late Prof. Joseph Winlock, as also the using of collimators having apertures of the same diameter as the observing telescope. Fig. 4 represents the reticule of this instrument. It con- sists of a system of twenty-five vertical lines, fifteen of which are double and arranged as shown in the figure. A diagonal double line, a a’, makes an angle of 85° with the vertical system. Fractional parts of a horizontal line, at ct’, extend far enough into the field to enable the observer to bring the star 8 between the lines a a’ and d d’ when the star enters the field. Since a a’ would intersect at d’ at the center 0, the star s transits the line a a’ at some point 8’ be- tween a and o, and by noting the time when the star is at s’, it becomes a matter of simple trigonometry to compute the vertical distance of s’ from the line ct d’, and consequently from the assumed center of the field. The reading of the large graduated circle gives us the observed zenith distance of this central line at d’ in space, and we are thus enabled, without any micrometrical measurements, to obtain the exact observed attitude by adding to the reading of the circle the computed vertical distance a s’ with its proper. sign. For a full discussion of the transit instrument, see W. Chauvenet, Jlfanaal of Spherical and Practical Ast1'o'no'm.y; United States Coast S-uo-veg Reports (1866, appendix N o. 9; 1868. a pendix No. 10), by Prof. O. A. Schott. For discus- sions of) transit circle, see W. Ghauvenet (as above) ; Wash- ington Ast'ronom/zloal Observations for 1865. Revised by S. Nnwoomn. Transits of "enus and Mercury: The term “transit” means the apparent passage of a planet as a dark object across the disk of the sun. This can take place only with the two planets Mercury and Venus, whose orbits lie within that of the earth. Transits of Mercury occur at intervals of a few years; never more than thirteen, nor less than three. They have no special astronomical significance, but owing to their interest they are industriously observed when they do occur. The times of occurrence for some time to come are given in the article l\/IERCURY. Transits of Venus are among the rarest phenomena of astronomy, as only two occur in a period of more than a century. They were for- merly believed to afford the most accurate method of deter- mining the solar parallax. (See SOLAR PARALLAX.) For this reason the whole astronomical world devoted great attention to the observation of those which occurred in 1761. 1769, 1874. and 1882. and the leading nations sent expeditions to distant points of the earth’s surface to make the necessary 236 TRANSLATION, MOTION OF observations. On the whole, however, they have been a com- parative failure, so far as the determination of the sun’s parallax is concerned. The last transit occurred in 1882; no other will be seen until the year 2004. Further infor- mation respecting them is contained in the article VENUS. Revised by S. Nnwcoue. Translation, Motion of : See Mormu. Transleithania, ti~ai1s-li-ta’ni-afa: the common name for that part of the Austrian-Hungarian monarchy which lies to the E. of the river Leitha, an affluent of the Danube. It comprises Hungary proper, Transylvania, Croatia, and Sla- vonia, or the Hungarian crown-lands. It has never become generally used, and corresponds closely to the present king- dom of Hungary as distinguished from Austria proper. TranS1nig'l'a'ti0n [from Lat. transmigra'tio. deriv. of transmigro/re, transmigrate; trans, over, across + migra’re, remove, migrate] : the doctrine of the repeated existence of the soul in different forms of matter, its form in each suc- cessive existence being determined by its merits and demer- its in the preceding ones. Buddha, replacing the idea of soul with the wholly different idea of KARDIA (g. 1).), denied the entire theory of transmigration. It has, however, exten- sive sway among the ignorant masses of his followers, in spite of his negative teaching. The most striking fact in connection with this doctrine is its wide prevalence. The ancient civilization of Egypt seems largely to have grown out of this faith. The swarming millions of India also, through the chief periods of their history, have, under its spell, suf- fered their lives, wrought their great works of govern- ment, architecture, philosophy, and poetry, meditated, as- pired, and exhaled their souls. Ruder forms of it are re- ported among innumerable barbaric tribes. It played an important part in the speculations of the early Fathers of the Christian Church, and has often cropped out in the works of later theologians. Men of the profoundest met- aphysical genius, like Scotus Erigena and Leibnitz, have affirmed it, and sought to give it a logical or scientific basis. And even amidst the predominance of skeptical and mate- rialistic influences in Europe and America at the present time, there are many individuals with independent minds who earnestly believe the dogma, for to a large class of minds the doctrine has transcendant attraction as well as plausibility. An Oriental Doctrine.—Another striking fact connected with this subject is that it seems to be an ineradicable growth of the Oriental world, but appears in the Western world rather as an exotic form of thought. The antheistic tendency which possessed and overwhelmed the rahmanic mind, shaping and tingeing all its views, opened the whole range of sentient existences to an indiscriminate sympathy, and made the idea of transmigration natural, and more pleasing than repugnant. Furthermore, the Brahmanic sages are a distinct class of men whose lives are absorbed in introspective reveries calculated to stimulate the imagina- tion and arouse to keen consciousness all the latent possi- bilities of human experience, thus furnishing the most favor- able conditions for such a belief as that of transmigration. Accordingly, the doctrine has held the mind, sentiment, and civilization of the East through every period of its history as with an irrevocable spell. On. the contrary, in the Western world, the characteristic tendencies are all different. Pan- theistic theories are rarely held, and the dreams and emo- tions which those theories are fitted to feed are foreign. An impassable barrier is imagined separating humanity from every other form of being. Speculative reason, imagina- tion, and affection are chiefly employed in scientific studies and social pursuits, or personal schemes external rather than internal. This absorption in material affairs engenders in the spirit an arid atmosphere of doubt and denial, in which no efflorescence of poetic and mystic faiths can flourish. Thus while outward utilities abound, hard negations spread abroad, and living, personal apprehension of God, provi- dence, and the immortality of the soul dies out either in open infidelity or in a mere verbal acceptance of the established creed of society. Its Grounds.—The grounds on which this belief rests are chiefly the following: (1) The strong resemblances, both physical and psychical, connecting human beings with the whole family of lower creatures. They have all the senses in common with us, together with the rudiments of intelli- gence and will. They all seem created after one plan, as if their varieties were the modulations of a single type. We recognize kindred forms of experience and modes of expres- TRANSPIRATION sion in ourselves and in them. Now the man seems a trav- esty of the hog, the parrot, the ape, the hawk, or the shark: now they seem travesties of him. As we gaze at the rumi- nating ox, couched on the grass_. notice the slow rhythm of his jaw and the dreaminess of his soft eyes, it is not difficult to fancy him some ancient Brahman transmigrated to this form, and patiently awaiting his release. Nor is it incongru- ous with our reason or moral feeling to suppose that the cruel monsters of humanity may in a succeeding birth find the fit penalty for their degradation and crime in the horrid life of a crocodile or a boa-constrictor. (2) The conception of a series of connected lives furnishes a plausible explana- tion for many mysteries in our present experience. Refer- ence is made to all that class of phenomena covered by the Platonic doctrine of Reminiscence. Faces previously un- seen, and localities unvisited, awaken in us a feeling of fa- miliarity with them. Thoughts and emotions not hitherto entertained come to us as if we had welcomed and dismissed them a thousand times. Many an experience, ap arently novel and untried, makes us start as though the cliambers of the soul had often before echoed to its shadowy footsteps. The supposition of forgotten lives preceding the present, portions of which reverberate and gleam through the veils of thought and sense, seems to throw light on this depart- ment of experience. (3) Much more weighty, however, than the foregoing considerations is the philosophical argument drawn from the nature of the soul. Consciousness being in its very essence the feeling of itself, the conscious soul can never feel itself annihilated, even in thought. It only loses the knowledge of its being when it lapses into unconscious- ness, as in sleep or trance. The soul may indeed think its own annihilation, but can not realize the thought in feeling, since the fainter emotional reflex upon the idea of its de- struction is instantly contradicted and overborne by the more massive and vivid sense of its persistent being in im- mediate consciousness. This incessant self-assertion of con- sciousness at once suggests the idea of its being independent of the changing body in which it is shrined. Then the con- ception naturally follows that the soul, as it has once ap- peared in human form, may rea pear indefinitely in any of the higher or lower forms whic compose the hierarchy of the universe. The eternity of the soul, past and fu- ture, once accepted by the mind, leads directly to the con- struction of the whole scheme of the metempsychosis——an everlasting succession of births and deaths, disembodiments and re-embodiments, with their laws of personality and for- tunes of time and space weaving the boundless web of des- tiny and playing the endless drama of providence. (4) But the strongest support of the theory of transmigration is the happy solution it seems to give to the problem of the dis- tressing inequality and injustice which appear so predomi- nant in the experience of the world. To the superficial ob- server of human life, the whole scene of struggle, sin and sorrow, nobleness and joy, triumph and defeat, is a tangle maze of inconsistencies, a painful combination of discords. But if we believe that every soul, from that of the lowest insect to that of the highest archangel, composes an affili- ated member of the infinite family of God, and is eternal in its conscious essence, perishable only as to its evanescent disguises of incarnation ; that every act of every creature is followed by its legitimate reactions ; that these actions and reactions constitute a law of retribution absolutely perfect; that these souls, with all their doings and sufferings, are in- terconnected with one another and with the whole, all whose relationships copenetrate and co-operate, with mutual influ- ences whose reports are infallible, and with lines of se- quence that never break—then the bewildering maze be- come a vindicated plan, the horrible discord a divine har- mony. But the theory of the transmigration of souls remains, to the average modern mind of the Western world, a mere fancy, although it has a deep metaphysical basis, a strong oetic charm, and a high ethical and religious quality. See .l.lE'l‘EMPSYCHOSIS, PESSIMISM, and BRAHMANISM. See Alger’s History of Doctrine of a Future Life, part 5, ch. ii., for full treatment of the subject of metempsychosis; also Leibnitz, Jllonadologie ; Hardy’s J1/I anual 0 f Buddhism, ch. v.; Edward D. Walker, Reincarnation: a Study of For- gotten Truth (New York). WILLIAM R. ALGER. Transpirationz the process of exhaling a gas or liquid, as in botany the exhalation of watery vapor from the sur- face of leaves. The transpiration of gases and liquids is their motion through capillary tubes under pressure. See GAS and PHYSIOLOGY, VEGETABLE. TRANSPORTATION Transportation [from Lat. transportafio, deriv. of trans- porta’re, carry across, transport; trans, across, beyond + porta're, carry] : the act of conveymg persons or goods and the like from one place to another. In connection with this subject we have to consider the history of the physical means employed-—roadways and waterways, natural or ar_t1- ficial, sail and steam, wagon-road or railway—and the social and economic problems which arise out of the services ren- dered, including the question of the relation of the various transportation agencies to the goyernment, . , Transp0rtatt'0n by Water.—For a long time 1n the world s history most of the transportation was by water. There was little internal commerce. Each village or manor hved chiefly within itself, and supplied its own rude wants. Most of the trade was in foreign products. The merchant vessels of the Phoenicians and other commercial nations many centuries before the Christian era, though rude in com- parison with modern appliances, represented the highest me- chanical and engineering art of the age, and the work done by these ships, both in discovery and in transportation, was of a remarkable character. On land there were no means of transportation to compare with them in efliciency. The earliest roads worthy of the name were built for purposes of war rather than of trade. As conquest preceded commerce, so the question of moving armies was in early days more important than the question of moving goods or travelers. By Roacls.—-The first important system of roads was de- veloped by Rome. In their first beginnings the Roman roads were military in their urpose and character. They were intended as means of ho ding the provinces in subjec- tion, rather than as means of exchanging goods with them. But as the power of Rome became more securely established the warlike purpose partly gave place to the peaceful one, and during the days of the empire there was a system of roads through Europe better than existed for many centu- ries afterward. In fact, down to the present day, in certain arts of Europe the best roads are the remains of the old Itoman system. With the downfall of the empire and the establishment of the feudal system there was again a period of commercial isolation. Trade by sea began to revive as early as the eleventh century, but it was not until the fourteenth cen- tury that the efforts of merchants in the towns were suf- ficient to give security and importance to inland trafiic, nor was it until the establishment of the French national power in the seventeenth century that any power was strong enough to resume the work of the Roman empire in road- building. It was Colbert, the great financial minister of Louis XIV., who conceived the idea of the French national system of roads and waterways, which his successors have continued to develop. There is a system of national‘high- ways, chiefly radiating from Paris, under the direct control of the department of roads and bridges. These are now supplemented by a system of departmental roads, bearing the same relation to each department or district that the national roads bear to France as a whole, while between them there are the local or communal roads, which are laid out and constructed in the same haphazard way as those in the U. S. The long lines of river in comparatively level country have enabled the French engineers to devise, at com- paratively slight expense, an internal system of navigable water routes in connection with the roads, so that France is, on the whole, less dependent on her railways than is any other civilized country. In England there was no such system of national or de- partmental roads. Down to the beginning of the eighteenth century the English road system was in the hands of local authorities, and, as is always the case under such conditions, it was imperfectly cared for. The establishment of national highways in England was due to private rather than to Gov- ernment enterprise. Turnpikes—-so called from the bar or pike which can be turned to bar the road at points for the collection of toll—were first established at the beginning of the eighteenth century. They were usually built by trusts; that is, by bodies of semi-public officials who were authorized to borrow money for the pur ose of constructing the road, and charge tolls, which shoul not only pay interest on the money thus borrowed, but ultimately, if possible, extinguish the principal. The English canals were built by private companies. The first important one was constructed in 1760. The next forty years wasa period of great activity in canal-building, the Duke of Bridgewater being the most active promoter of these enterprises. The U. S. was 1nuch later in developing a road and canal 237 system than England or France. This was due rather to the poverty of the country than to any lack of interest in the subject. The early roads were in the hands of local authorities—townships in New England, or counties else- where. In 1790 the first turnpike in the U. S. was built. The system developed first in Pennsylvania, but appears to have been carried further in New York. Some States gave subsidies to turnpikes, but on the whole they were built by private companies as a purely commercial enterprise. The one great public road of the U. S. was the national pike, or Cumberland Road, running from Washington by way of Wheeling, Columbus, and Vandalia, to the Mississippi river. It was built in sections, from 1808 to 1837. It was intended by its promoters as part of a large national system. Among the most prominent exponents of this idea were Gallatin in 1808, and Calhoun in 1818. Gallatin, as Secretary of the Treas- ury, urged the necessity of a comprehensive road system on economic grounds. Calhoun, as Secretary of War, argued in favor of the same proposal on military grounds also. Ul- timately, however, the plan of national aid to roads was taken up—-not by Democratic leaders like Gallatin and Cal- houn, but by the Whig party. This party approved of in- ternal highways on principle, as tending to bind the differ- ent parts of the country closer together, and to extend the influence of the central government. With the overwhelm- ing victory of the Democratic party under the leadership of President Jackson the project of a national road system failed completely. By CanaZs.—Canal-building in the U. S. was, for the most part, not in the hands either of private companies or of the national Government, but of the several States. By far the most important work of this kind was the Erie Canal, first projected in 1792, but actually built during the years 1817 to 1825. It proved so successful that it was en- larged in 1836, and for half a century, at least, was the most important internal transportation route in the U. S. The next best canal system was that of the State of Pennsyl- vania, which was useful and profitable until the develop- ment of railways, but afterward fell into comparative dis- use. Some of the coal canals were also very successful, but the other canal routes were, as a rule, ill judged, if not ruin- - ous. An important exception must of course be made in favor of those comparatively short ship-canals which virtu- ally formed part either of the lake route or of the Missis- sippi system. By Railways and S2feamshz'ps.—The use of steam as a motive power revolutionized all transportion——inland and foreign alike. There were several reasons for this, of which the most obvious is not the most important. The obvious effect of the use of steam was quicker transportation. Its still more important effect was that its application to other forms of business created a greater amount of goods to transport. When each village or each plantation lived within itself expensive roads were impossible, because the amount of trafiic was too small to pay interest on a costly rail or water route, no matter how eflicient it might be. But with the de- velopment of the factory system there came a chance for handling more traflic. The factories made goods on a large scale at very much lower prices than were admissible before. The difference between the old price and the new could be paid to any transportation agency which would lay down the goods in a market otherwise inaccessible. There thus grew up a demand for a means of placing factory products in distant towns and villages, and these in return were given the opportunity to send farm products to feed the larger towns in which the factories had collected. The amount of such traflic between town and country was now limited only by the question of price. Railways and steamships were developed as a means of doing an enormous business at low rates. The two inventions were almost simultaneous. that of the steamship being slightly the earlier. The practical useful- ness of this invention dates from the early years of the nine- teenth century. As early as 1820 or 1830 it was extensively employed on inland waters and in the coasting trade. It was not until 1838 that a systematic effort was made to use it permanently on ocean routes. The first efforts of the British steamship lines, aided and backed by the Govern- ment, were connected with political and military considera- tions quite as much as with purely commercial ones. But by the year 1850 the commercial success of the new method was assured, and then there began the hard fight for suprem- acy between steam and sail. The owners of the sailing- 238 vessels made determined efforts to hold their own by increase in size. by greater care both in construction and manage- ment, and, above all, by a study of the prevailing winds, due primarily to Lieut. Maury, which enabled sailing-vessels to reach their destination faster by somewhat circuitous routes than by the old direct ones. But, in spite of these, each new invention gave steam a new advantage. The sub- stitution of iron for wood as a material in ship-building helped the steamer more than the sailing-vessel. The sub- stitution of the screw for the side-wheel was an important step in economy of propulsion, especially in head winds and rough water. The introduction of compound engines, and afterward of the triple or quadruple expansion, marked a further step in the same direction. Even the increase in size of the vessels gave steamers a new advantage. It in- creased the consumption of fuel somewhat, but it increased the carrying capacity far more. With each year the per- centage of the world’s steam tonnage becomes larger, and its sailing tonnage relatively, if not absolutely, smaller. Since 1880, besides these general improvements in construction and economy, there has been a further tendency to systematize ocean traffic by the division of labor among different classes of boats. Formerly each boat was built for general purposes, and took all the traffic that it could get. To-day there are ocean passenger-steamers, built for high speed and on fine lines, and endeavoring to make their passages in the short- est possible time; freight-steamers, running on regular lines, but built with a view to economy in coal rather than econ- omy in time, and attracting freight by their regularity and convenience rather than by their speed or their appoint- ments; and, finally, ocean tramps, or still cheaper steamers, running like sailing-vessels, wherever they can get a cargo. In this competition the sailing-vessel has the advantage of cheapness in motive power, but the steamer can be so much more rapidly utilized that it often more than makes up for this disadvantage. For history of railway development and of the various devices connected with it, see RAILWAYS. This article is con- cerned rather with the social and economic effects—with the relation between the progress of invention on the one hand, and the growth of business on the other. Of the kind of use which would be made of the railway none of the early in- ventors had any idea. When the first charters were granted in Great Britain or Germany it was assumed that the com- pany would own the road. and that private individuals would furnish the vehicles if not the motive power. Rail- way charges under this view were to be like tolls on a canal or turnpike. Nor has the legislation of the present day everywhere outgrown this view. Equally erroneous was the old view of the kind of service which railways would proba- bly render. It was supposed that they would carry passen- gers rather than freight. It was predicted in 1830 or 1840 that passengers would very soon be carried at 100 miles an hour. On the other hand it was not supposed that railways could carry freight so cheaply as they 110W do, least of all that they could do it in competition with water routes. Some early charters actually tried to prohibit such carriage of freight. In 1856 there was an agitation in New York State to rohibit the New York Central Railroad from carrying reight in competition with the Erie Oanal. But each decade was marked by a lowering of rates and an in- crease in freight traffic which usually made the reduced charges profitable. This reduction, which was compara- tively slow until 1870, was much more rapid after the intro- duction of steel rails in place of iron. It was not the direct saving in expense which produced economy. It was rather the capacity of doing more work. The use of steel rails in- stead of iron made it possible to carry larger train-loads. With the increase in train-loads, as with the increase in size of steamships, the direct expense of running a train was slightly increased, but the amount which such a train could carry increased enormously. In the year 1870 a freight-car weighed 10 tons and carried 10 tons. In the year 1890 a standard freight-car weighed from 12 to 13 tons and could carry 25 tons. Two-thirds of the total weight of the train is profitable under the new conditions instead of one-half. A similar change took place in the size of locomotives. The new locomotives cost perhaps one-fourth more than the old to run, but they do from two to three times the work. In order to utilize this increased capacity, both of the cars and of the traffic, a system of rates was made to develop traffic. It was seen that in certain lines of business little or no movement could be obtained at high rates, while a great deal of business could be had if the rates were made lower. TRANSPORTATION This was the case with cheap articles like coal, stone, lum- ber, or even food products, especially if these articles were carried for long distances. Thus classification was intro- duced by which some goods paid more than others for the same weight, while the mileage system, which would make rates ,proportionate to the distance, was largely, if not wholly, abandoned. The efiect of this change has been a reduction of rates at almost every point, combined with vastly increased efficiency of the railway system. It has also contributed to the further development of improve- ments in construction and economy. In the U. S., instead of cheap railways built to carry a small amount of traflic at two or three cents a ton per mile, there are being substi- tuted more expensive roads carrying much larger traffic at one cent, half a cent, or, in certain exceptional cases, a quar- ter of a cent a ton per mile. Each increase of traffic makes it possible to introduce improvements in construction. Each improvement in construction renders it profitable to do an increased business at lower rates, and each lowering of rates enables the shippers to increase the volume of traffic fur- nished. Yet all this reduction increases rather than diminishes the possibility of extortion on the part of the railway mana- gers (see INTERSTATE COMMERCE), and renders the question of the organization of transportation service and its rela- tion to the Government even more important. Sevwice rendered by Transportazf/ion Agence'es.—This may be divided into two main heads: first, the transmission of intelligence; second, the transportation of persons and prop- erty. The former work has been kept in large measure in the hands of the government. There are obvious reasons for this. As a mere matter of military strength the govern- ment must have under its own control the means of trans- mitting intelligence as quickly as private individuals, if not more quickly. The establishment of political power of any kind has been usually followed by an assumption of the postal service. It was so with the Hanseatic League of free towns in the Middle Ages. It was so with the renewed national life of France in the seventeenth century, just described. In England for a time the postal service was left to some ex- tent in private hands, but the results of this were not satis- factory either to the Government or to the public. It was made a Government monopoly by the legislation of 1649 and 1651, although it continued to be farmed out to some extent until the next century. The usefulness of the British post- ofiice dates from the year 1784, the establishment of low postal rates from 1840. (See POSTAL SERVICE.) The U. S. postal service was a Government monopoly from the outset, and now there is scarcely a civilized country of which the same thing can not be said. The disadvantages in economy due to government administration are more than counterbal- anced by the general public considerations already alluded to. The only questions at issue between the advocates and opponents of government activity are connected with the parcels post or express business and the telegraph. In Great Britain the telegraph was controlled by private com- panies until 1870, and the British parcels business is handled by the railways and private companies, and by the Govern- ment since 1883. But on the continent of Europe both of these matters are managed by the Government. In the U. S. the parcels business is done by private companies. The Gov- ernment is willing to do a certain amount of such business, but under the conditions of Government efficiency it seems impossible for it to handle the great bulk of such trafiic in competition with private companies. The rates would prob- ably be higher, the responsibility would certainly be less. The only method of organizing a Government parcels post on a large scale would probably be to prohibit the express companies from doing business of that kind, and for such a measure the public is by no means ready. Neither the higher rates, the lessened responsibilit , nor the extension of official patronage would be a desirab e result. While the Government, in virtue of long-standing custom, can prevent private persons from carrying letters, it would find it impos- sible to prevent them from carrying parcels. The question of the telegraph presents much greater room for doubt. In the first place there is great public dissatis- faction with existing conditions. The telegraph business of the U. S. is almost entirely in the hands of one company, and, rightly or wrongly, it is believed that the rates charged by this company are unnecessarily high. They are on an average higher than those of most countries of Europe, and in connection with this the amount of general use of the telegraph in the U. S. is less than in two or three other TRANSPORTATION countries where the government manages the telegraph lines. Add to this that the Government telegraph in Great Britain has given great satisfaction, and there are strong rea- sons for the popular demand for the change. On the other hand, it is urged by the opponents of a government tele- graph that the rates in the U. S. are not really higher than those of Europe, if we take distance into account, and that, though distance itself is not an important direct factor in telegraph rates, the sparseness of population which is con- nected with this fact of long distance is overwhelmingly important. They can also show that, in spite of the abuses charged against the Western Union Company, the capitali- zation of the telegraph lines of the U. S. per mile of line, per mile of wire, or per oflice is not high as compared with that of Great Britain ; that the expenditures of the British Government on telegraph lines have been extravagant, and that the economy of operation of the British Government has been questionable; in short, that most of the economic ob- jections against various forms of state activity may be urged in this case also. Railway Ownership—This question involves wider inter- ests, and has given rise to more conflicting arguments, than that of the post-oifice or even the telegraph. In the early stages of railway development governments were more concerned to encourage railways than to control them. Each nation saw how important it was to have rail- ways. Few, even among the most far-sighted statesmen, perceived that the power connected with railway ownership might one day become dangerous to large public interests. All were anxious to have railways, and were ready to give such help as was necessary to that end. Sometimes the state built the roads, sometimes it gave money to private companies. Partial state ownership or an extensive subsidy system was the general rule. Great Britain was the only exception. There was so much capital in Great Britain seeking investment that no such encouragement was needed. In Ireland, where ca ital was scarcer and more timid, the British Government id not scruple to grant subsidies. In the U. S. the national Government from 1850 to 1857 gave large grants of land, and after a few years’ interruption re- newed the same policy on a still larger scale in 1862, also giving to two large railway systems, the Union and Central Pacific, a cash subsidy of $25,000 per mile. (See SUBSIDIES.) Equally extravagant cash payments were made by States and municipalities in the years preceding the crisis of 1873. There are no adequate data on the subject for the U. S. as a whole, but the records of so conservative a State as Massa- chusetts show that public assistance to the amount of some- thing like $30,000,000 was given to the railways of that State, usually to the ones that did not pay, and sometimes to those that were not built, at least for many years after the pay- ment of the subsidy. Much of the most burdensome part of the local debt of the U. S. is due to grants of this kind, whether in the form of subscriptions to capital stock or to bonds in aid of new roads. France went further than the U. S. The Government systematically defrayed about half of the original cost of the French railways. It laid out the road, did the grading, the tunneling, the bridge construction, and everything to the level of the line itself, leaving to the companies only the expense of track, buildings, and equip- ment. In addition to this the French Government granted to a few large companies a monopoly in their several dis- tricts, and this monopoly has proved so strong that no subse- quent efforts have been able to break it. In other countries of Europe the state actually built and operated the railroads to a greater or less extent. In Bel- gium this policy was pursued at the outset. The state built the best lines, leaving the private companies to occupy less advantageous fields of traffic. Somewhat later the states of South Germany pursued a policy like that of Bel- gium. Prussia at first did just the converse. It allowed the best lines to be built by private companies, with more or less aid and encouragement from the state ; it then built and o erated on its own account, as a military or political necessity, those lines which private enterprise was unwilling to undertake. Austria vacillated between the German and the French policy, building some roads on Government ac- count which it afterward sold to private companies below their true value. In Scandinavia and in Hungary the roads were generally owned and operated by the Government. In Russia, in Italy, in Switzerland, and in Spain private enter- prise was the rule down to 1870. In one sense all the roads of continental Europe are government property because they will, by the terms of their charters, revert to the state 239 about the middle of the twentieth century. Such is the theory, but it is not of much importance in practice. After the year 1870 there was a strong movement among the nations in favor of increase of government control, if not actual ownership. This was due to several causes. In the first place the wars of 1859, 1866. and 1870 had awakened in Europe a feeling of national life and a desire to have a strong government, with widely extended activity. In the second place, certain abuses of railway power had developed themselves which led people to think that the government might do better. Every day also it became clearer that in the management of railway enterprises monopoly was the rule and combination the exception, and it was thought that the management of any such powerful monopoly should be in the hands of the government itself. In those coun- tries like the U. S., where there were practically no govern- ment lines, the agitation in favor of national ownership was fruitless. There was some talk on the subject in connection with the Granger movement, but the only practical results of that movement lay in the direction of legislative control instead of actual ownership. (See INTERSTATE Commacn.) But in those countries where there was already a state rail- way system in existence the government, besides build- ing new roads of its own. bought many of the old roads from private companies. This movement was first felt in Belgium, where the Government, in the years from 1870 to 1885, purchased most of the private lines and made close traffic arrangements with the roads, so that it now owns, in round numbers, three-quarters of the railways in the king- dom, and has considerable control over the policy of the re- mainder. The same movement was felt in Germany a little later. It seems to have been Bismarck’s desire that the German empire, as such. should own and manage its rail- ways. But this project, though urged more or less seriously from 1871 to 1877, met with opposition from the states of Southern Germany, which already controlled their railway systems and were jealous of encroachments by the imperial power. Defeated in his Ian of organizing a German state railway system, Bismarck was forced to content himself with the extension of the Prussian state railways, and in this project he succeeded. In 1878 out of 11,000 miles of railway in Prussia, 6,000 were owned and managed by pri- vate companies, 2,000 owned by private companies but man- aged by the state, and only 3,000 miles owned by the state itself. In the years 1879 to 1884 the Government gradually acquired nearly all the railway lines previously managed by private companies. On May 1, 1894. out of 27,589 km., or 17,105 miles, of railway in Prussia only a few hundred miles were in private hands. There was little or no compulsion connected with the purchases. The prices paid were so high as to make it worth while for the stockholders to sell, the stockholders of the Berlin-Hamburg line obtaining Govern- ment securities which gave them a guaranteed income of over 16 per cent. on the par value of their shares. Austria followed the example of Prussia, but less completely. be- cause the Austrian Government was not financially strong enough to conduct its operations on so rapid a scale. Dur- ing this period Italy also moved in the direction of state railway management. Even in France there was a move- ment, under the leadership of Gambetta, to establish a strong national system of roads, partly as a means of military train- ing for Government officials, partly as a check to the irre- sponsible activity of private lines. In those countries which had had few railways until 1870. most of the lines were owned or at least managed by the state from the very outset. Such has been the case in the extreme east of Europe, in many parts of South America, and, above all, in Australia. It has been to a considerable extent true of British India also. About the year 1881 a counter-reaction against state own- ership began to make itself felt in some quarters. This was noticeably the case in France, where, by a convention of 1883-84, the state system was confined to a relatively un- important district in the southwest. The Government went so far as to abandon the idea of a line of its own to Paris, and in so doing it gave up all prospect of becoming a con- trolling power in the railway system of the republic. Still more important were the developments in Italy. In 1876 the triumph of state railway management there had seemed as fully assured as in Germany, and much more so than in Austria. But the financial burdens of the change were great. and the results of state management not wholly satis- factory. It was considered better to lease the Government roads to private companies for the time being, and to ap- point a commission to consider what should be the per- 24:0 manent arrangement. This commission sat from 1878 to 1881, and its conclusions, based as they are on practical ex- perience, form perhaps the strongest argument against gov- ernment management of railways. The conclusions of the commission were: 1. That the state can not be expected to make lower rates than private companies. The theory that government railways can foster industrial development does not work in practice. The state is much more likely to tax industry than to foster it, and when anything of the sort is attempted, the state is more arbitrary than a private com- pany and less subject to any outside control. 2. State man- agement is, on the whole, more costly than private manage- ment. 3. The political dangers connected with state man- agement are very great. So far from finding that the power of railway rings is checked by putting the roads into public hands, the commission believes that the power of such rings is increased. Politics corrupt the railways, and the railways corrupt politics. Rates are made to influence elections rather than to meet the necessities of traffic or of sound finance. On the basis of these conclusions the com- mission urged the Italian Government to give the railways into the hands of private companies for operation. On the other hand, it should be said that the feeling in favor of state ownership in Germany and Austria shows no signs of abating; that Switzerland is gradually being drawn into a policy of nationalization of its railway lines; and that neither British India nor Australia shows any tendency in the direction of private ownership. In the U. S. the platforms of the Farmers’ Alliance and the Peo- ple’s Party declare in favor of Government railway owner- ship, though it may be questioned how far those who have framed the platforms would be ready to meet the financial burdens involved in any such change. It is extremely difficult to compare, with any degree of fairness, the results of the two systems of railway ownership, state and private. Such figures as can be given serve more than anything else to show the difficulties of the subject, and to indicate that the question is one whose solution de- pends largely upon national character. The countries which have, on the whole, developed their railway systems most rapidly are Great Britain and the U. S. Care must be taken to avoid laying too much stress on this fact, which is quite as likely to be due to the ex- ceptional wealth of these two countries as to any difference in system. If we compare Germany and France we find that Germany, with state-owned roads, has larger mileage and traffic than France, with subsidized roads. But the French roads are, as already stated, in the hands of a strong guaranteed monopoly. In general, it seems to be the rule that railway development is fastest under free competition, next fastest under government monopoly, and slowest under private monopoly. In the facilities furnished, the results of competition, though imperfect, show a still more marked superiority. The miles run by trains in the U. S. in the year 1891 amounted to over 830,000,000, or 13 miles for every inhabitant. In Great Britain the figures for the same period show an average of about 8 miles, in Germany barely 4 miles, and in France a little less than in Germany. In other words, the amount of railway service offered is vastly greater under competing private lines than under a monop- oly, even though it be in the hands of the government. Equally marked is the difference in speed. Much the fast- est trains are run in Great Britain and the U. S., a great many of them in the former country, afew of equal merit in the latter. Until recently France came next, though at a long interval, with Germany a bad fourth. Since the ac- cession of William II. there have been eiforts at increased speed, but the one fast train between Berlin and Hamburg, of which so much is said, does not surpass in speed the best English or American trains, and there is nothing else in Germany which even approaches them. With regard to rates, the matter is much more even. The average charges for freight and passengers on the railway systems of leading countries in 1887 were as follows : COUNTRY Per passenger per Per ton per ’ mile, cents. mile, cents. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2'16 004 I(irreat Bntam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. A‘r1>o:p)t 2 Less than 2 4rance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' 1'7” Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1'22 1'41‘; Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 '54 1'85 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O ' 80 1'00 India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0'54 1'36 TRANSPORTATION The question of high or low rates. as will be seen from this table, depends not so much upon the form of ownership as upon the character of the trafiic. In a dense population and with small train service, like that of India, passenger rates will be relatively low. With a comparatively small popula- tion and high demand for train service, passenger rates will be relatively high. The U. S. pays more per passenger mile than any other country in the list, because a saving of time is of more importance to a large part of the people than a saving of money. If the people of the U. S. were willing to have the relatively small train service of continental Europe or of India, they could have the passenger rates of conti- nental Europe or of India also. If aman is making only 20 cents a day, -he can afford to wait the whole day to save 20 cents. If he is making $2 a day he can afford to pay $1 to have a train go at the time it suits him. This is in large measure the explanation of the differences in the table. On the other hand, the differences in freight rates are largely influenced by distance hauled and by character of the traf- fic. In the U. S. or Russia, where there are long-distance shipments of grain or other similar commodities, the freight rates will be low, independently of railway management. In Great Britain, for the converse reason, freight rates must be high. Here again we may say with some qualification that the lowest rates will be found under competition, the next lowest under government monopoly, and the highest under private monopoly. With regard to abuses of power in the matter of rates, there is little to be said in favor of one system against the other. Wherever there is competition there is a tendency to make special rates and give secret rebates to those who least need or least deserve it. This was one of the controlling facts which drove Belgium and Prussia to extend their gov- ernment railway systems. The government could not con- trol the acts of its own agents when those agents were work- ing in competition with private lines. In the years pre- ceding 1870 the very worst abuses of the rate-making power were found in the government lines. The question whether special rates can be avoided depends largely upon the ex- tent to which a monopoly can be secured by the railway companies. Whether that monopoly is in the hands of the government or of private companies does not appear to make any very great difference. In either case the advan- tage, such as it is, is obtained at a sacrifice of development and cheapness. The leveling process results in leveling up, not in leveling down. There is no greater mistake than to suppose that because government represents the people, therefore if government owns the roads the people will get lower rates. Most of the advocates of state railway ownership in the U. S. think that there is a large fund of profit which now is divided among stockholders, but which would go to the shippers if the na- tion owned the railroads. Now, in the first place, there is no such large fund of profit. Railways in the U. S. barely pay interest on their investment. Even if we make all allowance for water in stock, it is not likely that the net earnings of railways are equal to 4. per cent. of the capital‘ actually invested. If it be said that there is a fund of legitimate profits of which the community might get the benefit under a state railway system, we may reply that there is reason to believe that those legitimate profits would be larger rather than smaller under national control. What- ever may be said about the unrighteous stock issues of roads in the U. S. it is certain that, quality for quality, the capi- talization of these roads is less than that of any similar rail- way system in the world. The effective or net capitalization of the railways of the U. S. is about $50,000 a mile. Austra- lia, with avastly inferior system, has an average capitaliza- tion of about $40,000, as nearly as can be ascertained. Ger- many and Austria, with systems approximately equal to those of the U. S., superior in construction, but inferior in usefulness, are capitalized at nearly $100,000. Whatever water there may be in U. S. railway stocks, and whatever waste or abuse may have been incident to private manage- ment, it is certain that the capital accounts of foreign rail- ways show an even greater waste, due to the inefiiciency in- seplarable from government contracts. ‘he important thing for each country is to get the man- agement of its transportation industries into the hands of the most far-sighted and competent men. If a country like Germany has such traditions that the best administrative talent is to be found in the Government service, it is prob- able that a state railway system, even with the inevitable evils of monopoly, is on the whole the best. If, on the other TRANSPORTATION hand, the best administrative talent is found in private rather than public business, which is noticeably the case in the U. S., a change from private to public management would be attended with all the evils noted by the Italian commission, and would prove a burden instead of a relief to the business interests of the country. See COMMERCE, RAILWAYS, and STREET-RAILWAYS. A. T. HADLEY. Transportation : as a punishment for crime, the transfer of a convict to a limited part of a kingdom, under pains and penalties for leaving the limits before the expiration of the term of transportation, and with or without other forms of punishment being added. This form of punishment was unknown at the common law in England, although in the case of a criminal’s taking sanctuary and confessing his crime he was allowed to leave the kingdom, taking an oath of abjuration, which bound him never to return. Sanc- tuary and abjuration were abolished by the act of 1 James I., c. 25, and 20 James I., c. 18. The earliest case of trans- portation seems to have occurred in the reign of Charles II., when transportation was made a condition of pardons grant- ed to persons convicted of capital crimes. This practice was subsequently greatly extended by legislation. and especially by the act of 1768; and transportation was first legalized as a direct punishment, by sentence of the court, by the act of 4 Geo. I., c. 11. During the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth an immense number of acts were passed by which various terms of transportation, with alter- native terms of imprisonment, and power, in some cases alternative and in others cumulative, to order whipping, were provided for the punishment of particular offenses. This legislation was utterly lacking in uniformity and was guided by no principle, and the statutes themselves con- tained so many capricious variations as to be incapable of any systematic classification on principles. A statute pro- viding for punishment by transportation might and gener- ally did contain the following provisions: (1) A maximum term of transportation. (2) Intermediate terms of transportation. (3) A minimum term of transportation. (4) A maximum alternative term of imprisonment with or without hard labor. (5) A minimum alternative term of imprisonment. (6) Power to inflict whipping, publicly or privately, and once or more than once. (7) Power to inflict solitary confinement during a certain part of the term of imprisonment. And these seven varieties of punishment were combined in all imaginable ways. In making these provisions a very wide, and yet capriciously restricted, discretion was left to the judge, and in the great majority of cases the judge could inflict as little punishment as he chose. In a few cases only was the punishment prescribed absolutely ; in many cases a greater or less minimum of punishment was of necessity inflicted. This condition of affairs continued until in 1846 an act (9 and 10 Vic., c. 24, § 1) was passed which provided that in all cases where any court was empowered to pass a sentence of more than seven years’ transportation it should have power to pass instead sentence of transportation for any‘ term not exceeding seven years, or sentence of imprison- ment with or without hard labor for any term not exceed- ing two years. The places to which criminals were sent from Great Brit- ain under sentence of transportation were some of her colonies, most notably those in Australia, and the great ex- tent to which this form of punishment was carried was made possible only by the fact of her possessing them. The crim- inal population in this manner became concentrated in small districts, and there they married, and by the natural increase and the numbers constantly added by newly transported convicts, this population was increasing with great rapidity, and extending tiroughout the colonies to which they had been transported. Meanwhile the colonies themselves were rapidly becoming more thickly settled by colonists of the better class, and their power and resources enormously de- veloped, and they began to make objection to any further practice of transportation to their territory. Principally owing to these objections the punishment of transportation was gradually abolished between 1853 and 1864, and penal servitude or imprisonment and hard labor on public works was substituted for it. The punishment of penal servitude consists in keeping the offender in confinement, and com- pelling him to labor in the manner and under the discipline TRAN SUBSTANTIATION 241 appointed by the acts relating to penal servitude. Impris- onment at hard labor consists of the detention of the offender in prison so that he shall be prevented from having any communication with other prisoners, and in forcing him to work at the treadwheel, shot-drill, crank, capstan, stone- breaking, or some other description of labor lawfully sub- stituted therefor. The Penal Servitude Acts authorized the carrying out of the sentence in any part of the kingdom, and under these acts criminals were kept in confinement at Bermuda till 1862 and at Gibraltar till 1875. The difference between the two punishments is thus rather nominal than real, and the provisions of the act which regulated transpor- tation are still in force as regards prisoners under sentence of penal servitude. Actual transportation, however, was practically discontinued. The usual minimum term of transportation, when that punishment was commonly inflicted, was seven years, but imprisonment might in many cases be alternatively inflicted for three, four, or in some cases seven years. When penal servitude was substituted for transportation the punishment of imprisonment at hard labor had been made more severe and shorter than it had been, and in nearly every instance two years was the maximum term of imprisonment at hard labor permissible to be inflicted. At first the minimum term of penal servitude was three years; in 1864 it was was raised to five years, and in 1891 it was again reduced to three years. The use of transportation has been practiced more or less by other nations than the British, but its use has never ob- tained among British colonies nor to anything like the ex- tent to which it was carried in Great Britain, except in the case of Russia, which still uses the territory of Siberia as a place of transportation of criminals of certain classes. See bIBER1A. See the articles on PUNISHMENT and PRISON DISCIPLINE, etc. ; also Sir James Stephen’s .Hiszfo/ry of the Grz'mz'naZ Law of Englalnd, and Digest of the Criminal Law. F. STURGES ALLEN. Transposition [from Lat. fransp0'nere, 2fmnsp0’sitam., set over, remove, transfer ; trans, across, over + po’nere, put]: in music, the act of removing a composition into a key different from that in which it is written. By this is not meant a change of mode also. A piece of music written in a major key, for instance, can not be transposed into the corresponding minor (as from C major to C minor), unless its construction has been such as to make such a transfer possible. A composition in any major key may be trans- posed into any other major key ; and the same rule applies to compositions in minor keys. Transposition is not simply the moving of all the notes of a piece one or more degrees higher or lower, for such a change would at once destroy or impair its distinctive character. If the scale consisted of a series of regular and equal degrees this might readily be done, and a composition would suffer no injury by being moved from any key to any other. But as the scale is not a regular but an irregular series of sounds, consisting of five whole tones and two semitones arranged in a fixed and in- variable order, and as all music is now written on such a scale, and no other, it follows that we can not transfer a composition without injury into a new key until we have brought the scale of that key into conformity with that in which the iece is written. A composition in C major, for instance, ifP carried three degrees higher—i. e. into the scale of F—-would be false on every fourth degree of that scale, because one of the semitones in the series differs in its posi- tion from the normal pattern in C. To rectify this we lower the fourth (or B) by placing at the clef a flat on that de- gree; and by thus changing every B into Bb we correct the scale, and transposition from C to F requires nothing more than a change of the places of the notes. Again, if we would transpose from C to (I, we shall find a defect of an opposite kind on the seventh degree of the G scale, which must be corrected by changing eyery F into Fit. On the same prin- ciple we proceed in trans osition into any other key, cor- recting by sharps or flats t ie deviations of any desired key from the model scales of C major or A minor. See KEY. Revised by DUDLEY BUCK. Transubstantia'tion [from Late Lat. Zi'r(1/77/826Z)8l%l/72/Zi’I;(7/'Z‘2'O, deriv. of Zi7‘0.7t8'll/b8Z‘cZ7bZ‘?;(t'7'6, transubstantiate ; trams, over, across + substa.n'z"zIa, substance] : a scholastic term signify- ing the change of the substance of the natural elements of bread and wine into the very body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, while the visible form and the appearance of 413 242.; TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC bread and wine remain. According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, this miracle takes place in the Mass whenever the priest pronounces the words of institu- tion: “This is my body,” “This is my blood.” The cloc- trine was more or less clearly suggested by several Greek and Latin fathers (under different terms, such as transitio, transmatatio) ; it was controverted in the Middle Ages by Bertram (Ratramnus) and Berengar, but defended by Pascha- sius Radbertus (831), Lanfranc, and the chief Schoolmen, confirmed by the Lateran Council (1215) and the Council of Trent (Oct. 11, 1551), and learnedly defended by Bellarmine, Bossuet, M6hler, Perrone, and Cardinal Wiseman (in a dis- sertation on John vi.). The Church teaches not only that Christ is present in the blessed Eucharist, but that he is present by transubstantiation. The very words of conse- cration, as given in the Gospels, seem to prove this doctrine. The teaching of the Church is conformable to the literal interpretation of these words. See Cardinal Wiseman’s Lectures on the Holy Eucharist. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Transvaal Republic : See SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. Transylva'nia (Hung. Erclély; Germ. Siebenbilrgen) : the southeast part of the kingdom of Hungary. Area, 21,518 sq. miles. There are fifteen counties; pop. (1890) 2,247,049, of whom about 55 per cent. are Roumanian, 29 per cent. Mag- yars and Szeklers, 10 per cent. Germans, and nearly 50,000 gypsies. The country is hilly and mountainous, with a mean elevation of 1,444 feet, with the Carpathians on the E. and the bold Transylvanian Alps on the S. The drainage is into the Danube, chiefly westward by the Mares and Ktiriis to the Theiss, but the Aluta and some lesser streams make the traverse of the Transylvanian Alps southward directly to the Danube. Of the soil, 37 per cent. is in forests, 23 in plowed land, and 17 in meadows and gardens. The chief crops are maize, wheat, oats, fruits, tobacco, flax, and hemp. ‘Wine is made in large quantities, especially in the Maros basin. The climate is mild and agreeable in the lower lands. The horses number 188,000, and the breed is excel- lent. Cattle are reared in large numbers, and the breeding of sheep and swine is general. Mining has been a very im- portant industry, and Transylvania used to be called the gold mine of Europe. Gold has been obtained from time immemorial, and is produced in considerable quantities from both mines and placers. Silver and iron are also mined. Manufactures and other industries are not well developed, and are declining because of the recent political and Slavic tendencies which are driving out the Germans. Trade is largely with Roumania, and is in the hands of Armenians and Greeks. About 12 per cent. of the population is Roman Catholic, 27 per cent. Greek Catholic, 32 per cent. Greek Ori- ental, 10 per cent. Lutheran, and 14 per cent. Calvinist. There is a university at Klausenburg, and there are many secondary schools. Transylvania was a part of Dacia, acquired by Trajan and colonized with Dalmatians, Gauls, and people from Roman Asia Minor. When the Roman empire was in decay this region was especially exposed, and was occupied by race after race of the invaders——latest by the Magyars. In the twelfth century colonists were again introduced, this time from the basin of the Rhine (Teuton), and there called Saxon. The Saxons built the most of the existing cities. After the defeat of the Hungarians by the Turks at Mohacs in 1526 Transylvania was independent till 1690. After that it became a grand duchy and crown-land of Austria, and so remained till 1867, when it became, politically and adminis- tratively, an integral part of the kingdom of Hungary. See Gerard, The Land beyond the Forest: Facts, Figures, anal Fancies from Transylvania (2 vols., 1888). MARK W. HARRINGTON. Trap, or Trap-rock [trap : Germ. trapp, from Swed. trapp, deriv. of trappa, a stair, stairs ; so called from the stair-like arrangement often observable in these rocks]: a name in- discriminately applied to any dark-colored mass of igneous rock, regardless of its composition. On account of its lack of definiteness it is passing out of use as a geological and petrographical term. To a very great extent the name has been applied to basaltic masses. See BASALT, BUILDING- STONE, and Rocxs. J . P. I. Trapani, traa’pa“a-ne"e (anc. Drepanam): a town on a scythe-shaped peninsula of the extreme point of the west coast of Sicily; lat. 38° 3’ N., lon. 12° 30’ E. (see map of Italy, ref. 9-E). The churches, the municipal palace, the Giudecca, etc., are worthy of notice, and contain interesting artistic objects. The celebrated sanctuary of the Madonna TRAS—OS—MONTES of Trapani (finished 1332) is outside the town. The harbor is convenient for the coasting trade, and it has been made much more safe of access for foreign vessels by the erection of a mole and of lighthouses. About 3,000 vessels enter this port annually, the trade being chiefiy in fish, coral, sponges, wine, oil, fruits, cotton, semolino, etc. Among other local industries are works in marble, alabaster, coral, and shell. The art of cutting cameos in shell is said to have been re- vived here. Here in 249 B. 0. the Carthaginians defeated the Romans in a famous naval battle. Charles V. made this place a great military station for the defense of this coast against the Saracens, and it was at this time called Inoitis- sima. Pop. of commune (1893) 47,000. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Trapezun'ti0S, GEoRe1os: Italian humanist; b. in Can- dia, 1395. He fled before the Turkish invaders and reached Venice in 1430, and was employed by Francesco Barbaro as a copyist. He learned Latin under Guarino and Vittorino da Feltre, and acquired so great a proficiency in that lan- guage that he became a celebrated teacher of Latin litera- ture‘and rhetoric. He taught in a number of Italian cities —Venice, Padua, Florence, and Rome. Befriended by Pope Nicholas V., he translated Eusebius, Cyril, the Homilies of Chrysostom, Plato’s Laws, and Aristotle’s Zoology and Rhetoric, and the Almagest of Ptolemaeus, translations characterized by an incredible negligence, wanton omissions and changes in majorem clei yloriam. He was engaged in unseemly quarrels with most of the great humanists of the fifteenth century, and is withal one of the most typical, albeit disgusting, figures of the Renaissance. He died in abject overty in Rome, Aug. 12, 1484. Cf. G. Voigt, 'Wiecler elebang cles hlassischen Alterthams, ii., pp. 138-144. ALFRED GUDEMAN. Trappists : a monastic order of the Roman Catholic Church deriving their name from La Trappe, an abbey of the Cistercian order, situated in the department of Orne, Normandy, and founded in the middle of the twelfth cen- tury. Here Armand Jean le Bouthillier de Rancé, who was consecrated abbot on July 13, 1664. introduced those severe reforms which made the Trappists one of the most austere orders of the Roman Catholic Church. He was at first opposed both by other Cistercian monasteries and by the monks themselves, whose practices had become so disorderly, by neglect of the ecclesiastical authorities and by other un- fortunate circumstances, that they were generally called the “ brigands of La Trappe.” But after some years’ persever- ing exertions he saw his rules adopted not only in La Trappe, but also in Tamié, a Cistercian monastery near Faverges, in Upper Savoy. Twelve hours of the day were given to re- ligious exercises, and several hours to hard labor. Vege- tables and water formed the fare; meat, wine, etc., were forbidden, and conversation between the monks themselves or with outsiders was avoided. The whole life tended to concentrate the mind on the sole idea of death. During the Revolution the order was suppressed in France, and it pos- sessed at that time only two monasteries outside of France —one in Germany and one in Tuscany. In 1817, however, La Trappe was reopened, and in the meantime a Trappist colony had settled in 1803 at Pigeon Hill, near Conewago, Pa., whence they removed in 1805 to Kentucky, and finally, in 1813, to Tracadie in Nova Scotia. A second colony set- tled in 1848 at Gethsemane, K_v., and a third at New Mel- leray, near Dubuque, Ia. In France the order was dissolved in 1830, though the law of dissolution was not enforced ; in Italy it was suppressed in 1870, and in Germany in 1874. See Marsollier and Maupeau, Vie cle l’Abbé ole la Trappe; Chateaubriand, Vie ole Rance’ (Paris, 1844); Ifistoire reli- giease et littéraire de l’Abbaye de la Trappe (Paris, 1824) ; Gaillardin, Les Trappistes on l’0rdre do Citeana; an XIX*. Siécle, Histoire cle la Trap,/oe olepuis sa Fonclation, etc. (Paris, 1844). Revised by J . J . KEANE. Trasime’nus, Lacus : See PERUGIA, LAKE or. Tras-cs-Mon'tes [Portug., liter., beyond-the-mountains] : province of Portugal; bounded N. and E. by Spain, S. by the river Douro, and W. by the province of Minho. Area, 4,307 sq. miles. Pop. about 400,000. It is mountainous, and of a rather rugged and wild character, but its valleys are very fertile, and produce, besides more wheat than is demanded for home consumption, excellent fruits, and the famous port wines, whose cultivation is confined to one dis- trict, called Alto Douro. The mineral wealth is great, but entirely unused; the mulberry is extensively grown, and silk-culture carried on with success. TRAVANCORE Travancore' : a feudatory state of the British-Indian em- pire, on the southwestern end of the Indian peninsula ; area, 6,730 sq. miles; pop. (1891) 2,557,736, chiefly Hmdus, con- taining, however, the unusually large number of 500,000 native Christians, 300,000 of them Nestorians, as well as remnants of ancient Jewish colonies. A most turbulent sect are the Mophlas, Mohammedans who inhabit the N. of the state. Owing to a large outlay of state money on public irrigation, works, and roads, the condition of the labormg and agricultural classes has been improved ; roads connect the harbors of Quilon and Trivandrum with the interior. The British-Indian penal code, altered to suit the character- istics of the people, has become part of the law of the state. The revenues are quite large and are economically used, the expenditures being less than the income. The palace ex- penditure is very moderate, the greater part of the revenues being devoted to public works, to religious_1nst1tut1ons, to education, and to judicial and police establishments.’ The state pays to the Indian Government an annual subsidy. of £80,000. Besides coffee and pepper, the production of which is on the increase, cardamoms, areca, and cocoanuts are among the chief products. The capital is Trivandrum, on the Malabar coast. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Travelers, Legal Rights of: Many of these are stated in the articles on CARRIERS, COMMON; INNKEEPER; HIGH- wars; NEGLIGENCE, and Roan, LAW or THE. The liability of the state, or of its subdivisions, for damages caused to travelers by defective highways is purely statutory ; no such liability existed at common law. As a rule, statutes of this character receive a close construction. (See INTERPRETA- TIQN.) It is generally held that they require only the trav- eled portion of country roads to be free from defects, not the entire surface of the street as in cities. Moreover, the liability does not extend to every one lawfully upon the highway, but to such persons only as are using it for the or- dinary and proper purposes of travel. Accordingly, children who use the high- way as a playground on their way home from school, or who are coasting for pleasure and not for transit; persons who are loafing by the way as distin- guished from those who have stopped temporarily for a purpose incidental to their use of the road as travelers ; those who are racing horses, and those who have not reached the traveled portion of the highway, have been judicially denied the statutory rights of travelers. Brown vs. Slrowhegan, 82 Me. 273. Tic7cets.—Travelers may be required by carriers to provide themselves with tickets before taking passage, and to produce them whenever required, as the only evidence receivable by the carrier’s servants of the payment of fare. They may be limited in point of time to the day on which they are issued, or to a through trip, or to an excursion-tram. (Elmore vs. Sands, 54 N. Y. 512.) At times, tickets are formal written contracts by whose terms the purchaser is bound, whether he knows them or not. (Fonesca vs. Cunard Steamslz/2,'p Co., 153 Mass. 553.) In the case cited the ticket consisted of a sheet of pa- per of large quarto size, the face and back of which were covered with written and printed matter. Other tickets do not purport on their face to be formal contracts, although they may contain provisions which if known to both parties would make them such. In these cases the provisions are not binding on the traveler unless he knew of them, or unless the carrier did what was reasonably sufficient to give the purchaser notice of them. (Rzfchardson, etc., G0. vs. Roan- tree [1894], Appeal Cases 217.) Still others appear to be mere checks or tokens. These do not constitute the con- tract between the traveler and the carrier. That consists of the offer made by the carrier and its acceptance by the traveler; and the offer may include the public advertise- ments of the carrier, the general customs of carriers, the usages of the particular carrier so far as notified to the traveler, the special representations by the carrier or his authorized agents, and the language of the ticket which has been brought properly to the traveler’s attention. (Logan vs. Rarllway, '77 M0. 663 ; Frank vs. Ingalls, 41 Ohio State 560.) The traveler may demand a seat before surrendering TRAVELING SIDEWALK 243 his ticket, and upon giving it up or tendering it may take a seat temporarily in a drawing-room car if none is provided for him in a common coach. (Thorpe vs. N. Y. C. R3/., 76 N. Y. 402.) If a seat can not be provided for him, he may retain his ticket, refuse to pay his fare, leave the train, and sue for damages, or he may, and he usually does, accept such accommodations as are aiforded him, and surrender his ticket. FRANCIS M. BURDICK. Traveling Sidewalk: a pathway or platform, with or without seats and covering, moving in a continuous manner with a uniform speed and utilized as a means of transporta- tion. The idea is not a new one, even as at present devel- oped, but was conceived about 1870. Such a device was suggested for use in the Paris Exposition of 1889, and has been the subject of numerous patents in the U. S. and in Europe, but it remained for a U. S. company to bring it first into practical use in 1892. The essential features required in a sidewalk of this na- ture are, first, that it shall be continuous and in the form of a loop or belt railway, and, second, that one or more inter- mediate platforms or steps between the first platform and the fast-moving platform, on which the seats are usually furnished, shall be moved at such a low rate of speed as to enable the passenger to step readily from the first platform to the next and faster-moving platform and from that to the third and so on to the seated platform, the differences in speed between each two adjoining platforms or steps be- ing the same. Experience has fixed this difference at from 2% to 3 miles an hour. The most simple form of such a side- walk is, of course, one in which separate cars or trucks move on separate tracks, each having its own motive power and each moving at its own proper speed; but as the first plat- forms are merely steps, and as the difficulty of maintaining .. - M4 . ~ . . with different motive power the proper relative motions be- tween the platforms or steps is very great, a simpler means is requisite. The system was not fully developed until elec- tricity had made practical the economical, compact, and di- rect application of power by means of trolley wires and motors attached directly to the trucks, and mechanism had been devised for moving one or more step platforms by the same trucks that furnished the propelling power for the fast-moving platform. A third and perhaps in many respects the most important feature is a flexible rail to move on the tops of the periphe- ries of the wheels. These devices and improvements were first put to a practical use on an ex aerimental road con- structed under patents issued to Max *. Schmidt and J. L. Silsbce, in the Oolumbian Exposition-grounds in Chicago. The mechanical and practical success of this device led to its adoption and use on the Long Pier in 1893 and 1894, in the same grounds, where a road in the form of a loop 4,300 feet in length was erected. The radius of the curves on this road was 64 ft. 9 in. at the minimum and 80 feet at the maxi- mum. The gauge was 45 inches and the rails were 30 lb. T-rails. There were 351 cars and the same number of plat- forms. Of these cars, 12 were motor-cars, carrying each two 15-horse-power motors. It will thus be seen that 360 horse- power was used in starting this road. In running it the 244 TRAVELING SIDEWALK average horse—power expended was 130. There were seats for 5,600 persons on the road, and over 1,000,000 people were carried without an accident during the four months that the road was in operation. The total weight of the movable platforms on this road was 450 tons, and the weight of 5,600 passengers would be, on the average, 392 tons, so that the power required as compared with the number of people carried is very small. Fig. 2 illustrates the methods of construction of this road. The slow-moving platform which is attached to the '-1 —, lt.QH_ _ ‘O I , AMT _ E ‘ ‘ [L m I N-|u|;||h" i... - u- ' //3-§ FIG. 2.—End view, showing both platforms: A, track-rails ; B, wheels; J, hand-post; K, boxes; M, transverse frame of slow- moving platform ; P, fast platform ; S, slow platform ; X, trav- eling flexible rail ; Y, castings with slots for flexible rail. trucks may be supposed to move at the rate of 3 miles an hour. The fast-moving platform which rests on the flexi- ble steel rails, that rest in their turn on the peripheries of the wheel, is by the forward motion of the wheels of necessity carried forward twice as fast as the forward motion of the axles of the wheels themselves. If, therefore, the speed of 3 miles an hour be given to the slow platform, the fast plat- form will of necessity move at the rate of 6 miles an hour. ‘The possible extension of this system is shown in Fig. 3 ; in E I E U fim .. ' Ll__._. E F =“_..i..__._..__.:.._.'.. - W-» ‘ - -74’--‘pr---.--/:~." 1-:-===="=§~ -‘_---n-an \\\ FIG. 3.—Section showing a slow-moving platform, C, and several successively faster-moving platforms, E. The latter are borne on the flexible rails, F ; the former on a frame with boxes at B. The long axle, A, is supported at the right by the wheels P. |||||||I-I--Iuu|u'?3— -7" , ‘T.--‘-ll llllllllllll-I-Illllllllv this, with the same difi°erential speed of 3 miles an hour, the platforms may be given speeds of 3, 6, 9, and 12 re- spectively. The points in favor of the adoption of a road of this kind for any place where a large number of people are to be car- ried, like the congested parts of great cities, exhibition- grounds. parks, etc., are as follows : First, the small expense per capita involved as compared with any other known means of transportation; second, the possibility that the slow speed of the trucks gives of adopting every precaution, like rubber tires, paper wheels, and other light constructions, so that all noise is prevented ; third, the great flexibility of the road, which adapts itself to all curves, ascents, and de- scents; fourth, the facility of heating the train in conse- quence of the continuity of the system ; and fifth, the con- tinuity of the motion, which without great speed, but with great safety and without any waste of time for stops, per- mits a net running time from one point to another that com- pares favorably with (and in numbers carried vastly exceeds in its possibilities) any modern urban method of transpor- tation. In its application to city work it must of necessity be either elevated above the normal street level or sunk below the same, for, as will be evident, grade crossings are not ad- missible. This system has obtained the indorsement of nearly every engineer of note in the world, and will undoubt- edly come into general use. Josnrn L. SILSBEE. TREASON Trav'erse City : city (chartered in 1895) ; capital of Grand Traverse co., Mich. ; on Grand Traverse Bay, and the Chi. and W. Mich., the Gr. Rap. and Ind., and the Manistee and N. E. railways; 70 miles N. E. of Manistee, and 145 miles N. of Grand Rapids (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 4-H). It is the center of a rich agricultural and fruit-grow- . ing region, has a good harbor, and is connected by steam- boats with the principal ports on Lake Michigan. The principal industries are connected with the lumber interest. There are 2 electric-light plants, Northern Michigan Asylum for the Insane, a national bank with capital of $50,000‘, a State bank with capital of $100,000, a library, and a daily, a monthly, and 3 weekly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 1,897 ; (1890) 4,353 ; (1894) State census, 7,386. Emroa or “TRAVERSE BAY EAGLE.” Traverse-table: in surveying, a table from which the latitude and departure of any course can be found by in- spection. It is a rough table of the sines and the cosines of arcs, computed to each quarter of a degree from 0° to 90°, and for every radius from 1 to 100. In the ordinary traverse- table the computation is carried out only to two places of decimals. Travnik' : town ; capital of the district of Travnik, Bos- nia ; on the Laskva (see map of Turkey, ref. 2-A). Ill built and unhealthful, its chief importance is due to its manufac- ture of sword-blades. Pop. (1885) 5,933. . A. Trawling [from 0. Fr. troller, whence Eng. troll]: a method of fishing by means of a trawl, or small bag-shaped net, dragged along the bottom of the sea behind a boat. The name trawling is also given to a system of fishing for cod, halibut, and other large fish, by means of a great num- ber of hooks set at intervals along a stout line which lies upon the sea-bottom. From time to time this trawl or ground-line is underrun by men in a boat, and the fish are removed. See FISHERIES. " 'I‘rayastrinsha: See DEVALOKA. Treacle: See MoLAssEs. Treason [M. Eng. tresan, tratsoan, from 0. Fr. tratson < Lat. tradt’tt'0, a giving up, betraying, deriv. of tra'dere, traklttam, give over, deliver, betray; trans, over + da’re, give] : a crime of indefinite and variable limits against the sovereignty of the people or the person of the supreme ruler. The Romans call this crime perduellto, and after- ward crtmen majestatts—that is, either hostility to one’s own country, such as joining its enemies in war would im- ply, or afterward hostile attack on the emperor, or, as the latter term denoted, the act of invading the sovereignty of the people. In the expression lcedere may'estateon, to injure the sovereignty of the people or of the state, is found the origin of the term lése-mayiesté, used by the French to de- note treason. The Englis definition of treason or high treason has included, especially, compassing or imagining the death of the reigning sovereign or his (or her) eldest son and heir ; violation of the queen or the king’s eldest daugh- ter, being unmarried, or his eldest son’s wife; levying war against the sovereign within the realm by a subject; giving aid and comfort in or outside of the realm to the sovereign’s enemies ; counterfeiting the great or privy seal ; importing “false money, counterfeit to the king’s money,” besides other offenses which at any time of excitement it seemed best to comprehend under the same term. The folly of such legislation led to the simple definition of the U. S. Constitution that “ treason shall consist only in levying war against the U. S. or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort.” It is implied that the crime can be committed only by one owing allegiance to the U. S. The States of the Union, to some extent at least, have ad- mitted into their codes a crime of treason against them- selves similar to that committed against the U. S. But as treason against a State must always be treason against the U. S., and as war against so li1nited a sovereignty as that of one of the States is hardly an act deserving the name of war, such treason is as little deserving of the name as it is likely to be frequent. If an invading force from a foreign country should land on the territory of a State and be joined by one of its citizens, he would be amenable to the laws of the U. S.; if it were joined by a man from one of the other States, the same would be true, but in this case the State could not try him for treason, as he is in no sense its subject. A general law against seditious or armed as- semblages would answer all purposes equally well, and could not come into conflict by any possibility with the TREASURE—TROVE laws and judicial arrangements of the Union. On the other hand, if a man were acquitted of treason against a State, he would still be liable to indictment for treason against the U. S. for the same oifense. The law of treason with the growth of monarchy included various offenses against the person of the monarch or his rights or appurtenances, and with the growth of arbitrary power stretched its penalties over various crimes or even peccadilloes that lay outside of its original limits. See on this, and the restrictions which a free government admits into its definition, Lieber’s Civil Liberty, ch. viii. Revised by Tnnononn S. WOOLSEY. Treasure-trove [treasure + 0. Fr. trove > Fr. troaoé, found]: in common law, accidentally found gold or silver coin, plate, or bullion which had been hidden in the earth or in some secret spot so long ago that its existence was for- gotten and its owner unknown. Such property techmcally belonged to the crown, unless the owner were found. In the U. S. the term is not much used. Treasury of the United States: a department of the executive Government of the U. S., having control over the collection, management, and disbursement of the public revenue, and presided over by a secretary, who is, next to the Secretary of State, the most important officer of the cabinet. The present office dates from the law of Sept. 2, 1789, drawn up with such precision and comprehensiveness by Alexander Hamilton, the first secretary, that few changes have since been made in its language. The subordinate officers consist of three assistant secretaries, a treasurer, three comptrollers, six auditors, a register, commissioners of customs and of internal revenue, a solicitor, a director of the mint, and a large number of employees. There are eighteen bureaus, among which are those of the mint, sta- tistics, the coast survey, the life-saving service, and the light- house board. Most of the heads of bureaus, etc., are inde- pendent of their nominal head, and many of them are ap- pointed by the President. Treat, ROBERT : Governor of Connecticut; b. in England in 1622 ; emigrated to New England, with his father Rich- ard', in company with Sir Richard Saltonstall; was one of the first settlers of Wethersfield, Conn.; settled in 1639 at Milford, where he was a deputy 1653-59, and an assistant 1659-64; was one of the founders of Newark, N. J ., and a deputy to the first assembly 1667-72; returned to Milford 1672 ; became a major of Connecticut troops 1673 ; marched to Springfield (1675) to the relief of that place against the Indians; drove them from before the town, subse uently routed them at Hadley; participated in the great ndian battle at the Narragansett Fort on Dec. 19, 1675; was Lieu- tenant-Governor 1676-83, and 1698-1708, and Governor 1683- 98 not including the two years under Andros. D. at Mil- ford, July 12, 1710.--His son SAMUEL, b. at Milford in 1648, graduated at Harvard 1669, and was minister of Eastham on Cape Cod, Mass., from 1672 to his death Mar. 18, 1717. He acquired the language of the Nauset Indians, in which he published a “confession of faith,” and was successful in the conversion of those Indians ; preached the “ election ser- mon ” at Plymouth in 1678 and at Milford in 1713. Treaties [M. Eng. tretee, from Fr. traité < Lat. traotatns, treatise, deriv. of traotare, discuss, treat] : compacts or agree- ments made by two or more nations or sovereigns. States, like individuals, may make contracts. These rest for their fulfillment upon the good faith of the contracting parties. State contracts may be made with private persons—a gov- ernment bond, for instance—or with other states. These latter are called treaties. A treaty, then, is an engagement between states to do, or to refrain from doing, something which is lawful. Treaties may be considered under the fol- lowing heads : I. The Conolitions of a Treatg/’s Validity/.—1. A state must have capacity to contract. This is lacking to the in- dividual States which compose the United States, being de- nied them by its Constitution, but may belong to the mem- bers of a more loosely organized confederation. It may be lacking, in whole or in part, in the case of a protected state, according to the terms of its dependence. It is lacking also in its fullest extent in the case of astate like Belgium which, under its status of neutrality, ha.s no right of making war save in self-defense, and is thereby debarred from such trea- ties as alliances which imply the ability to wage war. Yet for most purposes the capacity of Belgium is complete. Such questions of capacity the international status, the his- tory, and constitution of a state will decide. TREATIES Q45 2. The agents negotiating a treaty must be properly au- thorized, to make their agreement a valid one. This, again, is a constitutional question which each state must answer for itself. The duty may devolve upon the sovereign or ex- ecutive head of a country, upon its minister of foreign af- fairs, or upon agents representing these. For a certain class of state contracts of a military nature, truces, cartels for the exchange of prisoners, and capitulations, for example, the high military and naval officers are competent, and such agreements do not need ratification. Under ancient usage even an unauthorized person might make a treaty, subject, however, to ratification. This was a sponsio. A noted case of this kind, referred to by the publicists, was when the con- sul Postumius (B. 0. 321) saved his army by a peace with the Samnites which the Roman senate declared void. Upon this failure of the consideration, good faith demanded that the army should be surrendered to the Samnites, but this did not follow. 3. A third requisite to the validity of a treaty is freedom of consent on the part of the negotiators. Duress or intimi- dation, false representation, bribery, applied to the treaty agent and instrumental in deciding the terms of agreement, will invalidate it. But a mere mistake as to the value of a consideration will not matter. Thus before the thorough exploration of the Mississippi river, the right of free navi- gation from British territory upon its whole course, avalue- less concession, was agreed upon by treaty in return for val- uable fishery privileges. Of course force applied to the na- tion not the mere agent is valid, as when a cession of terri- tory is the result of a war. Or a sovereign in captivity may be of sufficient value to his country to entitle the captor to something in exchange. Where the existence of a nation is at stake it is held that no agents are competent to trans- fer it by treaty, and yet the partition of Poland has been an accepted fact for a century. 4. Again, treaties are void which involve a violation of accepted principles of international law, which contain stip- ulations whose execution has become impossible, or which conflict with prior obligations to a third power. For in- stance, an agreement to engage in the slave-trade or to as- sert joint control over a portion of the high seas would be invalid. II. Forms of Treaties.—Here the essential fact is the ex- pression of an agreement, no particular form being indis- pensable. This might be verbal. but in point of fact is al- ways written and signed. The language employed was anciently Latin, then French, as that became the language of diplomacy; but when two states using the same tongue negotiate naturally that will be used. A distinction of small importance is made between treaties and conventions, the former having generally a wider political scope, while the latter relate to some minor specific object. For instance, the Treaty of VVashington of 1871, arranging for a settle- ment of the Alabama claims and the fishery question, was followed by the convention of 1873 settling the place where the sessions called for by its twelfth article should be held. III. Ratification of Treaties.—The general rule may be laid down that ratification of a treaty is expected and neces- sary to make it valid. Under a Constitution like that of the U. S., where the power of making treaties belongs to the President, while the Senate must confirm or veto (by a two- thirds vote), knowledge of this fact is presumed and notice that ratification is necessary is not required. But also where negotiation and ratification lie in the same hands. the latter is essential and may be withheld if desired. Here we may touch on the question whether, in forms of government where the executive is authorized to conclude a treaty, he is bound by the action of his negotiator, provided the latter proceeded according to instructions. It was formerly held that, if the agent who made the treaty proceeded according to his full power but not according to secret instructions, the principal was bound by his action, since the full power, being known to the other party, was the motive in consid- eration of which he consented to treat. But at present it is held by the best authorities that the principal may with- hold his ratification. in dertain circumstances, even when the negotiator has followed his private instructions. The refusal is justified in cases like these (see Wheaton, iii., ch. ii., §§ 256—263): (1) “On the ground of the impossibility, physical or moral, of fulfilling the stipulations ”; (2) “ on the ground of mutual error of the parties respecting a mat- ter of fact. which, if it had been known in its true circum- stances, would have prevented the conclusion of the treaty ”; (3) on the ground of “ a change of circumstances on which 246 the validity of the treaty is made to depend, either by an express stipulation or by the nature of the treaty itself.” To which may be added the case where the treaty would involve injury to athird party ; or if such representations have been made as to the powers of the negotiator as to make a failure of ratification an act of bad faith. Ratification should cover the entire treaty. The U. S. Senate in at least two instances has been complained of for loose practice in this regard, in ratifying the main body of a treaty while amending or dropping a particular article, whereas the whole should have been sent back for revision. Reference may be made here to another point under our usage. In the U. S. if the payment of asum of money forms one of the conditions of a treaty a majority of the House of Representatives must concur. In this way it would be pos- sible, in certain cases, to defeat the action of the Senate; but to do this, except in extreme cases, would oppose the spirit of the Constitution, which evidently intended to invest the President and Senate finally and absolutely with the treaty- making power. A similar conflict might take place when in Great Britain the king’s ministers had made similar agree- ments with foreign powers ; for, as money is voted for par- ticular purposes and not in a lump, the Parliament might refuse to sanction a payment to which the treaty had pledged the country. A question has been discussed as to the extent of power lodged in the hands of the President and Senate by the U. S. Constitution, as it respects the cession by treaty of land belonging to a State. Very high authorities on con- stitutional law have taken ground which would sanction the idea that the treaty-making power is practically omnipotent. But surely no treaty could alter the relations of the general Government to the States; and as to cessions of land, the better opinion seems to be that while treaty can determine boundaries and so take away from a State what was sup- posed to be its territory, it can not dispose without its con- sent of territory admitted to belong to a State, unless in the extreme case of conquest, when treaty simply admits the fact of actual transfer of territory to the jurisdiction of another power, and declares this to be inevitable. After the ex- change of rat-ifications a treaty dates back to the time of its signature, so that captures made between these two moments are invalid. IV. Intericretation of Treaties.—Without going at length into this topic the following brief rules of interpretation are given as covering the main ground : The ordinary meaning of words prevails, but technical lan- guage has its technical sense. Words involving an absurdity should be otherwise con- strued or else be held void. Where grants, privileges, or favors are inserted they should be strictly interpreted. For it was the duty of the party for whose benefit they were inserted to make them clear and unmistakable. Obscure expressions may be explained by clearer ones, or interpreted in accordance with the general spirit of the treaty. Special stipulations are preferred to general ones. If an agreement is inconsistent with an earlier treaty between the same parties, the earlier is superseded by it ; but if opposed to treaty provisions made by either with a third power, it is void. V. How Treaties may Difier.—An examination of the collection of its treaties made by every state will show their immense range and variety. Some important ones are led up to by a preliminary treaty and qualified by a subsequent one. Some are common to two states only, while others, like the Act of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, or the Treaty of Paris in 1856, are signed by a number of powers, or receive their subsequent accession. Some make a single commercial or administrative arrangement, like the maintenance of con- suls, of a postal service or of copyright privileges, while oth- ers cede territory or settle a question of national existence. Some are perpetual in nature or in terms, others are made for a certain number of years, or are terminable at will. Some are of a private nature, to arrange a marriage alliance for instance, while most are of a public character. They may reiterate and enforce a prior treaty or a national right or an accepted principle of international law. On the other hand, they may attempt to introduce some new usage, as was the case in the armed neutrality of the Baltic powers in 1780 and 1800, and in the Declaration of Paris of 1856. Of spe- cial classes of treaties the most common are alliances and treaties of guaranty. Allianccs.—An offensive alliance is an anomaly, except when made with reference to a particular war. A defensive TREATIES alliance was made in 1778 between France and the Ameri- can confederated colonies during the Revolution. mod- ern example is the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, and Italy. An alliance both ofiensive and defensive binds states together in the strongest way possible short of confedera- tion. It is for the state whose aid is called for to determine whether the circumstances contemplated by the treaty (the casus fwderis) have arrived. If only a certain limited aid is promised in case of war, the enemy of either must choose whether in view of this to regard both states as belligerents or only the one. Treaties of Guaranty.-—The thing guaranteed may be a particular status, as of neutrality; or the integrity of an- other treaty or of specific rights under it ; or the protection of certain property or territory, as when by treaty of 1778 with France the U. S. guaranteed the French possessions in North America. So likewise by treaty of 1846 with ‘ New Granada, the U. S. guaranteed the neutrality of the Isthmus of Panama, free transit across it, and the rights of sover- eignty and property of New Granada in it. Under the lat- ter the U. S. has intervened by force to protect the Panama railway. Both of these guarantees were reciprocal in terms. Here, again. the guarantor must decide whether the occa- sion contemplated by the treaty has arrived. The guarantor of a money payment differs from a surety in that the latter is bound to make the payment in lieu of the principal, while the former merely uses his influence and offices to secure it. The guaranty of a political status may involve the duty of intervention. VI. Execution of a Treaty/.—With this object, hostages were formerly given, but not by present usage, except in military conventions, the last instance being in 1748 to se- cure the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Solemn oaths to observe a treaty are also out of date. Pledges are still in use. Thus certain French fortresses were left in German hands after 1871, for several years, to secure the carrying out of the terms of the treaty of peace, an enormous money indemnity being one of them. Lastly may be mentioned the guaranty of a treaty by a third power. VII. Termination of Treaties.—When a treaty is made to secure a definite object and that object is attained, the treaty has no longer any reason for existence. Many treaties are of this class, to settle a boundary, to arrange for the arbi- tration of a special difliculty, to satisfy certain claims. So also when a treaty is made for a specified term or is made for an indefinite term with mutual right of abrogation, or, as is the case with numerous treaties, is made for a term but with a provision for their continuance beyond their limit and until notice of termination is given. Where an evident im- possibility of execution appears, there is at least a suspen- sion of the treaty. States may also, unfortunately,terminate a treaty or portions of it by simple repudiation, coupled with a willingness to take the consequences, even war. Though a clear violation of international law, for the fact that a treaty is burdensome is no reason for its violation, such re- pudiation is practically possible. An excuse for such con- duct will of course be given which may ormay not be valid. Thus the U. S. formally declared that it should no longer consider the two treaties with France of 1778 as in force, on the ground that France had violated several of their ro- visions. A treaty is an entire contract, and if one artic e is violated, the injured party may consider the whole void or may, if it prefers, insist on the enforcement of the remaining articles. The Eyfect of War‘ upon Trcaties.——That a large class of treaties are terminated by war is beyond question. Such are treaties of peace, of commerce, of alliance, of all in fact where friendship is an essential basis. On the other hand, many treaties are by nature or in terms perpetual, like the recognition of our independence within certain boundaries by Great Britain, or the Fishery Treaty of 1818 agreeing that the inhabitants of the U. S. “shall have forever . . . the lib- erty to take fish” on certain coasts. Moreover, all those treaties which contemplate a state of war must survive, for otherwise they would be useless. Such are treaties laying down the rules of blockade, contraband, convoy, visitation, capture, and so on. Upon a third class of treaties the effect of war must be held doubtful, the special circumstances of each case being considered. Kent says that “ as a general rule the obligations of trea- ties are dissipated by hostilities.” 1-Ialleck-says, inter alia, that “treaties of commerce and navigation are generally either suspended or extinguished by a war between the par- ties ” to them. Of course they must be suspended at least, TREATIES or war could not exist. Calvo says that “ as for postal and custom-house arrangements, conventions relating to navi- gation and commerce, agreements relative to private inter- ests, they are generally regarded as suspended until the ces- sation of hostilities.” As commercial, postal, and similar conventions are often limited in time by their express terms, it seems safe to say that such arrangements, and others, like them, liable to be changed in these particulars in a few years of peace, ought to be regarded as broken off by war, which brings with it new feelings and interests. We add from Calvo that opinions agree “ in favor of admitting the defini- tive rupture of conventional obligations entered into ex- pressly in view of a state of peace, of such as have it for their special object to favor the relations of good harmony between nation and nation, such as treaties of friendship, of alliance, and other acts of the same nature, having a po- litical character.” A distinction was made by some of the older writers between the effects of a new war arising from a cause independent of a treaty, which they thought would not affect the provisions of a treaty, and a war growing out of the breach of a treaty by which its provisions would be annulled. Hence, in a given treaty, if one of the articles had been broken, and a war arose out of the breach, the rest of the treaty would be unaffected. It is easy to see that this distinction would com licate affairs between par- ties wishing to make peace. T e practical rule suggested by these doubts is that, as silence may be misinterpreted, it is best always to make mention of the old treaties by way of renewing and confirming them. It is said by Dr. Twiss that Great Britain “ in practice admits of no exception to the rule that all treaties, as such, are put an end to by a subsequent war between the contending parties.” In con- formity with this rule, or to revent doubt, the Peace of Westphalia and the Treaty of trecht were renewed a num- ber of times over when the parties to them after war made new treaties with one another. It may be added to what has been said, that private rights, resulting from rules of admitted justice, are not extinguished by a war; and so a debt due by one nation to another, where the same rules of right prevail as are acknowledged in municipal law, sur- vives a war. An interesting discussion arose between Great Britain and the U. S. after the war of 1812 whether the colonies, after the recognition of their independence, re- tained the rights of fishery on British coasts, as a matter of course, which they had had while dependencies of Great Britain. John Quincy Adams and others contended that they retained these rights, and in the discussion the ques- tion of the efiect of war on treaties came up. It seems that the British side of the question had the soundest argu- ments in its favor. The U. S. placed itself on the footing of an independent nation, and had no more rights than others ; nay, even if it had been obliged to submit again to the British crown, this right of fishery might have been taken away. VIII. Treaties of Peace.—-The only rational object of war is to secure a state of justice involving reparation and se- curity for the future. Treaties of peace, being appeals to force, do not always bring the adversaries to just terms, but, whatever their result, they are the most important acts of treaty-making powers; they often form epochs in na- tional or in continental history. To name only one or two: the Peace of Westphalia, those of Nymwegen, Ryswick, and Utrecht-Baden, the treaties of Paris and of Hubertsburg in 1763, the Peace of Paris and that of Versailles in 1783, the two treaties of Paris in 1814 and 1815 respectively, the Peace of Zurich in 1859 and of Prague in 1866, and the Peace of Paris in 1856 (on account especially of its interna- tional character), indicate memorable changes of relative strength, or mark a new policy. or bring in a new dynasty, or are in some way the eras of some kind of progress. They are the hands of a clock, but the war was the moving force. Treaties of peace are subject to the same rules of inter- pretation with others made by the constitutional power in the state. Only two additional points remain to be consid- ered: (a) When do treaties go into effect‘? They bind the parties, as we have seen, when they are signed or when they are ratified. They bind individuals when they receive news that such treaties have been made. In the interval between ratification and knowledge of the peace by military oflicers or by cruisers, injuries must be made good by the country to which the party committing the injury belongs. Cap- tures made after a peace, but without knowledge of it, have been held to subject the capturing officer to civil damages, for which he would have a right to demand compensation 247 from his government. Captures, again, made before the time for the termination of hostilities, but with knowledge that peace has been concluded, are held to be invalid and subject to restoration. (b) The effect of peace is to put an end not only to a war, but also to all complaints relating to the subject for which war was undertaken. It is an oblivion or amnesty of all past difficulties. A new war can be un- dertaken for similar causes of complaint, but not for the same. They are forgotten and forgiven, whether mentioned in the treaty or passed over in silence. In regard to the state in which the war leaves the parties, if the treaty makes no mention of this point, the principle of nti possidetis is admitted. Territory stays in the actual occupant’s hands unless passed over by express agreement, and a strong place must be restored without injury to its works. When a part of a country is yielded up at peace to the enemy, the former sovereign is neither bound to make compensation to those who suffer by the change of jurisdiction, nor to secure the new sovereign against resistance from the inhabitants to his authority. All he does is to renounce his own sover- eignty and jurisdiction. The cession of Formosa by China to Japan is an instance. The value of a study of treaties can hardly be overesti- mated. Quite outside of their statement of the actual rela- tions existing between states, they show the abolition of old usages, the introduction of new ones, and foreshadow the better principles of the future. They mark the growth of international law, while binding only their principals. They furnish an important object lesson to outsiders. Founded upon a mutual sense of moral obligation, they furnish a stable basis upon which the law governing the relations of states is erected, so that the collection of its treaties which every nation will make is the fundamental text-book of principle and of illustration for the international lawyer. Revised by T. S. WOOLSEY. NOTABLE TREATIES. The following summary of the chief international agree- ments made between the leading nations is limited to the mention of only the more famous treaties since the year 843, which is taken as the starting-point, because the contract of Verdun, formed in that year, may be regarded as the basis of the international relations of modern Europe. 843. Contract of Verdun: the treaty that concluded the war between Lothar, Louis the German, and Charles the Bald over their respective shares of the imperial dominions on the death of their father, Louis the Pious. Lothar claimed the whole inheritance, but was defeated at Fonte- nay, and though he retained the title of emperor was obliged to content himself with Italy and a narrow strip of land between the dominions of his brothers. extending to the North Sea. This land was afterward called Lotharingia or Lorraine. Charles the Bald governed the western portion of the empire of Charlemagne, comprising chiefly Gallic- Roman inhabitants and corresponding roughly to the limits of modern France, while Louis the German held the eastern portion, peopled by German-speaking inhabitants. In this breaking up of the restored Roman empire the modern na- tions of France and Germany have their origin. See map of Europe under the Carlovingians in article EUROPE. 911. Treaty of St.-Clair-sur-Egpte : concluded the war between the invading Norsemen under Rollo or Rolf and the French king Charles the Simple. The latter’s daugh- ter was given in marriage to Rollo, who agreed to become a Christian, and was invested with a part of Neustria, which was afterward known as Normandy. 1122. Concordat of Worms: an agreement between the emperor and the pope. closing the long strife known as the war of investitures. Neither obtained by it all that he had been striving for. The emperor renounced his right to con- fer the ring and crozier as symbols of ecclesiastical oflice, but retained the right of granting church and other prop- erty by the symbol of temporal authority. He also retained the right to be present in person or by proxy at ecclesiastical elections, provided that he abstained from bribery or com- pulsion. Though a compromise, it was in effect a victory for the Church, which obtained much of what Gregory VII. had striven for and Henry IV. had opposed. 1183. Treaty of Constance: between the Emperor Fred- erick Barbarossa and the Lombard cities. In the peace of Venice (1177), formed in the year after the battle of Le- gnano, he had acknowledged the independence of the cities and submitted to the pope. In the definitive treaty of Constance the cities recognized his overlordship, but they 248 secured local self-government, together with the right to fortify themselves and levy armies. With this peace a new power appears in the political system of Europe, that of the free cities. and the attempt to re-establish the ancient des- potism of the Roman empire failed. 1360. Peace of Bretigny: a treaty that interrupted the Hundred Years’ war between France and England. Ed- ward III. renounced his claims to Normandy, Maine, Anjou, etc., and to the French crown, but his sovereignty over the south and west of France and over a part of Northern Pi- cardy was recognized. 1397. Union of (Jabnar: the treaty by which the northern powers, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, were united under the rule of Queen Margaret of Denmark. Its object was forever to put an end to wars and dissensions between the three northern states, and it was enacted that they should henceforth be ruled over by one sovereign, who was to gov- ern with due regard to the laws and customs of each. If the reigning king or queen died without children a joint sovereign should be elected by the senators and deputies of the three realms. National jealousies, however, asserted themselves, and Sweden, who had long been a reluctant member, finally broke up the union in 1523 through the efforts of her national chief Gustavus Vasa. 1420. Treaty of Troyes: interrupted the Hundred Years’ war between France and England on terms most favorable to the latter. The English king, Henry V., to whom the French princess Catharine was given in marriage, was made heir to the French throne at the death of the insane king Charles VI., and in the meanwhile was to act as regent. 1435. Treaty of Arms: a compact between Burgundy and France, in which the former abandoned the English al- liance and acknowledged Charles VII. as king of France on condition of receiving Auxerre and Macon and the towns on the Somme. This weakened the power of the English in France and led the way to their final expulsion. 1466. Treaty of Thorn: the instrument by which the Polish conquest of West Prussia was recognized and the rule of the Teutonic Knights was confined to East Prussia. 1482. Treaty of Arras : settled the dispute between Louis XI. of France and Maximilian of Austria in favor of the former, who retained the towns on the Somme, and by the betrothal of the dauphin to the daughter of Maximilian was to secure Franche Comté and other territories. 1493. Bull of Pope Alexander V]. : arranged the conflict- ing claims of Spain and Portugal to newly discovered lands. Assuming the authority to apportion the countries of the earth, he fixed a line of demarkation running N. and S. through a point 100 leagues VV. of the Azores. All to the E. of this line was assigned to Portugal, all to the W. to Spain. 1494. Convention of Tordesillasz between Spain and Por- tugal, substituted for the line fixed by the papal bull of 1493 one passing through a point 370 leagues W. of the Azores. See TORDESILLAS, CONVENTION or. 1508. League of Oambray: a union formed by treaty be- tween Louis XII. of France and the Emperor Maximilian, which the pope, Ferdinand of Spain, and others were invited to join, for the purpose of crushing Venice and partitioning her territories. War resulted, but the object of the league was not attained, owing to dissensions among the allies, some of whom finally withdrew and joined the Venetians. 1526. Treaty of M'cccZricZ: formed between the Emperor Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France, who had been defeated at the battle of Pavia and was then a prison- er. By it the latter gave up his claims to Genoa, Milan, Naples, Flanders, and Artois, agreed to cede Burgundy to the emperor, and consented to other humiliating conditions. Professing to have signed under constraint, he broke the treaty as soon as he regained his liberty. 1529. Treaty of Cambruy, known as the Ladies’ Peace: also between Francis I. and Charles V. ; renewed the chief provisions of the Treaty of Madrid except that relating to Burgundy, which Francis was allowed to retain. It pressed too severely on France and the war was renewed. 1544. Treaty of Orespy: concluded the fourth and last war between Francis 1. and Charles V. with a mutual ces- sion of conquests made since the Truce of Nice in 1538. It left the two contestants in approximately the same condition as before the first war, Charles renouncing his claim to Burgundy, Francis to Naples, Flanders, and Artois. 1552. Treaty of Passau : between Charles V. and Maurice of Saxony. The former promised to convoke a Diet to con- sider the questions at issue, and in the meanwhile granted the Protestants religious toleration. TREATIES 1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg; concluded at the Diet promised by Charles in the preliminary Treaty of Pas- sau ; granted toleration to Lutherans, but not to Calvinists ; gave each prince the right to choose between the Roman Catholic faith and the Augsburg Confession, and to ex el those of his subjects who differed from him in religion. By the Reservatum Ecclesiasticum, it was provided that any Catholic ecclesiastic on turning Protestant should forfeit his goods and rights that he had enjoyed by virtue of his ecclesiastical ofiice. This was the source of constant trou- ble, and led ultimately to the THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (q. v.). 1576. Pacification of Ghent: a union of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands for mutual defense against the Spaniards. Foreigners were to be driven from the prov- inces and a meeting of the States-General was to be called to regulate matters of common interest. 1579. Union of Utrecht : the union of the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands in defense of their political rights and their religious freedom. It laid the foundation of the Dutch Republic, whose independence of Spain was virtually recognized by the treaty of 1609. 1648. Peace of Westphalia: consisting of the treaties of Miinster and Osnabriick; concluded the THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (g. 12.), and adjusted the relations of most of the Eu- ropean owers. The provisions of this important peace may be ivided into three classes: those making territorial changes, those affecting religion, and those bearing upon the internal constitution of the German empire. I. Terri- torial arrangements. Sweden acquired Hither Pomerania. the island of Riigen, the archbishopric of Bremen, the bish- opric of Verden, the town and port of Wismar, parts of Further Pomerania, etc. These were to continue parts of the em plire, of which the King of Sweden was to be a mem- ber wit three votes in the Diet. Sweden further received a money indemnity. In general she attained much of what Oxenstjerna had striven for, and she ranked for a time, as the leading northern power. France secured the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, the town of Pignerol, Austrian Alsace, the right to garrison Philippsburg, and some minor accessions of territory. Her territorial gains,-however, were of less importance than the prestige arising from the strengthening of her friends and the weakening of her ene- mies by the provisions of the treaty. The aggrandizing policy of Richelieu and Mazarin had completely succeeded, and France stood forth as the first power of Europe. The seed of future strife existed in a clause of the treaty, bind- ing the King of France to permit the bishoprics of Basel and Strassburg, the ten imperial towns in Alsace. and all es- tates holding immediately of the empire to remain “in that liberty and possession of immediacy toward the empire which they had formerly enjoyed.” Brandenburg was com- pensated for territory ceded to Sweden, by the bishoprics of Minden, Halberstadt, and Kammin, and the archbishopric of Magdeburg. Mecklenburg and Brunswick-Liineburg were also compensated by territorial accessions, and the house of Hesse-Cassel gained important rights and a money indemnity. The Lower Palatinate, with the right of rever- sion to the Upper, was restored to the family of the unfortu- nate Elector Frederick V., and an eighth electorate was created in its favor, Bavaria retaining the old electoral dig- nity and the Upper Palatinate. Switzerland, long inde- pendent in fact, was acknowledged to be so of right. The independence of Holland was also formally recognized. II. Religious provisions. Toleration was extended to Calvin- ists as well as Lutherans. The possession of ecclesiastical property and rights was determined by the status of the parties in 1624. A benefice held by a Protestant or Catholic in Jan., 1624, should forever belong to the same religion, but in the Palatinate, Wiirteinberg, and Baden 1618 was taken as the normal year. Thus the Resewatum E'ccZesiasti- cum of the Peace of Augsburg was superseded. The holder of an ecclesiastical benefice on changing his religion was to vacate his benefice without restoring its former fruits. If a prince changed his religion he could not alter the existing Church, but could enjoy only his own domestic worship. Even if an entire community followed their sovereign in the new faith the old state of things in Church and school must continue. Those subjects of a sovereign difiering in faith from their own who had not enjoyed the right of worship in 1624 could be compelled to emigrate, but must receive notice several years beforehand. III. Provisions affecting the con- stitution of the empire. The weakening of the imperial au- thority which had resulted from the war was legalized. The emperor was thenceforth of less importance in the political TREATIES system than the Diet, which alone could make the laws, de- clare war, and conclude treaties. The separate states of the empire were free to make alliances with one another or with foreign states, subject only to the condition that such alli- ances be not prejudicial to the empire or the emperor. The chief features of the Peace of Westphalia are the fol- lowing: It established the equality of the Calvinists, Luther- ans, and Catholics in Germany. It made the states of the empire almost independent of the emperor, thus preventing the attainment of national unity, and preparing for the rise of Prussia as a great Protestant power and the rival of Aus- tria. It further gave to Sweden and France the right of con- tinual interference in the internal affairs of the empire. Its adjustment of European affairs was of course not perma- nent, but it is the basis of almost all European treaties down to the time of the French Revolution, and it marks the end of the period of religious wars between European nations, whose points at issue were thenceforth to be mainly poht1cal. 1659. Peace of the Pyrenees: brought to a close the long war between France and Spain, confirming the former power in the possession of Roussillon, granting her Artois with places in Flanders, Hainault, and Luxemburg, and a por- tion of Cerdagne, and restoring Lorraine to the Duke of Lorraine. The Prince of Condé was pardoned and rein- stated in his dignities. A special contract arranged the marriage of Louis XIV. to the Infanta Maria Theresa, who was to renounce her claims to the crown of Spain in consid- eration of a dowry of 500,000 crowns. 1660. Treaty of Oliva: between the King of Poland and his allies and the King of Sweden. By it Poland gave up to Sweden Esthonia and Livonia, and renounced suzerainty over the duchy of Prussia in favor of the Elector of Bran- denburg. 1660. Treaty of Copenhagen: between Denmark and Sweden, secured to the latter power Schonen, Blekingen, Halland, Hween, and Bohus, and restored to Denmark Bornholm and Drontheim in Norway. 1667. Treaty of Breda: between England and Holland; restored the conquests made during the war and secured in the interest of the latter power a modification of the English Navigation Acts. 1668. Triple Alliance: between England, Holland, and Sweden to defend Spain against Louis XIV. It was suc- cessful and peace was formed in the same year between Spain and France, but within two years from its formation Louis succeeded in detaching Sweden from the alliance and winning over the English king Charles 11., so that France was free to avenge herself on Holland. 1668. Treaty of Aia:-la-Chapellez between France and Spain, the former retaining a chain of strong fortresses on the northern frontier, but restoring Franche-Com té to Spain. 1668. Treaty of Lisbon: between Spain and Portugal through the mediation of England. Spain recognized the independence of Portugal. 1678. Peace of Nymwegcrz-: ended the Dutch war. Trea- ties were formed between Holland and France, France and Spain, and in the following year between France and the other parties to the war. Holland recovered all the terri- tory that she had lost to France, but the latter power ac- quired Franche-Comté from Spain. 1697. Peace of Ryswich: brought to a close the war be- tween France under Louis XIV. and the principal states of Europe, sometimes called the \/Var of the Palatinate or the War of Orleans ; comprised the mutual restoration by France and England of the conquests made during the war, the recognition by the former power of William of Orange as the lawful King of England, and the relinquishment by France of a large part of the districts which she had seized from Spain and the emperor through the courts of “reunion” established by Louis after the peace of Nym- wegen, but Alsace lost all connection with the empire and became an integral part of France. 1699. Peace of Carlowitz: between Turkey on the one hand and the Emperor of Germany, the King of Poland, and the republic of Venice on the other. It was agreed that Transylvania should remain an Austrian province, that the southern bank of the Danube should separate Hungary from the sultan’s dominions, and that Venice should hold a part of Dalmatia and her acquisitions in Greece, except Lepanto. 1713-14. Treaties of Utrecht, Rastaclt, and Baden: con- cluded between the states that had taken part in the war of the Spanish Succession (see SUCCESSION WARS); comprised nine treaties formed at Utrecht and one between France and the empire at Rastadt, which was subsequently finished 249 with some modifications at Baden. Among the important features of these treaties were the stipulation that the crowns of France and Spain should be forever separate, the cession or restoration by France to Great Britain of Hudson Bay, St. Kitts, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, ete., the cession by Spain to Great Britain of Gibraltar and Minorca, the trans- fer of Naples, Sardinia, Milan, and the Spanish Netherlands to Austria, and the confirmation of the Duke of Savoy in the possession of Sicily. A notorious clause of the treaty between Great Britain and Spain granted a company of British merchants the exclusive right to supply Spanish America with Negro slaves. 1717. Triple Alliance: between Great Britain, France, and Holland, in which these powers engaged to maintain the treaty of Utrecht, and in which France promised to give no aid to the Pretender to the throne of Great Britain. 1718-19. Quadruple Alliance: between Great Britain, France, Holland, and the emperor against the aggressions of Spain, which finally was obliged to give way and acceded to the alliance in 1720. Spain gave up all claim to the Netherlands and the Spanish part of Italy, and the em- peror in return acknowledged Philip V. as rightful King of Spain. The emperor exchanged Sardinia for Sicily with the Duke of Savoy. 1718. Peace of Passarowitz: between the sultan and the emperor, granted the latter the portion of Hungary pre- viously held by Turkey and extensive territories in Servia and Wallachia. 1721. Peace of lVystadt: between Sweden and Russia, granting the latter Esthonia, Livonia, Ingermanland, and part of Carelia, in return for parts of Finland which had been conquered. By it Russia succeeded to the position among the northern powers formerly held by Sweden. 1738. Treaty of Vienna: between France and Germany. France received Lorraine and agreed to the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI., naming Maria Theresa as his suc- cessor to a great part of the Austrian dominions. Austria ceded Naples and Sicily to a younger branch of the Spanish reigning family and received in exchange Parma and Pia- cenza. Tuscany was bestowed on the Duke of Lorraine. 1742. Peace of Breslau, subsequently confirmed by the Peace of Berlin and the Peace of Dresden: between Fred- erick II. of Prussia and Maria Theresa of Austria, secured Silesia to Prussia. By the Peace of Dresden Frederick ac- knowledged Maria Theresa's husband as emperor. 1748. Peace of Aizv-la-Chapelle: between Great Britain, France, and Holland; Austria. Spain, Sardinia, Genoa, and Modena being accessories; ended the war of the Austrian Succession with the mutual restoration of conquests, but Frederick II. of Prussia kept Silesia. 1761. The Family Compact: between the Bourbon rulers of France and Spain, binding them in a close offensive and defensive alliance to which none but members of the Bour- bon family should be parties. 1763. Peace of Paris: terminated the Seven Years’ war, known in the American colonies as the French and Indian or Old French war. Its chief provisions related to the possessions of France and Great Britain i11 North America, where the latter power gained Canada and secured all lands E. of the Mississippi with the exception of New Orleans, but restored some of her conquests in the East and ‘Vest Indies and in Africa to France. 1763. Peace of Habertsburg : the treaty by which Prussia ended the Seven Years’ war, retaining all that had been recog- nized as hers in the treaties of Breslau, Berlin, and Dresden. 1772. First Partition of Poland : carried out by treaties between Russia, Austria. and Prussia, giving as a reason for their action their insecurity against the internal dissen- sions of their neighbor. 1774. Peace of K21tschuh-Kainaroly'i : between Russia and Turkey; restored Bessa.rabia, \Vallachia, and l\ioldavia to the latter power, which engaged to protect the Christian inhab- itants of these principalities in their religion. Russia ob- tained freedom of navigation in Turkish waters and arranged for a minister resident at Constantinople. To this treaty Russia afterward appealed as granting her a protectorate over the Christian subjects of the Porte. 1783. Treaty of Paris: the treaty in which Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the North American colonies and granted them important fishing privileges in the British dominions in America. 1783. Treaty of Versailles: signed at the same time as the above between Great Britain, France, and Spain ; was a mutual restitution of conquests. 250 1792. Peace of Jassy : between Russia and Turkey ; made the left bank of the Dniester the boundary between their respective territories. 1792. First Coalition against France: comprised ulti- mately all the powers except Sweden, Switzerland, Den- mark, Tuscany, Venice, and Genoa. 1793-95. Second and Third Partitions of Poland: car- ried out by treaties between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. See the article POLAND. 1795. Peace of Basel: between France and Prussia, the latter withdrawing from the first coalition. It gave up the left bank of the Rhine to France. 1795. Treaty between the U. S. and Great Britain, known as the Jay Treaty. See the article JAY, JOHN. 1797. Treaty of Tolentino: between the French republic and the pope. The latter surrendered to France Avignon, the Venaissin, and the legations of Ferrara, Bologna, and Romagna, renounced the coalition, and agreed to pay an excessive indemnity and to give up 100 works of art, etc. 1797. Treaty of Carnpo Formio: between Napoleon and the Emperor of Germany. Austria had been humbled in the Italian campaigns and was forced to consent to an un- favorable peace. See the article NAPOLEON I. 1798. Second Coalition against France: initiated by Russia; afterward comprised England, Austria, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey. It was formed for the purpose of checking French aggressions, and was at first successful, but its power was broken by the French victories of Hohen- linden and Marengo, and it fell to pieces after the Treaty of Lunéville. 1801. Treaty of Lunécille: between France and Ger- many ; renewed several of the most important provisions of the Treaty of Campo Formio. See NAPOLEON I. 1802. Peace of Amiens: between Great Britain on the one hand and France, Spain. and the Batavian republic on the other. It was hardly more than a truce, war being re- newed in 1803. See NAPOLEON I. 1803. Treaty between France and the U. S. touching the purchase of Louisiana. See UNITED STATES (History). 1805. Peace of Pressburg: between Austria and France. The former gave up to France the Austrian spoils of the old republic of Venice, acknowledged the French seizures in Italy, and recognized the kingdom of Italy established by Napoleon. The terms were most humiliating to Austria, and in the following year occurred the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, and the disruption of the an- cient Holy Roman Empire. The Hapsburg ruler was thenceforth merely Emperor of Austria. 1807. Treaties of Tilsizf: concluded between France, Prussia, and Russia after Napoleon had successively hum- bled the last two powers in the campaigns of 1806-07. Prussia gave up all her territory W. of the Elbe and almost all that she had gained by the partitions of Poland, the lat- ter territory to constitute the grand duchy of Warsaw, which was to be dependent upon France; submitted to the occupation of her remaining territory by a French army; was forced to limit her own army to 42,000 men, and to con- clude an offensive alliance against Great Britain. She lost about half her territory and was reduced to a condition of virtual vassalage to France. Russia also entered into an offensive alliance with France against Great Britain, prom- ising to make common cause with the former if the latter persisted in her maritime policy. See NAPoLEoN I. 1809. Treaty of Schonbrunn or Vienna: between France and Austria, preceded by the armistice of Znaym, closing the campaign which had resulted in the French victory of Wagram. Austria lost extensive territories, with a popu- lation of about 4,500,000. 1812. Peace of Bucharest: between Russia and Turkey; secured Bessarabia to the former, making the Pruth the boundary between the territories of the two powers. The navigation of the Danube was to be free to both nations. 1814. First Peace of Paris: between France and the principal European powers ; formed after the defeat of Na- poleon at Leipzig and the invasion of France by the allies. It cut down the limits of France to what they had been in 1792, and provided for the meeting of a European congress. 1814. Treaty of Ghent : between the U. S. and Great Brit- ain; brought to a close the war of 1812, leaving matters substantially as they were before the war. No mention was made of the right of search and the impressment of U. S. seamen by the British, though these were the especial grievances that had provoked the U. S. to declare war. See UNITED STATES (History). TREATIES 1815. Congress of Vienna: held according to the provi- sion of the first Peace of Paris, and attended by the princi- pal European powers. See VIENNA, CONGEESS OF. 1815. Second Peace of Paris: concluded between France and the allies after the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo. France was reduced nearly to her limits of 1790, and was obliged to submit for a time to the occupation of her terri- tory by a foreign army. 1815. Holy Alliance: an agreement formed at Paris be- tween the monarchs of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, who were afterward joined by other European powers. Its avowed objects were of a vague and general nature, but in its operations it proved to be a league of sovereigns against peoples. See the article HOLY ALLIANCE. , 1818. Congress of Aia;-la-Chapelle: attended by the rep- resentatives of Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and France to settle the affairs of Europe pursuant to the principles of the HOLY ALLIANCE (Q/1).). See Arx-LA-OI-IAPELLE, CoNeREss or. 1820. Congress of Troppau: a meeting of the members of the Holy Alliance to take action against the revolution- ists in Italy. See TROPPAU. 1821. Congress of Laibach: a continuation of the Con- gress of Troppau ; decided upon intervention in Italy. See LAIBACH. 1822. Congress of Verona: the fourth and last meeting of the members of the Holy Alliance to suppress the revo- lutionary spirit. It was here decided to interfere in Spain. See VEEONA, CoNeEEss or. 1827. Treaty of London: between Great Britain, Russia, and France, to put an end to the war between Turkey and Greece. When the Turks persisted in hostilities the allies destroyed their fleet at N avarino and effected the liberation of Ggeece, but with narrower limits than she afterward ob- taine . 1829. Treaty of Adrianople : between Russia and Turkey after the war of 1828-29. Russia restored her conquests, but secured a money indemnity and the possession of the islands at the mouth of the Danube and the ports of Anapa and Potion the eastern shore of the Black Sea. The hos- podars of the principalities were to hold office for life, and the opportunities for Russian interference in behalf of the Porte’s Christian subjects were greatly increased. 1833. Convention of Unhiar-Shelessi: an agreement be- tween Russia and Turkey, which, if carried out, would have reduced the latter to the position of vassalage. It was op- posed by the other powers. 1840. Quadruple Treaty of London: between Great Brit- ain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia on the one hand and Tur- key on the other; formed to settle the dispute between the sultan and his rebellious vassal, Mehemet Ali of Egypt, who for a time seemed likely to receive aid from France. Me- hemet was checked in his aggressions, and limited to the pashalik of Egypt, which was made hereditary in his fami- y. France afterward joined the alliance. 1842. Treaty of Nanhing: concluded the so-called “ Opi- um war ” between Great Britain and China, securing to the former a money indemnity, the possession of the island of Hongkong, and the opening of five ports to British trade and residence, a privilege later extended by supplementary treaty to all foreigners. This is one of the most important treaties of modern times. 1842. Ashburton Treaty: signed at Washington to define the northeastern boundary between the U. S. and British North America. It also contained rovisions concerning the suppression of the slave-trade and the surrendering of fugitives from justice. 1848. Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo: between the U. S. and Mexico. It ceded to the former country New Mexico, Texas, and Upper California, but all other conquests by the U. S. were to be given up to Mexico and the sum of $15,- 000,000 paid her. 1854. Treaty between the U. S. and Japan: negotiated by Commodore M. C. Perry; secured humane treatment for U. S. sailors shipwrecked on the coasts of Japan, and the right to appoint a consular agent to look after their inter- ests. It led the way to the establishment of commercial in- tercourse. Im ortant trading privileges were secured by the U. S. and reat Britain in 1858, and subsequent treaties have added to these and extended them to other nations. 1856. Treaty of Paris: after the Crimean war, between Russia, France, Great Britain, Austria, Sardinia, and Tur- key, Prussia also being invited to participate. The Black Sea was neutralized and thrown open to commerce. The Danube was also thrown open to commerce, and the limits TREATIES of Bessarabia were altered with the design of taking from Russia the control of the mouths of the Danube. While Wallachia and Moldavia were confirmed in their privileges by the Porte, no exclusive protectorate was granted to any of the contracting powers. 1858. Treaties of Tientsin: concluded between China and each of the four nations, Great Britain, France, Russia, and the U. S. The affair of the lorcha Arrow had caused war between Great Britain and China, and in the treaty of peace the former secured a money indemnity. The chief features of the four treaties are the increase of the number of ports open to foreign trade, the guarantee of protection to both native and foreign Christians in the practice and propaga- tion of their religion, the opening of the country to foreign travel, and the sanctioning of the residence of foreign am- bassadors at Peking. 1859. Peace of Zurich: the settlements of the points in dispute between France and the kingdom of Sardinia on the one hand and Austria on the other, after the war of 1859, preliminaries of peace having already been signed earlier in the same year at Villafranca. Austria retained Venetia, but ceded to France nearly all of Lombardy, which was trans- ferred to Sardinia. Austria and France promised to favor the establishment of an Italian confederation under the presidency of the pope, and Venetia, while still owning the supremacy of Austria, was to be a member of this confeder- ation. In return for Lombardy, and for the aid given by France in the war, Sardinia ceded to her Savoy and the ar- rondissement of Nice. This peace and the events which resulted from it put an end to the arrangements respecting Italy made by the Congress of Vienna, and prepared for the unification of Italy under the house of Savoy. 1864. Peace of Vienna: between Austria, Prussia, and Denmark, concluded the war that arose out of the Schles- wig-Holstein question. The Danish king renounced his rights over Lauenburg, Schleswig, and Holstein in favor of Prussia and Austria. 1865. Convention of Gastein: a compact between Prussia and Austria, arranging for the control of the three duchies gained from Denmark by the war of 1864. Prussia was to control Schleswig, and on the payment of a stipulated sum to Austria the Prussian king was to acquire possession of Lauenburg, while the government of Holstein was com- mitted to Austria. Prussia, however, was to have the com- mand and police of the port of Kiel in Holstein, with the right to maintain two military routes and to construct a canal through the duchy. The arrangement was merely provisional, and did not affect the rights of the two powers to both duchies; but it brought Prussia somewhat nearer to the realization of her object, namely, the annexation of the duchies. 1866. Peace of Prague: concluded the war of 1866 be- tween Prussia and Austria. The latter power recognized the dissolution of the German Confederation and the estab- lishment of the North German Confederation under the leadership of Prussia; renounced all rights over Schleswig and Holstein in favor of Prussia; agreed to the union of Lombardy and Venetia with the kingdom of Italy, and agreed to pay to Prussia an indemnity of 20,000,000 thalers. 1871. Treaty of Frankfort: between France and Ger- many after the war of 1870-71, preliminaries having been signed at Versailles earlier in the same year. France ceded Alsace and part of Lorraine to Germany and paid an in- demnity of 5,000,000,000 francs. A district containing over 1,500,000 inhabitants was thereby annexed to Germany. 1871. Treaty of Washington: between the U. S. and Great Britain to settle questions pending between the two coun- tries. To adjust the so-called Alabama claims it was agreed to submit them to a tribunal of arbitration to meet at Ge- neva and consist of members appointed by each of the par- ties and by three neutral nations. (See ALABAMA CLAIMS.) VVith regard to difliculties concerning the fishing privileges of U. S. vessels on the coasts of British America, the treaty adjusted the points at issue on the basis of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, giving to the persons of each nation the right of fishing on the coasts of the other. There was a mutual concession of important privileges, such as the privilege of transit without payment of duties, and of transportation from one place to another in the territory of one nation across the territory of the other, and the opening of Lake Michigan, the lower course of the St. Lawrence river, and certain rivers in Alaska to the people of both nations. It was further agreed to submit the uestion respecting the running of the boundary-line on the acific to the German TREDGOLD 251 emperor, whose decision, rendered in the following year, was in favor of the U. S.—that is, accepted the line run through the Canal de Haro, leaving the island of San Juan and its group in the territory of the U. S. 1878. Treaty of San Stefano: the preliminary treaty of peace at the close of the Russo-TURKISH WAR (q. 21.). The final settlement was reached at the Congress of Berlin. 1878. Congress of Berlin: a congress of the chief Euro- pean powers to settle the questions that grew out of the Russo-Turkish war. See BERLIN, CoNCREss or. 1879. Treaty of defensive alliance between Austria and Germany: Its text was first published in 1888, when the signatory powers were alarmed by the attitude of Russia. It provided that if Russia attacked either party the other was bound to come to the latter’s aid, and that if either party should be attacked by some other power than Russia, the other party should remain neutral. In 1882 Italy was reported to have entered this alliance, thus forming the Dreibnnd or TRIPLE ALLIANCE (g. o.). 1895. Treaty of Shimonoseki: concluded the war between China and Japan on terms most advantageous to the latter power, which secured the island of Formosa, the Pescadores, the acknowledgment of the independence of Korea (the orig- inal cause of the war), important commercial privileges, and a money indemnity of about $160,000,000. In addition to these benefits Japan was granted possession of the Liao- tung peninsula on the mainland from Port Arthur north- ward as far as the fortieth parallel of latitude, but the protest of Russia, indorsed by France and Germany, in- duced Japan to withdraw her claims to any portion of the mainland, on the understanding that she should be com- pensated by an increase in the amount of the money in- demnity. F. M. COLBY. Treb'bia: the ancient Trebia, a river of Northern Italy. It rises in the Ligurian Apennines 15 miles N. E. of Genoa, flows northward, and joins the Po 3 miles above Piacenza. On its banks the Romans under Sempronius were defeated by Hannibal in 218 B. C. and the French under Macdonald by Suwaroif June 17-20, 1799. Trebel’1ius Pollio: See AUGUSTAN HISTORY. Tl'6b'iZOIld, O1‘ T&1‘&b0Z3.l1 (Gr. Tpa1re§oz'3s, gen. Tpa1re§oih/— ros; Lat. Trape’zns; Turk. Trabizon or Ta'.rab.zon): town; in Asia Minor, in the vilayet of Trebizond; on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea (see map of Turkey, ref. 4-I). It is beautifully situated on a slo e. facing the water; is sur- rounded with walls, and forti ed. It is the Turkish termi- nus of the main route to Armenia and Persia, but the trade formerly centering here is being rapidly diverted to Batoum. Regular lines of steamers connect Trebizond with the Danube and Constantinople. The imports are mainly manufac- tured European goods. The exports are wool, mohair, skins, wax, gum, resin, gall-nuts, tobacco, oil, opium, fruit, shawls, and carpets, brought overland by camel caravans ; also timber and box-wood. Trebizond, founded by a colony from Sinope, was a flourishing city in the time of Xenophon, and gave a memorable reception to the TEN THOUSAND (Q. ’U.). Trajan made it the capital of Pontus-Cappadocia. In 1204 Alexius Comnenus founded the empire of Trebizond, which lasted till its overthrow by Sultan Mohammed II. in 1461. Population (1889) 45.000, of whom 29,000 were Ottomans, 10,000 Greeks, and 5,000 Armenians. E. A. GRosvENoR. Tredegar, treed’ga*ar: town; in Monmouthshire, Eng- land; 7 miles E. N. E. of Merthyr Tydvil (see map of Eng- land, ref. 12-15‘). It is in a coal district, and is the seat of great iron and steel works. Pop. (1891) 17,484. Tredgold, THOMAS: engineer; b. at Brandon, near Dur- ham, England, Aug. 22. 1788; was for some years a journey- man carpenter; was for ten years (1813-23) employed in London in an architect’s office, extending his studies to em- brace chemistry, geology, mechanics, and engineering, and for the last six years of his life practiced with great success as a civil engineer, contributing meanwhile scientific articles to The Philosophical .Zl1'a»gazine, The Annals of Philosophy, and the Encg/clopwdia Britannica. He was the author of The Elementary Principles of Carpentry (1820); A Practi- cal Essay on the Strength of Iron and other Jlfetals (1821) ; Description of Iron Suspension Bridges (1826); and The Steam-engine (18.27), which was subsequently edited by W. S. B. Woodhouse (2 vols., 1838-40), with 125 plates in atlas folio, and in an enlarged edition (3 vols., 1850-53). D. in London, Jan. 28, 1829. 252 TREDIAKOVSKII Trediakov'ski'i, VASILIT KIRILOVICH: author; b. in As- trakhan, Russia, 1703. After a stay of some years in foreign countries he settled in St. Petersburg, where he was made secretary of the Academy of Science. He was a prolific writer, but his verse was so bad that Catherine II. in her games used to punish her courtiers by making them learn lines of it, and his name has remained proverbial in Russia as that of the pretentious, talentless poet who made his way by cringing for court favor. As a prose writer he was of more importance, for some of his critical works, and espe- cially his flfethod of Russian Versifioation, were of con- siderable value. He also translated Boileau’s Art Poétique, Rollin, Fénelon, etc. D. Aug. 18, 1769. A. C. CooLIDeE. Tree [O. En . treo : Icel. tre' : Goth. triu < Teuton. trewo-: Russ. drevo : elsh, derw, oak : Gr. Spfis, oak : Sanskr. dru, tree]: a woody plant with a single trunk rising to more than the height of a man. There are all gradations be- tween shrubs and trees. Some woody-stemmed plants are properly called trees, although of dwarf stature, the branches being elevated upon a single trunk; some, which branch or divide from the ground or near it into a cluster of trunks, reach such a height and magnitude that they must be called trees rather than shrubs. Most common trees increase in thickness by the addition each year of a cylinder of wood around the wood of the preceding years. They are there- fore said to be exogenous in growth. The seedling stem, al- most as soon as it is formed, is traversed longitudinally by some woody threads (fibro-vascular bundles), which are so arranged as to surround a central portion that remains des-i titute of woody matter; and these increase in size and num- ber until they form a cylindrical layer of wood (in cross- section a ring) between the soft central core, the pith, and an outer more or less soft portion, the bark. 'When this layer of wood in the seedling stem or other shoot of the season is completely formed, no additions are made to its inner portion, but new wood ‘may continue to be formed on its outer surface, between it and the bark, all through the season. When, after a suspension of growth consequent upon the diminution of temperature in all climates which have a winter, or of moisture where vegetation is arrested or checked by dryness, a second season of growth supervenes, a new layer of wood is formed upon or external to the old one, and so on year after year. Consequently the section of an exogenous tree-trunk exhibits concentric layers—in all ordinary cases one for each year of its age—the oldest next the pith, the youngest next the bark. As the tree has made annual increments of growth in length as well as in di- ameter, a cross-section at the base of the trunk exhibits a number of annual layers equal to the whole age of the tree, while one at the summit has only a single layer, interposed between the pith and the bark. Radiating plates—-in the cross-section lines more or less conspicuous—-traverse this layer of wood from the pith to the bark, dividing it into wedges; these are continued through the succeeding layers, and new ones are interposed between them as the wedges widen; these are the medullary rays or silver grain. The bark of an exogenous tree is always clearly distinguishable from the wood, and for the most part is readily separable from it, the demarkation between the two being a thin zone of undifferentiated cells, called the carnbium. From this cambium are developed on the one side additions to the wood—on the other to the bark. While the wood, once formed, remains unaltered except as changing from sap- wood to heart-wood, the bark is subject to distension from within, from the increasing size of the woody cylinder. The older and outer bark is conse uently sooner or later fissured and riven as well as worn and weathered by exposure to the elements. The port or character of the tree depends much upon its mode of branching, and this primarily upon the arrange- ment of leaves upon the twigs; for the branches of the spray proceed from lateral buds, of which there is usually a single one in the axil of each leaf. Accordingly, when the leaves are opposite, so will be the branches of the spray, while alternate leaves originate alternate branchlets; but this symmetry, however evident in the branchlets, is usually more or less obscured in the larger branches by the non-de- velopment of some of the buds and the destruction of many branchlets. When the main trunk persists and leads throughout, not being rivaled or supplanted by any of the branches, the tree is said to have an excurrent trunk ; when the main trunk is lost in or replaced by the main branches, it is said to be deliquescent. TREE Palm-trees are the more common but not the exclusive representatives of the type of arboreous vegetation in which the stems do not increase in thickness exogenously. They rise by a simple columnar trunk, not tapering as it ascends, terminated with a crown of la.rge and long-stalked leaves, which are either pinnate or plume-like, as in date-palms, or " palmate, as in palmetto. This simple and mainly cylindrical trunk comes from their whole vegetation being the develop- ment of a single terminal bud. Such axillary buds as they develop form the infloresence, and therefore do not result in ermanent branches. Nevertheless, a few palms branch abitually and normally after a certain age. The doum- palm of Upper Egypt and Nubia is the best-known exam- ple. In contrast with the wood of exogenous trees, that of palms and their relatives has no concentric layers sur- rounding a central pith, and no proper bark. The wood is made up of separate fibro-vascular bundles, longitudinally traversing and se arately imbedded in the cellular and softer fundamenta tissue which is represented in the ex- ogenous stem by the central pith and the radiating medul- lary rays. When these wood-bundles can be traced, they are found to have their upper termination in leaf-stalks, their lower in the circumference or rind, in their course de- scribing more or less of an arch or long curvature. The central portion of the trunk contains fewer of the woody bundles ; toward the circumference they are more crowded. Consequently, the denser wood is at the circumference. the softer at the center. The center sometimes remains pithy, as it were, and sparsely traversed by threads of wood, but in many palm-stems nearly the whole becomes so closely packed with woody bundles as to form a very compact and hard wood. On account of this structure such trees have been called endogenous, “inside growing,” but the term is inaccurate, and is becoming obsolete in this sense. Exoge- nous trunks increase indefinitely in diameter; palm trunks soon become incapable of further enlargement, except in height. They are accordingly cylindrical up to the crown of leaves, and in place of a bark, distinct, separable, and of different layers, they are invested by an inseparable, more homogeneous, and permanent rind, which, along with the more solidified wood of the circumference, restricts and lim- its distension. Some such trunks, however, notably those of dragon-trees and yuccas (of the lily family), continue dis- tensible, and therefore continue to increase in diameter; they also branch when old, usually only after blossoming, which takes place from a terminal bud, thus arresting the vegetative growth, which is resumed from axillary buds. Such stems therefore fork at each flowering or other arrest of the terminal bud, and so in time form a branched head, in some respects imitating that of an ordinary exogenous tree. Trees as to climate and distribution can hardly be here treated of, but it must be stated that arboreal growth, of any ordinary type, supposes and requires a considerable amount of moisture, and accordingly of rainfall, either through the year or through a growing season. An ordinary tree ex- pands a large extent of evaporating surface, chiefly in its foliage. Leaves dry up and perish if not supplied with moisture to replace that which is evaporated or transpired. Therefore, not only are rainless districts treeless (except as water is supplied by irrigation), but regions of scanty and precarious summer_rain are sparsely wooded or without for- est, according to the amount of aridity or length of the dry season; or their arborescent vegetation meets the exigency and stress by some special adaptation. Broad-leaved ever- greens abound where rains fall throughout the year, and especially where winter is unknown. Narrow-leaved or nee- dle-leaved evergreen trees are chiefly in cooler or cold cli- mates, well supplied with moisture through the year or through the season of activity. Trees with expanded foli- age survive the rainless hot season of the drier tropical and sub-tropical regions only by dropping their leaves, upon which the stress first comes, and thereby reducing the evap- orating surface to a minimum. Those which retain their foliage are such as have some peculiar provision-—by fieshi- ncss with thick epidermis in the case of succulent foliage, or by firm coriaceous texture, superficially or throughout, to which, especially in Australia, is sometimes added a vertical instead of horizontal position of the leaves, which thus pre- sent their edges instcad of one face to the high sun. This prevails among the Australian acacias and myrtaceous trees, which compose the larger part of the arboreal vegetation. In climates in which vegetable growth and action are ar- rested by winter, the trees are nearly all deciduous, except TREE the coniferous evergreens, the leaves of which are peculiarly organized for resisting cold, and individually expose a small surface to the elements. Duratton of Trees.—-An exogenous tree, renewing annu- ally its twigs and foliage above, its growth of roots beneath, and zone of new wood and bark connecting the two, has no definite limits to its existence. Its actual duration depends upon external circumstances, and upon some inherent lia- bilities which may practically result in a certain average of life in any particular species, which, however, certam fa- vored individuals may be expected to overpass. Increase of size, height, or spread of branches, and other inevitable con- sequences of age, however, bring increasing, and at length inevitable, disadvantages and liabilities, so that practically, although most trees, like most men, die an accidental death, the longest survivors may be said to die of old age In the sense in which the oldest of the human race do-—-that is, of the diseases or accidents which the younger generally resist or recover from, but to which the older succumb in conse- quence of the disadvantages of age. Suflice it to say, how- ever, that exogenous trees are known, by the actual count- ing of their layers, throughout or in great part, to have attained the age of from 1,200 to fully 2,000 years; It IS prob- able that some extant trees are considerably older. The tall- est trees known rise little less than 500 feet (Eucalyptus, in Australia). The largest in girth are trees of Eucalyptus, up to 81 feet; giant redwoods in California, up to 91, and possi- bly 100 feet; baobab-trees of Senegal, some of which have reached the latter circumference, but they are low trees of rapid growth even when old, and probably of no extreme age ; and, finally, there is a Mexican Ta.vodtum or bald cypress, a slow-growing tree, which measures 112 feet _1n circumference. If this does not consist of two or more orig- inal trunks which have grown into one—of which there are no external indications—it is probably the oldest existing tree known. Trees like palms, which do not continue to increase in girth, are more strictly and inherently limited in their dura- tion; perhaps they never live more than 200 or 300 years. When such a trunk has a soft living rind, capable of un- limited expansion, and also produces branches, perhaps it may live as long as an exogenous tree. Dragon-trees (Dra- ccena) are examples of this. The celebrated great dragon- tree of Orotava, Teneriffe (now destroyed by a series of storms, but which was in full vigor when Humboldt visited it), was probably as old as any of the existing redwoods of California. Revised by CHARLES E. BESSEY. Tree, HERBERT BEERBCHM: actor; b. in London in 1853; educated in Germany and England; entered the office of his father, a grain-merchant in London, in 1870, but became devoted to amateur acting, and made his début at the Globe theater, London, as Grimaldi in 1878. In Mar., 1884, he made a hit as the timid curate in The Private Secretary at the Prince of Wales‘s. In 1887 he became lessee of the Com- edy theater, and later of the Haymarket theater, where he has produced a number of very successful plays, among which are The Pompadour, Hg/patta, A Woman of Nb Im- portance, and John-a-Dreams. In 1894-95 he paid a visit to the U. S. He is remarkable for the very different styles of the parts which he has assumed. He has written several papers on the actor’s art, and in 1893 he lectured at the Royal Institution on the imaginative faculty. Tree-duck: any one of ten or a dozen species of ducks of the genus Dendrocggna, deriving their name from their arboreal habits. They are readily distinguished by their long legs and the length of the hind toe. They nest in holes in trees, often at some distance from the water, to which they carry their newly hatched young. They are chiefly confined to the tropics, but two species, Dendrocg/gna fulva and D. autamnalts, occur in the U. S. F. A. L. Tree-ferns: large ferns having a tree-like form and size, with much the habit of the palms. Tree-ferns formed an important part of the vegetation of the coal-measures. At present they are mostly tropical or insular, but are abundant in Tasmania, New Zealand, and parts of Australia and in the Himalayas. A few species yield a useful starchy pith resembling sago. See FERNWCRTS and PLANTS, FOSSIL. Tree-frogs, or Tree-toads: those species of tailless ba- trachians (order Sa/ltentta) which are adapted for life among trees, and which are provided with terminally dilated toes. This character of dilatation of the tips of the toes, although regarded by some authors as of systematic importance, is of mere teleological significance, and is not co-ordinated with TREITSCHKE 253 true morphological characteristics. The tree-frogs and tree-toads are now mostly to be found in the families Hy- ltdce, O3/sttgnat/rtdce, Engg/stom/tdze, Dendrobattdoe, and Ra- ntdce. The North American species, however, all belong to The squirrel tree-toad. the family HYLIDE (g. v.). The Hg/la sgutrella, which is about 1% inches in length, is of a brownish or light ash color. It is a southern species. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Trefoil : See CLovER. Tregelles, tre-gelz’, SAMUEL PRIDEAUX, LL. D. : New Tes- tament critic and author; b. at Y/Vodehouse Place, near Fal- mouth, England, Jan. 30, 1813, of Quaker parentage; edu- cated at Falmouth Classical School; was for some years in the iron-works at Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire, 1828-34; was in 1835-36 a private tutor at Falmouth; shortly after devoted himself to the task of preparing a critical edition of the text of the New Testament from the most ancient MSS. and versions, and pursued that object through life; studied the Oriental languages; was long associated with the Plymouth Brethren, though he never joined that or-' ganization, and died in the communion of the Church of England. He was stricken with paralysis in 1861, and again in 1870. The second stroke so crippled him that he could not take part in the revision of the New Testament to which the Convention of Canterbury invited him. In the pursuit of his scheme he visited the principal libraries of Europe for the purpose of collating MSS. He published the first specimen in 1837, and the first art, the Revelation, 1844; then his great work in parts, he Greek New Testament, edited from Ancient Authortttes, with the Latin Version of Jerome, from the Codes; Amtatlnus (1857, seq.; the 6th part completed the text, 1872; the 7th and last part, containing the prolegomena, addenda, and corrigenda. edited by F. J. A. Hort and A. VV. Streane, 1879). By this labor he put himself in the line of illustrious scholars who have brought the text of the Greek New Testament to its present perfec- tion. In reeognition'of this service he received a pension of £100 in 1862, which was doubled after 1870. He was an active philanthropist as well as scholar. D. at Plymouth, Apr. 24, 1875. Besides his New Testament, he published many books. His chief publications were: Passages in the Boole of Revelation connected with the Old Testament Scrip- tures (1836); The Engltshman’s Greeh Concordance to the New Testament (1839) ; The Engltshman’s Hebrew and Chal- dee Concordance to the Old Testament (2 vols., 1843) ; Hebrew Reading Lessons (1845); Heads of Hebrew Grammar (1852); Gesentus’s Llebrew and Ohaldee Lezvtcon (1847); The Pro- phettc Ve'stons of the Book of Daniel (1847; 5th ed. 1864); The Book of Revelation Translated from the Ancrlent Greet: Text (1848); On the Original Language of St. ll[atthew’s Gospel (1850) ; The Jansen/tsts (1851) ; H tstortc Evidence of the Authorship and Transmission of the Books of the New Testament (1852) ; Account of the Pr/tnted Text of the Greek New Testament (1854); Codes: Zacgnthtus, Greek Paltmpsest Fragments of the Gospel of St. Luke obtained in the Island of Zante (folio, 1861), the fourth volume of the 10th ed. of Horne’s Introductton (1856). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Treitschke, tritsh’ke, HEINRICH GCTTHARDT, von: histo- rian: b. in Dresden, Saxony, Sept. 15, 1834; studied history and political economy in various German universities; was wrivat docent at Leipzig 1858-63 : appointed professor in the niversity of Freiburg im Breisgau 1863-66. As an ardent 254 TRELAWNEY adherent of Prussia he resigned in 1866, and removed to Ber- lin, where he edited the Preussischen Jahrbilcher. He was called to the chair of History at Heidelberg in 1867, and to that in the University of Berlin in 1874. In the meanwhile (1871) he was elected to the Reichstag, where he continued as a member of the liberal party till 1888. He succeeded Prof. von Ranke, who died in 1886, as Prussian historiographer. He has published Zehn Jahre Deutscher Kdmpfe 1865-74 (1874); Der Soeialismus und seine Gtinner (1875); Der So- eialismus und der 1lIeuchelmord (1878); Deutsche Geschichte izn 19ten Jahrhundert (1879-85); Zwei Kaiser (1888), and several other works. Trelaw’ney, EDWARD J OHNI author and soldier of for- tune; descended from an old Cornish family, and b. hlar. 10, 1792. He is known especially as the author of a novel, in great part autobiographical, entitled Adventures of a Young- er Son (1830), and Recollections of Shelley and Byron (1858), reissued in 1878 as Records of Byron, Shelley, and the Author. At the age of eleven he was sent to sea, and after many ad- ventures and some experience in privateering he settled iII London and wrote for the magazines. He made the ac- quaintance of Byron and Shelley at Pisa in 1821, and was present with Byron and Leigh Hunt at the burning of Shelley’s body. In 1823 he joined Byron in Greece, and fought in the Greek war of liberation as aide-de-camp to the partisan leader Odysseus. He afterward returned to London, and was prominent in Lady Blessington’s circle. D. at Sompting, Sussex, Aug. 13, 1881. His body was cre- mated, and the ashes interred near Shelley’s at Rome. His portrait is preserved in Millais’s painting, The Northwest Passage. H. A. BEERS. Trelease, WILLIAM, D. Sc.: botanist; b. at Mt. Vernon, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1857; educated in Cornell and Harvard Universities; instructor in botany in Cornell University 1880; Professor of Botany in University of Wisconsin 1881- 85; director of Shaw School of Botany, Washington Univer- sity, St. Louis, 1885-; director of Missouri Botanical Garden 1889-; has published an English translation of Poulson’s Botanical illiorochemistry (1883); The Botanical Wbrhs of the Late George Engelmann (1887, with Asa Gray) ; an Eng- lish translation of Salomonsen’s Bacteriological Technique (1889); Annual Reports of the Missouri Botanical Garden (1890-91-92-93); and many papers in various journals and the proceedings of societies. CHARLES E. BESSEY. Tl‘611l£lt0'(1€t [MOd. Lat., from GI‘. 1'p'n/.La'1'a':577s‘, full Of holes, deriv. of q-pa‘)/Ia, 'rp7']/.urros, hole]: a group of parasitic flatworms (see PLATHELMINTHES) in which parasitism has produced but slight degeneration. The body is usually flattened, lacks cilia and all traces of segmentation; the mouth is anterior and communicates with a digestive tract which forks after a short extent. Upon the lower surface are one, two, or more suckers for adhesion to the host, and sometimes these are re-enforced by hooks. Like all flat- worms they lack a body-cavity and distinct circulatory or- gans, while the excretory system is well developed. Most species have the sexes separate. The group is usually sub- divided into the M onogenea, in which the egg develops di- rectly into the adult form without the intervention of an asexual form, and the Digenea, in which there is an alter- nation of generations, one or more asexual forms being in- troduced in the life cycle. Correlated with this is a differ- ence in their habits of parasitism. Thus the Monogenea inhabit a single host and usually attach themselves to the external surface of the body. The Digenea, on the other hand, have more than one host, one being usually an inver- tebrate, the adult living in some vertebrate. Among these last are found some of the most dangerous arasites, espe- cially that group known popularly as flutes (Distoma). Some of these cause serious distempers among domestic animals and eight occur in man. The history of a few flukes has been followed, and reveals a wonderfully com- plex series of alternation of generations. See Leuckart, Die menschliehen Parasiten (1867); Cobbold,Entozoa; Thomas, Quar. Jour. Illicros. Science (1883). J. S. KINGSLEY. Tremblay, FRANCOIS LEcLERc, du: See J osnrn. Trembles: See MILK-srcxxess. Tremont’: town; I-Iancock co., Me.; on the Atlantic Ocean; 25 miles S. of Ellsworth, and 25 miles E. by S. of Castine (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 9-15‘). It was formerly a part of the town of Mt. Desert, from which it was set off and incorporated in 1848 under the name of Mansel, subsequently changed to its present name. It contains the TRENDELENBURG villages of Tremont, Southwest Harbor, Seal Cove, West Tremont, Sea Wall, Tremont Center, and Manset, and has 5 churches, public high school, public library, 11 hotels, and a savings-bank. Pop. (1880) 2,011; (1890) 2,036. Tremont: borough; Schuylkill co., Pa.; on the Phila. and Reading Railroad; 13 miles W. of Pottsville, the county- seat, and 50 miles N. W. of Reading (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-H). It is in an agricultural and min- ing region, and contains 8 churches, graded schools, improved water-works, electric lights, a private bank, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,785 ; (1890) 2,064 ; (1895) estimated, 2,000. EDIToR or “ Wnsr SCHUYLKILL PRESS.” Tremulous Poplar: See ASPEN. Trench, RICHARD CHENEVIX, D.D.: archbishop and au-' thor; b. in Dublin, Ireland, Sept. 9, 1807 ; educated at Trin- ity College, Cambridge, and graduated in 1829; spent some years in travel; took orders in the Church of England 1833; was curate at Hadleigh, Suffolk, 1833-35; incumbent of Curdridge 1835-40; curate to Archdeacon (afterward Bishop) Samuel Wilberforce at Alverstoke 1840-44; rector of Itchen- stoke 1844-45; was appointed examining chaplain to the Bishop of Oxford (Dr. Wilberforce) 1845; was Hulsean lec- turer 1845-46, and select preacher at Cambridge 1843 and 1856; Professor of Theology at King’s College, London, 1846-58; Dean of Westminster 1856-63, and was ordained Archbishop of Dublin, as successor to Dr. Whately, Jan. 1, 1864; resigned 1884. In the field of philology he achieved distinction, and his paper on the Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries gave the first impulse to the great New .Eng- lish Dictionary edited by Dr. James A. H. Murray. D. in London, Mar. 28, 1886. He was the author of many works, including Poems from Eastern Sources (1842); Elegiac Poems (1846); Poems, collected and arranged anew (1865); Notes on the Parables of our Lord (1841; 15th ed. 1884); Notes on the Miracles of our Lord (1846; 13th ed. 1886); Exposition of the Sermon on the Jllount, from St. Augustine (1844); 2 vols. of Hulsean lectures, The Fitness of Holy Scripture for unfolding the Spiritual Life of lV[en (1845); Christ the Desire of all Nations (1850); On the Study of Words (1851; 15th ed. 1874); On the Lessons in Proverbs (1853); Synonymes of the New Testament (1854; 2d series 1863; 8th ed. recast, 1 vol., 1876); English, Past and Pres- ent (1855; 11th ed. 1881); Calderon, his Life and Genius (New York, 1856); Some Deficiencies in our English Dic- tionaries (1857); The Authorized Version of the New Tes- tament, in Connection with some Recent.Proposals for its Revision (1858); Select Glossary of English ‘Words used formerly in Senses difierent from their Present (1859); Com- mentary on the Epistles to the Seven Churches in Asia (1861); Studies on the Gospels (1867); Lectures on flIedice- ual Church History (1877 ; 2d ed. 1879); edited several vol- umes of poetr , and Remains of the Late llfrs. Richard Trench (1862), his mother. See his Letters and Jlfemorials (2 vols., 1886). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Trenchard, STEPHEN DEcATUR: naval olficer; b. in New York, July 10, 1818; entered the navy as a midshipman Oct. 23, 1834, serving in the Seminole war in Florida; be- came lieutenant in 1847, and was on the Saratoga in the war with Mexico; commander in 1862, captain in 1866, commo- dore in 1871, rear-admiral in 1875 ; commanded the Rhode Island in both the Fort Fisher fights; retired in 1880. D. in New York, Nov. 15, 1883. Trendelenburg, FRIEDRIcH ADOLF: classical philologist and philosopher; b. at Eutin, near Liibeck, Germany, Nov. 30,1802; studied at Kiel; appointed professor extraordinary at Berlin 1833; ordinary 1837; member of Academy of Sciences in 1846. D. in Berlin, Jan. 24, 1872. Trendelen- burg’s claim to distinction as a thinker rests on his acute criticism of the formal logic of Kant and the dialectical method of Hegel. In his own system he took motion as a starting-point, from which he deduced all other philosoph- ical conceptions, including time and space. The founda- tion of his teaching is Platonic and Aristotelian. His most noteworthy works are Elementa Logices Aristotelicoe (8th ed. 1878); an edition of Aristotle’s De Anima (2d ed. by Chr. Belger, 1877); Historische Beitrdge zur Philosophie (3 vols., 1846-67), in which the History of the Doctrine of Categories and the essays on Kant, Spinoza, Leibnitz, and I-Ierbart are especially valuable; and Naturrecht auf dem Grunde der Ethilc (2d ed. 1868). See H. Bonitz, Zur Er- innerung an Trendelenburg (Berlin, 1872): E. Bratuschek, Adolf Trendelenburg (1873). ALFRED GUDEMAN. TRENT Trent: a river of England. It rises in Biddulph Moor in Staffordshire, at an elevation of about 600 feet above the level of the sea, flows in a southeasterly direction, and forms the Humber after joining the Ouse, about 15 miles W. of Hull. Its length is about 150 miles, and it is navigable for about two-thirds of its course. Trent: a tributary of Lake Ontario, rising in Rice Lake, Northumberland County, Ontario, and draining a large sys- tem of northern lakes and rivers; partly navigable. The Trent itself affords good water-power, and large quantities of lumber are floated upon it. It is 150 miles long, has a basin of 4,000 sq. miles, and discharges its waters into the Bay of Quinté at Trenton. M. W. H. Trent (anc. Trident/am): town of Austria, in the southern part of Tyrol; on the Adige (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 7-A); beautifully situated and well-built, and traversed by canals. Its cathedral, begun in 1212, is a magnificent edifice of white marble; the palace, in which the famous council held its sittings, and several other buildings are also remarkable. It manufactures leather, glass, sugar, tobacco, bells, cards, and silks, and carries on an important transit trade between Italy and Germany. Pop. (1890) 21,486. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Trent Affair : the seizure of the Confederates Slidell and Mason on board the British steamer Trent in 1861, and the resulting international complications. See SLIDELL, J OHN. Trent, Council of (Ooncilimn Tridentinam): the nine- teenth oecumenical council of the Catholic Church, held at Trent in Tyrol. Occasion of the Council.-—Its convocation was owing to two motives: (1) the desire to stay the spread of Protestant- ism, and (2) to bring about a much-needed reform within the Church. For several years the project of the council had been discussed between the papal and the imperial au- thorities without much headway, the former being anxious to convoke the council in some Italian city, like Mantua or Vi- cenza. The imperial view obtained, and a compromise was effected which resulted in the calling of the council by Paul III. for Nov. 1, 1542, at Trent, an imperial free city under a prince bishop. It was finally opened Dec. 13, 1545, by the papal legates, the cardinals del Monte, Cervini, and Pole, in the presence of four archbishops, twenty-two bish- ops, five generals of orders, theologians. ambassadors, etc. The Protestants were invited to attend, and such was the sincere desire of the emperor and the King of the Romans, but they refused. Procedn/re.—It was decided to take up in each session matters of dogma and discipline, and this, too, was a com- promise, the pope desiring doctrinal questions to be first decided, and the emperor leaning toward a speedy reform of practical abuses. The subject-matter was proposed by the papal legates, who presided, and was then divided among private congregations, in which the pro and the con were argued at lengtl1 by learned and experienced men. Afterward the private congregations met as a body or gen- eral congregation, and the final session was usually a for- mal confirmation of what had already been settled. The doings of each of the twenty-five sessions are divided into decrees, i. e. statements of Catholic doctrine or resolutions concerning disciplinary reform, and canons, or condemna- tions of heretical teaching. History of the Coancit.—The first eight sessions were held at Trent, but in Mar., 1547, owing to the prevalence of the pest, it was transferred to Bologna, where the ninth and tenth sessions were held in spite of the absence of the bishops subject to the emperor, and of the latter’s protesta- tions, Sept. 17, 1549. It was therefore indefinitely prorogued. Julius IlI., Mar. 14, 1550, issued another call to the bishops to assemble at Trent, and May 1, 1551, the twelfth session was held. Neither the emperor nor the King of France de- sired to look on it as a continuation of the original council because of the susceptibilities of their Protestant subjects. The victories of Maurice of Saxony and his near presence at Innsbruck decided the fathers to suspend the council Apr. 28, 1552. It was again convoked by Pius IV. Jan. 18, 1562, and closed its work Dec. 4, 1563. Nine cardinals, 3 pa- triarchs, 33 archbishops, 237 bishops, 8 abbots, 8 generals of orders, and 150 theologians and canonists had taken part. Of the bishops, 187 were Italian. Queen Elizabeth was twice asked to take part, but refused. Mary, Queen of Scots, ex- cused herself by the lamentable condition of the Church in her kingdom. Cardinal Pole and Thomas Goldwell, Bishop TRENTON 255 of StfAsaph, represented England, and three Irish bishops, Thomas O’Herlaghy, of Ross, Eugene O’Hart, of Achonry, and Donald McCongail, of Raphoe, represented Ireland. VVork of the Co/anciZ.—The direct results of the council were visible in doctrinal statements and resolutions for re- form. The rule of faith, the nature of original sin, the na- ture and office of grace (justification), the doctrine of the sacraments in general and particular, the Mass, orders, marriage, the censorship of books, the Catholic practices and traditional beliefs, the invocation of saints, purgatory, the veneration of relics and images, were all treated in the council with great wisdom, moderation, and exactness. The reforms were thorough and extended to the entire Church in the intention and provision of the fathers. Its results were a great relief to the conscience and intelligence of Catholics, and inaugurated at once a counter-reformation, personified in men like St. Charles Borromeo and St. Fran- cis de Sales. It unified Catholics throughout the world, and put an end to the mental wavering and indecision of a great many, while it pointed out the evil and the false in the non-Catholic teachings. Altogether it marks a complete awakening in the Church, and is the starting-point of the modern ecclesiastical law, discipline, administration, and to a large extent of the theological formation itself, so much so that it can be said that no council since that of Nice has had a more profound influence. The council was acknowl- edged in most Catholic countries; in those whose civil au- thorities, like France, refused to accept its decrees, provin- cial councils and public opinion made it the ecclesiastical law and binding. Its doctrinal and disciplinary regulations are binding in the entire Catholic Church, though in some countries the decree Tametsi on the necessary presence of the parish priest and two witnesses for the validity of the marriage contract has never been proclaimed, this especial promulgation having been ordered by the council before the decree can obtain the character of a law in any given territory. See TRIDENTINE Pxornssrox or FAITH. LITERATURE.—Tl18 acts of the council are best found in Le Plat, _1lIon-urnenta ad historiam Concilii Trad. (7 vols., Louvain, 1781-87). The original acts and debates, as pre- pared by the secretary, Angelo Massarelli, are in the Vati- . can Library, and were published in part, but unsatisfac- torily, by Theiner, Acta Genuina SS. Qdcam. ConciZii Trid. (2 vols., Leipzig, 1875). Diillinger, Calenzio. and Sickel have published diaries, correspondence, and other informa- tion concerning the council. The original and authentic edition of the Canones et Decreta Concilii T ridentini is of 1564 (Rome). The history of the council has been written by Paolo Sarpi (Pietro Soave Polano) and Sforza Palla- vicino, the former a Venetian Servite, the latter a Jesuit and a cardinal. The work of Sarpi appeared at London in 1619; that of Pallavicino in Rome 1652. and after many editions, iZ2id., with notes of Zaccaria 1833. The work of Sarpi is written with great art, and he dissimulates much of his own feelings by indirect methods. Bossuet declared it the work of an enemy and not of an historian of the coun- cil. Pallavicino wrote his history out of the original acts preserved in the Vatican, and in many places has success- fully exposed the inaccuracies and evil animus of Fra Paolo, who was for the rest an able. learned, many-sided writer, but proud, and bitterly opposed to the court of Rome. The Catechism of the Council of Trent, the diocesan semi- naries, the new editions of the liturgical books and of the Vulgate, etc.. are the outcome of the council, which com- mitted to the care of the pope a number of projects left over at the closing. On Sarpi and Pallavicino, see Brischar, Beartheilung der Contro/versen Sarpis and Pallaoicinos (Tiibingen, 1843) ;,Ranke, flzfstory of the Popes (vol. iii., app. 2); L. Maynier, Etudes critiques sar Ze Concile de Trente (Paris, 1874). Other literature in Hergenroether, Kirchen- Geschichte, iii.. 231, seq., and Kraus, Kirchen- Geschichte, p. 567. The second edition of I-Iefele‘s ]~Iistor;y of the Coiincils (German) will contain the history of that of Trent. Cardinal Hergenroether undertook it (vol. ix., 2d ed.), but did not get beyond the preparatory period. J. J . KEANE. Trente-et-U11 zi See ROUGE-ET-\IoIE. Trenton : port of entry of Hastings and Northumberland Counties, Ontario, Canada ; on the Bay of Quinté, on both sides of the Trent, and on Grand Trunk and Central Ontario rail- ways; 101 miles E. of Toronto (see map of Ontario, ref. 4-F). Immense quantities of timber are rafted down the river and shipped at this place, and it has large manufactures. Pop. (1891) 4,364. 256 TRENTON Trenton: city; capital of Grundy co.. Mo.; on the \Velden fork of the Grand river, and the Chi., Rock Is. and Pac. and the Quincy, Om. and Kan. City railways; 85 miles N. E. of St. Joseph. 101 miles N. E. of Kansas City (for lo- cation, see map of Missouri, ref. 2—F). It is in an agri- cultural and stock-raising region, and has 6 churches for white people and 2 for colored, a public school with 22 rooms and over 1,500 enrolled pupils, Avalon College (United Brethren, chartered 1881), the J ewett Norris library with endowment of $15,000, a national bank with capital of 87 5,000, a State bank with capital of $75,000, 3 daily and 3 weekly newspapers, 3 flour—mills, 2 cigar-factories, 2 coal- shafts from which 35,000 tons of coal were taken in 1894, butter and cheese factory, gas and electric light plants, water-works, and street-railway. Trenton was founded in 1841, was chartered as a town sixteen years later, and be- came incorporated as a city with enlarged territory in 1893. Pop. (1880) 3,212; (1890) 5,039 ; (1895) estimated, 7,000. Enrroa or “ REPUBLICAN.” Trenton: city; capital of New Jersey and of Mercer County; on the Delaware river, at the head of steamboat and sloop navigation ; on the Delaware and Raritan Canal, and on the Penn. and the Phila. and Reading railways; 33 miles N. E. of Philadelphia, 59 miles S. W. of New York (for location, see map of New Jersey, ref. 4—C). Two iron bridges span the Delaware, connecting the city with its sub- urb, Morrisville, and the fertile farm-land of Bucks eo., Pa. Trenton surrounds an apex in the course of the Delaware, is closely built through eleven wards, and has many wide streets lined with handsome residences. Cadwalader Park and its residential plot, Cadwalader Place, Monument Park, Tenth Ward Park, and Spring Lake Park are the breathing- places. The city has an excellent sewerage system, good water-supply, paid fire and police departments, and an eco- nomical administration of local affairs. w ~—__—_._—~————_=Q_‘_-'—‘-— '1', . mm; A .\\_ : _ __-_f' \‘K\* ' "I ":1 \ \T\fiI‘X\\ DI!‘ ~_ 5'. <-"._".7%EQ ;'I “~ .u but '~.*‘§~).‘.*>”1 . _ ' ‘- . " 1‘ 10 ‘N ‘I . I I . . ' In .. _ _ M I 4-fig“: \,l_,§‘. ‘ua ' ' \ .1 - .. hf . Li. __ ' ‘ _ _ ,_ ._» |-- \ \ \_ Q, _.-I 3 ‘_- ,, I-:_ _ v _ _‘_':_|_|_|||_|||||1||1|||. Illlllllllllllllllllllll ----'.'->5 __ ,._._ .___ " 1 \: _. __ \ .>_\\I__,‘ '=£‘\u- * ,“ - _:_ I &LL':L,IF;u!;':‘1i.nfl:lI::u:3~_:.u_-’;‘:_:£_-n:l::- . V P Public Build/ings.—Tl1ere are a public library (other than the State Library in the Capitol), large opera-house, Y. M. C. A. building, three hospitals (the Mercer, City, and St. Francis), county court-house, Union Industrial Home, the State School for Deaf Mutes, State prison, arsenal, and U. S. Government building. In Ewing, on the environs of Tren- ton, are the State Asylum for Insane, the Industrial School for Girls, and the Odd Fellows’ Home. The Widow’s and Single Woman’s Home, near the State-house, was formerly the barracks used during the French and Indian war. Clmrc‘/res and S0/b0OZ8.—TI‘GI11ZO1'l is the seat of a Protes- tant Episcopal and of a Roman Catholic bishopric. There are 48 churches and places of worship, including 10 Metho- dist Episcopal, 8 Roman Catholic, 7 Presbyterian, 6 Baptist, 5 Protestant Episcopal, 3 Lutheran, 2 African Methodist Episcopal, 2 synagogues, a church of the Messiah, and a Hicksite and an Orthodox meeting-place of Friends. The public schools embrace a high school and a score of sub- ordinate schools. The first public school to be founded in the State was located at Trenton. Besides the common schools, the city contains the State Normal and Model Schools with over 1.000 scholars, 3 business colleges, 7 pa- rochial schools and the Franciscan Convent of Minor Con- ventuals, the Union Industrial Home (formerly Children’s Home), and a dozen private schools. TRENTON GROUP Business lm‘erests.——An energetic board of health and a board of trade advance the city’s in_terests. The First National, the Trenton Banking Company, the Mechanics’ National, each with a capital of $500,000, and the Broad Street Bank are large financial institutions. Other i1n- portant organizations are the Trenton Saving Fund Society, the Trenton Trust and Safe Deposit Company, and the Real Estate Title Company. Trenton is pre-eminently a manu- facturing city. Thirty potteries making all classes of ware from drain-pipe to Belleek china, two tile companies, and several brick-yards comprise an industry which gives the northeast portion of the city (old Millham) the name Staf- fordshire of America. Iron and steel works, woolen-mills, flouring-mills, rubber and oil-cloth works, and a large brew- ery are other representative establishments. Here also are located the great wire-works of the Roeblings, famous as the builders of the East river bridge between New York and Brooklyn. History.—Trenton’s site attracted settlers as early as 1679, when the place was called “Y6 ffalles of y6 De La I/Vare.” It took its name from the rifts of rock in front of the town. Mahlon Stacy and other members of the Society of Friends purchased land, and Stacy built on the Assam- pink in 1680 the second flour-mill in West Jersey. About 1715 Judge Trent bought a large plantation, and the place came to be called Trent Town (Trenton). A royal charter created Trenton a borough town about the middle of the eighteenth century, but the plan was soon abandoned. The Legislature frequently met here before Trenton became the State capital (1790). In 1792 the town was incorporated. The Continental Congress once met here after the Revolu- tionary war, and a project to have Trenton made the capital of the U. S. was defeated by State jealousies. Trenton is best known to history as the place where that battle was fought which perhaps turned the tide of the Revolution. On the morning of Dec. 25, 1776, Washington, with about 2,500 men, crossed the Delaware from Pennsylvania about 8 miles above Trenton, and after a forced march surprised Col. Rall, the Hessian commander, and captured his entire force. This event was followed by the battle of Princeton J an. 3, 1777. A shaft costing $75,000, standing in Monument Park at the old Five Points, commemorates the event. A statue of Washington in the posture of directing his forces at Tren- ' ton surmounts the shaft. Pop. (1880) 29,910; (1890) 57,458; (1895) estimated, 63,000. The great increase between 1880 and 1890 was due to the annexation of the township of Mill- ham and Chambersburg borough (eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh wards). FRANCIS BAZLEY LEE. Trenton : city; capital of Gibson co., Tenn. ; on the Mo- bile and Ohio Railroad ; 32 miles N. by W. of Jackson, and 59 miles S. of Columbus, Ky. (for location, see map of Ten- nessee, ref. 6-B). It is in an agricultural region, and has 8 churches, Peabody High School, Laneview Academy, electric lights, 2 State banks (combined capital $83,000), 3 weekly papers, an extensive cotton-mill, 2 large roller flour- mills, cottonseed-oil mills, several foundries, and a box-fac- tory. Pop. (1880) 1,383 ; (1890) 1,693; (1895) estimated, 3,000. Enrroa or “ Gmson CoUN'rY DEMOCRAT.” Trenton Falls: a series of falls and rapids in Trenton township, Oneida eo., N. Y.; on the West Canada creek, a branch of the Mohawk river; on the N. Y. Cent. and Hud. Riv. and the Rome, Water. and Ogdens. railways; 17 miles N. by W. of Utica (for location, see map of New York, ref. 4-H). The stream flows through a ravine or chasm in the Trenton limestone from 70 to 200 feet deep, and the water has a descent of 312 feet in a distance of 2 miles by several falls, the most notable of which are Sherman’s, 35 feet; High, 80 feet; Milldam, 15 feet; and Prospect, 20 feet. The surrounding scenery is remarkably wild, and the clearly de- fined stratification of the rocks affords an interesting study. The locality has many other attractions, such as the Alham- bra amphitheater and the Rocky Heart, and is a place of popular resort. Trenton Group: a division of the rocks deposited dur- ing the Lower Silurian period, and named from Trenton, N. Y., where they were first studied. The terrane is com- posed principally of limestone, and forms the surface over large areas in the U. S. and Southern Canada. In New York it is about 100 feet thick, and increases to 2,000 in Pennsylvania, but becomes thinner southward along the Ap- palachians. It has also a broad development in the upper Mississippi valley, where the average thickness is 300 feet. The subdivisions or stages usually recognized are the Trenton, TREPAN G Utica, and Cincinnati. Invertebrate marine fossils abound. It is from the Trenton limestone in Ohio that most of the petroleum of that State is obtained. ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. Trepang: See BECHE-DE-MER and HOLO'PHURIANS. Trephining, or Trepanning [trephining is from Fr. tréphine, a trephine, an arbitrary deriv. of trépan, trepan; trepanning is from O. Fr. trepaner, to trepan, deriv. of trepan, a trepan < Late Lat. tre’pannrn, from Gr. rpzivrauov, borer, auger, trepan, deriv. of 'rpu1rZi1/, bore]: the surgical procedure of removing a “ button of bone,” or circular section of bone, by means of the circular instrument known as the trepan or trephine. The cutting part consists of a circular saw-toothed edge, different sizes hav- ing diameters of half an inch to two inches, the older instruments having a vertical body and smooth sides, the more modern having a slightly conical body and burred, cutting sides. The old instrument, the trepan. was worked by a wimble or curved auger-handle ; the modern, the trephine, has a short handle with crossbar like a gimlet, and is worked by one hand. A center-pin is provided, which acts as a pivot upon which the sawing edge can re- volve; this pin is to be raised after the saw has entered the bone. The trephine is used chiefly upon the skull, although sometimes employed in other parts to evacuate pus in bony cavities, as of the face, the ends and shafts of long bones. Trephining the skull was heroically and recklessly prac- ticed by the ancients, and especially by em- pirics, for every fancied brain disease; often at several points, and many times upon the same person. Modern surgery limits it to cases of frac- ture of the skull, where bone is de- pressed or symptoms of intracrani- al irritation are present : to the re- moval of clots from the surface of the brain; to the exposure of the brain to facilitate the removal of tumors or cicatrices from that or- gan; and to the evacuation of pus which has formed within the era- nium, either the result of injuries and disease of the skull or of acute cerebral abscess. The trephine by its conical shape and rough sides is protected from cutting the brain. As soon as the inner table of the skull is cut through, the button of bone is pried out or removed by forceps, and the edges of the circular opening are cleared of all spiculae of bone. The depressed bone is then elevated by means of a lever, clots are washed out, or the abscess is incised, etc., care being taken never to cut into the great venous sinuses. Trephining is more often performed for the relief of cere- bral abscess or tumor than formerly, since modern diagno- sis of the site of brain lesions is more definite. But for the relief of depressed bone in fractures of the skull it is less often resorted to. Hey’s saw, or “rongeur” forceps, obvi- ates the necessity of trephining in many cases. By these instruments the points and angles of bone may be removed, and a place of entrance for the lever or “elevator” se- cured, without the loss of sound bone, which the trephine involves. Revised by JOHN ASHHURST, Jr. Trescot, WILLIAM HENRY: diplomatist; b. in Charleston, S. C., Nov. 10, 1822; graduated at the College of Charles- ton 1840 ; admitted to the bar 1843; U. S. secretary of lega- tion in London 1852-53, and Assistant-Secretary of State of the U. S. 1857-60; elected to State Legislature, South Caro- lina, 1862, 1864, 1866; in 1877 appointed counsel for the U. S. on the fishery commission at Halifax, N. S.; in 1880 one of the plenipotentiaries to China to revise the treaties with that country: in 1881 continued and concluded the negotiations with the Colombian minister, and the protocol in reference to the rights of the U. S. on the Isthmus of Panama; in same year became special envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotcntiary of U. S. to Chili, Peru, and Bolivia; in 1882 plenipotcntiary with Gen. Grant to negoti- ate a commercial treaty with Mexico; removed to VV ash- ington, D. C., to continue the practice of law; author of several works, including The Diplomatic H2Fstor'y of the Administrations of Washington and Adams (Boston, 1857). FIG. 1.-—The trephine. FIG. 3.— ancient tre- , Hey s saw. pan. TREVES 257 Trespass [from O. Fr. trespas, deriv. of trespasser, pass over, transgress, die; tres- ( < Lat. trans, over, beyond) + passer, pass]: in law, a species of tort, consisting in an un- lawful act done to the person or property of another by means of direct violence, actual or constructive. The essen- tial feature of this delict in legal contemplation is the direct violence, which may be actual, as in the case of an assault and battery, or constructive, as in the case of an unauthor- ized entry upon the land of another, and doing thereby mere nominal damage. This notion was expressed in the com- mon-law pleading by the necessary allegation that the act was committed oi et armis. The amount of force used, the intent, and the extent of the injury done are immaterial ele- ments in constituting the tort, and only affect the damages recovered. Trespasses are separated into three classes—to person, to personal property, and to real property. The prin- cipal trespasses to the person are ASSAULT AND BATTERY and FALSE IMPRISONMENT (gq. 2).). Trespass to personal property may consist either in forcible direct injury to the chattel, or in taking and carrying it away from the custody of its owner. Trespass to real property is an unlawful entry upon the land of another——in the old legal language, “ the break- ing and entering another’s close.” The damages may be aggravated by wrongful acts done on the land, but such acts do not form the gist of this species of tort. The commission of a legal act in an illegal manner may be a trespass, as the abuse or wrongful execution of process by an oflicer, and the like. It is a general doctrine of the law that if one be- gins to do a legal act in a proper manner, and then in its further prosecution is guilty of wrongs which amount to a trespass, he thereby becomes a trespasser from the begin- ning (ab initio). The remedy in all cases of this tort is the recovery of compensatory damages by the injured party; and if the wrong was willful, malicious. and without excus- ing circumstances, exemplary or punitive damages may be added by the jury. The term “ trespass” is also the name of the common-law form of action which must be used to recover damages from the wrongdoer when the delict complained of is a trespass. Revised by F. M. BURDICK., Trevel’yan, Sir CHARLES EDWARD: statesman ; b. in England, Apr. 2, 1807 ; entered the civil service of the East India Company; was employed in important posts; made to the viceregal government at Calcutta elaborate reports on various subjects, one of which led to the abolition of some oppressive imposts; secured the aid of the government to the promotion of European literature and science among the natives of India; in 1840 was appointed assistant secretary to the treasury; was knighted in 1848 for services in con- nection with the Irish famine; was instrumental in the re- vision of the civil establishment and in throwing open the civil service to competition. As finance minister in India, 1862-65, he made reforms in the system of accounts, and co- operated in the immense extension given at that time to public works; on his return resumed his efforts to secure the abolition of the system of purchasing commissions in the army, which system he had long opposed ; was created a baronet 1874, and took a leading part in several important charities. Among other works he wrote Education of the People of Ireland (1838) ; The Irish Crisis (1848): The Purchase System in the British Army (2d ed. 1867); The British Army in 1868 (1869) ; Chrisl‘ianity and lgindnism (1881). D. in London, England, June 19, 1886. Trevelyan, Sir GEORGE Orro: statesman and author; son of Sir Charles Edward; b. July 20, 1838, at Rothley Temple, Leicestershire, England; educated at Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge; entered the East Indian civil service; returned fron1 India, and was elected to Parliament from Tynemouth as a Liberal 1865; became civil lord of the admiralty under Mr. Gladstone’s second administration Dec.. 1868, but resigned oflice J uly, 1870, being opposed to the Government Education Bill. He was secretary for Scot- land 1885-86, and held that office again from 1892 to 1895. Among his writings are Letters of a Comyez‘iz‘ion Wallah, republished from 1lIacmillan’s .Magazine (1864); Caernpore (1865); The Ladies in Parlianzent, and other Pieces (1869); The Life of Lord 1lIacanlay (2 vols., 1876; 2d ed. 1877); The Early Illistorll Of Charles James F0511 (1880). Treves, treevz (Germ. Trier) : town of Rhenish Prussia, 69 miles by rail S. \V. of Coblenz; on the right bank of the Moselle, beautifully situated among the vineclad hills of that river (see map of German Empire, ref. 6-C). It has a cathedral, chiefly of the eleventh century, containing among 414 258 TREVISO its relics the famous HOLY Coar OF TREVES (qua); a church dedicated to the Virgin dating from the thirteenth century (Liebfrauen Kirche), and other ecclesiastical buildings; a library containing 100.000 volumes, a hospital, manufactures of woolens, cottons, and linens, and a large trade in timber, grain, and wine. The l\loselle is here crossed by an eight- arched bridge, 623 feet long. Treves is the 1nost ancient city of Germany (a fabulous Latin inscription on the wall of the Rothe Hans says it was built before Rome). The Emperor Augustus established here a Roman colony under the name of Augusta Trevirorum. ln later days it was the residence of the Emperors Constantius, Constantine, Julian, Valentinian, Gratian, and Theodorus, and if not—-as aven- na was a little time afterward-—-the head of the Western world, at least the head of all the lands beyond the Alps. Almost annihilated during the subsequent barbarian inva- sions, it rose under the archbishops of Treves to nearly its earlier splendor. It is now a decayed town, but one of high antiquarian interest from its numerous Roman remains. Pop. (1890) 36,166. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Treviso, trcl-vee’s5 (anc. Tanri’siwn, or Taroisimn) : town ; province of Treviso, Italy ; on the Sile; 17 miles N. of Venice by rail, in a very fertile region (see map of Italy, ref. 2—D). It is an agricultural town, and a center for the silk industry, besides manufacturing hardware, paper, and other articles. The cathedral is an imposing building, the five cupolas producing a grand effect, and in its interior, as well as in that of the Church of S. Niccolo di Bari, pictures and sculpture of much merit are preserved. Treviso has a pub- lic library, a theater, a chamber of commerce, and several educational institutions. Pop. of commune (1893) 35,200. Trev'ithick, RICHARD: inventor; b. at Illogan, Cornwall, England, Apr. 13, 1771; was brought up to the business of a mechanical engineer in the Cornish mines; constructed several steam-engines, introducing various improvements, one of which was the introduction of wrought-iron cylin- drical boilers (see RAILWAYS), but, his engine having blown up, popular prejudice was aroused and the practical use of the invention postponed for many years. Trevithick de- voted himself anew to engineering work in the Cornish mines, continually inventing and making improvements in machinery; sent to Peru in 1814 nine of his small high- pressure condensing engines, for use in some mines in which he acquired an interest; went thither himself in 1816 as directing engineer; returned to England 1827; resumed operations as an engineer; made various inventions and mechanical improvements of widely different kinds, includ- ing warming apparatus, iron stowage-tanks, iron buoys, a gun-carriage for single-decked ships, a furnace for purify- ing silver ores, an hydraulic engine, a salt-water distilling apparatus, and floating docks, some of which were patented by him. D. at Dartford, Kent, Apr. 22, 1833. Trev’or, GEORGE, D.D.: clergyman and author; b. in England in 1809: graduated at Oxford 1836; chaplain on the Madras establishment 1836-45; became chaplain to the high sheriff of Yorkshire, rector of All Saints, York, and canon of York minster 1847; was elected chaplain of the parish church at Shelfield 1850, but was refused induction by the vicar. a proceeding which led to suits in chancery and in the court of queen’s bench, in which he was success- ful ; became rector of Burton Pidsea 1868, was the most ac- tive promoter of the revival of the house of convocation for the archdiocese of York, in which body he was actuary of the lower house and synodal secretary to the two houses, and was in 1871 collated to the rectory of Beeford-with-Lis- set, near Hull. He published a number of works, including Christ in his Passion (1847); Sermons on Doctrines and flfeans of Grace (1851); Origin, Constitution, and Form of Proceedings in the Convocation of the Two Provinces of Canterbury and York (1852); The Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrifice anal Participation of the Holy Eucharist (1869); Inclia, its .Natioes and lllissions (1862); Russia, Ancient and _/lloolern (1862); Egypt from the Conquest of Alexander to lVapoleon 1866) ; and Rome from the Fall of the Western Empire (1869). D. June 18, 1888. Trevor, Sir JOHN : politician; b. at Brynkinallt, Denbigh- shire, Wales, about 1633 ; was a cousin of Chancellor Jeffreys, by whom he was favored in his professional career; was elected to Parliament 1679; chosen Speaker of the new House of Commons May, 1685; became master of the rolls Oct. 20, 1685; sworn of the privy council July 6, 1688; was dismissed from office by William and Mary; was an energet- ic opponent of the Government in the Convention Parlia- TRIAL ment 1689, but soon made his peace with the court, with the consent of which he was unanimously electe Speaker Mar. 20,1690; was intrusted by the Government with the task of conciliating political opponents by means of promises and rewards; made first commissioner of the great seal Mav 14, 1690; restored to the office of master of the rolls flan., 1693; reported by a parliamentary committee guilty of bri- bery Mar. 12, 1695, and by vote of the House, to which he himself as presiding officer had to put the question, was declared guilty of a high crime and misdemeanor; resigned the speakership, and was a few days later formally expelled. He retained, however, the position of master of the rolls for the rest of his life, more than twenty-two years, and seems to have filled that office without reproach, his decisions be- ing still quoted with respect. D. May 20, 1717, and was buried in the Rolls’ Chapel.—-He must not be confounded with his cousin and contemporary, Sir JOHN TREVOR (1626- 72), who was envoy to France and Secretary of State under Charles II., and son-in-law to the celebrated Hampden. Triacan'thidee [Mod. Lat., named from Triacan’th/as, the typical genus; G1‘. 'rpeTs, Tpla, three + lircaz/Ba, thorn, spine]: a family of teleost fishes of the order Pleetognathi and sub-order Solermlerma, and the most fish-like of the order. The skin covered with small, rough, closely adherent scales; the head compressed and conical in profile; the eyes lateral; the opercular bones comparatively well developed ; the mouth small and terminal; the upper jaw has its elements very imperfectly united; teeth are developed on the jaws in variable form; the branchial apertures are narrow slits in front of the pectoral fins: the branchiostegal rays are com- pletely concealed; the dorsal fins are two in number—(1) spinous, with from four to six spines, and (2) an oblong soft one; ventral fins represented mostly by a pair of strong spines articulated with a long and compressed pelvic bone ; the air-bladder is closed and simple. The family is com- posed of three well-marked generar—(1) Triacanthas, con- fined to the Indian and Australian seas; (2) Triaoanthooles, of which a single species only has been found in Japan; and (3) Hollardia, one species of which has been found in Cuba. Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Triad [from Gr. ¢pwis. '1'pLa'.8os, the number three, a three of anything, triqjz in music, a chord consisting of a bass or root, with a thir or fifth. See HARMONY and MUSIC. Trial [from 0. Fr. trial, deriv. of trier, try < Lat. *trita- re, frequentative of te'rere, rub] : the formal judicial examin- ation and decision of the issues, whether of law or fact, pend- ing between the parties to an action, preliminary to the judg- ment which finally determines the rights and liabilities of the litigants. For convenience, forensic trials in the U. S. may be divided into three generic classes—the trial of (1) legal actions, (2) equity suits, (3) admiralty causes. Legal Aettons.—Though formerly all legal actions were ordinarily tried before a jury, recent legislation, both in England and the U. S., has provided that by the consent of the parties, and in some cases without their consent, the jury may be dispensed with and the issues submitted to the court or to a referee; but since the only difference between the proceedings before a court or referee and those before a jury is that in a jury trial there are certain additional details, viz., the selection of the jurors, the judge’s charge to them, and their verdict, these three modes of trial (before a jury, judge, or referee) may be described together. The first step in the proceeding, after a cause has been called and is ready for trial, is (in a jury trial) the drawing and impaneling of a jury, the members of which must be taken, as a general rule, from men who have their domicile within the county where the court sits. From all the names of the jurors, written upon slips of paper and deposited in a box, the clerk draws at random the names of twelve who are to act in the particular case. As each one is announced, either party may challenge the person and proceed to ascer- tain whether for any reason he is incompetent to sit as a juror in that cause, the qualifications for jury duty being usually fixed by statute and referring to residence. political status, prejudice or liability to bias. mental condition, prop- erty, etc.; and a stricter rule of qualification is applied in criminal than civil cases. Besides such challenges for cause, in criminal trials the accused, and in many States the prose- cution, are allowed a certain number of peremptory chal- lenges; that is, they may exclude a certain number of the jurors drawn without giving any reason therefor; and a smaller number of peremptory challenges are in some States allowed to the parties to a civil action. TRIAL When the twelve men have been obtained they are sworn by the clerk to render a true verdict according to law and the evidence given; and this brings the proceedings to their second stage, which consists of the production of the proofs in the presence of the jury. The counsel for the party holding the affirmative, who is almost always the plaintiff. briefly ex- plains the nature of his client’s claim, and examines his witnesses, who are then cross-examined by his opponent, and sometimes re-examined directly. The opposite party then proceeds in the same manner to state and prove his version of the case. At the close of the plaintiff’s evidence the defendant may move for a non-suit; and if in the opin- ion of the court no cause for action has been shown, even assuming the truth of all the facts stated by the witnesses, the motion will be granted and the case at once dismissed. On the other hand, a verdict may be directed for the plain- tiff if his right to it clearly appears from uncontradicted proof, but this seldom happens, there being usually a con- flict of evidence which must be submitted to the judgment of a jury. The court entirely regulates the admission of evidence, and either party may except to its rulings of what facts are competent and what are not competent, to be proved, and what questions are proper and what improper, and the points of law thus raised are examined upon ap- peal. When the evidence is all in, the counsel address the jury on behalf of their respective clients. The order of these ad- dresses varies in the different States, but. as a general rule, the party holding the affirmative closes and sometimes also opens the argument, though in some States the right of closing in criminal cases is given to the accused. Next comes the judge’s charge to the jury. This charge is in many States restricted by statute to a simple statement of the legal rules, and in several of them it must be in writing ; but at common law the judge may comment upon the facts, and, as it has been held, may even express an opinion, pro- vided the jury is left free to decide. Either arty may re- quest particular instructions to be given, and may except to the charge, or a portion thereof, or to a refusal to charge as requested, such exceptions presenting questions of law for review by the appellate court. ' After they have been charged, the jury retire to a private room to determine upon their verdict, which must be unan- imous. After the jurors have retired to consider their ver- dict, they are not allowed to separate till it is found and delivered in open court, except in some cases after the find- ing of a sealed verdict. When they have agreed, they re- turn into court, announce their verdict, and it is recorded by the clerk in his minutes. If they can not agree upon a verdict the court may, in most cases, at least, dismiss them after a reasonable time. If at any time in the trial of a cause -it becomes necessary to discharge a jury because of the serious illness or the insanity of one of its members, or be- cause the jury can not agree upon a verdict, the discharge has been held, in the majority of cases, not to constitute a bar to a second prosecution. When the trial is before the court or a referee, instead of a verdict, a written find is filed by the judge or referee containing his conclusions of fact and of law. The general rules of evidence are the same in criminal as civil cases, i. e. the best evidence must be given. The court decides as to the admissibility of evidence, but it is the pe- culiar province of the jury to pass upon the weight of evi- dence and the creditibility of witnesses. See Evmnncc. Equity Saits.—The original practice in chancerv was for witnesses to be examined privately, without the presence of counsel, by an examiner or one or more commissioners ap- pointed by the court. The examination was conducted by means of written interrogatories and cross-interrogatories, prepared by the counsel for the respective parties, or by the court itself, and the testimony was kept secret till all the witnesses had been examined. The reading of the deposi- tions thus obtained, and of the pleadings, together with the arguments of counsel, constituted the trial, and the chan- cellor then gave his decision as suited his convenience. The great objection to this practice was that till publica- tion of the testimony each party was left in ignorance of what facts his opponent would attempt to establish, so that, although it is still retained by a few States, in most of them the methods and proceedings in the trial of an equity suit have been made the same as those in a legal action before a judge or referee. The testimony of witnesses is reduced to writing, and an accurate transcript of all proceedings preserved by means of official stenographers, who are now generally em- TRIANGLE 259 ployed in the superior courts both of the U. S. and of Eng- land. Admiralty Causes.-The usual practice in the trial of civil causes in admiralty is very much like that which ori- ginally prevailed in equity, the evidence being taken by the clerk, and the court merely hearing the case summed up; but in some States of the U. S. the testimony is taken in open court. The common-law rules of evidence do not apply. In admiralty, trial by jury is not a right unless ex- pressly given by statute; but when it is so given, and in criminal cases within the jurisdiction of admiralty, the same forms are employed as in a jury trial in legal actions. In the U. S. the federal courts alone have jurisdiction of admiralty cases. See the articles on PROCEDURE, PRAC- TICE, ADMIRALTY, EQUITY, COURTS, and J URISPRUDENCE; and also the treatises on practice by Chitly and Daniell, and J olm W. Smith’s Elementary View of the Proceedings in an Action at Law; Stephen’s History of the Criminal Law of England. Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Triangle [via 0. Fr. from Lat. trian’gulum, triangle, liter., neut. of trian'gulus, three-cornered; tres, three + an’gulus, angle, corner] : a surface bounded by three sides, and con- sequently having three angles. A triangle may be plane, spherical, or spheroidal. Plane Triangles-—A plane triangle is a plane surface bounded by three straight lines. These lines are called sides, and the points at which the sides meet are called /vertices of the triangle. Plane triangles may be classified either with respect to their sides or with respect to their angles. When classified with respect to their sides, we have—(1)scalene triangles, in which no two sides are equal; and (2) isosceles triangles, in which two of the sides are equal; the equi- lateral triangle is a particular case of the isosceles triangle in which all of the sides are equal. When classified with respect to angles, we have—(1) right-angled triangles, which have one right angle; and (2) oblique-angled triangles, in which all of the angles are oblique: triangles of the latter class may be acute-angled triangles. all of whose angles are acute, or obtuse-angled triangles, each of which has one - obtuse angle. The sides and the angles of a triangle are called elements; the side on which it is supposed to stand is termed the base ; and the vertex of the opposite angle is then called a oertea; of the triangle; the distance from the vertex to the base is the altitude of the triangle. The area of a triangle is equal to the product of its base by half its alti- tude. Spherical Triangles.—A spherical triangle is a spherical surface bounded by arcs of three great circles. These arcs are called sides, and the points at which the sides meet are oertices. The diedral angles between the planes of the sides are the angles of the triangles. In most cases of practice the sides of the triangles considered are supposed to be less than semicircles. Spherical triangles are classified in the same manner as plane triangles, and corresponding parts receive corresponding names. There is, however, this dif- ference : a spherical triangle may have two right angles, or it may have three right angles; it may even have three obtuse angles. In addition to the terms common to both plane and spherical triangles, we may add the following, peculiar to the latter class: Two spherical triangles are polar when the vertices of each are poles of the sides of the other: in this case any element of either is the supple- ment of the opposite element of the other. A quadrantal triangle is one in which one side at least is a quadrant. The following are some of the properties of spherical tri- angles : (1) The greater of two sides lies opposite the greater of the two opposite angles, and conversely; if two sides are equal, their opposite angles are equal, and conversely. (2) Any side is less than the sum of the other two, and greater than their difference. (3) The sum of the three an- gles may have any value between two right angles and six right angles. (4) The difference of any two sides is less than two right angles, and the sum of the three sides is less than four right angles. (5) The sum of any two angles is greater than the supplement of the third. (6) If the sum of any two sides is equal to two quadrants, the sum of their opposite angles is equal to two right angles, and conversely. (7) If the angles are all acute, each of the sides is less than a quadrant; if the angles are all obtuse, each of the sides is greater than a quadrant; if the angles are all right angles, each side is a quadrant. (8) The area of a spherical triangle is equal to its spherical excess multiplied by the square of the radius of the sphere; the spherical excess is found by 26O TRIANGLE OF FORCES subtracting 180° from the sum of the three angles; the area of the trirectangular triangle is equal to one-half of a great circle. See TRIGONOMETRY. Revised by S. NEWCOMB. Triangle of Forces: a modification of the parallelogram or polygon of forces from which it may be stated that “ if three forces in one plane be in equilibrium about a point, and if on that plane any three mutually intersecting lines be drawn parallel to the directions of the three forces, a triangle will be formed, the lengths of whose sides will be proportional to the magnitude of the forces.” Triangular Numbers: See FIGURATE NUMBERS. Triangula’tion: the operation of determining the rela- tive positions of points by means of measured base-lines and angles. A precise triangulation is essential for the accuracy of a survey covering a large area. The base-line, which is rarely more than 10 miles long, is measured with great pre- cision by a special apparatus. This is connected through a series of triangles with the stations whose positions are to be determined, and all the angles being carefully measured, the data are at hand for computing the distances, directions, and differences of latitude and longitude. Although the determination of distances by triangles was known to the ancients, it was not until 1617 that the pos- sibility of an extended accurate triangulation from a short measured base was demonstrated. This was done in 1617 by Snellius, who measured such a base at Speyer in Germany. Many triangulations were made during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for the purpose of measuring the length of a degree and the size of the earth; those made in Lapland in 1736 and in Peru in 1740 decided that the shape of the earth was that of an oblate spheroid. Near the end of the eighteenth century a triangulation in France and Spain was undertaken for the purpose of finding an accurate value of the length of the earth’s quadrant in order that the meter might be made one —1—0—0—Ul0 —(,—th part of this length. Dur- ing the nineteenth century triangulations have been carried on in all civilized countries for the location of stations for ' topographical surveys, and also incidentally for the deter- mination of the figure of the earth. Central Europe is covered with a network of triangles, while many long series exist in India and the U. S. Besides the measurement of base-lines and of angles, tri- angulation involves the astronomical operations for finding the azimuths of lines and the latitudes and longitudes of stations. These being observed at a few points, those of the others are computed from the angles and distances. See CoAsT AND GEODETIC SURVEY, and GEoDEsY. MANSFIELD MEEEIMAN. Tries’ sic Period: the division of geologic time follow- ing the Carboniferous and preceding the Jurassic. The name originated in Germany, and records the fact that German formations of that date were grouped in three se- ries. These are the Bunter sandstone below, the l\'Iuschel- kalk, and the Keuper marls above. Modern usage adds the overlying Rhetic clays and sandstones. Formations of this age are extensively developed in Europe and Asia, and are less confidently correlated in Africa, New Zealand, and Australia. The Newark sandstone of the eastern part of the U. S. is probably Triassic, and the red beds of the Rocky Mountain region are with much doubt referred to the same period. On account of the diiliculty of classifying the Amer- ican Mesozoic formations according to European standards, and especially the ditliculty of distinguishing Triassic forma- tions from Jurassic, the U. S. Geological Survey, in the pub- lication of its atlas of the U. S., substitutes a single period, the J ura-Trias, for the Triassic and Jurassic periods of the European chronology. See JURA—TRIAS PERIOD, and for the flora of this period, PLANTS, FossIL. G. K. GILBERT. Tribe [Lat. tribus] : originally a third part of the Roman people—-one of the three tribes that founded the city of Rome ; hence in historical literature a name for a subdivi- sion of a nation or stock not yet organized as a civil state ; hence, further, in sociology and ethnology a name for any union of hordes or clans which is a subdivision of a folk. Clan, Tribe, and Nation.-—No ethnographic term has been more often used in the pages of historians, travelers, and missionaries than“ tribe,” and none has been used more un- intelligently. As a rule, it is almost impossible to determine whether a writer means by “ tribe ” a horde, a village, a clan or gens, or a nation. A horde is an aggregation of four or five to twenty or thirty simple families-—each family con- sisting of father, mother, and children. The horde is found TRIBE only among the lowest savages, such as the Australian Black- fellows, the Bushmen of South Africa, the Fuegians at the southern extremity of South America, and the Arctic High- landers of Northern Greenland, or as a degenerate form in civil communities. It has no political organization. A totem-kin (see TOTEMISM), clan, or gens, is a group of real or nominal kindred, claiming descent from a common ances- tor, and tracing relationship through mother names (metro- nymic) or through father names (patronymic), but never through both, and usually forbidding marriages between men and women of the same gentile name. A phratry is a union or brotherhood of clans which is not an independent tribe, but only a subdivision of one. A tribe is a union of hordes under the leadership of a chief for common defense or common aggression, or it is a similar union of clans or of phratries. A tribe always claims a certain territorial re- gion as its domain. A nation, in the ethnic as distinguished from the civic sense of the word, is a federation of tribes which speak dialects of a common language, which have a common culture, and which are crossed by the same clan lines. The nation is essentially a political organization ; the tribe is essentially a military organization ; the phratry is a religious organization; the clan or gens is a juridical or- ganization; the family is an economic organization. Savage and Barbarous Tribes.—The lowest Australian hordes are loosely united in tribes that number 200 or 300 each. In the more advanced Australian tribes hordes and tribes are crossed by elaborate totemistic kinships. The North American Indians afford the finest examples of metronymic tribal organization. The Seneca tribe of the Iroquois, for example, was constituted of eight totem-kins, namely, Wolf, Bear, Turtle, Beaver, Deer, Snipe, Heron, Hawk. The Cayuga tribe was constituted of the same eight totem-kins, with the exception of the Eel in place of the Heron. The Onondagas had the same totem-kins as the Cayugas, except the Ball in place of the Hawk. The Oneidas had the Wolf, Bear, and Turtle totem-kins, and the Mo- hawks had the same as the Oneidas. These five tribes, mis- takenly called the Five Nations by historians, were the fa- mous Iroquois confederation, or nation. Each totem-kin religiously maintained the following rights and obligations, namely: The right to elect its sachem and chiefs—women shared in the election ; the right of deposing its sachem and chiefs; the obligation not to marry in the totem-kin; mu- tual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased mem- bers; reciprocal obligations of help, defense, and redress of injuries; the right of bestowing names upon its members; rights in a common burial-place. The totem-kin regulated its affairs through a council. The affairs of the tribe were governed by a council of chiefs. As arule, each tribe occu- pied more than one village. A similar organization, but patronymic in its relationships, may be studied at the pres- ent time among the Wyandottes and among the Omahas. In patronymic society, where the wife follows the resi- dence of the husband, the clan may become easily identified with a local group, and there is always a probability, there- fore, that the hastyobserver of patronymic communities has confounded the village with the clan or with the tribe. The local group, nevertheless, upon examination may turn out to be a subdivision of a clan or a cluster of clans, or even a cluster of tribes. All of these forms may be studied among the Semites of the Arabian desert, among the Ostyaks in- habiting the dreary northern country along the banks of the Obi and its tributaries, and elsewhere in Asia and in Africa. I-Iislorical Tribes.—Tribes that history represents as de- scended from an eponymous ancestor were seldom so in fact. More often they were confederations compacted by war. W. Robertson Smith’s studies (Kinship in Arabia) have shown how artificial were the Arabian and Hebrew genealogies. Artificial, too, was the division of the Hebrews int-o twelve tribes, of the Athenians into ten tribes. The clans of the Hebrew tribes are designated in the English translation of the Old Testament as “houses” (e. g. Num- bers i. 2, 4; Joshua xxii. 14). The organization of the Gre- cian ¢v7vfi and of the Roman tribe, of the Grecian poirpa and of the Roman curia, of the Grecian ye’;/os and of the Roman gens, were, in essential respects, like those of the tribe, phratry, and clan among uncivilized peoples to-day. The tribal organization of the ancient Irish, as revealed in the Brehon laws, was not less elaborate. The Tuath or Cinel was the tribe, occupying a defined territory, and paying homage to its,fiaith or chief, sometimes called a ing. The Sept was the true clan or gens, though the name clann was often applied to the Tuath. The Fine was a sub- TRIBONIANUS clan closely resembling the compound patriarchal family, or “house,” that still survives in Slavonic communities. The tribal organization of the Germanic stock has never been satisfactorily made out. The one thing certain is that the so-called seven great tribes—namely, the Swabians, Fri- sian s, Saxons, Alemanni, Franks, Thuringians, and Bavarians -—were not tribes, but nations. Each was subdivided into tribes, which, in turn, were subdivided into clans. Tribal and Civil Divisions.—The substitution of terri- torial subdivisions for tribal lines, and therewith the transi- tion from gentile to civil societies, was brought about, after tribes had settled down to a permanent agricultural life, by the intrusion of men whose ties of kinship had been broken, and whom it was necessary to include in the military and tax-paying population. The transition was marked in the Athenian commonwealth by the institution of the local tribe. The subdivision of the local tribe into demes rough- ly followed the subdivision of the tribe into gentes. It is probable that English counties correspond roughly to Saxon tribal domains and hamlets to clan settlements. See Socr- OLOGY. LITERATURE.—-Henry Sumner Maine, Ancient Law (Lon- don, 1861) and The Early History of Institutions (London, 1875); Lewis H. Morgan, Systems of Consanguinity and A flinity of the Human Family (Washington, 1871) and An- cient Society (New York, 1877); W. Robertson Smith, Kin- ship in Arabia (London, 1885) ; Laurence Ginnell, The Brehon Laws (London, 1894); Frederic Seebohm, The Tribal System in Wales (London, 1895); and the writings of J. W. Powell and J. Owen Dorsey in the Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington). FRANKLIN H. GIDDINCS. Tribonia’ nus: b. at Side, Paphlagonia; queestor, consul, and master of the offices to Justinian, who in 528 appointed him one of the ten commissioners to form the first Coclezv, in 530 as president of the sixteen lawyers commissioned to compile the Digest or Pandects, and in 532 one of the three to edit the Institutes. He is described as a learned and highly gifted man, but avaricious and of low moral standing. It is hardly possible to form any estimate of the services of Tribonianus as distinct from those of the other commission- ers. He had the superintendence of the Digest, and may have taken the chief part not only in gathering and sifting the materials, but also in forming the plan. D. about 545. Revised by M. \VARR.EN. Tribune [from O. Fr. tribun < Lat. tribu’nus, tribune; liter., chief of a tribe; deriv. of tri’bus, tribe]: a person holding any one of several different Roman oflices. 1. The military tribunes (tribuni militum) were officers standing directly under the commander-in-chief and above the centurions. There were six such tribunes in each legion. They were originally appointed by the king, and, in the re- public, by the consuls. In the later republic a portion—ulti- mately the twenty-four tribunes of the four older legions— were annually elected by the people in the assembly of the tribes (comitia tributa). Under the kings there was also a special tribune of cavalry (tribunus celerum), an officer who reappeared in the republic when a dictatorship was pro- claimed, as master of the horse (magister equitum). 2. Consular Tribnnes.—During the conflict between the orders, when the plebeians were agitating for admission to higher offices, the election of consuls was discontinued for a series of years (444 to 367 B. C.). In their stead were annu- ally elected from three to six military tribunes (an oflice which plebeians had long been capable of filling) with con- sular powers (consulari imperio). 3. The plebeian tribunes (tribuni plebis) were the defend- ers of their order against the patrician magistrates, and its leaders in its long struggle for civil and political equality. When this struggle ended with the complete triumph of the plebeians and their admission to all the higher offices, the tribunate, endeared to the people by service to liberty, con- tinued to exist, representing, however, not the interests of the plebeians only but those of the whole people. This oilice, according to the Roman tradition, was estab- lished in consequence of the first secession of the plebs (494 B. C.), and it is probable that the first plebeian tribunes were the tribuni militum who had led the plebs across the Anio. Later, ten tribunes were annually elected by the lebeians. Their “right of help” (jus (t’ll:t'il'ii) was made e ective by giving them a general power of arrest (jus prensionis), from which the consuls themselves were not exempt, and, later, a power of fining (multoe clictio). Their persons were invio- TRICHINA 261 lable ; in the early republic he who offered violence to a trib- une could be slain without trial. Their right of help, orig- inally exercised in single cases of injustice and oppression, grew into a general right of prohibiting or “ vetoing ” any action of the magistrates or senate. They also summoned and presided over the councils of the plebs (concilia tributa), and when these councils became regular assemblies (comitia), with legislative and judicial powers, the tribunes exercised an initiative in legislation and in criminal prosecution—powers theoretically concurrent with those of the regular magis- trates who presided over the centuriate assembly (comitia centuriata), but actually superior, since measures proposed by a consul or preetor could be vetoed by a tribune, while only a tribune could veto the act of a tribune. In the later republic, accordingly, the most important bills originated with the tribunes, and they regularly took the lead in the prosecution of political offenses. To the end of the repub- lie the tribunes were always chosen from among the plebe- ians, patricians being legally ineligible; and they usually represented the popular as opposed to the aristocratic party —a fact which induced Sulla to limit their influence. Dur- ing the social struggles which preceded the downfall of the republic, the powers of the tribunate (restored by Pompey) were utilized to support the dictatorial authority exercised by Pompey himself and other popular leaders; and the potestas tribunicia accorded to Augustus and his successors was one of the most important elements of the imperial power. Under the empire, tribunes were still elected, at first by the popular assembly and afterward by the senate, but the oflice was “ an empty shadow and a name without honor” (Pliny). At first the tribunes interposed occasional vetoes—at the instance always of the emperor-—later they were charged with minor judicial and administrative duties. The name of the office survived as late as the fifth century. llfecliceval Tribunes.-—The development of the Italian city- republics in the later Middle Ages, and the influence of ancient Roman traditions, occasioned a sporadic reappear- ance of the title of tribune. It was usually connected, as in the case of Rienzi, with the leadership of the people against the feudal nobles. MUNRCE SMITH. Trichechidee, tri-kek'i-dele. or Manat’idee [Trichechidoel is Mod. Lat., named from Trichechus, the typical genus; (irreg.) from Gr. 6pl£. Tpzxds, hair + éxew, have; ilfanaticlce is Mod. Lat., named from 1l[a'natus, another name for the genus, from Span. manati, from the Haitian name]: a fam- ily of placentiferous mammals of the order Sirenia, typi- fied by the manatees of tropical and sub-tropical regions. The form is fish-like and elongate: the skin very thick and rugose ; the head naked and depressed, and with a truncated snout; the eyes are very small; the nostrils are close to- gether on the upper surface near the end of the snout. and are simple lunate fissures convex backward; the mouth is small; the molar teeth are typically nine (8-10) in each jaw, each provided with two large tuberculate and two smaller external transverse ridges: they have severally three roots, two on the outer and one on the inner side; incisor teeth wanting in the adult: the pectoral limbs are elongate, and oar-shaped, paddles mostly kept flexed at the elbows; rudi- mentary nails are developed; the tail is broad, depressed, and somewhat fan-shaped, having a convex border with a median notch or grove. The skull is noteworthy, as dis- tinguishable from that of the other members of the order in that the intermaxillary bones have their branches not prolonged backward, and the anterior portions nearly or quite straight; the last or caudal vertebrae (i. e. 5+:r) are subcylindrical and destitute of transverse processes. An- other peculiarity is the possession of only six cervical ver- tebrae, instead of seven, as in almost all other mammals; the missing one has been regarded by Murie and Chapman as the third. The manatees are found along the coasts of seas and rivers, and live upon the herbage that grows on or near the banks. (See MANATEE.) The name Trichechiclce is also used as a synonym of ODOB.»ENIILE (q. v.), in which case the generic name Trichechus is considered equivalent to 0doboe- nus (walrus) instead of Jlfanatus. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Trichi’na [Mod. Lat., dimin. of Gr. 6pl£, q-pixds, a hair]: a genus of parasitic nematode worms, the only species of which (T2-ichina spiralis) has acquired great prominence as, possibly, the most dangerous parasite of man. Its history is rather complicated. Besides man, it inhabits rats, swine. and some other animals. Usually, when found it is in the encysted stage, occurring in the voluntary muscles, inclosed in an ovoid or spindle-shaped capsule or cyst, secreted 262 TRIOHINA partly by the parasite, partly formed by the host, in_the walls of which are minute particles of earbonateof lime. Inside this capsule occurs the immature worm coiled in a spiral, to which the specific name alludes. The cysts are about 5-10-th of an inch in length and 1—§6th in diameter. The contained worm, when stretched out, is about Qlgth. of an inch in length, cylindrical, and slenden In the cyst it ex- hibits but slight motion, but its vitality 1S very great, hvrng worms having been found in man eighteen years after in- fection. When flesh containing encysted worms is taken into the alimentary canal the flesh and cysts are dissolved by the digestive fluids and the immature worms are set free. In the intestine they rapidly increase in size and at- tain sexual maturity, the male then measuring 15 _mm, in length, the female 3 to 35 mm. The slender cylindrical body tapers to the anterior end, the posterior end being bluntly rounded. The greater size of the female is due in part to the number of eggs and embryos, a single female giving rise to 1,500 to 2,000 living young. These embryos are very minute, scarcely 01 mm. in length. They bore through the intestinal walls and rapidly make their way to the voluntary muscles, either by boring to them or by en- tering the blood or lymph vessels and by being carried by the circulating fluids. In the muscles they become encyst- ed, as did their parents, and they can not become mature until freed of the cyst by the digestive juices of some animal. This migration of the young from the intestine to the muscles produces serious and even fatal results in both man and other animals. When the parasites are compara- tively few in number recovery usually follows, but when they are numerous severe illness—trichinosis—follows, char- acterized by many of the symptoms of lead-poisoning. First there are intestinal pains, vomiting, and diarrhoea, then pain in the limbs and muscles accompanied by dropsical swelling. Death may ensue in two days owing to the intes- tinal disturbances. More frequently it occurs in the fifth or sixth week. If the person survive that period the chances for recovery are increased. In bad cases of infection the number of worms is almost beyond belief, 90,000 having been found in a cubic inch of muscle in the shoulder of a man who died from trichinosis. With man the source of the infection is almost invariably from eating raw or imper- fectly cooked pork in which are the encysted worms. It is only the lean meat which is dangerous, as rarely, if ever, are the Trichince found in the fat. The presence of the cysts in the pork can not be recognized by the naked eye. None of the process- es—pickling, smoking, etc.—used for preserving pork serve to kill the par- asites, and ham or bacon, unless thor- =: oughly cooked, is as dangerous as ii fresh pork. In the U. S. cases of :§ trichinosis are comparatively rare, 1'-_ . - E one of the most serious being at Mar- : 5 .. shalltown, Ia., in 1891, which re- ggg _I2:"' =_E sulted in several deaths. The worst g-=-_:-:_“é '_':,':i~_; 555 epidemics on record are those at §:'==__.__% l-Iedersleben (1865) and Einersleben _: ;I:{':- E (1884), Germany. In the first, in a E-:- . -;_ ~§= village of 2,000 inhabitants, 337 were ' E attacked and 101 deaths resulted. E ;.g_..-_’* At Emersleben 361 cases were traced E ,_T _-E to one pig, and fifty-seven deaths EEE, ~= followed. = -' E: The question arises, how are the = " E swine infected? There is considera- ble uncertainty upon this point. Ex- amination has shown that pigs fed upon the house offal and the refuse from slaughter-houses are far more apt to be infected than those fed upon corn, and there is not a little evidence which goes to show that rats may play an important part in the process. Doubtless the disease trichinosis has existed for ages, and probably the observation that the eating of pork was apt to be followed by serious results led to the Levitical prohi- bition of the flesh of swine as food. The worm was dis- covered by Richard Owen in 1835. Its connection with the disease was demonstrated in 1860, by Herbst, Zenker, Leuckart, Pagenstecher, and Virchow almost simultaneous- ly. The literature of the subject is large. The most impor- A trichina encysted in human muscle (en- larged). l TRICHONOTIDZE tant papers are Pagenstecher’s Die Trichinen (Leipzig, 1865); Leuckart’s Untersuchungen ilber Trichina spiralis (2d ed. Leipzig, 1866), and Die onenschlichen Parasiten (Leipzig, 1863-66); also numerous papers in the reports of the State boards of health. J . S. KINGSLEY. ’I‘riehini’asis, or Trichino’sis [Mod. Lat., derivs. of Trichina] : a disease induced by eating the trichinous flesh of swine. See TRICHINA. Trichinop’oli : town of British India; capital of the dis- trict of Trichinopoli, in the province of Madras; on the Caveri, 56 miles from the sea (see map of S. India, ref. 7-E). It is a very hot place and poorly built, mostly consisting of mud huts, but it is the station of a division of the Madras army, and it has important manufactures of cutlery, jew- elry, saddlery, and cheroots; an excellent tobacco is grown in the surrounding district. It is the seat of a Roman Cath- olic bishopric, and there are missions of several Protestant denominations. It is connected with Madras by rail. Pop. (1891) 90,609. Triehiu'ridee [Mod. Lat., named from Trichiu'rus, the typical genus; Gr. 6pl£,'rpiX6s, a hair+ 01’/poi, tail] : a family of fishes of the order Teleocephali and sub-order Acanthopteri, related to the mackerels, but distinguished by the elongated form and the imperfectly developed anal fin. The body is more or less elongated and compressed, and terminates in a slender tail, which sometimes is filiform, but generally capped by a caudal fin; the skin is naked; the lateral line continuous; the head compressed; dorsal fin long, generally single and uninterrupted, sometimes divided into two, with the spinous portion longer than the soft; anal fin repre- sented by numerous almost concealed spines; pectoral fins well developed ; ventral fins obsolete, or represented by scale- like spines behind the pectoral region. The skeleton has very numerous vertebrae (e. g. A. 39-43 + C. 57—120). The family is composed of few genera, mostly restricted to the high or deep seas, and comprises three sub-families. (1) Tri- chiurince, in which the dorsal fin is undivided, the tail fili- form and finless, and the pectorals extended (as usual) to- ward the upper angles, including the genera Trichiurus and Eupleurogrammus; (2) Lepidopodince, in which the dorsal is also entire, but the caudal fin is well developed, and the pectoral fins are produced toward the lower angles, with the genera Lepidopus and Eooaymetopon; and (3) Aphanopodi- nae, in which the dorsal is divided. See Gill in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. (Philadelphia, 1863), pp. 224-229. Revised by F. A. LUcAs. Trieh0d0n’tidae [Mod. Lat., named from Tri’chodon, the typical genus; 6pl£, rpixds, a hair + 6606;, 5661/'ros,‘tooth] : a family of fishes of the order Teleocephali and sub-order Acanthopteri. The body is elongated and compressed, and regularly tapers from the head toward the tail; the skin is naked and smooth; the lateral line continuous; the head subquadrate and compressed; the preopercula each armed with five spines; the mouth has a very oblique and lateral cleft ; branchiostegal rays five; dorsal fins two, oblong, and of nearly equal length, the first with rather numerous (four- teen) spines, the second with simple branched rays; anal fin very long; caudal separate; pectorals large, and with the lower rays not branched; ventral fins approximated and thoracic, and each with a spine and five rays. The family has been constituted for a single genus (Trichodon), which is confined to the western coast of North America. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Triehmne: See HAIRS and MoRi>HoLoeY, VEGETABLE. 'l‘rieliomyeter'id2e [l\/Iod. Lat., named from Trichomyc- terus, the typical genus; Gr. 0pi§, q-pixds, a hair + juvivriqp, nostril] : a family of catfishes, containing small species pe- culiar to South America. The form is long and slender, skin naked, lateral line imperfect, gill covers unarmed or furnished with small prickles; branchiostegal rays eight to twelve. The species range high up in streams on the slopes of the Andes, and many bear a striking resemblance to the loaches of the northern hemisphere. F. A. L. T1‘i0ll0Il0t'i(18B [Mod. Lat., named from Trichono’tus, the typical genus ; Gr. opig, 'TplX6$, a hair + udm-cu, back] : a fami- ly of acanthopterygian fishes containing a few small species peculiar to the East Indian Archipelago and the Australa- sian seas. The body is long; the scales cycloid and of mod- erate size; the lateral line continuous; the head depressed and pointed; the eyes directed upward; the opercula un- armed; the upper jaw is longest; teeth are developed in villiform bands on the jaws as well as palate; the branchial TRICHOPTERA apertures are very wide; branchiostegal rays seven; dorsal fin single, long, with articulated but not branched rays, and without a distinct spinous portion ; anal fin long; ventrals jugular, each with a spine and five rays; no pyloric ap- pendages; no air-bladder. Two genera have been recog- nized, Trtchonotus and Hemeroccetes. F. A. LUCAS. Trichop’tera [Mod. Lat; Gr. eptg, 'l'plX(.iS, hair + rrrepdv, wing] : that order of insects which contains the caddis-flies or case-flies. The adult insects closely resemble moths, even to the dense clothing of hairs upon the wings, but they differ from these latter in having rudimentary biting rather than sucking mouth-parts. The most interesting, however, are the larval stages. The larvae are aquatic, and to protect the soft body they build cases by cementing together with silken threads bits of bark, sand, shells, etc., so that a tube is formed in which the animal stays like a hermit-crab in its shell. Each species builds its own type of case. When the time for pupation comes the tube is closed by silken threads. Most of the caddis-flies feed on vegetable matter, but a few are known to be carnivorous. See Hagen, Synopsis of Neu- roptera (Washington, 1861); McLachnan, Jlfonographtc Re- vision of Trtchoptera (London, 1874-84). J . S. KINGSLEY. Tri’ color [from Fr. trtcolore, three-colored ; Lat. tres, three + color, color; of. Fr. drapeau trtcolore, three-colored flag, tricolor] : the French national flag, colored blue, white, and red in vertical divisions. It was first adopted during the First Revolution, and it is stated (though not generally believed) that the colors of the livery of Philippe, Duke of Orleans (Citizen 1galité), were selected for the national flag. In point of fact, many other national flags are tricolors. Tricoupis, tree-koo’pis, CHARILACS: statesman; son of S iridion Tricoupis; b. at Nauplia, Greece, July 23, 1832; e ucated in Paris and Athens; served in the Greek legation at London 1852-63; was elected deputy from Missolonghi to the Greek chamber in 1863; and was charged with the negotiations concerning the cession of the Ionian islands to Greece. He was made Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1866, and was Prime Minister in 1875, 1878-79, 1882-85, 1886-90, and 1892-95, in the last three changes of government being succeeded by his chief rival, Delyannis. He is an able ora- tor, a sound financier, and the leading statesman of modern Greece. E. A. G. Tricoupis, SPIRIDICN: statesman and author; b. at Mis- solonghi, Greece, Apr. 20, 1788 ; studied in France and Eng- land ; served in the army during the Revolution ; was sent as ambassador to London and Paris several times during the reign of King Otho, and continued to participate very actively in public life till his death Feb. 24, 1873. He en- joyed a great reputation as an orator, poet, and historian. His principal work was 'Io'q-opia rfis E)\M7I/uc:/‘)s ’E1raVao"rcio'ews (History of the Greek Revolution, 1853-57). Trident’ ine Profession of Faith (Lat. Pro_fes’sto Fe'd'et Trtdenttn’ce), or the Creed of Pius IV.: a clear and concise summary of the doctrines of the Council of Trent, suggested by that council, prepared by a college of cardinals under the supervision of Pope Pius IV., and issued by him Nov. 13, 1564. It consists of twelve articles, including the Nicene Creed, and is put in the form of an individual profession and solemn oath (profiteor, spondeo, voveo ac juro). It is binding upon all Roman Catholic priests and public teach- ers in seminaries, colleges, and universities. It is also used for converts to the Roman Catholic Church, and hence called the Profession of Converts. (For converts from the Greek Church a modified formula was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1575.) The tenth article reads: “I ac- knowledge the holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church as the mother and mistress of all churches, and I promise and swear true obedience to the Bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter, prince of the apostles and vicar of Jesus Christ.” (See the Latin text in the two papal bulls of N ov. 13 and Dec. 9,1564, and in Denzinger’s Enche'r'td'ton, pp. 292-294.) A history of this creed was written by Mohnike, Urlcundle'che Geschtchte der Professto Fridet Trtdenttn(e (Greifswald, 1822; Eng. trans. in Schalf’s Oreeds, ii., 96-99). See CREED and ORIGINAL SIN. Trid'ymite [Gr. rpl8v,am, triplets, or trines, from the crys- tals being compounds of threes] : an allotropic modification of silica, discovered in 1868 by von Rath in a volcanic por- phyry from Cerro San Cristoval in Mexico, and since identi- ed elsewhere. It is hexagonal in crystallization, like quartz, but differs from the latter in possessing double refraction, like calcite, and in having a lower specific gravity (2-2). TRIGEMINUS 263 Triest, tree-est’, or Trieste, tree-es'te (Slav. Térst, anc. Tergestum); city of the Austrian empire, and its most im- portant port; on the Gulf of Triest, at the northeast ex- tremity of the Adriatic Sea; 370 miles by rail S. S. W. of Vienna (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 8—C). The old town, which mostly consists of narrow and tortuous streets, is built on a steep acclivity, at the foot of which the new town extends along the harbor: between the two parts of the town runs the Corso, a broad, elegant thoroughfare, open- ing into large squares lined with magnificent edifices and ornamented with fountains and monuments. Ship-building is an important industry. VVhite lead, candles, wax, soa , rosoglio, leather, spirits, and earthenware are extensively manufactured. It is from its commerce, however, that Triest principally derives its importance. Its harbor consisted origi- nally of a safe but small inner port and a rather exposed roadstead; but in 1884 a new and excellent harbor was finished. By running out three piers, 700 feet long and from 250 to 275 feet broad, the old roadstead on the N. E. was transformed into three large inclosures of 85 acres of water-surface and nearly 2 miles of length of quays, pro- tected by a pier 3,600 feet long running parallel with the shore at a distance of 1,000 feet. The value of the annual imports amounts to about $66,000,000, and that of the ex- ports to about $62,000,000. The city has a naval and mer- cantile academy and a school of navigation, and is the head- quarters of the Austrian Lloyds Steam-packet Company, which has magnificent docks and arsenals here. Among the principal exports are grain, rice, wine, oil, flax, hemp, to- bacco, silk, iron, lead, copper, and liqueurs. Cotton, cotton goods, dried fruits, etc., are imported. The old town con- tains a cathedral built between the fifth and fourteenth cen- turies. Triest was acquired by Austria in 1382. Adminis- tratively is a small district of 37 s . miles, including the city and vicinity, with a population (1890) of 158,344, mostly Italians. Pop. of city, 120,333. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. T1‘if0' rium, or Blindstory: a gallery in a medieeval church above the aisle and opening into the nave, choir, or high central part of the transept corresponding to the nave. The theory of the triforium is that it occupies the space un- der the sloping penthouse-roof of the aisle and above the vaulting. Such a gallery would be from 8 to 12 feet high at the inner side, where were the openings looking into the nave, etc., which openings formed a part of the architectural design of the interior, coming as they do above the great arches of the nave and below the clearstory windows. It is therefore to be distinguished from a great gallery like that of Notre Dame at Paris, or the Cathedral of Tournay in Belgium, which has its own vaulted ceiling and perhaps even a tri- forium proper above that vault. In some churches, espe- cially in England, the triforium is built up with a solid wall on the inner side, so that the ornamental arcade serves no longer as an opening from which persons in the triforium could look into the church. In other instances, as in the Cathedral of Rheims, the triforium is a very narrow passage left between an outer solid wall and an open arcade on the inner side, in which case the space beneath the sloping roof of the aisle is shut out and becomes a mere garret. R. S. 'I‘rigem’inus [from Lat. trtge’mtnus, born three together; trt-, tres. three + ge’mtnus, twin]: the fifth pair of cranial nerves, which take superficial origin from the side of the pens varolii by two roots, a larger sensory and a smaller motor; the sensory root bears the important Gasserian ganglion, situated at the apex of the temporal bone. The trigeminus, the great sensory nerve of the head, divides into three trunks, the ophth.al'm~tc, the superior marz'llary, and the rinferior ma.vtllary divisions. The first two of these are entirely sensory, the third is a mixed nerve, being both sensory and motor. The ophthalmic nerve enters the orbit, the contents of which, including the eye, it supplies with sensory filaments, and finally is distributed to the fore- head, brow, eyelids, and, to a limited extent, the nose. The superior maxillary nerve passes to the face, including the side of the nose, the cheeks and lips, and the upper teeth, and secondarily, through the connections of the spheno- palatine ganglion, the palate and the interior of the nasal cavity. The inferior maxillary nerve is a mixed nerve, and supplies motor filaments to the muscles of mastication and sensation to the lower teeth and the part of the face. One important branch, the lingual, is distributed to the tongue, and, in addition to supplying common sensation to that or- gan, very probably is also intimately related to the special 264, TRIGLIDZE sense of taste. Each division of the trigeminus is connected with one or more special masses of nervous matter known as the ganglia of the nerve. \Vith the ophthalmic nerve is connected the lenticular ganglion ; with the superior maxil- lary, the spheno-palatine; and with the inferior maxillary, the otic and the submaadllary ganglia. Those ganglia are of importance as affording points at which sensory, motor, and sympathetic fibers become intermingled, the nerves assing from the centers containing fibers of all three kinds. See FACIAL N ERVES. GEORGE A. PIERsoL. Trig’lidaa [Mod Lat., named from Trigla, the typical genus, from Gr. q'pi'y)\a, mullet]: a family of acanthopteryg- ian fishes, related to the Cottidaa, including species popu- larly known as gurnards, sea-robins, flying fishes, etc. The elongate body may be covered with scales or with bony plates; the head is usually covered with rough, bony plates, some of which bear spines. The eyes are set high in the head; one of the suborbitals is very large, covering the cheek, and articulates with the preoperculum; the upper jaw is slightly protracted and longer; teeth villiform, on the jaws and generally the palate; branchiostegal apertures continuous below; branchiostegal rays in seven pairs; dor- sal fins two, the first spiny; anal fin opposite the dorsal; pectorals more or less enlarged, and with their lower rays simple and generally isolated and distinct from the rest of the fin; ventral fins thoracic, separated by a wide area, and each with a spine and five soft rays; pyloric appendages developed in moderate number; an air-bladder is present. The family contains three distinct sub-families-viz.: (1) Triglince, in which the three lowermost rays of the pectorals are elongated, enlarged, and entirely free, and the scales are small, including the genera Trigla, Prionotus, etc.; (2) Peristethince, in which the two lowermost rays of the pee- torals are enlarged and separate, and the scales large and plate-like, represented only by the genus Peristethus or eristedion; and (3) Dactylopterince, in which the lower- most rays of the pectorals are mostly united with the others, the whole forming a very large wing-like fin, which enables the animal to skim over the water, and the scales are moderate and carinated, typified by the genus Dacty- lopterus. The family is represented on the eastern coast of North America by five species of Pr/ionotus and one of Dactylopterus, and elsewhere, in almost every sea, by one or more generic forms. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Trigonom’etry [fI‘0m Gr. 'rpi'yw1/01/, triangle + ,ue’rpox/, measure]: a branch of mathematics whose primary object is to explain the method of solving triangles; it also treats of the general relations of circular functions. It is divided into three great branches—plane, spherical, and analytical. Plane trigonometry treats of the relations between the sides and angles of plane triangles; spherical trigonometry treats of the relations between the sides and angles of spherical triangles; and analytical trigonometry treats of the general relations between trigonometric functions. llfeasure of an Angle.—For the purposes of plane and spherical trigonometry, angles are expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds, denoted by the symbols °, ’, ” ; and in analysis they are expressed in terms of the radius of the arcs which subtend the angles. In the former case the right angle is the primary unit; in the latter case the primary unit is the angle whose subtending arc is equal to its radius. In both cases the angle is expressed in terms of the subtending are. To explain these methods of measure- ment, let A C D be a right angle; then D Q with C as a center, and with a radius C A equal to 1, describe an are A P D intersect- P ing the sides of the angle at A and D. Let the angle A C D be divided into 90 equal parts by radii; these will divide the are A P D into 90 equal parts; the equal parts, both of the angle and the are, are called degrees. If we draw any radius, as C P, the intercepted are A P will contain as many degrees of the quadrant as the angle A C P does of the right angle. It is in this sense, and in this sense only, that we say an angle is measured by an are. For convenience of expression, each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called minutes, and each minute is di- vided into 60 equal parts called seconds. Again, let the are A P be equal in length to the radius C A; that is, to 1. If we take A C P as the unit angle, any other angle, as A C Q, will contain as many units as there are units in the quotient of the are A Q by A P. Because the circumference whose C A FIG. 1. TRIGONOMETRY radius is 1 is equal to 21r, or 62832, the are A P, in degrees, is equal to ;-*'§%,§-,;° ; that is, to 573° ‘nearly’, or, more exactly, to 206265". If the are A Q contains 75'5°, the linear measure of the angle A C Q is equal to 1'3 nearly; that is, it con- tains the unit angle 13 times. Trigonometric Functions-Angles are most readily com- pared by means of certain lines, whose values depend on the subtending arcs, and which are called functions. The nature of these lines will be most readily explained by the aid of a diagram. Let a D . circumference be described K’ from C as a center, and with a radius C A equal to 1. Draw A L and M D, divid- ing the circumference into four quadrants, and call A L the initial diameter. Sup- pose every are considered to begin at A, which is then called the origin of arcs, and to be estimated around N: O in the direction A D L; let PIG‘ ”' the point where the are terminates be called its extremity. An are beginning at A, and estimated around in the direc- tion A M L, is said to be negative. The complement of an arc is the distance from its extremity around to D; it may be either positive or negative; thus E D is the com- plement of A E, and E’ D is the complement of A E’, the former being positive, and the latter negative. In addition, all distances estimated upward are regarded as positive, all distances downward as negative, all distances counted to the right as positive, and all to the left as negative. We have, then, the following definitions and conclusions: (1) The sine of an arc is the perpendicular distance from the initial diameter to the extremity of the are: thus F E is the sine of A E, F’ E’ is the sine of A E’, F” E” the sine of A E”, and F”’ E”' the sine of A E”’. Hence if an arc terminates in either the first or second quadrant—in which case it is said to lie in the correspond- ing quadrant—its sine is plus; if it lies in the third or fourth quadrant, its sine is minus. (2) The cosine of an arc is the dis- tance from the center to the foot of the sine ; thus C F is the cosine of A E, and C F’ is the cosine of A E’, etc. If an arc lies in the first or in the fourth quadrant, its cosine is plus; if it lies in the second or in the third quadrant, its cosine is minus. (3) The tangent of an arc is a portion of a tangent to the are at the origin, which is included between the origin and the prolongation of the diameter through the extremity of the are; thus A T is the tangent of A E and A E", and A T’ is the tangent of A E’ and A E”’. If an arc lies in the first or in the third quadrant, its tangent is plus; if in the second or fourth, its tangent is minus. (4) The cotangent of an arc is the tangent of its com le- ment, the origin of the complement being taken at D ; t us D K is the cotangent of A E and A E”, and D K’ is the co- tangent of A E’ and A E”’. If the are lies in the first or in the third quadrant, its cotangent is plus; if in the second or fourth, it is minus. (5) The secant of an arc is the distance from the center to the extremity of the tangent; thus C T is the secant of A E, and C K’ is the secant of A E’. The secant, being radial, is said to be positive when estimated from the center in the direction toward the extremity of the arc, and negative when estimated in the direction from the extremity. In the first and fourth quadrants the secant is plus; in the second and third it is minus. (6) The cosecant of an arc is the secant of its complement; thus C K is the cosecant of A E, and C K’ of A E’. In the first and second quadrants the cosecant is plus; in the third and fourth it is minus. ‘ (7) The versed sine of an arc is the distance from the foot of the sine to the extremity of the are; thus F A is the versed sine of A E, and T’ A of A E’. The versed sine is always plus. (8) The co-versed sine of an arc is the versed sine of its complement; thus G D is the versed sine of A E, and G’ D of A E’. The co-versed sine is always plus. The general relations between the circular functions of any are from 0°, to 360° are expressed by the following TI FIG. 3. TRIGONOMETRY equations, in which x denotes the arc, and this whether the arc is plus or minus: sing a: + cos“’ as : 1. tan :1; cot a: = 1. ver. sin a : 1 - cos :22. sec :1; : . cos :1; O I 1 co-ver. sin :1; :: 1 - sin :12. cosec ac : , . sm 0; tan :1; : Sm x. sec2 :1; : 1 + tan2 a. cos a: cot cc : w. cosec2 :1; : 1 + cot2 a. sin cc ANALYTICAL TEieoNoMETRY.—Besides these formulas ex- pressing the relation between the functions of a single arc the following, which express more extended relations, are of continual use in analysis: sin (a ;|; b) :sin a cos b :1; sin b cos a. cos (a j; b) : cos a cos b IF sin a sin b. tan(aib)_ tana;|;tanb ‘ — 1 IF tan a tan b sin,,2 a : 2 sin a cos a; cos 2 a : cos 2a — sin 2a. sin% a: V-5 (1—cos a); cos-5 a: 4/%;, (1 + cos a). sina;{;sinb=2sin-.}(a;1; b)cos§(a$ b). cosa+cosb:2cos§~(a+ b) cos-§(a—b). cosb—cosa:2sin§~ (a—b)sin%;(a + b). PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.-—Evei'y plane triangle consists of six parts-three sides and three angles. When three of these parts are given, at least one of which is a side, the ‘re- maining parts may be computed. The operation of finding the unknown parts is called the solution of the triangle. The solution is made by means of formulas which express the relations between the parts of the triangle. Solution of Right-angled Triangles-The following for- mulas express all the essential relations between the sides and angles of a right-angled triangle. In them the right angle is denoted by A, the acute angles by B and C; the hypothenuse is denoted by a, and the sides opposite B and C are represented by b and c. Because the angles B and are complementary, either may be found when the other is known by simple subtraction; hence the formulas take ac- count of only one of them. The symbols sin — 1, cos — 1, ete., are read, The are whose sine is, The are whose cosine is, etc. : ..:\/ii??=gi_ni’_B:%E;_ (1) b:»\/c1.2—-H.-:asinB=ctanB; (2) c:'\/a9_-_b9:acosB:bcotB;. (3) B:-sin—1.b. :cos—‘_0_ :tan—12. . (4) a a c In applying these formulas the multiplications and divisions are made by means of logarithms. Solution of Oblique-angled Trianyles.—The solution of every case of oblique triangles may be effected by means of the following formulas, in which A, B, and C denote the angles of a triangle, and a, b, and c the sides lying opposite tothem, ands=a+ b+ c: a:b:c::sinA:sinB:sinC; (1) a+b:a-b::tan%(A+B):tan%(A—B) (2) c The sine of an arc is equal to the sine of its supplement; hence, when an angle is determined by means of its sine, there may be two solutions. VVhether there are two or one must be determined by a discussion of the particular case. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETItY.—EVGI‘Y spherical triangle con- tains six parts—three sides and three angles. When any three of these parts are given, the other three may be found. Solution of Right-angled Spherical Triangles.—A right- angled spherical triangle may be solved when we have given any two parts besides the right angle, by two simple rules called Napier’s rules for circular parts. If we denote the angles by A, B, and C, A being the right angle, and the opposite sides by a, b, and c, the sides about the right angle. the complement of the hypothenuse. and the comple- ments of the angles B and C are called circular parts. Let these parts be arranged in order, as shown in Fig. 3 ; then each part will be adjacent to two other parts, or will be sep- TRILLIUM 265 arated from two other parts called opposite. When so ar- ranged, the parts are subject to the following rules: (1) The sine of any part is equal to the rectangle of the tangents of the adjacent parts. (2) The sine of any part is equal to the rectangle of the cosines of the opposite parts. Solution of Quadrantal Spherical Triangles.—A quad- rantal spherical triangle is one in which one of the sides is a quadrant. Such triangles may be solved by passing to the corresponding polar triangles, which will be right-angled. These triangles are then solved by Napier’s rules for circu- lar parts, and from the results we may find the correspond- ing parts of the given triangles by the reverse process of passing back to the given triangles. Solution of Oblique Spherical Triangles.-—Let A, B, and C denote the angles of an oblique spherical triangle, and let a, b, and c denote the opposite sides; also let S = A + B + C ; and s : a + b + c; we shall then have the following formu- las for solving oblique spherical triangles: sinA _sin B _sin C sina sin b sin c' cOS11_A:‘/sin-5-ssin(-§-s—a)_ sinbsinc _ cos(§S—C)cos(%S—B) cOS1}a_4/ sinBsinC __ cos%(a-b) tan§(A+B)_COt~]_;Cxé—(£;_—(———6L_*_b)- _ _, sing-(a-b) tan-1;(A B)__cot-}CxS_{IT11I_T__a+b). __ cos%(A—B) tan-1-(a+b)_tan1.;c><€(E.(T_{__€). sin-.’;(A—B) i. _ : . tan2(a b) tan-§cxSinJ2\(A+B) When any part is determined by means of its sine, there may be one or two solutions. Whether there are one or two can only be determined by a discussion of each particular case. The solution of a spherical triangle may often be facili- tated by the introduction of an auxiliary angle. Thus if two sides and their included angle be given, the third side may be found by the formula cos b sin (c + ¢) sin q> ’ In like manner, if two angles and their included sides be given, the remaining angle may be found by the formula cos B sin (C — qb) sin ¢ Formulas of this kind are particularly useful when it is de- sired to determine a single part without completing the so- lution of the triangle. Revised by S. NEwooMB. Trilin’ear Co-ordinates [trilinear is from Lat. tri-, tres, three + li'nea. line]: a system of co-ordinates in which the position of a point is determined by the ratios of its distances from three sined lines. The equation of any right line in Cartesian co-ordinates may be put in the form zvcos q>+y sin <;>-p=O, in which qb is the angle made by the lines with the axis of 51:. and p is length of a perpendicular upon it from the origin. If cc’ and y’ be the co-ordinates of any point whatever, cos ¢ + y’ sin gt —_p will express the length of a perpendicular from the point, or the distance of the point :23’ y’ from the line. Call this distance a. Let ,8 and 7 be in the same man- ner the distances of the point at’ y’ from any two other arbi- trarily chosen lines. We may imagine a system of trilinear co-ordinates in which the position of a point is defined by its distances from three fixed lines, and in which the posi- tion of any right line is defined by a homogeneous equation between these distances of the form la+ on/8+ n')/:0. See Ferrers, Trilinear Co-ordinates; Salmon, Conic Sec- tions; Newcomb, Analytic Geometry : Clebsch, Vorlesungen itber Geometric, part i. (Leipzig). Revised by S. NEWCOMB. Tril'lium [Mod. Lat; cf. Lat. tres, tri-, three, and tri- lirc, triple-woven, triple, the parts being in threes] : a genus of perennial herbaceous monocotyledonous plants, of the lily family, embracing a dozen species, all of which occur in cos a : where cot ¢> : tan b cos A. cos A : , where cot ¢ : tan B cos a. 266 TRILOBITES Eastern North America, the Himalaya region, and Japan. Each plant consists of a naked stem a foot or less high, sur- 2" Large flowered trillium (Trillium grandz'florum). ' mounted by three ovate netted-veined leaves, a large flower, and a purple or red three-celled berry. T. grancle'florum bears a white flower, changing with age to rose color; T. erectum, a dark reddish-purple flower. The trilliums are cultivated in gardens, are highly valued for their beauty, and are commonly known as three-leaved nightshade, wake- robin, birth-root, or Indian balm. They have astringent, expectorant, and tonic qualities, and yield resin, tannic acid, and a volatile oil. Revised by CHARLES E. BESSEY. TI‘il'0bi130S [from GI‘. 'Tps?s, 7pz—, three + A0863, lOb8]2 a group of Crustuceu which became extinct in Palaeozoic times. Their aflinities have long been uncertain, but the discovery in 1893 of specimens with antennae places their position be- yond a doubt. The body is divisible into three regions——a head with compound eyes, a thorax composed of a varying number of movable segments, and an abdomen (or pygidium) in which several segments firmly united to each other may be recognized. Until recently all knowledge of appendages was lacking, but at present the evidence goes to show that the head bore a pair of antennae and at least four airs of leg-like appendages, the basal joints of which serve for the mastication of food. In the thoracic region the feet were two-branched, and bore gills of peculiar character, while in the pygidial region the appendages were lamellate. The trilobites are among the most abundant fossils in the older rocks. They appear in the Cambrian and die out in the Carboniferous. The species are very numerous. Be- sides the various geological reports, see for structure, Wal- cott, Bullezfe'n Museum Comp. Zoology, viii. (1881), papers in American Journal of Science (1893-94), and Bernard, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society (London, 1894) ; for development, Barrande, Systeme sz'lum'en clu Centre cle la Bohéme, vol. i. (1852). J . S. KINGSLEY. Trimble, ROBERT: jurist; b. in Berkele co.,Va.,in 1777. His parents, in 1780, removed to Kentuc ry, where he re- ceived a scanty early education, but became a school-teacher; studied law under George Nicholas; was admitted to the bar 1803 ; settled at Paris, where he was chosen to the Legis- lature; became judge of the court of appeals 1808, chief justice of Kentucky 1810, U. S. district attorney 1813; was district judge of Kentucky 1816-26, and justice of the U. S. Supreme Court from 1826 to his death Aug. 25, 1828. Trimeter: See METRES. Trinlflrti, treve-moor’te’e [Sanskr.; literally, having three forms; I.‘/"l, three + murtrl-. body, form]: the Hindu triad or trinity, consisting of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, considered as an inseparable unity, and as representing the creating, the preserving, and the destroying and regenerating princi- ples of the deity respectively. They were produced by Brah- ma, the one self-existent spirit, from his own body—-Brahma from the right, Vishnu from the left, and Siva from the mid- dle. ‘When represented pictorially or in sculpture the Tri- murti has one body with three heads——that of Brahma in the middle, that of Vishnu at the right, and that of Siva on the left. Trincomalee’ : town of Ceylon; a seaport and naval sta- tion on the northeastern coast of the island (see map of S. TRINIDAD India, ref. 8-F). It has a large landlocked harbor, but the place is exceedingly hot and unhealthfull Its great renown in ancient time it owed to religious rather than to geographical considerations, as the seat of the temple of a thousand columns, to which pilgrims flocked from all parts of India. Pop. (1891) 11,411. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Trinidad, Span. pron. tre‘e-ne"e-thaalh’: an island of the VVest Indies, belonging to Great Britain; near the north- eastern coast of Venezuela, and N. of the delta of the Ori- noco. Area, 1,754 sq. miles. It is nearly sguare in form, with peninsular projections at the angles. ‘hese, with the peninsula of Paria and the delta, form the narrow passages called the Serpent’s Mouth and Dragon’s Mouth, noted for their dangerous currents; and they inclose the Gulf of Paria, between the island and the continent. Trinidad is generally classed- as the southernmost of the Caribbean group; but by its structure, fauna, and flora, it belongs to South America, and in all probability was formerly united to it. A range of low mountains, a continuation of those of Paria, follows the northern coast, some of the peaks attain- ing an altitude of more than 3,000 feet. The remainder of the surface is hilly, or low, with tracts of swamp; a line of hills lines the southern coast. There are no true volcanoes, but some small crater-like cavities emit sulphuretted hydro- gen, and sometimes, it is said, flames. The celebrated as- phalt lake, called La Brea, is near the southwestern end; it covers about 100 acres, the asphalt bubbling up in the center but hardening around the margins, where it is extracted; it is largely exported for roofing and paving. The soil of Trini- dad is fertile, and there are large tracts of forest, especially in the northern and eastern parts. The climate is warm, but generally healthful, and rains are abundant from May to October; during the winter months the ground is watered by heavy dews. Hurricanes are never felt. A large pro ortion of the inhabitants are Negroes, mixed races, and Hin u coolies. Of the latter Trinidad has more than any other West Indian island. They are imported under contract to work for five years,but often remain and acquire considerable wealth. The whites are of English, Scotch, or French descent, with many refugees from Venezuela. Most of the population is gath- ered in the western part of the island, where are the principal towns. Port of Spain, the capital, is the commercial center, and is connected with San Fernando by railway. Agriculture is the principal occupation, and the island has an unusually large number of peasant proprietors. The exports are sugar, cacao, asphalt, etc. By its position, Port of Spain controls much of the trade of Venezuela. Trinidad was discovered and named by Columbus in 1498. The Spaniards, after carrying off the Indian inhabitants as slaves, had only small establishments, later increased by French immigrants from’ Grenada. The British seized the island in 1797, and have since held it. With Tobago it forms the crown colony of Trinidad. Po . (1891) 208,028. See Charles Kingsley, At Last (1871); Hhrt, T/re'ne'clad (1865); Wall and Sawkins, Re- port on the Geology of Tre'ne'clud. HERBERT H. SMITH. TI'inida(l: a small rocky island of the Atlantic, in lat. 20° 31' S., lon. 29° 20' W. ; about 700 miles E. of Brazil, and claimed by both Great Britain and Brazil. Trinidatl : a city near the southern coast of Cuba; 3 miles by railway from its port of Casildas (see map of West Indies, ref. 4—C). It is beautifully situated on high land overlook- ing the sea. Owing to its mild and very equable climate it is a favorite resort for invalids. It is one of the oldest towns in the island, and was long the center of the coffee-trade, but has lost much of its commercial importance. Pop. (1887) with the district, 29,448. H. H. S. Trinidad: capital of the department of Beni, Bolivia, on low land near the Mamoré (see map of South America, ref. 5—D). It was founded by the Jesuits, and was long the most celebrated mission town of the Madeira valley, having a popu- lation of over 20,000. The mission buildings remain, but the place is much decayed. Pop. (1885) 4,535. H. H. S. Trinidad: city; capital of Las Animas eo., Col.; on Las Animas river, and the Atch., Top. and S. Fé, the Denver and Rio Gr., and the U. Pac., Denver and Gulf railways; 200 miles S. of Denver, and 650 miles W. of Kansas City, M0. (for location, see map of Colorado, ref. 6-E). It is in an agricul- tural, stock-raising, bituminous coal, and coking region, and contains 9 churches, 4 large public—school buildings, an academy, business college, parochial school, 2 national banks (combined capital $200,000), 2 savings-banks (combined capi- tal $50,000), a loan and trust company (authorized capital TRINITARIANS $150,000), and 3 daily and 4 weekly papers. There are gas and electric light plants, extensive railway-shops, brewery, wool-scouring plant, and coking ovens. Pop. (1880) 2,226; (1890) 5,523. EDIToR or “ADVERTISER.” Trinitarians: See REDEMPTIONISTS. 'I‘rinitroearb0lie Acid, Trinitrophenol, or Trinitro- phenic Acid: See P1cRIc Acm. Trinity: See Gon. Trinity: port of entry; capital of Trinity district, New- foundland; on Trinity Bay: lat. of harbor, 48° 22’ N ., lon. 53° 24’ W. It has an excellent harbor. In 1858 the first Atlantic cable was landed in Trinity Bay. The fisheries are the leading pursuit. Pop. about 2,000. Trinity College: an institution of learning in Hartford, Conn., founded in 1823, and bearing until 1845 the name of Washington College. Its first president was Bishop Thomas Church Brownell, 1824-31. The college buildings, three in number, stood on a slight eminence, now the site of the State Capitol. In 1872 the campus was sold to the city of Hartford and a site of 78 acres was purchased, about a mile S. of the former location. Here has been erected a fine range of buildings, forming part of a new structure, which is intended to comprise three. quadrangles, in all 1,050 feet by 370, with an aggregate area of 4 acres. It is in the early French secular Gothic style of architecture, and has an im- posing eifect. There are also, outside the limits reserved for these quadrangles, an observatory, a gymnasium and alumni hall, a hall of science, and a president’s house. There is a valuable cabinet and a library of 36,000 volumes. The college offers four courses of study, leading to degrees in arts, science, and letters, with liberal provision for elec- tive and special work; and there are numerous scholarships, in part competitive, for the assistance of deserving students, chiefly for those wishing to enter the ministry of the Protes- tant Episcopal Church. The Rev. Dr. George Williamson Smith has been president since 1883. SAMUEL HART. Trinity College, Dublin: See DUBLIN, UNIVERSITY or. Trinity River: ariver which rises in the northeast art of Trinity co., Cal., and after a course first to the S. '\ . and then to the N. W., falls into Klamath river, in Humboldt County. Its length is about 130 miles. Trinity River: a river in Texas, formed by two branches, the Elm or East Fork and the West Fork, which rise in the northern part of the State, the latter in Archer County, and unite in Dallas County. Trinity river is a noble stream, flow- ing through a fertile, well-timbered country. At its lowest stage it is navigable to Liberty, about 22 miles from its mouth in Trinity Bay, and at high water small boats have ascended 500 miles. The length of the main stream is 550 miles. Trinity Sunday: in the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and other Churches (but not the Greek Church), the Sunday next after Pentecost. It was established as a church festival, in honor of the Holy Trinity, by Pope John XXII. in 1320. It had previously been long celebrated in some Western dio- ceses, but not very generally before 1400. Triodon’tidae [Mod. Lat., named from Tri’odon, the typ- ical genus; Gr. rpefs, 'rpL-, three + 5806s, 5561/1'03, tooth]: a family of fishes of the order Plectognathi, so named because the upper jaw is divided by a central suture while the under jaw is entire, thus forming three tooth-like pieces. The body is oblong, with a very dilatable abdomen, and with a slender conic tail; the lateral line well marked; the head oblong, with the snout rather long; the nostrils double; the mouth small; the gill openings narrow clefts in front of the ectoral fins; the branchiostegal rays entirely concealed; c orsal and anal fins very short and far behind; caudal dis- tinct; pectorals narrow; ventrals wanting. An air-bladder is present. The skeleton is well ossified, and ribs are de- veloped; the so-called pelvic bone is large, and serves to keep expanded the abdominal sac-like expansion, “the lower part of which is merely a flap of skin into which the air does not penetrate” (Gilnther). The family is especially interesting as serving to demonstrate the affinity of the gymnodonts with the scleroderms. But one species is known, the T/I"?/OCZOR Zmrsarins of the Indian Ocean and Archipelago. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Trionych’ida> [Mod Lat., named from Tri’ony:v, the typical genus; Gr. 1-peis, 'rpL—, three + 5:/v5, iivuxos, claw]: a family of turtles containing the soft-shelled tortoises, and distinguished by the leathery and scaleless shell. “The TRIPoLI 267 principal habitat of the members of this family is the mud- dy bottom of shallow waters. They bury themselves in the soft mud, leaving only the head, or a small part of it, ex- posed. They take breath from time to time, without moving the body, by raising up the long neck and head and carrying the leathery snout above water.” They rarely emerge from the water to take to the land, and when on the land their lo- comotion is laborious and constrained. In the water, how- ever, they are very active and quick in their movements. “ They feed upon shells, especially upon anodontas and paludinas.” “They lay from twelve to twenty and more eggs, of a spherical form and above the size of a musket- ball, which they deposit on the shore by the water’s edge. The shell of these eggs is thick, but very brittle.” (Agassiz, Contributions to the Natural History of the United States of America.) Representatives of the family are found most abundantly in the tropical regions of Asia and Africa, but a number of species also extend through a considerable area in the U. S., and equally far northward in Asia. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Tripe de Roche, treep'de-r6sh’ [Fr., rock tripe] : a name applied by French Canadian eoyageurs and hunters to sev- eral species of U’/nhilicaria and Gyrophora, tough and bitter lichens of the barren grounds of British North Amer- ica. Tripe dc roche is often used as food when other pro- visions are exhausted, and. though cathartic and unpala- table, it will sustain life. The genera have representatives growing upon rocks in many high arctic and alpine regions. Tripit'aka [Sanskr., three baskets; tri, three + pitaha, basket]: the sacred scriptures of the Buddhists; so called because made up of three collections called respectively Siztra, or aphorisms; Vinaya, or discipline; and Abhi- dharma or Abhidhamma, metaphysics. (See PALI LITERA- TURE.) The name Tripitaka is also sometimes applied to the Chinese San-tsang (three storehouses; in Japanese San- Z5). which consists of translations, from the first century on- ward, of original Sanskrit texts, and of commentaries and other matter. A complete copy of this (in 2,200 vols., re- quiring 108 feet of shelf-room) is in the library of the India office, London. movable metal type, was issued in 1881-85 by one of the monasteries in Tokio. Triple Alliance : (1) the league between England, Swe- den, and the States-General (1668) for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands against Louis XIV. (2) The league of Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands against Spain and the Pretender in 1717. (3) The league of Austria, Great Britain, and Russia, concluded in 1795. (4) The Dreibnnd, or league of Germany, Austria, and Italy, formed for the purpose of mutual protection in case of attack by other powers. A dual alliance between Austria and Ger- many had been formed in 1879, and Italy was admitted as a third member in 1882. In spite of the opposition of the Italian republicans and Irredentists the alliance has been maintained, and in July, 1891, the Emperor of Germany publicly declared that it had been resumed for a period of six years. Trip’oli [named from the city Tripoli] : one of the thirty- eight vilayets or provinces of Turkey, and, including Barca on the E., the only region in Africa now directly controlled by Turkey. It has over 700 miles of sea-frontage on the Mediterranean, adjoins Egypt and the Libyan waste on the E., includes Fezzan on the S., and has Tunis on its western frontier. Though about one-third larger than Texas, its population is only 800,000 to 1,000,000. Seventeen explorers have visited it since 1800, but they followed chiefly the main routes leading S. from the city of Tripoli, and many arts of the interior remain to be studied in their geo- ogical, ethnological, and other aspects. Its coast towns are the natural points of departure for caravans to the VVestern Sudan, because the coast-line on the deep indentation of the Gulf of Syrte shortens the journey to the Sudan about one-fourth. The routes S. across the desert are also better than those from Algeria, because mountains and sand-dunes oppose few difficultics and wells are comparatively abun- dant. The explorer Rohlfs urged Italy to acquire Tripoli, on the ground that the \Vestern Sudan would easily fall to its possessor. In other respects Tripoli is much less fa- vored than Tunis and Algeria. Lying farther S. the mean temperature is much higher and the climate is of conti- nental rather than maritime character. Most of the region is poor and sandy, and the sands from the eastern and southern deserts, together with vast quantities blown inland An edition in over 500 vols., printed from- 268 TRIPOLI from the sea-border, have greatly restricted the areas where agriculture can flourish. Nine-tenths of the country has no population because it does not differ from the great sandy and rocky plateau, inhabited only in a few scattered oases, that extends from Alexandria to Tunis. The rainfall is small, and Tripoli has not a single perennial stream. Al- though thus pertaining to the region of the desert rather than to that of the littoral, Tripoli has a considerable number of small areas that are very fruitful, particularly along the slopes of the low mountains that nearly bisect it from E. to W. and from N. to S., and along the usually dry water- courses. The almond-tree, olive, and date flourish, and the vine is widely cultivated, though not for wine-mak- ing. The fauna, like the flora, is poorer in species and in numbers than in countries of the littoral farther west. Neither lions nor panthers are found in the mountains, crocodiles can not live where permanent rivers do not exist, and the elephants that once roamed over the country were long ago driven out by widespread deforestation. Foxes, hares, wolves, some varieties of monkeys, gazelles, and ante- lopes are the only game. There are a few varieties of rep- tiles, but not many birds, most of them being birds of pas- sage, which are seen only for a few weeks in spring and autumn during their migrations. Camels and asses are the chief domestic animals, but a diminutive variety of cattle and also horses and dogs are found in small numbers. Fat- tailed sheep are raised to some extent, but goats are much more numerous. The population consists mainly of Arabs and Berbers. The Berbers, representing the ancient inhab- itants, are probably more numerous, but there has been great admixture of these families. In many places the Berbers have adopted the language of their conquerors, and it is difiicult to distinguish them from the Arabs. In other places, particularly in the oases, the two peoples live in dis- tinct groups, having each its own name and social organiza- tion. The Berbers who have most successfully maintained their primitive character live among the mountains of Ghurian and Yefren. Here center the insurrections that, now and then, are a source of much trouble to the Turkish authorities. Thousands of slaves from the Sudan form an important element in the population. The Turks, though in absolute control of the country since 1835, form only a small minority. They hold themselves above the people they govern and are looked upon as strangers. Arabic, and not Turkish, is the official language. The Jews are a very old element in the population and suffer much ill treatment. The only port of importance is the capital, Tripoli, and the chief exports are esparto grass, ostrich feathers, and a little wheat. The total export and import trade with Europe amounts only to about $6,000,000 a year. See Nachtigal’s Sa- hara anol Sudan (2 vols., Berlin, 1879-81) ; Barth’s Travels and Discoveries in N orth Africa (5 vols., 1857-58) and Wan- derangen dnrch clie Kilstenlctnder ales Mittelmeeres (Berlin, 1849) ; Rohlfs’s Land and Volh in Afriha (Bremen, 1870); Vatonne’s Mission ole Ghaclarnes ; Duveyrier’s E./vploration cla Sahara, les Taaregs ola Norcl (1864) ; and Reclus’s Noavelle Géographie Universelle (vol. xi., Paris, 1876). C. C. ADAMS. Tripoli [Lat Tri’p0lis, Gr. Tpiaroms, liter., three-town]: a port built on the site of three ancient towns on the Af- rican coast of the Mediterranean (see map of Africa, ref. 1-D). It is the capital of the Turkish province of Tripoli. The city is strongly fortified, has considerable trade with Europe and a large caravan trade with the Western Sudan, but it is far inferior, in commercial importance to several other cities on the southern shores of the Mediterranean. It presents a charming aspect from the sea, but first im res- sions are modified by a nearer view of dilapidated buildmgs, narrow and tortuous streets, and abounding dirt and refuse. It is most cosmopolitan in its architecture, the Arab style with its white, bare walls and courts surrounded by galleries predominating. Almost all the Government buildings re- semble the Turkish structures of Stamboul, while the 3,000 Maltese residents, who form the Christian element. have many buildings of Italian aspect, and the water-front is lined with structures like those in the smaller commercial ports of Europe. Negro slaves have introduced in some quarters cabins like those in which they lived in the Sudan. Much has been done in recent years to improve the appearance and sanitary conditions of the city. The town nearly covers a small promontory jutting out into the sea, and behind it is a wide belt of plantations given chiefly to the raising of olives. The capital has a far larger trade with TRIPTYCH the Sudan than any other Mediterranean port. Of late years its largest source of prosperity has been the export to Europe of esparto grass. The commercial value of the port is con- siderably im aired by the shallow waters of the roadstead, and the nort ern winds at times, particularly in the winter months,‘ make it very dangerous to approach the city. Pop. about 40,000. C. C. ADAMS. Trip’oli (Arab. Tarabalas, anC.Tpi1roMs, Tri’polis): sea- port town of Syria; in the vilayet of Beyrout, about 40 miles N. N. E. from Beyrout (see map of Turkey, ref. 7-G). The ancient town consisted of three distinct quarters, each surrounded by its wall and inhabited by colonists from Aradus, Sidon, and Tyre respectively. It was hence called Tripolis, “the triple city,” by the Greeks. Renowned for its commerce in antiquity, it was specially important during the crusades. It occupied a triangular promontory projecting into the Mediterranean, and inclosed on the E. by a wall 18 feet thick, which may still be traced, while the entire prom- ontory is strewn with ruins. N. is the harbor, from which the modern town is about a mile distant, embowered in apricot, orange, and lemon orchards. El-Kadisha, “the sacred river,” which rises among the grove of cedars on Lebanon, renders the vicinity fertile and unhealthful. Tripoli is the natural outlet of the interior cities Hama and Horns. It has a fine and safe harbor, and French, British, and Russian steamers touch here regularly. It exports raw silk, sponges, soap, olive oil, cotton, and fruits. Pop. 24,000, mainly Mussulmans. E. A. GROSVENOR. Tripolit’za : town ; in Arcadia, Greece (see map of Greece, ref. 17—J). Founded by the Ottomans in 1770, its buildings were constructed from the clébris of Pallantium, Tegea, and Mantinea. The capital of the Morea, it was taken by the Greek revolutionists (1821) and retaken by Ibrahim Pasha (1825), who razed it to the ground three years later. It is now an enterprising and prosperous place. Pop. (1889) 10,698. E A. G. Tripos: the system of honors examination at the Uni- versity of Cambridge, England. The derivation of the name goes back to a very early period, when the student who was being examined sat on a three-legged stool. The examina- tions are held at the end of May or beginning of June in each year. The tripos is usually taken at the end of the third year of residence at the university. There are the mathematical tripos, classical tripos, moral sciences tripos, natural sciences tripos, theological tripos, law tripos, histor- ical tripos, Semitic language tripos, Indian language tripos, medizeval and modern language tripos. The one who ob- tains the highest place in the mathematical tripos is called the senior wrangler. C. H. THURBER. Triptych [Gr. 'rpl7r'rvX0s, consisting of three layers; arnia'- o'eu/, to fold]: a set of three tablets or panels hinged to- gether. The use of the appliance is generally to hold either writing or painting in such a way that it is protected from injury. (See DIPTYCH.) Whenever it became necessary to increase the size of the tablets beyond that of an object easily carried in the hand, and especially when one leaf was made fast to a wall or desk, it must have been found better to divide the upper or covering leaf into two. This, then, became the type of folding tablet used for early devo- tional pictures—a stout panel which could be set upon an altar or secured to a wall, and two thinner leaves or doors, one hinged to each side of the larger leaf, the two meeting in the middle of it and exactly covering it. One picture being painted on the larger leaf, or a large one with a small- er one below, it was natural to paint also the inside of the two doors; next, when greater richness was required, the outside of the doors was painted. The famous altarpiece Diagram of the Last Judgment, by Rogier van del‘ Weyden. of the brothers Van Eyck (see Even, J OHN VAN) was a double triptych; an upper and a lower back panel had each two doors, but, as each door was itself divided into two folds, TRIQUETI a word expressing division into five rather than three is needed to fully explain it. In like manner the Last Judg- ment, by Rogier van der \Veyden, in the hospital at Beaune, in Burgundy, has a back panel of the shape of a smaller parallelogram above a larger one, with two small leaves above and two large ones below. The subject of the Judg- ment Day fills all the irregular-shaped surface offered when the leaves are opened wide ; the outside has six different and separate pictures. These examples are, however, of late date, and show the triptych form giving way to the new re- quirements of an advanced art. RUSSELL STURGIS. Triqueti, tre“e'ke-tee’, HENRI, Baron de: painter and sculptor; b. at Confians, department of Loiret, France, in 1802; studied at the Academy of Art in Paris; exhibited in 1831 several pictures and a marble group, which at- tracted much attention, Death of Charles the Bold; de- voted himself subsequently exclusively to sculpture; was for a long time engaged in the interior decoration of the Madeleine. Among his works are Dante, Jesus feeding the Birds, Bacchus, The Holy Family, and many busts. D. in Paris, May 11, 1874. Revised by RUSSELL Sruneas. Trirat’na [Sanskr., three jewels; tri, three + ratna, a jewel]: the Buddhist triad or trinity, consisting of (1) Bud- dha, the founder of the system; (2) Dharma, the law or doctrine which he taught; and (8) the Sangha, or monastic order which he established. The two latter have been per- sonalized and deified by later Buddhists as the “Three Pre- cious Ones,” i11 whom the seeker after deliverance from in- dividual existence and its sorrow and pain takes refuge. Hence they are also known as the “Three Refuges.” Trisection Of Angle [trisection is from Lat. tri-, three + seea’re, see’tum, cut : a celebrated problem among the an- cient geometers. t belongs to the same class of problems as the duplication of the cube and the insertion of two geo- metrical means between two given lines. Like them, it can not be solved by the methods of elementary geometry. It may, however, be solved by means of an auxiliary curve called a conchoid ; it can also be solved in several ways by the principles of higher geometry. S. N. Trismegistus: See HERMES TRISMEGISTUS. Trissi'no, GIANGIORGIO: grammarian and poet; b. at Vicenza, Italy. June 18, 1478. Exiled from Venice in 1508, he studied philosophy at Ferrara, and then went to Rome, where Leo X. received him. Desirous of reforming the Italian alphabet, he set forth his plans in the Epistola a Clemente VII. (1524), and published with it the Canzone a Clemente VII., the Sofonisba, the Ritratti, and other works. The Sofonisba, an attempt to establish a tragic drama in the sixteenth century, was not very successful. As the ban had long been removed from him, he settled down in his home as a papal delegate (about 1526), still ap- plying himself to his favorite scheme of improving the al- phabet. The Alfabeto, the Dabbi grammatioali, the Gram- matiehetta, and the first portion of his Poetica and Rime appeared there after 1526, and were followed by the Volgare Eloqaio (1529), a translation of Dante’s De Valgari Eloqnio, which in this form appeared in print for the first time; the Castellano, a dialogue on the proper name for the Italian tongue; and the Encomion, a poem in Latin hexameters. During the remainder of his life he traveled about Italy not a little, and at the same time wrote the Crammatiees Introduetionis Liber Prim/as (1540) ; the Italia liberata dai Goti (1548) ; the I Simillimi, a comedy; and the rest of the Poetioa. The Italia liberata dai Goti is a noteworthy en- deavor to revive the historic epic, and on it Trissino’s fame came chiefly to rest. Indeed, it was for a time accepted throughout Europe as belonging to the same class of poems as the Iliad and the fi'neid. It is now, however, little read. Trissino died in Rome, Dec. 8, 1550. J. D. M. Fonn. Tristan da Cunha, -daa-koon'ya"a: the largest of a group of islands in the Southern Atlantic, in lat. 87° 6' S., lon. 12° 19' W. Area about 40 sq. miles. It is mountain- ous, its center rising into a volcanic peak 7,640 feet high, but fertile, well provided with water, and healthful. It was discovered in 1506 by the Portuguese navigator Tristan da Cunha, and occupied by British troops from Cape Town during the captivity of Napoleon on St. Helena. Pop. (1895) 61. Property is held in common; there is no crime and no strong drink. The other islands are Inaccessible island and the three Nightingale islands, Nightingale, Stol- tenhoff, and Middle isle. These are frequented by large numbers of seals and seafowl. TROGHU 269 Triton (Gr. Tpi'rwV) : in Greek mythology, a marine deity, sometimes the son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, some- times a subordinate sea-god, and sometimes even local- ized as the god of the Libyan Sea. In art he is represented as a young man with the bodyr ending in a fish-tail, and with a trumpet of conch-shells with which at the command of Poseidon he bade the waves be still. Revised by J. R. S. STERRETT. Triton: a name given (1) to a gasteropod mollusc; (2) to the aquatic salamanders, especially of Europe. Tritone [from Gr. 'rpl'ro1/os, of three tones; 1-pr-, three + 76110:, tone. See ToNE] : in music, the interval of the aug- mented fourth, which consists of three whole tones, or rather of two whole tones and two semitones, as C—Fi*,,, G—Cfi, an interval studiously avoided by the old musicians. Triumph [via O. Fr. from Lat. trinm’phas < O. Lat. triitm'pus, deriv. of trinm'pe, an exclamation used in sol- emn processions of the Arval brethren; cf. Gr. 9pla,u.;8os] : in ancient Rome, a state pageant in which a victorious general or naval commander, preceded by the senate and by the spoils and prisoners, was drawn by four horses along the Sacred Way and followed by his army to the temple of Capi- toline Jove, where solemn sacrifice was ofiered. In order to triumph, the general must be in possession of the highest magisterial power as dictator, consul, proconsul, preetor, or propreetor. The war, too, must be one against foreign foes, and must have been brought to a conclusion. There were also other conditions which were not uniformly observed. The triumphal procession was very brilliant, and sometimes lasted two or three days. It was customary to put to death some of the hostile chiefs during the triumphal march. There are in all about 850 recorded triumphs ; the last seems to have been celebrated by Diocletian in 302 A. D. Revised by CHARLES H. HASKINS. Trium’virs, or Tres'viri [: Lat. ; tres (gen. trinm), three + eiri, plur. of oir, man] : in ancient Rome, a board of three men. Besides certain permanent boards, the name was applied to various extraordinary commissions appointed to perform some special public duty. The coalition of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus in B. c. 60 is often, though improperly, called the first triumvirate. The men who constituted it bore no ofiicial title, and exercised only an usurped power. The second triumvirate, which was that of Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, was officially recognized by the senate, and the three magistrates bore the name of Tresviri reipub- liece eonstitaendte (triumvirs for arranging public affairs). Revised by CHARLES H. Hxsxnvs. Triv’ium: name applied in the Middle Ages to the arts, grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, which were taught in the cloister and cathedral schools. The trivium and quadrivi- um—music. arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy—ma-de up the seven liberal arts. See l/Vest, Alcain and the Rise of the Christian Schools (1892). C. H. T. Trochaic Metres : verses whose fundamental foot is the trochee (rpoxaios, running; called also choree, from X0 eios, dancing). The measure is the dipody, resembling the ~§-bar of music in form and lively movement. The most common verse is the tetrameter catalectic, with diaeresis between the two diameters. See METEES. Trochil'idm [Mod. Lat., named from Tro’ehilns, the typical genus, from Gr. 'rp0Xl7\os, some kind of small bird; of. '1-péxeu/, run]: a family of birds comprising the humming- birds. See HUMMING-BIRD. Troch’ophore [Gr. Tpoxds, wheel + ¢opeTx/, to bear] : aterm applied to the typical annelid larvae in allusion to the cir- cles of cilia (one to three or more) which surround the body, and which are the wheels referred to in the name. A troch- ophorc stage is more or less clearly recognized in other worms and in molluscs. Trochu, tro"shi'1', Loms JULES: soldier; b. at Le Palais, department of Morbihan, France, Mar. 12, 1815; made his military career chiefly as aide-de-camp and in the ministry of war. He was aide-de-camp to Marshal Bugeaud in Al- geria, to Marshal Saint-Arnaud, and afterward to Gen. Can- robert, in the Crimea, and distinguished himself at the storm- ing of the Malakofi‘ as commander of the first brigade of the First French Corps. He was in command of a division at the battle of Solferino. On account of his scientific edu- cation he was generally considered as the future Minister of \Var, but by his pamphlet L’armée franeaise en 1867, which ran through twenty editions in three years, and, reveahng 270 TRCEZEN the weaknesses of the French army, advocated the adoption of Prussian methods, he lost the favor of the Emperor Napoleon, and received no more offices of confidence. This cir- cumstance, however, made him a favorite with the opposition, and when in 1870 the French army broke down, he was called to the imperial council and appointed governor of Paris Aug. 17. VVhen the Revolution broke out in Paris after the disaster of Sedan, he was also made commander-in-chief of all the forces defending the capi- tal, and president of the govern- ment of national defense, which osition he held until the surren- c er of the city. He was chosen to the National Assembly in 1871, but retired to private life in 1873. He has published, besides the work above mentioned, Pour la Vérité et pour la Justice (1873) ; La Po- titigue et le Siege ole Paris (1874); and L’Arme'e francaise en 1879. Troezen, tree'zen, or Troeze'ne (Gr. Tpoi§1')1/): one of the oldest cities of ancient Greece; in a fer- tile plain (Troezenia) which occu- pied the southeastern part of Ar- golis. It was founded by Ionian settlers, and was under the au- thority of Argos at the time of the Trojan war; but although it subsequently, by the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, re- ceived a colony of Doric settlers and became a Doric city, it main- tained its Ionian sympathies and traditions. It early grew into an important maritime place. It founded Halicarnassus and Myn- dus in Caria, and after the battle of Thermopylae its harbor was ap- pointed the place of rendezvous for the Greek fleet. It received with the greatest kindness the Athe- nians who fled from Xerxes, and fought with five ships and 1,000 men in the battles of Artemisium, Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale. Up to the Peloponnesian war it was a firm ally of Athens, but after that time it sided with Lacedaemon, and subsequently it became a Macedonian possession. In the second century of the Christian era it was still a splen- did city, as shown by the description Pausanias has given of its public buildings, of which some ruins are still found near the village of Damala. Revised by J . R. S. STERRETT. Tr0g’lodytes [from Lat. Troglo’cly/tee = Gr. Tpw'y7\o6zi'rau, the pygmies, cave-dwellers, liter., plur. of 1-pw-yAo'o‘zi'rns, cave- dweller; 'rpé'y)\'r), cave + 861/ew, enter] : with the ancient writers the name of races found in the Caucasus, in Moesia near the lower Danube, and elsewhere, but especially along the coasts of the Red Sea, both the Arabian and the African, which region was called Regio Troglodytica. Common to these tribes was their low grade of civilization. They lived in caves and depended on herds of cattle for their livelihood. The name is now applied to cave-d wellers generally. Troy- locl'ytes is the name both of a genus of wrens and of the genus containing the chimpanzee and gorilla. Trogl0dyt’idee [Mod. Lat., named from Troglo’clytes, the typical genus. See TROGrLODYTES]I a family of oscinine birds containing the wrens. They have a ten-primaried wing, slen- der bill, inner toe united by at least half its basal joint to the middle toe, and scutellate tarsi. See WREN. F. A. L. Tr0g0n’id:e [Mod. Lat., named from Tro’gon, the typ- ical genus. from Gr. 'rpa'>')/wv, pres. partic. of 'rpa’>'yeu/, gnaw, chew] : a family of birds common to the tropical and sub- tropical regions of America, as well as Asia and Africa, dis- tinguished from all others by having the second as well as the first toe turned backward. The bill is rather short, - ~ _-.-"drxrz:-1*-1-<-:"--1-.11.’- - - ...._ -‘ --\=<'-'~-= _. 5 /,-13' I .-1/» .1-.;~ .. ~_,,~_ Red-bellied trogon. TROLLOPE stout, broad at the base, and rapidly narrowed forward, with the edges more or less toothed ; the‘wings are moder- ate and rounded; the legs are rather weak ; the tarsi short; the tail is more or less elongated and graduated. The species are mostly showy birds of mod- erate size, which in great part live in the depths of the equatorial forests, often perched on the highest branches. They are believed to subsist to a large extent on fruits and berries, but also prey on insects. They nest in holes in trees, or those abandoned by wood- peckers. The most gorgeous species is the resplendent trogon, or quetzal (Pharomacrus rnocinno) of Guatemala, which is of a brilliant metallic green above and red below. The scapulars and upper tail coverts are long, the latter extending far beyond the tail feathers and often mistaken for them. About fifty species are known, thirty- five occurring in America, comprised in the genera Prionoteles, Temnotrogon, Trogon, Leptuas, and Pharomacrus (: Calurus) ; some dozen or more are found in Asia, and form the genus Harpactes and its subdi- visions ; and two species in Africa have been isolated to form the peculiar genus Hapaloderrna. The family is most nearly related to the ltlomotialce, Alcedinidce (kingfishers), Cuculielce (cuckoos), and allied forms. Revised by F. A. Luoxs. Trogus Pompeius, -pom-pee'y1”1s: a Latin author de- scended from the Gaulish tribe of the Vocontii. His grand- father received the citizenship of Rome from Cn. Pompei- us, his father was private secretary to Caesar, and he him- self wrote, in the time of Augustus, a work, Historice Philippicae, in forty-four books, based upon Timagenes and other Greek historians, of which there exist a few brief frag- ments quoted by Vopiscus, Cassiodorus, Servius, Priscian, and others, and a series of excerpts by JUSTIN (q. 2).); see also Heeren, Conunentationes de Trogi Pompeii ejusque E_;oitornatoris Justini Fontibus et Auctoritate, printed in Frotscher’s ed. of J ustinius (Leipzig, 1827—30), A. v. Gut- schmid, Flecheisens Jahrbiicher, supplement ii., p. 187; and Rheinisches ]V[useum, 37, 548 ; also Wachsmuth, Rheinisches Jlfuseurn, 46, 465. Revised by M. WARREN. TI'0iS Pistoles, trwa”a’pe“es’t6l’: river and town of Que- bec, Canada; in Temiscouata County (see map of Quebec, ref. 3-E). The river is a right-hand affluent of the St. Lawrence, is about 50 miles long, discharges several lakes, and has fine water-powers. The town is at its mouth, a station on the Intercolonial Railway, 145 miles N. E. of Quebec, and has some trade in wood and stone. The fish- ing of the vicinity is excellent. Pop. 2,500. . W. H. Troja: See TROY. Trolley: See Emacrarc RAILWAYS. Trollope, trol'fip, ANTHONY : novelist ; third son of Fran- ces M. Trollope; b. in London, Apr. 24, 1815; educated at Winchester and Harrow; from 1834 to 1867 was connected with the British postal service, for which he made many voyages, and subsequently traveled extensively in the U. S., the West Indies, and Australia. In 1869 he was an unsuc- cessful candidate for Parliament, in the Liberal interest, for Beverley. He wrote several books of travel and many novels. Most of his later novels were originally published serially and simultaneously in British and American magazines. Among his books, which number about seventy, are The J! acclerrnots of Bally/cloran (1847) ; The Kellys and the O’Kellys (1848) ; La Vendée (1850) ; The Warden (1855) ; Barchester Towers, his first decided success (1857); Doctor Thorne, one of his best works (1858); The Bertrarns (1859) ; Castle Richmond (1860); Frarnley Parsonage (1861) ; Tales of all Countries, stories which had appeared in various magazines (1861; 2d series 1863) ; Orley Farm (1862) ; North America, a book of travel (1862) ; Rachel Ray (1863) ; The Belton Estate (1864); ffunting Sketches (1864); Can You Forgive Her 9 (1865); Clergyrnen of the Church of England (1866): The Claver- ings (1867) ; The Last Chronicles of Barset (1867) ; Phineas Phinn, the Irish Jlfernber (1869); He Knew He was Right (1869); Sir Harry Hotspur of Hurnblethwaite (1870) ; The Vicar of Bullhampton (1,870) ; Ralph the Heir (1871) ; The Golden Lion of Granpere (1872); Phineas Recluse (1873); Australia and New Zealand, a book of travel (1873); The TROLLO PE Way we Live Now (1874); The Prime Minister (1875); a series of Short Stories (1876) published simultaneously in England and America; The American Senator (1877) ; The Du/ce’s Children (1880); Dr. Wortle’s School (1881); and a Life of Cicero (2 vols., 1881). D. in London, Dec. 6, 1882. An Autobiography, begun in 1875 and added to in 1879, was published in 1883. In this he described his methods of work, which were very systematic, and testified that for the last twenty years his books had yielded him nearly £70,000. Trollope’s fiction is of the realistic type, honest in purpose, truthful, and solid, but often dull and creeping in style. He excelled in the portrayal of clerical characters and the humdrum life of rural parishes. See ENGLISH LITERATURE. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Trollope, EDWARD, D.D., F. S. A.: clergyman and au- thor; b. Apr. 15, 1817, the younger son of a baronet; was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford; graduated in 1839; took holy orders; received successive preferments, becoming archdeacon of Stow and prebendary of Lidding- ton in 1867, and bishop suffragan of Nottingham in 1877. Among his works on architecture, etc., are Illustrations of Ancient Art (1854); Life of Pope Adrian I V. (1856); In- troduction of Christianity into Lincolnshire (1857); Laby- rinths, Ancient and Mediwval (1858); Fens and Submarine Forests (1859); Ilfonastic Gatehouses (1860); Life of Here- ward, the Saxon Patriot (1861); Battle of Bosworth Field (1862); Shadows of the Past (1863); The Raising of the Royal Standard at IVottingham (1864); Spilsby and other Churches (1865); Norman Sculptures of Lincoln Cathedral (1866); Grantham and other Churches (1867); The Roman Ermine Street (1868); The IVorman and Early English Styles of Gothic Architecture (1869); Boston and other Churches (1870); Church Spires (1874); Little Hugh of Lincoln (1880). Trollope, FRANCES (ll./Iilton) : author ; b. in Hampshire, England, about 1778. She was the daughter of Rev. William Milton, vicar of Heckfield, Hants, and in 1809 contracted an unhappy marriage with Thomas Anthony Trollope, a barris- ter. In 1829 she went to the U. S. and attempted to estab- lish herself in some kind of business at Cincinnati ; failing in this, she returned to England, where she published her Domestic Ilfanners of the Americans (1831; new ed. New York, 1894), a broad and rather offensive caricature, which met with great favor in England. She followed up this suc- cess by writing a novel, The Refugee in America (1832), and entered upon a career of literary activity which lasted more than twenty years, the greater part of her works being novels. About 1844 she went to Italy, where her eldest son was resid- ing, and where she passed the remainder of her life. Among her novels are The Abbess (1833); Tremordyn Clifi, one of her best (1835) ; Life and Adventures of Jonathan Jefierson Whitelaw (1836; republished in 1857 under the title Lynch Law); The Widow Barnaby (1839); The ‘Widow flfarried (1840) ; The Barnabys in America (1843) ; Father Eustace, a Tale of the Jesuits (1846); Petticoat Government (1850) ; Life and Adventures 0 a Clever Woman (1854); and Fashion- able Life, or Paris and London, her last work (1856). D. in Florence, Oct. 6, 1863. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Trollope, THoMAs ADCLPHUS: eldest son of Frances M. Trollope; b. Apr. 29, 1810; educated at Winchester and Oxford; traveled on the Continent; published A Summer in Brittany (1840), A Summer in Western France (1841), and took up his residence in Florence. In 1873 he left Florence for Rome, where he acted as correspondent for the London Standard. In 1888 he returned to England and took up his residence in Devonshire. He was a constant contributor to English literary periodicals, and was the Italian correspondent of The New York Tribune. Most of his writings relate directly to Italian history, life, and man- ners. Among these are La Bcata (1861) ; Jlfarietta (1862) ; Giulio Jllalatesta (1863); Beppo the Conscript (1864); His- tory of the Commonwealth of Florence (4 vols., 1865); Gemma (1866): Leonora Casaloni (1869); and Life of Pius IX. (2 vols., 1877). On subjects not Italian he published Lindisfarn Chase (1864); Artingdale Castle (1867); Dream IVumbers (1868); The Garstangs of Garstang Grange (1869); A Siren (1870); Durnton Abbey (1871); Sketches from French History (1878); and What I Rem ember (3 vols., 1887- 89). D. at Clifton, Nov. 11, 1892. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Trolls H: Icel.; of. Eng. droll and Low Germ. droll, troll, droll_ : a name often applied to the giants of Scandi- navian mythology and to a similar class of beings in modern Scandinavian folk-lore. The trolls of folk-lore are very TRCNA 9,71 powerful, and hostile to man. They are regarded as ex- tremely stupid, and hence men usually defeated them in their attempts to capture fair maidens. Princesses taken into the subterranean mansions built of gold and silver easily deceive the credulous trolls, and so make their escape. RAsMUs B. ANDERSON. Triiltsch, Baron ANTON FRIEDRICH, von, M. D.: aurist; b. at Schwabach, near Nuremberg, Germany, Apr. 3, 1829; educated at the gymnasia of Bamberg, Augsburg, and Nuremberg; studied law at Erlangen 1847-48, after which he entered on a course of natural history at Munich; entered the University of Wiirzburg in 1849, graduating M. D. in 1853; then studied under von Grate in Berlin, Arlt in Prague, in Dublin under Wilde, in London under Toynbee, and in Paris in 1855-56. In the early part of the latter year he announced a new method of investigating the inner ear by means of a concave mirror and daylight, a procedure that revolutionized the treatment of aural dis- eases. In 1861, after five years of study at Wiirzburg, he qualified himself for the post of docent in aural medicine, and in 1864 he was promoted professor extraordinary in that department; in 1864 founded the Archiv fiir Ohren- heilkunde, the first special journal on car diseases. The immense progress made in aural surgery since 1860 may be largely ascribed to the influence of his teachings. Among his classic works are Die angewandte Anatomic des Ohres (\Viirzburg, 1860); Lehrbuch der Ohrenheilkunde (VViirz- burg, 1862); and pa ers in Pitha and Billrot-h’s Handbook of Surgery and in (§erhard’s Handbook of Children’s Dis- eases. D. at Wiirzburg, Jan. 9, 1890. S. T. ARMSTRONG. Trombone [: Fr. = Ital., augmentative of tromba, trumpet]: a large brass wind instrument of the trumpet species, supposed to be the same as the sackbut of early writers. Its peculiarity consists in the facility of deepening the tones by means of sliding tubes, making it one of the most effective instruments in an orchestra. There are three kinds—alto, tenor, and bass. Tromp, MAARTEN HARPERTZCCN, van: admiral; b. at Briel in 1597: entered the Dutch navy, and in 1624 was placed in command of a frigate. In 1637 he was made lieutenant-admiral, and in 1639 gained a European fame by his two great victories over the Spanish fleet off Gravelines and in the Downs. He was at first less successful in the war between England and Holland, and, having been de- feated by Blake, he even lost his command for some time in 1652. He was soon reinstated, however, and defeated Blake completely in the Downs Dec. 10, 1652 (N. s.). In Feb., 1653, he fought against the combined fleet of Blake, Monk, and Deane, and, though somewhat worsted in the encounter, showed remarkable courage and skill and effected a success- ful retreat. He fought another indecisive battle in June. In July, 1653, he again attacked the English fleet. The battle lasted two days, but was finally lost by the Dutch; Tromp himself was killed Aug. 8 (N. s.), 1653. He is buried in the church of Delft, where a splendid monument has been erected to him.—His son, CCRNELIS TRCMP, b. in Rot- terdam, Sept. 9, 1629, achieved almost an equal fame, held the highest positions in the Dutch navy, and served with great distinction for some time in Denmark. D. in Amster- dam, May 29, 1691. Trompe : See BLCWINC-MACEINEs. ’l‘rom's6: port of Northern Norway and northernmost town in the world; lat. 69° 38’ N., lon. 18° 45’ E.; on the eastern shore of an island of the same name in the Tromsti fiord (see map of Norway and Sweden, ref. 2-G). The town is well built, though of wood, and is in attractive sur- roundings. It has an ethnographic museum,rich in ma- terial relating to the La ps. The port is commodious, and is most frequented by ussians, who come for salt and smoked fish. The fishing industry is active, and is devoted to the herring, cod, hake, seal, and whale. The chief exports are fish, oil, pelts, nickel ore, and cider-down. The town was founded in 1794, but did not become important until the middle of the nineteenth century. Pop. (1891) 6.080 with the commune, but the rural population is very small. MARK W. HARRINGTON. Trona [Egypt. or N. Afr., perhaps connected with natron] : the mineralogical name of a native sodium carbonate, the most common native form of that salt. It has the composi- tion when crystallized N&qC()3.2I'1N€tCO3.2EIgO, and is known by the name sodium sesqui-carbonate. It occurs as a nat- ural deposit in Egypt, Africa, South America, and elsewhere. 272 TRONDHJEM Trondhjem, trond'yem, or l)rontheim : the ancient Nidaros, the oldest town of Norway (founded 996) ; beauti- fully situated on the southern shore of Trondhjemsfjord, in lat. 63° 25’ N. ; 250 miles by rail N. of Christiania (see map of Norway and Sweden, ref. 7-D). Of its cathedral, which once was the largest church-building in Scandinavia, only the choir remains, in which the kings are crowned, but the restoration of the entire cathedral was undertaken by the Government in 1880. Its breweries and distilleries are ex- tensive and celebrated. Much copper, salt and dried fish, oil, and timber are exported. Pop. (1891) 29,162. Troopial [from Fr. troupial, deriv. of troupe, troop]: a name used for many of the orioles (Icteridce), and apparently first bestowed on the birds of the genus Cassicus, possibly from their associating in flocks or troops. Thus the B0130- LINK (q. v.) or rice-troopial, the cow-bunting or cow-troo- pial (ltlolothrus pecoris), and many others are occasionally called by this vague name. F. A. L. Troost, GERARD, M. D.: geologist; b. at Bois-le-Due, Holland, Mar. 15, 1776; educated at Amsterdam and Ley- den; studied medicine and natural science; served in the army, both as a private soldier and afterward as a medical ofiicer; was enabled by Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, to devote himself to his favorite studies in Paris, where he translated Humboldt’s Aspects of lVature into Dutch ; em- barked in 1809 on a scientific mission to the East Indies, but was taken by a French privateer and carried to Dun- kirk; resided a year at Paris; proceeded to the U. S. 1810; settled in Philadelphia, where he was one of the founders and the first president of the Academy of Natural Sciences (1812-17); established at Cape Sable, Md., the first alum- factory in the U. S. 1814; was appointed Professor of Min- eralogy in the Philadelphia Museum 1821; settled at New Harmony, Ind., with Owen and McClure 1825; became Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Nashville 1827, and was State geologist of Tennessee 1830-49. D. at Nashville, Aug. 14, 1850. His mineral and geological cabinets were the largest in the U. S. He was the author of geological reports upon Tennessee and upon the environs of Philadelphia (1826), and of numerous con- tributions to periodicals. Revised by G. K. GILBERT. Trope [from Lat. tro'pus :. Gr. 'rp61ros, turn, way, manner, style, trope, deriv. of 1-pe’vreu/, turn]: the application of a word or expression to some other than its normal or ordi- nary use, for the purpose of giving life or impressiveness to a statement. The three principal tropes are METAPI-IOR, METONYMY, and SYNECDOCHE (gg. v.). B. I. W. Trophy [from.O. Fr. trophee < Lat. trophce’um, tropce’um : Gr.'rpo1ra'ioz/, monument to commemorate a victory (or defeat of an enemy), liter., neut. of 'rp01ra?os, pertaining to turning or defeat, deriv. of 1-poirri, turning, rout, defeat, deriv. of 1-pe’1m1/, turn]: among the ancient Greeks a memorial erected on the battle-field by the victors on the spot where the enemy turned to flight or retreat. Originally, trophies were of wood or of simple armor aifixed to a tree. It was equally unlawful to destroy or repair a trophy, since it was very justly considered unwise to perpetuate hostile feelings. In later times the Romans adopted the custom of erecting trophies. Revised by J . R. S. STERRETT. Tropic-bird [so called because they are not commonly seen outside the tropics] : any member of the family Phae- thontulce, order Steganopodes. There are three species, Tropic-b_ir~d. somewhat larger-bodied than a pigeon, having the plumage white with fine black markings above, pure white or rosy below ; the bill is red or yellow, feet dark. The two central TROUT tail-feathers are much longer than the others, and from their faint suggestion of a marlinspike these birds have been dubbed boatswain-birds by sailors. The two species of the Atlantic, Pha/Zthon cethereus and P. flavirostris, occur occasionally on the southern coasts of the U. S. F. A. L. Tropics: See SOLSTIOE, CAPRIOORN, and CANCER. Troplong, tro’lor'i, RAYMOND THEODORE: jurist; b. at St.-Gaudens, department of Haute-Garonne, France, Oct. 8, 1795; practiced as an advocate; held various judicial positions; was made a peer of France in 1846, president of the court of Paris in 1848, a senator and president of the court of cassation in 1852; and resident of the Senate in 1854. D. Mar. 2, 1869. His principal work is Code civil eapligué (28 vols., 1833-58), parts of which-Des Privileges et Hyjoothegues (4 vols.), De la Vente (2 vols.), De la Prescrip- tion (2 vols.), Du Contrat do llfariage (4 vols.), Des Dona- tions (4 vols.)——have been published separately, and often reprinted. Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Troppau, trop'pow: capital of Silesia, Austria; on the Oppa; 184 miles by rail N. E. of Vienna (see map of Austria- Hungary, ref. 3-G). It is fortified, contains many fine buildings, and is generally well built. Its manufactures comprise woolen and linen fabrics, soap, leather, beetroot sugar, and ironware, and its trade is very active. A con- gress of representatives of the five great powers was held here in Oct., 1820, to consider measures for the suppression of the revolutionary outbreaks in Italy. No action was taken, and the congress adjourned in November, resumin its session at Laibach in J an., 1821. Pop. (1890) 22,867. Trot : See GAITS. Trotz'endorf, VALENTINE (real name FRIEDLAND): edu- cator; b. at Trotzendorf, Germany, Feb. 14, 1490; studied at Wittenbei'g, where he joined the Reformers and was a upil of Melanchthon ; rector (1523-27, 1531-54) of the Latin School at Goldberg, which became under his direction one of the most famous classical schools of the age. He antici- pated somewhat the monitorial system of Bell and Lancas- ter, and introduced a successful plan of student self-govern- ment. D. at Liegnitz, Apr. 26, 1556. See Barnard, German Teachers and Educators; Williams, History of Jklodern Education. C. H. THURBER. Troubadours : See TROUVERES. Troup, ROBERT, LL.D.: soldier and lawyer; b. in New York in 1757 ; graduated at Columbia College 1774 ; studied law under John Jay; entered the Revolutionary army as lieutenant 1776; became an aide to Gen. Woodhull; was taken prisoner at the battle of Long Island; confined in the prison-ship Jersey and the provost prison, New York; ex- changed in 1777; became aide to Gen. Gates at Saratoga; was secretary to the board of war 1778-79; studied law at Princeton under Judge Patterson; was for several years U. S. district judge in New York and member of the Legis- lature; was an intimate friend of Hamilton, and during his later years resided at Geneva, N. Y., as agent of the great Pulteney estate; published occasional political pam- phlets. D. in New York, J an. 21, 1832. Trous-de-loup : See FORTIEIOATION (Field Fortification). Trout [O. Eng. truht, from Lat. trilc'ta (> Fr. truite), from Gr. 'rpa’uc'r1)s, a sea-fish, liter., gnawer, deriv. of 1-pdryew, gnaw] : a name given to several fishes, but originally applied to the trout of England and Northern Europe (Salmo fario), and properly used for members of the family Salmonidce only. Trout are mainly restricted to fresh waters, where they reside the year around, not, like salmon, merely visit- ing fresh water to spawn; but some, like the sea-trout of Labrador (Salvelinus stagnalis), may have the same habits as the salmon, while others which thrive in landlocked waters visit the sea when opportunity offers. Trout are all naturally inhabitants of the northern hemisphere only, but some species have been introduced into such southern lo- calities as New Zealand and Australia. They are active and powerful, and on this account, as well as for their beauty and fine flavor, are favorites with anglers. They reside in clear cold streams and lakes, and are among the most northern species of fresh-water fishes. They feed on small fishes, in- sects, and larvae, those of the mosquito forming a consider- able portion of their food in the lakes of Greenland. The trout of Europe (Salmo fario) belongs to a group having teeth on the body of the vomer as well as on the an- terior portion. The scales are quite small, about 120 along the lateral line ; the body and head are usually thickly TROUVERES marked with more or less irregular red and black spots, and the anterior edges of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins are yellowish. The species reaches a length of 30 inches. The brook-trout (Salveltnus fonttnalts) of the U. S. represents a genus in which there are no teeth on the body of the vomer, )1 , ,1 M . I; " 1"‘ "'a.‘ )1 . . , ; -. . ’v ell?‘ The salmon-trout (S. tratta). these fishes being termed charrs by English naturalists. The scales are minute, numbering something like 200 on the lateral line; there are numerous yellowish spots and many vermilion dots on the body, and the dorsal is marked with dark spots. The ventrals and anal are edged with white, preceded by a dark bar. This species has been known to attain a weight of 7 to 12 lb., but this is very unusual, the American trout averaging much smaller than the European. There are about a score of species in North America, to which the term trout is applied, but only eight belong to the genus Salveltnus. The salmon-trout of Europe is Salmo trutta, a species residing in salt water and ascending rivers. The salmon-trout or lake-trout of North America is Salve- ltnus namag/cush, a large species restricted to fresh water. The rainbow trout (Salmo trtdeus) and Dolly Varden trout (Salveltnus malma) occur on the Pacific slope. In the southern parts of the U. S. the name is applied to the weak- fish (Oynoscton) and to the black bass (1l[e'cropterus). See BULL-TROUT, CHARR, CUT-THROAT Taour, DOLLY VARDEN, and Namuoosn. F. A. Lucas. Trollveres, troo’var’ plur. of trouvere : Fr. : Prov. tro- bador (whence Fr. trou adour, whence Eng. troubadour), deriv. of trobarz Fr. trouver, find. The strict Mod. Fr. form should be trouveur, which is preferred by many scholars] : the courtly lyric poets of medimval France, who must be shar ly distinguished from the popular poets, the jongleurs, to w om was due the composition of the chansons de geste and of the earliest indigenous French lyric poetry. The be- ginning of courtly poetry in France proper is to be put about the middle of the twelfth century, and the inspira- tion to it was almost exclusively Provencal. The event which more than any other brought together Provence and France was the marriage of the famous Eleanor of Poitiers (later wife of Henry II. of England) to Louis VII. of France, in 1137. The granddaughter of the first of the troubadours, William VII. of Poitiers, this gay and brill- iant woman carried with her to France the chivalrous prac- tices and the amorous poetry of the south. Her court and later that of her daughter, the Countess Marie of Cham- pagne, at Troyes, became centers from which the ideas and the poetical forms of the troubadours proper diffused them- selves through Northern France. The poetry of the trouvéres falls into two decidedly dis- tinct periods: the first, that of direct imitation of Proven- cal poetry, including the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; the second, that of modification and development of this earlier manner along original lines, reaching from the be- ginning of the fourteenth century down to the Renaissance (about 1550). The chief representatives of the first period are Chrestien de Troies, Conon de Béthune (d. 1224), Grace Brulé, Blondel de Nesle, Guy de Couci .(d. 1203), Gautier d’Espinaus. Gontier de Soignies, and, perhaps most fa- mous of all, Thibaut de Champagne, King of Navarre (d. 1253),whom Dante mentions in his De vulgart eloquto (i., 9; ii., 5, 6) among the exemplary poets of love. The second period was opened by Guillaume do Machaut, who intro- duced important musical innovations, and brought elabo- rate and artificial poetical forms, the ballade, the chant royal, the rondeau (trtolet), the lat with twelve strophes, into favor. The new style was cultivated by Eustache Deschamps (d. about 1410), later by Froissart, Christine de Pisan, Charles d’Orléans, and others. It was finally su erseded by the classical and Italianizing manner of which R-tonsard and the Pléiade were the aggressive champions. See PROVENQAL Lrrnaaronn. A. R. l\IARSH. Trover [from 0. Fr. trover > Fr. trouver, find] : the com- mon-law form of action by which damages are recovered TROWBRIDGE 273 for the conversion of chattels. It was originally designed for the particular case of the defendant’s finding a thing belonging to another, and appropriating it to his own use; whence the plaintiff’s pleading necessarily contained an averment of the loss and finding—in law French, trouver. See CONVERSION. Trowbridge: town; in Wiltshire,England; on the Biss; 12 miles by rail S. E. of Bath (see map of England, ref. 12—G). There is a fine Perpendicular church (1475) and a town-hall opened in 1889. Woolen cloth, cassimeres, ker- seys, and tweeds are manufactured. Pop. (1891) 11,717. Trowbridge, EDMUND: lawyer; b. at Newton, Mass., in 1709; graduated at Harvard 1728; became a lawyer of great eminence ; was appointed attorney-general of Massachusetts 1749; was for several years a member of the council, but lost favor with the popular party in 1766 on account of luke- warmness in resisting British aggressions; became chief justice of the Supreme Court 1767; presided with great fairness at the trial of the British soldiers charged with the “Boston massacre” 1770, and resigned his office 1772 in consequence of the impending conflict with England, and remained in seclusion during the Revolution. D. at Cam- bridge, Mass., Apr. 2, 1793. Trowbridge, J OHN: physicist; b. in Boston, Mass., Aug. 5, 1843 ; graduated at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University in 1866, and continued as tutor there until 1869, when he became Assistant Professor of Physics in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1870 he returned to Harvard to establish the laboratory course of instruction in physics, out of which has been developed the Jefferson Physical Laboratory, which has become one of the largest and best-equipped laboratories of its kind in the U. S. He became Professor of Experimental Physics in 1880, and was in 1888 given the Rumford chair of the Application of Science to the Useful Arts, succeeding Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, who had been made emeritus. Prof. Trowbridge has de- voted much time to original research, and his many investi- gations have been issued chiefly as Contm'buttons from the Physical Laboratory of Harvard College. cluded the demonstration of the existence of platinum and carbon in the sun. and a study of the so-called oxygen lines in the solar spectrum. In electricity, to which he has de- voted much attention, he is well known for his invention of the closed magnetic circuit transformer, which is in general commercial use in the alternate-current system of electric lighting; for his researches on the damping of electric waves on iron wires; and for his photographic studies of electrical oscillations, including a new determination of the velocity of electrical waves. The degree of S. D. was given to him by Harvard in 1873, and in 1878 he was elected to the Nation- al Academy of Sciences; also in 1884 he presided over the physical section of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. Besides his scientific papers he was one of the editors of the Annals of Scientific Discovery for 1869 (Boston, 1870) and since 1879 has been an associate editor of The American Journal of Science in the depart- ment of physics. He is the author of The Neu' Physics (New York, 1884). MAROUS BENJAMIN. Trowbridge, J OHN TOWNSEND : author; b. at Ogden, N. Y., Sept. 18, 1827 ; after teaching and working on a farm, settled in New York 1846 as a writer for periodicals; removed in 1847 to Boston, where he has since resided ; be- came editor of The Yankee Nation 1850; wrote many popu- lar tales for the young over the signature Paul Creyton; has been a prominent contributor to the A tlantt'c and other magazines; was editor of Our Young Folks (1870-73); has published many works of adventure, travel, and fiction, in- cluding Father Brzighthopes (1853) ; Neighbor Jaclrwood (1857); O’udjo’s Cave (1863); The Drummer Boy (1863); The South (1866) ; The Vagabonds, and other Poems (1869); Lawrence’s Adventures (1870): Coupon Bonds, and other Stories (1871); The Emtgrant’s Story, and Other Poems (1875); The Lost Earl, and other Poems (1888) ; The Satin- wood Boa: ; etc. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Trowbridge, WILLIAM PETIT. Ph. D., LL. D.: scientist and engineer; b. in Oakland co., Mich, May 25, 1828; graduated first in his class at the U. S. Military Academy 1848. Soon after his graduation, he was ordered back to the academy as assistant in the astronomical observatory, where he fully prepared himself for duty on the Coast Sur- vey, to which, at his own request, he was ordered. In this survey he at first acted as assistant to Prof. Bache in the These have in- . 415 274 primary triangulation of the coast of Maine, which in 1852 was placed under his immediate charge. In 1853 he was ordered to the Pacific coast to conduct a series of magnetic and tidal observations extending from San Diego to Puget Sound, a work which occupied three years. He was pro- moted to the rank of first lieutenant in 1854, and two years later accepted the professorship of mathematics in the Uni- versity of Michigan, but in 1857 accepted a permanent of- fice on the Coast Survey. Upon the breaking out of the civil war he was assigned to the duty of preparing minute descriptions of the harbors, inlets, and rivers of the Southern coast for the use of the navy. In 1862 he was ordered to execute a hydrographic survey of Narragansett Bay, where there was a design to erect a navy-yard, but the results of the survey were not favorable to the project. He was sub- sequently transferred to the War Department, and was dur- ing the remainder of the war in charge of the branch Oflice of the engineer department in New York. He was Profes- sor of Dynamic Engineering in the Shefiield Scientific School, Yale College, 1870-77; adjutant-general of Connecti- cut 1872-76; and in charge of the engineering department of the School of Mines, Columbia College, from 1877 to his death at New Haven, Conn., Aug. 12, 1892. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1878, and was a well-known contributor to the leading scientific journals, and author of Steam Generators, Heat as a Source of Power (1874), and other works. He is said to have been the first engineer to suggest the idea of the cantilever bridge. Revised by C. H. TEURBER. Troy, Troja, or II’ ium : the scene of the Homeric Iliad, and the metropolis of the Troad, the coast region extending from Cape Lectum on the ]Egean to Dardanus and Abydus on the Hellespont. The Tread com rised a broad, undulat- ing plain sloping from the foot of t. Ida to the sea, and traversed by the rivers Scamander and Simois. This plain was densely peopled by a mixed race of Pelasgians and Phrygians, and contained many cities (Achilles boasts of having destroyed eleven), of which, however, Troy was by far the most splendid and powerful. Troy was founded by Ilus, the son of Tros, the grandson Of Dardanus, and devel- oped rapidly and magnificently; legend tells how, under Laomedon, the son of Ilus, Poseidon himself built its walls. It had a fortified acropolis, called Pergamum, which over- looked the town proper, and contained the temples of the gods and the royal palaces. Under Priam, the son of Lao- medon, it reached its highest splendor and experienced its downfall. Priam’s son, Paris, carried off Helen, the wife of Menelaus, and in order to punish this outrage a Greek army landed in Troas, besieged Troy for ten years, and finally de- stroyed it, though the Trojan state, the kingdom of Troy, seems to have continued to exist for several centuries after the destruction of its capital. The exact site of the city is disputed. According to the Homeric description it was not situated in the plain, but stood on a hill between the Sea- mander and the Simois, which united in front of it. In an- cient times it was generally believed that New Ilium, a city of little importance on the right bank of the Scamander, and of which some ruins are still extant near the present village of Hissarlik, occupied the same site as Old Ilium. When this New Ilium was founded is not known. It stood on a low spur of Mt. Ida, separating the basins of the Scaman- der and the Simois. In the time of Alexander the Great it existed, and by the partiality which Sulla showed for it, it even became prosperous. There were, however, even in an- tiquity, scholars who doubted the identity of the sites of New and Old Ilium ; as, for instance, Strabo, who moved the site of Old Ilium several miles farther inland to a village called Ilium. In 1785 Lechevalier discovered at the village of Bunarbashi, on the left bank of the Mendereh, 5 miles S. of New Ilium, a hot and a cold spring which corresponded to those mentioned in the Iliad, and some ruins on the hill of Balidagh, beyond the springs, which he identified as the remains of the citadel of Pergamum. Although further ex- cavations did not bring to light any marked traces of a great city, the views of Lechevalier were generally accepted by classical scholars. (See Lechevalier, Voyage de la Troade, 3 vols.) Later scholars have returned to the views of an- tiquity since the extensive excavations of Schliemann at Hissarlik (1871-73, 1876-1878, 1879,1882). See Schliemann’s I lios (London, 1879), but better Schuchhardt’s Schliemann’s Excavations (London, 1891), pp. 17-92, and Perrot and Chipiez’s History of Art in Primitive Greece (London, 1894), pp. 154-254. Revised by J. R. S. STERRETT. TROY Troy: city; capital of Pike co., Ala.; on the Ala. Mid. and the Cent. of Ga. railways; 74 miles S. by E. of Mont- gomery, and 85 miles S. W. of Columbus (for location, see map of Alabama, ref. 6-E). It is an important cotton-trade center, and contains 2 private banks and a daily and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,294; (1890) 3,449. Troy: city; capital of Lincoln co., Mo.; on the St. L. and Hannibal Railway ; 15 miles W. of the Mississippi river, and 55 miles N. W. of St. Louis (for location, see map of Mis- souri, ref. 3-I). It is in a region containing coal, iron, glass-‘ sand, and other mineral deposits, and rich farm lands, and has a high school, 2 State banks with combined capital of $20,000, a weekly newspaper, flour-mill, and several tobacco- factories. Pop. (1880) 839; (1890) 1,350. EDITOR OF “ FREE PRESS.” Troy : city (chartered in 1816) ; capital of Rensselaer co., N. Y. ; at the head of steamboat navigation on the Hudson river, and on the Del. and Hudson, the Fitchburg, the N. Y. C. and Hud. River, and several local railways ; 6 miles N. of Albany, and 151 miles N. of New York (for location, see map of New York, ref. 5-K). It is at the junction of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers; is laid out regularly with streets gener- ally 60 feet wide; and is surrounded by the municipalities of West Troy, Green Island, Cohoes, Waterford, and Lansing- burg, whose people are largely employed in Troy and whose local enterprises are chiefly carried on by Troy capital. The city is noted for its extensive industries, which include laun- drying and the manufacture of iron, steel, stoves, car-wheels, ship-chains, cotton cloth, knit goods, and linen shirts, col- lars, and cuffs. In 1890 over 800 manufacturing establish- ments, representing over 100 industries, were reported. They had a combined capital of $22,382,018, employed 25,092 per- sons, paid out $9,502,580 for wages and $13,061,278 for ma- terials, and had an output of goods valued at $29,064,935. Nearly $5,000,000 was invested in the manufacture of iron and steel, and about $4,000,000 in that of shirts, collars, and cuffs. There are 68 churches and chapels, of which 12 are Metho- dist Episcopal, 12 Roman Catholics, 11 Presbyterian, 9 Protes- tant Episcopal, 6 Baptist, 4 Jewish, and 4 Lutheran. The public-school system comprises a high school and 18 gram- mar schools, and has property valued at nearly $500,000. The most widely known educational institution is the Rens- selaer Polytechnic Institute, which was founded in 1824 by Stephen Van Rensselaer, of Albany, and incorporated in 1826 under the name of the Rensselaer School. It was estab- lished as a school of practical science. Much of its early success was due to its first principal and senior professor, Amos Eaton, well known at that time as a scientific investi- gator and teacher. In 1832 its name was changed to Rens- selaer Institute; in 1835 a department of civil engineering was opened; in 1850 the curriculum was completely reor- ganized; and in 1861 the Legislature sanctioned a change to its present name. Courses in natural science and civil engineering have been added since. In 1894 it had 17 in- structors, 188 students, 5,000 volumes in its library, and nearly 900 living graduates. The second institution of note is the Willard Female Semi- nary, founded by Emma Willard and enlarged in 1895 by a donation of $150,000 by Russell Sage, and by a Gurley Memorial building and a Plumb Memorial building. Other advanced schools are the La Salle Institute and the St. Peter’s Academy, both Roman Catholic. The charitable and benevolent institutions include the Church Home (Protestant Episcopal), Day Home, Home for the Aged Poor, House of the Good Shepherd, Marshall In- firmary and Lunatic Asylum, Presbyterian Church Home, Troy Hospital, Troy Orphan Asylum, Troy Male Orphan Asy- lum (Roman Catholic), three houses of the Sisters of Charity, and a Woman’s Association. Troy has large business interests aside from its manufac- tures. Four-fifths of all the merchandise carried on the Erie and Champlain Canals enters into and is discharged from the canals at this point. The city has a daily line of passenger steamers to New York and daily lines of water transportation to the principal Atlantic coast cities. The U. S. Government has a building for post-office, court, and other Federal purposes ; it was constructed at a cost of $500,000. In 1895 there were 8 national banks with com- bined capital of nearly $2,000,000, 2 savings-banks with aggregate deposits of over $6,000,000, and a private bank. The city had an assessed valuation in 1894 of $46,986,988 and a net debt of $1,052,493. TROY The city was distinguished for its patriotism during the war of 1861-65, and the remains of three celebrated major- generals in the Union army, John E. Wool, George H. Thomas, and Joseph B. Carr, rest in its beautiful Oakwood Cemetery. The grave of Gen. Wool is marked by an obelisk whose shaft is 75 feet high. A soldier’s monument, 90 feet high, is on Washington Square. Pop. (1880) 56,747 ; (1890) 60,956; (1892) 64,986; (1895) estimated, 70,000; with environs, 130,000. MARTIN I. TowNsEND. Troy: village; ca ital of Miami co., O.; on the Miami river, the Miami an Erie Canal, and the Cin., Ham. and Dayton and the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L. railways; 80 miles N. by E. of Cincinnati (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 5-C). It is in an agricultural region, and contains a public high school, a public-school library, 2 national banks with combined capital of $300,000, a daily and 5 weekly newspapers, several iron-foundries, planing-mills, and bent- wood and buggy factories. Pop. (1880) 3,803 ; (1890) 4,494. Troy: borough (founded in 1802, incorporated in 1845); Bradford co., Pa.; on the North. Cent. Railway; 25 miles S. of Elmira, N. Y. (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 2-G). It has public, high, and graded schools; Bap- tist, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, Protestant Episco- pal, Disciples, Roman Catholic, and Universalist churches; water-works, electric lights, farmers’ club, with extensive fair- grounds, large creamery, 3 flour-mills, 2 tanneries, 2 foun- dries, 2 carriage-factories, 2 planing-mills, marble-works, en- gine-shops, furniture-factory, 2 hotels, 2 banks, and 2 weekly newspapers. It is the center of a noted butter-making re- gion. op. (1880) 1,241; (1890) 1,307; (1895) estimated, 1,500. EDITOE or “ GAZETTE.” Troyes, trwaa: capital of the department of Aube, France; on the Seine ; 104 miles E. S. E. of Paris by rail (see map of France, ref. 4-G). The town has many splendid buildings, but is in general an old-fashioned place, partly in a state of decay, fartly rebuilding. Its old ramparts have been change into promenades, and of its many churches that of St. Urbain and the cathedral are remarkable. It has a library of 110,000 volumes, a museum, and a normal school and other educational institutions. Cotton fabrics, cloths, bombazines, calicoes, prints, lace, and hosiery are extensively manufactured ; also wax. leather, paper, and sausages. Be- ing the center of a fertile and well-cultivated district, its general trade is very active. It has given its name to an important treaty concluded here between Henry V. of Eng- land and Charles VI. of France in 1420. See TEEATIES. Pop. (1891) 49,808. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Troyon, trwa“a’y5I'1', CONSTANT : landscape and animal ainter; b. at Sévres, France, Aug. 25, 1810; d. in Paris, eb. 21, 1865; pupil of Riocreux and Poupart; studied later with Roqueplan, and began to exhibit landscapes about 1836. He visited Holland in 1847 and studied the works of the Dutch masters in the museums. He received a third-class medal at the Salon of 1838; second-class 1840; first-class 1846 and 1848, and at the Paris Exposition of 1855 ; Legion of Honor 1849. He introduced cattle in his landscapes after about 1848, and painted them, as well as sheep, with great knowledge and admirable simplicity. His pictures rank with those of his contemporaries Corot, Daubigny, Rousseau, Diaz, and Millet, among the finest works of the modern French school. He was a colorist of great strength, and his ictures are composed with nobility and grandeur of line. orning and Evening, both large canvases, are in the Louvre, and so also is a fine example, Return to the Farm. One of his finest works is The Valley of La Touque, painted in 1853, which belongs to the Goldschmidt estate, Paris, and was exhibited at the Retrospective Exhibition in Paris in 1889. Many fine works by Troyon are in the U. S. In the ' Wolfe collection, Metropolitan Museum, are Cow and Land- scape and Cattle. WILLIAM A. CoFFIN. Troy Weight: See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Triib’ner, NICOLAS: bookseller and bibliographer; b. at Heidelberg, Germany, June 12,1817 ; settled in early life in England; became a bookseller and publisher in London 1852, in which capacity he rendered eminent service to American bibliography, as well as to Oriental and comparative phi- lology, and was himself distinguished for linguistic attain- ments, especially in Sanskrit and Basque. He published a Bibliographical Guide to American Literature (1855; 2d ed. 1859) ; issued many elaborate sale-catalogues containing important bibliographical data; and edited Dr. Ludewig’s TRUCE OF GOD 275 posthumous Literature of American Aboriginal Languages (1858). He was also a frequent contributor to periodicals. D. in London, England, Mar. 30, 1884. Truce, or Armistice [truce < M. Eng. trewes, plur. of trewe, pledge < O. Eng. tre'ow, troth, faith]: a temporary stoppage of hostilities contemplating a longer duration and a wider application than the brief cessation of hostilities at a particular place or for a particular purpose which is called a suspension of arms. A truce implies a return to a state of war, while a peace presupposes that the causes of war have been removed. The former, however, though limited usually in terms, as for a certain time or to secure a certain object, may actually outlast the latter. The cessation of hostile operations may apply to an individual only, through a flag of truce, a passport, or a safe conduct ; or it may apply to the whole or a portion of the armies of the belligerent. A flag of truce, a white flag to which attention is called by the sound of a trumpet, is used to open negotiation for any cause during hostilities. There is no obligation to receive it, and in the midst of a battle it may be that injury is done to its bearers inadvertently; nevertheless by law and usage they are inviolable. Of course the flag of truce must not be em- ployed to spy out an enemy’s position or to delay a battle until reserves can be brought up; a belligerent can take measures to prevent such abuses. A truce is partial if it relates to a articular district or military force, general if it relates to a l the forces and the military operations of belligerents in their entire extent. The latter can only be made by the sovereign power of a state. A truce is binding from a certain declared date. If military operations are carried on in widely separated re- gions, the beginning of a truce may be set at different times for various places, to allow for s reading the news of it. But a force is bound by knowle ge arriving prior to such time, and, on the other hand, if war has been carried on subsequent to the date set for the truce, but in ignorance of its existence, compensation for damage inflicted is not due, though property and prisoners captured during this interval must be restored. Acts Lawful during a Truce.—The theory of a truce is. that neither party shall be helped in his military operations by it; that such affairs shall be in the same position at its end as at its beginning. But this principle is not carried out so fully as to forbid those operations which could have been carried on without military interference had no truce existed. Thus in the case of a besieged town or fortress, nothing can be done during a truce by either party which the other, by his guns or his forces, was in a position to prevent, but fortifications not under fire could be built or strengthened, and supplies could be brought in by ways beyond the other’s control. VVith regard to revictualing a besieged place, a truce should specify what rule is to be adopted. The allowance of a supply of provisions equal to the amount consumed during the truce would seem to be necessary to put the parties at its termination into the same relative position, for, if the reduction of a place was being attempted by starvation, to bar out provisions would be directly in line with the plan of campaign. Yet, on the other hand, provisions under such circumstances are really material of war; their introduction is unlawful if im- possible but for the truce ; and the policy of a truce is to be decided with this fact in view. In November of 1870 an ar- mistice was proposed between the French army in Paris and the Germans besieging it, which turned on just this point. Bismarck declined to allow a supply of provisions for a time equal to the truce to be passed through the German lines, and so the negotiations fell through. No changes have been made in the rules governing truces of late years, the articles on this topic in Lieber‘s code, which governed the U. S. armies in 1863, and those of the Brussels conference in 187 5 agreeing with what is here laid down. Two or three minor rules remain to be mentioned. Vio- lation of a truce by one party causes its immediate termi- nation. So, too, if made for a definite time, and that time has expired, hostilities are resumed without further notice. Finally, a truce is a form of treaty and to be similarly interpreted. See also INTEE.NATIoNAL LAW and TREATIES. THEODORE S. WooLsEr. Truce of God (treuga Dei) : in the Middle Ages, an iii- stitution which sprang up in France and Germany by which nobles and princes bound themselves to keep the peace, to abstain from unlawful wars, and to protect clerics, women, merchants, pilgrims, peasants, and other non-combatants. 976 TRUCKEE In the council of Charroux in 989 the Church decreed a spe- cial peace to the unarmed clerk and laborer (paw ecclesice). This attempt to check violence extended throughout France during the opening years of the next century and was in part successful, but the task of maintaining a general peace was hopeless and the Church contented itself with limiting the feudal warfare. Accordingly, at the synod of Tuluges in 1027 it was decreed that warfare should be suspended from Saturday till Monday. This was afterward extended to the interval from Wednesday evening to Monday morning in every week and to nearly all the more important fasts, feasts, and holy seasons of the Church. England and Italy adopted the custom, which was confirmed by several church councils, among which were the second and third Lateran Councils (1139 and 1179). The final triumph of legal over feudal government did away with this institution and with the necessity for it. Truckee’ : town; Nevada eo., Cal.; on the Truckee river, and the South. Pac. Railroad; 120 miles N. E. of Sacra- mento, the State capital (for location of county, see map of California, ref. 5—E). It is the center of an extensive tim- ber region, and is principally engaged in cutting and manu- facturing lumber. Pop. (1880) 1,147; (1890) 1,350. EDITOR OF “ REPUBLICAN.” Trudel, FRANQOIS XAVIER ANSELME, Q. C. : Canadian sena- tor, and editor; b. at Ste. Anne de la Pérade, Quebec, Apr. 29, 1838; educated at Nicolet College, and admitted to the bar in 1861. He was editor of La _7VIine1'oe, Montreal, in 1860; is the founder, coproprietor, and editor of the daily news- paper L’Etendarcl, the monthly La Revue Canaclienne, and the weekly L’Ouorier. He represented Champlain in the Quebec Assembly 1871-73, and was appointed a Canadian senator in the latter year. He was one of the authors of the Programme Oatholigue in 1871, and has written largely on politics and other subjects. NEIL ll/IACDONALD. Trueba y Quintana, troo-a’ba“a-ee-keen-taa’na‘“a, ANTO- NIo, de la; novelist and poet; b. in the Basque village of Montellana, Spain, Dec. 24, 1821. Sent to Madrid to pre- pare for a mercantile life, he entered the university, and soon gave himself up entirely to literature. In 1862 Queen Isabella made him archivist of Biscay and Poeta ole la Reina. The former ofi‘lce he lost through the revolution of 1868. D. in Madrid, Mar. 10, 1889. His poems, which are collected in the Libro de los Cantares (Madrid, 1852, etc.), are in the main concerned with his native district, and are marked by depth of feeling and mournfulness of tone. They are very popular in Spain. As a novelist he wrote many pleasant little tales of country life that have found ready appreciation. Among them are Ouentos cle color de Tosa (1859); Ouentos campesinos (2d ed. 1862); Cuentos de vices y muertos (1866); lllaria Santa (1874); Oucntos cle oarios colores (1874); Narraciones popularcs (1875); (Juan- tos de maclres é hijos (1879); Nuevos cuentos popularcs (1880). In the Uicl Campeaclor, the Realentor moclerno, and a few other stories, he has essayed the historical novel. Among his later works are Arte ole hacer oersos (1881) ; De flor en flor (1882) ; El gabcin y la chaqueta (1884). J . D. M. FORD. True Cross, or Holy Rood [roocl is O. Eng. T605, cross : Germ. r-ute, staff]: the cross on which Jesus was crucified, alleged to have been discovered by Helena, mother of the Emperor Constantine, in Jerusalem, during her visit in 326, in a cave which now is covered by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The story as first told further stated that the three crosses were found lying together, but the true cross was known because it raised to life a dead man who was touched by it. The title on the cross of Jesus was found, and also the four nails. Two of them were used by Constan- tine in his bridle, and another in the head of his statue, while the fourth, dropped by Helena into the sea on her re- turn voyage, calmed a storm which was then raging. The tale is told with variations upon each of the points mentioned. In itself it is one of the most remarkable legends in church history. That the location of the tomb of Jesus had been traditionally identified from the earliest times is not im- probable; and that, in removing the structures which had been put upon it in order that Constantine might build a church in front of the holy sepulchre, a cave was found in which was wood which was honestly believed to have been that of the true cross, may be accepted as the basis of the story which afterward received many embellishments. It is incredible that Helena was an impostor, and there is no necessity for adding to Constantine’s other crimes that of deliberately deceiving his aged and pious mother. But TRUFFLE honesty requires the acknowledgment that there is no con- temporary proof that Helena had anything to do with the discovery, or that the cross was discovered in her time, for the earliest witness, the Bordeaux pilgrim to Jerusalem in 333, in his itinerary, only seven years after Helena’s visit, says nothing about her in the discovery of the cross (Itinera, ed. Tobler, Geneva, 1879, p. 18); nor does Eusebius in his Life of Constantine, written in 338, wherein he expatiates upon Helena’s visit to Jerusalem and her church-building (iii., xlii.-xlvi.), say anything about her discovery of the holy sepulchre, much less of the true cross. The first men- tion of the true cross is by Cyril of Jerusalem in his Oate- chetical Lectures, written in 348, who says, “the whole world has been filled with pieces of the wood of the cross ” (iv., 10); “the holy wood of the cross bears witness, seen among us to this day and from this place, now almost fill- ing the whole world, by means of those who in faith take portions from it " (x., 19); “the wood of the cross confutes [him if he denied the Passion], which was afterward dis- tributed piecemeal from hence to all the world” (xiii., 4). But he makes no mention of Helena, nor gives any details of the discovery of the true cross. From Cyril, however, we do learn that the true cross was commonly believed to have been discovered, and that pieces of it were even then dis- tributed. Chrysostom in 387, in his Contra Juclceos et Gen- tiles guocl Christus sit Deus (ed. Migne, Pat. Gr., xlviii., 826), speaks of the desire to possess portions of the true cross, and how they were encased in gold. Sulpicius Severus (Sacred Histom , ii., 34), writing in 395, is the first one to tell of the discovery of the true cross, and he connects it with Helena, and says that it was known because it restored a dead man to life. Ambrose, in a highly rhetorical and irrelevant passage in his oration on the death of Theodosius, delivered in 395, expatiates upon Helena’s discovery of the true cross (De Obitu Theoalosii, ed. Migne, Patrologia Latina, xvi., 1399-1402). The story having been thus started, it was re- peated in different forms by later writers. Helena was without further question accepted as the discoverer, and the true cross was set up in the church Constantine built, which was dedicated 335. Part, however, she sent to Con- stant-ine, who directed that it be put in a statue he was erecting in Constantinople. The title was sent to Rome and there put in the basilica of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, specially erected by Constantine in 331. It is still shown on Easter Sunday. Portions, generally mere splinters, were sold to persons of eminence or wealth. It is a common jibe that enough fragments of the true cross are shown as relics to make a dozen crosses. But as a matter of fact it is not so, but rather all of these pieces together would not make a piece of any size. On July 5, 1187, the true cross was carried y the crusaders to the battle-field of Hatten, in Syria, and there captured by the Saracens, and it has never been in Christian hands since, and “is doubtless long ago dust of the dust of Jerusalem.” Some time in the eighth century the rather unhappily named festival of the Invention of the Holy Cross was introduced into the Roman Church. There is no such festival in the Greek Church. For a popular treat- ment which goes over the points, see W. C. Prime, Holy Cross (New York, 1877). SAMUEL IHACAULEY JACKSON. True Reformed Dutch Church : a body that withdrew from the Reformed Dutch Church in America in 1822, and was absorbed into the Christian Reformed Church in 1889. See REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA and PRESBYTERIAN CI-IURCE. Truffle [from 0. Fr. trufle (Fr. tru_fi"e) < Lat. tuber; Lat. tcrrce tuber > Ital. tartufo, Fr. tartoufie, whence Germ. lcartofiel, potato] : any fungus of the genus Tuber and other closely allied genera (Terfezia. Ohocromyccs, Hydno trya, etc.). Truffles belong to the order Tuberoiolcae, and are nearly all subterranean in growth, and are from an inch to 6 inches in diameter. There are many species ; the best known are Tuber oestioum and T. melanosporum, both of Europe. The truffle is one of the choicest of the edible fungi, and its cul- TRUJILLO ture has been attempted with some success. Some species are found to a limited extent in the U. S. See FUNGI and VEGETABLE KINGDOM. CHARLES E. BEssEY. Trujillo, or Truxillo,troo-kheel’y5: capital and largest town of the department of Libertad (formerly intendencia of Trujillo), Peru; about 3 miles from the coast, and con- nected by railway with the port of Salaverry (see map of South‘ America, ref. 4—B). It was founded by Pizarro in 1535, and was long the most important town in Northern Peru; it is now decadent, but controls the trade of the de- partment. The surrounding region is a desert, but before the Conquest it was rendered very fertile by the elaborate Indian system of irrigation. Near Trujillo are the ruins of CHIMU (q. v.). Pop. (1889) about 11,000. H. H. S. Trujillo: a town and port of the northern coast of Honduras, near lon. 86° W., on a bay which forms an excel- lent and secure harbor (see map of Central America, ref. 3-H). It was founded in 1525. The exports are hides, sar- saparilla, etc. It is the capital of a department of the same name. Pop. about 3,000. H. H. S. Trullan Councils, or Synodsz two ecclesiastical coun- cils; the first convened in 680 by the Emperor Constantinus Pogonatus for the purpose of reconciling the MONOTHELITES (q. v.) with the orthodox Church ; the second in 692 by the Emperor J ustinianus II. in order to confirm and enforce the statutes of the fifth and sixth oecumenical councils, whence it is also called Quinisextum. (See QUINISEXT COUNCIL.) The epithet Trullan is derived, like that of Lateran, from the place in which the assembly sat—namely, a great hall in the imperial palace of Byzantium, surmounted by an oval dome, 'rpoi3N\a. Revised by J . J. KEANE. Trumansburg: village; Tompkins co., N. Y.; on the Lehigh Valley Railroad; 2 miles W. of Cayuga Lake, and 11 miles N. W. of Ithaca (for location, see map of the State of New York, ref. 5-F). It contains several flour-mills, foundries, and mower-factories, and has a private bank and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,376; (1890) 1,211. Trumbull, BENJAMIN, D. D.: historian; b. at Hebron, Conn., Dec. 19, 1735 ; graduated at Yale College in 1759; was pastor of the North Haven Congregational church from 1760 to his death; served as a volunteer soldier, and also as a chaplain, in the war of the Revolution; wrote A Plea in Vindication of the Connecticut Title to the Contested (West- ern) Lands (1776), which influenced the decision of Con- gress upon the validity of the Susquehanna purchase; A Complete History of Connecticut 1630-1764 (2 vols., Hart- ford, 1797-1818); and began a General History of the United States of America (vol. i., 1492-1765, Boston, 1810), which was incomplete at his death Feb. 2, 1820. He also published Twelve Discourses on the Divine Origin of the Holy Scrip- tures (Hartford, 1790). Revised by G. P. FISHER. Trumbull, HENRY CLAY, S. T. D.: author and editor; b. at Stonington, Conn., June 8, 1830; educated at Williston Seminary, East Hampton, Mass. ; settled at Hartford, Conn., in 1851; was a ointed State missionary of the American Sunday-school nion for Connecticut in 1858. Ordained as a Congregational clergyman in 1861, he served during the war as chaplain of the Tenth Connecticut Volunteers, and was taken prisoner before Fort Wagner in 1863; was appointed missionary secretary for New England of the American Sunday-school Union in 1865, and normal secre- tary in 1871 ; removed in 1875 to Philadelphia, where he be- came the editor and chief owner of The Sunday-school Times. In 1881 he visited the East, and discovered the long-lost site of Kadesh-barnea, on the southern border of Palestine. He has published many books, including The Sabbath School Concert (1861); The Knightly Soldier (Bos- ton, 1865; rev. ed. 1892); Childhood Conversion (1868); The Captured Scout of the Army of the James (Boston, 1869); The Model Superintendent (New York, 1880); Kadesh-Ba-re nea (1884); Teaching and Teachers (Philadelphia, 1884); The Blood Covenant: a Primitive Rite and its Bearings on Scripture (New York, 1885); The Sunday School: its Ori- gin, etc. (1888); Principles and Practice (1889); Friendship the Master Passion (1891); and Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894). Five of his books have been republished in England. Revised by G. P. FISHER. Trumbull, JAMES HAMMOND, LL. D., L. H. D.: philolo- gist and historian; b. at Stonington, Conn., Dec. 20, 1821; entered the class of 1842, Yale College, but did not gradu- ate; aided Rev. James H. Linsley in compiling catalogues of the mammalia, reptiles, fishes, and shells of Connecticut TRUMB ULL 277 1842-43; was assistant secretary of State of Connecticut 1847-52 and 1858-61 ; secretary 1861-65; corresponding secretary of the Connecticut Historical Society 1849-63; has been its president, and also librarian of the Watkinson Free Library in Hartford from 1863 to 1891 ; member of the Na- tional Academy of Science 1872; was an original member of the American Philological Association 1869, and its president 1874-75, and was appointed in 1873 lecturer in Yale College on the Indian languages of North America, a subject to which he has devoted much time since 1858. Editor of The Colonial Records of Connecticut 1636-89 (3 vols., Hartford, 1850-59); Roger Williams’s Key into the Langua e of America (Nar- ragansett Club, vol. i., Providence, R. ., 1866); Lechford’s Plain Dealing (Boston, 1867); Pierson’s Some Helps for the Indians (1873); of vols. i. and ii. of the Collections of the Connecticut Historical Society; and of The Memorial His- tory of Hartford County (2 vols., Boston, 1886); author of The Origin of McFingal (1868); The Composition of Indian Geographical Names (1870); The Best Method of Studying the Indian Languages (1871); Some Mistaken Notions of Algonkin Grammar (1871); Historical Notes on the Con- stitutions of Connecticut (1872); Notes on Forty Algonhin Versions of The Lord’s Prayer (1873); On the Algonhin Verb (1876); The True Blue Laws of Connecticut (1876); Indian Names of Places, etc., in Connecticut, etc., with In- terpretations (1881), and of many other contributions, his- torical or philological, to literary periodicals and the pro- ceedings of learned societies. He has prepared a glossary to a large portion of Eliot’s Indian Bible. Revised by J . W. PowELL. Trumbull, JOHN: lawyer and author; b. at Westbury (now Watertown), Conn., Apr. 24, 1750; was admitted to Yale College on account of extraordinary precocity at the age of seven years, but did not pursue the course until some years later, graduating 1767; wrote with Timothy Dwight a series of essays in the style of The Spectator (1769); was tutor at Yale 1771-73, during which time he published The Progress of Dulness (3 parts, 1772-73), a satire on methods of education; studied law; was admitted to the Connecticut bar Nov., 1773; continued his studies in the office of John Adams at Boston 1773-74; wrote for the political periodicals; settled as a lawyer at New Haven, Nov., 1774; published anonymously his poetical Elegy on the Times (1774), and in the following year, in Philadelphia, the first canto of his ll’[cFingal, a revolutionary satire, in Hudibrastic verse (completed in 4 cantos in 1782), of which more than thirty unauthorized editions were sold. He settled at Hartford, June, 1781; was associated with Humphreys, Barlow, and Hopkins in the production of The Anarchiad (1786-87); was State attorney for Hartford 1789-95, member of the Legislature 1792 and 1800, judge of the superior court 1801- 19, and also judge of the court of errors 1808-19; was several ears treasurer of Yale College; in 1825 removed to Detroit, 1 ich., where he died May 10, 1831. Editions of his llIcFin- gal appeared in 1856, 1860, and 1864, the latter with notes by Benson J. Lossing. His Poetical Works appeared at Hartford (2 vols., 1820). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Trumbull, JOHN: painter; son of Jonathan Trumbull, colonial Governor of Connecticut; b. at Lebanon, Conn., June 6, 1756; graduated at Harvard College in 1773; joined the army in 1775 as adjutant; accompanied the army to New York, and went as adjutant-general with Gates, who was appointed to the command of the Northern army; left the service in 1777, owing to his dissatisfaction in regard to the date of his commission; in 1780 went to Paris, thence to London, and studied painting with West; was suspected as a spy during the excitement caused by the execution of André, and imprisoned eight months; released through \Vest’s intercession, he returned to the U. S. in 1782, and remained till peace was concluded, then went back to Eng- land to resume his studies. His first historical work, The Battle of Bunker Hill, familiar through engravings, was ex- hibited in 1786, and was followed by The Death of Mont- gomery before Quebec and the Sortie from Gibraltar, both well known. In 1789 he returned to the U. S. with the pur- pose of commemorating on canvas the chief persons and events of the Revolution; among the likenesses taken were several of Washington. He returned to England as secre- tary to John Jay, and passed nearly ten years, from 1794 to 1804, in diplomatic service. Four years afterward he went once more and for the last time to England, and reniained till 1815. The next seven years were devoted to painting four grand pictures for the rotunda of the Capitol at Wash- 278 TRUMB ULL ington—the Declaration of Independence, the Surrender of Burgoyne, the Surrender of Cornwallis, and the Resigna- tion of Washington at Annapolis. About 1827 he disposed of his whole collection, fifty-seven pictures in all, to Yale College, in consideration of an annuity of $1,000 for the rest of his life. Trumbull passed the last twenty-seven years of his life mainly in New York; was president of the Amer- ican Academy of Fine Arts till 1825. D. in New York, Nov. 10, 1843, and was buried in New Haven. See his Autobiog- raphy (New York, 1841). Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Trumbull, J ONATHAN2 statesman; b. at Lebanon, Conn., in 1710; graduated at Harvard College 1727 ; studied theol- ogy and was licensed to preach, but soon devoted himself to mercantile business, and ultimately to the law; was elected to the Assembly 1733; was its Speaker 1739; became an as- sistant 1740, to which office he was re-elected; was made judge of the county court and assistant judge of the superior court; was chosen Lieutenant-Governor 1766, thereby becom- ing ea:-ofiicio chief justice of the superior court; became Governor 1769; held that office throughout the Revolution, resigning in 1783 ; was an energetic supporter of the popular cause; was considered a leader of the Whigs of New Eng- land, and his advice was much valued by Washington. The popular epithet “Brother Jonathan,” now applied as a per- sonification of the U. S., is said to have originated from Washington’s habit of addressing him by that familiar title when requesting his opinion. D. at Lebanon, Aug. 17, 1785. See the Life by Isaac W. Stuart (Boston, 1859). Trumbull, JONATHAN: Governor of Connecticut; son of Gov. Jonathan Trumbull; b. at Lebanon, Conn., Mar. 26, 1740; graduated at Harvard 1759; was for several years before the Revolution a member of the Legislature and Speaker of the House; was paymaster in the army 1775-80; became in 1780 secretary and first aide-de-camp to Gen. Washington, and as such was a member of his family until the close of the war; was a member of Congress 1789-95; Speaker of the House of Representatives 1791-95; U. S. Senator 1795-96 ; Lieutenant-Governor of Connecticut 1796- 98, and Governor from 1798 until his death, at Lebanon, Aug. 7, 1809. Trumbull, LYMAN: lawyer and politician ; b. at Colches- ter, Conn., Oct. 12, 1813 ; educated at Colchester Academy; taught an academy at Greenville, Ga., 1833-36 ; studied law in Georgia; was admitted to the bar 1837 : settled at Belle- ville, lll. ; was elected to the Legislature 1840 ; was Secretary of State 1841-42, justice of the Supreme Court 1848-53 ; was a Democrat till repeal of the Missouri Compromise in 1854 ; elected member of Congress 1855, and U. S. Senator 1855- 73; was prominent as a Republican during the civil war; became chairman of the judiciary committee 1861; voted against the impeachment of President Johnson in 1867. In 1872 he joined the Liberal Republican party; after that date supported the Democratic party, and in 1880 was Demo- cratic candidate for Governor of Illinois. Since 1863 he has resided in Chicago. Trumpet [from O. Fr. trompette, dimin. of trompe, trump, trumpet, appar. from Low Lat. *triumpa’re : Lat. trium- pha’re, triumph, exult. See TRIUMPH] : in acoustics, any instrument used for the conveyance to the ear of articulate sound from a distance. In music a well-known wind instru- ment, usually consisting of a brass tube some 8 feet in length, expanding at the end into a bell-like shape. By means of slides and keys the capacity of the trumpet has been largely increased. See FOG-SIGNALS. Trumpeter: a peculiar wading bird (Prophia erepitans) of South America. See AGAMI and Psornnnzs. Trumpeter: a breed of domestic pigeons, so called from the deep sound of their coo. The tarsi are heavily feathered, but the characteristic feature of the bird is the thick spread- ing crest which overhangs the eyes to such an extent that these birds can not care for their young until it is trimmed. The preferred colors are white and black. F. A. L. Trumpet-fish: a name applied on the Atlantic coast of North America to the Fistularia tabaoaria (family Fistu- lariidoe), and on European coasts to Centriscus scolopaa; (family Centriscicloe, which, like the Fistulariidce, is of the order J-Iemibranchi). The first mentioned is without scales, and has a greatly elongated snout, with the mouth at the end of a bony tube. The forked tail has one or two long central filaments. The European trumpet-fish or BELLOWS—FISH (g. v.) has a large and very sharp dorsal spine, and a snout much like that of the foregoing. Revised by F. A. Luoxs. TRURO Trumpet-flower: a popular name for -various s ecies of Bignonia and Tecoma, mostly shrubs and woo y vines, though in tropical regions some of the species are large trees. They belong to the family Bignoniacew. The native . ‘ii! )1 -. ,.l§\\,,, » 43*» Y j -.s. gr \ J)‘ I I ‘-1; ff / a‘ g *9 "‘\'.;§', ah‘ "4 _ J . i\‘.>‘.. A X P” "P A ' "- ‘~53? 1 /' \\»:-."v 7 . I’ ‘ I ' e Trumpet-flower (Tecoma radicans). species of the U. S. are Bignonia capreolata, Tecoma radi- cans, and T. stans. The first and second are fine climbers. T. capensis from South Africa, T. grandiflora from Japan, and other fine species are often cultivated. Revised by CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Trumpet-wood: See Cnoaorrx. Trunk-fish : any one of various fishes of the order Plec- tognathi and the sub-order Ostracoderrni, forming the fam- ily Ostraciontidce. They are so called on account of being incased in an angular case-like development of the integu- ments, which suggests the idea of a trunk. None of these \|\\ ,)\‘ --‘, g‘,-0 \\\‘<~\~’s\.~,\\\. : -s \\ \ ~, . ,_ \_ .. 92 ":1: . _ _ \‘\ \: \~ - The trunk-fish. fishes are in demand as an article of food, their flesh being small in quantity, and in some species even thought to have a poisonous efiect. But the liver is very large and yields a considerable supply of oil. All the trunk-fisl1es are natives of the tropical seas. Revised by F. A. Luoxs. Trunk-turtle: a name for the LYRE-TURTLE (q. v.). Tru'ro: town; in Cornwall, England; at the junction of the Allen and Kenwyn; 54 miles W. of Plymouth (see map of England, ref. 15—C). It is the center of a rich mining district, and exports large quantities of tin ore. The ancient bishopric of Truro was revived in 1876, and a new cathedral, which incorporates the old parish church of St. Mary’s, was consecrated in 1887. Pop. (1891) 11,131. Truro: a handsome town; capital of Colchester County, Nova Scotia; at the head of Cobequid Bay, and on the In- tercolonial Railway; 61 miles N. of Halifax (see map of Quebec, etc., ref. 2-C). It contains a provincial normal school and has a daily and three weekly newspapers, and manufactures of woolens, boots and shoes, hats, furniture, pianos, organs, etc. Ship-building, fishin , agriculture, and mining are also carried on near Truro, w ich is a place of some wealth. Pop. (1891) 5,102. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Truro, BARON (Thomas Wilde): jurist; b. in London, England, July 7, 1782; third son of an eminent solicitor; TRUSS was educated at St. Paul’s school, articled to his father for the study of law, and, after running away in disgust, de- voted himself studiously to that profession; was admitted as an attorney in 1805; entered as a student of the Inner Temple in 1811, pursuing with great success the calling of special pleader until called to the bar Feb. 17, 1817. Dur- ing the next three years he became prominent as a leader at the bar, and attained distinction as junior counse in the defense of Queen Caroline; was made serjeant-at-law in 1824 and king’s serjeant in 1827. He entered politics as aWhig, and sat in Parliament 1831-32 and 1835-39. In Dec., 1839, or Feb., 1840, he became solicitor-general, and was knighted; June to Aug., 1841, was attorney-general’; was prominent in a famous debate on parliamentary privi- lege; was again sent to Parliament in 1841, and in June, 1846, again became attorney-general, and July, 1846, chief 'ustice of the common pleas. On the formation of Lord ohn Russell’s administration in 1850 he was made Lord Chancellor and Baron Truro of Bowe’s Manor, Middlesex, but resigned in Feb., 1852. D. at Southgate, Middlesex, Nov. 11, 1855, after a protracted illness. He was during his whole life a progressive Liberal, of untiring industry, and was active in aiding many of the reforms which were ac- complished during his time. F. STURGES ALLEN. Truss [from 0. Fr. trousse, tourse, truss < Low Lat. *tur’sus : Lat. thyr’sus = Gr. Bzipcros, stalk, stem, staff ; pos- sibly akin to Lat. fustis, cudgel] : in surgery, a device worn to support a HERNIA (q. 1).). It consists of a pad so arranged with a spring and straps that it may be retained in position without interfering with the patient’s movements. In en- gineering a truss is a framed structure so arranged that the principal members take only stresses of tension or compres- sion. A simple truss is one supported at its two ends, and it exerts only vertical pressures on the supporting walls or piers, while an arched truss exerts horizontal pressures also. A truss consists of an upper chord, a lower chord, and brac- ing, which connects them. In bridge trusses the two chords are often parallel, one being in tension and the other in compression, while the braces are alternately tensile and compressive under dead load. The economic depth. of a truss of given length is such a depth that the quantity of material is a minimum. Various forms of trusses are de- scribed in the articles BRIDGES and Roor. See also ARCH, GARPENTRY, Momnnr, and S'.rREssEs. MANSFIELD MERRIMAN. Trusts [M. Eng. trust, trost; cf. Icel. traust, confidence, security : Germ. trost, comfort : Goth. traust, convention, covenant. The ordinary meaning is confidence—hence intrusting of property, property intrusted, the organization which controls such property]: in law, peculiar species of ownership, whereby property, real or personal, is vested in certain persons for the use or benefit of others. The persons who hold the legal estate are the “ trustees” ; those for whose benefit the property is held or administered are known as the cestuis que trustent, or beneficiaries. Although trusts- whereby one person holds property on a trust or confidence which another person can enforce by legal proceedings——are of great antiquity, they are, in their present form and variety, essentially modern, dating back only to the Statute of Uses, passed in the twenty-seventh year of Henry VIII. (A. D. 1535). Prior to that statute the practice of conveying lands to one person to the “use ” (ad opus or ad usum) of another, the former having a bare naked title without any rights of control or enjoyment in the lands conveyed, the latter hav- ing no legal estate or interest whatever, but being clothed with all the substantial rights and privileges of ownership, had become so common as to affect a large proportion of the land in the kingdom. The article on Usns (q. o.) describes the inconveniences to which this practice gave rise and the successive efforts——usually all but futile-—made by the legis- lature to restrain or destroy it. The most marked result of the Statute of Uses, which was the most radical as well as the latest of these legislative attempts, was to elevate the use, theretofore illegitimate and wholly without legal rec- ognition, into a lawful estate, recognized and protected by the legal tribunals. There remained, however, within the exclusive cognizance of the equity tribunals certain of these uses which, by a narrow and technical construction of the statute referred to, escaped its operation. These were, 1, uses raised on terms of years or other personal estate; 2, uses charged upon other (precedent) uses; and 3, and most important of all, active uses, i. e. those with the perform- ance of which ‘some duty on the part of the trustee (feofiee rrausrs 279 to uses) was connected. These three varieties of unexecuted uses (i. e. uses not covered by and “executed ” by the stat- ute), under the name of trusts, continued to be fostered and administered by the court of chancery upon substantially the same principles which it had applied to the regulation of uses before the statute. But while the leading principles of the jurisdiction of equity over trusts have long been established, its doctrines have, in very recent times, received enormous expansion, so that they constitute to-day by far the most important part of that jurisdiction. In consequence of the fact above adverted to, that the cestui que trust, or beneficiary, is invested with the whole beneficial enjoyment of the trust estate, the trustee having the title vested in him only for the benefit of the eestui que trust, the latter is often spoken of as the “ real owner,” or, more commonly, as the “ equitable owner,” and his interest is described as an “equitable estate ” in contradistinction to the “legal estate” of the trustee. But this language is in the highest degree improper and misleading. There is only one kind or species of “ estate ”—that, namely, which is rec- ognized by the courts of law. The interest of the beneficia- ry of a trust is in no sense an estate or interest in the land or other property affected by the trust. He has, at the most, a right of action against the trustee in whom the “legal title,” or estate, is vested. This right of action enables him by the aid of the equity tribunals to hold his trustee to a strict performance of the duties imposed upon him, and even, in certain cases, where the trust is only nominal, to compel the conveyance of the trust estate to himself, but until such conveyance the beneficiary has no right to deal directly with the estate. Not only is he without power to convey the property to another, but he can maintain no ac- tion at law for its protection, either against the trustee or a stranger, and he can bring no action of ejectment or tres- ass for a wrongful possession thereof. It has, however, been held from an early period that equity will recognize the right of the cestui que trust to assign his rights in the trust estate, so as to enable his assignee to enforce the trust as the beneficiary thereof; and such is the rule to-day, ex- cept where, as in New York, it has been modified by statute. See 1 N. Y. Rev. Stat. 730, § 63. Jurisdiction of Equity over Trusts.——The jurisdiction of equity over the trustee is confined to the ascertainment and enforcement of the trust imposed upon him. There is no authority in the courts to alter the character of the trust, to enlarge or to reduce the powers of the trustee, nor, ex- cept in the case of charitable trusts (see below), to confer the benefits of the trust on any person other than the bene- ficiary designated by the act creating it. Ordinarily, there- fore, the trustee of a trust for the life of another can not be empowered by the court to lease the estate for a longer period than such life, nor to sell or mortgage the estate, even where the interests of the estate or of the beneficiary clearly demand such action. In some jurisdictions, however, these rules have been modified by statute so as to give trustees or to authorize the equity tribunals to give them the power to lease, sell, or mortgage the trust estate in cases where it appears to be necessary for the protection of the trust estate, or to the best interest of the persons beneficially in- terested therein so to do. See, e. g., N. Y. Rev. Stat., vol. i., p. 730, sec. 65, as amended by Laws of 1886, ch. 257. On the other hand, the power of the courts to enforce the performance of trusts is complete. They may remove a trustee and appoint another; may restrain him by injunc- tion; may call him to account and hold him personally responsible for the results of his fraud or neglect, for im- proper investments, for profits made or which ought to have been made, and for interest; may avoid conveyances made to himself, and those made to third parties in breach of the trust: may follow the property into the hands of such third persons, as implied trustees, unless they are purchasers in good faith for a valuable consideration; may, in fact, do anything which will give equitable protection to the rights of the beneficiary. The ofhce and function of the trustee are in the highest degree fiduciary and conscientious. He is bound to diligence and discretion in the performance of his duties as well as to the utmost measure of good faith. Kinds of Trusts.—Ordinary private trusts, as usually classified, are of three kinds, viz., express, resulting, and constructive trusts. Express trusts arise from the direct and intentional act of the parties, evidenced by some declaration which is gen- erally contained in a written instrument. The most com- mon examples of this class are those created by marriage 280 settlements, by assignments for the benefit of creditors, by deeds of conveyance, and by wills. Such trusts may, 1n the absence of statute, be created by parol as well as by a written declaration, but it has been enacted by the Statute of Frauds that no trust over or concerning lands shall be created, assigned, or declared except by a deed or convey- ance in writing, but that this provision shall not affect trusts created by will and those implied by law. Resulting (or implied) trusts arise, in the absence of any express declaration, by implication from the acts of the parties. Where the circumstances attending an assignment or conveyance of property are such as to raise a presump- tion that a trust, although unexpressed, was inten ed, such a trust is said to “result ” from the transaction. Trusts of this sort are not uncommon. They arise (a) where an in- tended trust can not take effect, either by reason of a failure to declare the beneficiary or because the intended trust, not being capable of execution as a charitable trust, is too in- definite to be carried into effect; ((9) where an expressed trust fails to exhaust the entire property transferred to the trustees; (c) where the legal title is transferred_, and a trust declared as to a part of the property, but no mtention ex- pressed as to the rest; and (d) where the purchase-money is paid by one person and the conveyance is taken in the name of another. In the first case (a) a trust results to the per- son who made the conveyance or, where the property is transferred by will, to the heir or personal representative, as the case may be, of the testator; that is to say, while the transfer to the grantee, devisee, or legatee holds good, and vests the legal title according to the intention of the parties, equity will compel such transferee to hold the property as a trustee for the donor or his lawful successors to the title; in the second and third cases (b and c) a trust results either to the donor (as in case a) or to the grantee, according to the apparent intention of the parties, as expressed in the instru- ment of transfer; in the last case (d) the person taking title is compelled to hold it as trustee for the one who paid the purchase-money. The only general exception to this rule is where the person who pays the consideration stands in the position of a husband or in loco parentis to the party to whom the property is conveyed. Where such relationship exists, a presumption arises that the payment was intended as a provision for the wife, or an advancement to the child, and no trust results, unless the presumption is rebutted. A constructive trust is raised by a court of equity “ wher- ever a person, clothed with a fiduciary character, gains some personal advantage by availing himself of his situation as trustee.” The trust is in such cases said to arise by construc- tion, without reference to any intention of the parties, either expressed or presumed. The power to raise or impose trusts by “construction,” in order to obviate the efiects of the fraudulent acquisition of property, constitutes a most salu- tary, important, and constantly growing exercise of equity jurisdiction. As it is impossible to enumerate here all of the cases in which this jurisdiction may be invoked, only a few of the most important and comprehensive rules will be given. (a) Where property is acquired by one person by the wrongful use of the property of another—as, e. g., where a trustee, executor, or agent misapplies money or other property which he holds in his fiduciary capacity to the purchase in his own name of other property——the dishonest agent or trustee will hold the property so acquired in trust for the person whose property was misapplied. (12) Where a person acquires for himself an interest in property in re- gard to which, by reason of his fiduciary position, he has a duty to perform for another, he will hold such interest in trust for the person to whom such duty was due. A good illustration of the application of this rule is found in the familiar doctrine that a person occupying a position of trust or responsibility toward another in regard to leasehold prop- erty—-as a trustee, executor, guardian, mortgagee, tenant for life, cotenant, partner—can not take a renewal of the lease for his own benefit, but shall hold it, when taken, for the benefit of all parties interested in the old lease. (0) Where there is a valid contract for the sale of real estate “the vendor becomes in equity a trustee for the purchaser of the estate sold, and the beneficial ownership passes to the pur- chaser, the vendor having a right to the purchase-money,” together with a charge or lien on the estate for the security of that purchase-money. This lien or charge, belonging to the class of interests known as “equitable liens,” is some- times also, although improperly, included among the con- structive trusts. Statutory Changes.-—-In many of the U. S. the law of TRUSTS trusts, as developed by the equity tribunals, has been exten- sively modified by legislation. The New York statute may serve as a type of the law of trusts as thus modified. Im- plied, or resulting, and constructive trusts and all trusts of personal property are left substantially unaltered by this legislation. All express passive trusts of land and all ex- press active trusts of land, except certain classes, are abol- ished. The express trusts which are permitted are -the fol- lowing: (1) to sell lands for the benefit of creditors; (2) to sell, mortgage, or lease land for the benefit of legatees or to satisfy any charge thereon ; (3) to receive the rents and profits of land, and apply them to the use of any person during his life or for a shorter period; (4) to accumulate rents and profits of land for the benefit of minors during the continu- ance of their minority. GEORGE W. KIRCHWEY. CHARITABLE TRUSTS.—-In the ordinary private trusts there must be both a known trustee and a certain, determinate beneficiary, although, if the trustee should die, resign, or refuse to accept, the court can supply the place by appoint- ment. But property may be given in trust for specified ob- jects where the beneficiaries are completely indeterminate —as, for example, a gift to aid in spreading the gospel or to relieve the poor—or where the beneficiaries constitute a known class, but the individuals are uncertain, as a gift to provide for the poor of a particular town or to support the scholars in a designated school. Dispositions of this form and nature, whether made by deed or by will, are termed “ charitable trusts.” They first appeared in the Roman em- pire after it became Christian, and were both legalized and fostered by several constitutions of Christian emperors. The researches of modern jurists have established the fact beyond a doubt that the English court of chancery at an early day, by virtue of its own intrinsic authority, assumed jurisdiction over, upheld, and enforced this species of trusts. In the 43d Elizabeth (A. D. 1601) a statute was passed known as the Statute of Charitable Uses, which regulated the whole subject of charitable gifts. It created a new and special jurisdiction of the chancellor, and contained an enumeration of lawful charitable objects. In determining what trusts should be upheld as charitable, the doctrine was firmly settled that all objects embraced within the spirit as well as the letter of the statutory enumeration are lawful. As the result of this principle, all trust-s created for any one of the following general purposes are charitable: (1) The support, maintenance, or spread of the Christian religion; (2) the relief, aid, or support of the poor, the sick, or those in any manner disabled; (3) the foundation, erection, or support of institutions, organizations, societies, or other means of general beneficence, either for all needy persons or for particular classes, such as asylums, hospitals, dispensa- ries, reformatories, and the like; (4) the maintenance and promotion of education, learning, literature, science, or art by the establishment, erection, support, or aid of universi- ties, colleges, schools, libraries, reading-rooms, museums, scientific lectures, societies, art schools or galleries, etc.; (5) any and all objects of interest or advantage to the public, as highways, parks, public gardens, water or gas supplies, and the like. ‘ In administering charitable trusts the English court of chancery exhibited the utmost liberality in carrying out the designs of the donors and in sustaining the gifts. It even invented and applied a special doctrine, known as the prin- ciple of cy pres (as near to), in pursuance of which, when it was found impossible to carry out the design of the donor in the manner which he had indicated, the court would con- trive and establish another scheme or mode, preserving the same general intent, and differing as little as possible in de- tails from the original plan. The statute of 43 Elizabeth has not been re-enacted in the U. S. In most of the States, however, the courts have adopted the general doctrines which had been formulated by the English chancery, so that charitable trusts as above described are recognized in their local jurisprudence and upheld by their judiciary. In other States the whole sys- tem has been rejected as inconsistent with the institutions of the U. S., and especially because it tends to create per- petuities, which are opposed to the policy of the laws. In New York, for example, it has, after some vacillation, been settled that charitable trusts were abrogated by the re- vised statutes, and that the only mode of establishing a charity is through the instrumentality of a corporation, which shall receive and administer the trust. This narrow and illiberal policy of the New York law has been subject- ed to much criticism, as tending to make charitable gifts TRUSTS unnecessarily precarious, and thus frequently defeating the benevolent intentions of the donors of such gifts. Revised by GEORGE W. KIRCHWEY. Ooumnaorxn TRUSTS. — The great trade combinations which, under the denomination of trusts, have become such a marked feature of modern industry, especially in the U. S., owe their form and designation, though not their impor- tance, either in law or in the industrial organization of so- ciety, to the trust proper, as developed in Anglo-Saxon juris- prudence. (See above.) The term is therefore not wholly a misnomer, though it becomes so when it is popularly ap- plied to such combinations irrespective of their form and mode of creation, or when the term is employed in a pe- culiar and exclusive sense to describe the gigantic modern trusts created for industrial purposes. A commercial trust, whatever its magnitude, is neither more nor less a “ trust” than any other vesting of property in one person to the use and benefit of another person, while, on the other hand, a trade combination may be equally effectual for the purposes of its creation, and equally obnoxious to public sentiment or to the law, if it is nothing more than an agreement be- tween individuals to prevent competition or if it take on the form of a copartnership of corporations. Not every trade combination is a trust, nor is every trust an industrial mo- nopoly. For the purposes of the present discussion, however, the whole subject of the legal status of all forms of capital- istic combination, whether trusts or not, may most conven- iently be considered together. Notwithstanding the fact that commercial trusts of the modern type had their origin in England before the middle of the nineteenth century, and that they were developed much later in America, by far the greater part of the law of the subject is to be found in the reports and statute- books of the U. S. and Canada. Indeed, in England these combinations of capital, directed either to general invest- ment purposes or to the management and control of indus- try, have been regarded in the light of a normal develop- ment of industrial forces, like great corporations, and the attitude of the courts has been singularly liberal and free from the suspicion and hostility which have attended simi- lar manifestations in North America. The legality of the combinations under consideration may be considered from three different points of view: (1) Where the combination is of the normal type, the property of sev- eral individuals or corporations being vested in trustees, to be administered for the common benefit, it presents the question whether it constitutes a true trust within the scope and the terms of equity jurisdiction and entitled to protec- tion and enforcement by the equity tribunals ; (2) where, as has usually been the case, the parties to the combination are corporations or the stockholders of corporations, the ques- tion arises whether its organization constitutes an offense or, at least, an unauthorized and therefore unlawful act on the part of the persons of whom it is composed; (3) whatever be the form of the combination, and whether its constituent elements be corporations or private individuals, the ques- tion still remains whether the objects of the combination are consistent with the public welfare, and therefore law- ful; These positions will be separately examined. 1. “ Trusts ” in Eq'at'z‘y.—There is nothing in the form, the organization, or the methods of the modern industrial trust to render it obnoxious to law. It is in all essential particu- lars a trust of the normal, familiar type, such as are habit-* ually enforced by the courts. In these external aspects it differs from ordinary trusts only in the magnitude of the interests involved. But neither the amount of property vested in the trustees, the extensive and secret powers of ad- ministration conferred upon them, nor the number and wide distribution of the beneficiaries of the trust afiords any rea- son for refusing to recognize the title of the trustees or the right of the beneficiaries to protection against them. These principles are now undisputed, so far as the law of trusts, as that has been developed by the equity tribunals, is concerned. It is only in those jurisdictions where that law has been rad- ically altered by legislation that any question can arise as to the validity of trusts of this description. and the jurisdic- tion of equity over them. Thus in New York and several other States it is provided by statute that express trusts of real property can be created only for certain enumerated purposes, not including such a use as is here under considera- tion. (See N. Y. Rev. Stat. 1, 727, sees. 45 and 55; see also above.) But this ditliculty is successfully obviated by the method usually employed for the creation of such trusts. The property vested in the trustees, and forming the basis 281 of the trust, is not the real and personal property of the corporations forming the combination, and with which its business is to be carried on, but the shares of the stock- holders of such corporations. These shares are always per- sonal property, whether the corporate property which they represent be real or personal ; and, as the restriction of the statute is confined to trusts of real property, its application in the case of corporate trusts is thus ingeniously excluded. When individuals or firms desire to join such a trust, they first become incorporated, and then enter as shareholders of the corporation thus formed. Of course the possession of the shares gives the trustees the actual control, though not the legal ownership, of the property, real as well as personal, of the several corporations composing the “trust.” It is true that equity may refuse to enforce a trust, not- - withstanding its regularity and outward conformity to equi- table principle, if its objects are unlawful and contrary to public policy. But as such a trustelways comes into ex- istence by virtue of an agreement, and as such agreement, if it be really illegal, can more conveniently be directly at- tacked in an action at law than by invoking the interposi- tion of equity, there is seldom any motive for resorting to the latter course of proceeding. It should, moreover, be borne in mind that equity acts only upon the petition of the beneficiary, showing that the management of the property is wasteful or otherwise hostile to his interests; and, on the other hand, that if these facts are made to appear it is only where the performance of the trust would be manifestly ille- gal and contra bonos mores that the court will allow the trustee to continue to violate the terms thereof. Accord- ingly, in the litigation which has attended the development of these trust combinations their character as trusts has played little or no part, and those combinations that have been organized on the trust principle have been attacked and defended on precisely the same grounds as those which have taken on some other form. The field over which the battle of the trusts has been waged is covered by the two following points. 2. Corporate Trasts.—Corporations, being “artificial per- sons,” created by the state for specific purposes and having only such powers as are conferred upon them for carrying those purposes into effect, have a very much more restricted range of activity than is permitted to the natural man. Many acts which the individual may lawfully perform are forbidden to the corporation. The former can retire from business, or turn his business over to some one else to be managed for him ; the latter can not retire without dissolu- tion, nor has it any power to delegate to another corporation or person the duties which its charter requires it to perform. A corporation which abandons the business for which it was organized and allows its property to be controlled and its operations to be carried on by a person or group of persons who have no direct relations to it, and who are not its agents, is acting ultra wires and in violation of its organic law, and thereby forfeits its right to exist at all. These principles suggest an obvious ground of attack on trust combinations made up of corporations, and it is upon this ground that the principal and most successful assault upon them has been made. But when the courts would have enforced this prin- ciple against the corporate trusts, so called, it was objected that the several corporations whose property and business was administered by the trust were not actually arties to it, and that the corporation, having a distinct lega person- ality and being capable of acting only by its duly appointed officers, could not be held responsible for the unauthorized, but yet lawful. acts of its individual stockholders in vesting their interests in the obnoxious trust. The courts, however, swept away this reasoning. plausible though it was, as sophis- try, and laid down the principle that where the corporation acquiesces in the transfer of the corporate stock to such a trust, and in the real control and management of its interests by trustees, the act shall be deemed to be the act of the cor- poration, and the latter may be dealt with accordin_gly. These principles once settled, the mode of attack is simple enough. Although the trust is, as we have seen above, im- pregnable against direct attack, it can be effectually under- mined and destroyed by breaking down the several corpo- rations from which it draws its strength. Although no stockholder or_ creditor of the corporation complains, it can be punished for its unlawful and unauthorized abuse of power, in the name and behalf of the people of the State, by a proceeding instituted by the attorney-general for the for- feiture of its charter. It was in this way that the Sugar Trust was broken up in New York, and the great Standard 282 Oil Trust in Ohio, In each case the attack was directed against one of the numerous corporations alleged to be a party to the trust, and the forfeiture of one charter, with the liability to a similar forfeiture in the case of all the other corporations concerned, operated effectually to dissolve the trust in each case. (People of State of New Y orlc vs. North River Sugar Refining Company, 121 New York Reports, 582; State of Ohio vs. Standard Oil Compam , 49 Ohio State Re- ports, 137.) The principles of corporate liability were even more conspicuously violated in the organization of the Chi- cago Gas Trust, where a gigantic corporation, without ex- press legislative sanction, assumed to control the operations of a multitude of lesser corporations by acquiring their capital stock. People vs. Chicago Gas Trust Company, 130 Illinois Reports, 268. The principles upon which these cases were decided have been accepted as conclusive, excepting for purposes of aca- demic discussion, by the parties concerned in the trust com- binations as well as by the general public, and it is hard to see how they can be disputed. It is to be observed, however, that they are applicable only to the state of facts under ex- amination in those cases—namely, where corporations, act- ing officially or by their stockholders, have transferred their pro erty and concerns to trustees to be managed for them, or ave in some other way exceeded their lawful powers. But this is only one—though it is certainly the easiest, as it has been the most popular—form of capitalistic combina- tion. There are several other forms, of at least equal po- tency, with which the principles above discussed have noth- ing to do. Thus they do not touch the case of individuals, not corporations, forming trust combinations of precisely the character and type of those under consideration. They do not reflect upon the right of corporations or of individuals to enter into far-reaching agreements, regulating the rate and character of production and the prices to be charged for goods and services. They are not infringed by the con- solidation of many corporations into one, or the acquisition by one gigantic corporation of all of the property and busi- ness engaged in a certain line of industry. The “trust,” after it has been driven out of one form of organization, can easily take refuge in another and different form. Indeed, this is precisely what has occurred in the case of the trusts “ destroyed” by the adverse decisions in New York, Ohio, and elsewhere. Of the large number of such combinations in existence at the date of those decisions, it is not known that a single one has gone out of operation as a result there- of. They have disappeared as corporate trusts, but they have promptly reappeared and are in full operation as great cor- porations or as combinations held together by contract. And yet the evils, real or imaginary, threatened by the corporate trusts are equally to be feared from the combinations of capital and industry which have generally succeeded them. How are these evils to be met‘? The question brings us to the third and most comprehensive ground of attack on such combinations. ' 3. “ Trusts” as Mon0polies.—Whether a given industrial combination be made up of individuals or of corporations, whether it be more or less closely held together by contract or be consolidated into a trust, if it constitutes or “ tends to create” a monopoly, or if it is found to be a conspiracy in restraint of trade, it is obnoxious to law. This does not signify that it is liable to destruction at the instance of the , State, nor that its promoters are subject to criminal prosecu- tion, but only that the agreements and covenants on which it is based, being unlawful and contrary to public policy, will not be enforced by the courts, and that it will thus be reduced to a mere voluntary association without binding force upon its members. Where the monopoly is not based on agreement, but is exerted by a single corporation or in- dividual who has gained control of the market, the rule here laid down has no application. As thus limited and defined, the rule against monopolies is one of the landmarks of the common law. But no rule of that law is more diflicult of ap- plication. The crucial question as to whether a given com- bination is or is not a monopoly, as to whether a given agreement is or is not a conspiracy against the common weal, is well-nigh as broad as the rule itself, and the judicial attempts to answer it have thus far failed to develop any clear guiding principle. The common law relating to monopolies and the trade offenses of engrossing, forestalling, a/nd regrating (by which were intended the buying of neces- saries of life in order to sell them again), founded, as they were, on economic ideas and industrial conditions which have long passed away, are wholly obsolete. Of the common- TRUSTS law doctrine of the invalidity of agreements in restraint of trade and competition, there survives only the general prin- ciple that a restriction which is unlimited in respect both of time and place is unreasonable and therefore void. But where, as in New York, the courts lend their aid to enforce a contract made by a competing manufacturer to refrain for ninety-nine years from carrying on a certain business within the United States and Territories, excepting only in Men- tana and Nevada, especially where the contract in question is part of a general scheme on the part of the plaintifi to gain control of the entire business in the country, even that doctrine becomes too nebulous to serve as a guide. (Dia- mond .Match Company vs. Roeber, 106 New York Reports, 473). The only principle which has clearly emerged from the mass of conflicting decisions is that a contract restrain- ing competition will be decreed to be unlawful if, in the opinion of the tribunals before which it is brought, it is un- necessary and unreasonable so far as the due protection of the parties is concerned, or is prejudicial to the public in- terest; and that an industrial enterprise will be deemed to be a monopoly when, in the judgment of the courts, it actu- ally becomes a menace to the public welfare and is not jus- tified or required by the existing conditions of trade and industry. These principles solve the question as to the monopolistic and therefore unlawful character of trade combinations, so far as it is yet capable of solution. The tendency in most of the States has been to declare against such combina- tions; but in the great case against the Sugar Trust (above referred to) the New York Court of Appeals refused to fol- low the lower courts in declaring the combination to be es- sentially monopolistic and hostile to the welfare of the State. It is believed that, in the absence of legislation, this more temperate and conservative view will ultimately prevail. Legislation.-—The epidemic of trust legislation has pro- duced so few conclusive results that it would be un rofitable to go much into.detail concerning it. The popu ar agita- tion against trusts resulted in 1888 in legislative investiga- tions by the U. S. House of Representatives, the New York Senate, and the Canadian Parliament, and these were fol- lowed, in 1889 and the years immediately succeeding, by a crop of hastily conceived and more or less stringent repress- ive acts. The act of Congress passed in 1890, and known as the National “ Anti-Trust Act,” is so indefinite in its terms and so inconclusive in character that it is generally regarded as an abortive and practically worthless measure in the cam- paign against monopoly. Moreover, it is by reason of the limitations of congressional authority confined to acts which come within the definition of interstate commerce. Anti- trust laws have also been enacted in Illinois, Michigan, and several other States in the West and South. In the eastern parts of the country the fulminations of social reformers and legislative committees have thus far (1895) produced but little result, though Maine has a comprehensive law, passed in 1889, and New York one of narrower scope and of doubtful utility, passed in 1893 (chap. 716). All of these statutes are penal in character, and declare all combinations or agreements regu- lating the supply or the price of “ any article or commodity ” to be criminal conspiracies, and prescribe penalties therefor. In addition to this the statutes usually declare such contracts or combinations to be null and void. Most of these statutes appear to be sufficiently explicit and drastic to produce the result intended by them, though there is considerable ques- tion as to the constitutionality of such legislation on ac- count of its interference with vested property rights. There have been no decisions under these statutes as yet which have conclusively demonstrated their efficacy and legal- ity. Probably it will not be difficult for the combinations at which they are aimed to adopt a form of organization which will avoid their operation. It will be remarked that this legislation does not affect any form of capitalistic or- ganization which does not involve a contract or combina- tion of several parties, and that a single corporation, own- ing and controlling all of the industries in a given territory or in a certain line of enterprise, is wholly outside its scope. Such an organization, therefore, would clearly seem to be lawful in the present state of the law, though it could doubtless be reached and partially controlled by legisla- tion limiting the amount of the capital-stock which may be issued and of the property which may be held by industrial corporations. AUTHoRITiEs.—The most comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of trusts is that of Lewin (The Law of Trusts), though Perry on Trusts, the works of Story and TRUTCH Pomeroy on Equity Jurisprudence, and the article on Trusts and Trustees in the American and English Encyclopcedia of Law (vol. xxvii.) may also be consulted. There are also several treatises dealing particularly with charitable trusts, among them those by Dwight (Am.), Fmlason (Eng.), and Tudor (Eng.). The literature dealing with commercial trusts is very large, but scattered, and usually of .1I1f6I'1OI‘ quality. Even the law writers have too often substituted denuncia- tion for exposition and reasoning. Spelling’s Trusts and Monopolies contains the fullest discussion of the subyect. See also The Legality of “ Trusts,” by T. Dwight, 3 Po- litical Science Quarterly, 592; several articles in vols, 1., iv., and vii., of the Harvard Law Review; and the article MONOPOLIES. A very complete bibliography of commercial trusts, down to 1890, by William H. Winter, can be found in 7 Railway and Corporation Law Jou/rnal, 236. GEORGE W. KIRCIIWEY. Trutch, Sir JOSEPH WILLIAM: statesman; b. at Bath, England, Jan. 18, 1826. He was educated at Exeter, studied civil engineering under Sir John Rennie, and removed to the Pacific coast in 1849. He practiced his profession in California and Oregon until 1856; removed’ to British Co- lumbia in 1859, and till 1864 was employed in constructing public works for the colony. He was chief commissioner of lands and works and surveyor-general of British Colum- bia from 1864 until 1871, when the colony joined the Do- minion; delegate to Ottawa in 1870 to arrange terms of union with Canada; and in 1871 to Ottawa and London to finally settle details of union. He was lieute_nant-governor of British Columbia 1871-76; appointed resident agent of the Canadian Government in British Columbia in 1879, and was knighted in 1889. NEIL MACDONALD. Truth, SOJOURNER: See SOJOURNER TRUTH. Truxilloz See TRUJILLO. Truxtun, THOMAS : naval officer; b. on Long Island, N. Y., Feb. 17, 1755; went to sea at the age of twelve years; was impressed into the British navy; became in 1776 lieutenant of the American privateer Congress; equipped and com- manded in 1777 the Independence, with which he took valuable prizes; afterward commanded the Mars (20 guns) and other ships, and in 1781 the St. James (30 guns), with which he disabled a British ship of superior force after a severe engagement; was engaged in the East India trade for several years after the war. On the organization of the U. S. navy, 1798, he was selected as one of its six captains, and assigned to the frigate Constellation, with which he captured the French frigates L’Insurgente, Feb. 9, 1799, and La Vengeance, Feb. 1, 1800; was made commander of the West Indies squadron of ten vessels 1801, and appointed 1802 to the command of the naval expedition against Trip- oli, but retired from the service, and after living on a farm in New Jersey removed to Philadelphia, where he was sheriff of the county 1819-21, and where he died May 5, 1822. He was the author of Remarks, Instructions, and Examples re- lating to Latitude and Longitude, also the Variation of the Compass (Philadelphia, 1794). Trygon’idae [M0d. Lat., named from Try'gon, the typical genus, from Lat. try'gon = Gr. rpvyév, sting-ray] : a family of selachians, of the order Raice, typified by the sting-rays. The disk constituted by the union of the pectoral fins with the body is rhomboid or oval, and oblong or transversely expanded; the tail is thin and, toward its extremity, whip- like, but otherwise variously developed, being mostly very long, but sometimes very short; the skin is generally more or less armed with scattered spines or tubercles; the head is produced into a pointed snout or at least angulated in front; the mouth is moderate; the teeth mostly trans- versely elliptical, and ridged or cuspidate; on the back of the tail are generally one or more spines, which, in the typical forms, are compressed from before backward, and armed at their lateral edges with teeth or serrations directed downward, but these are sometimes wanting; there gener- ally are only rudimentary dorsal and caudal fins, or none at all. The species are quite numerous, and disseminated in all seas except the extreme polar ones. They are to be feared on account of their spines. See STING-RAY. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Tryon, DWIGHT WILLIAM: landsca e-painter; b. at Hart- ford, Conn., Aug. 13, 1849; pupil of aubigny, J acquesson de la Chevreuse and Guillemet, Paris; member of the Soci- ety of American Artists 1882; National Academician, 1891 ; member of the American Water-color Society. He won the TSCHUDI 283 second Hallgarten prize, National Academy, 1887 and the Webb prize, Society of American Artists, 1889. His pictures are poetic in sentiment and fine in color; he aints very skillfully in water-color. His studio is in New Ybrk WILLIAM A. CoFEIN. Tryon, WILLIAM: colonial Governor; b. in Ireland about 1725; received a good education; became a distinguished officer in the British army; married Miss Wake, a relative of the Earl of H illsborough, Secretary of State for the colo- nies, through whose influence he was appointed Lieutenant- Governor of North Carolina 1764; became Governor by the death of Gov. Dobbs July 20, 1765; suppressed the revolt of the Regulators, treating the prisoners with cruelty; erected at the cost of the province a magnificent residence at New- bern; was advanced to the governorship of New York July 3, 1771; became colonel 1772 and major-general1777; was detested by the patriots for his many acts of rigor and sever- ity, and especially for the destruction of Danbury, Fairfield, and Norwalk, Conn., by expeditions conducted by him in %erson; resigned his post Mar. 21, 1778, and returned to ngland, where he became a lieutenant-general1782; was given the degree of LL. B. by King’s (Columbia) College in 1774. D. in London, Feb. 27, 1788. Tsad: another spelling of the name CHAD (g. v.). Tsanpo: See DIHONG. Tsar: See CZAR. Tsaritsyn’, or Z aritzin : town ; once an important fortress of Saratoff government, southeast Russia; at the great bend of the lower Volga, terminus of an important railway from the N. and of a short line to Kalach to the W. (see map of Russia, ref. 9—F). It is the center of the trade between As- trakhan and the North Caspian districts and Central Russia. It is especially the center for the naphtha, salt, and mustard trades. The town has become the gathering-place for the poor seeking work, and their quarters, especially in sum- mer, contain much misery and filth. It has a large theater, a public library, two gymnasia, and a fine church in the architecture of the sixteenth century. Pop. (1890) 40,130. MARK W. HARRINGTON. 'I‘sars’koye-Se'lo, or Zarskoye-Selo: town of Russia; 14 miles S. of St. Petersburg (see map of Russia, ref. 5—C). It contains two magnificent palaces which are used by the imperial family as summer residences. The park and pleas- ure-grounds of the palaces cover an area 18 miles in circum- ference, and the buildings contain many valuable collec- tions. The cathedral of St. Sophia is a copy in miniature of the mosque in Constantinople. Pop. 16,838. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tschaikows'ki, PIETER ILIITSCH: composer; b. at Wot- kinsk, Russia, Apr. 25, 1840; began the study of music in 1862 in the St. Petersburg Conservatory. His first compo- sition was a cantata to Schiller’s Ode to Joy. From 1866 to 1877 he was Professor of Harmony, Counterpoint, and Mu- sical History in the Moscow Conservatory: after that he de- voted himself entirely to composition. His works include several operas, symphonies, overtures, and other orchestral pieces, solos for piano and other solo instruments with and without orchestra, chamber music, and many vocal ieces sacred and secular. At the opening of the Carnegie §Iusic Hall he visited New York and conducted several of his own compositions. D. in St. Petersburg, Nov. 5, 1893. - D. E. HERVEY. Tschudi, choo’de‘ie-, JEGIDIUS: historian ; b. in Glarus, Switzerland, in 1505; studied at Basel, Vienna, and Paris; traveled much in his native countr I and Italy; held various important offices in Baden and Glarus; went in 1559 as ambassador to the Emperor Ferdinand I. in Augsburg; was banished in 1562 on account of his strong adherence to the Roman Catholic Church, but recalled in 1564. On his trav- els and in his various offices he made very comprehensive investigations with respect to the history of Switzerland, and the last years of his life he spent in pre aring his rich materials for publication, but only Die urat wahrha_fi'tig Alpisch Rhdtia, published in Latin and in German, ap- peared before his death. His principal work is the Schweiz- erchronilc, covering the time down to 1470, published by I. R. Iselin in 2 vols. (Basel, 1734-36). In 1758 his Beschreib- ung Gallice Comatoe, appeared under Gallatis’s editorship. D. at Glarus, Feb. 28, 1572. Tschudi, J OIIANN JAKoB, von: naturalist, traveler, and diplomatist; b. in Glarus, Switzerland, July 25, 1818. He 284 TSENG studied medicine and natural sciences at Neuchatel, Leyden, and Paris. In 1838-43 he traveled in Peru, making a special study of the Quechua language and antiquities ; subsequently he made an extended tour through Brazil, Bolivia, etc. The results of these expeditions were embodied in_ severalworks, including Fauna Per/aana (1844-47) ; Pe1"uanv.sehe Reeseskez- zen (1846) ; Reisen dwrch Sz'ldamem'lca (1866-68) ; and Organ- ismns der Keehaa-Sprache (1884). With Rivero he wrote the Antlqiledades Peruanas (1851). He was ambassador of Switzerland to _Brazil (1860), and to Austria (1866-83). D. at J akobsthal, Lower Austria, Oct. 8, 1889. H. H. S. Tséng (or Tsfing), MARQUIS, whose full name was Tséng Ki)-tséh: Chinese diplomatist: b. in the province of Hunan in 1848; son of Tséng Kwoh-fan (1807-72), who, though less known to Europeans than his son, was a statesman of wider fame in his own country, having won especial distinction as governor-general of the two Kiang provinces during the Tai-ping rebellion. The young T_seng was his _father’s sec- retary at this time, and accompanied him in .l11S successful campaign. In 1878 he was appointed minister to_ Great Britain and France, and afterward was sent as special am- bassador to Russia to settle the Kulja difficulty, _which he succeeded in doing in a satisfactory manner, obtaining the treaty of St. Petersburg, which restored KUlJ& to China. In 1886 he returned to China, where he was made a grand secretary and president of the admiralty board. D. in Pe- king, Apr. 12, 1890. F. M. CoLBY. Tset'se [S. African]: a dipterous insect, G-l0sse'ne'a mor- sitans, a little larger than the common fly. It abounds in some parts of South Africa, but is absent from large dis- tricts. Its bite is nearly always fatal to the ox, horse, and dog, though harmless to man, _as well as to goats, asses, mules, and the wild beasts of the regions it inhabits. TSing‘-tn [Chinese, liter., pure land]: the Chinese name for SUKHAVATI (q. 22.), the heaven of Amitabha Buddha, and also of the Buddhist sect which reverences Amitabha and makes re-birth in his heaven their chief aim. In the mouths of the Japanese Tsing-tu becomes Jada. The SHINSHIU (q. 2).) is a Japanese development of the J 6d6. Tsi-tsi-har, chee’chee’haar: the most northerly of the three provinces of Chinese Manchuria, known among the Chinese as the Heh-Ztlng-Kiang, or Amur province; bounded N. by the Amur, E. and S. by the Sungari, a tributary of the Amur, and W. by the Nonni and Mongolia. Area, 195,- 000 sq. miles. It is cultivated chiefly in valleys of the Nonni and Sungari, pulse, maize, millet, tobacco, wheat, and the poppy being the chief crops. The rest of the country is mostly an uninhabited mountain wilderness. The inhab- itants consist of Manchus, Korchin Mongols, Yakuts (of whom 6,600 families emigrated from Siberia, and settled in the valley of the Nonni in 1687), and Chinese, cliiefiy from the northern provinces. The chief cities are Tsi-tsi-har (on the Nonni, lat. 47° 21’ N., lon. 124° E.), Mergen, and Hurun- pir. The city of Tsi-tsi-har, built in 1692 by order of the emperor ruling in the period K’ang-hi_in order to overawe the neighboring tribes, is surrounded with a stockade and a ditch. At Igun, in the northeastern part of the province, are a penal settlement and a large garrison. See S. Wells Williams, Middle Kingdom (New York, 1883). T-Square: an instrument used in mechanical and archi- tectural drawing. It consists of two arms, one of which is called the stock or helve, and the other the blade. The blade is attached to the stock at its middle point. The stock pro- jects below the blade, forming a shoulder, which, when used, is pressed firmly against the edge of the drawing-board. To use the instrument the blade is first set so as to make the desired angle with the stock; the shoulder of the stock 1S then pressed firmly against the edge of the drawing-board and moved along that edge; the blade will remain parallel to its first position. In the simplest form of T-square the blade is firmly fixed at right angles with the stock. Tsu’ga [a Japanese name]: a genus of_coniferous trees related to the spruces and firs, and including the common hemlock (T. eanadensls) of Eastern North America, the Cah- fornian hemlock spruce (T. me;-tense'ana), and a few other species, one or two of which occur in Japan and the Hima- lavan region. They are distinguished from the spruces (Pleea) by their flat, petioled leaves, and from the firs (Ables) by their pendulous cones, whose scales are persist- ent. See CONIFERS. CHARLES E. BESSEY. TSiiga’rii: the ancient name of a district which ‘lies in the extreme north of the main island of Japan, and gives its TUBER name to the strait separating this from the island of Yezo. The family holding sway in the district also bore this name, their castle-town being at Hirosaki (pop. 33,000), a garrison town, the barracks of which occupy the site of the old cas- tle. The finely symmetrical mountain Iwaki San (4,500 feet) is known as Tsugaru Fuji from its resemblance to Fujiyama. The mottled green and red lacquer known as seaweed also takes its Japanese name from the district. J. M. DIXON. T811111’ ga: a town in Central Japan; on the west coast; about 50 miles N. of Kioto and 20 miles from Lake Biwa (see map of Japan, ref. 6-C). It is the terminus of a branch line of railway, leaving the trunk line at Nagahama, and possesses the best harbor on the northwest coast of Japan, a coast, however, singularly destitute of good harbors. The deep bay at the head of which the town is situated is much exposed, but is protected by a breakwater, and vessels of the largest draught can anchor in safety. Pop. (1892) 12,000. J. M. DIXON. Tsu'shima: two islands in the sea of Japan, midway be- tween the Korean peninsula and the island of Kiushiu ; separated from the former by the Broughton Channel, from the latter by Krusenstern Strait. Area, 36169 sq. miles. Their distance from the harbor of Fusan, in Korea, is only 30 miles, and their military importance is fully recognized; they are known as the western gate of Japan. During the troubles of the restoration period of 1868-70 the Russians were a short time in occupation ; since then the islands have been strongly fortified and well garrisoned. Though the climate is mild, the soil is not productive, and the inhabit- ants depend almost entirely on fishing for a livelihood. The chief town is Itsukubara, which has a fine harbor. Pop. (1895) 32,135. J. M. DixoN. Tuamotu, twa"a-m6’too, or Pomotu : a Polynesian archi- pelago belonging to the French, to the E. of the Society islands, extending N. W. and S. E. between 14° and 23° S. lat. and 136° and 149° W. lon., and passing to the S. E. into the Gambier and Mangareva groups. The islands are very nu- merous and comprise an area of 347 sq. miles, with apopula- tion of 4,775 in 1889. The islands are coral, often atols, sel- dom have an area, individually, of more than 10 sq. miles, and the largest is Turcia or Papakina, with an area of 37 sq. miles. They are divided into three groups, northern, central, and southern, and the central has the greatest aggregate area and population. Navigation among them is difficult and dan- gerous. The climate is regular, moderate, and salubrious. The soil is poor, the vegetation not abundant, and the prin- cipal source of wealth is the pearl-oyster. The language and people of Tahiti have the supremacy, but the racial re- lations are with Raratongo. MARK W. HARRINGTON. Tl1'a1‘eg‘S (Tawarek) : a race of Mohammedan nomads iii- habiting a great part of the Sahara or great African desert. from Fezzan W. to the Atlantic. They are believed to be allied by race to the Berbers, and are fanatic, faithless, and preda- tory. Their hair is straight, their features are Caucasian rather than African, and their physical development is fine. They have a written alphabet, but no literature. The al ha- bet contains I-Iebrew, Greek, and Roman letters, with ot ers. The Tuaregs are divided into large tribes, and greatly op- press the Tibbus (Tebu) their neighbors. Their number is es- timated at 300,000. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tuat’ : group of oases in the Western Sahara; to the S. of Oran, Algeria, on the Timbuctu route, in the French sphere of influence. They stretch over an area about 150 miles long by 40 broad, between the Tuareg country and that of the western dunes. The fertility of these oases depends on the waters of the Messaud river and its tributaries, and, to a greater extent, on subterranean water. The climate is rigorous, but salubrious. The soil is a rich alluvium, very fertile and productive. The chief reliance for support is the date-palm, and the number of these trees in the Tuat has been estimated at from 3,500,000 (Deporter) to 4,300,000 (Pouyanne). Barley, wheat, sorghum, pomegranates, melons, and onions are also raised in considerable quantities. Pop. about 100,000, comprising Arabs, Negroes, Sherifs, black and white Berbers, and their intermixtures. M. W. H. Tuatara: See HATTERIA. Tuber [ : Lat., swelling, hump, tumor, knob, truflie]: in plants, a thickened subterraneous portion of the stem, often bearing latent buds or eyes, and usually composed of cellular substance richly stored with starch or some other equivalent- principle. Many of the tubers, like that of the common po- tato, are of great value as sources of human food. TUBERCULA QUADRIGEMIN A Tubercula Quadrigemina: same as Corpora Quadri- gemina. See BRAIN. Tubercular Meningitis: See MENINGITIS. Tuber'culin [from tubercule + chemical sufiix -in]: a dark-brown fluid obtained from the pure culture of the specific germ of tuberculosis, and first prepared by Prof. Robert Koch, of Berlin, in 1891, for the cure of the early stages of tuberculosis; hence known also as Koch’s lymph and Koch’s specific. The remedy acts curatively upon lower animals, especially guinea-pigs and rabbits, and many un- doubted cures have followed its use in the human subject also; but it was quickly brought into discredit by the exag- gerated accounts of its virtue which appeared in the pub- lic press, and by its injudicious use upon far-advanced cases. It was also found that the remedy contained some toxic substances which, although well tolerated by lower animals, proved highly poisonous to man in doses several hundred times smaller than could be safely given to a guinea-pig. Those, however, who appreciated the significance of its cura- tive influence in the animal continued the use of tuberculin and increased the dose very gradually, and thousands of apparent cures are now on record by the best authorities both in Europe and America. The treatment was, however, tedious, and successful only in well-selected cases, and efforts were made at an early period for its urification, notably by Prof. E. Klebs in Germany and Dr. unter in England. In the meanwhile it was found that tuberculin, when given in larger doses, has a decided diagnostic value by its producing fever in tubercular animals and in man, whereas no such effect follows its application when the subject of such a trial is free from tuberculosis. This test is now largely applied to milch cows, and its benefits in thus preventing the use of the milk and flesh of tuberculous animals as food is of the greatest value in the prevention of human infection, as milk especially is now considered the usual mode by which the disease is communicated to man. Its diagnostic use for the early recognition of human tuberculosis is only a matter of time, and the test can be made perfectly safe. The efforts to purify tuberculin have also been successful, especially in the hands of Prof. E. Klebs, who separated the poisonous principles in the form of a toxalbumen and proved the cura- tive etfect of the purified remedy both in animals and in man; he also showed the absolute safety of it in doses many thousand times greater than could be given of the non-puri- fied substance. This purified tuberculin Prof. Klebs called antiphthisin, and it as well as the original crude tuberculin are now being produced both in the U. S. and in Europe. All those who have so far employed it testify to its safety even in large doses, and to its curative value, the time re- quired for treatment being very much shortened. This is confirmed by the resent writer’s experience of over a year in several hundre cases in which the remedy was employed. KARL voN Rucx. Tubereulo' sis [Mod. Lat., deriv. of tuber'culum, small swelling, tubercle, dimin. of tuber, swelling, hump] : an in- fectious and somewhat contagious disease of man and many animals, which is caused by the growth and specific action of a micro-organism, the bacillus of tuberculosis. No dis- ease has received a greater amount of study and none de- serves more, for its ravages are so great that not less than one-seventh of all deaths are due to this cause; and, if the‘ number of cases in which a small focus has existed and be- come latent or cured are added, it is not unlikely that the favorite saying of a great German physician is true, that “sooner or later everybody has a little tuberculosis.” The favorite seat of tuberculosis is in the lungs, but any tissue or organ of the body may be affected. Pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis is, however, so much more frequent that it has received the greatest attention, and has been the basis of most studies of the causes and nature of the disease. From the earliest times it has been known that the lungs of persons dead of phthisis contain yellow masses; these were called tubercles (small nodules), and from them the technical name tuberculosis is derived. From 1790 to 1820 Stark, Baillie, Boyle, and the immortal La'e-nnec contributed to more accurate knowledge regarding the earlier stages of these yellow masses. It was established that at the earliest stage gray or miliary tubercles will be found, and that these subsequently degenerate and become yellow. Gray tuber- cles may occur also in the membranes of the brain, in the pleura, pericardium, peritoneum, and in any of the solid or- gans; they may arise in the mucous surfaces, where they tend to degenerate with production of ulcerations. TUBERCULOSIS Clearly as stages of tuberculosis can now be traced, the variety of the gross appearances presented made the pathol- ogy of this disease a ground for the bitterest conflicts, and not until the middle or later parts of the nineteenth century can anything like a settled view he said to have been estab- lished. This uncertainty and difference of opinion are largely due to the fact that associated and not necessarily specific changes in the affected organs frequently so mask or alter the appearances that it was only with the utmost difficulty that the characteristic were separated from the non-characteristic morbid changes. For example. in the lungs the growth of the tubercles may be unassociated with other changes, and the resulting condition is what is now called miliary tuberculosis; in another case the lung sub- stance between the tubercle may be inflamed and solid, and the condition known as catarrhal or pneumonic phthisis re- sults; while in still other cases nature’s effort to cure the disease occasions an abundant growth of dense fibrous tis- sue, when the term “ fibroid phthisis ” is applied. The ten- dency in all parts of the body is for the tubercular masses to undergo cheesy change, and later to liquefy and form exca- vations. This is eminently true of the pulmonary forms. Causes of Tuberculosis.—Two factors are to be considered -the individual susceptibility and the infection by the tu- bercle bacilli. Susceptibility to tuberculosis depends upon many causes. In the first place, animal families differ in this regard. The disease is rare among the cold-blooded animals, but common among many of the domesticated ani- mals, particularly the ruminants. Of the greatest signifi- cance to man is the frequency of the disease in cattle, as has been shown at many large abattoirs and by the studies of veterinarians. Dogs, cats, and horses are less prone. The goat seems quite immune. Races of men differ largely in susceptibility in their natural state and under the influence of environment. In the U. S. the Negro seems specially sus- ceptible. The individual is affected unfavorably by heredity and by his surroundings, occupation, and the like. Heredity has always been looked upon, and justly, as a strong factor; but recent study indicates that in but very few cases is the dis-' ease itself transmitted directly from parent to ofispring. There are a few undoubted cases on record, but these are certainly exceptional, and it seems unlikely that new inves- tigations will show direct transmission to be frequent. The tendency to tuberculosis, the susceptibility,however, is regu- larly inherited, and especially from the maternal side. An individual with hereditary liability may increase this, or one without susceptibility may acquire it by the manner of life and surroundings. Any exposing occupation or ill-con- structed residence, or other causes that deprave the system or occasion pulmonary troubles, bronchitis, and the like, make the individual prone to become infected. Certain occupa- tions, such as mining, stone-cutting, grinding, hair-cutting or sewing, which expose the individual to the inhalation of dust, are notoriously liable to aid in the development of phthisis. As a deduction from what has been said, and as experi- ence proves, individuals strongly predisposed may escape the disease by the most careful attention to the care of health and the avoidance of the causes which specially in- crease susceptibility. The Bacillus of Tuberculosis.—The history of the discov- ery of the infectiousness of tuberculosis is of very great inter- est. V illemin was the first to offer definite proof by showing that inoculation with tuberculous material produces the dis- ease in the animal experimented upon. The final discovery of the bacillus itself was made by Koch and published in 1882. This is unquestionably one of the most brilliant contribu- tions to human medicine and to science in general ever put forth. The bacillus (see BACTERIOLOGY) has been proved by all the tests regarded as decisive to be the specific cause of all forms of tuberculosis. Without this bacillus, tubercu- losis can not arise. Jllodes of Infection.—(1) As a rule, the bacillus enters the system by the inspired air, and in this way the disease is mainly contagious. The breath of phthisical patients does not contain the bacilli, but the sputa become dried on floors or the ground, and are then carried by the air to the lungs of susceptible individuals. Actual proof of the infectiousness of the dust in hospital wards or rooms where tubercular pa- tients had lived was established by Cornet’s experiments on guinea-pigs. (2) Intestinal tuberculosis is generally due to the swallowing of infected material. In the case of patients suffering with tuberculosis of the lungs, the sputa swallowed 285 286 during sleep or at other times frequently causes tubercu- losis of the bowels. The infection may, however, be con- veyed by milk of tuberculous cows, by infected meat, or other food; and in particular the frequency of intestinal tuberculosis of children is attributable to this cause. (3) Some cases' of tuberculosis result from direct inoculation, as in cases of tattooing, vaccination, or injuries to the hands of surgeons or dissectors. Another example is the tubercu- losis of the genital organs, arising from sexual congress with an affected husband or wife. (4) Finally, direct transmission from the mother to her offspring during gestation, or from the father in procreation, is possible, but, in the human spe- cies at least, is very rare. , Varieties and Seats of Tuberculosis.—As has been said before, almost any structure of the body may be affected, and the appearances in the various situations vary widely in individual cases. Among the more common situations are the lungs, intestines, serous membranes, bones, and lymphatic glands. Since the discovery of the tubercle ba- cillus and the establishment of methods for its detection, a number of diseases have come to be recognized as tubercu- lous that were formerly not so regarded. Among these are scrofula (at least in many of its forms), certain bone dis- eases, lupus vulgaris, and other skin affections due to direct inoculation. Scrofula is of peculiar interest. In most cases this affects the lymphatic glands, which enlarge, case- ate, and soften, discharging thick purulent material. The disease may remain local or may break into the blood-ves- sels with resulting general infection (general miliary tuber- culosis). The glands affected are frequently those of the neck and those within the chest at the root of the lungs. In the former case the infection enters through the mucous membrane of the mouth, or nose, or through the lungs; in the latter through the lungs. It is to be noted that in many instances no local disease arises at the point of entrance of the bacilli, which simply pass through to the neighboring lymphatic glands, where they may lie dormant for a long time (latent tuberculosis), or occasion active disease of the glands. Many cases of general tuberculosis of obscure origin are traceable by careful search to such localized lesions of the glands or other parts which had remained latent before. Symptoms.-These depend to the largest extent upon the organ or part involved, but there are certain general indica- tions to be noted. The individual loses strength and flesh, he grows pale and worn in appearance, fever supervenes and becomes peculiarly irregular, coming on in the after- noon and subsiding in the morning; the patient perspires freely, and sometimes drenching night-sweats add seriously to his general weakness. Chills may be noted; and after a tedious illness, as a rule, the victim perishes of exhaustion and general intoxication. Individuals susceptible to the disease, especially to pulmonary tuberculosis, often present a characteristic appearance, in which the flattened chest,_ large bones, emaciated frame, straight black hair and dark eyes, and sallow complexion take a prominent part; but very often no doubt the appearances described as those of the “ tuberculous diathesis ” (or tendency) are in reality those of the beginning disease. External tuberculosis, such as that of the skin (lupus), bones, and lymphatic glands, is, as a rule, less malignant than that of internal organs, and may be attended by few general symptoms. Curability.—It is a widespread and not unnatural belief that tuberculosis is necessarily a fatal disease, but investiga- tion proves the contrary. Very many persons become tuber- culous and recover without having exhibited any decided symptoms, and in many more the disease is arrested before its ravages become extensive. Statistics of large series of post-mortem examinations, collected by various authorities, show that from 5 to 40 per cent. of all bodies examined show some evidence of past tuberculous disease which had become arrested. After, however, the disease has reached such extent that the symptoms are decided and the general health has materially suffered, the outlook is certainly grave. External tuberculosis is more hopeful than other forms. T/reatmcnt.—Fresh air, change of climate, tonics, nutri- ents such as cod-liver oil, and the careful regulation of every detail of the life of the patient, constitute the reliable treatment. Special methods are useful according to the 10- cality affected; and, in particular, surgical procedures are valuable in external tuberculosis. Specific remedies have been lauded by hundreds, but as yet none has been found. At the present day such antiseptics as creosote, guaiacol, and iodoform are in the ascendency. Koch, the discoverer TUBERCULOSIS of the bacillus of tuberculosis, introduced a hopeful method of treatment a few years ago, which consists in the intro- duction by hypodermatie injection of tuberculin,a derivative from the growth of bacillus itself. This was supposed to exercise antitoxic action, but the claims made for it (more by others than by Koch himself) have not been substan- tiated. In external tuberculosis it would seem to have done good in a number of reported instances; in internal tuber- culosis it is neither reliable nor safe in the form in which it is now obtained and used. As a diagnostic agent, in the de- tection of tuberculosis in animals, it has served a most useful purpose. In every case of tuberculosis of animals in which the remedy is injected an elevation of the body temperature of from one to several degrees occurs, and this does not oc- cur excepting in tuberculous animals. WILLIAM PEPPER. Tuberculosis (of animals), also known as Consumption: an infectious disease, caused by the tubercle bacillus of Koch and characterized by the development in various organs and tissues of small dense nodules (tubercles) which are prone to undergo softening and cheesy degeneration. This disease is most common in cattle and hogs, but it may occur in other domesticated animals. It is caused, in most cases, by contaminated atmosphere, in which the germs of tubercu- losis, having been expelled from the body of a diseased ani- mal, have become dry and mixed with the air as dust. Tu- bercle bacilli inhaled may lodge on the mucous membrane of the air-passages, and where numerous, or in the case of especially susceptible animals when few, will set up a local irritation at the point of lodgment or will be carried through the lymph-channels to the lymph-spaces or glands, and will there cause an irritation that is followed by the development of a tubercle-—the characteristic lesion of the disease. The tubercle is at first a very small grayish mass of spherical shape, and is made up of a dense collection of cells. As the disease progresses the tubercles grow and multiply; they become confluent, their centers soften, and cheesy change takes place, leaving them yellowish, semi-solid, or soft. In many cases of tuberculosis of cattle a strong fibrous mem- brane forms around the tuberculous areas, and the part in- closed becomes soft and pus-like. A lesion of this nature is usually described as a tubercular abscess. Tuberculosis may also be contracted by eating infected food, and this means of transmission frequently operates when calves or pigs are fed upon the milk of tuberculous cows, or when pigs are fed the refuse from slaughter-houses. Milk from tuberculous cows is recognized as an occasional, if not afrequent, cause of tuberculosis in people who con- sume it, and many cases of human disease have been traced to this source. Heating milk to 160° F. for fifteen minutes is sufficient to destroy the tubercle bacilli and render milk from tuberculous cows a safe food. The extent to which the cow must be diseased in order to render her milk in- fectious is a subject that has received much attention, and it is now well established that the milk is always danger- ous when the udder is tuberculous. It is frequently dan- gerous in very advanced, generalized cases, and some ex- periments indicate that it may be dangerous, in a low per- centage of cases in which the disease is not very advanced and is confined to organs at a distance from the udder. It may be, however, that more careful investigation in these last cases would have shown that the udder was in fact dis- eased, and the infectiousness of the milk thus accounted for. The flesh of tuberculous animals is regarded as dangerous to the health of the consumer only when the disease has reached the lymphatic glands between the muscles or is gen- eralized in the viscera. In all cases both the meat and milk can be rendered innocuous by cooking. Tuberculosis is spread among cattle chiefly by bringing healthy animals in intimate contact with diseased ones, as when they are members of the same herd. The disease spreads more rapidly in the winter, when the cattle are con- fined in the stable, than in the summer, when they are at liberty in the pasture. The prevalent impression that tu- berculosis is frequently inherited is erroneous, and may be traced to the fact that many of the offspring of tuberculous bulls and cows develop tuberculosis. This is due, however, to exposure after birth, and to the fact that a predisposition to, or tendency toward, tuberculosis can be inherited, and this renders the young animal prone to contract the disease when it is exposed to it. Tuberculosis of cattle is, in many of its forms and stages, a very diiiic.ult disease to recognize during life. This great diiflculty in diagnosis has made the extermination of the T UBE ROSE disease, which is based upon the removal of sources of infec- tion and the improvement of sanitary conditions, a matter of the greatest difficulty, for it is impossible by the ordinary methods to discover the tuberculous animals in a herd. The use of tuberculin or Koch’s lymph as a diagnostic has be- come general, and has given very satisfactory results. The tuberculin test, or the recognition of tuberculosis in the living animal by the use of tuberculin, is based upon the fact that when a small amount of tuberculin (02 c. c.) is injected beneath the skin of a tuberculous cow a reaction, or elevation of the temperature to the extent of distinct fever, is caused within from eight to sixteen hours, while in non-tuberculous animals no effect is produced. So far as known, this test is harmless to healthy animals, and has a curative tendency in many that are diseased. After tuber- culosis has been recognized in this way, in a milch cow, even though the animal may appear to be in prime order, the milk should not be used in a raw condition, nor should the cow be allowed to associate with healthy animals. LEONARD PEARSON. Tu’ berose from Mod. Lat. specific name tubero’sa (in Polyan’thes tu erosa), liter., Lat. fem. adj., tuberous, deriv. of tu’ber, tuber]: the Polyanthes tuberosa, an amaryllidaceous plant, a native of Mexico, much culti- vated in greenhouses, and in the open, for its beautiful and highly fragrant white flowers, which are extensively employed by perfumers. Some 24,000 lb. of tuberose flowers are yearly produced in the valley of the Var, in France, for perfum- ers’ use. The common name is de- rived from the tuberous character of the plant, and is therefore tuber- ose, not tube-rose. The plant has “a solid pear-sha ed tuber from the base of whic proceed roots, and from the apex long, linear channeled leaves, and late in sum- mer a stem 2 to 3 feet high, the upper art of which is crowded with s ort-pediceled flowers and the lower part bears a few short leaves. The flowers consist of a funnel-shaped slightly curved tube, with six nearly equal, spreading lobes often tinged with rose with- out and creamy white within.” Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Tubina’ res [in allusion to the character of the external nostrils] : an order of birds containing the albatrosses, petrels, and shearwa- ters, characterized by having the nostrils opening in a little, more or less complete tube, which forms a part of the beak. The bill is hooked, toes webbed, hind toe absent, or present as a single joint only. The wings are long, narrow, and pointed, the great length being due to the very elongate humerus, radius, and ulna. The order is usually divided into Diomedeidce, albatrosses, Procellariidre, petrels and shearwaters, and Pelecanoidiidce, the diving petrels; but W. A. Forbes makes only two divi- sions, one Ocea/nitidce, containing the genera Garrodia, Oceanites, Pelagodroma, and Fregetta, the other Procella- ridce, comprising all others. F. A. LuoAs. Tii'bingen: an old but interesting town of Germany, in Wiirtemberg; beautifully situated on the Neckar, 20 miles S. W. of Stuttgart (see map of German Empire, ref. 7-D). Its university, founded in 1477, has a botanical garden, a chemical laboratory, an observatory, and several fine muse- ums and collections connected with it. Reuchlin and Me- lanchthon were among its first professors, and in the begin- ning of the nineteenth century it developed a new school of theology. The manufacture of surgical and physical instru- ments and chemicals is carried on, also milling, dyeing, and book-printing. Pop. (1890) 13,273. Tiibingen School: the common title of three grou s of theological and excget-ical writers connected with the ni- versity of Tiibingen in Germany. (1) The old Tiibingen school, founded by Gottlob Christian Storr (professor 1775- 1805), and whose best-known members were the brothers Johann Friedrich and Karl Christian Flatt (professors Double tuberose (Poly- anthes tuberosal. TUCKER 287 1792-1821 and 1804-1843, respectively), Ernest Gottlieb Bengel, grandson of the great Bengel (professor 1806-26), and Johann Christian Friedrich Steudel (professor 1815- 37). This school based belief in the Bible upon the author- ity of Jesus. Its theology was the biblical supranaturalistic. Starting with the doctrine that the Bible was a revelation, it defended its position by an appeal to Scripture inter- preted by a grammatical and historical exegesis in opposi- tion to the current rationalism. (2) The modern or younger Tiibingen school, founded by Ferdinand Christian Baur (pro- fessor 1826-60), and whose principal pupil was David Fried- rich Strauss. It began with studies in the history of Chris- tian doctrines, transforming the various systematical repre- sentations of the divine revelation into a simple historical evolution. It then subjected the documents of the Christian religion, the books of the New Testament, to a searching critical examination, attacking both their authenticity and their integrity. Finally, it undertook a reconstruction of the origin and develo ment of Christianity, without admit- ting such ideas as reve ation, inspiration, miracles, etc., as op- erating forces. Although Baur refused to acknowledge him- self a pupil of Hegel, the fundamental principles of the school concerning the nature of religion and the progress of his- tory were adopted from the philosophy of Hegel. (See R. \V. Mackay, The Tilbingen School and its Antecedents, London, 1863). (3) The Roman Catholic Tiibingen school, founded by Johann Adam Miihler (professor 1828-35), which, although sincerely endeavoring to increase friendly relations between the Roman Catholic and Protestant communions, idealizes the Tridentine theology and somewhat caricatures the Prot- estant. See C. von Weizsiicker, Lehrer und Unterricht an der evangelisch-theologischen Fahultdt der Universitdt Til- bingen von der Reformation bis zur Gegenwart beschrieben (Tiibingen, 1877). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Tubular Bridges; See BRIDGES. Tubulariee : See HYnRoInA. Tuckahoe' : the Indian name of a singular vegetable sub- stance found under ground in the southern parts of the U. S., sometimes attaining the size, and having somewhat - the appearance, of a loaf of bread, whence it is often called Indian loaf or Indian bread. Its methods of growth and reproduction are unknown. It has been thought by some observers to be a secondary product caused by the degenera- tion of the tissues of some flowering plant, the mass after- ward becoming invaded by fungus mycelium. It was eaten by the Indians, and is said to he sometimes used, when boiled in milk, as a substitute for arrowroot. Revised by CHARLES E. BESSEY. Tucker, ABRAHAM: moralist; b. in London, Sept. 2, 1705; studied at Merton College, Oxford, and entered the Inner Temple, but retired to private life at Betchworth, near Dorking, where he died Nov. 20, 1774. After 1756 he de- voted himself to the writing of The Light of Nature Pur- sued (7 vols., 1768-78), an unsystematic treatise of great originality on morals, metaphysics, and theology. It has been reprinted several times; standard edition by Sir Henry Mildmay (1805). Tucker, GEORGE: author; b. in the Bermudas in 1775; emi- grated about 1787 to Virginia, where he was educated under the superintendence of his relative, Judge St. George Tucker ; graduated at l/Villiam and Mary College 1797 ; became a lawyer; was a member of the Virginia Legislature; sat in Congress 1819-25. taking a high position as a debater and constitutional lawyer; was Professor of Moral Philosophy and Political Economy in the University of Virginia 1825- 45, after which he lived in retirement, chiefiy at Philadel- phia. He was author of Life of Thomas Jefierson (2 vols., 1837); The Theory of M oney and Banks Investigated (1839); The Progress of the United States in Population. and ll/'ealth in Fifty Years, 1790-1840 (1843); History of the United States to 1841 (4 vols., 1856-58); Political Economy for the People (1859); Essays, 1l[oral and Philosophical (1860), and several other works; and contributed to numerous period- icals. D. at Sherwood, Albemarle co., Va., Apr. 10, 1861. Tucker, NATHANIEL BEVERLEY: lawyer and author; son of St. George Tucker; b. at Matoax, V a., Sept. 6, 1784. He graduated at William and Mary College; was admitted to the bar, and was judge of the Missouri circuit court in 1815- 30. and Professor of Law in \/Villiam and Mary College from 1834 till his death, at Winchester. Va., Aug. 26, 1851. He published Principles of Pleading (1846); George Balcombe (1836); Gertrude; The Science of Government, and other 288 rucxnn works; but his most noteworthy book was The Partisan Leader (1836), an unfinished historical novel, the scene of which was laid in Virginia in 1849, thus forecasting the future by some dozen years. It was reprinted in 1861 as A Key to the Disunion Conspiracy, to prove that the project of secession had been long entertained in the Southern States. H. A. BEERS. Tucker, ST. GEORGE, LL. D.: jurist; b. at Port Royal, Bermuda, June 29, 1752, but removed to Virginia in his early youth; graduated at William and Mary College 1772; studied law; was concerned in an expedition against Ber- muda, where he aided in the capture of a fortification and of alarge amount of stores 1776; was lieutenant-colonel at Yorktown, where he was severely wounded in the knee and rendered lame for life; married Mrs. Frances Bland Ran- dolph, mother of John Randolph, 1778; became a member of the Virginia general court (legislature), professor at Will- iam and Mary College, commissioner to revise and digest the laws of Virginia, and a delegate to the convention at Annapolis, Md. (1786), which took the initiative in recom- mending the formation of a national constitution; was a judge of the State courts of Virginia nearly fifty years, judge of the court of a peals 1803-11, and of the U. S. dis- trict court of Eastern irginia 1813-27, and was noted for wit, poetical talent, and legal attainments. D. at Edge- wood, Nelson co., Va., in Nov., 1827. He was the author of How far the Common Law of England is the Common Law of the United States: A Dissertation on Slavery, with a Proposal for its Gradual Abolition in Virginia (Philadel- phia, 1796) ; Letter on the Alien and Sedition Laws (1799) ; and edited Blachstone’s Commentaries, with Notes of Refer- ence (Philadelphia, 5 vols., 1803). See Lanman’s Biograph- ical Annals. Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Tucker, SAMUEL: b. at Marblehead, Mass., Nov. 1, 1747 ; bred to the sea; was a captain sailing from Boston to Lon- don before the Revolution; commissioned a captain in the new American navy May 15, 1777; commanded the frigate Boston, in which he conveyed John Adams, minister to France, to his destination, Feb., 1778; took several prizes 1779; aided in the defense of Charleston, S. C., but became a prisoner at its capture, May, 1780; was exchanged June, 1781; took command of the Thorn, with which he made many prizes; received the thanks of Congress at the close of the war; settled at Bristol, Me., 1792; was for several years a member of the legislatures of Massachusetts and Maine, and in 1812 captured by stratagem a British vessel which had greatly annoyed the shipping of Bristol. D. at Bremen, Me., Mar. 10, 1833. His Life was published by John H. Sheppard in 1868. Tuckerman, BAYARD: author; b. in New York, July 2, 1855. He graduated at Harvard in 1878, and has published A History of English Prose Fiction(1882); Life of Lafayette (1889) ; Peter Stuyvesant (1893); William Jay and the Abo- lition of Slavery (1893); and edited The Diary of Philip Hone (1889). Tuckerman, EDWARD, M. A., LL. D. : botanist ; b. in Boston, Mass, Dec. 7, 1817; educated in the Boston Latin School, Union College, and Harvard University; lecturer on history in Amherst College 1854-56; Professor of Botany there 1858-86. In 1868 he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. His most important publications, many of which appeared in The American Journal of Science and Arts and the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, relate to the lichens, viz. : A Synopsis of the Lichens of New England, the other Northern States, and British America (1848); Genera Lichenum : a/n Arrange- ment of the North American Lichens (1872); A Synopsis of the North American Lichens, part i. (1882); part ii. was published in a fragmentary state after his death (1888). In 1847 he began the publication of the Lichenes Americce Septentrionalis Easiccati, which reached 150 species (1855). D. at Amherst, Mar. 15, 1886. CHARLES E. BEssEY. Tuckerman, HENRY THEoDoRE: author; b. in Boston, Mass, Apr. 20, 1813; studied in the public schools of that city; traveled in Europe in 1833 and 1837, and devoted him- self to literature, criticism, and the study of art; settled in New York in 1845. Among his writings are The Italian S/cetch-booh (1835); Isabel, or Sicily, a Pilgrimage (1839); Rambles and Reveries (1841); Thoughts on the Poets (1846); Artist Life, being sketches of twenty-three American paint- ers (1847); Characteristics of Interature (1849 and 1851); The Optimist (1850) ; Life of Commodore Silas Talbot TUCUMAN (1851); Poems (1851); A Month in England (1853); Me- morial of Horatio Greenough (1853) ; Leaves from the Diary of a Dreamer (1853); Essays, Biographical and Critical (1857) ; Essay on Whshington, with a Paper on the Portraits of Washington (1859); America and her Commentators (1864); A Sheaf of Verse (1864); The Criterion (1866); Papers about Paris (1867) ; The Book of American Artists (1867); and Life of John P. Kennedy (1871). D. in New York, Dec. 17, 1871. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Tuoker1nan,JosEI>H, D. D.: clergyman and philanthro- pist; b. in Boston, Mass., Jan. 18, 1778; graduated at Har- vard 1798; was pastor of the Unitarian church at Chelsea, Mass., from Nov. 4, 1801, to Nov. 4, 1826; organized the Benevolent Fraternity of Churches for the sup ort of a city mission called the Ministry at Large, to which he devoted himself and in which he was a pioneer; was the organizer of the first Seamen’s Friend Society in the U. S. 1812, and visited England for the organization of charitable institu- tions. D. at Havana, Cuba, Apr. 20, 1840. He was the au- thor of numerous sermons and Reports, of eleven tracts for seamen, of a Prize Essay on the lVages paid to Females (Philadelphia, 1830); Gleams of Truth, or Scenes from Real Life (1835) ; and The Principles and Results of the Minis- try at Large in Boston (1838). The Tuckerman Institute in Liverpool commemorates his philanthropic labors in Eng- land, which were fully described by Miss Mary Carpenter in a llfemoir of Dr. Tuckerman (London, 1849). ' Revised by J. W. CHADWICK. Tuckerman, SAMUEL PARKMAN : organist and composer; b. in Boston, Mass., Feb. 11, 1819; received his first instruc- tion from Charles Zeuner; from 1840 to 1849 was organist of St. Paul’s church, Boston, going in the latter year to Eng- land to study the cathedral school of music. In 1853 took the Lambeth degree of Mus. Doc. and returned to Boston. He visited England again in 1856-60. He received the di- ploma of the St. Cecilia Academy, Rome, in 1852. For a short time he was organist of Trinity church, New York, suc- ceeding Dr. Edward Hodges. D. at Newport, R. I., June 30, 1890. His compositions are entirely sacred and comprise anthems, services, and other church music; he also edited several collections of church music. D. E. HERVEY. Tuc’Son: city; capital of Pima co., Ariz.; on the Santa Cruz river, and the South. Pac. Railroad; 86 miles S. E. of Maricopa, and 121 S. E. of Phoenix (for location, see map of Arizona, ref. 14-N). It is in an agricultural, stock-raising, and mining region, and contains the University of Arizona, a public high school, public library, 2 national banks with combined capital of $100,000, 2 daily and 3 weekly newspa- pers, and works for the reduction of gold, silver, and cop- per ores. The city was the site of an Indian pueblo and was for several years the capital of the Territory. Pop. (1880) 7,007 ; (1890) 5,150. EDITOR or “ ARIZDNA CITIZEN.” Tucuman’ : an interior province of the Argentine Re- public; bounded N. by Salta, S. E. by Santiago del Estero, and S. and W. by Catamarca. The authorities differ as to the area, but it is about 13,000 sq. miles. The surface is hilly, rising to mountains in the W., and the scenery is more varied and beautiful than that of any other province. The soil is very fertile, though requiring irrigation in parts ; the climate is mild and salubrious. Though the smallest, Tucuman is the most thickly populated and one of the most prosperous of the Argentine provinces; it is called the garden of the republic. The most important industry is sugar-planting, which is protected by heavy import du- ties ; most of the sugar and much of the rum consumed in the republic come from this province. Other products are wheat, maize, rice, tobacco, lumber, and fruits. The grazing industry is comparatively unimportant, and there are few mines, though the province is said to be rich in minerals. Pop. (1891) variously estimated at from 150,000 to 202,000 ; it is rapidly increasing. Tucuman was the Tucma (region of cotton) of the Incas, who annexed it to their domains during the fifteenth century. The colonial government (gobernacibn) of Tucuman embraced, besides the modern province, most of Cordoba, Rioja, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, Salta, and J ujuy ; it was subject to the audienoia of Charcas (now Bolivia), attached to Peru until 1776, when it was transferred to the viceroyalty of La Plata. H. H. S. Tucuman: a city; capital of the province of Tucuman, and the fifth town of the Argentine Republic in size and importance; beautifully situated on a plateau near the Sierra Aconquija, and a mile from the river Sali (see map of TUDA South America, ref. 7-D). It is connected by railway with Rosario and Buenos Ayrcs, J ujuy, and other points, and controls most of the trade of the northern provinces. The town is surrounded by orange-groves, and there are nearly 300 sugar estates in the vicinity, with thirty central fac- tories. It was founded in 1564 and removed to its present site in 1585. The streets are regular, but narrow ; the prin- cipal square is shaded with orange-trees, and fronting it is the fine modern cathedral, with other public buildings. The town has a national college, libraries, large hospital, etc. ; it is celebrated for its delightful climate. A congress of the Platine provinces (except Montevideo, Entre Rios, Corrientes, Santa Fé, and Paraguay) signed here the act of independence July 9, 1816 ; the building in which this con- gress met is carefully preserved in its original state. Pop. of the city (1891) about 40,000. HERBERT H. SMITH. Tuda : See DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES and ToDA. Tudawa: See TODA. Tu'dor: the family name of an English dynasty which occupied the throne from 1485 to 1603, when it became extinct upon the death of Queen Elizabeth. The family was descended from Owen ap Tudor, an obscure Welsh gen- tleman, who about 1423 married Catharine of France, widow of Henry V. of England. Their son, who was created Earl of Richmond, married Margaret, daughter and heiress of John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, whose father was a son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, but born out of wed- lock. The Earl of Richmond was legitimated by act of Parliament, but was expressly excluded from the succession to the crown ; but upon the failure of the real Lancastrian line, Henry, the second Earl of Richmond, was recognized by that party as their chief. I-Ie defeated Richard III. at the battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, and assumed the crown under the title of Henry V II., although without any legitimate right. He married Elizabeth, daughter of Ed- ward IV., and thus united the pretensions of the rival houses of Lancaster and York. The sovereigns of the Tudor line were HENRY VII. (1485-1509), HENRY VIII. (1509-47), EDWARD VI. (1547-53), MARY (1553-58), and ELIZABETH (1558-1603), all of whom are treated under their respective names. Tudor, WILLIAM : diplomat and editor; b. in Boston, Mass, Jan. 28. 1779; graduated at Harvard 1796; entered the counting-room of John Codman, an enterprising mer- chant, in whose employ he twice visited Europe (1800 and 1810); spent some time in literary pursuits at Paris, and traveled in Italy; went on a mercantile agency for the ex- portation of ice to the West Indies 1805; was one of the founders of the Boston Athenaeum; was an active member of the Anthology Club, and editor of and a voluminous writer for its literary organ, The Jfonthly Anthology (10 vols., 1803-11) ; founded The North American Review May, 1815; conducted it as a bi-monthly, and wrote three-fourths of its contents until Dec., 1818, when it was changed to a quar- terly and passed into other hands; published Letters on the Eastern States (1820), a volume of Jljliscellanies (1821), con- sisting of selections from his previous magazine articles, and a Life of James Otis (1823) ; was the originator of the Bunker Hill Monument (1823); was U. S. consul at Lima, Peru, 1823-27 ; became U. S. charge’ d’ajfaires at Rio de Ja- neiro, Brazil, 1827, and wrote while there his last work, Gebel Teir (Boston, 1829), an ingenious allegory. D. at Rio de J aneiro, Mar. 9, 1830. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Tuesday [M. Eng. Tewesdagj - .' v I tulips (Tulipa suaceolens) are smaller and earlier than com- mon tulips with acuminate perianth segments. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Tulip-tree: the Liriodendron tulipifera, a beautiful and noble forest-tree of the U. S. belonging to the magnolia family. Its bark has active tonic powers, and its wood is valued in house-carpentry and carriage and furniture mak- ing. It is often incorrectly called poplar, and sometimes whitewood. It is a fine ornamental tree. Tull, J rrrnao : agriculturist; b. in Oxfordshire, England, about 1680; received a good education; studied law; was They '- TULLAI-IOMA admitted as a barrister and made the tour of Europe, after which he settled first on his paternal estate and afterward on Prosperous Farm in Berkshire, near Hungerford, and gave his attention to scientific agriculture; invented the drill-plow, and published a famous work entitled New .Uorse-Hoetng Husbandry (1733), which long enjoyed great authority in England. The essence of his system consisted in planting in rows and in pulverizing the soil around the plants, but he made the mistake of thinking manure un- necessary, and his own experiments consequently involved him in serious losses. Yet he so emphatically and truthful- ly expounded the importance of tillage that his work is gen- erally considered to have marked an epoch in agriculture. D. Jan. 3, 1740. His work was edited by William Cobbett in 1822, with the addition of some scattered essays on simi- lar subjects. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Tullaho’ ma: village (incorporated in 1851); Coffee co., Tenn.; on the Nashv., Chat. and St. L. Railway; 69 miles S. E. of Nashville, and 81 N.W. of Chattanooga (for location, see map of Tennessee, ref. 7—F). It is on the Cumberland Mountain plateau, contains 7 churches for white people and 3 for colored, the Woolwine School (building cost $30,000), public school, 2 national banks with combined capital of $100,000, and a semi-weekly newspaper, and has 3 lumber- mills, flour-mills, and a hub, spoke, and handle factory. Its altitude and accessibility have made it a popular health re- sort. Pop. (1880) 1,080; (1890) 2,439; (1895) estimated, 3,000 Enrroa or “ GUARDIAN.” Tulle, tiil: town ; in the department of Correze, France; on the Correze; 61 miles by rail E. N. E. of Périgueux (see map of France, ref. 6-E). It is poorly built, but its paper- mills, sugar-refineries, tanneries, and wool-weaving factories are important, and its manufactures of arms employ between 1,500 and 3,000 men. The thin fabric called tulle takes its name from this place. Pop. (1891) 15,384. Tullius, SERVIUS: See Snnvms TULLIUS. Tulloch, J onx, D. D. : educator and author; b. near Tib- bermuir, Perthshire, Scotland, June 1, 1823; educated at St. Andrews and Edinburgh ; became in 1845 a minister of the Church of Scotland at Dundee: spent some time in Ger- many, familiarizing himself with speculative theology as there taught; became in 1849 parish minister of Kettins, Forfarshire, and in 1854 principal of St. Mary’s College, St. Andrews, Primarius Professor of Theology, and in 1860 senior principal of the university. D. at Torquay, England, Feb. 13, 1886. He was the author of Leaders of the Refor- mation (Edinburgh, 1859); Englts/t Parttantsrn and its Leaders (1861) ; Beginning Life (London, 1862) ; The Christ of the Gospels and the Christ of M'oolern Criticism -—Lectares on Renan’s—* We de Jésas (1864) ; Rat2Tonal Theology and Chr't'st'tan .Phe'losophy in England in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1872); Religion and Theology, a Sermon for the Ttme (1875); a volume of Croall lectures on The Chrtsttan Doctrine of Sen (1876); Pascal (1878); llloclern Theories tn Philosophy and Rel 279- ion (1884); .Movements in Religious Thought tn Brz.'tatn clartng the iVz'neteenth Century (1885) ; and several volumes of sermons. In 1855 he entered the lists with 1.200 com- petitors and gained the second Burnett prize of £600 for an essay On the Being and Attributes of God, which was pub- lished under the title Thetszn, the W/t'tness of Reason and Nature to an All-wise and Beneficent Creator (1855). He was confessedly one of the great leaders of liberal thought in Scotland; was a chaplain in ordinary to the Queen, and preached frequently before her at Balmoral, and in 1878 was elected moderator of the General Assembly. He visited the U. S. in 1874. See his memoir by Mrs. Oliphant (1888; 3d ed. 1889). Revised by S. M. Jxcxsox. Tullus Hostil'ius: according to Roman legends, the third King of Rome (672—640 B. 0.). During his reign the combat between the I-loratii and Curiatii took place, in con- sequence of which Alba acknowledged the supremacy of Rome. Subsequently the Albans meditated treason, and when Tullus discovered their plans he razed the city and transferred the inhabitants to Rome. 'I‘ully: See Crcnao. 'I‘uman, or lllikiangz See Kenna. Tfiinbez, toom’bath : a town of the department of Piura, Peru; at the extreme northwestern end of the republic, near the entrance to the Gulf of Guayaquil and a little back from the coast. It is of very ancient origin, was conquered by the Incas in the fifteenth century, and was their princi- TUNBRIDGE 291 pal frontier city in this direction. This was the first Peru- vian city seen by the Spaniards, and here Pizarro landed and began his march of conquest. The place is now unim- portant. Pop. about 2,000. H. H. S. Tumble-weeds: the popular name of many species of herbaceous annual plants whose many branches curve up- ward so that the whole plant is globular in outline. When dead and dry they break ofic at the root and roll away be- fore the wind, dropping their seeds here and there for many miles. They occur upon the prairies and great plains of North America, the pampas of South America, the steppes of Russia, and probably wherever similar conditions pre- vail. The most common tumble-weed of the prairies of the U. S. is Amaranthas yraectzans, but upon the great plains Cyeloloma atrnjaltctfoltum and Corispermnm hyssoptfofiurn occur also. About 1890 another tumble-weed (Salsola halt trayas) appeared upon the Dakota plains. It is a recently imported prickly weed, and is commonly known as the Rus- sian thistle. Many common plants in dry soils become tumble-weeds, a dozen or more having been catalogued for the U. S. CHARLES E. Bnsssn Tumors [: Lat., liter., swellings, deriv. of tume’re, swell. Cf. TUBER] : in pathology. swellings abnormal to the body : but in the usual sense inflammatory swellings are excluded. and the term is limited to distinct and abnormal growths ap- parently causeless and without purpose. The structure of tu- mors is in all cases but a reproduction of normal tissue, more or less faithfully simulated. The structure of tumors differs from that of the tissues which they simulate, mainly in being of a less fully developed character, in being less regularly ar- ranged, and in their tendency to undergo secondary degen- erative changes. Tumors are in some cases characterized by malignancy. that is by a tendency to recur when removed and to spread throughout the system by portions being trans- ferred from the original seat to other parts through the blood or lymphatic currents. The classification of tumors may be based upon their shape, their structure. or their nature, whether malignant or be- nign. The most scientific is the structural classification, ac- cording to which there are fibrous. bony, fatty, lymphatic, cartilaginous, and other types. called respectively fibroma. osteoma, lipoma, lymphoma, chondroma. etc. In this man- ner practically every tissue and organ in the body has its counterpart in some tumor. The malignant tumors are those which have always at- tracted the greatest attention. Of these there are two large groups—the carctnonzata, or cancers, and the sarcomuta. The former are composed of epithelial cells arranged for the most part somewhat after the manner of glands : the latter are composed of ill-developed connective tissue. The cancers grow where there is normally epithelium, as in the breast. stomach, or womb; the sarcomata, where there is mainly connective tissue, as about bones, in tendons, in the subcu- taneous tissues. and the like. The classification of tumors by their shape is the oldest and crudest. There are recognized in this classification polypoid. papillomatous, cystic, and other forms, but the na- ture of tumors taking the same shape may be widely dif- ferent. It has been one of the great difficulties in the work of pathologists to find a satisfactory explanation of the causa- tion of tumors, and numerous theories have been advanced. Some held that the new growth depended upon a general blood disease or dyscrasia ; others that local injury and irri- tation a.re the essential causes; others inclined to the view that some defective arrangement of tissue in foetal life leads to subsequent abnormal outgrowths; and most recently the parasitic theory has gained ground. The last refers tumors to the action of micro-organisms. In the case of certain growths in the lower animals and perhaps in man this theory has been substantiated; but the question is still very undecided. Doubtless each of the theories conveys part of the truth. \Vhile tumors are most dangerous in proportion to their malignant characters, a purely local and benign growth may at times be most dangerous from the pressure or other me- chanical eifects it exercises. WILLIAM PEPPER. Tl1nb1‘i(lg‘e, or 'l‘0nb1‘idg‘e: town; in the county of Kent, England; on the hledway; 29 miles S. E. of London (see map of England, ref. 13-K). It is noted for its manufactures of toys in Tunbridge ware, a kind of mosaic made of vari- colored woods. lt has an important grammar school, founded in 1553, with an endowment of £5,500 a year. Pop. (1891) 10,123. 292 TUNBRIDGE \VELLS Tunbridge Wells: town; in the county of Kent, Eng- land; 5 miles S. of Tunbridge (see map of England, ref. 12-K). It is celebrated for its chalybeate springs, and has been resorted to as a watering-place since the beginning of the seventeenth century. It has a fine common, command- ing beautiful views. Pop. (1891) 27,895. Tundra [from Russ. : barren moss-plain]: a type of tree- less, moss-covered plain, bordering the Arctic Ocean in Si- beria and North America. The tundra in typical localities is a moderately undulating, swampy country, covered with a dense carpet of mosses, lichens, and a great variety of small but exceedingly bright and beautiful flowering plants, with a few species of ferns and rushes. The monotonous surface is dotted with innumerable lakelets which are surrounded with rich verdure during the short summers, and is some- times broken by mountains and hills rising as islands from the sea-like expanse. The tundra, like other peat-bogs, is formed by the growth of vegetation above and its partial de- cay and accumulation below. The preservation of the vege- table matter is due to the fact that below the depth of about a foot the peaty soil is always frozen. As the thickness of the vegetable layer increases by growth above, the surface of the continually frozen layer rises. Under existing climatic con- ditions there seems to be no limit to the thickness that the accumulation may attain. Large rivers flow through the tundras, and in their banks a depth of from 100 to 300 feet of ice and frozen soil is sometimes exposed. The bones of extinct animals are frequently found in these deposits, and in Siberia the carcasses of the hairy mammoth and woolly rhinoceros have been found entire. In Alaska, on the border of Bering Sea, the tundra has a breadth of about 100 miles, but it increases in width along the shore of the Arctic Ocean, and in Asia is of still greater extent. The entire area occu- pied by these frozen bogs can not be less than 300,000 or 400,000 sq. miles. ISRAEL C. RUssELL. Tung’sten [: Swed., tung, heavy + sten, stone, alluding to the high specific gravity of wolframite] : a rare metal re- lated to molybdenum and uranium, whose atomic weight is 183'5 and symbol IV. The chief sources are wolframite, a tungstate of iron and manganese (Fe,Mn)O.\/VO8, which fre- quently accompanies native oxide of tin, and is found in Cornwall, England; Saxony; Bohemia; Wertschinsk, Rus- sia; Limoges; Bolivia; Monroe and Trumbull, Conn.; and elsewhere; and scheelite, which is a tungstate of lime (Ca- WO4). Tungsten is prepared by calcining a mixture of WO3 and carbon in a covered crucible, or by reducing WO8 in a current of hydrogen, or, again, by the reduction of the chlo- ride in the vapor of sodium. In order to obtain the pure metal the pure yellow-colored WO3 is ignited in a platinum or porcelain tube to redness in a current of pure dry hydro- gen. The powder thus prepared has a gray metallic luster, and has a specific gravity of 19129. Metallic tungsten does not oxidize in air at ordinary temperatures, but it burns at a red heat, being converted into WO3. When thrown into chlorine at a temperature of about 250° it combines with this element. By the action of aqua rcgia readily, or nitric acid slowly, it is converted into tungstic acid (H2W'O,), and when pulverulent it is oxidized and dissolved on boiling in a solution of the caustic alkalies or their carbonates. It forms a dioxide, WO2, and a trioxide, WO8. The latter, called tungstic anhydride, may be obtained as a straw-yellow, tasteless powder, insoluble in water or acids, but readily solu- ble in alkaline solutions by heating ammonic tungstate in open vessels. Tungstic acid, obtained as a yellow powder by adding hydrochloric acid in excess to a boiling solution of tungstic oxide in an alkali, forms acid and normal salts, generally of a complex nature, and yielding a white, spar- ingly soluble hydrate of tungstic acid, H2\VO4.H2O, when mixed in the cold with excess of hydrochloric acid. Meta- tungstic acid, I-I2W4O13 + 7H2O, furnishes salts which are mostly soluble and crystallizable, and may be prepared by the action of tungstic acid on tungstates, or by removing part of the base by means of an acid. Tungsten yields sev- eral chlorides, oxychlorides, bromides, fluorides, sulphides, and phosphides ; also silicotungstates and sulphotungstates. I ts com pounds are not poisonous. A class of compounds of WO3, WO2 and bases, called tungsten bronzes, are distin- guished by their metallic luster and bright colors. They are used as bronze powder substitutes. A sodium compound, Na2O.W2O7 + WO2, has been made in the form of gold-like cubes, which conduct electricity like a metal. Tungstate of sodium, prepared on a large scale in puri- fying certain tin ores, is used in place of sodium stannate TUNICATA as a mordant, and also to prevent muslin from suddenly ig- niting when brought in contact with fire, a little phosphoric acid or sodium phosphate being added to it sometimes, to prevent its decomposition. Tungsten alloys with iron in al- most all proportions, making it excessively hard. Steel con- taining 9 to 10 per cent. of tungsten possesses unusual hard- ness, but it has not proved a commercial success. An alloy of iron and other metals with 4 per cent. of tungsten, called sideraphite, is said to be very ductile and malleable and not readily acted on by acids. Revised by R. A. ROBERTS. Tunguragua, to"on-goo-raa’gwa”a: an interior province of Ecuador, surrounded by Pichincha, Oriente, Chimborazo, Bolivar, and Leon. Area, 1,686 s . miles. It is in the An- dine region and is crossed by the astern Cordillera. The Tunguragua volcano, from which it takes its name, is 16,690 feet high and is noted for its violent eruptions ; it is one of the most imposing peaks of the Andes. Pop. of the province (1889), estimated, 103,000. Capital, Ambato. H. H. S. Tungu’ses : a Mongolian tribe, inhabiting the regions of Siberia from the Yenisei eastward to the territory of the Chukchees and to Sakhalin; the M anchus are of Tungusian stock. The Tunguses have flat faces, olive complexion, no beards, straight black hair, and oblique eyes. They are no- mads, and generally divided, according to the beast of bur- den which they principally employ, into reindeer, horse, and dog Tunguses. They are chiefly Shamanists, but Russian missionaries have labored with success among them. They number in Siberia 70,000, mostly in Transbaikalia and Ya- kutsk. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tunica’ ta [Mod. Lat., liter., neut. perf. partic. of tunica're, cover with a tunic, deriv. of tu’nica, tunic] : a group of ma- rine animals of great interest to zoiilogists on account of their relations to the VERTEBRATA (q. v.). Formerly they were regarded as molluscs, then transferred to the worms, and lastly, since 1867, associated with the vertebrates and usually, with these and a few other forms, constituting one of the great divisions of the animal kingdom, the branch or phylum CIIORDATA (q. v.). The vertebrate affiifi- ties are best exhibited in the larvae, which in general appear- Ci sb -~.\ -\ -- II-III --I I ’ -'/"I-/H - - . : ./" -.' ': I--1.1: :.'-". I-"2 1.‘-'-' .- a‘ ' I.‘ '_l,\-.'' U ' '..-.._~'|-_'_u"""' ' 6 I I’ I FIG. 1.—Tadpole larva of tunicate (based upon Seeliger), viewed as a transparent object: a, atrial opening; ch, notochord; e, endo- style ; ea, epicardial process ; f, fixing process ; g, gill-openings into penbranchial chamber (dotted); h, heart; 1', intestine; m, mouth ; n, nervous cord ; s, stomach ; sb, sense vesicle ; sg, sub- neural gland. ance are tadpole-like. In the larva (Fig. 1) the dorsal mouth connects with a large pharynx, on either side of which are gill-slits through which the water used in respiration passes out to the exterior. On the ventral wall of the pharynx is a groove, the endostylc (so called because earlier regarded as a rod), the function of which seems to be to guide the food back to the opening of the oesophagus. The alimentary ca- nal is folded on itself and opens in close proximity to the outlet of the gills. Below the pharynx and stomach is the heart; dorsal to them is the central nervous system. This has in front a vesicular enlargement in which are the sen- sory organs, visual and auditory in function. Behind, the body is prolonged into a tail, and in this is an axial struc- ture, the notochord, which, like the structure with the same name in the vertebrates, arises from the entoderm. Gill- slits and notochord are peculiarly vertebrate structures. The tunicate tadpole resembles the vertebrates further in that the nervous system is not traversed by the alimentary canal, in the relative position of the various organs men- tioned, and in other details. An important difference must be mentioned : in the true vertebrates the notochord extends forward far into the head ; in the tunicates it is confined to the tail, a fact which has led to the name Urochorda, some- times given to the group. In the typical tunicate the larva, after a short free-swim- ming life, fastens itself to some solid support by means of a (varying) number of fixing processes on the anterior end of the body ; and then begins the metamorphosis. The tail is absorbed and its various portions, including the notochord, T UNICATA degenerate. At the same time the body shortens and changes shape, so that the mouth and the opening through which the gills and the alimentary canal communicate with the exterior (atrial opening) are brought close together; the number of gill-slits increases ; and the long nervous cord of the tadpole is contracted to a ganglionic mass situated be- tween oral and atrial openings. The outside of the body soon becomes smooth, and all characters pointing toward the vertebrates are so thoroughly obliterated that no one not knowing the life-history would ever suspect the tunicates of being man’s degenerate cousins. The class of Tunicata exhibits considerable variety of form and range of structure, and is divided into three orders: (1) Larvacea or Copelatce; (2) Ascidiacece; (3) Thaliacece. In the first, Copelatw, are included a few minute marine forms, belonging to three or four genera (Appendicularia, etc.) which may be defined as Ascidian tadpoles with adult characters. They retain the tail of the larva above described, this structure being folded forward on the ventral side of the body. They have but a sin- gle gill-slit on either side, and yet, with these apparent char- acters of imma- turity, they are adults and un- dergo no fur- ther change. The Ascidia- cete, after pass- ing through the tadpole stage, lose the tail and develop adult characters. The body, typically, becomes more or less globular, --L‘--‘-I--1 the gill-slits in- crease in num- ber, and by the development of a fold in the body - wall, an atrial chamber is developed, into which the gills and vent empty. The external opening of this atrium is usually near the mouth, but in the Pyrosomes it is at the opposite end of the body. Three sub-orders of Ascidice are recog- nized. Two of these are fixed to some support during adult life, the third embraces free-swimming forms. The illo- nascidice are either solitary, or when they form colonies the new individuals arise from root-like stolons, and each number of the colony has its own atrium. In the second sub-order, the Synascidice, we find only colonial species, the individuals being covered by a common envelope or mantle, and arranged, usually in a star-like manner, around a com- mon atrium. In the free-swimming Lucioe the individuals are colonial, the colonies taking the shape of a cylinder. The mouths are all turned to the exterior, and the atria empty into the central chamber of the colony. Here belong the Pyro- somes of tropical seas, celebrated for their phos- phorescence. In the largest species the colony may reach a length of 15 inches. The T/ialiacete have barrel-shaped bodies, with the mouth at one end, the atrial opening at the other, and the similarity to a barrel is strengthened by the circular muscles which run round (incomplete rings in Salpa) the transpar- ent body like hoops. The gill-slits also are less numerous than in the Ascidiacece, there being two rows in Doliolum, only two openings in Salpa. In these there is an alternation of gen- FIG. 2.—Diagram of young tunicate, with nearly adult characters : letters as before, except 1), central gan lion; ch, degenerating notochord surrounded y remains of tail ; t, cast-off cel- lulose sheath of tail. erations, but only that of Salpa need be men- -~ -2 5’ tioned, it being especially interesting from the fact that it was the first instance known, and was discovered by the poet Chamisso. From each egg there develops a “solitary form ” which is with- --EL_ 2*.“ ’_" TUNIS 293 becomes divided into distinct salps, each of which contains an egg. This second generation remains attached to each other through life, constituting the “chain form.” The contained eggs undergo their development and give rise, in turn, to the solitary condition. The literature of the Tunicata must be sought in special papers. In Korschelt and Heider’s Embryologie is a sum- mary of the development of Tunicata and a list of the most important papers on them. Little is known of the Ameri- can species, excepting those of New England, for which see Verrill in Report of the U. S. Fish Commission for 187 -7 2 (1874). J . S. KINGSLEY. Tu’nis (Fr. Tunisie): a French protectorate in North Africa; bounded E. by Tripoli and the Mediterranean, NV. by Algeria, N. by the Mediterranean, and S. by the Sahara; area, 45,716 sq. miles. The coast to the E. of the Gulf of Tu- nis is low and sandy; to the W. it is rocky and bald, forming lofty promontories, among which Cape Blanc is the northern- most point of Africa. The interior is traversed by nearly parallel chains of the Great and Little Atlas, whose average height is between 4,000 and 5,000 feet, and which form sev- eral elevated plateaus of great extent. A number of shallow salt-marshes in the southeast are below the level of the sea. The climate is dry and hot, and the soil produces large crops of wheat, maize, dhurra, and barley; cotton, indigo, saffron, and tobacco are also cultivated. Olive and date plantations are very numerous and very remunerative, and all South European fruits grow abundantly. Oxen, sheep, mules, and camels are the common domestic animals, and they are all of good breed. Salt and lead are produced, though mining, like agriculture, is very carelessly carried on. Some branches of manufacture, such as woolen fabrics, especially the well- known red caps, dyed skins, morocco leather, and coral, are extensively developed. Pop. 1,500,000, chiefly Berbers and Arabs. Tunis occupies nearly the territory of ancient Carthage. With Sicily it formed the granary of Rome. On the disso- lution of the Roman empire it became a province of the Greek empire, from which it was conquered by the caliphs of Bagdad. From the twelfth century to the sixteenth it formed an independent state, and became the terror of _all the nations around the Mediterranean on account of its piracy, which did not cease until near the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1574 the country became depend- ent on Turkey. Oct. 25, 1871, the bey obtained an imperial firman which made him virtually independent; but of this independence he was deprived by the French, who landed an army in the country in 1881, and, under form of a treaty signed May 12, 1882, reduced him to a state of vassalage. The French resident is called charge’ d’afi’aires, and prac- tically administers the government of the country under the direction of the French foreign office and by means of a staff of French judges and officials of all kinds. In 1894 there was a revenue of $4,646,200 and an expenditure of $4,626,- 770. Tunis has 260 miles of railway from the capital to Goletta and to the Algerian frontier. Revised by C. C. ADAMS. Tunis: capital of the state of Tunis; near the Gulf of Tunis; surrounded by a double wall and defended by a citadel (see map of Africa, ref. 1-D). Its streets are narrow, unpaved, and filthy, but its houses, though only one story l.‘/‘Q//‘ \; |||\I|i||||' ~ . I 1. I ' , . . *. 5 ‘ ~i s‘; r 4 \‘I'\ I i ' , , . \' \v" A I I Y . 1 ;.| '_ A’-,' Y \ -\-\.v:.~ 1‘ . . "4' - — \ _ - » _ ‘_ - '\ \- N -- ‘ - ' ' :4 ,_ . \§' __--_—_ ~¢_- _ _r__ _§“,.‘l°‘_-f\ .»=-:J'"" "T - - -:—— ~ -- 1» 3- -. , --/I-= ~""?:= -5'~’~*"““l‘¢-;<.::~EC—,'-I-' ' ,; -1” v _ :_,/,-/3-“__’4 - ' - ‘Q \~l . ' 4 .4 . -Q-'-*.t---: N : \ “Ry ‘''Q-- - I?‘-l\“=‘.-.-.‘.= .».- — -~ -'=~ -\~ " ' ‘ ~ "‘ ~ . _.._ -._. } ‘ us‘ 1.‘... ._, -4* 9 ‘a-"‘-. >.* --__._’.$’_‘ .-A ..A,. = ' Q“ “ ‘i. =3"-< . . -, L ' . fix ,,-...,:;_ :~ ,,.",=‘-r .,--_. 1 ' '.:..-ma ____ .-‘_;-~).:'>-_»:r '-‘-.-.__,¢-_-: -—— J“ ‘‘ The bey‘s alace, Tunis. high and presenting no windows to the streets, are substan- out sexual organs. In the body of this a stolon arises and tially built, and many are finely fitted up in Oriental style. 294 TUNJA Each house is erected in the form of a court, into the yard of which all the rooms open, and this yard is generally paved with marble and provided with a fountain, which is supplied with water from a large tank or cistern on the roof of the building. The palace of the bey and several of the mosques are fine edifices, and the bazaars are large and well stocked. Silk and woolen manufactures are extensively car- ried on; caps, shawls, burnooses, turbans, and mantles, soap, wax, olive oil, and leather are also manufactured and ex- ported, and the transit trade between Europe and the interior of Africa is important. Pop. 135,000, of whom 20,000 are Europeans and 40,000 Jews. Revised by C. C. ADAMS. Tunja, toon’kha”a: capital of the department of Boyaca, Colombia; near the sources of the river Sogamoso; 75 miles N. N. E. of Bogota, and 9,164 feet above the sea (see map of South America, ref. 2—B). It was founded in 1538 on the site of Hunsa, the ancient capital of the northern Chibchas; during the colonial and revolutionary period it was impor- tant, but it is now somewhat decadent. Near by is the bat- tle-field of BOYACA (q. *0). Pop. about 8,000. H. H. S. Tunkers: See DUNKERS. Tunkhan’nock: borough; capital of Vllyoming co., Pa. ; on the Susquehanna river, and the Lehigh Valley and the Montrose railways; 28 miles S. by W. of Montrose, 32 miles N. by W. of \Vilkesbarre (for location, see map of Pennsyl- vania, ref. 2-H). It is in an agricultural region, and has several planing-mills, iron-foundries, a national bank with capital of $100,000, and three weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,116; (1890) 1,253. Tunnels and Tunneling [from 0. Fr. tonnel, tun, cask, pipe, tunnel for partridges (> Fr. lonnean, tun, cask), dimin. of tonne, tun, cask, pipe, from O. H. Ge-rin. tnnna > Germ. lon- ne]: Tunnels are subterranean passages constructed with- out removing the superincumbent earth. The construction of such subterranean passages is called tunneling. Similar works executed by excavating from the surface and refilling after the construction of the arches or other supports are properly “ covered ways,” although generally called tunnels, and are here included under that term. Mining tunnels which are not strictly through passages are called galleries, drifts, or adits. The rock-hewn temples of Nubia and India and the tombs of Egypt, although constructed in the same manner, do not come under the definition of tunnels. Fergusson, however, says of the Turanian races, of which the Egyptians are the type, that “the existence of a tunnel is almost as ' 4’, “- ' s 1'. I :_ 1 ’ ->1-It BI\I._"\\.ABI.)v ’|)‘)"_‘e. BOTTOM ..-s_-.~J.~ ._ an/wine f\_ -‘ __\_‘i- -I- L L '_ _. __,-,_\__ -<_ 1--‘ -"\_..-‘I.--¥~.-‘ ____-—~. \ 1/M "‘ -- I .._ ~ -. \\| . . \\L l“_--,,"- nu \ TUNNELS AND TUNNELING the Apennines. The tunnel of Posilipo, 2,200 feet in length, on the road from Naples to Pozzuoli, was built about thirty- six years before the Christian era, and is still in use. The tunnel for the drainage of Lake Fucino (or Lake Celano), built about 52 A. D., was about 3-.) miles long. Numerous shafts were used in its construction, which extended over eleven years. Its modern reconstruct-ion (see below) is one of the great works of the nineteenth century. In all these tunnels the rock was excavated with the chisel, gad, and pick, blasting being then unknown. In Egyptian quarries blocks are said to have been detached by cutting grooves around them with saws and tube-drills supplied with corun- dum or similar material. To these methods were added fires built in the face of the heading to heat the rock, which was then suddenly cooled, cracked, and disintegrated by the application of water. Drilling and blasting with gun- powder were first used in mining in 1613 in the Freiburg mines. A tunnel is adopted for passage through a hill or moun- tain range when the cost of an open excavation is greater than that of a tunnel, including its protective masonry. This is usually the case when the depth of the cutting ex- ceeds 50 or 60 feet. Tunnels are also built for the passage of rivers over which, for commercial or other reasons, bridges can not be placed ; under populous cities where the surface can not be obstructed ; and under lakes for procur- ing water-supplies. Preliminary to the construction of a tunnel borings are necessary to ascertain the character of the ground to be passed through. and the depth at which water will be found. Upon the data thus obtained the exact situation of the tun- nel is determined, and marked upon the ground with great precision and permanency. The small section of a tunnel limits the number of men that can work in it, and renders progress slow. For this reason access to it is sought at many points, where practicable, by means of shafts sunk from the surface to the level of the tunnel, from each of which two additional faces may be worked. The operations of tunneling may vary according to the character of the ground. A “heading” is a small section which is carried in advance of the other workings, and facili- tates their execution. In solid rock the work is slow, but very simple. In small tunnels (as single-track railway tun- nels) a heading at the top of the section is enlarged to the full width of the tunnel, and the rest of the section, the “bench,” is taken out by “ bottoming.” In the larger tun- nels the same method may be followed, or a “bottom” , I . ‘.1 41 - i‘:\.c‘ ’ , . .o. ~ I L Ff‘--'9"'\o~'.(.\J Q'- \“‘\J'\“:"b 1' ~’\ ‘'1 Que l,_'.,:jl 1°-..,I ~ ti} ;.. , 4 , v i., . ’ ..f . .‘ ;,: FIG. 1.—Timbering in soft ground. certain an indication of their pre-existence as that of a tomb.” The earliest tunnel known was made in Babylon to connect the royal palace with the temple of Belus on the opposite side of the Euphrates river. It was 15 feet wide, 12 feet high, and was arched with brick. There was a very ancient tunnel in Boeotia, said to have been made to drain Lake Copais; and in the sixth century B. c. a tunnel was built in the island of Samos which was 8 feet wide, 8 feet high, and 4,245 feet in length. Few tunnels for passage are found before those of the Etruscans, and after them the Roman works. These are numerous, though generally of small dimensions, made for drainage, for water-works, and some as highway tunnels. One of the latter class, built by Vespasian, carried the Flaminian Way through the range of heading is driven from which “ break-ups ” rise to the top, where a new heading is made and the work proceeds as be- fore. If the rock be deficient in hardness and cohesion, temporary props of timber are used as the work proceeds, and walls and arches of masonry subsequently replace them. In blasting the holes are drilled by machine-drills operated by compressed air, water under pressure, or electricity, and the explosives used are generally some form of nitroglyc- erine. The charges are simultaneously fired by electricity. Ventilation is provided partly by the air used in the ma- chine-drills, partly by fans or blowing-machines. Water, which sometimes accumulates in large quantity, is removed by pumps from the shafts, and by drains from the open ends of the tunnel when practicable. Tunnels in earth do TUNNELS AND TUN N ELING not require the drill or explosive, but need support at every step. Sometimes, as in the English system, the entire sec- tion of the tunnel is excavated before the masonry is begun. When a section (10 to 18 feet in length) of top heading is com- pleted, a bench is cut in the top on one side to receive the tim- bers that carry the roof. Into this a “crown bar” is rolled and a corresponding bench on the other side receives a sec- ond crown bar, all of large, round timber. Lagging boards support the ground between them. Chambers in the sides of the heading are cut down to the floor, in which props are placed to support the crown bars. The heading is widened and the operation repeated until the whole arch section is excavated. A transverse sill is placed under the props, and the excavation continued by similar methods to the bot- tom of the tunnel. At other times small drifts or headings are made at the sides in which the side walls are built, and the arch section is then excavated as before, or other small headings superimposed upon the side drifts permit the building of the arch in sections, after the completion of which the interior mass is excavated. By the Belgian sys- tem the central heading is carried down to the floor of the tunnel, the excavation for the arch is made, and the arch is built before the side walls; the “ bench” on each side of the central heading is excavated in short lengths. and the side walls built up under the arch. In more difiicult cases, where the ground is very soft, a shield is used. In its mod- ern form this is a short tube of steel or iron plates closed by .a diaphragm containing openings or doors. The rear por- tion of the tube incloses the end of the finished section, and leaves a space between it and the diaphragm in which a new short section of tunnel may be built. The material in front is excavated through the doors in the diaphragm, and the shield is pushed forward by hydraulic or other power. The earliest tunnel for transportation in the commercial sense was that of Malpas on the Languedoc Canal (now Canal du- Midi), in France, constructed by Riquet in 1666— 76. It is 767 feet long, 22 feet wide, and 27 feet high. The next French tunnel, that of Rive de Gier on the Givors Canal, was built in 1770; that of Torcy on the Canal du Centre in 1787. The Tronquoy tunnel (St. Quentin Canal) was the first built in soft ground (sand), and the methods there followed are now known as the French or the German system. The tunnel of Riqueval, 31} miles long, made in 1803 on the same canal, is the longest of the navigation tunnels, all of which are of good size. The Pouilly tunnel (1824) is over 2 miles in length. The Noireau tunnel, on a feeder of the St. Quentin Canal, is 5 feet wide and 71} miles long. The French canal tunnels which are on the main lines of transportation are now operated by steam or electricity. On the Riqueval tunnel a train of twenty or thirty barges (300 tons each) is taken through by a steam tow-boat work- ing on a chain laid in the bottom of the canal. The earliest English tunnels were also on canals, but of much smaller section than those of France. The first iii point of time is the Harecastle, by James Brindley, on the Trent and Mersey Canal in 1766-77, 8,640 feet long, 12 feet high, and only 9 feet wide, passing a boat 7 feet wide pro- pelled by “ leggers,” men lying on their backs and pushing with their feet against the sides and roof. Fifty years later it was supplemented and superseded by another tunnel 13% feet wide and 17% feet high. Many other canal tunnels were built up to 1826, when the canal system of England was for the time completed. The tunnel on the Union Canal, built 1818-21, was the first constructed in the U. S. It was 450 feet long, 20 feet high, and 18 feet wide. The first railway tunnel was on the ~ Allegheny Portage Railroad, by Solomon Rpberts, in 1831- The earliest in which shafts were used was the Black Rock tunnel in 1836-37, by VV. I-I. I/Vilson. The introduc- tion of railways about 1830 and their rapid extension re- -quired the construction of many tunnels, often, in the earlier days, to avoid grades now of everyday occurrence which were then deemed unworkable. Of the older English tunnels the Kilsby, by Robert Stephenson, 1:} miles long, was of very diflicu-lt and expensive construction by reason of quicksands saturated with water. The Box tunnel, by Brunei, 1%} miles in length, encountered great quantities of water. The brickwork lining of the Sydenham tunnel was pressed out of shape repeatedly by the swelling of the Lon- don clay in which it lies, and the final form required to resist this pressure is nearly circular, with the brickwork :about 3 feet thick. In more recent times, owing to the extension of railways. tunnels are of such common occurrence that although many 295 of them are works of great length and difficult construc- tion, it is impossible to refer to any but those of special in- terest. The three great rock tunnels of the world are the Mt. Cenis (Col de Fréjus), the St. Gothard, and the Arl- berg, to which may be added in the U. S. the Hoosac tunnel, all, except the single shaft of the latter, built without shafts. To these will soon be added the Simplon tunnel—the long- est of all. The first in order of time, usually known as the Jlfont Cenis tunnel, is in fact the tunnel of the Col de Fréjus. The Col de Fréjus is a depression in the crest of the Cottian Alps, about 16 miles S. W. from the summit of the Mt. Cenis pass, and rising to a height of about 9,500 feet above the sea, about a mile above the culminating point of the ex- cavation. The material traversed for about 6 miles from the southern entrance was calcareous schist, followed about 1,000 feet of gypsum and dolomitic rock, then about the same distance of refractory quartzite, and finally 1% miles 20 - \__“\$_::_-C- —————————————— —- -<'B 3 i E ‘~13 H =_ - F 3‘ FIG. 2. of anthraciferous formation. The excavations consist of a straight gallery, A B (Fig. 2), through the mountain, and the two junction galleries, C D and E F, to connect with the rail- way to Bardonecchia, in Piedmont. on the southern and Mo- dane, in Savoy, on the northern side. The straight gallery, A B, is 38,173 feet in length, the junction galleries, C D and E F, nearly 2,500 and 1,500 feet, respectively. The termini at A and B are left open for ventilation and convenience of access. The length of tunnel traversed by trains is 42.158 feet, or less than 30 yards short of 8 miles. The junction curves were made not only to avoid short curves on the con- necting railways, but to leave the mountain more nearly at right angles to its stratification, slight movements of the mountain slope across the line of the tunnel having already been observed. The southern entrance is 4.236 feet above sea-level. From this point the grade ascends 8 feet in 18,- 325 feet to a summit-level 1,082 feet long; thence it de- scends by a uniform grade of 115 feet to the mile to.the northern terminus, 3,801'4 feet above the sea, or 434 feet lower than the southern entrance. The width of the tunnel is 26 feet. its height is 1968 feet at one end, 1868 feet at the other. The total quantity of rock excavated was nearly 1,000,000 cubic yards. The lining is of stone masonry, from 28 to 40 inches thick. About 16,000.000 bricks were em- ployed for subsidiary purposes, about 15,000 tons of hy- draulic lime were used, and some 1,200 tons of gunpowder for blasting. From the beginning of the works in 1857 un- til the invention of the machine-drill by one of its engineers in 1861, progress by hand-labor was very slow. After 1861 in the southern division and 1863 in the northern, drills driven by compressed air were used. The air not only 0 erated the drill, but on its escape from the machine ven- tilated and by expansion cooled the gallery. In 1863 the rate of progress, average of both ends, was 7 feet a day; but as experience was gained and the machines perfected, the rate increased to 14%} feet in the last year. The tem- perature near the center of the tunnel is constant at about 85° F. Upon breaking through the last partition of rock between the headings a strong current of air poured through from the N ., and this, as might be expected from the difference of elevation of the two extremities. is said to maintain itself constantly, greatly facilitating the ventila- tion. As early as 1832 a peasant mountaineer suggested a tunnel under the Col de Fréjus. In 18-15 engineers were employed to plan the work. One of them, Mans. a Belgian. invented a drilling-machine which was perfected later by Bartlett, Sommeiller, Grandis, and Grandoni. Colladon pro- posed the use of com pressed air to work the drills and sup- ply ventilation. Thc S2‘. Goz‘ha/rd T'u'nneZ. From remote ages until a very recent period most of the travel and a large proportion of the merchandise passing between Italy and her seaports 011 the one hand, and Switzerland, Northeastern France, Cen- tral and \Vestern Germany, and Northern Europe on the other, were conveyed over Alpine passes having their north- ern termini in Switzerland. After the completion of the -three great highways—-the Simplon in 1806, the Spliigen in 1822, and the St. Gothard in 1824, they monopolized most of this transit. On the completion of the Brenner Railway in 1867 and the opening of the Mt. Cenis tunnel in 1870, a 296 large proportion of this traffic was intercepted, and the con- struction of a direct and independent railway across the Alps was felt to be of vital necessity to Northern Italy and Switzerland, and of great interest to all the I/Vestern and Central German states. The Sim plon and the Spliigen passes were studied and rejected, the former because it would be tributary to French interests rather than to those of Ger- many and Switzerland, the latter because the route lay along the Austrian frontier and was therefore exposed to control by a hostile force. The St. Gothard line was free from these objections, the only serious obstacle being the tunnel, 9 miles long, involving a great expenditure and a long delay. In Oct., 1869, a treaty was concluded between Italy and Switzer- land by which the principal points relating to location, con- struction, and connections were determined, and in Oct., 1871, Germany also signed the treaty. The three contract- ing powers were to contribute 85,000,000 francs-45,000,000 by Italy, 20,000,000 by Germany, and 20,000,000 by Switzer- land. In Aug., 1872, a contract was made by the company with Louis Favre, of Geneva, for the execution of the tun- nel within eight years from the date of acceptance of the contract by the Swiss Government, at a fixed price per lineal meter, amounting for the whole to 48.000,000 francs. The line of the tunnel runs from Airolo N. about 5° \V., passes under the Kastelhorn (9,915 feet high), the St. Anna glacier, the village of Andermatt, the river Reuss at the Devil’s Bridge, and comes out at Gdschenen. The station at Airolo is 3,756 feet (1,145 meters) above the sea. The grade ascends at the rate of 1 per 1,000 24,280 feet (7,400 meters) to the summit-level, 590 feet (180 meters) long, thence descends by a grade of about 5% feet per 1,000 ('55 per cent.) to Gos- chenen. The total length of the tunnel is 9:]; miles. Although great diificulties were encountered in the execution of the St. Gothard tunnel, chiefly from the large quantities of water developed by the workings, the great advances in the art of tunneling since the completion of the Mont Cenis tunnel, and those made during the construction of this work enabled much more rapid progress to be made. The compressed air- drills were more perfect, as were also the installations for power from the torrents Reuss and Ticino, and the tunnel, begun in 1872, was completed in 1881. The excavated rock was removed and tools and materials brought in by a loco- motive worked by compressed air instead of steam. Where the tunnel passed under the plain of Andermatt, 1,000 feet above, on a length of 200 feet, it passed through decomposed feldspar with alumina and gypsum, which not only swelled by absorbing water from the atmosphere, but was subjected to the immense pressure due to the height of the ground above. The masonry arches were twice crushed, and were finally made of cut granite 5 feet thick at the top and 10 feet at the sides. The difficulties of the company arose from its embarrassed pecuniary position, which was a con- sequence of the insufficient estimate and the excessive cost of the work, both due to the shortsightedness of the first chief engineer. In such a difficult country he had aban- doned the bottom of the valley and placed his line high on the almost vertical flanks of the mountains inclosing the valley. His successor, Hellwag, suspended all work on the approaches and made a new study of the location. He kept the railway as nearly as possible in the bottom of the valley, and as in its upper portion the valley became too steep for the railway grade, elevation was gained by spiral tunnels, of which there are seven on the approaches north and south. The valleys of the Alps rise, as it were, by steps or terraces, facilitating and perhaps suggesting the use of spiral tun- nels, which it is proposed to adopt also on the approaches of the Simplon tunnel. The Arlberg Tunncl.—The province of Vorarlberg is sepa- rated from the rest of the Austrian Tyrol by the Arl Moun- tains, and was accessible therefrom only by a long detour outside of Austrian territory. To connect this province with the rest of the empire, and to make a more direct out- let for Austrian-Hungarian products to Switzerland and France, the Arlberg tunnel was constructed. After much discussion as to the location—eminent engineers advocating a rack railway with a shorter tunnel at a higher elevation— the location was fixed and the works begun in 1880. Its length is 638 miles. By reason of the improvements in the mechanical means of tunneling and carefully studied meth- ods, the rate of progress was much more rapid than in the long tunnels which had preceded it, and it was opened in 1883. The estimated cost was less than 35,000,000 francs. The rate of progress in the execution of these tunnels, although partly dependent upon the character of the rocks TUN N ELS AND TUNNELING encountered, is chiefly interesting as indicating the progress in the implements and processes of the art of tunneling. At Mt. Cenis (Fréj us) the daily advance with machine-drills was at first, in the argillo-calcareous rock, 6 ft. 8 in. a day; in the coal-bearing sandstones 3 ft. 4 in. a day; in the Triassic quartzites superimposed upon the sandstones, 2 feet a day. The average advance in both ends was about 8 feet a day, but in the last year the advance in the schist exceeded 14 feet a day. In the St. Gothard tunnel more improved air-drills were used, and locomotives hauled the cars used in construction. The quantity of water encountered was enormous—the head- ings were generally a foot deep with water. The material varied greatly in character. some of it being quite soft. The average progress was 14:} feet a day. At the Arlberg tunnel everything was carried on in the most systematic manner. Trains removing excavated rock and bringing in tools and materials were run by a time-table. The heading, 9'2 feet wide and 7'5 feet high, was in the bottom of the tunnel in- stead of in the top, as at St. Gothard, break-ups 160 feet apart connecting it with the top heading. The most im- proved drills were used——at one end the Ferroux, a ercus- sion drill operated by compressed air, at the other the randt, a revolving drill worked under great pressure by hydraulic power. About 1,760,000 lb. of dynamite was used. In this, as in all these tunnels, hydraulic power for compressing air and other purposes was obtained from the neighboring mountain torrents. The average rate of the advance was 27% feet a day, being more than three times as much as at Mt. Cenis, and nearly twice that of the St. Gothard tunnel, which it more nearly resembles in the character of the strata pierced. The following table shows at a glance the characteristics of these three great tunnels: NAME. Begun. Opened. Time building. Lrffifgetr’ ‘:::7'a(3:;ie1.y Mt. Cenis (Fréjus) . . . . .. 1857 1871 13 yrs. 74* 8'0 ft. St. Gothard . . . . . . . . . . . . 1872 1881 9 yrs. 5 m. 9} 146 ft. Arlberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1880 1884 3 yrs. 9 m. 6% 27 ‘8 ft. * Length of straight gallery. The actual length of tunnel operated is very nearly 8 miles. The Simplon tunnel, which connects the valley of the upper Rh6ne, in Switzerland, with that of the Diveria, about 16 miles from Domo d’Ossola, in Italy, will be 122,- miles in length—the longest of the Alpine tunnels. The contract for its construction was made in Sept., 1893. The plans have been carefully studied and some new features introduced. Instead of one tunnel for two railway tracks there will be two smaller tunnels, distant from each other 58 feet, each for a single line of rails. The two headings will be driven at the bottom simultaneously, with numerous cross-headings oblique to the line of the tunnels. Only one of the main headings will be enlarged to full dimensions; the other will await the demands of traffic for a second tunnel. The sec- ond heading will, however, be used during construction for the return of the construction cars empty or with materials for the work, while those loaded with the clébris of the ex- cavations will go out through the enlarged tunnel. Air will also be driven in through the second heading and in much larger quantities than in earlier works. The tempera- ture in the middle of the tunnel, estimated to be 104° F., will be cooled to 90° F. by sprays of water combined with a vigorous ventilation. Seventeen hundred cubic feet of air per second are to be provided, 212 cubic feet having been found satisfactory at Arlberg, where, however, the temper- ature did not exceed 67° F., and the length of the tunnel was but little more than half that of the Simplon tunnel. The Hoosac tunnel, on the line of the Fitchburg Rail- road in Massachusetts, passes through the Hoosac Moun- tains, a southern extension of the Green Mountains of Ver- mont. Its length is a little more than 4% miles. It has one shaft 1,028 feet deep. Begun in 1856, it was seventeen years under construction, including several long suspensions due to discouragements and want of funds. The greater part of the rock penetrated is a micaceous schist of varying charac- teristics, some of it very hard. Progress was expedited in 1866 by the introduction of machine-drills worked by compressed air. Its cost, including interest, was about $11,000,000. Tunnel of Lake Fucin0.—The Lake Fucino or Celano lies in a mountain basin in the Apennines, having no natural outlet. It is about 50 miles E. of Rome and 2,200 feet above sea-level. Its area has varied with its level. In 1816, TUNNELS AND TUN N ELIN G with a maximum depth of 75 feet, it covered 42,000 acres; in 1835, with a depth of 34 feet, but 33,000 acres were cov- ered. To reclaim an area of fertile soil, to reduce the waters to a permanent level, and to improve the sanitary condition of the vicinity, a tunnel discharging into the river Liris (now Garigliano) was begun by the Emperor Claudius and completed eleven years later. Its length was about 34; miles, its cross-section variable, but nowhere less than 102 sq. feet, with a grade of 1 in 1,000. A large number of shafts, both vertical and inclined, were employed, and all the work was done with the chisel and similar tools. It fell into decay shortly after its completion. It was reconstructed by Prince Torlonia in 1854-76, at a cost for the entire drainage works of $4,800,000, in such manner as to drain the lake entirely. The new tunnel underlies and replaces the old one, and is 2,200 feet longer. It has a section of 215 sq. feet, and is lined throughout with masonry. The Severn tunnel on the Great Western Railway of England passes under the Severn river at a point where the rise and fall of tide is about 50 feet. The length of the tun- nel is about 4% miles (2% miles between shafts on opposite sides of the river), and a drainage tunnel 7 feet square and 1%ths of a mile long leads from its lowest point to a pump-well 206 feet deep. It was constructed chiefly through the Per- mian sandstone on the one side and red marl on the other. Begun in 1873, it was not completed until 1885 owing to the very large irruptions of water. Twice the “big spring” was struck, discharging the second time over 30,000 gal. a minute, and in the same week an extraordinary tide over- flowed the surrounding country and flowed down the shafts. After the arch was built the brickwork was crushed by the pressure of the water from the “big spring,” which came from a very elevated source, and as a last resort the water was led away to a pump-well and permanent pumps estab- lished to pump it out. An interesting incident of this con- struction was the practical application of a method de- scribed in Jules V erne’s story, Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea. \Vhen it became necessary, after the flood- ing of the works, to close an iron door in the tunnel 1,000 feet from the shaft, the head diver placed a Fleuss appara- tus on his backand, without communication with the upper air, went into the tunnel to the door, which was rusted on its hinges, found a crowbar near by, and with much effort closed the door, and returned after having been about an hour and a half under the water. The attempt had previ- ously been made in the ordinary diving-dress, but three strong men had been unable to drag after them a sufficient length of air-pipe to reach the point desired. The Jlfersey tunnel connects Liverpool and Birkenhead. It is about a mile long, between large shafts containing ele- vators of great capacity, by which passengers between the two cities are brought from and taken to the surface. A drainage and ventilating tunnel under it was excavated at once to full size, in part by means of the Beaumont ma- chine armed with rotary cutters, which cut away the rock to a fairly smooth, true cylindrical surface. The ventila- tion of the Mersey tunnel, which is superior to that of any other operated by steam, is accomplished by exhausting the foul air through the sub-tunnel by means of fans, fresh air being supplied to the main tunnel from the ends. These two tunnels—-the Mersey and the Severn—are liter- ally “ subaqueous,” but, having been excavated through rpck in the usual manner, they are not included in that c ass. The Metropolitan and the Metropolitan District railways of London—the underground-—are chiefly “ covered wavs,” having been for the most part excavated from the surface and filled in and repaved after the construction of the arch. Three tunnels, however, aggregating about a mile in length, were made through very difficult ground. Built through the streets and under buildings in the most crowded parts of London, these works are models of ingenious and skillful construction, and are well worth study. The newer subways of London, as of Glasgow and elsewhere, are chiefly small tunnels in pairs built with shields and lined with irbn seg- ments. They are traversed by electric cars adapted to the size of the tunnel. This system of construction is well suited to the purpose for which it has there been used. By it the risk of disturbing buildings is reduced to a minimum. The Niagara tunnel is the tail-race of the large water- power established on the New York side of the Niagara river to utilize a portion of the power of the falls. The buildings are erected near the river, above the falls and the rapids. Water is supplied to the turbines by a short open canal, 297 and escapes from the wheel-pits into the tunnel, by which it is discharged into the river below the falls. The tunnel is 7,600 feet in length, 19 feet wide, and 21 feet high, with a '~ _; :e1 ,,=.s..-y/////%/.nV Power '”°"'” % 7/4 ,, O (‘ F4 -. Z/////W ti / N;-F.]I.P. lllf.-1:17 " Co's ganalgg l §;i~ 1\\ \ o\\\ \‘ 20 - ,4 TOWER ,' Q .---—-"' ‘é :--: §.‘X\él 3 an ' ' 01/{2(§\\<‘\<<§”\:° 1 \\ B} \\ \\:s 25 \ / \ A .r.///./,. ///~ s \‘ , V I /71’; /7,’ F1 ‘. v. l /6‘ ’“~>/ //7 ///I '~ I /é .';§,//// 4.? / I I / : “ \\ I /,/’ O I e / ¢/--1 1 “ I ‘- as i Aha '1///' ,, 1%» -~;::_ - ‘E51 SHAFT N v ’/ -ii I I\,.-/ 3 /'-. liint I . I an ’ |"'i ,1 s it 1 S I filI;l‘i “ ’ -“ Ill 2 " 5 %‘ il 5 /0’ 3 ‘.l ... ‘° 1' Sllltlll I "l g I Ki‘ 1| m I 1"‘ ll: 2 ' /4 :3 /I //1 ’ =: / =4 / " '- 5 / '/4 ///,/’ "'~ 7/4 // _\_ \ __ /,'I, 77 ////,% %/ ,/ / A ' , / , Q /1 / /’///4///, /I////// /1 '/ I ' // '// / // //// // J / / ,1 / / 1 / ,/ ' / /, // /,%'// ’// / / DOMINION OF CANADA FIG. 3.—Niagara water-power tunnel, map and section. sectional area of 365 sq. feet. At the upper end it is about 150 feet lower than the water surface in the river above; its discharge is about 200 feet below that level. Its ca- pacity is about 7,300 cubic feet of water each second. See WATER-1>o\vER. The valley in which the city of Mexico lies has no natural outlet for its waters, and formerly the plain around the city was covered with water in rainy seasons, except the cause- ways communicating with the capital. In 1607 Enrique Mar- tinez, a Dutch engineer in the employ of the Spanish Gov- ernment, proposed aud afterward constructed the tunnel of I-Iuehuetoca (now the cut of Nochistongo) for the drainage of the valley. It was built in a very short space of time, 298 though 4 miles long, and was arched throughout, but before the lining was completed and the bottom protected the walls were undermined in a great flood, and the tunnel fell in. The engineer was thrown into prison and kept there for three years. He was then released and ordered to make an open cutting in the place of his tunnel, in the execution of which he spent the remainder of his life. The construction of the cutting, however. extended over 120 years, and many lives were lost in its execution. The forced labor of the native Mexicans was so severe and the loss of life so great that it became a conspicuous cause of their hatred of Span- ish rule. The excavation was not carried to the depth of the tunnel, and was of little use for the drainage of the val- ley. During the French occupation of Mexico -plans were made for the drainage of the valley, and the project has been studied at various intervals since. In 1888 the plan was put in the way of execution. It consists chiefly of the tunnel of Tequixquiac, 6 miles in length, and 27 miles of large canal. The twenty-four shafts of the tunnel are from 75 to 325 feet in depth. The tunnel has a section of about 150 sq. feet, and a proposed discharging capacity of about 450 cubic feet a second. The works have been carried out by English contractors under the direction of Mexican engineers. In the construction of the great trans- Alpine tunnels an indispensable condi- tion was the proximity of sufiicient water- power to supply the mechanical force needed in their construction. For the tunnels on the trans-Andean line, con- necting Buenos Ayres with Santiago, the power obtained from waterfalls was transmitted to the sites 2 and 4 miles away by electricity. The summit tunnel on this line is over 3 miles long, con- structed for single track only, at an elevation of 10,460 feet above the sea. 1 The new (Croton) aqueduct tunnel of New York city, about 14 feet wide and as many high, has a length of 33 miles. It was worked partly from shafts nearly a mile apart, and partly from faces where the grade of the tunnel came above the natural surface. It is chiefly, though not entirely, through rock of variable hardness, and passes under the Harlem river in a perfectly dry rock 306 feet below the surface. Portions under great head are lined with iron in- side the brickwork. The work was generally not difficult, but one length of 110 feet occupied two years in its con- struction, and ranks with the most difficult works of the kind. The attempt was made to carry the conduit under the Harlem river in a tunnel 150 feet below the surface of the water. A pocket of very soft In-aterial was encountered, and to escape this, after several attempts to pass through it, the shafts were sunk over 150 feet lower. The Howard Street tunnel, operated by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, lies under one of the principal streets of Baltimore. It has a length of 1'4 miles, of which about 1,200 feet was built as covered way. It passed through sand overlying clay, with a good deal of water in places. The side walls were first built in narrow drifts, the top was then taken out by the crown-bar system, and after the arch was turned the bench was removed. About 90 feet in length of side walls settled into the soft bottom and were pushed in- ward, deforming and rupturing the arch-all due to the want of an inverted arch between the walls. This portion was re- built, together with some other parts in which the crown of the arch had settled, the result probably of defective pack- ing, and perhaps of other causes. The tunnel is lighted with electric (incandescent) lamps, and worked with elec- tric engines capable of hauling the entire train. including the locomotive, the furnace doors and dampers of the latter bcin g closed and steam shut off to avoid the escape of smoke and gases into the tunnel. All mining drifts are really tunnels, but they will not be treated here except to mention the Sutro tunnel, 49; miles in length, constructed to drain the lower levels of the Com- stock mine, in Nevada, which it reaches at 2,000 feet below the surface of the ground. The principal difliculty encoun- tered was the crushing of the sustaining timber, 16 inches square, by the swelling of the clay in which a part of the tunnel was excavated. It became necessary to cut off the protubcrant clay and renew the timbers over and over again. The great heat in the extreme end of the tunnel also ren- . .-~.\ __ ¢€._\\ ' ~ .'=_. :- <~_,¢ ‘- ,_.,I:\‘ ' I.,‘? . 1""- ' - \>\'>"\‘-.\°\'~§\: _“.‘\\\\\\\\~: W, ' ' L \§ \‘\;*_. TUNNELS AND TUNNELING dered the execution difficult, and required special precau- tions. ' Subaqueous Tunnels-The earliest and by far the most costly of these is the Thames tunnel, by Marc lsambart Brunel, \Vork upon a tunnel at this site (about 2 miles be- low London Bridge) was actually begun in 1807 by Trevo- thick, but after a shaft had been sunk the work was aban- doned in the following year. The existing tunnel, 1,200 feet long, with two passages 14 feet wide and 16% feet high, was commenced in 1825 and completed in 1843. It is now used by the East London Railway. The difficulties due to the in- flux of water and mud from the river were finally overcome by means of a shield invented by Brunel, which protected -the whole face of the excavation, 38 feet wide and 22% feet high. Although entirely different in form and in detail from the modern shields used in tunneling, Brunel’s shield contained the principle upon which they are made, that of supporting the face and the perimeter of the excavation during the construction of short lengths of lining. In 1868-69 the Tower subway under the Thames was con- -|:,!.': :\-,1 ‘<"- r ' ‘.-.\\§‘,7-,1.-'\k|;~\\3",v_ I‘ ' " _~'5¢,':"\~:\‘\'\'._.;§:"t\\\_\.\g!-‘;."§$~?_~{: ‘ '.\;\;\-'_?_I_\_\'-_‘!€_ \"r..}:~:~‘:\\-'-: ' ‘ .- 1' .- . ,,~.. M2 v ,.,.$ -'1’ ' lflnm i\\nfu”ufiillin ' ‘ " ' 3 '. .~ _ ‘ ' = = E P wean - ' -- ' _ E 3 ° ° ‘g§\\~_\;.\;;_\{§\s 0 \ ’ \V-,' : 2 E I : o =_ -,- ‘I‘:_\,\_. _\v‘L -T‘ _ I c::i-__- : 0 0 Q l fl,\:!“\“- ‘Neg ' ' ‘ 0 Q o F——4 if I 0 ° d 5 o o o o o O O O E E O O O I E 3 O 0 O E I 0 O 6 k ., _-_-____._, Elllllllllll ° ° s | I k 3 ° O E I 0 6 I I ‘r ° ° \ _ 1'1 5., - I ' '-'- ,,. ,:\‘\\.‘-I ,¥\\\\§'2-\\;‘3, . ._ ‘ 0 lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll '._§,‘*$,*,';'£" A-\‘:-3';.¥‘.'-"";‘\"‘»'.»‘(s’~'-‘-""l-'3.*.‘; .- ~ '.-’\"-X-\‘...=\\"":\.\' \5=."~','.-7"‘-'15.“;-X \x\\.-fie‘-. '~ ' "_~‘-‘:~"IY~ .|v..,\ ‘\ -,-;,-/;;,;. .'~;_.‘\s-.\ --,.,,.-,~.' '-‘:3 \' ' E " ‘ ~ “» ". ' D : -‘ ~“' ' .\ §f-‘- 1‘ \_‘ \“- ‘I ."‘ -2-. 79- ‘ .' “ ‘ Q §.i<§§\=9l!t§*.\§c'4A1-/>:.‘§li.\§\N»-;3z~::~‘:<“§’>§£:. -=L ' ;?.'~|. i'?'-\ \ '//7°‘l>:\5\e\\\.-‘§f?>'>\1\\v\?\:‘A FIG. 4.-Shield and lining, Tower subway, London. structed by \V. H. Barlow, by the aid of a shield similar in principle to that of Brunel, though more nearly resembling the modern shield. This subway was circular, 8 feet in outside diameter, and was lined with ribbed cast-iron plates, the earliest of this kind of construction, ‘now so much in vogue. It lies entirely in the firm London clay. A pair of small tunnels, 10 feet in diameter, for the City and South London Railway, a rapid-transit line, were opened in 1889. They are carried under the Thames at a consider- able depth by means of an improved shield, designed by Mr. Grcathead, the chief engineer. They are lined with cast- iron plates, and coated on the outside with cement grout injected by air-pressure through holes in the cast-iron rings into the annular space around the tube left by the some- what larger shield. These methods have been imitated, not only in subaqueous works, as in Glasgow and elsewhere, but for tunneling lengthwise under city streets, because of the small risk incurred of damage to overhead and adjoining property and buildings. ' In America the first important subaqueous tunnels were those constructed for supplying water to the cities on the Great Lakes. The First Chicago Tunnel.—The city of Chicago, Ill., which obtained its supply of water from the shore of Lake Michigan, about half a mile N. of the mouth of Chicago river, by means of works constructed in 1852, found that the lake at the point of supply was contaminated by the sewage of the city; and as the nearest, the purest, and the most abundant source was immediately in front of the city, it was decided to construct a tunnel under the bottom of the lake to a point 2 miles out. There is a land-shaft at the western and a lake-shaft at the eastern extremity. The lat- ter is protected by a crib, or hollow pentagonal breakwater, from storms. vessels, and ice. This is 58 feet on each side and 40 feet high. The horizontal diameter of the tunnel is 5 feet, and the vertical 2 inches greater. The work was be- gun at the land-shaft on Mar. 17, 1864. The main tunnel proper was lined with two shells of brickwork. in all about 9 inches thick, including cement joints. The upper arch was built on a ribbed center of boiler iron, which dimin- ished the open space inside of the tunnel only 411; inches, and thus allowed the cars which conveyed away the earth to go up to the face of the excavation, usually kept from 10 to TUNNELS AND TUNNELING 20 feet ahead of the masonry. The excavation was gener- ally through stiff blue clay, but with the irregularities of -character peculiar to the drift. Sometimes sand-pockets, sometimes small bodies of quicksand, sometimes clay soft enough for a minor to run his arm into, and sometimes bowl- ders weighing several hundred pounds, were met. The great- est danger encountered was from inflammable and explosive gas. Early in the progress of the work several accidents occurred from this cause. Cavities containing gas were de- tected by sound, and bored into with a small auger. The gas was ignited as soon as it began to escape, and explosions were prevented. The greatest progress made during any one week was 93 feet. Only once was a bowlder met so large as to require blasting. The ventilation of the tunnel was effected by means of tin pipes, through which the foul air was drawn -out, and fresh air consequently drawn in through the main opening. The original estimate of the probable cost of the work was $307,552; the actual cost, including all prelimi- nary and other expenses of whatever nature chargeable to the lake tunnel up to Apr., 1867, was $457,844.95. Later there was constructed another and larger tunnel from the same crib, parallel with the first, to the lake shore, and thence in a southwesterly direction about 4 miles farther to a point where new pumping-engines are in operation. Both tunnels have an estimated capacity of 150,000,000 U. S. gal. a da . The Second Chicago Tunnel.-The enormous pollution by sewage of the lake water along the city’s front and its ex- tension into the lake nearly and at times quite as far as the _2-mile crib, as well as the rapid increase of the population and the consequent demand for a larger supply, determined the construction of another tunnel 8 feet in diameter, ex- tending to a crib 4 miles from the shore. These works were begun in 1887. Difficulties occurred during the earlier con- struction from the pressure of a bed of plastic clay which was encountered in the roof of the tunnel at the same time that a water-bearing vein appeared at the bottom. A shield was built and put in place, but it was not strong enough. It was deformed by the pressure and finally abandoned. The mud and sand flowed in, and a conical hole or crater was formed over it in the lake bottom. Two 6-foot tunnels were then substituted for the one of 8 feet diameter, and the line was diverted to pass around the place where the shield lay. Another shaft was sunk 2% miles from shore, and work was carried on from it in both directions. Care was taken to keep the tunnel in the layer of hard clay, the soft clay being above and water-bearing sand below, and but little difliculty was experienced. The tunnel was completed to the 2%-mile crib on July, 1890, and to the 4-mile intake in Dec., 1892. At the shore end the tunnel is continued under the streets and blocks of the city 1-1L miles, to the pumping-station. The Cleveland water-works tunnel under Lake Erie was built during 1869-74; length between shafts. 6,606 feet; -diameter. 5 feet; depth of the shore shaft, 67 feet; of the lake .shaft, 90 feet ; both shafts are 8 feet in diameter. The crib is pentagonal, about 95 feet across and 61 feet high. Great difficulties were encountered. The first was the bursting in of the clay at 1,300 feet from the shaft, and the exposure of a seam through which gas, water, and quicksand poured in large quantities, and were stopped only by building a brick bulkhead across the tunnel. Before this could be done 300 feet of tunnel was filled with sand. It became necessary to abandon this portion and to move the line of the tunnel. This was done by changing its direction about 20° and continuing in this line until 40 feet from the origi- nal line, then proceeding parallel to the original line. \/Vhen about 4,000 feet from shore, at a point 600 feet back from the heading, the water suddenly poured in through innumerable cracks in the brickwork over a length of 150 feet. The lake shaft was then completed, and work was begun at the outer end of the tunnel. After progress- ing some 380 feet the same soft clay was encountered and flowed in so fast that the end of the tunnel was bricked up until other preparations could be made for continuing it. For this purpose a shield was made of boiler iron strength- -ened with two cast-iron rings 4 inches by 4 inches in section. It was 6 feet long and 6 ft. 5 in. in diameter. Two horizontal shelves were put in extending to within 2 feet of the rear -end of the shield, the friction on these being found suificient to prevent the soft clay from flowing in too fast. The brickwork was built within the rear end of the shield in rings 16 inches long. Cracks appeared at every cross-joint 299 so long as the clay was soft, but it was necessary to use the shield for about 140 feet, after which the material was firmer. The shield was moved at first by screws, afterward by hydraulic presses of 135 tons capacity. The external pressure on the shield was about 4 tons to the square foot, and was too much for its strength. The cast-iron rings were broken and the shield flattened 5 inches. After leav- ing the soft clay the work progressed well until within 20 feet of the outer end of the shore section, when a mass of clay was blown into the tunnel with great force, followed by gas and water, and driving the men out of the tunnel. It was found that both tunnels were in communication and by means of increased pumping power both were soon emptied of water. The lake end, however, was full of gas, and being on an ascending grade it could only be blown out a few feet at a time. This, however. was done until it was clear. A few days later the connection was completed. At 500 feet shoreward from the connection, near the large leak, transverse cracks were found; farther back the cracks were open and a portion of the masonry had settled 5 feet, breaking into short sections and going down bodily. The attempt was made to rebuild this portion. building up from the settled masonry, but cracks soon reappeared, and the cracked sections were cut off by bulkheads and a new tun- nel built around them. In 1871 it was proposed to construct a tunnel under the Detroit river to connect the Michigan Central Railway with the Great Western of Canada. A small drainage tunnel was driven as an experiment to a distance of 1,240 feet on the Michigan and more than 370 from the Canada shore. Great difficulties were encountered from the inflow of water and gas, the former under a head much greater than that due to the depth below the river. The cost far exceeded an- ticipations, and the work was finally abandoned. In 1888 the Grand Trunk Railway undertook to make this connection at Sarnia, and after careful study and prepara- tion a single-track circular tunnel, lined with cast-iron seg- ments, was begun and successfully completed, not without difficulty, but without serious accident or delay. The ma- terial was soft blue drift clay with pockets of sand and gravel, and under this the stratum of gas-bearing sand. The work was done with shields, one on each side of the river, and a comparatively light pressure of air was kept up, chiefly to prevent the inflow of gas. The length is 6.000 feet, of which 2,290 feet is under the river. The water is 40 feet deep and the least cover over the tunnel is 15 feet. It was completed and opened for trafiic in 1892. The Liverpool water-works tunnel under the Mersey, fin- ished iii 1892, is chiefly remarkable by reason of the great cost, difficiilty, and delay incurred in its earlier stages. for want of proper engineering advice, and its rapid execution when the means were properly adapted to the end in view. The tunnel is 10 feet in diameter, lined with cast-iron plates, and has been built with a shield through clay, silt, and sand, all soft and full of water. As the first shield was not adapted to its work, great delay and expense were incurred, and very little progress was made. When the work was taken over by the corporation of Liverpool the shield was strengthened and slightly modified to fit it for its work, and the tunnel, of which but 183 feet had been built in twenty- eight months, was completed in four and a half months, the total length being 810 feet. The change in the shield consisted in raising a "low bulk- head in the rear of the diaphragm and a few inches higher than its lower edge, forming thus an air-seal which pre- vented the inflow of water so long as the air-pressure was kept in excess of the pressure of water. This idea is said to have been introduced into Sir B. Baker‘s design for the Humber tunnel shield in 1870, a tunnel which was not made;* it was applied to the compartments of the Hudson tunnel shield, and by the hanging plates in the Blackwall shield. It was patented in Belgium in 1880. The Hudson River tunnel, to connect Jersey City with New York and permit the entry of railway trains to the heart of the metropolis, was begun in 1880, after seven or eight years of litigation. It was proposed to construct two oval single-track tunnels of brick, but, money failing, one was suspended, and work upon the other continued at in- tervals as money could be obtained until 1886, completing some 1,800 feet of tunnel. This work was executed through the soft river silt by the use of compressed air, and by lining * Sir John Fowlerfs plan for the Humber tunnel was to build it by means of cmssons with compressed air, as in sinking bridge founda- tions. 300 the excavation with thin plates of iron or steel, forming an air-tight- surface, by means of which the compressed air sup- ported the pressures of the exterior silt for a short time, en- abling the brickwork to be built in 10-foot lengths inside the plates. A “pilot” tube was also used, 6 feet in diameter, of heavier plates, which was driven 20 feet to 40 feet ahead of the main excavation, and from the rear portion of which the thin lining-plates were supported by radial shores. The face maintained itself well under a well-regulated air-pres- sure, neither too great nor too small, for the short time it was exposed. In 1889 a loan was placed in London, under the terms of which the method of construction was changed. A shield was introduced and the tunnel was made circular, 18 feet in diameter, and lined with cast iron, in flanged seg- ments, weighing about 8,000 lb. to the running foot of the tunnel. The rate of progress, which under the former sys- tem had averaged about 3 feet a day and had never exceed- ed 5 feet, was increased to 10 feet; but many expenses had been incurred in constructing and erecting the shield, clos- ing leaks from the river preparatory to the erection of the shield, etc., and after building about 2,000 feet, and when only about 1,700 feet of the north tunnel remained to be built, the loan was exhausted and operations were suspended. \Yhen in 1889 construction by means of a shield was de- cided upon, it was required to erect the shield at the end of the finished tunnel, 2,000 feet from the shore. To accom- plish this a chamber had to be constructed large enough to permit the shield to be put together, much larger than the former tunnel, and this by a method which had been dis- carded as dangerous. In the construction of this chamber a fall occurred and the river broke in. \Vhen the break was closed and the chamber finished mechanics could not be procured who would work in compressed air, and the shield was put together and riveted or bolted up by common labor. By the break and the means taken to close it the silt in prox- imity to the site was disturbed and softened, and much trou- ble arose from this cause, aggravated by the great weight of the shield. As the work progressed, however, the silt be- came more firm, and no further difficulty was experienced up to the abandonment of the work. The Hudson tunnel was the first of large size in which compressed air was used. It had previously been employed by Hersent, in constructing a small connecting tunnel at the Antwerp dock works. - _-_-_- -_.r-— ‘v FIG. 5.-Section of shield, Blackwall tunnel, London. The largest of the subaqueous tunnels is the Blackwall carriageway tunnel under the Thames, at London, which in 1895 was about half completed. The outside diameter of the iron-lined portion is 27 feet, and the cast-iron rings of the shell are 10 and 12 inches deep, making the interior di- TUNNELS AND TUNNELING ameter 25 feet, and for 821 feet 25 ft. 4 in. The whole length of iron-lined tunnel is 3,083 feet, of which 1,212 feet is under the water of the river, with in one place but 5 feet of cover (sand and gravel) over it; 1,382 feet at both ends is cov- ered way, and 1,625 feet is open-walled trench. The entire length of the work is thus 6,090 feet. The shield is a cylindrical shell 27 ft. 8 in. in diameter, and 19 ft. 6 in. long, with two diaphragms. The part in the rear of the first diaphragm is the tail of the shield. In front of this diaphragm is an inner skin or shell, strongly connected to the outer shell, from which it is distant 19 inches. The two skins are brought together to form the cutting edge. The space is divided horizontally by three platforms, forming four stages, from which the face of the work may be at- tacked. There are also three vertical partitions. The front part of the shield is thus divided into twelve compartments. Air-locks are formed in the space between the diaphragms, and in front of-the front diaphragm, and some 6 feet back from the cutting edge, a vertical screen depends from the top of each compartment. The space between this hanging screen and the front diaphragm forms a safety-chamber for the men in case of a sudden irruption of water. The water will not rise in the inelosed space, being held back by the air, as in a diving-bell, and the men may keep their heads above water until relieved. The shield is pushed forward by hydraulic rams, placed in the annular space between the inner and outer shells, and they push against the cast-iron shell of the tunnel. Total pressure available, 2,800 tons. The material excavated is carried through the diaphragm by the sheets, which are also air-locks. The cast-iron seg- ments forming the lining are erected inside the shield; the tail of the shield thus surrounds the last ring put in place. The segments are lifted into place by a hydraulic erector, such as was used in the Hudson tunnel. The air-locks in the shield are for exceptional occasions. A brick bulkhead across the tunnel contains large air-locks of the usual form. No unexpected difficulties have been encountered (1895). Before reaching the river, while working without compressed air, the cutting edge of the shield at the bottom was dam- aged by contact with some hard body. ‘A bottom heading was driven into the sand in front of the shield, timbered in the usual way, and a bed of concrete formed to fit the bot- tom of the shield, upon which it was slid forward until it reached the shaft, where the damage was repaired. In pass- ing through the pure ballast (sand and gravel) the bottom of the river was first covered with a bed of clay 10 feet thick and 75 feet wide on each side. This to a large extent pre- vented the escape of the air, and also the run of the ballast. A similar plan is provided for the Hudson tunnel when work on it is resumed, there being but 7 or 8 feet of silt between the tunnel and the water in passing under the channel of North river, 62 feet deep. Additional quantities of air-pres- sure also were required at Blackwall when working in bal- last to %'ovide for that escaping to the river. The 1ast River Gas Tunnel, New Yorh.-—In view of the high price of real estate in New York, and the numerous objections to the establishment of gas-works in the heart of the city, the East River Gas Company established its works in Long Island City, and constructed a tunnel under the East river through which to convey its roduct to New York. The tunnel built in 1892-94 is circu ar, 10 ft. 2 in. in diameter, and 2,516 feet long. It passes under Black- well’s island and both channels of the river at a depth of 109 feet below high tide, and 41 feet under the deepest part of the river. The few borings made indicated that the tun- nel would lie entirely in solid rock, but when the heading had advanced 360 feet from the New York shaft a stratum of decomposed rock was met, very soft, with streams of water between it and the adjoining hard rock. The water washed the soft material into the tunnel, forming large cavities overhead. At this juncture compressed air was in- troduced, and the soft stratum, 29 feet thick, was crossed by using steel roof-plates, after the manner of the first work on the Hudson tunnel, and lining with brickwork. About 80 feet beyond this section a large mass of soft black mud was encountered, and here a shield was introduced, and the lining was made of cast-iron segments, planed on all joints and placed to break joints. The brickwork which had been built across the preceding soft seam was not water-tight, and the iron lining was extended inside of it. About 380' feet of tunnel under the New York channel was lined with cast iron, and two seams, together 128 feet thick, under the Brooklyn channel were similarly protected. 'I‘he_rest of the tunnel was lined with brickwork. TUNNELS AND TU NN ELING Special Cases in Tunneling.--The tunnel of Braye-en- Laonnais, in France, passed through a clay containing pyrites and lignites, overlaid by water-bearing sand which dipped at one point into the tunnel. The compressed air (27 to 28 lb. to the square inch) which was required to pass this point drove back the water and oxidized the pyrites. The heat of oxidation was sufficient to ignite the lignites, the gas from which entered the tunnel and asphyxiated seventeen men. Wells were sunk from the surface to furnish outlets for the gas, and by a rapid ventilation, using a great volume of com- pressed air, the tunnel was rendered safe for the workmen until the sand was passed and the air was taken off. The water in the sand returned and extinguished the fire, but the water leaking through the arch was warm for six months afterward. The tunnel of Pere-Ternere, in the Pyrenees, lies in a schis- tose rock inclined about 35°, the layers of which are sepa- rated by thin layers of fine green clay, as slippery as soap when moist. The top heading, 6% by 61} feet, was completed, and for 180 feet from the Spanish end the bottom of the heading had been sunk below the level of the springing line of the arch. After a long-continued rain the layers cut by the excavation began to slip into the tunnel, crushing the heavy timbering. Work was suspended and the case was studied. The movement continued. Finally, the arch was built in short lengths, 6 feet thick at the portal, 4 feet at the inner end of the disturbance. When the arch was completed, the bench being undisturbed, the right side wall was built in pits excavated in short lengths under the arch. It was made 5-} to 7 feet thick. The attempt was then made to drift for the left side wall, but the ground began to move as soon as the strata were cut, and the method was abandoned. Narrow cross-cuts the whole width of the tunnel were then made, 80 feet apart, and in them the invert and left wall were completed. Intermediate cross-cuts were made and built in and this method was continued until the masonry was completed. The Boston subway for rapid transit is built of vertical steel beams connected by concrete arches with vertical axes, convex on the outside, to take the pressure of the outside earth. Steel beams, with brick or concrete arches, also form the roof. The tunnel is to be used by electric cars. The use of iron is not to be recommended in tunnels used by locomotives operated with steam. The use of “ lock bars,” steel needles, or “ poling-boards ” is an improvement upon the crown-bar method. Steel beams, 2 or 3 inches deep, rolled of a shape to lock together, replace the heavy timbers of the older system. They are drawn for- ward by screws or hydraulic jacks, by twos or threes, and supported at intervals by wooden frames the shape of the outside of the arch, one end resting on the completed brick- work. Grout may be injected behind them as they are drawn forward, but the space they leave is so small that the settle- ments therefrom may be neglected, except in special cases. A tunnel built in London by this method, with but 5 feet cover, has caused no appreciable settlement of the surface. FIG. 6.—Glasgow Harbor tunnel, interior. VVhere shields are used they must be adapted to the char- acter of the excavation. The London and Glasgow subways are generally in clay, with very little water, and the men worked in front of the shields. This method was also used in the Mersey water-works tunnel, where the material was TUNSTALL 301 very soft and full of water. It was made practicable only by a very nice adjustment of the air-pressure, and there was a constant escape of air through the porous material. In the Hudson tunnel this method would not have been with- out risk, and the soft material was permitted to flow through the doors of the shield as it was pushed forward. The pas- sage of air through the silt softened it and increased the risks of the work. The boldest tunnel that has been projected is the Channel tunnel, designed to connect England with the continent of Europe, passing under the Straits of Dover, having a length between shafts of over 21 miles. The project was approved by such eminent engineers as Sir John Hawkshaw and Sir James Brunlees in England, and Thomé de Gamond and Alexandre Lavalley in France, but is for the present in sus- pense, powers to construct having been refused by Parlia- ment at the suggestion of Gen. Sir Garnet (now Lord) Wolse- ley and other leading officers of the British army, as expos- ing their island to invasion from France. AUTHoR1'rIEs.—Simms, Practical Tunneling (with addi- tions by D. Kinnear Clark, London, 1877); Gripper, Tunnel- ing in Heavy Ground (London, 1879); Brisse and Bothou, Drainage of Lake Faeino (Rome, 1876); H. S. Drinker, Tunneling, E.tplosive Compounds and Roch-Dmllls (New York, 1893); von Rosenberg, The Vosberg Tunnel (New York, 1887); Walker, The Severn Tunnel (London, 1888); Riziha, Lehrbuch der gesammten Tann-el-bauhanst; Lanino, Gallerie della T1-acersala dell’ Appenino, nella linea Foglia (Naples and Rome, 1875); S. V. D. Burr, Tunneling under the Hudson River (New York, 1885); Paul F. Chalon, Les exploslfs modernes (Paris, 1886). W. R. HUTTON. Tunny [dimin. of 0. Fr. ton, then < Lat. 2fhun’nas, z‘hyn- nas :- Gr. 6151/1/os, 681/as, tunny; cf. 61511611/,’[0 dart]: the largest member of the mackerel family (Scombridce), known on the coast of the U. S. as the horse-mackerel. It is a heavily built fish, tapering rapidly to the pointed head and slender base of tail. The dorsal and anal fins, as in the mackerel, are followed by six to nine finlets; it reaches a length of 9 or 10 feet, and a weight of 1,000 lb. The tunny occurs on both sides of the Atlantic and ranges to Tasmania, and has been the object of extensive fisheries in the Mediterranean from time immemorial. See FISHERIES. F. A. Lucas. Tunstall : market-town of Staifordshire, England ; in the parliamentary borough of N ewcastle-under-Lyme (see map of England, ref. 8—G). It has several public buildings, in- cluding a town-hall (1884), market, and court-house. and has extensive manufactures of pottery, tiles, and iron. Pop. (1891) 15,730. Tunstall, or Tcnstall, CUTHBERT, D.D., LL.D.: b. at Hatchford, Yorkshire, about 1475; entered Baliol College, Oxford, about 1491; removed thence to Cambridge, where he was chosen fellow of King’s Hall, now Trinity College; studied at Padua, where he took the degree of Doctor of Laws; became vicar-general to Archbishop VVarham and rector of Harrow-on-the-Hill 1511, prebendary of Lincoln 1514, arch- deacon of Chester 1515, and master of the rolls 1516; was sent 1516—17 to Brussels with Sir Thomas More as joint am- bassador to Charles I. of Spain (afterward Charles Y.), with whom they concluded two treaties ; made there the ac- quaintance of Erasmus; became prebendary of York 1519, prebendary and dean of Salisbury 1521, Bishop of London Oct., 1522, Lord Privy Seal May, 1523, ambassador to Spain 1525; accompanied I/Volsey to France July, 1527 ; was a plenipotentiary to negotiate the Peace of Cambray 1529; bought up Tyndale’s New Testaments at Antwerp and burnt them in Cheapside 1529; became Bishop of Durham by papal bull Feb. 21, 1530 ; concurred in 1nost of the ecclesi- astical reforms of Henry VIII. and those of the first years of Edward VI., but was deprived of his bishopric and sent to the Tower 011 a charge of treason Oct., 1552 ; was restored by Mary, and conducted himself with great moderation dur- ing her reign, allowing no persecution within his diocese; was again deprived by order of Queen Elizabeth July, 1559, in consequence of having refused to take the oath of suprem- acy, and was committed to the custody of Dr. Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury. D. at Lambcth Palace, Nov. 18, 1559. He was described by Erasmus as “ a man who outdid all his contemporaries in the learned languages”; was the inventor of a species of technical memory, and author of In La/adem IlIat'2't"rn0n/zfz‘ (1518); De Arte Suiup/zu.‘an__\_\\\ <\ : \{__.<_\_,__ \\\ I I .\ \\\\\\‘~[|:\\\\\‘\ \\ ‘ ‘\. F g \\\\\ \\\ , / ,<’_:_. , \ \\\ s \ \\\\\ \\ \ / \_ \\\ \\\F'l\§\\\§ 1‘ \\\\ I \ \\\§ ;\ if E FIG. 4. tal section through the guides and vanes. This compound motion of the water is not generally employed except for small wheels. Another class of turbines is that of downward or parallel flow, in which the water moves downward without approaching or receding from the axis. Fig. 6 is an outline diagram showing the method of arrangement of such a turbine; the fixed guides are marked a a, while the moving wheel is designated by 6 b, the latter being attached to the revolving shaft, C. It is seen that this wheel is placed some dis- tance above the tail-race and that a draft- tube, A, connects them. By this device the fall due to the total head can be utilized, provided that the wheel is not more than 30 feet above the tail-water, as the atmospheric pressure due to this dis- tance is added to the static head actually above the wheel. Fig. 7 is an enlarged vertical section of one side of this wheel showing the positions of the guides and vanes, while Fig. 8 is a side view showing the edges of two of the guides with their corresponding vanes. This form of wheel is fre- quently called the Jonval tur- bine. The regulation of the speed and power of a turbine is effected by a gate for shutting off the water, and also by a governor. The most common form of gate is an annular one which can be depressed around the entire cir- cumference of the wheel. In Fig. 2 this annular gate fits into the annular space between the guides and vanes. In Fig. 4 the gate is marked by M, and at E, on the left-hand side, is seen one of the rods by which it is moved. In Fig. 3 each of the guide-openings has a gate which moves horizontally on a hinge. In the down- ward-fiow turbine of Fig. 6 the gate is near the lower end of the draft-tube at G. In all cases, except that of Fig. 6, the efiiciency of the turbine is materially less when the gate is partly , / closed than when it is fully 4 1 opened, on account of the eddies and foam which re- sult from the sudden change in cross-section. In an outward-flow tur- bine the discharge increases when from any cause the speed increases, while in an inward-flow turbine the dis- charge decreases if the speed increases. The first form FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7. TURBINE hence requires a governor, and it is also frequently used for inward-flow wheels. Fig. 9 shows a governor of the cen- trifugal-ball type which is so connected with the main shaft and with the gate of .\-..\. the turbine that the latter is partially closed when the FIG. 8. removal of a portion of the work causes an increase in speed. In the large Niaga- ra turbines (see below) this method of control is so effective that the speed can not increase more than 4 per cent. when 25 per cent. of the work is suddenly tak- en off from the wheel. The weight of the turbine and shaft may be supported by a suspension box at the top of the shaft, as seen in Fig. 1, but a more common method is that of a wooden step at the bottom of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 4, where a pipe, f, is provided through which water is forced to prevent the heating of the bearing by friction. In Fig. 10 a form of step is shown where the shaft, 0, re- volves on a hemispherical seat, I), and lubrication is in- sured by oil which enters through the pipe, h, and passes out through Z. In the large Niagara turbines there is a thrust-bearing at the top, but the weight of the wheel and shaft is supported, when in motion, by the upward pressure of the water on a disk in the upper part of the wheel-case. An i'mpulse turbine is one in which the spaces between the vanes are not filled with water, and the velocity of the water when entering the wheel is that due to the head. A reaction turbine is one in which the spaces be- tween the vanes are entirely filled with water, which at the same time is under a certain degree of static pres- sure ; the velocity of the water when entering the wheel is then usually much less than that due to the head. Most turbines are built on the reaction principle, but when the gate is partially closed the spaces between the vanes are not filled and they become impulse turbines. For every turbine there is a certain velocity, called the advantageous velocity, which gives the highest efliciency and power. This advantageous velocity can be ascertained by trial, or it may be approximately computed theoretically when the angles which the guides and vanes make with the direction of motion are known. These angles are control- ling factors in the design of turbines, and they are mate- rially different for the two classes of impulse and reaction turbines. A common method is to arrange these angles so that the advantageous velocity shall be that due to half the total head of water. I ‘ The large turbines installed in 1894 and 1895 by the Cat- aract Construction Company, for the utilization of a por- tion of the power of Niagara Falls, are the most powerful ever built. Three turbines have been erected, each of 5,000 horse-power, and the entire plant is intended to include ten such turbines. Each turbine consists of two outward-flow wheels attached to the same shaft. Fig. 11 shows a vertical section of the lower wheel, the other being 111} feet above it ; the fixed guide spaces are marked G, while the wheel itself is marked W. The gate in this case, designated by E, is on the outside of the wheel. The water is brought to the tur- bine through a steel penstock, 71} feet in diameter, and the mean head is 136 feet. The wheel itself is 63 inches in di- ameter, and, as shown in the figure, it is divided into three stages by two horizontal partitions. The advantageous speed is 250 revolutions a minute, and the discharge about TURBOT 13,800 cubic feet a minute. These wheels are of the reac- tion type, the spaces between the vanes being full of water for nearly all positions of the gate. They were designed by ’/ //I// / //M IL: "/4, Q 5*l l / § Tl////,\ 71 1. 5 2 e W Z "11. 7 . . '/ /, GIIVIE E / \ // /' H 15" mun! @324’ .4/ea err . , // / / /// fa--12"‘ O @ ' ’'I\__(_@ © //////// FIG. 11. a Swiss firm, after an international competition in which engineers of five countries participated. The theory of turbines is an extensive subject on which many volumes have been written. The fundamental prin- ciples of the theory are, first, that the water should enter the wheel without shock or foam; and, second, that it should leave the wheel with as small an absolute velocity as pos- sible. The first requirement is fulfilled by giving proper angles to the guides and vanes at the circumference where the water enters; thus in Fig. 2, if e e represent the abso- lute velocity of the entering water and e Z? the velocity of the wheel. the line 0 f will represent the velocity of the water relative to the wheel, and its direction will determine the entrance angle of the vanes. The second requirement is fulfilled by making the vanes cut the exit circumference at a small angle. As usually built the loss of energy in a turbine due to the absolute velocity of the escaping water is about 6 per cent. In axle friction about 3 per cent. is lost, while the resistance of friction to the water in passing through the wheel, together with foam and leakage, gives a loss of from 5 to 15 per cent. On account of their small size, cheapness, efficiency, and adaptability to both high and low heads, turbines are used more extensively than all other forms of hydraulic motors. A very full descriptive and theoretical discussion of tur- bines is given in Meissner’s Die _H;z/d/2'auZ'zT7e, vol. ii. (Jena, 1878). See also Francis’s Lowell flydraufie Ezvpemlmenfs (New York, 1884); Bodmer’s II?/d‘l'cm1,Zz'e ll/Iotors, Tmfrines, and IVater P/ressure Enge'nes (London, 1889); and Merri- man’s Treaflse on Hydmulies (New York, 1895). See HY- DRAULICS and WATER-WHEELS. IVIANSFIELD MERRIMAN. Turbotz a large flatfisl1, the Psetzfa mazvima, of the North Sea and adjacent waters; highly esteemed as a food- fish. It is, next to the halibut, the largest fiatfish of Euro- pean waters, reaching a length of 3 feet and a weight of 30 or 40 lb. The general color is brown, with lighter shadings. The true turbot does not occur on the coasts of North Amer- ica, but on the eastern side the name is bestowed on Bothus mcwulatus and in California on Hypsopsetta maelulam. Both are medium-sized flounders of indifferent flavor, and both are common. See FISHERIES. F. A. LUCAS. Tll1"(lld€B gMod. Lat., from Tzordus, the typical genus, from Lat. tar as, thrush] : a family of birds containing the thrushes and allied forms. They are oscines with ten pri- maries, having a “booted” tarsus—-i. e. the front covering of the tarsus entire for the greater part of its length; the young in their first plumage are more or less spotted. The robin and wood-thrush of the U. S. and the blackbird and song-thrush of Europe are typical thrushes. F. A. L. Turenne, tii'ren’, HENRI DE LA Toua n’Auvnnexn, Vi- comte de: soldier; b. at Sedan, department of Ardennes. France, Sept. 11, 1611; a son of Henry. Duke of Bouillon, and Elizabeth, a sister of \Villiam I. of Nassau-Orange; was educated by his uncle, Maurice of Nassau, and entered the French army in 1630. During the Thirty Years’ war he distinguished himself in subordinate positions in the cam- paigns in Germany and Italy; received an independent command in 1641; conquered Roussillon in 1642; was cre- ated a marshal of France in 1644, and contributed much to the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 by his successful campaigns in Germany and Flanders. In the wars of the Fronde he first sided with Condé, but having TURGENEV 305 been defeated at Rethel in 1650 and driven out of France, he became reconciled with the court; was appointed com- mander-in-chief of the royal troops; defeated Condé at Gien, and nearly destroyed his army at the Faubourg St. Antoine in 1652, the Spaniards at Arras 1654, and Condé and the Span- iards in the Dunes 1658; and was made a marshal-general in 1660. In the war of the Spanish Netherlands (1667) he con- quered Flanders in a brilliant campaign in which the king, Louis XIV., accompanied him, and in the war with Holland (1672) his fame reached its culmination by his conquest and devastation of the Palatinate in 1674 and the victories at Sinzheim (1674) and Tiirkheim (1675). He was preparing for a last and decisive encounter with Montecuculi, when he was killed by a cannon-ball during a reconnoissance near Sasbach, July 27, 1675. He is considered the greatest gen- eral France has produced, next to Napoleon. Turenne left ll[émoz'res, comprising the period from 1643 to 1658, pub- lished by Grimoard in 2 vols. (1782). Deschamps, an officer of his staff, published some .Me'moz'res in 1687 (new ed. 1756). His Life has been written by Ramsay (1733; trans. into English 1735), Raguenet (1738; new ed. 1877). Durny (5th ed. 1889), Hozier (1885). See also Neuber (Vienna, 1869), Roy (Paris, 1884), and Chappin (Brussels, 1888) for accounts of his military career. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Turf : See HORSE-RACING. Turgéllev, toor-gci-nyef' : the name of several celebrated Russian authors. (1) ANDRET Ivxxovmn, b. at Simbirsk in 1784; traveled in Germany, Italy, France, and Denmark to make investigations concerning the mediaeval history of Russia, and published He's2f0r/ice R/zossire IIIOW/mnemfa (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1841-42), and a SuppZemem‘um (1848). D. at Moscow, Dec. 15, 1845.-—(2) His brother, N IKOLAT Ivxxo- VICH, b. in 1790; studied at Giittingen; was, with Baron von Stein, placed at the head of the administration of those German countries which in 1813 were reconquered from France ; studied subsequently the state of the serfs in Rus- sia; was implicated in the conspiracy of 1825 and con- demned to death, but escaped, and lived afterward in Paris. D. in Paris, Nov., 1871. He wrote La Russie et Zes Rasses (3 vols., Paris, 1847). Turgénev, Ivxx Snnennwcn: novelist; b. in the city of Orel, Russia, Oct. 28 (Nov. 9), 1818. He was partly brought up at home, but completed his education at Berlin (1838). In 1852 for his Letter on Gogol, although it had been passed by the Moscow censor, he was arrested and banished for two years to his estate. From 1863 to his death he lived abroad, chiefly at Baden Baden and Paris. Still he made frequent visits to Russia. and suffered not a little from homesickness in spite of the fact that he was on intimate terms with Flaubert and many others of the French writers of his day. In his ideas he was a Zapaclnik, or admirer of ‘Western Europe, for which, and for his residence in a for- eign country, he was violently attacked by ardent Slavo- phils. Turgénev made his literary début with some verses (1841), but, though in the years that followed he wrote sev- eral pretty pieces, he does not rank high as a poet. I-Iis dra- matic attempts, too. were failures. His earliest prose story, Andrei Kolosov (1843), did not attract great attention. but its successors were more fortunate. In 1847 appeared K/zor aozd ]faZi'n/_z/eh, the first of his Zayiiiski Ol.'7z.oz‘m'7.‘(t (Tales of a Sportsman), which-continued for four years and put him in the front rank of living authors. These were followed by other stories and sketches almost equally successful: in 1852 Dimz.'tri Rad-in, the first one long enough to be called a novel; in 1859 Dv02'Za/rzskoe Gnesdo (A Nest of N oblemen, in some translations called Lisa) ; in 1862 1VaJ:a- mane (On the Eve, in some translations Helene); in 1862 Otisy t‘ Deti (Fathers and Sons), perhaps his masterpiece; in 1867 Dg/m (Smoke); in 1877 Nov (New, in some translations Virgin Soil), and many smaller pieces, the last of which, his exquisite Poems in Prose, came out only just before his death, which occurred at Bougival, near Paris, Aug. 22. (Sept. 3), 1883. As a writer Turge'nev is characterized by his keen realistic insight into the weaknesses of mankind, always showing, however, a lurking sympathy and tender- ness. His characters are marvelously vivid and true to life, while his appreciation of the beauties of nature is pro- found. None of his stories is long. They have perfect unity, cohesion. and in both substance and style the finish of a great artist. They have been translated into many languages, into French largely by the author himself. A new English edition (7 vols.) by Mrs. Constance Garnett is being published. A. C. Coomnen. 417 306 TURGOT Turget, tiir’g6’ : ANNE Rossnr JACQUES, Baron de l’Aulne: statesman and economist: b. in Paris, May 10, 1727 ; was edu- cated for the Church, but gave up the ecclesiastical career in 1751; studied law and national economy; became noted as a liberal thinker and an advocate of religious toleration, and wrote several essays for the Ens;/cZ0pécZz'e. Early in his career he- entered into relations with the physiocrats Ques- nay and Gournay, whose views were in some points identical with his own, and whose influence had an important efiect upon his economic policy. In 1761 he was appointed in- tendant—that is, governor--of the province of Limousin. His administration was eminently successful, and although his reforms were crippled by his egotism of the privileged classes and the stupidity of the unprivileged, they proved beneficial. In 1774 Louis XVI. appointed him Comptroller- General of Franee—that is, Minister of Finanee—and he immediately went to work to save, if possible, the state from bankruptcy. His ideas were essentially the same as those subsequently adopted and carried out by the Revolution, and the courtiers, the nobility, the clergy, etc., raised a ver- itable storm around him. For some time, however, the king supported him faithfully. In 1775 a scarcity of grain oc- curred, which almost grew into a famine. The artificial barriers between the provinces of the realm, which tram- meled the free trade in grain in the interior, Turgot abol- ished; he compelled the Parliament to acknowledge the measure, and the riots of the mob, excited by secret emis- saries of the courtiers, were speedily suppressed by military power. But at this point the king failed him. Although he said that he himself and Turgot were the only two who loved France truly, yet he suddenly dismissed him in May. 1776. Turgot retired into private life, occupying himself with scientific researches. D. in Paris, Mar. 20, 1781. His @'zwres rovnplétes, containing his essay on usury, on the best method of taxation, and Réfieanlons sur la F07'malf'zI0n et Za Dz'szf/m'lmtz'on des Richesses, etc., were published by Dupont de Nemours in 9 vols. (1808-11), and often reprinted. His Life was written by Condoreet '(1786) and Tissot (1862). See also A. Neymarck, Target et ses Doetm'nes, 1885. He is the author of the famous line on F1'a.nl(lin—E'm']9m't ccelo fulmcn sccjatrzmzqzte z‘g/ranm's. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Tu’rin (Ital. T0’/"mo; Lat. A'u/gus'ta Tama'no'rum)z chief city of Piedmont, Northwest Italy; on the left bank of the Po; lat. 45° 4’ N., lon. 7° 42’ E.; elevation 784 feet above sea-level (see map of Italy, ref. 3—B). It is an industrial city, and makes silks, ribbons, lace, and bonnet-goods; also matches, leather, and tools. Its situation is picturesque. The town is so regularly laid out and built with so much uniformity as to be monotonous, but the constructions replacing the old ramparts and place of arms give some variety. The only building representing the architecture of the Middle Ages is the Madama Palace, a vast build- ing flanked with towers, on Castello Place. The churches are very numerous, but not especially interesting. The city is especially rich in monuments raised in honor of celebrated Italians. The university is, next to that of Na- ples, the most frequented in Italy. Its library, now become national, has upward of 200,000 volumes and 3,000 MSS. The Egyptian museum of the Academy of Sciences is one of the best in the world, and the Academy of Fine Arts and the Royal Museum of Arms have fine collections. The climate of Turin is salubrious, but variable. The winter is cold and the spring inconstant. The mean annual temper- ature is 53°, and the mean annual rainfall 32 inches, with eighty-seven rainy days a year. It is the fourth city in size of Italy, is very modern in character, agreeable and full of business, rapidly growing, and affording charming sites for further expansion. Pop. of commune (1893) 335,900. Turin owes its origin and name to a Celtic-Illyrian tribe, enemies of the Etruscans and faithful allies of Rome. Caesar established the colony from which the city grew, calling it Colonia Julia, afterward changed by Augustus to C020/Ma Aug/usfa Tcm.wz'norzma. Lying near the border of Italy, it has undergone many vicissitudes and had many different masters. It was the political capital of the duchy of Savoy, and later of the kingdom of Sardinia from the Napoleonic occupation to 1861; and from 1861 to 1865 capital of the kingdom of Italy. With the removal of the capital to Flor- ence, and then in 1871 to Rome, it received a brief check to its prosperity, since overcome. l\IAR-K W. HARRINGTON. Tllrkestan’, or Turkistan [liter., country of the Turks; as T/./:r/.; + Pers. sirm, place, district, region]: a name of va- rying signification, political, linguistic, or geographic, but TURKEY always centering about the great interior basins of Asia,. generally those of the Tarim river, of Lake Balkash, and of‘ the Sea of Aral. The name is passing into disuse as a gen- eral term, but is still employed to designate Chinese and Russian Turkestan. By Chinese Turkestan, sometimes Eastern Turkestan, is meant by Western geographers the basin of the Tarim, com- prising all the southern part of the immense district called Ifcmsuh-Sin-/m'ang by the Chinese. It is mostly a desert, very sparsely occupied, except iii the extreme west in the vicinity of Kashgar, was in the path of the migration of‘ nations, and has often changed masters. It was formerly called Little Bokhara by Europeans, Mogolistan during the empire of the Khans of Jagatai, and Kashgaria during the ephemeral domination of Yakub Beg (1878). \Vhen recov- ered by the Chinese it was given the name already men- tioned, and meaning the “New Frontier of Kansuh.” The Russian general government of Turkestan was formed in 1867, and later modified so that it now consists of the three provinces of Syr-Darya, Ferghana, and Samar- kand. Area, 257,134 sq. miles; pop. (1890) 2,670,035, of whom about 930,000 are Kirghiz, 800,000 Sarts, 400,000‘ Uzbegs, 353,000 Tajiks, 23,000 Russians (not including troops), and 1,000 Germans. Poles, etc. The capital is TASHKEND (q. 2).), in Syr-Darya. The next cities in impor- tance are Samarkand and Khojend. Less than 5 per cent. of Russian Turkestan is cultivable, and less than 3 per cent. is actually cultivated. The population is chiefly nomadic and pastoral. MARK W. HARRINGTON. Turkey: a gallinaceous bird, domesticated in many civil- ized countries, but confined to North America until after- i\ The turkey. its discovery by Columbus. It was found in the forests from- the Isthmus of Darien to Canada when the country was first settled, being then abundant even in New England. See MELEAGRIDID1E and Pourxrar. Turkey. or more properly the Ottoman Elnpirez an empire comprising large portions of Euro e, Asia, and Africa, and having its political center and capita at Constantinople, a city on the Thracian Bosphorus. Politically, geographic- ally, ethnographically, and ecclesiastically, the Ottoman empire is an incongruous bundle of heterogeneous elements. Its territorial possessions may be grouped as direct and in- direct. The direct are under the immediate authority of the sultan, whether governed by the common law of the empire or enjoying certain concessions and hence. called privileged. To the latter class belong the communities of the Mirdites, Mt. Athos, Zeitoun in Asia Minor, the Lebanon, and Crete. The indirect are vassal provinces, nominally part of the Ottoman empire, but either administered by some foreign power or practically independent. Bosnia and Herzegovina, placed by the treaty of Berlin (1878) under the military occupation and civil administra- tion of Austria-Hungary ; Cyprus, by secret treaty of June 4, 1878, between Great Britain and Turkey, assigned to» These are- Lon 'tude_ East 3:'>Wfi:o_n.1 C'l't‘:’J_.!.l{.§C]l’ )_‘ uu\Tr.mu0sU\V \ é/\Tl R|Nos\_Avl/""- \_‘ | '\leJ.nndr0vsk ‘‘ D‘O N 1 ¥ W 0)‘/o T @525“ / IA “ " V T \ , O v r 1" \ I B at \‘_'v _ A , O A /Ir if > _ ‘ “ _ \ _ '1: IE 1 B H F» . \ /xv‘, N *‘”S{"?“'*" fi ‘ Ila AIM’. I ‘ " ' i 7‘ H ' ' V | I‘ T0.s'm,3 ‘ Jfllalljik 1) ‘ V , '\ _\ 0 q_ , ‘ . \ _ ff ‘ \ _ K a - ‘ ‘~62? U Q ‘ d D’ xv QM-“PB :4’ ' x'»__' ‘ ‘ I _»j'’- 0 .\ 39 . US ‘ ' 0‘ I e]: ~' /J .-\ . 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V 1-‘.XPRl-1SS].Y V ‘ ,'/" F 0 R I E _ _/' Jmm,$ mm mm .eJaw- 1 _ 5 ‘\ .\l‘ A19 01' Mihls 3 \ rm 100 150 :10 \ E ‘ ‘ A , V V ,3 _ 7- ' :;':;'_-TIE-Q-|;_*Tf. 7 ‘''l_ 7V -> w ,7 _é_W__Vl' 1: "1* ‘F1-E‘---F-1-.’ " - ,, " * — ' * '" '* l07E_‘_m ______»4__‘__v_|_"':_I_._0_l1_§L\Vl§\}"~ Edfl 7_1\'-=7‘ifi1‘m\| \\’:}.‘ Hi11g1V¢)1}AHW _ H *_W'_Vl1'_7 IV 7 J TURKEY Great Britain to be occupied and admiriistered by her so long as Russia holds Batoum, Ardahan, and Kars; Tunis, occupied by France in 1881; Egypt, since 1882 under the military occupation and control of Great Britain ; Bulgaria, created by the treaty of Berlin a tributary principality; Eastern Roumelia, by treaty of Berlin made an autonomous province subject to the sultan, but by revolution (1886) united to Bulgaria. See Bosum, CYPRUS, Tums, EGYPT, and BULGARIA. This article deals only with the direct posses- sions which constitute the empire. Turkey in Europe occupies the central portion of the Balkan peninsula. It lies between 42° 50' and 38° 56’ N. lat. and 19° 20’ and 29° 10’ E. lon. It is bounded N. by Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, and the Black Sea, E. by the Black Sea and Bosphorus, S. by Greece, the _/Egean Sea, the Dardanelles, and M-armora, W. by the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. It includes also the island of Thasos. Area, 67,810 sq. miles. Its situation is advanta- geous, possessing an extensive coast-line with many harbors. On the W. are the Gulfs of Drino, Durazzo, Avlona, and Arta; on the S., of Salonica, Kassandra, Monte Santo, Rcndina, Kavala, Lagos, Enos, and Saros. It terminates toward the S. E. in the commanding peninsula inelosed by the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, and Marmora. The general surface is broken and mountainous. The mountain system is complicated. Two main ranges, one the Messoro Dagh, which is a northern prolongation of the Pindus, and to which different names are applied, and the other, Despoto Dagh or Rhodope, emerge from the general confusion, pro- ceed generally S. E., and divide the country into three sec- tions of dissimilar shape but nearly equal area. These mountains sometimes attain a height of over 9,000 feet. The first section is Albania; the second, Macedonia, which comprises part of Thessaly; the third, Thrace. Albania is a mass of roughly parallel ranges, through which the rivers Boyana, Drin, Scoumbi, Loum, Voioutza. Kalamas, and Arta force their way to the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. Here are also the large deep Lakes of Scutari, Ochrida, Janina, Prespa, and Kastoria. All this region is strategically com- manded by the table-land of Janina, which is from 1,300 to 1,700 feet above the level of the sea. The ground is fertile only in a few localities, the climate rigorous and moist. Agriculture is in a most backward state, both from the poverty of the soil and from the aversion of the inhabitants to fixed pursuits. Oak. pine, box, and beech forests abound. In the second section, Macedonia, are the rivers Vistritza or Indji Kara Su and Vardar, emptying into the Gulf of Salo- nica, and the Strouma and Mesta or Kara Sn, emptying into the .ZEgean. The Maritza, the ‘largest river of Thrace, enters the Gulf of Enos. Macedonia and Thrace are fertile, but poorly cultivated. The forests have been almost destroyed. The climate corresponds with that of the same latitude and altitude in Southern Europe. Goats and sheep are exceed- in g-ly numerous, the latter furnishing the favorite food-suppl y. Buffaloes and even mules and asses are employed in cultiva- tion rather than horses and oxen. Cattle and the live-stock generally are inferior. Great attention is paid to the bee and silkworm. Game is plentiful. The bear, wolf, stag, deer, and wild hog are found in Albania and Macedonia; the wolf and jackal in Thrace. Vultures, falcons, buzzards, hawks, and kites abound. Eagles are seen only in the mountains. Maize and the vine are extensively cultivated ; also the fig, olive, and pomegranate in the south; wheat, rice, rye, barley, tobacco, cotton, hemp, and flax grow in the lains and low valleys; beans, peas, lentils, onions, cab- ages, beets, and cucumbers are raised; the favorite fruit- tree is the plum. Rock-salt, copper, silver, and gold exist in certain localities, but mining is hardly undertaken. The numerous thermal and sulphurous springs are sometimes utilized for baths. Turkey; M As-id comprises the Sporades islands in the ]Egean, Asia Minor, Crete, the vast basins of the Euphrates and Tigris, Syria, and the west coast of Arabia. Area, 686,- 370 sq. miles, or more than ten times that of the direct Ot- toman possessions in Europe. This widespread territory, exclusive of Arabia, is included between 41° and 28° N. lat. and 25° and 48° E. lon. It is bounded N. by the Dardanelles, Marmora, Black Sea, and Russia, E. by Russia, Persia, and the Persian Gulf. S. by the Mediterranean and the Great Syrian Desert, W. by Africa, the Mediterranean, and ]Egean. Turkish Arabia or El I-Iedjaz and Yemen is a strip of land nearly 1,000 miles long and of indefinite breadth, extending the entire length of Arabia along the Red;Sea. Turkey in Asia comprises the many ancient 307 kingdoms and provinces of Asia Minor, Judaea, Syria, Mes- opotamia, and Assyria. It includes the modern political divisions of Anatolia, Karamania, Armenia, Kurdistan, El Djezireh, Irak Arabi, and Syria. Its coast is long, sinuous, and abounding in gulfs with natural harbors. Syria is in- dented by many tiny bays. For further details of that country, see SYRIA. Asia Minor has on the S. the Gulfs of Iscanderun or Alexandretta, Adalia, and Maori, between which project the headlands of Anemour and Khelidonia; on the W. the Bays of Symi, Kos, Mandelia, Scala Nova, Smyrna, and Edrimid, with the Capes Krio, Sancta Maria, Koraka, Karabournou, Baba, and Koum Kaleh, along which may still be seen the splendid ruins of the Dorian, Ionian, and £Eolian Greek cities; in the Marmora, the Bays of Artaki and Panormo on either side of Cyzicus, and of Moudania and Ismid; in the Black Sea, innumerable bays, but none of large dimensions, the most notable being those of Sinope, Samsoun, and Trebizond, with the Capes Karpeh, Baba, Karembeh, Indjeh, Boztepeh, Tchalti, Yasoun, and leros. The mountain system is even more irregular than in European Turkey. From the great plateau of Armenia, which spreads in every direction around Ararat (17,212 feet), its central point, the Anti-Taurus Mountains extend W. and the Taurus Mountains S. W. across Kurdistan to the Gulf of Iscanderun. Thence the latter range sends the Amanus chain S. into Syria and the Argreus chain N. ‘W. toward the Anti-Taurus and over Asia Minor to the shores of the ZEgean. Many of the peaks are over 10,000 feet in height and are covered with snow almost throughout the year. In the Amanus Mountains are the famous Cilician and Syrian Gates, the only passes to the Euphrates and Syria. The Anti-Taurus joins the range of the Bithynian Olympus, from which irregular spurs diverge southward. In addition, isolated peaks and disconnected ranges dot the face of Asia Minor. The most important mountains are Kaz Dagh (Ida/), dominating the Troad; Manisa Dagh (Sz'pyZus), commanding Smyrna and Phrygia; Boz Dagh (Tmolus), above Sardis; Tasht-ali Dagh (Ohz'maem); Ershi- shi Dagh (Argceus), 18,200 feet, an extinct volcano, like Sipylus; Kershish Dagh (0Zymjms). Kurdistan is a wild, mountainous region, sloping southward to El Djezireh (lifes- opotamz'a) and Irak Arabi, which form a succession of des- erts and steppe lands broken by hills to the Persian Gulf. In Arabia the coast belt owned by Turkey is bordered on the E. by lofty mountain ranges, which collect moisture and thus render it more fertile than the rest of the peninsula. In Asia Minor, from its physical formation, there are few great rivers, and all are winding. The principal are Kizil Irmak (Halg/s), nowhere over 200 feet wide, but over 500 miles long. though the direct distance from its source to its mouth is less than 160 miles: Yeshil Irmak (Isis); Muha- litch Chai (Rhyndacus); Khodja Cl1a‘i(G1'am'cus); Mende- reh Chai (Sccrmrmdcr); Buyouk Mender Chai (1/lIrcander); Khodja Chai (Xam‘hus); Keupri Su (Eurymcdon); Seik- hun Cha'i (So/rus); Djehan Chai (Pymmu-s): Tersus Sn (Cg/dnus). The most important in the empire are the Euphrates, 1,750 miles, and Tigris, 1,000 miles. Both rise in the plateau of Armenia and finally unite as the Shatt-el- Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf. The lower course of these rivers was anciently exceedingly fertile, highly cultivated, densely populated, a center of civiliza- tion, the seat of the Chaldman and Babylonian empires. Assyria was W. of the Tigris. Lakes are numerous, some without known outlet, and very salt. The larger are Touz Tcholli. Igridi, Beishehr, and Ak Shehr, in the middle of Asia Minor; and Isnik and Aboullonia, near the Gulf of Moudania. Lake Van. in Armenia, 80 miles by 40, area 1.550 sq. miles, is an inland sea. In a territory so extensive as Turkey in Asia, drawn out through so many degrees of latitude, every kind of soil and climate and the greatest va- riety of mineral, vegetable. and animal products must exist. Asia Minor is rich in copper, iron, coal, petroleum, lead, meerschaum, and marble. Gold and silver are found in Kurdistan, bitumen and naphtha along the Tigris. The soil is generally fertile. Immense tracts are given up to pasturage. The plains of the interior are scantily wooded, but covered with wormwood, sage, and broom. Large forests. in which oak and fir predominate. spread inland from the Black Sea. Cypresses and junipers abound in the Taurus: plane-trees grow everywhere. \Vild grape-vines grow free- ly in the lowlands and on the western coasts. The vine- yards furnish excellent wines. Garden vegetables and fruits of all sorts are abundant. Hemp, flax, cotton, rice. tobacco, indigo, saffron. and madder grow plentifully. Ar- 308 menia produces wheat, and has chestnut and oak forests. Kurdistan is largely woodland. In El Djezireh trees are rare, but the lilac, jasmine, and vine grow in profusion. In Irak Arabi every kind of palm is found. There the soil is very fertile, but, on account of poor irrigation, the yield of barley and rice is small, though tobacco and cotton succeed better. The melons reach an enormous size, often weighing over 100 lb. Through Turkey in Asia the ex is rare, the buffalo being preferred both as source of food and as beast of labor. The camel likewise supplants the horse, but the horses, mules, and asses are large and strong. The sheep is the most common domestic animal, but its flesh and wool are poor except in the region of Angora. which is justly celebrated for its goats, sheep, rabbits, and cats. The bee and silkworm are reared, especially in Kurdistan, El Djezireh, and Irak Arabi. Game abounds. Flocks of wild sheep live in the Taurus. Partridges swarm near the Dardanelles and swans on the Kutchouk l\Iende1'(Cag/sinus). The stork is the bird most frequently seen and most typical of the country. Carnivorous beasts are the bear, leopard, wolf, hyeena, and jackal. Lions are found in the swamps border- ing the Tigris and Euphrates. Locusts infest El Djezireh. Despite the almost boundless resources of Turkey in Asia, commerce is little developed, manufactures have terribly decreased during the last century, and the country has grown steadily poorer. This is largely the fault of an im- provident and feeble government. Yet the system of ad- ministration has somewhat improved, property and life have become less insecure, and injustice is less prevalent than at any other period since the foundation of the Ottoman em- pire. The real reason for decline must be found in econom- ic causes. Home manufactures in both Europe and Asia, as the muslins of Mosul and the woolen stuffs of Macedonia, have been crowded out by the introduction of machine- made and cheaper European goods. The Oriental is unable to appropriate the inventions and methods of the European, and is invariably worsted in the competition. Moreover, lack of roads, due to governmental indifference and to Oriental lack of enterprise, has‘ largely hindered develop- ment of resources. The enormous cost of transport of agri- cultural articles, generally bulky and often perishable, paralyzes their production at a distance from the coast. ’I’arhey in Africa comprises Tripoli and Benghazi or Barca. It is mainly included between the Mediterranean and the Great Desert, though touching Egypt on the E. and Tunis and Algeria on the W. Its inland boundaries are indefinite. Area, 308,500 sq. miles; according to Turkish estimate, 398,840 sq. miles. The Gulf of Sidra (Smite JIay'or) artly separates Tripoli and Barca. Ras Sem (Phy- cas) and Itas Tourba (Zejahg/Mam) are the most northern capes. There are few good harbors. A belt of fertile land borders the coast. Farther S. are sandy plains and ranges of rocky mountains. The rivers are small, and, like the wells and watering-places, are often dry. Water is deficient, but wherever it is found the fruits, vegetables, and cereals are excellent and abundant, especially the date, olive, lemon, orange, mulberry, tobacco, wheat, and barley. Most of the inhabitants live in tents, and are nomads. Their flocks and herds and agriculture in a primitive way furnish their principal support. The population consists of Moors, Arabs, Kabyles, Ottomans, Negroes, Jews, and Europeans. The latter, mainlylMaltese, and the Jews are the traders. The climate is healthful and not disagreeable, notwithstand- ing the heat. The temperature in winter rarely descends below 50° F., and in summer is ordinarily maintained at from 85° to 95° ; when the wind blows from the desert, at from 104° to 113°. Tripoli, being less remote than the other Barbary states, is traversed by the chief caravan routes from the interior to Northern Africa. The caravans bring ostrich-feathers, gold-dust, ivory, dye-woods, skins, and cereals, and carry back cloth, silk, arms, iron, sugar, drugs, glass, coffee, dry-goods, and manufactured articles of all kinds. Barca includes ancient Cyrenaz'ea, the remains of whose cities lie along the coast. See TRIPOLI. Cons-iz'tait'0n and Gocernmenl.——The Ottoman empire is an absolute monarchy. Succession is hereditary in the family of Osman, vested since 1617 in the person of its old- est male member. The ruler is the sultan or padlshah. His person is inviolable; he is irresponsible. This abso- lutism is modified by essential conditions of the Mussulman faith and by certain customs which have the force of laws. Since the conquest of Egypt (1517) by Selim I. the sultan is caliph or spiritual head, not only of his own Mussulman subjects, but of the entire Mussulman world. He is repre- TURKEY sented in temporal affairs by the grand vizier, first appoint- ed in 1327, and in spiritual affairs since 1523 by the Sheik- ul-Islam. (See M UFTI.) The state ministers are hardly more than state secretaries. Their departments at present are war; marine; interior; foreign affairs; justice and worship; finances, mines, forests, and civil list; eccaf (property of mosques and philanthropic institutions); public works; com- merce, and agriculture; public instruction; artillery; presi- dency of the council of state. There is also the divan, a deliberative body; the council of state, charged with the elaboration of laws; and the senate, whose functions are honorary. The government is often styled the Porte, or Sublime Porte. A constitution, proclaimed by Abd-ul- Hamid II. (Dec., 1876), guaranteed equal rights to all sub- jects, and applied to them without distinction the name Ot- toman, heretofore reserved to the Mussulmans. It conferred the privileges enjoyed in the most civilized countries, and instituted a representative chamber. Save for a brief sea- son this constitution has been inoperative. Political legis- lation is called hanoan, and is based on the codes of Mo- hammed II. and Sule'iman I. The civil and religious legis- lation is that of the 8/L67"lCtl, or sacred law of Islam. The hca‘tc' sher'1§f (1839) and ha2.‘l'l ha¢na_1/can (1856), imperial re- scripts of Sultan Abd-ul Medjid, proclaimed general reforms whereby non-Wfussulman subjects were to be raised to full equality with Mussulmans. But the intolerance and inertia of the dominant race have rendered these rescripts gener- ally a dead letter in almost all their provisions, such as ac- ceptance of Christian testimony in trials, right of Christians to bear arms, and eligibility to all offices. Foreigners are not amenable to Ottoman law, but by virtue of the so-called capitulations are tried in their own courts. The slaves are the only legally subordinate class. There is no aristocracy. Manumitted slaves and persons of the humblest origin often attain the highest positions. For administrative pur- poses the empire was divided in 1868 into vilayets (govern- ments), administered by a vali (governor-general), named by the sultan, and assisted by an administrative council. The vilayet is subdivided into sandjaks (provinces) ; the sandjak into casas (districts); the casa into nahiehs (communes). The name, number, and size of the vilayets is often changed. According to the last apportionment (1889) there are seven vilayets in Europe—Adrianople, Salonica, Kossova, Monas- tir, Janina, Scutari in Albania, Constantinople with the two sandjaks of Bigha (Dardanelles) and Ismid in Asia; twenty-four vilayets in Asia-Hudavendighiar, A'idin, Archi- elago, Crete, Konieh, Adana. Angora, Kastamuni, Sivas, Trebizond, Erzeroum, V an, Bitlis, Diarbekir, Mamuret-ul- Aziz, Dersim, Aleppo, Lebanon, Syria, Mosul, Mesopotamia, Bassora, Hedjaz, Xemen; two vilayets in Africa—Tripoli and Benghazi. Army and l\Tacg/.—l\'lilitary service is incumbent on every Mussulman subject twenty years of age—three years in the infantry or four in the cavalry 01' artillery (after five months of active service one may purchase exemption for the remainder of the period); then three or two years in the shtiad (reserve), eight in the redhf (landwehr), six in the mastafiz (landsturm). In the navy—-five in active service, three in the reserve, four in the landwehr. Non-Mussul- mans pay the haratch (tax) of about 30 piastcrs and are not liable. The army is organized in seven ordas (cor s d’armée), each commanded by a mashn'r (marshal). Tie headquarters are at Constantinople, Adrianople, Monastir, Erzinghian, Damascus, Bagdad, and Sanaa. There are also three separate divisions, one each in Tripoli, the Hedjaz, and Crete. An ordu consists of divisions, brigades, regi- ments, battalions, and com anies. There are sixty-six nizavn (regular) infantry an forty-two cavalry regiments. The artillery is in a state of disorganization or attempted organization. The cannon are largely Krupp guns. The infantry are supposed to be armed with Mauser magazine- rifies, though few have been delivered to the troops. It is the endeavor to follow the German system in organization and tactics. No accurate statement exists or can be made of the number of soldiers. The real effective on either peace or war footing differs largely from the nominal force and the cadres are never full. The Government believes the army to number 250,000 in time of peace, and claims ability in case of war to put over 1,000,000 men into the field. Probably not half as many could be raised or officered and equipped. The large number constantly under arms during past years has been a main cause of the decrease in the Mus- sulman population and of its increasing poverty, as com- pared with the non-Mussulmaus. The Ottoman soldier is TURKEY docile, patient, enduring, abstemious, content with little, and when behind fortifications almost unconquerable. But, since the foundation of the empire, he has seldom been vic- torious against Christians in the open field, except when far superior in number. On paper the navy is formidable— forty-one ironclads, almost all obtained in Great Britain, and 131 other vessels of all sorts ; also sixteen in process of construction; nominally manned by 977 ofiicers, 30,000 sail- ors, and 9,650 marines. Yet most of the ships are so super- seded or unseaworthy, the crews are so incompetent and so deficient in discipline and experience, and the commanders so generally incapable, that the Ottoman navy hardly counts as a fighting power. Nevertheless in 1877-78 the fleet did excellent service in the transport of troops. See ARMY and Snrrs OF WAR. .F’inance, Wfoneg/, IVez'ghz.‘s and JlIeasmcs.—In 1854 the empire contracted its first foreign loan; this was succeeded at short intervals by others, until in May, 1875, the total debt was 5,023,860,500 francs, or about $1,000,000,000. Hardly more than half of this enormous sum had been re- ceived by the Government. In Oct., 1875, the Government, unable to pay the interest due, announced that during the next five years half the interest would be paid in cash and half in new bonds. The following year it declared that no further payment would be made till internal affairs be- came more settled. Until 1881 no part of the interest or sinking fund was paid. Then delegates of the foreign bondholders met at Constantinople and effected an arrange- ment which the Government embodied in the formal decree of Dec., 1881. The various loans, except bonds of the Rou- melian Railway, were consolidated and grouped. A com- mission of delegates was authorized to administer the excise revenues of the empire entirely separate from all other revenue. The acknowledged debt is now over $600,000,000. In this is not included $155,364,000 due Russia as war in- demnity, of which $1,539,991.20 is to be paid annually without interest, and also $1,539,991.20 as indemnity to Russian subjects. This ayment is guaranteed by the reve- nues of the vilayet of ionieh. The revenue for 1889-90 was estimated by the budget committee as about $81,400,- 000, and the expenditure as about $94,160,000. Though the court and palace expenses have been reduced by the present sultan, they must still be very large. Any estimate as to their amount is mere conjecture. The piaster (44 cents) is the unit of value. Forty paras make one piaster; 100 piasters make one lira or Turkish pound. Paper money (ha/tmclt) and copper are withdrawn from general circula- tion. Notes of the Imperial Ottoman Bank circulate at par. Common coins are pieces of 1, 2, 5 (beshlik), 10 (onlik), and 20 (mecZjz'dz'eh) piasters; gold coins are 4, 4, 1, 29;, and 5 liras. The metallic currency (with exception of gold) is of differ- ent issues and alloys, and fluctuates in value. The decimal system of weights and measures was introduced in 1882 and declared obligatory in 1892, but the old names, as of oke and arshine, were retained, and much confusion has resulted. Commerce.—A tax of 8 per cent. ad ealorem is levied on all imports, except articles for embassies, consulates, schools, and churches, which are admitted free. The introduction of salt and tobacco is prohibited, they being Government monopolies. There is an export customs duty of 1 per cent. on native goods sent abroad. and of 8 per cent. be- tween the different provinces of the empire. The repeat- ed efforts of the empire to reform the customs tariff in its own interest have always encountered the determined op- position of the foreign powers. - YEARS. Imports. Exports. 1889-90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $92,582,688 $66,758,692 1890-91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100,832,870 50,480,408 1891-92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108,037,330 67,528,220 The value of the imports (1891-92) was: From Great Brit- ain, $44,884,972 ; Austria-Hungary, $20,227,592: France, $13,294,028; Russia, $8,223,556; U. S., $142,780. The chief imports were linen goods, piqué, sugar, woolen and cotton goods, cereals, cotton thread, medicines and dyes, coffee, rice, duck-cloth, petroleum, skins, animals, iron, cloths, cash- mere, loutter and cheese, manufactured iro11, paper, timber, made clothing, dry goods, silk, bags—'576 being manufac- tured articles, '03 animals, '132 raw materials, and '262 food articles. The value of the exports (1891-92) was: To Great Britain, $30,197,288; France, $19,830,800; Austria-Hun- gary, $5,422,888; Russia, $1,114,564; U. S., $1,024,364. The chief exports were cereals, raisins, raw silk, opium, mohair, 309 nuts, coffee, wool, skins, figs, cotton, drugs and dyestuffs, minerals, animals, vegetables, dates, olive oil, carpets, seeds, sesame, fish-'089 being manufactured articles, '024 ani- mals, ‘308 raw materials, and '579 food articles. Shtppz'ng and l\/Iavvigatz'on, Im‘e/rnal C0m7i2.um'caf/ions.- The merchant marine consisted in 1894 of 980 sailing ves- sels, of 194,994 tons, and of eighty-nine steamers, of 71,358 gross tons. In 1893-94 38,897 steamers and 151,377 sailing vessels. altogether 190,274 vessels, of 34,137,321 tons, entered or cleared fro1n Ottoman ports. The mails are largely in the hands of foreigners. Great Britain, France, Germany, Aus- tria-Hungary, and Russia have their own post-oflices at Constantinople and in most of the seaboard cities. The Government has made many fruitless attempts to close these foreign offices and to bring the entire postal depart- ment under its own control. The number of Ottoman Offi- ces in 1889-90 was 1,442 ; receipts. 4,190,842 francs; expenses. 1.641,633 francs. Through the Ottoman mails passed 9,403,- 000 domestic letters and 48,000 postal cards. and 3,649,000 foreign letters and 66,000 postal cards ; also 559,000 foreign letters and 12,000 postal cards in transit to foreign coun- tries. Telegraphs: Length of wires, 31,969 miles; receipts (1888-89), 51,615,526 piasters; expenses, 17,669,044 piasters. Railways (Oct., 1894): 890 miles in Europe, 911 in Asia Minor, 122 in Syria; under construction, 317 miles in Eu- rope, 273 in Asia Minor, and 243 in Syria. P0]9uZate'0n.—No other country presents such variety of races and creeds; nowhere is it more diificult to obtain trustworthy statistics. Equally trustworthy authorities dif- fer by 5,000,000 or 6,000,000 in their estimate of the number of the inhabitants. No reliable census has ever been taken. Mussulmans and non-l\Iussulmans are alike interested in avoiding enumeration, the former to escape conscription, the latter to escape the ha//'a,z‘ch, or capitation tax. The great majority of the subjects may be classed in seven main racial groups : »Turkish, including the Ottomans, Yurouks, and Turcomans; Greeco-Latin, including Greeks. MOldo-\Val- lachians, and Albanians; Slavic, including Bulgarians, Ser- vians, and Kossacks; Georgian, including Circassians and Lazes; Hindu, represented by the gypsies; Persian, includ- ing Armenians and Kurds; Semitic. comprising Arabs, Jews, Chaldaeans, Druses, Syrians, and Maronites. The pop- ulation of the empire can hardly be less than 28,500,000, and that of Turkey in Europe, more accurately known, not far from 6,000,000. In Europe the Ottomans, Albanians. and Greeks 1nust be of nearly equal numbers, each about 1,300.- 000. The majority of the Albanians are Mussulmans. The Christian Albanians in the north, called Ghegs, are Ro- man Catholics, and use the Latin alphabet; those of the south, called Tosks, are members of the Greek Church, and use the Greek alphabet. Their dialects are very different, and they hate each other cordially. Macedonia is inhabited principally by Greeks, Bulgarians, Ottomans, Albanians. lloldo-Wallachians, and Servians. Thrace is peopled by a mixed multitude of Ottomans, Greeks, Bulgarians, Jews, Armenians, gypsies, Circassians, by members of other sub- ject races, and foreigners. The Greeks predominate along the coast, not only i11 Europe and the islands, but in Asia, where they devote themselves to navigation, and. together with the Jews, Armenians, and foreigners, are the trades- men and bankers. In Asia Minor there are about 9,000,000 Ottomans, double all the other inhabitants of that peninsula put together. The Yurouks are nomadic, and the Turco- mans pastoral. Since the conquest of the Caucasus by Russia there has been a large immigration of Tartars and Circassians. The Armenians are scattered everywhere, though many still remain in their ancient country, Arme- nia. Northern and Central Kurdistan are occupied by 1,000,000 Kurds, ostensibly Mussulmans. They are a fierce people, never entirely subjugated in their mountain fast- nesses, a perpetual trouble to their nominal masters, the Ottomans. Their neighbors, the Armenians, have always suffered fearfully at their hands, as in the outrages of 1894. The 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 of Arabs i11 Syria, Irak Arabi, and Turkish Arabia are of two classes, sedentary and no- madic. The latter. the Bedouins, by far the more numer- ous, are the typical Arabs. Though of the same faith as the Ottomans, they are their inveterate fees, and, as far as possible, defy their authority. In case of war, the Porte can count upon only the 10,000,000 or 11.000,000 of Otto- mans, on a possible million of Circassians. Tartars, Yurouks, Tureomans, Lazes, and Zebecks, and perhaps on the assist- ance of the Kurds and Albanians. The remaining 15,000.- 000 or 16,000,000 members of subject and non-Moslcm rat-es 310 controlled by force are secretly hostile or at best indifferent. Pop. of different towns (estimated in 1889): In Albania—- Scutari 36,000, Janina 20,000; in Macedonia—Salonica 122,- 000, Monastir 50,000; in Thrace--Constantinople 900,000, Adrianople 7 0,886 : in Asia I\Tll101'—-——Sl1]_Yl‘Ilfl 225,000, Broussa 75.000, Manisa 50,000, Kaisairieh 45,000, Trebizond 45,000, -Adana 45,000, l.(onieh 40,795, Sivas 39,368, Angora 37.000, Marash 35.000. Kastambol 33,000: in Armenia—Erzeroum 60,000, Erzinghian 30,000, V an 30,000 ; in Kurdistan Mosul 57,000, Kharpout 35,000, Diarbekir 25.000; in Irak Arabi— Bagdad 180,000; in Syria-—see SYRIA; in Arabia—Mecca 80,- 000. Medina 80,000, Sanaa 50,000 ; in Africa—Tripoli 30,000. Religion and Education.—The state religion is Islam or MDHAMMEDANISM (g. r.), but other religions have always been tolerated and have enjoyed a certain degree of protection and freedom. Since the capture of Constantinople (1453) the Porte has preferred to deal with its non-Mussulman subjects as members of different religious communities rather than of distinct nationalities. So the religious chief of each church or sect is regarded by the Government as the civil head and representative of his coreligionists; its church organization has become to each subject people not only a religious institution, but a national center and the pre- server of its national existence and language. The princi- pal religious communities thus officially recognized by the Porte are : The Eastern Orthodox or GREEK CHURCH (g. v.), with its (Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and its Patriarchs of Antioch, J erusalem, and Alexandria; the Ar- menian or Gregorian Church, the oldest national church in existence, with its Patriarchs of Constantinople, Sis, and Jerusalem; the Protestant Armenian community, with an official representative or velcil; the Jewish community, with a lthal»cham bashi or grand rabbi. There are, moreover, a number of less prominent or less numerous religious groups, all recognized and represented. Education has made marked progress since about 1850, specially in the vicinity of the capital and large towns. This advance is due to the efforts of the Government, to the awakened sentiment of the peo- ple, and to the Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries, whose work is largely educational. Formerly Mussulman education was entirely in the hands of the ulema and de- rived from the school attached to the mosque; that of the Christians was limited to such rudimentary branches as were taught in the school invariably connected with each Greek or Armenian Church. The imperial school of medicine, founded in 1826 by the Government, has been followed by a large number of colleges and of other high institutions, military, naval, polytechnic, etc., and of primary and second- ary establishments. The subject nationalities have vied in founding many of various grades for their own children. Ifistory.——The Ottomans are a- Turkish tribe, originally from Khorassan. Numbering only 400 families, they were led by their chief, Ertogroul, into Asia Minor in 1231. The Seljuk sultan, Alatéddin I., grateful for aid chivalrously af- forded him in battle, bestowed on Ertogroul some pasture- lands on the river Sangarius E. of the Bithynian Olympus. This insignificant territory, a few square miles in extent, was the nucleus of the Ottoman empire. There Ertogroul and his followers, hitherto pagans, embraced Islam. The sword played no part in their conversion, and their descendants have continued faithful and zealous Mussulmans. On the dissolution of the Seljuk empire, Othman, son of Ertogroul, was proclaimed padishahi ali Othman, Sultan or Emperor of the Ottomans, and his followers have ever since been called from his name Ottoman or Osmanli. His first official act was the erection of a mosque. 1-Iis possessions slowly increased. At that time Asia Minor was broken up into twelve principal states, one of which consisted of the pos- sessions of Oth1nan, and into many minor f.'ragments. The whole presented a ready field of conquest to whichever power was stronger or more ably governed than the rest. In Europe the Byzantine empire, which still held territories in Asia Minor, had never recovered from its conquest by the Latin crusaders, and the entire Balkan peninsula was di- vided between jealous and antagonistic petty states. Yet the rapid growth of the Ottoman empire was not due pri- marily to favoring circumstances, but to the pre-eminent abilities of its early sultans as warriors. statesmen, and or- ganizers, and to the sober and austere virtues of their fol- lowers. The first seven sultans, OTIIMAN I., ORKI-IAN, MU- RAD I., BAYAZID I., l\lOHAlII.\IED I., MURAD II., and M(>i-iAM- MED ll. (gq. v.), possessed the qualities requisite to the found- ing of states. Broussa was besieged and made the capital (1325). A code was formulated, the JANISSARIES (q. v.) and TURKEY sipahis (cavalry) organized, money coined, and red adopted as the national color before 1330. Tzynipe, the first Otto- man acquisition in Europe, was captured (1359); then Adri- anople (1365). Gradually Asia Minor and the Balkan states were subdued. The frightful defeat of Bayazid I. at An- gora by Tamcrlane (1402), and the consequent eleven years’ interregnum, threatened the very existence of the empire. Yet when Mohammed II. succeeded (1451), it had already be- come more strong and compact than before. The Seljuks; as fast as they were subdued, fused with the Ottomans. So did vast numbers of Christians, who became Moslems in the conquered European states. No distinction was made between the born Moslem and the convert. All, the origi- nal Ottoman, the Seljuk, and the convert from Judaism or Christianity, were considered equally Ottoman. The majority of grand viziers from 1359 to 1895 have been of Christian or Jewish origin. Duration was assured the em- pire by the capture of Constantinople (1453), which was at once made the capital. Under MDHAMMED II., BAYAZID II., SELIM I., and SULEIMAN I. (qq. v.) the empire steadily ex- panded, reaching its acme in the reign of the latter. The unsuccessful siege of Vienna (1529) and of Malta (1565) were its first real checks. Then Europe learned that the Otto- mans were not invincible. Their empire in the sixteenth century was the most powerful in the world. It comprised all the European, Asiatic, and African countries situated on the Mediterranean, except Morocco, Spain, France, and Italy ; all the coasts of the Black Sea, and nearly all of the Red Sea; Hungary and all the kingdoms S. of the lower Danube. Its possessions extended from 47° 30’ to 12° N. lat., and from 3° W. lon. to 48° 30' E. lon. Austria and Venice paid tribute; the European powers rivaled each other in congratulating the Ottomans on every victory and in seeking their good will and favor. Yet already the em- pire was beginning its slow, a parently intermittent, but constant and inevitable decline. 1Prominent causes of this de- cline were the gradual abandonment of direct government by the sovereign, and his customary withdrawal into seclusion ; the consequent increasing influence of the HAREM (g. v.) in political and military affairs, and the demoralization of the janissaries, the Ottoman right arm in war; the progress made by the hostile Christian states in wealth and civiliza- tion, while the Ottomans deteriorated, or at best stood still; the fact that the last twenty-four sovereigns, with the ex- ception of Murad IV., Mahmud II., and Abd-ul Hamid II., have each been inferior in ability to any one of the first ten sultans; aboye all, because the Ottoman empire from the first has resembled an armed camp, because it has always consumed and never produced, because it has lived on the countries which it conquered without conferring any benefits upon them. After the decline began, subsequent fruitless conquests, as of Cyprus (1570), Erivan (1635), and Crete (1669), and infrequent victories only varied the mo- notony of such irreparable disasters as Lepanto (1571), St. Gothard (1664), Vienna (1683), Zenta (1697), Peterwardein (1716), Belgrade (1717), Teheshmeh (1770), Ismail (1790), Navarino (1827), and Plevna (1878). The whole humiliating history is best indicated by the successive treaties of Siva- torok (1606), when the empire first receded; Carlovitch (1699), by which it was first dismembered; Passarovitch (1718), Kainarclji (1774), J assy (1792), Adrianople (1829), re- sulting in the first recognition of the independence of a hitherto subject people; San Stefano (1878), when Turkey submitted to the loss of several provinces; and Berlin (see BERLIN CONGRESS), when the last treaty was practically rati- fied by Europe. Even thetreatics least unfavorable, Falksen (1711), Belgrade (1730), Bucharest (1812), and Paris (1856), after the Crimean war, contained no permanent or real ad- vantage for the Ottomans. (See TREATIES.) The term“ sick man of the East,” commonly attributed to the Czar N ieolas, was used in reference to Turkey after the treaty of Carlovitch (1699). The empire is now protected by its relative weakness, which inspires no suspicion or dread, by the mutual jealousies of the European states, and by the antagonisms of its subject non-Mussulman races against each other, which prevent their union. See ARD-UL Aziz, ARD-UL IIAMID, ABD-UL MEDJID, MAHMUD, ll/IOHAMMED, MURAD, MUs'rAI>IiA, OTHMAN, SELIM, and SULEIMAN. See Baker, Turkey in Europe (London, 1877); Clark, Races of European Turhey (New York, 1879) ; Georgiades, La Turguie actuelle (Paris, 1892); Mrs. Blunt, People of Turlsey (London, 1878); Tozer, IIighlands of Turlcey (2 vols., London, 1869), Islands of the fligean (Oxford, 1890), and Turhislt Armenia and Eastern Asia ]VIinor (London, TURKEY-B UZZARD 1881) ; Sterrett, Epigrayihieal Journey to Asia Minor (Bos- ton, 1888) and Wolfe Easpedition to Asia ll!/inor (Boston, 1888); Cuinet, La Turguie d’./lsie (Paris, 1891); Geary, Asiatic Turkey] (London, 1879); Davis, Asiatic Turkey (London, 1878); Macdonald, Land of Ararat (London, 1893) ; Dwight, Tur/oish Life in War Time (New York, 1881); Warner, In the Levant (2 vols., London, 1892); Texier, Asie illineure (Paris, 1862); d’Ohsson, Tableau G-énéral de l’Empire Ottoman (3 vols., Paris, 1787) ; Creasy, I'Iistorg/ of the Ottoman Turks (London, 1882); Freeman, Ottoman Power in Europe (London, 1877); de la J onquiere, L’Histoire d_e l’Empire Ottoman (Paris, 1881); J ouannin, La Turguie (Paris); von Hammer, Geschiehte des Osmanisehen Reiehs (10 vols., 1834-36), translated as L’Empire Ottoman (Paris, 1844). E. A. GRosvENoR. Turkey-buzzard: the Oaihartes aura, the commonest of American vultures, resembling a turkey in size and appear- ance. It is 2-3; feet in length and 6 feet in spread of wing; the general color is blackish, lighter on the wing coverts; head and upper part of neck bare and reddish. It ranges throughout the greater part of the U. S., except the most northern and eastern portions, and thence southward over nearly all of South America. It feeds on carrion and is re- markable for its sustained sailing flight. It must not be confounded with the smaller black vulture, or carrion crow, Catharista airata. See also CATHARTIDE. F. A. Lucas. Turkey Red: See DYEING. Turkey-stone, or Turkey Oil-stone: a siliceous rock of very fine grain used for sharpening cutting-tools; so-called because obtained from Asia Minor. See HoNE. Turkish Language: the most important member of the Ural-Altaic or Ugro-Tartaric family of languages. It is spoken by the Osmanli or Ottoman Turks, regnant since 1453 in the Eastern Roman or Byzantine empire. There are really two Turkish languages: (1) That of the common people, a virtually unmixed language, spoken in its greatest purity by the Turkoman nomads, and practically covering the vast territory lying between the Danube and the western confines of China; and (2) the elevated language used in official life and in the higher flights of both prose and poetry. This elevated language has borrowed freely from both Arabic and Persian. All terms relating to religion, the- ology, politics, and law have been taken from the Arabic, while Persian literature, and the fact that the Turks first accepted Islam at the hands of the Persians, have caused another host of Persian words to be incorporated into Turk- ish. In order, therefore, to understand the elevated lan- guage, one must know well both Arabic and Persian. But it is with especial reference to the language of the common people, the practically unmixed language, that this article would give information, since its structure is fully preserved in the elevated language. Originally, Turkish was written in an alphabet of its own, but this was abandoned long ago for the Arabic alphabet, to which were added several Persian letters, thus raising the number to thirty-three, or, if lam-élif be counted in, to thirty-four. Most of these letters have one form when they stand alone, another form at the beginning, another in the middle, and still another at the end of a word. The alpha- bet is therefore virtually a fourfold one. The names, order, and value of these letters are as follows, it being noted that the right-hand column gives the nationality of the words in which the several letters are used. In Tiirkisli, Order. Name. Value. A1§:}1E>q1,<§;n°r words. 1 élif a e i u u t. a. p. 2 be b t. a. p. 3 pé p t. -. p. 4 té t t. a. p. 5 sé (té) s (Gr. 0) Eng. th —. a. -. 6 jim Eng. j t. a. p. 7 chim Eng. ch (church) t. -. p. 8 ha l_1 (aspirated) -. a. -. 9 khi German ch t. a. p. 10 dal ‘ t. a. p. 11 zel (zal) z -. a. -. 12 ri (ra) r t. a. p. 13 zé (za) z t. a. p. 14 zhé French j —. -. p. 15 sin s t. a. p. TURKISH LANGUAGE 311 In Turkish, Order. Name Value. A1§ea‘,i3S1i(;ZnOr words. 16 shin sh t. a. p. 17 sad sharp s t. a. p. 18 dad z dh -. a. -. 19 ti (ta) d t t. a. p. 20 zi (za) hard z -. a. -. 21 ayn no equivalent (breathing) -. a. -. 22 ghayn hard g : gh t. a. p. 23 fé f t. a. p. 24 kaf palatal k t. a. p. 25 kef (kyef) k g n t. a. p. 26 gyef-i ‘adjemi ' t. -. p. 27 saghyr noon ii (ng) t. -. —. 28 lam l t. a. p. 29 mim In t. a. p. 30 noon n t. a. p. 31 vav v w t. a. p. 32 he h (t) t. a. p. 33 yé _v t. a. p. 34 lam-élif la t. a. p. All of these letters are consonants, though élif, vav, hé, and yé are sometimes used as vowels. The vowels are indi- cated by seven vowel-signs or diacritical marks, which need not be explained here; these signs, however, are rarely em- ployed, except in the case of a rare or foreign word. This fact adds immensely to the difficulty of learning to read Turkish. In fact, one can not read with case until one knows and speaks the language. _Turkish writing is therefore a kind of stenography. The Turks write from right to left, so that what with us is the end of a volume is with them the begin- ning. The numerals alone are written from left to right. They have no capital letters and make but little use of punc- tuation. The accent is usually on the last syllable of a word. The Turkish language is in some respects the most re- markable of known tongues. It is conspicuous for the pro- nounced agglutinative character of its grammatical forms, for its law of vowel harmony, for the absolute regularity of its one declension and one conjugation, and for the extreme simplicity and transparency of its syntactical construction. Max Miiller has said that “ if a college of the most distin- guished scholars had met for the purpose of constructing a language, nothing more regular or symmetrical could have come from their hands than we have here in this living tongue”; and again, “ but no such society could have devised what the mind of man produced, left to itself in the steppes of Tartary, and guided only by its innate laws, or by an iii- stinctive power as wonderful as any within the realm of na- ture.” Turkish illustrates most wonderfully the agglutinative stage of language. Under agglutinafzion is meant the sim- ple appending of fixed particles to a fixed root in order to modify in various ways the meaning of the root. Primitive languages made free use of agglutination, as may still be seen in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. The familiar -mi, -si, -ti, in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, as-mi éa-pi (ép-pi) es-um asi éa-at es as-i i £0‘-Ti es-If are illustrations of it. In modern languages, however, the tendency has been to reject agglutination and to obscure its particles or suffixes. Only the initiated can trace it, say, in English (slayefh, killed), which is as conspicuous for the neg- lect of agglutination as Turkish is for its employment. To illustrate agglutination in Turkish. take the fixed particles lar, 3/fa‘, dun. which are the signs for the plural, for the pos- sessive pronoun of the second person singular, and for the ablative case. Now take the word at‘, which means lzorse, append thereto these agglutinative particles in the order given above, and there results a word at-Zar-;z/n-dun (ailer- yfidan : from thy horses). In what follows illustrations of agglutination will abound. These agglutinative particles are called _posz‘positions in contradistinction from preposi- tions. The Turkish makes no use of any kind of preposi- tion. The second instance cited above to show the remarkable character of Turkish is the law of vowel harmony. In all the languages of the Turkic class the root is never obscured, but remains virtually unalterable, no matter what or how 312 TURKISH LANGUAGE many syllables (postpositions) are added to the end of the root to modify its meaning. The vowels of such modifying syllables are not fixed, but are regulated a law of euphony, which requires the vowels of the postpositions to.h_armonize with the vowel immediately preceding the postposition. That is, if the root vowel be hard (a, o, u, y) or soft (e, 1, 5, ii), the vowel of the postposition must be hard or soft to correspond therewith. Thus, for instance, the ending of the genitive singular may be either (1) -yzt, (2) -wit, (3) -eh, (4) -'ilft', accord- ing as the end vowel of the word is (1) (t or y, (2) 0 or '16, (3) e or 2', (4) 5 or it. In like manner the endmg of the aor. act. 1st pers. sing. may be (1) -rlym, (2) -alum, (3) -elem, (4) -clilm, according as the end syllable of the verb-stem be _(1) a or y, (2) 0 or it, (3) e or 2'. (4) 0' or /17. Let the following serve as illustrations of the law of vowel harmony : (1) at‘, horse. at-yh, of the horse. bah : see, bah-clym, I saw. (2) closl, friend. closzf-uh, of the friend. Z702 : spoil, boz-alum, I spoiled. (3) ev, house. 67)-Til, of the house. gel :: come, gel-cllm, I came. (4) g'o'z, eye. grant, of the eye. bile : draw together, bile-clilm, I drew together. In a similar manner a number of postpositions have either the vowels ea or e according as hard or soft vowels precede. Thus the ablative plural of (1) is at-lar-clan, but of (3)18 ev- ler‘-clen, while the negative of (1) is bah-ma-dym (I did not see), but of (3) is gel-me-clim (I did not come). There is no definite article in Turkish, and no gender other than natural gender. Strictly speaking, there IS no declension of the noun. the case-endings being really agglu- tinative sulfixes or postpositions, which are appended to the unchanged stem (which is seen in the nominative and voca- tive cases), and thus form what we are accustomed to call the genitive, dative, locative, accusative, and ablative cases. There is but one such declension, and one noun is here iii- flected, but as the vowels of the postpositions vary according to the law of vowel harmony, eight different nouns would have to be inflected to illustrate the declension fully. Sing. Nom. Aclam, the man. Gen. Adam-yfi, of the man. Dat. Aclam-er, to the man. Loc. Aclam-dct, at (by) the man. Ace. Adam-y, the man. Abl. Aclam-dam, from the man. Voc. Aclam, man. Plur. Nom. Adam-lar, the men. Gen. Aclam-lar-yet, of the men. Dat. Aolam-low’-(t, to the men. Loo. Adam-lo/r-da, at (by) the men. Ace. Aclam-lcr-y, the men. Abl. Aclam-lar-clcm, from the men. Voc. Aclcmz-lar, men. As in English, the adjective is indeclinable and stands be- fore its noun. So bdyills bagh, the large garden ; bdyillc baghy/T, of the large garden; bdyilh baghlar, the large gar- dens ; b'o'yhh baghlarolom, from the large gardens. As in Ger- man, French, Italian, ete., the numeral one (bir) is used for the indefinite article, as blr ham lash, a black stone. The comparative and superlative are formed by placing daha and en respectively before the positive, as 7m‘/Ltehilh, claha hillehil/0, en h3’lll0lI/ll/J- small, smaller, smallest. But when two things are compared the simple ablative case with the positive of the adjective expresses the comparison, as at eshehclen eyl eltr, a horse is better than a donkey. A superlative peculiar to Turkish is in common use, viz., if the adjective begins with a consonant, then the first two letters of the adjective plus some consonant serve to make a super- lative prefix, as huru, dry: imp /ewru/, very dry; yash, wet: yam yces-h, very wet; bosh, empty: bom bosh, quite empty; mave', blue: mas mam', very blue; sary, yellow: sap sary, quite yellow. The verb, however, is the chief glory of Turkish ; it is the most complete and most transparent in existence. Here, too, law reigns supreme, so that after one has mastered a TURKS complete conjugation, no further difliculties are encoun- tered, as there are no irregularities or exceptions. The root is always seen in the second person singular of the imperative, and it remains unchanged throughout, ex- cept that final zf or is ‘is changed under certain circum- stances to cl or gh. But that, too, is law. The verb not only has moods and tenses sufficient for expressing every shade of doubt, conjecture, hope, and supposition, but new verbal roots are created by adding to the original verb-stem cer- tain postpositions which modify the original meaning of the verb-stem and create other moods that are inflected regularly. In this way a negative, a reflexive, a reciprocal, an interrogative, a causal, a necessitative, an impossible, and a conditional mood are created. Mere description can give no idea of the glory of the Turkish verb. Max Miiller gives a list of thirty-six pres- ent infinitives (to which belong just as many imperatives), . but a still more astonishing list of present tenses might be furnished. In the verb almah, to throw, for instance, there is a positive present in both the active and the passive voices (azf-ctrym, I throw, at-yl-yrym, I am thrown) ; a nega- tive present in both voices (at-ma-m, I do not throw, at-yZ- ma-m, I am not thrown) ; an impossible present (o.t-ctma-m, I can not throw, at-yl-ama-m, I can not be thrown), and so on through a positive, a negative, and an impossible recip- rocal present; a positive, a negative. and an impossible re- flexive present; a positive, a negative, and an impossible causative present; a positive, a negative, and an impossible reciprocal causative present; a positive, a negative, and an impossible reflexive causative present, ete., with a recip- rocal interrogative, a reflexive interrogative, an interrog- ative causative, a conditional, a necessitative, an opta- tive, and a dubitative present, each with its positive, nega- tive, impossible, reflexive, reciprocal, causative, and other forms in both moods to the number of over 300. The same refinement runs through the other tenses, the aoristic imperfect, past habitual, pluperfect, future, and past future in most of the moods. Space utterly forbids anything like even a synopsis of the present tenses. For a discussion of the various dialects belonging to the Turkic class of languages, see Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of Language (London, 1875). For a good short ac- count of Turkish literature, see Lane-Poole, The Story of Turkey. For a more extended study of Turkish literature, see Redhouse, History, System, and Vam'ezf/les of Tmhe'sh Poetry (Leipzig, 1879), and von Hammer-Purgstall, Ge- sehiehte cler 0smcmz'sehe'n ])e'ehzfhunsz.‘ (4 vols., Pesth, 1836— 38). The chief grammars of Turkish in English are by Wells, A .P’l’ClOl'lC0'»Z Grammar of the Turhdsh Lomgztalge (London, 1880); Redhouse, A Stmple'fiecl Grammar of the Turkish Language (London, 1884); Tarring, A Prctelteal Elemen- tary Tar/ee'sh Grammar (London, 1886). The best dictionary is still Redhouse’s T/urhe'sh and .Englt'sh Dt0l’l07tCt7‘3/ (Lon- don, 1884-87). J . R. S. Srnnnnrr. Turkistan: See Tunxssrxn. Tu1"k0inaiis : certain tribes of Turkish tongue scattered through Transcaspia, Turkestan, Persia, Khorassan, W'estern China, and Turkey in Asia. Their language is very similar to Osmanli Turkish, but physically they are much modified by Iranian intermixture. They are all zealous Sunnite Mo- hammedans, and are pastoral and nomadic. Turks : ‘in the broad sense, a race with definite and well- marked ethnic and linguistic characters which has played an important part in the history of Central Asia and Eastern Europe, and is now found scattered over a territory stretch- ing from Yakutsk to Northern India and westward to the l\’lediterranean and Lithuania. It occupies but a part of this great territory, has extensively intermingled with Aryan and Mongol races, and comprises many different tribes divided into three general groups. The first or Oriental comprises the Yakuts, the Tartars of the Altai and of other parts of Siberia, and the Turks of China. otherwise called Daldes, Taranchi, Kashgarians, etc. The central group comprises the Kirghiz, the Uzbegs, the Tartars of Astrakhan, Lithuania, and the Crimea, and the Bashkirs with their Turko-Finnish mixtures. The western group includes the Turkomans, the Tartars of the Caucasus, the Tauridians of the Black Sea littoral, certain Turco-Iranians of Persia, and the Osmanli Turks, generally called Turks par aveellence, though perhaps the most distant from the pure Turkish characters by extensive Aryan intermixture. The purest types are believed to be in the Crimea and among the Turkom-ans of Khiva. Some of the tribes, like the J ats of TURKS ISLANDS India, have lost their language though preserving other characters. More than twenty dialects are known which fall into groups corresponding fairly with the grouping of races already mentioned. The most of the Turkish races are Mohammedan and employ the Arabic alphabet, with some modifications; a few formerly used the Sogdianian or Syrian, and some now the Russian, Greek, or Armenian. They were originally nomads, are generally courageous and warlike, haters of tillage, and eaters of flesh. See Vam- béry’s works, especially his Das Zhtrlcenoolh (1885), which is a complete monograph. MARK W. HARRINGTON. Turks Islands: a group of small islands (Grand Turk, Salt Cay, and some uninhabited islets); physically, the south- easternmost of the Bahama group, but politically, with the neighboring Caicos islands, attached to the British colony of Jamaica. All are low, and Grand Turk, the largest, is only 7 miles long by 14; miles wide. Several lagoons fur- nish an excellent quality of salt, and about 1,500,000 bush. are annually exported to the U. S. and British America. Total population of the Turks and Caicos islands (1891), 4,745, nearly all engaged in the salt industry. H. H. S. Turlupins: See BRETHREN AND SISTERS or THE FREE SPIRIT. Tul"1ne1‘ic: the root of Cnrcnma lonya (family Zingi- beracece), a native of the East Indies and Cochin-China. It contains a volatile oil, a yellow coloring-matter (curcnmin), starch, cellulose, gum, and a brownish dye. The root of Canna speciosa, a plant occurring in West Africa, also pos- sesses the same physical and chemical properties. Turmeric is used in the dyeing of silk and wool, and is employed in pharmacy for coloring ointments, etc. The tincture of tur- meric, or unsized paper stained with the aqueous or alcoholic solution (turmeric paper), is used in chemical operations as a test for the alkalies and for boric acid, which impart a red- dish-brown color to the paper. Turnbull, RQBERT, D.D.: clergyman and author: b. at VVhiteburn, Scotland, Sept. 10, 1809; graduated at Glasgow University; was for some years a Baptist preacher in Eng- land and Scotland; in 1833 removed to the U. S., preaching at Danbury, Conn., 1833, at Detroit, Mich., 1835, at Hartford, Conn., 1837, at Boston, Mass., 1839; from 1845 to 1869 was pastor at the First Baptist church at Hartford, subsequently preached in several places, and was secretary of the Connect- icut Baptist State convention; author of Olympia llforata (1842); The Genius of Scotland (New York, 1847) ; The Genius of Italy (1849); Pulpit Orators of France and Switz- erland (1848); Theophany, or the Jllanifestation of God in Christ (Hartford, 1851); Christ in History, or the Central Power (Boston, 1856); and Life Pictures (New York, 1857); translated Vinet’s Vital Christianity (1846); edited Sir )/Villiam Hamilton’s Discussions on Philosophy and Liter- ature (New York, 1855); and for two years was joint editor of the Christian Review. D. at Hartford, Conn., Nov. 20, 1877. Turnbull, RoBERT JAMES: political writer; b. at New Smyrna, Fla., in J an., 1775, son of an English physician who married a Greek lady of Smyrna, and obtained, in connec- tion with Lord Hillsborough, a grant from the British Gov- ernment in 1772 for settling a Greek colony in Florida, but forfeited his rights by adhesion to the Revolutionary cause, and settled at Charleston, S. C. Robert was educated in England, studied law in Charleston and Philadelphia, and practiced at Charleston until 1810, when he devoted himself to the care of his residence on his large plantation ; became a leader of the nullification party; was prominent in the free-trade conventions at Columbia and (Jharlest-on 1831,1832, and at the South Carolina nullification conven- tion of Nov., 1832, which adopted from his pen an address to the people. D. in Charleston, June 15, 1833. A fine monument was erected to his memory by his political asso- ciates. Author of A Visit to the Philacle/ph-ia Prison (Lon- don, 1797 ; trans. Paris, 1800) and The Tribunal of Dernier Ressort (1830); wrote much on politics for the Charleston Jlfercary 1827, and a collection of his articles from that pa- per, republished under the title of The Crisis, became the text-book of the nullification party. Tll1'Ilb11ll, I/VILLIAM: civil engineer; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 9, 1800; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy July, 1819, when commissioned second lieutenant of artillery, but served on topographical duty until 1831, in which year he was transferred to the corps of topographical engineers with rank of captain; major 1838; was chief topographical TURNER 313 engineer in construction of the Potomac aqueduct 1832-43. This work, the piers of which are founded by cofier-dams on rock (covered by sometimes 20 feet of mud), from 30 to 40 feet below the water-surface, was one of the earliest of important works of American engineering—the earliest of its type. He was in charge of improvement of lake harbors 1844-46. In the war with Mexico he served as chief topo- graphical engineer of Gen. Scott’s army, from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico, gaining the brevet of lieutenant-colonel for gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, and colonel for Chapultepec. In 1848-49 he superintended the construction of the New Orleans custom-house ; engaged in the study of the question of bridging the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace, and of the expediency of an additional canal around the Falls of the Ohio 1852; on lighthouse duty and in charge of the improvement of Cape Fear river, North Carolina, at the time of his death, at Wilniington, N. C., Dec. 9,1857.—His son, CHARLES NESBIT, b. in Vllashington, D. C., Aug. 14, 1832, graduated at the U. S. Military Academy in 1854, and at- tained a captaincy in the corps of topographical engineers in 1862; was chief engineer of Gen. Sheridan’s cavalry corps ; also of the Eighth Army-corps; breveted colonel; resigned Dec. 31, 1865, and engaged in business in Boston, where he died Dec. 2, 1874. Turnbull, I/VILLIAM BARCLAY: antiquarian; b. in Edin- burgh, Scotland, in 1811 ; was called to the bar of Scotland 1832, to that of England 1856 ; was for several years secre- tary to the Scottish Society of Antiquaries; founded the Abbotsford Club 1833; was its secretary until 1841; edited for it many old MSS. and reprints of rare early publica- tions, and was appointed, although a Roman Catholic, by Sir John Romilly in 1859 calenderer of the foreign corre- spondence at the state paper oifice, which post he resigned in 1861 in consequence of dissatisfaction with his method of presenting the religious transactions of the reigns of Ed- ward VI. and Mary in the Calendar issued in February of that year. Among his other publications were Legendre Catholicce (1840); Audin‘s Life of Lnth er (2 vols. 8vo, 1854) ; The Poetical VVorhs of Rev. Robert Sontlzwell (1856); The Poetical Works of IVilliam Drnmnzond of lYawthornden (1856); and The Complete Wbrhs of Rev. Richard Crashazc ' (1858); An Account of the 1lIonastic Treasures confiscated at the Dissolution of the Various H0’Zl8€8 in England (1836) ; The Miscellany of the Abbotsford Club (1837); and The Chronicles of Scotland (3 vols.. 1857-58). the latter forming part of the Rolls Series. D. Apr. 22, 1863. Tll1'I1l)I11l’S Blue (Ferrous ferricyanide) : a kind of Prus- sian blue, which when dry is of a blue color with a reddish luster. It is precipitated when potassium ferricyanide is added to a solution of a ferrous salt; formula, Fer-,(CN)m + IUEIQO. Tm-nebe, tiir'n:1b’, ADRIEN (Turnelms): classical scholar; b. at Andelys, in Normandy, France, in 1512; called to the chair of Greek in the University of Paris in 1547, where Scaliger was for a short time one of his pupils; director of the royal printing establishment 1552—56. D. June 12, 1565. Turnébe is one of the greatest of French I-Iellenists, dis- tinguished alike for his erudition and his critical genius. He printed the ed itio princeps of Philo, Synesius, Demetrius Trielinius‘s scholia to Sophocles with a valuable preface; ed- ited 1Eschylus, Aristotle’s Ethics, Cicero‘s De leyibns; wrote commentaries to V arro’s De Linyna Latina, and to Horace; and published admirable translations of Arrian, Oppian, Theophrastus, and of several treatises of Plut-arch. See his Opera (3 vols. fol., 1600). Most of his critical emendations, covering a wide field of classical authors, are collected in his justly famous Adcersaria, thirty books. A. G. Turner: village; Du Page eo., Ill.; on the Burlington Route, the Chi. and N. W., and the Elgin, J ol. and East. railways; 30 miles IV. of Chicago (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 2—F). It is a manufacturing place, with roll- ing-mills, railway, machine, and carpenter shops, sash, door, and blind factories, creamery, pump-factory, otlice-furniture factory; and has 5 churches, 2 public-school buildings, a private bank, electric lights, and a monthly and 2 weekly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 1,001; (1890) 1,506; (1895) estimated, 2,700. EDITOR or “ DU PAGE Counrr DEMOCRAT.” Turner, CI~IARLEs Tnmvvsoxz poet; b. at Somersby, Lin- colnshire, July 4, 1808 ; third son of Dr. George Clayton Ten- nyson; educated at Louth Grammar School and Trinity College, Cambridge (1828-32), where he did admirable work in the classics, obtaining a Bell scholarship; became vicar 314 of Grasby (Oct., 1835), where he passed the greater part of his life, beloved as pastor and highly esteemed for his good works; married (May 24, 1836) Louisa Sellwood, youngest sister of Lady Tennyson ; assumed by royal license the name of Turner (1835), having inherited the Grasby living and Caistor house of his great-uncle, Rev. Samuel Turner. Be- sides Poems by Two Brothers (1827), which contained the juvenile verses of Charles and Alfred Tennyson, his works are Sonnets and Fugitive Pieces (1830); Sonnets (1864); Small T ableau.c (1868) ; Sonnets, Lyrics, and Translations (187 3): Collected Sonnets, Old and New (1880). D. at Chel- tenham, Apr. 25, 1879. EUGENE PARsoNs. Turner, CHARLES YARDLEY : genre and landscape painter; b. in Baltimore, Md., Nov. 25, 1850; pupil of the l\ational Academy and of the Art Students’ League in New York, and of Jean Paul Laurens, Munkacsy, and Bonnat in Paris; Na- tional Academician 1886 ; second Hallgarten prize. National Academy, 1884; honorable mention, Paris Exposition, 1889 ; member of the American Water-color Society. Studio in New York. \V. A. O. Turner, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM: landscape-painter; b. in London, Apr. 23, 1775. He was the son of a hair- dresser, and entered the schools of the Royal Academy in 1789; studied perspective with Thomas Malton, and archi- tectural drawing with Girtin, and drew from nature in pencil and water-color. He was elected a Royal Academi- cian in 1802. and soon afterward traveled in France, Italy, and Switzerland. In 1807 he began his Liber Studiorum; in 1819 visited Italy, to which country he returned in 1829 and 1840. He had a most successful artistic career, and re- ceived many honors. D. at Chelsea, London, Dec. 19, 1851. He left his pictures to the nation, the National Gallery in London thus acquiring over a hundred finished works. His work was enthusiastically championed by John Ruskin, who wrote eloquently about his methods and his faithful study of nature, and exalted him at the expense of Claude Lorraine, who was considered the greatest of all landscape-painters at the time when Turner began to be known. Ruskin’s criticism, while sincere and earnest, is pernicious in its effects, and has had much to do with preventing the development of an intel- ligent appreciation of art in England. Turner was undoubt- edly a man of great talent and singularly gifted as a color- ist, his chief claim to rank high as an artist depending indeed on the fine color quality of many of his works, much more than upon any real truth to nature. In his later work he paid little attention to form, and occupied himself al- most entirely in working out elaborate color schemes, for which almost any subject served his purpose. In the National Gallery, in London, in Room VI., are a large number of oil-paintings by Turner, most of them coming from his bequest to the nation. Among these are Calais Pier (1803) ; The Garden of the Hesperides (1806) ; Crossing the Brook (1813); Apuleia in Search of Apuleius (1814); Rome from the Vatican (1819); The Bay of Baice, called also Apollo and the Sibyl (1822); Dido building the Fleet (1828); Ulysses deriding Polyphemus (1830); The Fighting Te'me'raire (1839) ; Bacchus and Ariadne (1840) ; The Burial of Willie at Sea (1842). In Room IV. are the two pictures, Snow Storm, Steamer Signalling (1842), and Rain, Steam, and Speed on the Great IVestern Ra/ilway, of about the same epoch, together with a number of water-color draw- ings, some of great importance. In Room III. are several large pictures, including two celebrated ones of Venice and Lake A vernus. In Room IX. are The Sun rising in a Illist and Dido building Carthage, which two pictures Turner left to the nation with the express proviso that they should be hung beside the two large pictures by Claude Lorraine, Landscape with Figures and The Embarhation of the Queen of Sheba. In the basement of the building is a very large collection of drawings, all framed and arranged like books upon shelves. Some of these are of great value. Many of Turner’s most important works are in private hands, generally in Great Britain, and a few are in the South Kensington Museum. In New York, the Scene on the French Coast (1831) and Stafla (1832) are in the Lenox Library; 1Vorham Castle and the Fountain of Indolence are in the collection of Mrs. \V. H. Vanderbilt; and the Slave Ship is owned by Thornton Lathrop, Boston. Turner produced some remarkable engravings, the chief of which are the set known as Liber Studiorum. Eighty or more plates were prepared for this publication, of which sev- enty-one were published. Their general character is that of an etching in line, very carefully and skillfully made, as the TURNER framework of the composition, the plate being then mezzo- tinted; but some few of the plates were engraved in differ- ent ways. Five or six pure mezzotints of great beauty also exist. Engravings after Turner’s pictures and water-color drawings were made in great numbers, on a large and also on a very small scale. Among the important series of prints may be named the England and II/‘ales, the Yorls-hire Series, ‘the Harbours of England, and the illustrations to Rogers’s Italy (1830) and Poems (1834). See the Lives by Thorn- bury (1862), Hamerton (1878), and Monkhouse (1879). WILLIAM A. COFFIN. Turner, SAMUEL HULEEART, D. D.: clergyman and author; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., J an. 23, 1790; graduated at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania 1807; was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal Church 1811, and priest in 1814; was pastor of a church at Chestertown, Md., 1812-17; was elected Professor of Historic Theology in the General Episcopal Seminary, New York, Oct. 8, 1818; removed with that insti- tution to New Haven, Conn., 1820, and returned with it in 1821 to New York, where it was combined with the New York Diocesan Seminary under the title of the General Theological Seminary, in which he was Professor of Biblical Learning and Interpretation of Scripture from Dec. 19, 1821, to his death, and also Professor of the Hebrew Language and Literature in Columbia College from 1831. He was the author of Notes on the E istle to the Romans (New York, 1824); Companion to the 0070 of Genesis (1841); Biograph- ical lVotices of Distinguished Jewish Rabbis (1847) ; Paral- lel References Illustrative of the New Testament (1848); Essay on our Lord’s Discourse at Capernaum (1851); Thoughts on the Origin, Character, and Interpretation of Scripture Prophecy (1852) ; Teachings of the Master (1858); Spiritual Things compared with Spiritual (1859) ; The Gos- pels according to the Ammonian Sections and the Tables of Eusebius (1861) ; an Autobiography (1862); and several volumes of sermons. He translated J ahn’s Introduction to the Old Testament (1827),in which he was aided by Dr. W. R. Whittingham, and Planck’s I ntroduetion to Sacred Phi- lology and Interpretation (1834); edited in Greek and Eng- lish, with analytical and exegetical commentaries, the Epis- tles to the Hebrews (1852), to the Romans (1853), and to the Ephesians (1856). D. in New York, Dec. 21, 1861. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Turner, SHARON: historian; b. in London, England, Sept. 24, 1768; became a successful attorney in London, but retired from the practice of his profession in 1829, and devoted the remainder of his life to literary pursuits, re- ceiving a pension of £300 from the crown. D. in London, Feb. 13, 1847. The most valuable of his writings was the History of the Anglo-Saxons (4 vols., 1799-1805; 7th ed., 3 vols., 1853), which was long the standard authority. Be- sides other works in verse and prose, he also wrote A His- tory of England from the Norman Conquest to the Death of Elizabeth (1814-23) and The Sacred History of the IVorld (3 vols., 1832; 8th ed. 1848). Turner, WILLIAM, M. D. : physician, clergyman, and naturalist; b. at Morpeth, Northumberland, England, about 1515; educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he ob- tained a fellowship about 1531; studied medicine, botany, and theology; took orders in the Church of England ; was imprisoned for preaching the doctrines of the Reformation ; proceeded on his release to the Continent, andstudied natural history at Zurich and Bologna; returned to England on the accession of Edward VI.; became physician to the Pro- tector Somerset; prebendary of York 1550, dean of Wells 1550, and canon of Windsor; resided in Germany during the reign of Mary ; was twice deprived of his deanery, and twice restored, 1553 and 1560, and at one time had a seat in Parliament. He was the author of The Hun tyng and Fyndyng out of the Romish Foa, by Will. Wraughton (Basel, 1543); Avium prcecipuarum, quarum apud Pl/inium ct Aristotelem mentio fit, Historia (Cologne, 1544); The Rescuynge of the Romish Foes, etc., by Wuillyam Wraghton (Winchester, 1545); The New Iferball (book i., London, 1551 ; i. and ii., Cologne, 1562 ; i., ii., and iii., 1568), the first scientific work on botany by an English writer. He published a collation of the English Bible with the Hebrew, Latin, and Greek, and wrote the account of British fishes in his friend Johann Gcsner’s Ifistoria Animalium. D. in Lon- don, July 7, 1568. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Turner, Sir WILLIAM, F. R. C. S., D. Sc., LL. D., D. C. L., F. R. S.: anatomist and naturalist; b. in Lancaster, Eng- land, in 1832 ; studied medicine in St. Bartholomew’s Hospi- TURNER tal, London, graduating M. B. in 1857 ; became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, England, in 1853, and a fel- low in 1893; was prosect-or in anatomy in the University of Edinburgh in 1854; and was elected Professor of Anatomy in that body in 1867. He has been coeditor of the Journal -o f Anatomy and Physiology 1866-94. Among his more im- portant works are An Jntrocluction to Iiuman Anatomy (Edinburgh, 1875); Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the Placenta (Edinburgh, 1876); and Atlas of Human Anatomy and Physiology. S. T. ARMSTRONG. Turner, WILLIAM WADDENt hilologist; b. in London, Oct. 23, 1810 ; removed to the . S. 1818 ; was apprenticed to a printer in New York 1829; became distinguished for his attainments in modern and Oriental languages; was successively librarian to the University of New York and instructor in Hebrew in Union Theological Seminary 1842- 52 : assisted Dr. Isaac Nordheimer in the preparation of his Hebrew manuals; contributed to Bartlett’s Dictionary of Americanisms (1848); translated von Raumer’s America and the Americans (New York, 1845), and the greater part of Freund’s Latin- German Lexicon for Prof. E. A. Andrews ; superintended the ublication of Dr. Stephen R. Rigg’s Da- kota Grammar an Dictionarr , and other linguistic works issued by the Smithsonian Institution; contributed to Lude- wig’s Literature of American Aboriginal Languages (1858), to the Transactions of the American Ethnological and Oriental societies, Iconographic Encyclopedia, the Biblio- theca Sacra, and other periodicals. He was for several years recording secretary of the National Institute for the Promotion of Science, and librarian of the U. S. patent office from 1852 to his death, in Washington, D. C., Nov. 29, 1859. Turner’s Falls: village; Montague town, Franklin co., Mass. ; on the Connecticut river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. and the Fitchburg railways; 3 miles N. E. of Green- field, the county-seat (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 1-E). A canal 3 miles long here cuts ofi a long bend in the river, and three falls provide an enormous water-power, which is utilized by extensive manufactories. The village has a public library, a national bank with capital of $200,000, a savings-bank, a weekly and a monthly periodical, one of the largest cutlery-works in the world, 3 paper-mills, cotton- factory, foundry and machine-shops, and leather-factory. Pop. (1890) of town, 6,296, mostly in the village. Emron or “ Rnronmn.” Turnhout, toorn'howt: town ; province of Antwerp, Bel- gium; 25 miles E. of the city of Antwerp (see map of Hol- land and Belgium, ref. 8-13‘). It has large paper-mills, tan- neries, dye-houses, and manufactures of cotton, flax, hemp, and lace. It was formerly a strong fortress, and in 1597 Maurice of Nassau, supported by a corps of English troops, engaged the Spaniards here, routed them, and captured the fortress. Pop. (1891) 18,747. Turning : See LATHE. Turnip [ll/I. Eng. turnep; (perhaps) turn, implying some- thing round + ncpe, turnip < O. Eng. nrepe, from Lat. napus, a kind of turnip] : a biennial plant, abundant through- out the temperate zone, having a swollen fleshy root of great value as food both for man and more especially for cattle. It is of the same genus (Brassica) as mustard, and of the species B. rapa. It is found growing wild as a weed in Europe and Northern Asia, and is largely cultivated both as a field and as a garden crop, sometimes reaching 20 or 25 lb. Turnips, when grown in gardens, may be sown early; when raised in the field, they are sown much later, and thrive best in moist cloudy weather. Though turnip-culture is of comparatively recent origin in Great Britain, it has already taken rank there as a most important field-crop, being fed to sheep in the fields, inclosed within hurdles or movable fences. Though an agreeable article of diet for man, it has never assumed great importance in that respect, owing to the enormous proportion of water, 87 to 92 per cent., in its composition. The ruta-baga or Swedish turnip is closely allied to it, but is held by some botanists to be specifically distinct, B. campestris. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Turnip-fly: any one of several insects destructive to turnips. The most common is the small chrysomelian beetle called also turnip-flea (Allica or flaltica nemorum), from its prodigious leaping powers, a species having an oval bodyr and wide head, long and strong hind legs, large black wings with two yellowish stripes, and claws notched and hooked to enable it to keep firm hold of the crueiferous vegetables TURNPIKE 315 which constitute its food. It eats the leaves of the turnip as soon as they appear above ground in the spring, and lays its eggs on the under side of the leaves later in the season. The larvae thus bred upon the plant are often extremely destructive to the turnip-root, in which they burrow. Other species are the H. striolata, or wavy-striped flea-beetle of the U. S.; the Pontia oleracea, potherb or white butterfly; and the Anthyomia radicum, a dipterous insect of the family Jlluscidcc, of the same genus as the cabbage-fly and the beet-fly, and especially abundant and noxious in Great Britain, where the latter is considered as the turnip-fly proper. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Turnpike, or Turnpike Road : a road. especially a high- way, upon which turnpikes or toll-gates are established. and which are kept in repair by the tolls or fees collected from those who use the road. In England the roads constituting the main lines of com- munication are, or formerly were for many years, chiefly turnpikes. Each parish, or township, or other particular district, is liable for the maintenance of all highways pass- ing through its lands; but still many such roads are kept in repair, and were formerly built, under the authority of local acts of Parliament which vested their management for a certain number of years in trustees or commissioners who were empowered to erect toll-gates and levy tolls on those passing through as a means of raising a fund for defraying expenses of labor or improvement. The collection of such tolls, however, does not supersede other means for the main- tenance of the roads. The turnpikes of England do not gen- erally fall within the operation of the highway acts, and their construction and management are regulated primarily by the local acts relative to each particular trust, which (though temporary) were, until about the middle of the nine- teenth century, continued by the legislature from time to time, as they were about to expire; and, secondly, are regu- lated by certain general acts, applicable (with very few ex- ceptions) to all turnpike roads throughout the kingdom, that is, to all roads maintained by tolls and placed under the management of trustees or commissioners for a limited period of time. There were at one time in England many thousands of these turnpike trusts. In 1864 they numbered over 1,000, but in 1879 were reduced to a little over 200 by expiration of the trusts in accordance with the provisions of the Annual Turnpike Continuance Acts. The first authorization in England for the erection of toll-gates was in 1846 under Edward III., and from that time the system spread throughout all England, Scotland, and Ireland, being regulated in each country by special laws. The first general turnpike act was that of 13 Geo. III., ch. 64, since which time numerous others have been passed, the efiect of which has been to do away with turn- pikes to a large extent, and place the roads and their main- tenance under the charge of the county otficers. The 1nost important, as well as the earliest, of the general acts sys- tematizing the turnpike laws now in force is that of 3 Geo. IV., ch. 126. In Scotland there were formerly two main classes of roads, statute-labor roads and turnpike roads. The statute- labor roads were intended for local communication, and were maintained by personal services of tenants, cotters, etc., the services being later commutable to a money pay- ment. Turnpike roads constituted the main lines of com- munication, and were maintained by tolls. These roads in Scotland, like those in England, were maintained by virtue of special acts, many of which were passed from time to time: but in 1878 an act was passed putting all the roads in each county under one system of management, abolish- ing statute labor, money commutation, and tells, and sub- stituting a rate upon land and heritages for the maintenance of the roads. This act was at first permissive, but became compulsory on June 1, 1883. Turnpike roads have also been abolished in Ireland. England’s various systems of maintaining roads were prac- tically copied in her colonies. Thus in the U. S. many of the highroads for local communication in rural districts are maintained by the statute-labor system ; in others they are maintained by some form of tax. usually a land tax. Where statute labor exists a provision is usually made for commu- tation into a money payment. Turnpike roads in the U. S. are constructed and maintained by corporations created either under general statutes or by special charters. The legislation of the several States upon this subject varies widely, but in general such corporations (which have prac- 316 TURNSOL tically the same general rights and duties as the commis- sioners or persons holding the turnpike trusts in England) stand in a position similar to railroad companies in regard to the exercise of the right of eminent domain, being considered so far public that they are authorized to take lands necessary for their own use, upon making adequate compensation to the owners thereof, and even to appro- priate existing highways when necessary to carry into ef- fect the rights and privileges granted by their charters. They are also given power to lay and collect tolls, and to erect gates to insure their payment, the rates of tells, the distance between the gates, and various other details being frequently regulated by their charter. Owing to the impor- tance of the franchise granted in bestowing a right to make and maintain a turnpike road, and the ease with which the rights of the parties concerned may be violated either by the turnpike company or the public, as the case may be, the rights and duties of the turnpike company and of the public are very strictly prescribed by the statutes or charters under which the turnpike companies or trusts are created. Turnpike roads are becoming less numerous, their construction and maintenance being assumed by, or imposed upon, municipal corporations. Sometimes roads are constructed so that by taking a cir- cuitous route a person traveling u on a turnpike may avoid passing through the toll-gates, anc so avoid the payment of toll. These circuitous routes were called situnluikes, and they may be erected when public necessity demands it, but the laws are stringent against their being made with the in- tent and effect of depriving the turnpike company of its legal tolls. In return for their franchises it is the duty of the turn- pike companies to keep the road-bed and its appurtenances in good repair, and in such condition and manner as the statutes prescribe, at least so long as they do not surrender their charter by ceasing to demand payment of tolls. For a failure to comply with this requirement they may be held liable in an action for damages by a person injured through their negligence, and also to an action for such penalties or annullment of their charter as the law provides for. As con- cerns its use, aturnpike is in every respect a public highway, free to all, except that the legal toll must be paid as a con- dition of use; and the rules of law concerning the encroach- ment upon highways apply equally to turnpikes. F. STURGES ALLEN. Turnsol : another name for LITMUS (Q. 1).). See also ARCHIL. Turnspit: a kind of dog, formerly employed for turning the spit upon which meat is roasted. The turnspit is a very intelligent dog, with a long body, short and often crooked legs, long and pendent ears, and a very large head. It has a dash of greyhound blood. Two or more dogs were kept, to relieve each other at the task, the dog standing in a kind of treadmill, his weight giving motion to the spit. The breed is apparently very old, as similar dogs are figured on the monuments of ancient Egypt. Turnstone [so called from its habit of overturning stones in search of food : the Strepsilas z'n2ferpres, a wading bird of the family I aematopod/£cZ(e, allied to the plovcrs, and common on the shores of the U. S. and in nearly all parts of the world. On the Pacific coast is found S. melcmopus, the black turnstone. Turpentine [from 0. Fr. z‘m'bent/inc < Lat. tereZn"n’th/ina, zferb2'n'z‘ma, (sc. res’/ina, gum), turpentine, lit-er., fem. of tare- Z)L'7?/H?/2:72/LLIS, of the terebinth or turpentine-tree, deriv. of fare- bz'n'thas. See TEREBINTI-I]: any one of certain vegetable oleo-resins which exude from coniferous trees. also the resin obtained from the Pistacia IfereZn'm‘7ms. They are obtained by making an excavation, having a capacity of about 3 pints, in the trunk of the tree, in which the exuded juice accumulates, which is collected, washed with warm water, and purified by straining through straw filters. The sev- eral varieties of turpentine are viscid solutions of resin in a volatile oil. American turpentine is chiefly procured from the PzTn/us ]9aZu.s2frz's and the Pivms tceda, the principal sup- ply coming from North and South Carolina and Georgia. French and German turpentines greatly resemble the Amer- ican in most of their properties. Venice turpentine, which is obtained from the Terran; enropcca, is a ropy, slightly greenish liquid having a rather unpleasant odor and taste. (Janada turpentine is produced from the Abics balsrmzea (see BALSAM, CANADA). growing in Canada and the north- ern part of Blaine. The remaining varieties of turpentine TURPIN are the Strassburg, the Hungarian, and the Chian, which differ somewhat in their properties, but are in most re- spects very similar compounds. The turpentines as a class form yellowish viscid liquids, possessing a strong aromatic odor, and a bitter, pungent taste, and are very inflamma- ble. They consist of a volatile oil (or oils) and colophony (/rosin). Upon distilling the crude product with water the volatile oil is separated, a brittle residue of resin remaining. Oil of tlzwjaentme (spz'm'ts of l'm'penzfe"ne) (C10H16) is ob- tained by the distillation of crude turpentine, the different varieties of the crude product yielding oils that differ from one another. They all form colorless. mobile liquids of a peculiar disagreeable odor, are insoluble in water, but dis- solve in alcohol, in ether, and in carbon disulphide. The oils of turpentine are solvents of many resins and oils, of caoutchouc, and of iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus. The chief differences exhibited by the various varieties are in specific gravity, boiling-point, and optical rotatory power. The ordinary turpentine oil of commerce has a specific gravity of 0864 and a boiling-point of 320° F. French oil of turpentine consists essentially of a hydrocarbon termed terebenzfhene (CIOHIG), of specific gravity '8767 at zero centi- grade, and boiling-point of 321° F. (Rqlbcm). Austmlene is an analogous hydrocarbon obtained from the American oil. The oils of turpentine on standing slowly absorb oxygen, a portion of which is converted into ozone. Uhlorine, bromine, and io- dine are dissolved by them, disengagement of heat and com- bustion often occurring. Under the influence of heat and of acids turpentine oils assume various isomeric states; when heated to 464° F., z'soterebenezfhene and me2fa2fe'rebene- them are formed; by the action of sulphuric acid terebene and 00Z0_79hm2/e are produced. Two other isomers, camp]:/zl Zene and tereZn'Zene, have been prepared by treating arti- ficial camphor with quicklime. Artificial camphors are the results of the combination of hydrochloric acid with oil of turpentine, so far two hydrochloratcs, G10H16.I~lCl and C10 H16.2HCl, having been obtained. The former, which is termed hyd7’007l/Z07‘(tt6 of camp7z/ene, crystallizes in white prisms, which have an aromatic smell and taste greatly re- sembling that of ordinary camphor; the latter compound possesses the characteristic odor of the oil of thyme. (See THYME, OIL or.) A numerous variety of seeds and fruits yield by distillation oils isomeric or polymeric with those of turpentine. These have received the generic name of cam- phenes or terebenes. Turpentine is sometimes applied ex- ternally in medicine in the shapes of salves and plasters: it is also taken internally in the form of pills. The oils of turpentine are extensively used in the preparation of var- nishes, and to some extent i11 medicine as stimulants, diu- retics, and authelmintics. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Turpentine-tree: See TEREBINTI-I. Turpeth, or Turbitl1 [t’L0’)’Z98flb is via 0. Fr. from Pers. : tw*be'th : Fr. from Pers. imJn'cZ, a cathartic; t’m'bacZ, a pur- gative root]: a medicinal cathartic root (that of the Igno- maaa tar,/vetlmmn) from India and Australia. Spirgatis found in it a substance he called timjpetlzme, C34Il56()16, a yellowish resin which possessed purgative properties. It seems to be a glucoside. Turpetli-mineral. also Turbith-mineral: an ancient name of what is now known as the basic sulphate of mer- curic oxide, I-Ig3SO6. It is obtained by boiling with water the neutral mercuric sulphate, 1-lgSO4. It is a lemon-yellow powder, which is very slightly soluble in cold water. It was formerly used in medicine. Notwithstandmg its name it is not a mineral substance, but is wholly artificial. Turpil'ius, Snxrusz a Roman comic poet contemporary with Terence, but outliving him by many years, dying at Sinuessa, 103 B. 0. Like Terence he cultivated the Fabuia Pa/Mata, and six of the thirteen play-titles known to us agree with titles of Menander. In diction he falls far be- low the purity of Terence, to whom he 1s ranked next 111 merit in the canon of Volcatius Sedigitus. The Fmgmem‘s, 215 verses, are given in Ribbeck’s Com. Rom. Fm_q., pp. 85- 111. M. WARREN. Turpin, Fr. pron. tt'1r’pa’.1'1’, or '1‘ylpi’nus: archbishop of Rheims (d. Sept. 2, 800); the reputed author of a Latin chronicle relating the campaigns of Charlemagne agamst the Saracens in Spain. The book was declared authentic by Pope Galixtus II. in 1122, translated into French in 1206, printed in 1566 in Frankfort, and edited by Clampi (Florence, 1822) and Reiflenberg (Brussels, 1836), The first part of the book was evidently written simply 111 order to TURPIN encourage pilgrimages to St. Jago di Compostella, and the rest bears the character of a romance written principally for the purpose of entertainment. Many interior features indicate that the work was produced in the twelfth century, perhaps by Pope Calixtus II. himself. See Ciampi, De Vita Carol/6 .Mag/rz/II et RolancZe' [[tst0r/ta, J. Tarptrzo eulgo tril/ata (Florence, 1822), and Gaston Paris, De Pseudo-T/ur])e'no (Paris, 1865). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Turpin, EDMUND HART: organist and composer; b. at Nottingham, England, May 4, 1835; studied entirely in London ; in 1859 he became organist at St. George’s, Bloom s- bury; is honorary secretary of the College of Organists; and has edited the London ]l[ase'cal Standard since 1880. He has conducted various societies and orchestras, and has com- posed a large quantity of church music of excellent charac- ter, with two cantatas—-A Song of Faith (1867) and Jerusa- Zem—-several masses, a Sta?/at Mater, and many songs and organ pieces. D. E. HERVEY. Turquoise, or Turquois [from Fr. tm-qaoise, Turkish (adjec. femini., turquoise, deriv. of T/are, Turk; named (as also Tarlwy-storte, as it was called in the sixteenth century) from Turkey, because derived from the East] : an aluminium hydrous phosphate, owing its blue color to a small amount of copper, always opaque and amorphous, and occurring in small seams in igneous and volcanic rocks. It has long been a favorite gem-stone from its peculiar delicate light-blue color; when greenish in tint it is much less prized. The principal localities for turquoise are at Nichapur, Persia, and in the Sinai Desert in Egypt. The stones from the lat- ter are more liable to change color. Since 1890 very fine gems have been obtained in New Mexico, near Los Cerrillos, where extensive mines have been reopened that were worked by the ancient Mexicans. A single stone from these mines has been sold for $4,000, and the product is one of much commercial importance. Turquoise occasionally loses its color and turns greenish, especially when exposed to fatty acids, as in washing with soap water. A natural imitation, known as bone t/arqam'se or odontol/ite, is fossil bone simi- larly colored by copper. It is easily distinguished by its microscopic structure. GEORGE F. KUNZ. Turretin, Fr. ron. ti'1r’tan', or Turreti’ni, FRANCOIS: theologian ; b. at eneva, Oct. 17, 1623 ; studied theology in his native city, in Holland, and in France under Spanheim, Morus, and Diodati; was appointed pastor at Geneva in 1647; removed to Leyden in 1650: returned to Geneva. as Professor of Theology in 1653. Died there Sept. 28, 1687. His principal work is Instit-atio T/z.eolog/tee EZenctz'ae (Ge- neva, 1679—85; 11. e. Edinburgh, 1847-48, 2 vols.), a stand- ard treatise on the lines of the strictest Calvinism. I-Iis com- plete works were published in 4 vols., 1688. See his Life in Latin, by B. Pictet (Geneva, 1688).—His SO11,JEAN ALPHONSE TURRETIN, b. at Geneva,Aug. 13,1671; studied theology; visited Holland, England, and France, and was appointed Professor of Ecclesiastical History in 1697 at Geneva. and of Systematic Theology in 1734. D. at Geneva, May 1,1737. I-lis complete works were published in 5 vols. in 1775, and con- tain P;z/r'rhom's'nms Portt'tfict'as, against Bossuet's Iftstotre des Varz'ate'ons, Hz'storz'a li'eeZest'asz"t'c(e Compe/adt"mn ad an- nam 1700, (]og'z'tat/Jones et D/zissertattoaes Theologzkue (2 vols., 1737), etc. In his theology he tried to mitigate and modify the severe Calvinism, and practically he exerted himself much in order to promote a union between the Lutheran and the Reformed Churches. It was mainly due to him that the rule requiring every German pastor to subscribe to the Helvetian consensus was withdrawn ; and when Frederick I. -of Prussia asked the opinion of the German ministry con- cerning the union, it was Turretin who drew up the answer which makes a happy distinction between fundamental and non-fundamental differences, reducing the differences be- tween the two great Protestant churches to the latter kind. ‘See his A D£seo'u,rse coneernziag the F'zmcZameaz‘aZ Arficles in Religion, which appeared in an English translation (Lon- don, 1720). The work was attacked by the Jesuit Francois de Pierre (Lyons, 1728), who urged that the Reformed churches, with such an explanation, had no further reason for remaining outside the homan Church. See E. de Budé, Frangois et Alp/tense Tarretzinzf (2 vols., Lausanne, 1880). Revised by S. M. J Aexsoiv. Turrets [M. Eng. toaret, from 0. Fr. to'u/rez‘z‘e. dimin. of tour, tower < Lat. tm-’rt's, tower] : in military usage, towers of metal, often revolving, designed both to protect the guns and gunners contained in them, and to afford these a suita- ble position for offensive operations. Since the civil war in TURTLE 317 the U. S. they have become a recognized element in land and naval warfare. A patent was issued to Theodore R. Timby, of New York, in 1843, for “ a revolving metallic tower, and for a revolving tower for a floating battery to be propelled by steam.” This wholly original idea of a revolv- ing battery found its earliest practical expression in the tur- rets of the monitors. (See Momroa and Smrs OF WAR.) For each of the monitors built by Ericsson and his associates the inventor received a royalty. The great military value of the revolving battery once fully demonstrated by the crucial test of war, it was soon adopted by other nations, not only for naval purposes, but also for defensive works on land. " Re- volving turrets,” observes a high English authority, “ if of adequate strength, are the best of all methods of protecting ordnance for coast-defense. They combine the security given by shields with more than the lateral range afforded by the barbette system, and the ease with which they can be turned gives special facilities for firing at moving objects, or for screening the gun-ports from an enemy‘s fire while load- ing the guns. The gunners are fully protected.” The Gruson turret (see Fig. 1) has the ellipsoidal form R} \ \ \ \ \\\ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \\\‘\§\ \\ :\\\ \\\\ FIG. 1.—The Gruson, a modification of the Timby turret. in order to deflect a shot striking it. The turret is cast of chilled iron in separate pieces, which when put together are mutually supporting. They are comparatively cheap. Ger- many, Russia, Holland. Italy, Austria, and Belgium have adopted this type of defensive works. A two-gun turret is generally considered as equivalent to an open battery of six or eight guns. The Dover Turret (E»ngZarzd).—-The Dover turret (Fig. 2), placed on the outer end of the pier at Dover. England, consists of a live ring and rollers of steel running on a path of steel laid on a massive cylinder of masonry. On this live ring runs an iron framework weighing about 240 tons. The framework contains the gun-chamber, which is protected by three thicknesses of 7-inch armor, with two in- termediate thicknesses of 2-inch plates and 6 inches of wood, weighing together about 460 tons. The weight of guns. car- riages, and slides, added to the above makes a total running weight of about 895 tons. This throws upon each of the thirty-two rollers of the live ring a pressure due to about 28 tons. The outside diameter of turret is 37 feet; inside. 32 feet; interior height of gun-chamber. 8 ft. 8 in.; height of turret-armor, 9 feet: armament, two 80-ton guns. The turret is turned by a pinion, the vertical shaft shown, work- ing into a large ring, with steel trundles secured to the framework, the power being given by a set of 1nain engines capable of working up to 300 horse-power, and auxiliary engines of 45 or 50 horse-power. All engines and boilers are in the lower part of the battery. about 30 feet below the guns. The magazines are nearly at the same level as the engines. S. B. LUCE. Turret-ships : See SHIPS or WAR. Turtle: See TESTUDINATA. Turtle. or Tll1‘tle-dove [fl/rile is O. Eng. z‘/urtle. from Lat. ta/r’tar (probably a name imitative of its cooing)] : any one of several small pigeons, especially those of the genus ‘purposes. 318 T URTLE-FISHERY Tartar. The T. aurttus, or common European turtle, is a migratory bird, famed for its gentleness, its strong conjugal affection, and its loud but pleasant cooiug note. The turtle or mourning dove of the U. S. is the Zenatdura maeroura, whose gentle and mournful note is well known. It is 13 inches in total length, and has a remarkably long tail. Pigeons of the genus E72/(t are also reckoned as turtles. There are perhaps twenty species of turtle-dove. That men- tioned in the Bible is Tartar r2?s0'rtus, an abundant East- ern species often kept in cages. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Turtle-fishery: the taking of turtles for commercial While turtles are used for food wherever they are sufficiently large or abundant, few species are the ob- ject of regular pursuit. Among marine species the green turtles (C/zlelonta midas and m'rgata) are taken for their flesh and the hawk’s-bills (Eretmoehelys Itmbrtcata and squa- mata) for their shells; the loggerhead (Thalassochelys ca- retta) is also taken, but forms indifierent or poor food. The diamond-back, or terrapin (ltlalaclemmg/s palustrts) of the southeastern parts of the U. S. and the large species of Enzy- didce, usually called sliders, are much sought for, as are also the soft-shelled turtles (Trtonyehz'dcc) of the southern parts of the U. S. and Mississippi valley. The Indians of the Ama- zon systematically hunt turtles for their flesh and eggs, the latter used for making oil, and the Japanese consume num- bers of a species of Tr/tonya: (T. japonteus). Marine turtles are taken on most suitable sandy shores in tropical or warm regions. The island of Ascension is an old and famous local- ity, as are the Bahamas and the Gulf of Mexico very gener- ally, and the fishing extends as far N. as North Carolina, few, save stragglers, going beyond. The turtles are taken on land by watching on the nights when they come ashore to deposit their eggs, and quickly turning them on their backs. In the water they are sometimes caught by the primitive plan of diving and grasping the front of the shell with one hand and the hind part with the other, giving the animal such a twist that his struggles bring him to the surface. Another method much in vogue is to use a spear with a small round point, which is fastened to a line, though de- tachable from the shaft, the creatures being speared when asleep, or pursued when the conditions are favorable, as, for example, in smooth or shallow water. Nets are also em- ployed to some extent. The turtles are usually kept until wanted for shipping in inelosures termed crawls, and travel very well if simply laid on their backs in a damp cool place. Fresh-water turtles are caught in nets and in traps on the principle of a lobster-pot, one end being attached to a stake and kept above water in order that the turtle may not drown. They are also scooped up in dredges or taken in the fall and winter after they have entered the mud to hi- bernate by probing for them with an iron rod. Turtle- culture has been practiced to some extent both in the U. S. and Japan, a suitable body of water being fenced in and, in necessary places, covered with netting to prevent crows and other enemies from destroying the eggs and young. These inelosures are perhaps more used in the U. S. for the keep- ing and feeding of small individuals until they reach a marketable age than for raising turtles from the eggs. In the States of the Eastern coast of the U. S. in 1890 there were taken 476,630 lb. of terrapin, worth $70,141, and 1,287,- 256 lb. of turtle, valued at $40,550, besides 1,153 lb. of tor- toise-shell, amounting to $2,884, and turtle eggs to the extent of $994, the total, including the product of the Pacific States, reaching $119,569. Florida claims the largest catch of the sea-turtles and Virginia leads in the number of terrapin caught, although Maryland’s product stands first in value, owing to the large proportion of the valuable diamond-backs in her waters. F. A. Lucas. Tusa'yan Indians: See CLIFF-DWELLINGS, PUEBLO IND- mxs, and SHOSHONEAN Ixnmns. Tuscal00'Sa: city; capital of Tuscaloosa co., Ala.; on the Black Warrior river, and the Ala. Gt. South. Railroad; 55 miles S. W. of Birmingham, 75 miles N. N. W. of Selma (for location, see map of Alabama, ref. 4—B). It is in a cot- ton-growing and coal-mining region, was formerly the State capital, and is noted for its educational institutions, which include the University of Alabama (post-office, University), University High School, Central Female College, Tuscaloosa Female College, and the Institute for Training Colored Ministers (Presbyterian). It is also the seat of the Alabama Insane Hospital. There are 2 national banks with combined capital of >i"5160.000, a private bank, and 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,418; (1890) 4,215. TUSHITA Tuscan Order: an order of architecture still simpler than the Roman Doric. (See ORDERS or ARCHITECTURE and Dome ORDER.) Its origin is probably to be found in the imitation of Greek designs by the Etrurians and other inhabitants of Italy beforethe time of the Roman domination. The Ro- man builders took this, with other features of Etruscan architecture, into use before importing Greek forms more directly. It may well be that the Roman Doric so called was a more decorated form of Tuscan. R. 'I‘us’cany [from Lat. Tusca’nus, Tuscan, Etruscan, deriv. of Tuset, another name for _E't'ru’sc-t, Tuscans, Etruscans] : a compartimento of Italy, co1nprising the eight provinces of Arezzo, Florence, Grosseto, Leghorn, Lucca, l\'Iassa-Carrara_. Pisa, and Sienna; now not recognized as a legal division. Area, 9,304 sq. miles. Pop. (1893) 2,296,011. It was for- merly an independent grand duchy of Italy. Its territory corresponded nearly to that of the ancient Etruria, and after the fall of the Roman empire it formed at first part of the kingdom of the Goths, then of the kingdom of the Longe- bards, and then of the empire of Charlemagne. He gave it a somewhat more independent position, erecting it into a marquisate. and giving it away as a military fief. Guelph VI. sold his fief in 1160 to the German emperor Frederick I. ;. but as the connection with the German empire was some- what loose from the very beginning, Tuscany was soon broken up into a number of independent republics, of which Florence, Pisa, and Sienna were the most important. Flor- ence conquered Pisa and the greatest part of the Tuscan territory, but was conquered itself in 1532 by Charles V... who appointed Alessandro dc’ Medici Duke of Florence. In 1569 Cosmo I. united the whole of Tuscany into a grand duchy. and from that time to 1737, when it became extinct, the Medici family ruled the country, and made it one of the most prosperous and civilized in Europe. In 1737 it fell to- Francis, Duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria Theresa and later became Emperor of Germany, and with exception of a few years, during which Napoleon first made it a part of the kingdom of Etruria, and then annexed it to France, it was ruled by the house of Lorraine until Aug. 16, 1859,. when by an almost unanimous vote of the people it annexed itself to the kingdom of Sardinia. In 1861, by a similar pro- cess, it was annexed to the kingdom of Italy. From that time until 1871 Florence was the capital of the kingdom. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Tuscaro'ra or Tuskarora Indians: See IROQUOIAN INDIANS. Tuscia : See ETRURIA. Tl1Sc0'1a: city (founded in 1856); capital of Douglass co., Ill.; on the Chi. and E. Ill., the Ill. Cent., and the Ind., Decatur and W. railways; 150 miles S. of Chicago, and 150- miles E. of St. Louis (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 6—F). It is in an agricultural region and the broom-corn belt of Illinois; contains several churches, 2 public-school buildings, a national bank with capital of $60,000, a private bank, and 3 weekly newspapers; and is the largest broom- corn shipping-place in the U. S. Pop. (1880) 1,457 ; (1890) 1,897; (1895) estimated, 3,000. EDITOR or “REVIEW.” Tusculum: See Fnxscxrr. Tuscum'bia: city; capital of Colbert co., Ala.; on the Tennessee river, and the Memphis and Charleston, the Louisv. and N ashv., and the Birmingham, Sheffield and Tenn. River railways ; 125 miles N. W. of Birmingham, 175 miles N. W. of Montgomery, the State capital (for location, see map of Alabama, ref. 1—B). It is in an agricultural region, and eon-- tains a public school, several private schools, the Deshler Fe- male Institute (chartered in 1870), an excellent spring-water supply, Baptist, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, Protes- tant Episcopal, and Roman Catholic churches, a State bank with capital of $25,000, flour and feed mill, plow-factory, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,369; (1890) 2,491; (1895) estimated, 3,000. EDITOR or “ N ORTH ALARAMIAN.” Tushita [Sanskr., satisfaction or joy] : the heaven of “ the perfectly contented ones”; the fourth of the six Buddhist devalokas or celestial spheres or abodcs of the gods. Here dwell the Boddhisattvas, or beings whose essence has be- come intelligence, and who have only once more to pass through human existence before attaining to Buddhaship. Here dwelt Gautama, and it was from this heaven that he descended in the form of a white elephant to be born for the last time. Here also dwells Maitreya, the coming Bud- dha of the present age. In Tushita life lasts 4,000 years, but twenty-four hours are there equal to 400 years on earth.. TUSKEGEE 'l‘uske’gee: town; capital of Macon co., Ala.; on the Tuskegee Railroad; 40 miles N. by E. of Montgomery, 135 miles S. W. of Atlanta, Ga. (for location, see map of Ala- bama, ref. 5—E). It is in a cotton-growing region, is an at- tractive winter resort, and contains 2 cottonseed-oil mills, an incorporated bank with capital of $50,000, a private bank, and a weekly newspaper. It is widely noted for its educa- tional institutions, which comprise the Alabama Military In- stitute, the Alabama Conference Female College, the Ala- bama Normal School, school for colored people, and the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute. The latter was founded in 1881 by Booker T. Washington, a graduate of the Hampton Normal and Industrial Institute, and in 1894 had 48 professors and instructors, all colored, 915 students, 1,810 acres of ground, and 31 buildings valued at $200,000. The institution is exclusively for colored youth, is thoroughly equipped for advanced normal and industrial education, and nearly if not all of the work of laying out the grounds, erecting the buildings, and constructing the operating plants, was done by the students. From its opening till the 1894 commencement the institute received from all sources $421,- 955, and the students paid in labor $187,612, put over 500 acres under cultivation, and made over 500,000 bricks. Mr. Washington has been principal of the institute from its or- ganization. Pop. of town (1880) 2,370; (1890) 1,803. Tusser, THOMAS: successively a musician, schoolmaster, serving man, husbandman, grazier, and poet; b. at Riven- hall, Essex, England, about 1515; educated at Eton and at Cambridge. D. in London about Apr., 1580. He was the author of Fine lTuncZred Points of Good lqnsbandrg/, um'ted to as many of Good Honsewziferg/, etc. (1573), in verse, with a metrical autobiography. His book is chiefly valuable for its picture of the manners and domestic life of English farmers. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Tutmes : See THOTHMES. Tuttle, DANIEL SYLvEsTER, D. D.: bishop; b. at Wind- ham, Greene co., N. Y., J an. 26, 1837; graduated at Colum- bia College in 1857 ; studied theology in the General Theo- logical Seminary in New York ; entered holy orders, and in 1866 was elected Bishop of Montana, having jurisdiction in Idaho and Utah; was consecrated in 1867, his election to the missionary episcopate having taken place before he was of canonical age to be made a bishop. After nearly twenty years service in the far West he was chosen to succeed Dr. Charles Franklin Robertson as Bishop of Missouri. He has published missionary reports, episcopal addresses, sermons, and pastorals. Revised by W. S. PERRY. Tuttle, HERBERT, A. M., L. H. D.: historian; b. at Ben- nington, Vt., Nov. 29, 1846; A. B., University of Vermont, 1869; after graduation engaged for several years in journal- ism at Boston, afterward at Paris and Berlin, where he con- tinued studies in history and public law ; lecturer on inter- national law, University of Michigan, 1879; received ap- pointment to Cornell University 1881, where he held for a time the chair of politics and international law, and after- ward became Professor of Modern European History. He was the author of German Poltt/teal Leaders (New York and London, 1876) ; History 0 f Prussia to the Aeeessz'on of Frederz'eh the Great (1884); H‘e'sz‘-ory 0 f P2‘/ussia under Fred- erick the Great (2 vols., New York, 1888) ; and many articles in magazines and reviews. D. at Binghamton, N. Y.. June 21, 1894. C. H. THURBER. Tuttle, JOSEPH FARRAND, D. D., LL. D.: clergyman and educator; b. at Bloomfield, N. J ., Mar. 12, 1818; educated at Marietta College and Lane Theological Seminary; tutor in Marietta College 1843-44; pastor of the Presbyterian churches at Delaware, 0., 1845-47, and at Rockaway, N. J ., 1847-62; president of Wabash College 1862-92. Besides contributing frequently to several reviews, Dr. Tuttle has published a large number of important historical sermons, addresses, and pamphlets; Life of Wz.'Zli'a'2n Tuttle; Way Lost and Found; SeZ,f-reZ'ia/ace ; Re'v0laf/zT0na,r3/ Fathers of ]l[0rrz.'s Cozmtg/, N. J.; The lVestern States of the Great Valley; I))‘6SZ)_’ljZ‘8'I”l;(t’iI,?;8’I72/ on the Fr0ntt'e'2's; Our Half Cen- tnrg/; The General Assembly/’s Jubilee ; and Siwtiiezflt Anne'- oersary of Lane. C. K. HOYT. Tutuila : one of the Samoan islands. See SAMOA. Tux’ pan: a town and port in the northern part of the state of Vera Cruz, Mexico; on the Tuxpan, 7 miles above its mouth (see map of Mexico, ref. 7-H). Vessels anchor in the roadstead, the bar only admitting small craft. Coasting steamers touch here regularly, and there is a thriving trade TWEED 319 in cabinet woods, dyewoods, honey, rubber, hides, etc. Tux- pan dates from before the Conquest and is connected with the legends of the Toltecs. Pop. 9,000. H. H. S. Tver, tvar, or TWe1': government of European Russia; bounded S. by the government of Moscow ; area, 25,225 sq. miles. The ground is elevated, but the surface level. cov- ered with forests, and dotted with small lakes; the Volga and several of its aflluents rise here. The climate is some- what severe, and the soil is not very fertile. Rye and oats are produced, sufficient for home consumption; flax and hemp are cultivated. Cattle are neither numerous nor good, but the fisheries are remunerative. Pop. (1890) 1,791,000_. Tver; town of Russia. government of Tver; at the con- fluence of the Tvertsa and Volga, which latter here becomes navigable for steamers (see map of Russia. ref. 6-E). The town contains an imperial palace, a cathedral, a college, va- rious schools, and barracks, and, situated as it is on the high- way from Moscow to St. Petersburg, its trade is considera- ble. Nails and cotton goods are extensively manufactured. There are several chalybeate springs in the vicinity. Pop. (1890) 40,962. Twachtman, JOHN HENRY: landscape-painter; b. in Cin- cinnati, O., Aug. 4, 1853; pupil of F. Duveneck and of the Munich Academy; member of the Society of American Artists 1879; Webb prize, 1888. His work may be properly classed as of the impressionist school, and is remarkable for luminousness and atmospheric quality. \V. A. C. Twatu’tia : the capital of FoRMosA (Q. v.). Tweed : next to the Tay the largest river of Scotland. It rises in the southwest corner of Peeblesshire, at an ele- vation of 1,500 feet above the sea, flows northeastward, eastward, and again northeastward. and enters the North Sea at Berwick after a course of 97 miles. It is tidal for 10 miles and forms a part of the border with England for 184 miles. Tweed, WILLIAM MAROY: politician; b. in New York city, Apr. 3, 1823, of Scotch descent; the son of a poor chairmaker; when twenty-eight years old went into part- nership with his brother in the chairmaking business; soon became prominent in local politics, and in 1853 was elected to Congress. For many years he was a member of the Tam- many Society, of which he was chosen grand sachem in 1869, holding the office till 1871. From his appointment as deputy street commissioner in 1863 may be said to date the foundation of the famous Tammany Ring, of which he was the chief spirit. He became at once the virtual head of the department of streets, afterward the department of public works, and by extending enormously the expenditures for public improvements acquired vast political influence and began to accumulate a fortune. His position as president of the board of supervisors enabled him to increase the city’s pay-roll to unprecedented dimensions, giving sinecure positions to an army of political friends. The ring gradu- ally grew in power and influence till 1868, and at the open- ing of 1869 found itself master of nearly every department of the State government. In 1868 the ring’s greatest scheme of robbery, the building of a new county court-house, was planned. The work was begun under the stipulation that the cost should not exceed $250,000. Before 1871 over $8,000,000 was pretended to have been expended on it and it was still unfinished. I/Vhen by the charter of 1870 the power of auditing accounts was taken from the board of supervisors and vested in certain city offices then filled by Tweed and his friends, all restraints on the system of plun- dering by fraudulent bills was removed. Such bills. amount- ing to $6,000,000, were passed by the board of audit at its first and only meeting. Of this amount over $1,000,000 was traced to Tweed’s private pocket. A secret account of the money thus paid was kept in the auditor’s office under the title “ County Liabilities.” During the winter of 1870- 71 a clerk employed in the auditor’s office copied by stealth the items _in this account and gave them to his patron, James O’Brien, an opponent of the Tammany Society. O’Brien subsequently gave the figures to The 1Vew York Times, and that journal published them in July, 1871. The excitement created thereby started an investigation which through the earnest efforts of Samuel J . Tilden and others resulted in the exposure of the frauds and the complete overthrow of the ring in the elections of Nov., 1871. Tweed was tried for grand larceny and forgery, and sentenced on Nov. 22, 1872, to twelve years’ imprisonment in the peni- tentiary and to pay a heavy fine. On Dec. 4, 1875, he 390 TWEEDMOUTH escaped and fled to Spain, where he was captured and returned to the city Nov., 1876. Tweed was married in 1844 and had eight children. D. in Ludlow Street jail, New York, Apr. 12, 1878. See Bryce’s American C'ommonweaZth. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Tweedmouth, Loan: See MARJORIBANKS, EDWARD. Twelve Tables, Law of the: See R.oNAN LAW. TWBT: See TVER. _ Twesten, AUGUST DETLEV CHRISTIAN, D. D. : theologian; b. at Glilckstadt. Germany, Apr. 11, 1789; studied at Kiel and Berlin; Professor of Philosophy and Theology at Kiel from 1814; called to Berlin i11 1835 to fill the theological chair of the great Schleiermacher, which position he occu- pied till his death Jan. 8, 1876, retaining his vigor and faithfully attending to his academic duties to the last. He was also member of the Oberkirchenrath of the Evangelical Church of Prussia from 1850 till 1874. He was a pupil and admirer of Schleiermacher, but more positive and orthodox. As a teacher and writer he was remarkably clear and accu- rate. He wrote Dte Logth (Schleswig, 1825); Vorlesungen itber d ie Dognzattle der evdnget/tsoh-latherisohen Ktrehe naeh d em C0/nzpendtnrn des Herrn Dr. VV. M. L. de lVette (vol. i., Hamburg. 1826; 4th ed. 1838; vol. ii., part i., 1837, unfin- ished); .ZVIatthz'ds Flaetus I Zlyrtens (Berlin, 1844); 1Z're'n- ne/rung an Frdr. Dan. Ernst Schletermaeher (1869) ; and an introduction to Schleiermacher’s Etht/c, which he edited (1841). See his Life, by C. F. G. Heinrici (Berlin, 1889). Revised by S. M. J AcKsoN. Twichell, J OSEPH HOPKINS: clergyman; b. at Southing- ton, Conn.; graduated at Yale College 1859; studied for the ministry at Union Theological Seminary and Andover The- ological Seminary; was chaplain of a regiment in the civil war (1861-64); became minister of the Asylum Hill Con- gregational chu'rch, Hartford, Conn., in 1865. He has pub- lished a Life of John W't'nthr0p (New York, 1891) and ed- ited Some Puritan Love Letters, correspondence of John and Margaret Winthrop (New York, 1893). G. P. F. TWick'enhal11: town; in Middlesex, England; on the Thames, opposite Richmond; 11 miles S. W. of London (see map of England, ref. 12-J). It has powder and oil mills, and contains many fine villas and summer residences. It was the home of Pope, who is remembered there by his grotto and a monument in the parish church. Among the other curiosities of the place are the Orleans House, where Louis Philippe lived while a refugee in England, and Strawberry Hill, the seat of Walpole. Twickenl1am is connected with Richmond by a handsome bridge. In 1894 a new look, Weir, and footbridge was opened. Pop. (1891) 16,026. TWig‘g‘S, DAVID EMANUEL: soldier; b. in Richmond co., Ga., 1790; appointed captain in the Eighth Infantry in 1812, major Twenty-eighth Infantry Sept. 21, 1814, and served throughout the war with Great Britain; was retained in the peace organization of the army in 1815 as captain of the Seventh Infantry; transferred to First Infantry 1821, major May 14, 1825, lieutenant-colonel Fourth Infantry 1831, colonel Second Dragoons June, 1836. In the war with Mexico he served in command of the right wing of the army under Gen. Taylor at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma; was promoted brigadier-general June 30, 1846; was breveted major-general for gallantry at Monterey, and Congress pre- sented him with a sword. Transferred to Gen. Scott’s army he commanded a brigade before Vera Cruz, and during sub- sequent operations resulting in the capture of the city of Mexico was in command of the second division of regulars; military governor of Vera Cruz 1848. In Feb., 1861, being in command of the department of Texas, he surrendered his army to Gen. McCulloch of the Confederate service, to- gether with all the Government stores, munitions, and ma- terial to the value of $1,500,000, for which he was dismissed from the service of the U. S. Mar. 1. He was soon after ap- pointed a major-general in the Confederate army and com- manded for a while at New Orleans. D. at Augusta, Ga., Sept. 15, 1862. Revised by JAMES Mnncua. Twilight [tun'- (< O. Eng. twi-, twd, two) + Z/tght (< O. Eng. Zéoht, light); of. Germ. Z/we'eZ/teht, twilight] : the glow in the morning and evening sky caused by the reflection of the light of the sun by the atmosphere after sunset and be- fore sunrise. This very familiar phenomenon offers many interesting features to the observer who carefully watches it immediately after sunset under a clear, unobstructed sky. He can see what is equivalent to the shadow of the earth cast upon the sky. Suppose the observation to begin five TWISS minutes after sunset. Then if one could in a moment as- cend to the height of half a mile above the earth he should again catch a view of the setting sun. All that portion of the atmosphere above this point is therefore in full sun- light, while that below it is illuminated by the reflection from other portions. Ten minutes after sunset the line of demarkation will have risen to a height of 2 or 3 miles ; all below that limit will be in the shadow of the earth. Now, looking toward the E., the shadow will be distinctly seen, the portion of the atmosphere near the horizon being in comparative darkness, whi e at the height of a few degrees will be seen the edge of the illumined portion shining by the red light of the setting sun. As the sun sinks farther and farther below the horizon, the illuminated part will be seen to shrink away toward the W. Then no part of the air overhead is illuminated by direct sunlight; to see the sun one would have to ascend above the limits of the at- mosphere. Yet later the only illuminated portions of the atmosphere to which sight can extend are near the western horizon. The sun is then so far below the horizon that only the most distant parts of the atmosphere visible are illu- mined by its direct rays. Twilight is found to end entirely when the sun is between 15° and 18° below the horizon. The amount of depression varies with the place and the season, and has not been reduced to any satisfactory law. One con- clusion from the observations of twilight is that the atmos- phere ceases to reflect the rays of the sun at a height of about 45 miles. Did any part of the air higher than this reflect any light it would be visible when the sun was more than 18° below the horizon, and thus there would be a longer twilight than we actually have. S. N EWCOMB. Twillingate: a port of entry; on the two Twillingate islands, off the northeast coast of Newfoundland, 190 miles by steamer from St. J ohn’s; lat. 49° 42’ N., lon. 54° 44’ W. The islands are connected by a bridge, and the harbor is not very good. The town is the capital of Twillingate and Fogo district, Newfoundland. The finest Newfoundland dogs come from this district. The name is apparently a corruption of Toulinguet, a cape in Brittany, near Brest. Pop. 2,800. M. W. H. Tvvills: See TEXTILE-DESIGNING. Twining, KINSLEY, D. D.: clergyman and editor; b. at West Point, N. Y., July 18, 1832; graduated at Yale College 1853, and at Yale Theological School 1856. He was pastor of Congregational churches at Hinsdale, Mass., 1857-63, at Cambridgeport, Mass., 1867-72, at Providence, R. 1., 1872-76. In 1880 he became literary editor of The Independent, New York. G. P. F. Twining, WILLIAM JoI1NsoN: soldier; b. in Indiana, Aug. 2, 1839; appointed a cadet from that State to the Military Academy at West Point, and was graduated in 1863, the fourth in a class of twenty-five. He was then appointed first lieutenant of engineers, and served in the civil war as assistant engineer of the department of the Cumberland and as chief engineer of the department of the Ohio, and was engaged in the invasion of Georgia, in the operations against Gen. Hood’s army in Tennessee, in the battles at Franklin and Nashville, in the movement to the mouth of Cape Fear river, and in the operations in North Carolina in Feb., Mar., and Apr., 1865. Captain of engineers Dec. 28, 1868; major of engineers Oct. 16, 1877. He was breveted major and lieu- tenant-colonel of volunteers for gallant and meritorious serv- ices. After the civil war he served as Assistant Professor of Engineering at West Point 1865-67, as chief engineer of the department of Dakota, as commissioner for the survey of the U. S. boundary-line along the 49th parallel 1872-76, and as commissioner of the District of Columbia 1878-82. D. in Washington, D. C., Mar. 5, 1882. Revised by JAMES Mnncua. TWiSS, Sir TRAVERS, F. R. S., D. C. L.: political and legal writer; b. in Westminster, Mar. 19, 1809; graduated at Ox- ford University; public examiner at Oxford in classics and mathematics 1835-39; called to the bar at Lincoln‘s Inn 1840; afterward admitted as advocate at Doctors’ Com- mons; Professor of Political Economy at Oxford 1842-47, and afterward served in various other collegiate and public oflices; created queen’s counsel and bencher at Lincoln’s Inn; made advocate-general 1867: knighted in 1867. He retired from his professorship of Civil Law at Oxford, and gave up the office of advocate-general in 1872, since which time he has devoted himself chiefly to literary work. He is a man of remarkably wide attainments, and a brilliant but TWO RIVERS somewhat unreliable scholar. He drew up in 1884 for the King of Belgium a constitution for the Congo Free State. He has ublished Niebuhr’s History of Rome, Epitomized; Liuy’s fistory (editor); The Oregon Question Examined in Respect to Facts and the Law of Nations (in which he treats it as of little present weight); View of the Progress of P0- litical Economy in Europe since the Sixteenth Century; The Law of Nations considered as Independent Political Communities; Monumenta Juridica: the Black Boole of the Admiralty (editor); Henry de Bracton’s De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Anglice (editor; London, 1878—83); Bel- ligerent Right on the High Seas (London, 1884). F. STURGES ALLEN. TWO Rivers: city; Manitowoc co.,Wis.; at the entrance of the East Two and the West Two rivers into Lake Michigan, and on the Chi. and N. W. Railway; 6 miles N. E. of Mani- towoc, the county-seat (for location, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 5-F). It has an extensive lumber and lake trade, and manufactures tubs, pails, chairs, wood type, and printers’ cases, cabinets, etc. Pop. (1880) 2,052; (1890) 2,870. EDITOR or “ CHRONICLE.” Tybee’ Island: an island in Chatham co., Ga., lying off the entrance to Savannah river. The island is 6 miles long and 3 wide, and is separated from the other coast islands by Lazaretto creek. At its northeastern end stands Tybee lighthouse, 134 feet high, of brick, showing at a height of 150 feet above the sea a fixed white dioptric light of the first order, visible for 18 nautical miles; lat. 32° 1’ 20" N., lon. 80° 50’ 31" W. Tybee island has become historic as the site of the batteries by which Gen. Gillmore breached Fort Pulaski on Cockspur island Apr. 11, 1862. See BOMBARD- MENT. Tyche: anglicized form of the Greek name for FORTUNA (q. u). Tycho Brahe: See BRAHE. Tycoon, or Taikun [literally, great prince]: the name by which the shogun of Japan was known to foreigners in the days of J apan’s early intercourse with foreign nations. See SHOGUN. Tydides : See DIOMEDES. Tyler: city; capital of Smith co., Tex.; on the Int. and Gt. North. and the St. Louis S. \V. (including the Tyler Southeastern) railways; 19 miles N. W. of Troup, 25 miles S. by E. of Mineola (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 3—J).‘ It is in an agricultural region; is an important shipping- point for fruit and cotton; contains round-houses and ma- chine-shops of the St. Louis S. W. Railway, a U. S. Govern- ment building (cost $85,000), county buildings (cost $75,000), city-hall (cost $25,000), 3 national banks with combined cap- ital of $400,000, 6 churches, 2 public schools for white pu- pils and 1 for colored, 3 private schools for whites and 1 for colored, the Cotton-belt Hospital, public library, and 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers; and has canning-factories, cotton-com ress, fruit-tree nurseries, tile and pottery works, and iron ro ling-mills. Pop. (1880) 2,423; (1890) 6,908. Tyler, BENNET, D. D. : theologian; b. at Middlebury, Conn., July 10, 1783 ; graduated at Yale College 1804; studied theology; was pastor of the Congregational church at South Britain, Conn., 1808-22; president of Dartmouth College 1822-28 ; pastor of the Second Congregational church at Portland, Me., 1828-33; was the leader of the opposition to the theological views taught at Yale Theological Semi- nary known as the “New Divinity” (see TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM, D. D.), and in 1834 became president and Profes- sor of Christian Theology at the new seminary founded at East Windsor, Conn., by the “ Pastoral Union” of churches in Connecticut—a post 1e retained until his death at South Windsor, May 14, 1858. He was author of A Tlistory of the New Haven Theology, in Letters to a Clergyman (1837); A Review of Day on the Will (1837); fllemoir of Rev. Asa- hel Nettleton, D. D. (Hartford, 1844); The Sufiferings of Christ confined to his H aman lVature (1845) ; The Doctrine of Perseverance of the Saints ; The New England Reoioals (1846); Letters to Dr. Bushnell on Christian Nurture (2 se- ries, 1847—48): besides a number of sermons and controver- sial pamphlets. He also edited the Remains of Dr. 1Vettle- ton (1845). His posthumous Lectures on Theology (1859) was preceded by a Memoir‘ from the pen of his son-in-law, Rev. Nahum Gale, D. D. Revised by G. P. FISHER. Tyler, DANIEL: soldier; b. at Brooklyn, Conn., Jan. 7, 1799; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy July, 1819, TYLER 391 when commissioned second lieutenant light artillery; re- tained in the Fifth Infantry June 1, 1821; transferred to First Artillery June 12, 1821 ; served at the artillery school of practice 1824-27, on professional duty in France prepar- ing a work on Jlfanoeuvres of Artillery, and in procuring drawings and designs upon which the U. S artillery material and equipment were subsequently modeled; on ordnance duty 1830-34; resigned from the army May 31, 1834, and became a civil engineer, being president and constructing engineer of various railroads until the outbreak of the civil war. On Apr. 23, 1861 he was appointed colonel First Con- necticut Volunteers, which regiment he led to Washington, and the next month was commissioned brigadier-general of Connecticut volunteers. He was in command of a division at the action of Blackburn’s Ford, July 18, and in the battle of Bull Run, July 21. Mustered out Aug. 11, 1861, he was reappointed brigadier-general U. S. Volunteers Mar. 13, 1862. He was an active participant in the Mississippi cam- paign, and took part in the advance upon and siege of Cor- inth. Subsequently he served on a military commission ap- pointed to investigate Gen. Buell’s campaign in Kentucky and Tennessee. June 15-26, 1863, he was in command of the Federal forces at Harper’s Ferry and Maryland Hills when the Confederate army had invaded Pennsylvania. He resigned his commission Apr. 6, 1864, and soon afterward took up his residence at Red Bank, N. J. He was somewhat interested in railways and manufacturing business. D. in New York, Nov. 30, 1882. Revised by JAMES MERCUR. Tyler, JOHN: tenth President of the U. S.; b. in Charles City co., Va., Mar. 29, 1790; graduated at William and Mary College 1807; studied law; was admitted to the bar 1809; was a member of the State Legislature 1811-16 and 1823-25, and of Congress 1816—21 ; voted for the resolutions of censure on Gen. J ackson’s conduct in Florida; opposed the U. S. Bank, the protective policy, and internal improve- ments by the national Government; was Governor of Vir- ginia 1825—27, U. S. Senator 1827-36 ; opposed the adminis- tration of Adams and the Tariff Bill of 1828; made a three- days’ speech against a protective and in favor of a revenue tariff 1832; condemned the nullification measures of South Carolina in that year, but opposed J ackson’s proclamation and was the only Senator who voted against the “ Force ” Bill for the repression of that incipient secession ; afterward voted for Clay’s Compromise Bill, and his resolutions cen- suring President Jackson for the removal of the deposits 1835, as being an unwarrantable act, although at the same time believing the U. S. Bank unconstitutional; resigned his seat in the Senate Feb., 1836, in consequence of the vote of the Virginia Legislature instructing him to vote for ex- punging those resolutions from the Senate journal; took up his residence at Williamsburg ; was regarded as a martyr to the VVhig cause, and being in consequence sup orted in the campaign Of 1836 for the vice-presidency by many Whigs, received forty-seven electoral votes; sat in the Vir- ginia Legislature as a Whig 1839-40 ; was a member of the national Whig convention which met at Harrisburg, Pa., Dec. 4, 1839, by which he was nominated for the vice-presi- dency on the ticket headed by Gen. Harrison; was elected Vice-President Nov., 1840; inaugurated Mar. 4, 1841 ; suc- ceeded to the presidency on the death of Gen. Harrison Apr. 4; retained in oflice the cabinet of his predecessor; issued an inaugural address Apr. 9, 1841; ex ressed in a message to Congress, which met in extra session May 31, 1841, his readiness to concur in any financial system not violative of the Constitution, and proposed through Mr. Ewing the outlines of a plan requiring the consent of the States to the establishment of branch banks within their limits; vetoed the bill substituted by Clay expressly strik- ing out this requirement; vetoed a second bill called the Fiscal Corporation Bill, which claimed for Congress a simi- lar power to establish corporations in the States; was aban- doned by the members of his cabinet except Daniel Web- ster, who stated in a public letter that he saw no reason for his colleagues’ deserting their offices‘; filled their places with States-rights Whigs who were opposed to the kind of bank demanded by Henry Clay : negotiated through Webster the Ashburton Treaty, fixing the Northeast boundary for 2,000 miles, and containing other important provisions (Aug. 9, 1842); made several changes in his cabinet in 1843; after two vetoes obtained the enactment of the tariff of 1842: asserted the independence of the Hawaiian islands, and caused through Caleb Cushing the first treaty to be nego- tiated with China; for four years conducted the whole 418 322 financial operations of the Union, Congress having repealed all laws providing for the public funds and refused to adopt the so-called “exchequer system” proposed by the Presi- dent; suppressed Dorr’s rebellion, and brought the exhaust- ing war with the Florida Indians to a close; concluded through Upshur and Calhoun a treaty for the annexation of Texas (Apr. 12, 1844), and when this was rejected by the Senate efiected his object by the passage of the joint reso- lutions of Mar. 1, 1845; was nominated for the presidency by a convention of States-rights Whigs held at Baltimore in May, 1844, but soon withdrew from the canvass after forcing the Democratic convention, which met the same day, to nominate James K. Polk, an advocate of his favor- ite' measure, the annexation of Texas; was succeeded Mar. 4, 1845, by James K. Polk, and lived in retirement until Jan., 1861, when he presided over the peace convention, which he suggested as a means to preserve the Union ; voted for secession in the Virginia State convention; was elected to the Provisional Congress of the Confederate States, and in Nov., 1861, to the House of Representatives of the Con- federate States. He married in 1813 Letitia Christian, who died at Washington in 1842, and he contracted a second marriage, June 26, 1844, with Julia Gardiner, of New York. He died at Richmond, J an. 18, 1862. Revised by L. G. TYLER. Tyler, Lvon GARDINER, M. A., LL.D.: educator; b. at Sherwood Forest, Charles City co., Va., Aug., 1853; edu- cated at the University of Virginia; Professor of Belles- lettres, William and Mary College, 1877-79; principal Mem- phis Institute 1879-82; began the practice of law in Rich- mond 1882; member of the Virginia House of Delegates 1887-88 ; became president William and Mary College 1888; author of The Letters and Times of the Tylers (2 vols., Richmond, 1883-84); Parties and Patronage in the United States (New York, 1890). He is the son of President John Tyler by his second wife, Julia Gardiner. C. H. T. Tyler, Moses Corr, LL. D., L. H. D.: educator; b. at Griswold, Conn., Aug. 2, 1835; graduated at Yale College 1857 ; studied theology there and at Andover, Mass. ; pastor First Congregational church, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1860- 62; resided in England 1863-67. In 1867 he was appointed to the chair of English at the University of Miclngan, and in 1881 to that of American History at Cornell. In 1881 he was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal church, and in 1883 priest. He is the author of The Brawnville Papers (Boston, 1869), a volume of essays on physical cul- ture; A Histor'y of American Literature during the Colo- nial Time (2 vols., New York, 1878) ; A _Manual of English Literature, jointly with Henry Morley (New York, 1879); Patrick Henry (in the American Statesmen Ser1_es, Boston, 1887) ; Three Men of Letters (biographical and critical mon- ographs on Berkeley, President Dwight, and Joel Barlow, New York, 1894) ; and A Literary History of the American Revolution (in press, 1895). During his early residence in England he was a frequent contributor to The Independent and especially to The Nation, and one of his articles in the latter on American Reputations in England was reprinted in a volume entitled Essays from the Nation. He has con- tributed important articles in more recent years to various other periodicals. H. A. BEERS. Tyler, RANSOM HEBBARD2 author and jurist; b. in Ley- den, Mass, Nov. 18, 1813; removed to New York with his parents in early youth; studied law and was admitted to the bar, taking up the practice of law at Fulton, N. Y. He was elected and appointed to various local offices, including those of district attorney and county judge of Oswego County; traveled extensively abroad, and also devoted much time to literature. D. at Fulton, N. Y., Nov. 27, 1881. He edited the Oswego Gazette, and published The Bible and Social Reform, or the Scriptures as a Means of Civilization (1863) ; American Ecclesiastical Law (including the law of burial-grounds, 1866); Commentaries on the Law of In- fancy, including Guardianship and the Custody of Infants and the Law of Coverture, embracing Dower, Jllarriage, and Divorce (1868); Treatise on the Law of Boundaries and Fences; Treatise on the Law of Fixtures (1877); Treatise on the Law of Usury, Pawns or Pledges, and Maritime Loans (1873); Treatise on the Remedy by Eject- ment and the Law of Adverse Enjoyment (1871); besides many short articles in magazines. F. S'rUB.eEs ALLEN. Tyler, ROBERT OGDEN: soldier; b. in Greene co., N. Y., Dec. 22, 1831; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy July 1,1853, when commissioned brevet second lieutenant TYLER of artillery, reaching the grades of first lieutenant Sept. 1, 1856, and captain and quartermaster U. S. army May 17, 1861. After a year passed in garrison he joined Col. Step- toe’s command, which marched from St. Louis to Washing- ton Territory, 1854-55, Tyler taking post at San Francisco; engaged in the Yakima (1856) and the Spokane (1858) expe- ditions, participating in the actions of the Four Lakes, Spokane Plains, and Spokane river; transferred to Fort Ridgely, Minnesota, 1859, and New York harbor 1860; en- gaged in the civil war on the expedition for relief of Fort Sumter Apr., 1861 ; in reopening communications with Washington via Baltimore May, 1861; as dép6t quarter- master at Alexandria May—Sept., when appointed colonel Fourth Connecticut Volunteers, and in command of his regi- ment (known as the First Connecticut Heavy Artillery after J an., 1862) in the defenses of Washington until the spring of 1862; in the Virginia Peninsular cam aign in command of siege-batteries before Yorktown; in attles of Hanover Court-house, Gaines‘s Mill, and Malvern Hill. He was pro- moted brigadier-general of volunteers Nov. 29, 1862, and engaged in the battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 13, in command of the artillery of Sumner’s grand division; of the artillery reserve of the Army of the Potomac at C-hancellorsville, Gettysburg, and subsequent operations, until J an., 1864; of division of Twenty-second Army-corps, covering Washing- ton and lines of communications of the Army of the Poto- mac, J an.-M ay, 1864; of division of heavy artillery, Second Corps, in the Richmond campaign of 1864, from the Wilder- ness battles to Cold Harbor, where he was severely wounded June 1, and disabled for further duty in the field. He com- manded various departments from Dec., 1864, to June, 1866, when he resumed quartermaster duty, in which department he became lieutenant-colonel and deputy quartermaster- general J uly, 1866, serving thereafter in San Francisco, New York, Boston, and elsewhere. He was breveted from major to major-general in the U. S. army for gallantry in action. D. in Boston, Mass, Dec. 1, 1874. Revised by JAMES Mnneun. Tyler, ROYALL: jurist and author; b. in Boston, Mass., July 18, 1757; graduated at Harvard 1776 ; studied law un- der John Adams; was for a short time during the war of the Revolution aide to Gen. Lincoln, which post he also filled during the Shays rebellion 1786; settled at Guilford, Vt., 1790; was judge of the Vermont Supreme Court 1794- 1800, and chief justice 1800-06; published Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Vermont (New York, 2 vols., 1809- 10). D. at Brattleboro, Vt., Aug. 16, 1826. He was one of the earliest American dramatists, enjoyed a high reputation as a wit, and was quite successful in the introduction in comedy of Yankee dialect and of humorous stories. Amon his pieces were The Contrast (1790), reduced Apr., 16,1787, at the John Street theater, in New ork, the first American comedy regularly presented by a company of professional actors; Illay Day, or New York in an Uproar, produced May, 1787; and The Georgia Spec, or Land in the Moon, produced 1797. He was a leading contributor of humorous verse and prose to Joseph Dennie’s papers, The Farmer’s Weekly Museum (Walpole, N. H., 1795-99) and The Port- folio (Philadelphia, 1801, seq.) ; wrote also for The New England Galaxy, The Columbian Centinel, The Polyanthos, and other literary journals, and was author of a Crusoe-like novel, The Algerine Captive, or the Life and Adventures of Dr. Updike Underhill, Six Years a Prisoner among the Al- gerines (Walpole, 2 vols., 1797); besides Moral Tales for American Youths (1800) and The Yanhey in London (1809). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Tyler, SAMUEL, LL. D.: author and lawyer; b. in Prince George co., Md., Oct. 22, 1809; educated at Georgetown, D. C., where he paid es ecial attention to Greek ; afterward studied at Middlebury College, Vermont, 1827 ; studied law ; admitted to the bar at Frederick City in 1831 ; in 1850 ap- pointed one of three commissioners to simplify the plead- ings and practice in all the courts of the State, and prepared a Report, which contained a learned comparison of the common law and the civil law; resided for some years in Washington, D. C.; was connected as professor with the law department of the Columbian University; wrote chiefly on metaphysics, in which branch his labors received com- mendation from Sir William Hamilton and other competent critics. D. at Georgetown, D. C., Dec. 15, 1877. Author of A Discourse on the Baconian Philosophy (1844); Burns as a Poet and as a .Man (1848); The Progress of Philosophy in the Past and in the Future (1859; 2d ed. 1868); and a TYLER Memoir of Roger Brooke Taney (1872) ; Commentary on the Law of Partnership (1877); and editor of Gilbert’s His- tory of the Law of Chancery and M’itford’s Chancery Plead- ing. Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Tyler, WILLIAM SEYMOUR, D. D., LL. D.: educator; b. at Harford, Pa., Sept. 2, 1810; graduated at Amherst College 1830; taught classics in Amherst Academy 1830-31; was tutor in Amherst College 1832-34; studied theology at An- dover Seminary; was in 1836 licensed to preach, but not ordained until many years later (1859), in consequence of his acceptance of the professorship of Greek and Latin at Amherst College; became Graves Professor of Greek (1847) on the division of the professorial chair; visited Europe and the East 1855, and Greece and Egypt 1869. He has pub- lished The Germania and Agricola of Caius Cornelius Ta- citus (New York, 1847; enlarged eds. 1852 and 1878), with notes and a I/ife ; The Histories of Tacitus (1849); Prayer for Colleges (1855; several eds.), a prize essay; Memoir of Rev. Henry Lobdell, M. D., Missionary at Mosul (Boston, 1859); Plato’s Apology and Crito (1860); The Theology of the Greek Poets (1867); The History of Amherst College (S ringfield, 1873); Demosthenes de Corona (Boston, 1874); The Olynthiacs and Philippics of Demosthenes (1875) ; and nine books of the Iliad (New York, 1886) ; besides numerous commemorative discourses, and contributions to reviews and cyclopaedias, and to the Transactions of the American Philo- logical Association. Tyler, EDWARD BURNETT, D. C. L., LL. D., F. R. S.: an- thropologist; b. at Camberwell, London, England, Oct. 2, 1832. He was educated at the Friends’ School, Tottenham. In 1856 he went to Mexico in company with Henry Christy, and made an extended exploration of the antiquities, etc. The results of this journey were published with the title Anahuac, or Meaico and the Mexicans (1861), which has been much praised for the accuracy of its descriptions. Other important works by him are Primitive Culture (1871) and Anthropology (1881). In 1888 he was named Gifford lecturer at Aberdeen University, and in 1891 he was presi- dent of the Anthropological Society. H. H. S. Tylpinus: see TURPIN. Tym’panum [ : Lat. = Gr. 'rz5,u.1raz/oz/, drum, kettledrum, deriv. of 1-ziar-rew, strike]: a sort of drum or hollow organ constituting the middle ear in man, containing air, and through its middle a small chain of bones—-the malleus, or hammer-bone, the incus, or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup. See EAR. Tyn’dale, or Tindale, WILLIAM: translator of the New Testament; b. perhaps at Hunt’s Court, North Nibley, or perhaps at Melksham Court, both in Gloucestershire, Eng- land, about 1484; studied at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he graduated B. A. 1512; removed to Cambridge, probably because Erasmus was there (1510-14); took holy orders; left Cambridge 1521; resided as a chaplain and tutor in the family of Sir John Welsh, of Little Sodbury, near Bristol, incurring danger by his advocacy of the doctrines of Luther, then recently proclaimed, on which account he was cited before the chancellor of the diocese of Worcester 1522; translated into English the Enchiridion Mrilitis, or Sol- dier’s Manual, of Erasmus; went to London 1523; made an unsuccessful application for admission into the house- hold of Bishop Tunstall ; was protected for some months in the family of Alderman Humphrey Monmouth, who gave him £10 per annum to prosecute his theological studies in Germany, on condition of praying at stated periods for the souls of the alderman’s parents; went to Hamburg Jan., 1524; thence to Wittenberg; to Cologne, 1525. He engaged in the translation of the New Testament into English, with the aid of John Frith and William Roye, the printing of which at Cologne in the office of Peter Quentell (quarto, 1525) was interrupted by the vigilance of Coehlaeus; com- pleted the printing at Worms in the oflice of Peter Schoef- fer; issued in 1526 a new octavo edition of the whole work, which obtained a wide though secret circulation in Eng- land, being prohibited by an edict of Tunstall, Bishop of London, who bought up the remainder of the edition at Antwerp and burned them at Chea side 1529; removed to Marburg, and published there his O edience of a Christian Man (1528) ; had an interview with Coverdale at Hamburg, and issued a fifth edition of the Testament 1529 ; published his translation of the Pentateuch, “ emprented at Marlbor- ow [Marburg] in the Land of Hesse,” 1520; had a bitter controversy with Sir Thomas More, who in a witty and TYNDALL 323 abusive pamphlet denounced the translation and its author 1529; was t-reacherously invited to return to England in order to seize his person-an artifice to which his assistant, John Frith, fell a victim, being burned at the stake 1533; brought out a revised and corrected edition, the first to which he put his name, 1534 ; wrote several doctrinal trea- tises and introductions, expositions, and notes to various books of the Bible; resided during his later years at Ant- werp ; was arrested 1535 on a charge of heresy through the agency of an emissary of Henry VIII. acting in concert with the clergy and magistrates of Brussels; imprisoned in the castle of Vilvorde, Brabant, near Brussels ; tried by vir- tue of a decree of Charles V., issued at Augsburg 1530, and the University of Louvain having urged his condemnation, with the eager approval of Henry VIII., he was convicted, after eighteen months’ imprisonment, during which he trans- lated from Joshua to 1 Chronicles, inclusive; these trans- lations, along with his Pentateuch and Jonah, were published in Matthew’s Bible (1537). He was strangled and burned at the stake at Vilvorde, Oct. 6, 1536. He met his fate with composure, his last words being a prayer, “ Lord, open thou the King of England’s eyes.” The spot where he suffered is shown near the new penitentiary at Vilvorde. A monument to his memory was erected at Nibley Noll, Nov., 1866. His translation of the New Testament is the basis of the Authorized Version, and is executed with con- siderable accuracy and elegance, and also with independ- ence ; his translations from the Old Testament show clearly dependence upon Luther. His works were published Lon- don, 1573, and by the Parker Society (3 vols., 1848-50) ; his Pentateuch was reprinted by Rev. Jacob I. Mombert (New York, 1884) ; his New Testament has been several times re- printed. A beautiful edition, with a Memoir of Tyndale’s Life and Writings, by George Ofior, was published by S. Bagster (London, 1836), and reprinted at Andover, Mass, 1837; but the best I/ife is by R. Demaus (London, 1871; rev. by R. Lovett, 1886). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Tyndall, JOHN: physicist; b. at Leighlin Bridge, near Carlow, Ireland, Aug. 21, 1820. He received a sound edu- cation in English and mathematics, and in 1839 became civil assistant to a division of the ordnance survey. He was a railway engineer at Manchester from 1844 to 1847, when he became a teacher of physics at Queenwood College, Hampshire, where Dr. Edward Frankland was resident chemist. In 1848 he and Frankland went to Germany, and attended Bunsen’s and Knoblauch’s lectures at Marburg. Tyndall worked in the laboratory in conjunction with Knob- lauch, and made discoveries in magnet-ism, which he embodied in a paper published in The Philosophical .Magazine in 1850. He graduated in 1851, presenting for his doctorate a thesis on screw surfaces, and afterward continued his studies under Magnus in Berlin. He returned to England, where he pub- lished the results of his experiments, which led to his being elected in 1852 a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1853, on the proposal of Faraday, he was elected Professor of Nat- ural Philosophy at the Royal Institution, of which he was made superintendent in 1867. In 1856, with Prof. Huxley, he visited Switzerland, where he distinguished himself by being the first to climb the Weisshorn, and by his observa- tions on the structure and motion of glaciers. Subsequently he reached the summit of the Matterhorn, crossing it from Breuil to Zermatt, and from 1856 until his death no year passed without a visit to the Alps. The results of this and later Swiss experiences he published in the Philosophical Transactions, in Glaciers of the Alps (1860), Mountaineering in 1861 (1862), and Hours of Erercise in the Alps (1871). In 1859 he began his important investigations on radiant heat, the results of which he described in his lectures at the Royal Institution in 1862, in Heat considered as a Jlfode of J.V[otion (1863), and in the Rede lecture On Radiation (1865). Later he studied the acoustic properties of the atmosphere and the subject of spontaneous generation, discovering in 1869 a very precise method of determining the absence or presence of particles of dust in the air. Several of his results were embodied in his lecture Dust and Disease (187 0). (See The Nineteenth Century, Jan., 1878.) In 1872 he visited the U. S. on a successful lecturing tour. the profits of which he placed in the hands of an American committee as a fund “in aid of students who devote themselves to original research.” He received honorary degrees from the Universities of Cam- bridge and Edinburgh, and was made a D. C. L. by the Uni- versity of Oxford, in spite of the protest of Dr. Heurtley, Margaret Professor of Divinity, who alleged that Tyndall 324 TYNE had signalized himself by writing against and denying the credibility of miracles and the etficacy of prayer, etc. In 1874 he was president of the British Association i11 its meet- ing at Belfast, when his address excited a keen controversy, in consequence of its being the first clear and unmistakable Htterance as to the aims of modern science, and its apparent assertion of materialistic opinions, as for instance in the -statement that he found in matter “ the promise and potency of every form and quality of life.” In 1883 he retired from several appointments, and in 1887 was succeeded as professor at the Royal Institution by Lord Rayleigh. Toward the close of his life he took a somewhat prominent part in op- posing Gladstone’s scheme of Home Rule for Ireland. D. at Haslemere, Surrey, from an overdose of chloral acci- dentally administered by his wife, Dec. 4, 1893. Tyndall’s eminence did not arise especially from his scientific dis- coveries, but rather from his force of character, his uncom- promising love of truth, his unrivaled grasp of his mate- rials, and his power as a brilliant and effective exponent of physical science, both in his public lectures and in his writings, which are remarkable for their literary merit. Be- sides the works previously mentioned, he published Sound, a Course of Eight Lectures (1867 ; 3d ed., enlarged, 1875); Faraday as a Discoverer (1868; 4th ed. 1884); Natural Philosophy in Easy Lessons (1869); Nine Lectures on Light (1870) ; Researches on Diamagnetism and A/[agneto-crystallic Action (187 0) ; Seven Lectures on Electrical Phenomena and Theories (1870); Essays on the Use and Limit of the Imagi- nation in Science (1871); Fragments of Science for Unsai- entific People (1871 ; 8th ed. 1892) ; The Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers, Ice and Glaciers (1872, being vol. i. of the International Scientific Series); Contributions to Molecular Physics in the Domain of Radiant Heat (1872) ; Essays on the Floating lllatter of the Air (1881); and New Fragments (1892). R. A. RoBERTs. Tyne: river of Northern England; formed by the junc- tion of the North and South Tyne. It flows eastward, and enters the North Sea after a course of 30 miles through the richest mining districts of England. Its chief tributaries are the Derwent and the Team. It is navigable 18 miles from the North Sea. Tynemouth: town ; in N orthumberland, England ; at the mouth of the Tyne; 9 miles E. of Newcastle (see map of England, ref. 3-H). Tynemouth is a well-built town, and is the chief watering-place of N orthumberland. It has a pier half a mile long, completed in 1892, and a lighthouse situ- ated on the cliffs above. The municipal and parliamentary borough, returning one member, includes North Shields (see SHIELDS) and several other townships. Pop. (1891) 46,267. Tyng, STEPHEN HIeeINsoN, D. D.: clergyman; b. at New- buryport, Mass., Mar. 1, 1800; son of Hon. Dudley Atkins (1760-1829), U. S. collector at that port and reporter of the Massachusetts Supreme Court, who assumed the name of Tyng on inheriting the estate of his relative, James Tyng, of Tyngsborough; graduated at Harvard 1817; was for some time engaged in mercantile pursuits; afterward studied theology; was ordained in the Protestant Episcopal Church 1821 ; was minister of St. George’s, Georgetown, D. C., 1821- 23, of a church in St. Anne’s parish, Md., 1823-29; rector of St. Paul’s, Philadelphia, 1829-33, of the Church of the Epiph- any, Philadelphia, 1833-45, and from 1845 to May, 1878, of St. George’s, New York; traveled in Europe; edited suc- cessively The Episcopal Recorder, The Theological Reposi- tory, and The Protestant Churchman; author of Lectures on the Law and Gospel (Philadelphia, 1832); Recollections of England (New York, 1847); Forty Years’ Experience in Sunday-Schools (New York, 1860) ; The Prayer-Boole .Illus- trated by Scripture (3 series, 1863-67); The Child of Prayer, a Fat/ier’s flfemorial to the Rev. Dudley A. Tyng, A. .M. (1858), and other works, theological and biographical; pub- lished several volumes of sermons and many addresses ; edit- ed with introductions or prefatory memoirs various works by other hands; was a conspicuous advocate of temperance and other reforms, and had high fame for eloquence in the pulpit and on the platform. D. at Irvington, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1885.—His son, DUDLEY ATKINS, b. in Prince George’s co., ll/Id., J an. 12, 1825; graduated at the University of Pennsyl- vania 1843; studied theology at Alexandria Seminary; took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church 1846; was assist- ant to his father at St. George’s church, New York; had charge of parishes at Columbus, O., Charlestown, Va., and Cincinnati, O., and was rector of the Church of the E iphany, Philadelphia, from 1854 until shortly before his eath, at TYPE-FOUNDING Brookfield, near Philadelphia, Apr. 19, 1858. He was a suc- cessful lecturer upon religious and social topics, and acquired a high reputation for ability and manliness, as well as phil- anthropy, by his course in preaching against slavery, which involved his dismissal from his pastorate. The hymn Stand up for Jesus! commemorates an incident of his deathbed. He published Vital Truth and Deadly Error (Philadelphia, 1852); Children of the Kingdom, or Lectures on Famil IVors/zip (1854), republished in England as God in the Dwel - ing (4th ed. 1859); and Our Country’s Troubles (Philadelphia, 1856). His Life, as above indicated, was written by his father.—Anot-her son, THEoDosIUs S. TYNG, is a missionary at Osaka, Japan. Revised by W. S. PERRY. Tyng, STEPHEN HIGGINSON, Jr., D. D. : clergyman; son of Stephen H. Tyng, D.D.; b. at Philadelphia, Pa., June 28, 1839; graduated at Williams College 1858; studied at the Theological Seminary of Virginia; was ordained deacon May 8, 1861; assisted his father in the ministry of St. George’s church, New York, 1861-63; was ordained priest Sept. 11, 1863; became rector of the Church of the Media- tor, New York, 1863; entered the army as chaplain of the Twelfth New York Volunteers 1864; organized the parish of the Holy Trinity, New York, 1865, building on Forty- second street a church which in 1873-74 was replaced by a larger edifice; was tried in 1867 for preaching in a Metho- dist church in New Jersey, which was a violation of the canon law of his Church; edited 1864-70 a weekly religious journal, The Working Church; was noted for his cordial fellowship with evangelical churches of other denomina- tions; took a prominent part in the revival movement of 1875 directed by Moody and Sankey, and in the sum- mer of 1876, in combination with other clergymen, com- menced out-door Sunday services for the people in a “ gos- pel tent” erected near his church-an undertaking which proved very successful ; published The Square of Life (New York, 1876); He Will Come (1877); and several volumes of sermons. He resigned the rectorship of Holy Trinity Church in 1881, and settled in Paris as manager of the in- terests of an insurance company. Type [from Lat. ty'pus, figure, image, form, type = Gr. 'rU1ros, liter., blow, impression, mark, deriv. of 'rz51r'reu/, strike] : in theology, an image or representation prefiguring a person or thing, which then is called its antitype; thus St. Peter describes baptism as the antitype of the ark of Noah (1 Pet., iii. 21). In this sense the word is used several times in the New Testament and by Jewish historians; and several of the Fathers, especially Augustine and Gregory the Great, are very ingenious in finding types by their intrepretation of the Bible. In chemistry, types are formulas representing the composition and structure of other more complex com- pounds, which may then be derived from the simpler forms by substitution. They include the monovalent type HCI, the divalent type H20, the trivalent type HSN, and the quadrivalent type I-LC. Type : See PRINTING. Type-founding: the process of casting or manufacturing type. From the discovery of printing to the middle of the sixteenth century printers cast their own type. After 1550 it became a business distinct from rinting. Claude Gare- mond, of Paris, who began early in t at century, is regarded as the father of letter-founders. He was followed by Le Bé, Sanlecque, Moreau, Fournier, Grand- jean, Legrand, and others, who main- tained the reputation of French type- I \‘\.\” ill I M \l 3 3 . --e.-. -1. FIG. 2.—Face of the letter on the body. FIG. 3.—View of body inclined to show the face. FIG. 1.—Letter H, from a type of canon body. founding. Bodoni (1740-1813), of Italy, the Didots, of France, and Breitkopf (1719-94), of Leipzig, are other drstiiigulshed names in the subsequent history of ty e-makmg._ Great Britain imported most of its type from olland until about 1720, when William Caslon became famous as a letter-cutter. The Caslon foundry, established in 1718 in London, is still in existence, and contains the original punches which Cas- lon cut. Baskerville and Wilson were other notable Brit- TYPE—F()UNDING ish founders. About 1735 Christopher Saur (or Sower) be- gan printing at Germantown, Pa., and cast the type which he required, executmg the second Bible printed in America, a uarto, 1n Ger- man, in 1743. Severa unsuccessful attem ts were subsequently made to estabhsh type-foundries in America, among them one by Franklin. Binny & Ronaldson, of Edinburgh, began type-founding in Philadelphia in 1796, and, after a severe struggle and by State aid, were the first to establish a business, afterward known as the Johnson Foundry, and now carried on as the MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan branch of the American Type Found- ers’ Oompany. The first type—found- ers of New York-—Mappa, of 1793, and Robert Lothian, of 1806-—were unsuc- cessful. Elihu White, who began in 1810, succeeded. He was followed in 1813 by the rival house of D. & G. Bruce, through whose efiorts stereotyping was introduced in the U. S. There is evidence that at the beginning of the sixteenth century the apparatus for type- founding was much the same as up to the middle of the nineteenth century. In devis- ing a new font of type the first process is to make a model in steel for each letter. In- stead of cutting out the interior of the letter, a tool, called the counter-punch, is cut on steel to form the hollow or counter of the letter. The counter-punch, after hardening, is then impressed in the end of a short bar of soft steel, which is known as the unch. Around this sunken counter the mode letter is cut in high relief. The punch is hardened (then re- sembling Fig. 5), and is punched into a fiat piece of cold-rolled copper like Fig. 6, which, after careful finishing, becomes the matrix, or mother-type. The letters at the bottom of the matrix indicate the size, double english, and the number of nicks, in this case one nick. Every letter requires a separate punch and matrix. Matrixes may also be made by electrotyping from the face of the type or an engraving. The matrix is then fitted to the mould that forms the body of the letter. The hand- tg. " ,l'lQj‘;f-§; mould, used from the discovery of printing E‘ until recently, is composed of two parts, which I I ill ,I, ',‘FI§J fit exactly together. The external surface is "|'| E 1"‘ of wood, the interior of steel. At the top is "' "'1 a shelving orifice, into which the metal is poured. The space within is of the size of the required body of the letter. The caster, holding the mould in the left hand, with a small ladle containing about a spoonful pours the metal into the orifice, then jerks up the mould higher than his head to expel air and condense the metal, lowers it, opens the mould, and casts out the type. The hand- mould is now seldom used, except to cast large metal or kerned type. The type, when first thrown out, has a piece of metal attached to its base, called the jet, partly represented at the bottom of the letter H in Fig. 7. In hand-dressing this jet is broken off by boys, the sides of the type are rubbed smooth on gritstone. and the type set up in long lines. They are then dressed and finished; a groove (Fig. 4, 9) is out in the foot of the type to remove any bit of the jet remaining. After examination with a mi- croscope for the detection of imperfect letters, the types are ready for use. Type-ca,stm,q Jlfaclmines.-— About 1826 William M. J ohn- son, of Long Island, not a founder, conceived the idea of casting type by machinery, but the types made by his machine were too light and porous. David Bruce, J r., of New York, patented a more successful type-casting machine Mar. 17, 1838. Subse- quently improved, it was put to general use in foundries in FIG.4.-1, counter; 2, hair-line ; 3, serif ; 4, stem, or body- mark; 5, neck, or beard ; 6, shoulder; 7, pin - mark ; 8, nick ; 9, groove; 10, feet. Matrix. Fm. 7.—Half of machine-mould (De Vinne). 325 the U. S., and was slowly adopted, with modifications, by Euro ean founders. This machine is represented in Fig. 8. t consists of a small melting-pot to hold the metal, which is kept fluid by a gas-jet or small furnace. In the in- terior of the pot is a forcing-pump and valve that expels the metal under the piston or plunger, and prevents its re- turn to the mass in the pot. The valve secures the full force exerted by the plunger, which transmits it to the molten metal under it, and forces it through a narrow channel leading from the bottom of the chamber in which the plunger works to the outside of the pot, where a nipple is inserted, with a small hole through it, communicating with the narrow channel. Against this nipple the mould in which the type is formed is pressed at the moment when the plunger descends to receive the molten metal that forms the type. The type-mould, of steel, is composed of two parts, each fitting the other with great exactness. Fig. 7 represents one-half of this mould, containing a letter just east, which shows the nicks in the letter formed by a convex ridge in the other half-mould, and the jet of surplus metal attached to the bottom of the type. The face of the letter is shown without the matrix, Fig. 6, which is properly adjusted when in position, and the mould §!_| Ill§sr-.e 9 Egg :_€;E,§:§finnnnnnnnnnnn l ’a- FIE M 9‘? ' *5-{‘?"i;/nI”wZ"% ’ ; lllllgg“ ’ ' \ _ '1‘ M I IN. /":‘f;"'-”\ 0 9/,3)‘, 11/1,. Z .imfl""{;|||l1llll“§laa; 3 \ ‘"1 llnl illllli ‘~ . lTll;\2’\1llll{}L:L_ ' “H " Mil / l 11,‘; 2 1 \ "! \\ E FIG. 8.—Bruce‘s type-casting machine. closed. A mould is made for each body of type, and is im- movable in the direction of its depth, but is made adjustable to suit the varying widths of different letters. Its immobility in one direction insures the same body for every type cast in each font. It is therefore only necessary to change the ma- trix for every character, instead of having a mould and matrix for the different letters. Half of the mould is attached to an oscillating arm, which carries the mould to and from the nipple in the melting-pot. The other half of the mould is attached to another arm, which is connected to the first arm, so that the two halves open and shut upon each other. The machine operates as follows: The plunger being raised in the chamber of the pump, and the chamber being supplied with metal through the valve, the mould is brought against the nipple; the valve closes to prevent the metal being forced back into the pot ; the plunger descends and forces the metal through the narrow channel info the mould, the mould re- cedes. the halves separate, and the type is cast out. A blast of cold air is directed upon the mould to keep it cool. The types are hand-dressed as before. This machine is worked by turning a small crank-wheel. It may also be worked by steam. David Bruce, J r., in 1868, introduced an apparatus adapted to the type-casting machine to receive the type as fast as cast, and break off the jet or stem of metal by a con- secutive operation. The London Type-founding Oompany’s machine is heated by gas, the mould is cooled by a stream of cold water, and the types when made travel into small cham- bers, where they are planed, smoothed, nicked, and grooved ready for use. Several machines were introduced at an early date into the U. S. to rub and dress type automatically. An important improvement is the type-casting machine of J. A. .the U. S. is that of Henry Barth, of Cincinnati, 326 T. Overend, of San Francisco, 021., patented in 1875. A pump-cylinder is provided with a plunger, having a chamber in its lower end ; a hole in the lower part of the cylinder al- lows the metal to flow in, and as the plunger closes this hole in descending, an opening in its upper part arrives opposite the discharge opening, and the liquid is forcibly ejected. A self-adjusting nozzle connects the pumps with the mould. Between the nozzle and the mould a carrier is interposed having several arms with holes. When the metal passes into the mould, it opens, and the carrier moves forward, holding the type by its stem. and laces it on an inclined table. A clamp secures the type, an a sliding plate, breaking the type from its stem, forces it between rubbers, to smooth the rough edges, fitting the type for use. The stem left in the carrier is afterward forced out by a pin. Many new forms of automatic type-casting machines have been invented since 1865. Foucher Fréres, of France, Hep- burn, of England, and Kiistermann, of Germany, have made marked improvements, but the machine most preferred in atented Jan. 24, 1888. In this machine one-half of the moul and the matrix are fixed upright and made immovable; the other half rapidly slides to and fro on bread bearings, releasing the type that has been cast, and closing again before new metal is injected in the mould. It breaks ofl the jet, plows a groove between the feet, rubs off the feather edges, and delivers the finished types in lines in a channel ready for inspection. The punch-cutting machine of L. B. Benton is a more recent improvement in type-founding. It is an adaptation of the pantograph. From one pattern letter any size of punch for book letter can be made without a special draw- ing for each size, and all the sizes will be in exact proportion. The success of the Linotype type-making and type-compos- ing machine is largely due to the accuracy of the matrixes made by the Benton machine-punches. Types can be cast by many machines quicker than they can be cooled. The ordinary performance of the caster by hand was 400 in an hour; by the Bruce machine, on ordi- nary sizes of book type, 100 in a minute; by the newer ma- chines and on small sizes, 140 or more in a minute. Revised by Tnnonona L. DE Vnms. Typesetting - machines : The simplest form of type- setting-machine merely sets the types provided by founders; it does not make nor distribute the types. Nearly all the machines of this class are constructed with these features. The characters selected seldom exceed eighty-three in num- ber. Italic, small capitals, and accents are excluded. because they are infrequent in ordinary composition; they add to the cost of the machine, and seriously diminish its perform- ance. For each character a separate case or narrow channel of brass, about 2 feet long, is provided, in which the types are put side by side and in a nearly vertical position before the operator. The lower end of each case is connected with a lever that is moved whenever the operator touches its mated connection on the lettered keyboard. The lever so touched thrusts out the type desired into the general collect- ing channel. Another operator, called the j ustifier, takes the types in the channel an makes them up in lines of uniform length by the same methods practiced in hand typesetting. All the machine can do is to set types in a continuous line, which it does usually four or five times quicker than they can be set by hand. Spacing-out or justifying, making-up, and distribution must be done by hand. or u on machines of another kind. Of the many varieties of this orm of machine but two are in practical use—t-he Empire and the MacMil- lan. A separate machine is required for the distribution of the type. Each character has out upon its shank a distinct nick or groove, which permits its entrance only in its own channel during the operation of distribution. The MacMillan machine is also provided with a mated justifying apparatus. In the Thorne machine the two distinct operations of set- ting and distributing are combined in one machine. An upright hollow, grooved cylinder of iron is divided in equal halves: the lower half contains in its grooved channels the type to be set ; the upper half contains at its top the types to be distributed, which are separated and distributed down the grooved channels of the upper to those of the lower half of the cylinder. The operation of dislodging the types from this lower cylinder into a collecting channel is accomplished by peculiar devices, but the types set are arranged in a con- tinuous line, and are spaced and justified by hand as in the Empire and MacMillan machines. The types can be set as fast as, often faster than, they can be justified. TYPESETTING—MACHINES The Mergenthaler or Linotype machinamakes the type it uses, eastin g the letters selected by the operator, properly jus- tified with spaces between words, in solid bars of the length ' t Qi. .. . .\\\ . . .. _ Fro. 1.-—Thorne typesetting and distributing machine. ‘ it i\ \ \ of line required. Brass matrix-res are dislodged by the opera- tor instead of types, and these are automatically arranged _ I V *“Qnn-_ MFIG. 2.—Mergmithaler linotype machine. over the mould that forms the line. When the line is full another automatic device thrusts wedges between the words and spaces out he line. At the same instant a jet of fluid ' fiat platen. TYPEWRITERS metal, kept fiuid by gas jets under the machine, is injected and thrown out of the mould as soon as it is cool enough, without delaying the work of the operator. The brass matrices are also immediately returned to their proper re- ceptacles for future re-use. The performance of the ma- chine is limited only by the ability of the operator. It is largely used by the daily newspapers of the U. S. and to some extent in Great Britain. The Lanston machine also casts the types it uses, not in lines, but in isolated charac- ters. Many other forms of typesettmg and distributing machines, some of high merit, have been invented, but those here described are in most use in 1895. The first patent for a typesetting and typemaking ma- chine was granted in England, Mar. 24,1822, to Dr. Wilham Church, who claimed that his apparatus would cast and compose types at the rate of 75,000 characters in one hour. It never did practical work, but many of his devices were afterward accepted by other inventors. The first practical machine in the U. S. was that of Clay and Rosenberg(Br1t- ish patent of 1842), but it was not approved of by_prmters. This was uickly followed by the simpler American ma- chine of itchel, which was kept at work for many years. It failed, as did many of the early machines, for want of an equally good distributer. The names of some of the other prominent inventors are Mazzini, Goubert, Delcambre, Hat- tersley, Mackie, and Fraser—-all holding British patents; Hensinger, of Germany; Kliegel, of Hungary; S6rensen, of Denmark; Boulé, Caillard, Simencourt, Coulon, and Bean- mont, of France ; Gilmer, Ray, Felt, Huston, Paige, Rogers, Alden, and Dow, of the U. S. Tnnononn L. Dr. VINNE. Typewriters : machines carrying types with which writ- ing is done resembling ordinary print. The increasing pro- duction of manuscript in modern times has greatly stimu- lated the development of these ingenious machines. Since about 1870 they have been brought from a state of crudity to a state of perfection which compares favorably with any other mechanical device. They are now considered almost indis ensable in the U. S., and their use is rapidly increas- ing t roughout the world. The Earliest Typewriters.—The first recorded attempt to produce a writing-machine is that of Henry Mill, an Eng- lish engineer, to whom, on J an. 7, 1714, was granted a pat- ent for “an artificial machine or motive for impressing or transcribing of letters, singularly or progressively, one after another in writing, whereby all writings whatsoever may be engrossed on paper or parchment so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print.” This machine, however, was not perfected, and no description of it exists. The first typewriter invented in the U. S. was termed the “ Typographer,” patented in 1829 by William Austin Burt, of Detroit, Mich., also inventor of the solar compass. In design and construction it was an exceedingly crude device, although it would perform writing slowly. In 1833 a French patent was granted to Xavier Progrin, of Marseilles, for a machine designed to print “almost as ra idly as one could write with an ordinary pen ”: also to impress stereotype plates and to copy and stereotype music. In this device a circle of type-bars, operated by upright rods passing through the top plate, struck downward to a common center on a It had no keyboard, and after printing each type-bar was pulled up again by the operator. The whole machine, regulated by suitable though crude mechanism, moved across the paper to provide for line and letter spac- ings. It was too slow and cumbersome to come into gen- eral use. Much of the progress made in later years was due to the efforts of electricians to provide a means for printing by electricity letters or other symbols by which intelligence could be conveyed to distant places. A British patent issued to Alexander Bain and Thomas WTight. June 21, 1841, cov- ered among other electrical contrivances a device which in- volves some of the principles of the modern typewriter. A series of type-bars arranged to print at a common center were moved by an electro-magnet attracting an armature on the connecting-rod until an armature on the type-bar itself came within the field of another electro-magnet located at the common center, which forced the type against an inked ribbon laid upon the surface of the paper upon which the printing was done. Another portion of the same patent described an ingenious machine with a type-wheel mounted upon a vertical shaft which was actuated by a clockwork at- tachment governed by an electric current. These inventors seem to have had no idea of making use of their device save 327 for the purposes of the electric telegraph, and as such methods of telegraphy were soon superseded their invention attracted little attention. It is also known that Sir Charles Wheatstone devised a writing-machine before 1851. This, with subsequent modifications constructed 1855-60, is de- scribed in the Journal of the Society of Arts for Sept. 21, 1894. The Thurber ll[achine.—-A typewriter practical in every way except as to speed was patented by Charles Thurber, of Worcester, Mass., on Aug. 26, 1843. In actual construc- tion the only model ever made departed quite materially from the patent. A fiat horizontal wheel carried on its periphery a number of upright rods, each having a type at the ower end and a finger-key at the upper. The proper rod was moved to the printing-point by revolving the wheel, and its depression, by the aid of a permanent guide, served to imprint the character upon the right spot on the paper beneath. The paper was placed around a cylinder which was moved lengthwise step by step by means of ratchet and pawl mechanism to produce the letter-spacing, while the revolution of the cylinder produced the proper spacing be- tween lines. The inking was accomplished by passing the face of the type across an inked roller. The Foucault .Maehine.-—A machine for printing em- bossed characters for the use of the blind was patented in France by Pierre Foucault, a blind teacher of the Paris In- stitution for the Blind, on J an. 19, 1849. The types in this machine were formed on the ends of a number of converg- ing rods sliding in radial grooves to a common printing- point; the upper part of each rod contained a finger-key, and these finger-keys together formed a curved keyboard of two rows. Letter and line spacing devices were also in- cluded. When used for the blind the types were made to imprint their faces into the surface of the paper. The in- ventor also appears to have adopted the machine to ordi- nary printing by the use of carbonized paper. Foucault’s typewriter attracted great attention and was awarded a gold medal at the World’s Fair in London, in 1851. Several of them were constructed and were for a long time used in the various institutions for the blind in different parts of Europe. They do not seem, however; to have come into very general use, or to have contributed anything to the development of the modern writing-ma- chine. Another typewriter, designed principally for the use of the blind, the invention of William Hughes. governor of the Manchester Blind Asylum, was also exhibited at the World‘s Fair in 1851, and received a gold medal. It is of very simple construction, much resembling some of the modern toy writing-machines in principle. The Beach typewriter, the invention of A. Ely Beach, of New York, one of the editors of The Scientific American, marked a considerable advance in the development of a practical writing-machine. After constructing a machine in 1847 which contained some new features, and which worked fairly well, he was granted another patent (June 24, 1856) for a machine which consisted of a series of type-car- rying levers arranged in the now familiar form of a circu- lar basket, and all printing at a common center. It was mainly designed to print raised letters for the use of the blind, and was furnished with two sets of type-bars, one carrying depressed types striking the paper from below. while the other, carrying raised types, struck the paper from above, embossing on it the required character. Ap- plied to ordinary typewriting, only one set of type-bars was employed. They struck upon a small table over which the ribbon of paper was conducted. The ink was furnished by an endless band of carbon paper or inked fabric. This ma- chine did good work, but was slow in its operation. The method of printing was closely akin to that subsequently brought to a practical outcome by others, but it provided for the printing of characters only upon a narrow ribbon of paper, instead of on sheets. Other Early Typewriters.-—It is impossible to describe here in detail all the early attempts to perfect a writing- machine. Notable among them is the invention of O. T. Eddy, of Baltimore, Nov. 12, 1850, a cumbersome machine which used seventy-eight vertical type- bars with the types on their lower ends, and a fiat horizontal platen whose lateral and longitudinal movements furnished line and letter spac- ing; the only one ever made, however, did neat work. The Fairbanks machine, also of 1850, had a number of converging rods with types on one end, printing at a com- mon center, and finger-keys on the other; it was designed 328 for printing on cotton fabrics, but proved impracticable. The typewriter invented by J. M. Jones, of Clyde, N. Y., and patented in 1852, and again in 1856, had types placed underneath the rim of a horizontal wheel, which was rotated and depressed by a lever so as to print on the paper held beneath. Suitable mechanism for line and (variable) letter spacing was provided in connection with a cylinder for paper. Another type-wheel machine was patented by J. H. Cooper, of Philadelphia, in 1856. In 1854 the Thomas typo- graph was patented; this was a small, cheap typewriter, suggestive of the modern toy machmes. _ The Francis Tgpeu"rtte1'.—The invention of S. W. Fran- eis. a physician of Newport, R. I., was patented Oct. 27, 1857. The types were arranged upon a series of hammers placed in a circle and moved to a common printing-point upon a small circular platen, which was supported from the framework, and which it was necessary to remove in order to insert a fresh sheet of paper. The key action resembled that of a piano. The depression of a key caused the type to rise toward a common center and print upon the paper through an inking-ribbon so arranged that it presented a fresh portion of its surface at each depression of the keys. The paper was held fiat in a rectangular frame, moved by a drum containing a coiled spring, to which it was attached by a cord. At the end of a line the frame was drawn back, thus rewinding the spring and at the same time moving the paper forward a line-space. The machine was provided with a bell to indicate the end of the line (a device also em- ployed in Beach’s first machine). The machine printed clearly and with a speed exceeding that of the pen, but it occupied a space of about 2 feet square. Only one ma- chine was constructed under the patent, and no attempt was ever made to put it on the market. The Hansen Maehe'ne.—The writing-ball invented by Ras- mus Johan Malling Hansen, a clergyman of Copenhagen, Denmark, is perhaps the best-known European invention of the kind; it is said to have been made and sold in continental Europe in considerable numbers. In the U. S. it is known only as a curiosity, although U. S. patents were issued upon it in 1872 and later, and it was exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, receiving a gold medal. The main feature of the machine, from which it took its name, is a hemispherical brass shell inverted over the paper- carrying and spacing mechanism. Fifty-four rods or pis- tons protrude through this shell, radiating in different direc- tions from the center of the sphere, which is the common printing-point; each carries a type on the lower end and a finger-key on the upper. Different modifications of the paper-carrying device have been applied. The first designs provided for the use of an electrical mechanism to move the carriage. The machine was furnished with a bell to indi- cate end of line, scale to show locality of impressions, etc. The spacing mechanism was operated by a slight depression of the ball or hemisphere which followed the depression of the key. The machine was well made, weighed only about 8 lb., but was costly and too slow in operation, though it did good work. The Sholes and Glidden Tg/pewrtte1'.—The first practical writing-machine was the invention of three men, residents of Milwaukee, Wis., working in conjunction : C. Latham Sholes, a printer and editor ; Samuel W. Soule, also a printer, as well as a farmer and inventor ; and Carlos Glidden, a gentleman of leisure. The first crude model, completed in Sept., 1867, was largely the work of Soule, who suggested the pivoted types set in a circle, and other minor details ; Sholes contributed the letter-spacing device. It was a success in that it wrote accurately and with fair rapidity. Many letters were written with it and sent to friends, among others to James Dcnsmore, of Meadville, Pa., who had sufficient enthusiasm to purchase an interest in the machine without even seeing it, by the payment of all the ex- penses already incurred. About this time both Soule and Glidden dropped out, leaving the enterprise wholly in the hands of Sholes and Densmore. The first patent upon the new machine was granted to the three associated inventors in June, 1868. It describes a machine with a circle of type- bars striking upward to a common printing-point. The keys resembled those of a piano, and moved the type-bars by means of cams or arms on the inner ends of the key-levers. The paper was held horizontally in a square sliding frame or carriage moving across the top of the machine and pro- vid ed with lateral and transverse motions for line and letter spacing. An arm extending from the rear of the main frame supported a small platen at the common center. An TYPEWRITERS inked ribbon passed across this platen from spools situated on either side of it. The action of the type, therefore, served to carry the paper against the inked ribbon, so that the impression was upon the side of the paper opposite to the type. The motive-power for the carriage motion was provided by a falling weight unwinding a cord from a drum at the side of the machine. In July of the same year another patent was granted to Sholes, Soule, and Glidden for a machine substantially the same as the one just de- scribed, except that the connection between the key-levers and type-bars was made by means of connecting wires or rods. Urged on by Dcnsmore, Sholes continued to make improvements, until in 1871 the machine had assumed a form differing in many particulars from the original model. A patent issued to Sholes in this year shows the use of a cylindrical platen which extended from front to rear and around which the paper was passed lengthwise. The letter- spacing was accomplished by a double ratchet on the axis of the cylinder, which was operated upon by a “twofold vibratory ratchet.” This permitted the cylinder to turn the space of a letter only at a time. The shifting of the line was accomplished by a screw-cam upon the cylinder engag- ing the teeth of a rack placed beneath it upon the top of the frame. An extra wide notch in the ratchet-wheels marked the line on the cylinder where the edges of the paper overlapped one another. While the cylinder revolved past this point the screw-cam engaged the teeth of the rack and threw the cylinder, which turned loose upon its shaft, toward the rear of the machine a sufficient distance to make the line-spacing. The inking-ribbon passed across the type-basket in a direction parallel to the line of writing, as in the present Remington machine, but at right angles to the line of travel of the cylinder. Numerous models were turned out, but in the hands of practical users each proved to be in some respect defective, and broke down un- der the strain of constant usage. The machines which had been made so far were but crude products of the shop of an ordinary mechanic, and it was necessary to enlist the as- sistance of manufacturers able to make them on a large scale and supplied with sufficient capital to support the en- terprise until there should be a market for them. Dens- more made a contract with E. Remington & Sons, gun-manu- facturers at Ilion, N. Y., and the improved machine has been called the Remington typewriter ever since. The Remington Typewrz'ter.—The ample resources and skillful workmen available at the great Remington factory were employed in the extensive improvement of the type- writer, and the first machines were ready for sale about the middle of 1874. The No. 1 Remington, the first type- writer to come into general use, was in general appearance not unlike a japanned box with a cover on the top, and with the keyboard projecting toward the operator at the bottom. The roller, around which the paper passed, ran from side to side, the key-levers were directly connected with the outer ends of the type-bars by means of connecting wires or rods, and the spacing was done by a crude rack and dog mechanism resembling in principle the device in later models. The carriage was returned by the action of a foot-treadle upon a pulley at the side of the machine-—a form which was subsequently replaced by a side hand-lever, thus doing away with the necessity of a special table. The machine also contained one of the devices invented by Sholes at the time the machine was first brought to Ilion, in the form of a slotted disk forming a guide for each indi- vidual type-bar, a device which was long supposed to be es- sential to the preservation of alignment, but which later experience has shown to be a hindrance rather than a help. The No.1 Remington was exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, and attracted much at- tention, although it was slow to gain public favor. One great objection was that it wrote only capitals; but this was obviated by the joint efforts of two inventors, Lucien S. Crandall and Byron A. Brooks. Crandall devised and patented a method of carrying more than one type upon the type-bar. I-Iis original attempt was to simplify the machine and render it less complicated and expensive by reducing the number of parts. Six types were carried upon one type- bar. The swinging motion of the platen caused it to move to any one of three positions, each serving as a common cen- ter to a pair of the types. The oscillation of the keys served to determine which one of this pair should be brought to the printing-point. The device was ingenious, but it involved too much care in the manipulating of the machine to be deemed successful. Byron A. Brooks adapted Crandall’s TYPEWRITERS idea to a type-bar carrying only two types, one a capital and the other its corresponding small letter. The change in the printing-center was accomplished by sliding the platen in a direction transverse to the line of writing by means of an extra key and corresponding mechanism. By properly ad- justing the curve of the cylindrical platen to the distance between the types on the bar, and by sliding the platen a proper distance, it was possible to print either one of the two letters carried on the type-bar at will. Thus was de- vised a machine which could write both capitals and small letters without increasing the size of the key-board or add- ing to the number of the type-bars. The well-known Remington No. 2 typewriter embodies these inventions, and was placed on the market in 1878. One of the first ma- chines of this model was exhibited at the Paris Exposition in that year, and was awarded a gold medal. The sales increased materially, although still disappoint- ingly slow, and the selling agency, after passing through several difi°erent hands, was finally undertaken, in 1882, by the firm of Wyckoif, Seamans 80 Benedict. Since then thou- sands of these typewriters have been sold, the machine has maintained a commanding position in the market, and in 1886 the firm assumed entire control also of its manufac- ture. In 1886 the No. 3 Remington was put on the market, in response to a demand for a machine which would carry wider paper than the No. 2 (the latter writing a line only 61} inches long). The position of the rack and spacing-dogs is reversed in this machine. Four new keys were also added to the keyboard, thus accommodating eight more characters than the No. 2. The No. 3 Remington writes a line 12 inches long, and can take paper 14 inches wide, and can be made to accommodate even a greater width by a few unimportant changes. In 1888, to meet the requirements of some Euro- pean countries, the No. 5 Remington was introduced. This is intermediate between the No. 8 and No. 2, writing a line 7% inches long, and taking paper as wide as 9% inches. In general construction it resembles the N o. 3. It has the same number of keys, the additional characters being util- ized to provide for the accented letters, etc., required in many foreign languages. The N o. 4 Remington is a single- case machine, closely resembling the No. 2 model in general appearance, but writing capitals only. Improvements have been continually added to all of these models. In 1894 the No. 6 Remington was first offered for sale. In this new model important changes in the design of the paper carriage, spacing mechanism, and ribbon move- ment have been effected. The UaZz'gm]Jh.—Tl1is is a machine which was devised under the direction of G. W. N. Yost, principally by a skilled German mechanic named Franz Wagner. His aim was to avoid a conflict with the Remington patents, but, failing in this, he secured a license under them to manufacture his roposed machine. The Caligraph was placed on the mar- liet in 1888. It does not employ a shift-key, using instead a separate type-bar for each letter, whether capital or lower- case. Hence it has a much larger keyboard, a greater num- ber of longer type-bars,‘ and consequently a much larger type-basket. The key-levers are of the third order (instead of the second, as in the case of the Remington), the ful- crums being in the front of the machine. The keys are ranged in six rows in an inclined plane, while the connect- ing wires by which they operate the type-bars are attached to the inner end, or end opposite the fulcrum. The ar- rangement of the keys is peculiar to the machine. The paper carriage has a platen cylinder with polygonal faces to adapt itself to the faces of the types. The motive-power of the carriage is furnished by a torsion-spring. which im- pels the carriage to move from right to left until the line is finished. The letter-spacing is effected by an oscillating dog or pawl which operates in a double sliding rack. The line-spacing is accomplished by a carriage-lever operated by hand, in a manner similar to the Remington mechanism for the same purpose. It is made in four styles: the No. 1. having forty-eight keys, printing only capital letters, punc- tuation-marks, and figures; the No.2, which has seventy- two keys, and prints both upper and lower case letters; the No. 8, which differs from the No. 2 mainly in the addition of another row of keys. making the available characters seven- ty-eight; and the No. 4, which exhibits improvements in minor details of construction. The Hammond typezvriter, invented by James B. Ham- mond, is covered by patents taken out in 1880, 1881, 1882, and 1883. The applications for some of these were filed as 329 early as 1875. The machine is of the type-wheel variety, and presents radical differences in theory and construction when compared with other writing-machine inventions, ex- cept the “pterotype,” invented by John Pratt, of Centre, Ala., and fully described in a paper read by him before the London Society of Arts in 1867. In the latter, of which only a very few were ever made, the types were arranged all on one plate, which was moved so as to bring the desired letter to the printing-point, when the impression was made by a hammer-blow on the aper, this being carried along in a square frame furnished with devices for line and let- ter spacing. Hammond’s invention, which appears to have been a conception entirely independent of Prat-t’s, very strongly resembles it in principle. Hammond was finally successful in his efforts to control the motion of the type- wheel, a problem which Pratt failed to solve. The two in- ventors were placed in interference in the U. S. Patent- oflice, with additional complications arising from the pres- ence of a third application upon a type-wheel machine by Lucien S. Crandall, whose device is described later on. By concessions on the part of Pratt, Hammond was enabled to proceed with his applications. The “ Ideal” Ham mond, first put on the market in 1884, has an almost semicircular key- board, consisting of two banks of ebony keys. Each key controls the printing of three characters. The key-levers radiate from the center of a small turret-like casing, which contains the printing apparatus in the shape of a type-wheel, a small hard-rubber wheel made in two sectors of a circle, each containing forty-five characters disposed in three rows upon its outside periphery. This wheel turns freely in a horizontal direction. The depression of any key serves to throw forward the type-wheel a greater or less distance, bringing the proper type to the printing-point. The exact position of the type is determined by a small stop-arm oscil- lating on the shaft of the type-wheel, and engaging one of a series of thirty hardened steel index-pins, one for each key—lever. The lower end of each of these pins stands di- rectly above its corresponding key-lever, and when a key is depressed the corresponding index-pin rises immediately, throwing its upper end into the path of the stop-arm, thus checking it, and consequently the type-wheel, at the exact point required. The type-wheel can readily be removed and another substituted for it. The paper-carriage runs directly behind the type-wheel turret. A pair of rubber- covered rollers hold the paper in a vertical position against the face of the type-wheel. An impression-hammer strikes from behind, carrying the paper forward upon the face of the type with sufficient force to cause an impression to be made. The spacing mechanism consists of an ingenious though very complicated set of leverages, which also impel the hammer. An escapement wheel with pawls regulates the step-by-step motion of the letter-spacing. The inking is done by a narrow ribbon. Whe11 capitals or figures are required the use of the proper shift-key elevates the type- wheel, bringing another line of type into the printing line. The arrangement of the original (now termed the “ Ideal”) keyboard of the Hammond machine differs materially from that adopted by the Remington, to which almost all new machines conform. This led to the manufacture of a new model of the Hammond, which appeared in 1890, termed by the makers the “Universal Hammond.” This machine differs from the first model only in adopting three banks of keys ranged according to the Remington Standard, with the space-key in the same position as in that machine. Still later, a light rubber shell containing the type—faces was sub- stituted for the type-wheel. This was supported by a metal backing, giving rise to the name “anvil and shuttle” ma- chine. The HG/ZZ Tyioe/w7"2Ife'2~s.—-Tlioinas Hall, of New York, se- cured a patent in 1867 on a machine upon which he had long been at work. Only a few of these typewriters were constructed; one, printing seventy-two characters in large and small letters, etc., was sent to the Paris Exposition of 1867, and another attracted great attention in the Govern- ment departments at Washington. The type-bars struck downward to a common center upon the surface of a flat platen, which slid into the bottom of the machine and worked from side to side to provide for spacing the letters, this being accomplished by an ingenious device which varied the space according to the width of the letter printed. Each type had a separate type-bar, which was also furnished with a peculiarly adjusted counterweight intended to facili- tate the impression and return of the type. The type-bars fell upon a cushioned ring near the printing-point, a device 330 by which a degree of uniformity of impression was accom- plished. The inventor claimed to be the first to produce a portable, keyed, type-bar typewriter, and that the Francis machine was the only one of the type-bar variety which printed before his; in some respects, however, his device resembles the Foucault machine of 1833, described above. In 1881 Hall took out a patent for a typewriter upon a totally different plan. The peculiar feature of this machine is that in it the paper is at rest, while the printing apparatus moves about over it as it brings the required type to the printing-point. The paper is placed around a small rubber- covered roller, which is turned by a suitable ratchet and pawl at the left of the machine to accomplish line-spacing, and after leaving the feed-roll it passes over a fiat metal bar wide enough to serve as a printing-platen. The printing- carriage is composed of two metal plates, one about three- eighths of an inch above the other, and is so adjusted that it may slide or turn upon a rack-rod which supports its rear edge. Attached to the top of the carriage, and engaging with this rack-rod, is a pinion containing a spring which drives the carriage. At the right of the carriage, and work- ing into the grooves or notches of the rack-rod, are the feed- ing-dogs, which after each impression permit the carriage to move forward a letter-space. A flexible vulcanized-rub- ber type-plate is mounted upon a small frame just beneath the upper plate of the carriage. This frame is connected with the under surface of the upper plate by two pairs of parallel levers which permit its horizontal movement in a longitudinal or transverse direction, thus permitting any type upon the type-plate to be brought to a hole in the lower plate, large enough to permit of the printing of one type. The upper surface of the under plate is covered by a pad saturated with aniline ink, by which the types are inked. At the front edge of the frame upon which the type-plate is mounted, an arm extends beyond the edge of the plate and to this is rigidly attached an index-key which carries a pe- culiarly shaped pointer at its free end. Under this pointer is a vulcanite frame pierced with as many round holes as there are separate characters upon the type-plate, each hole disclosing its corresponding character printed upon a white surface beneath. The index-key pointer is placed in the hole which shows the type required. The motion requisite to do this also moves the type-plate so as to bring the cor- responding type to the printing-center over the aperture in the lower plate. Pressure upon the key then depresses the whole of the printing-carriage upon its bearings, causing it to descend until the face of the type, by means of a small stud projecting downward through the upper plate just above the opening in the lower plate, is pressed upon the surface of the paper, leaving its imprint there. This inge- nious machine does good work and has been much used, but lacks among other things the essential quality of speed. Mr. Hall also invented the Century typewriter, a similar machine, except that the paper moves instead of the print- ing mechanism. There are 100 characters, ranged in ten rows of ten each, on a rubber or metal type-cylinder. The Crandall tg/])ewre'ter is the invention of Lucien S. Crandall, and is covered by U. S. patents of 1881, 1886, 1888, and 1889. It is a rather compact machine, made entirely of metal, and has a slightly curved key-board of twenty-eight keys arranged in two banks. From this, by the aid of two shift-keys, eighty-four characters are controlled. The types are all arranged on a removable circular metal sleeve with fourteen faces, which revolves and slides upon a nearly ver- tical shaft. The paper is carried upon a cylindrical platen, and travels across the rear of the machine just behind the type-sleeve. The key-levers converge toward a common center in the rear of the machine, and control rotary and vertical movements of the type-sleeve. When the proper type has come into place for printing, the shaft of the type- sleeve is moved forward, bringing the type-face into contact with the inking-ribbon, forcing it against the paper and making the required imprint. The inking-ribbon, which is only five-eighths of an inch wide, falls back after each im- pression, leaving the line of writing in sight. The first model was provided with a variable spacing device, but this was abandoned when the machine was substantially remod- eled in 1887, thus illustrating the fact that variable spacing is neither desirable nor practicable. Mr. Crandall is also the inventor of the International typewriter, which has seventy-six type-bars, but only thirty- eight keys, each of the latter operating one or the other of two type-levers (and hence of two type-bars and types) ac- cording to the position of a shift-key. TYPEWRITERS The Columbia typewreter is the invention of Charles Spiro, of New York, and was first exhibited at the American Institute fair in New York in 1884. Mounted upon a metal base is a small carriage sliding in grooves cut lengthwise and carrying a revolving paper-cylinder governed by ratch- et and pawl mechanism to provide letter-spacing. Just. above the upper surface of the paper-cylinder is a vertical wheel with printers’ type set in its periphery, and with a convenient handle by which it is turned. The type-wheel contains a bevel gear upon its left-hand side which engages in a similar gear upon the edge of a circular horizontal disk, the upper surface of which is marked with the letters and characters carried upon the type-wheel. An index is fast- ened to the center of the disk, and indicates the character upon the type-wheel which will be printed when the type- wheel is depressed. Inking is done from a pad located at the lower edge of the type-wheel. A double-case machine with two type-wheels shifting horizontally upon the line of the shaft was also made. The machine was also fitted to write music by substituting the characters of the musical notation upon the wheel. For a time there was a consider- able demand for machines of this make. The Yost Typewre'ter.—When G. W. N. Yost retired from the Caligraph enterprise he, in conjunction with others, de- vised the typewriter now known by his name and covered by a number of patents, chiefly those of 1885, 1888 (about which year the machine was first sold), and 1889. The type- bars (each carrying only one type) are compound levers, using what is known as the “grasshopper” movement, in- vented by a mechanic named Davidson. They are assembled around the inside of a circular frame, as in other machines, and move by an irregular path from the surface of an ink- ing-pad placed in the upper portion of the type-basket toward a common center, when they enter a small metal guide intended to insure the exact alignment of type at the point of impression. The complex movement of the type- bar is secured by a link pivoted to the type-bar and also to a central post or table. Such a device requires the joints of the type-bar action to be loose instead of close-fitting, but it is claimed that the bad alignment which would natu- rally result therefrom is corrected by the central metal guide referred to, the invention of C. L. Driesslein. A similar principle was also em 1 yed in a typewriter invented by G. House, of Buffalo, N. ., in 1865. The carriage of the Yost machine is of the ordinary pattern, but very light and nar- row. As the connecting wires operate the type-bars they also operate upon a circular ring or universal bar which is placed in the lower part of the type-basket and is supported at its center. This in turn acts as a lever to move the dogs which vibrate from side to side of a double-toothed horizon- tal rack attached to the carriage, thus providing the letter- s acmg. pThebSme'th-Premier T3/pewre'ter.—The parts of this ma- chine which are of recent invention must be credited main- ly to Alex. T. Brown, although it bears the name of L. C. Smith, its manufacturer. It is a type-bar machine, printing seventy-six characters by the single-type system. It was first put upon the market in 1889, but that model was with- drawn shortly afterward and replaced by another in 1890. The keyboard is rectangular and consists of seven rows of keys. The connection between the keys and the type-bars is made by a series of rocking-shafts journaled into the frame of the machine at front and back. Each of these rocking-shafts carries two short crank-arms—one at the front, by which it is attached to the vertical stem of the finger-key, and the other nearer to the center of the ma- chine, by which the connecting-rod is operated. This device was invented by C. Latham Sholes in 1881, and his applica- tion for a patent was allowed, but he never took out the patent because of the objectionable character of the numer- ous frictional bearings which the mechanism involved, and the idea became public property. The type-bar of the Smith-Premier is of a peculiar crooked form, and delivers a somewhat indirect blow. The bearing, or hanger, upon which it is mounted is about 1% inches long, the great length being designed to secure better alignment, and the series of hangers is disposed diagonally upon the edge of the type-basket. This method of attaching the type-bars is found in the British patent to Bain and Wright, in 1841. The carriage consists of a cast-iron frame, which slides upon ball-bearings set in grooves. The carriage-frame does not lift, but the platen, which is also removable, is adapted to slide forward and bring the line of writing into view just above the scale which is fixed to the front portion of the TYPEWRITERS carriage. The letter-spacing is accomplished by means of a sliding plate, 91} inches long by 21} inches in width, fitted into the back of the frame at the base, and operating a bell-crank connected with the usual spacing-dogs and hori- zontal rack. Each of the finger-key rocker-shafts passes through a hole in this plate eccentric to its own axis, and when the key is pressed causes the plate to slide by means of a small stud or cam. The carriage is returned by a lever, as in other machines, but the line-spacing is done by automatic mechanism operated by the pressure of the car- riage lever at the end of its return movement. The inking is done by a ribbon lying parallel with the cylinder. This moves transversely across the type-basket from front to rear of the machine as the keys are operated, and reverses auto- matically when the types strike near the edge of the ribbon. On the return a longitudinal motion is also imparted to the ribbon, so that the impressions are made in a new place. This machine also contains a novel feature in the shape of a circular brush mounted horizontally upon a vertical shaft, and resting just below the types when they are at rest. By means of a screw-motion, operated by a remov- able crank-handle, this brush is revolved over the faces of the types so as to clean them. A new model, called the N o. 2, containing improved spacing mechanism and other de- tails, was placed upon the market in 1895. The Bar-loch typewriter is a type-bar machine of the downward-stroke order, invented by Charles Spiro, of New York. The keyboard has seventy-two keys of the ordinary pattern, arranged in six rows of twelve each, besides a space- key. The type-bars, each of which carries a single type, stand erect in a crescent-shaped double row behind an ornamental screen of ironwork erected between the key- board and platen-roll, and strike down and away from the operator to the platen when the keys are depressed. The paper-cylinder, or platen-roll, is borne in a carriage of the usual form which travels across the rear of the machine. The impression is made through a narrow inked ribbon, which is automatically moved in and out of the line of writing. The carriage is moved step by step by the action of a uni- versal bar underlying the key-levers in much the same manner as in the Remington. The typewriter takes its name from a peculiar arrangement intended to secure perfect alignment, and consisting of a semicircular frame bearing a row of short, pointed, phosphor-bronze pins, set perpendicu- . larly so that every type-bar when it descends to the print- ing-point must pass between two of them. It is claimed that this device, in connection with the ball-and-socket joint which is used for the type-bar, so looks it into position that any serious derangement of the alignment is impossi- ble. Another advantage claimed for the Bar-lock is the visibility of the work, notwithstanding the structures be- tween the operator and the line of writing. This machine was at first sold only abroad, but it was placed on the Amer- ican market in 1891. The machine is made in several sizes in order to accommodate different widths of paper, but the essential features are the same in all. The National typewriter, manufactured in part under a patent issued to H. H. Unz in 1889, and in part under let- ters patent of 1885, was first placed upon the market about the year first named. It is an upward-stroke, type-bar machine, with the usual paper-carriage and a curved key- board containing twenty-nine keys, including two shift-keys. Each type-bar carries three types. I11 the normal position the depression of a key carries the middle type to the print- mg-point. By depressing a shift-key the entire keyboard, together with the connecting-rods, type-bars, hangers, and types, is shifted forward or back to bring one of the other types to the printing-point. The lifting portion of the car- nage-frame 1s fitted with a gravity pointer to indicate the prmting-point. This machine is a good manifolder, as the great length of its type-bars adds to the force of the blow, although it renders the touch of the keys somewhat heavier. The Franklin typewriter, invented by Wellington P. Kid- der. has a nearly seinicircular keyboard, the keys being ar- ranged in three rows around the front side of an upright shield, behind which stand the type-bars, which strike down- ward upon a common printing- Oint on the upper side of a cyhnder of the usual pattern. The carriage is propelled by a spring encircling the shaft of a cog-wheel, which engages with a rack attached to the under side of the carriage. Each type-bar carries two types, and the platen is shifted to bring the printing-point from one to the other. Slotted guides are used to secure steadiness in the downward movement of the type-bars. Ink is furnished from a narrow ribbon which 331 automatically unwinds from one spool, passes over the print- ing-point, and is rewound upon another revolving on the same shaft. The machine weighs about 12 lb., and has had a limited sale. The Densmore Typewriter.—The original devices of this machine are the inventions (chiefly) of Walter J . Barron, Amos Densmore (a brother of James Densmore), and Charles E. and M. G. Merritt. The machine has thirty-eight keys, placed according to the standard Remington arrangement. These, with the aid of a single shift-key, permit the writing of seventy-eight characters, as the type-bars, which are ar- ranged in a basket as usual, carry each two types, and a few characters are formed by combinations of two types. The key-levers are of thin metal, giving the machine a more in- elastic touch than the machines employing wood for this purpose. The connecting-rods are not directly attached to the type-bars, but to the ends of shorter subsidiary levers placed directly beneath them. A square eye is turned up at the end of each of these shorter bars and through this the type-bar proper passes, so that the type is raised to the com- mon center whenever the key is depressed. The method of securing the hangers of the type-bars is peculiar to this ma- chine. Each hanger has a small projection or shoulder which fits into a square hole mortised into the top plate of the ma- chine near the edge of the type-opening. Each hanger, with its type-arm, is made with reference to the type it is to control, and numbered to show its particular position on the top plate. By this method the type-bars are readily placed in the machine; it is also claimed that permanent alignment is insured. The paper-carriage is hinged upon the back way-rod, and, as in the Remington, can be raised. The platen can also be raised in the carriage frame, and is also re- movable from the carriage. The inking-ribbon shifts from front to rear of the machine so as to bring every part of its width over the printing—center ; a slow, continuous longitu- dinal motion is at the same time imparted to it by the ac- tion of two frames upon which the spools are mounted, and when the carriage is returned to begin a new line the rib- bon is shifted lengthwise by about the width of one type, so that the next line of impressions will fall upon a fresh por- tion. VVhen the ribbon is all wound upon one spool, the gear is automatically shifted to return it to the other by the same process. The machine was first sold in 1891. The ‘Williams typewriter is in part the invention of J . N. Williams, of Brooklyn, N. Y. Its keyboard contains only twenty-eight keys, but each type-bar carries three types, the printing-point being governed by shifting the platen. The alphabetical characters are arranged as in the Reming- ton keyboard. The type-bars rest in a horizontal position upon the top of the frame and are arranged in two sections of fourteen each. between which the paper-carriage, carry- ing a cylindrical platen, moves from right to left. The impression is made upon the top of the cylinder, so that the line of writing is in sight of the operator. The de- pression of a key raises the type from the position in which it normally rests (in contact with an inked pad) and brings the face of the type down upon the surface of the paper. A central forked guide is provided at the printing-point, in- tended to prevent bad alignment. The machine is also fit- ted with a toothed rack in front of each section of type-bars to receive and hold each type-bar steady in printing posi- tion. The machine was placed upon the market in the lat- ter part of 1891, and has been advertised and sold to some extent. Other Typewriters.—Besides the -machines described at length in this article, and those alluded to sufficiently in con- nection with others, there are a considerable number worthy of mention. The Dennis-Du lex typewriter was patented in 1890 by A. S. Dennis, of Illles Moines, Ia.; it resembles the Remington or Caligraph in general, but contains 100 types and type-bars, with the keyboard divided into two sections, each containing all the lower-case letters, while the capitals and punctuation-marks are divided between them. The types corresponding to the two sections print at different centers one letter-space apart, and the machine is arranged to print two letters simultaneously. The Brooks typewriter has vertical type-bars arranged in a semicircle, and striking downward upon a platen placed between them and the keyboard. Each type-bar carries three types, with the middle one (lower case) printing normally, and the shift- keys move the laten so as to print the outside ones. The writing is in full sight of the operator. The Fitch machine embodied inventions of Eugene Fitch, of Des Moines, Ia., and W. H. Slocum, of Buffalo, N. Y. The type-bars, each 332 carrying three types, struck down, past an inking-wheel, upon a cylinder in the middle of the machine, and the writing was in sight. The Automatic typewriter was in- vented by E. M. Hamilton; it was of the type-bar variety, but was very compact, being only 111} by 8 by 4 inches. The letter-spacing was variable, and the work resembled ordinary printed matter. The Daugherty typewriter 1s a type-bar machine with two types to the bar, but the shift is made by raising the type-bars instead of moving the paper. The key-levers are directly attached to the ends of the type-bars without the intervention of any connecting mechanism. The type-bars are arranged in an arc, and lie down fiat over the key-levers, but when operated strike up- ward to a common center located by a vibratory guide. The line of writing is visible to the operator. The Munson typewriter is similar to the Hammond in principle, but dif- fers in the method of controlling the movements of the type-sleeve. The Blickensderfer machine also belongs to the type-wheel class, but is more similar to the Crandall. The arrangement of the keyboard differs materially from the Remington, and is said to resemble that of a printer’s case. The spacing after a word is performed automatically with the imprinting of its last letter. The Rapid typewriter, invented by Bernard Granville, of Chicago, in 1887, had straight, square, horizontal type-bars arranged radially with reference to the printing-point. The types were cut on the ends of the bars, at the proper angle so as to strike the paper squarely. The machine was operated by keys, and perfect alignment was to be secured through the close- fitting square holes through which each type-bar was car- ried. The device was a failure. The Boston typewriter was the invention of D. E. Kempter, of Boston, Mass. (pat- ented in 1886); it resembled in principle the Columbia type- writer described above. The “ English ” was an English machine somewhat resem- bling the Bar-lock. The Lasar was another down-stroke machine, originating in St. Louis, M0. The Typograph was a machine with type-bars striking downward upon a fiat platen from a semicircular type-basket. None of those are now in the market. The Maskelyne, Mercury, and Gardner typewriters are of English origin, unknown in the U. S. The last-named seeks to reduce the number of keys by writ- ing one character by the use of two keys at one time, an ar- rangement which is unlikely to commend itself to practical users of writing-machines. The Westphalia and I-Iammonia are German machines, the latter being better and cheaper than the former. They are of the single-key order, the types being held in a sliding holder, and are slow; but they can print ten or twelve copies at once. Carbon paper is used in place of a ribbon or pad. Toy 1lIachines.—The popularity of the typewriter as it came into more general use caused a demand for cheaper machines. Inventors soon produced devices to meet such demand, and a large number of machines came upon the market, some of which, though incapable of great speed, did very good work. These are generally known as “toy” machines, and can hardly be considered competitors of the larger typewriters. The Sun typewriter, one of the pioneers in this line, is the invention of L. S. Burridge and Newman R. Marshman. It was put upon the market in 1884, and met with a limited sale. Attached to a single key, or handle, is the type-hold- er, a straight bar with type out upon its lower surface, slid- ing in guides above and at right angles to the paper-car- riage, which is of the usual description, with mechanism for letter and line spacing. In close proximity to the type- holder is a fixed comb, or rack, bearing upon its upper sur- face an index of the characters contained in the type-holder, one to each notch in the rack. By bringing the key to the notch opposite the desired character, the proper type is brought into printing position. The type-holder is then pressed downward upon the surface of the paper. Inking is accomplished by small rollers, one on each side of the center of the type-holder, so that whichever way it moves the types are sufficiently inked. The Odell typewriter, first placed on sale in 1886, is similar in general design to the Sun, and seems to be a slight improvement. The type- holder is made with two faces instead of one, either being rocked into printing position at will, and hence the machine writes both capitals and small letters. The People’s typewriter, or Prouty typograph, was an- other very simple device, consisting of a carriage contain- ing a sort of metal bow bearing characters electrotyped from ordinary printers’ type, and hinged over a small rod TYPEWRITERS bearing the pa er. It was of no practical value and soon disappeared. ts inventor, E. Prouty, of Chicago, also de- vised a typewriter containing a series of type-bars in a semi- circular form placed horizontally and striking upward to a common center on a carriage of the usual type running across the rear of the machine. The machine now known as the People’s typewriter, also the work of E. Prouty, was put on the market from Chicago about 1890, and has been sold to a limited extent. A horizontal type-wheel bearing two rows of characters upon its periphery revolves in front of the carriage—a small roller adapted to grasp the paper, and mounted upon a vibratory frame. The type-wheel is moved by a handle extending toward the front of the ma- chine. and resting immediately above a semicircular index- plate by which the position of the type upon the wheel is indicated. The operation of the printing-key, at the left of the machine, serves to bring the platen smartly forward against the surface of the type-wheel, at the same time en- gaging a tooth or spur in a notch in a ratchet-wheel carried upon the type-wheel shaft, thus securing correct position of the type. Inking is performed by means of a ribbon which partially encircles the face of the type-wheel. The World typewriter, another machine of this class, was invented by John Becker, of Boston (U. S. patent, 1886), and was first placed on the market in 1886. As a novelty it at- tracted much attention, and many of them were sold. A flat semicircular disk, carrying on its under side a segment of rubber with the type faces cast upon it, revolves hori- zontally upon top of a short post or stud. Toward the front of the machine extends a combined pointer and handle which operates the type-disk and also passes over a semi- circular index containing all the characters to be found on the top plate. Upon pressing a key at the left of the type- disk the face of the type is pressed upon the surface of the paper, and at the same time the carriage is moved along one space automatically. The inking is done by a pad which lies beneath the disk, with an opening at the printing-point. The Herrington typewriter was a toy patented in 1884 and ut upon the market in 1886 by Millison & Herrington, of 'ichita, Kansas. It consisted of a pair of ways upon which a type-wheel, bearing the characters arranged alphabetical- ly upon a vulcanized rubber strip, moved over the paper, which was placed fiat beneath. The wheel was operated by twirling a knob at the right-hand end of the axis, and ink was supplied by a small felt roller playing over the to of the wheel. A card index on the inner side of the w eel indicated the position of the letters. The Merritt typewriter, the invention of C. E. and Mor- timer G. Merritt, consists of a paper-carriage hinged at the rear of the machine, a type-holder (carrying loose metal type which are interchangeable) sliding to and fro in suit- able ways, and an index-plate. By placing the index-handle over the desired type on the index-plate and depressing it, a pin is operated to bring the corresponding type up through a guide until it prints upon the paper, and a universal bar is depressed and moves the carriage forward automatically to the place for the next impression. A separate space-key, operated by the left hand, provides for spacing between words, and the platen is turned by a milled knob at its right to make line-spacing. The Victor typewriter is the invention of C. E. Tilton, of Worcester, Mass., and Arthur I. Jacobs, of Ilartford, Conn., and is covered by patents of 1889. It consists of a paper- carriage of the usual description moved by a rack and pawl mechanism, a vertical wheel bearing upon its rear face a thin metal disk containing the types, which are made of vul- canized rubber, a striker or hammer moved by a separate lever from the left of the machine, and an index handle or plate by which the position of the type-disk is directed. The impression is caused by throwing the hammer smartly forward through a toothed rack cut upon the edge of the wheel until it pushes the type forward and impresses it on the paper. To facilitate this, the edge of the disk is out be- tween the types so that each one stands by itself on a flexible lip, which serves also as a spring to retract the type enough to clear the paper. Two small pads, situated one on each side of the printing-point, furnish ink to the types as they pass over them. By means of a small projection on the printing-lever, it is made to engage the spacing-lever and move the carriage at the same time that an impression is made. The name “Crown” has been applied to more than one typewriter. The first was patented in May and June, 1887. by A. G. Donelly, and in some degree resembled the Hansen TYPHA writing-ball. A circular casing, much like an inverted bowl with perpendicular sides, was supported in an inclined position above a traveling paper-carriage of the usual de- sign. Withili it a series of type-bars were jointed in a cir- cle, and adapted to strike downward upon a common cen- ter. The finger-keys were formed upon the upper ends of light rods, which were jointed to a collar upon the type-bars and projected upward in a circle through the casing. Each type-bar carried three type-faces, one upon each of three of the sides of a cube, so that a revolution of one-third upon its longitudinal axis in either direction brought another character downward into the printing position. This ma- chine proved impracticable and was abandoned. The same name was adopted by Byron A. Brooks for a small machine which was on the market for a few years after 1888. This is solidly constructed for real service, although slow in oper- ation. The printing is done by a metal type-wheel bearing characters in three rows upon its periphery, and carried upon a shaft inclined over the carriage, which is of the usual type. The front end of the type-wheel shaft also bears a gear-wheel meshing with the teeth of a straight rack which slides in ways across the front of the machine. The upper side of this rack carries a pointer, which passes over the surface of a celluloid index-plate bearing the characters found on the type-wheel. By sliding the pointer along the index-plate until it rests over any character, the type-wheel is rotated until the corresponding type is brought into the printing position. The impression is then made by depress- ing the type-wheel. A couple of shift-keys serve to move the type-wheel shaft in the direction of its axis so that a different row of type on the periphery of the wheel may be brought into position at will. There are several other small machines upon the market under different names, but all working upon the same prin- ciples and having little practical value. Among such may be mentioned the Morris, McLaughlin, Simplex, Pearl, American, and Ingersolls. JllamifoZd'ing.—Copying-ink is generally used in type- writer ribbons and pads, so that reprints may be made by the use of the ordinary copying-press. By the use of car- bon paper, interleaved with sheets of thin typewriter paper, several copies may be made on the typewriter at once. As the the general use of the writing-machine increased, various attempts to widen its field of usefulness have been made by trying to adapt it to the work of writing in books. Several devices for this purpose have been invented, but none sufficiently practical to commend itself has yet ap- peared upon the market. A good deal of ingenuity has been expended in applying the principles of the successful machines to the solution of this problem, but as yet without success. W. O. Wvcxorr and R. l\’lCKEAN J onns. Typha: a genus of plants to which the OAT—TAIL (q. o.) belongs. 'I‘yplll0p’idae [Mod Lat., named from Ty’phlops, the typical genus, from Gr. 'rv¢)\c61,l/, blind; ¢vqbAds, blind + 864/, eye]: a family of serpents, characterized especially by the development of teeth in the upper jaw (and not in the lower), and therefore called épanodontiens by Duméril and Bibron. They are worm-like animals, the scales are smooth and im- bricated, and nearly alike all round; the head is short; above, it is covered by large scale-like plates; the eyes are minute; the nostrils between the post-rostral and labial plates; there is no apparent neck; the mouth is small and crescentiform; the anus is a transverse fissure near the posterior extremity. The skull has no ectopterygoid bones and no prefrontals; the rudiments of a pelvis are present, but no pubis. The family is represented by about half a dozen genera in various tropical countries. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Typhoid Fever, called also Typhus Ahdomina'lis and Enterie Fever [typhoz'd is from Gr. 'ru¢c6577s (contracted from *1-v4>oel61’ys), smoky, stupid (of persons in fever), typhoid, deriv. of 1-z7¢os, smoke, stupor; en-telric is from Gr. 6’!/'1'epucd$‘, in the intestines, deriv. of é’wrepov, intestine]: an acute in- fectious fever which has a duration of about four weeks, and is characterized by continuous high fever, abdominal disten- sion, diarrhoea, a rash on the skin, and great depression. 0cmses.—Typhoid fever occurs in all parts of the world and affects all kinds of eople. It generally attacks young persons, from fifteen to t iirty years of age, but exceptionally is met with in infants or old persons. Spring and autumn are the seasons of its greatest prevalence. In most large communities it is endemic-—that is, isolated cases are TYPHOID FEVER 333 constantly present—but under certain conditions local or widespread epidemics are met with. The investigation of the specific course of typhoid fever was until recent years extremely difficult from the fact that clinicians had not learned to distinguish typhus fever from it. The credit of clearly establishing the points of distinc- tion rests with William Gerhard, who rosecuted his studies in the Philadelphia Hospital. Since erhard’s time it has become recognized that typhoid, unlike typhus fever, is not contagious—that is, it is not communicated directly from person to person in the ordinary intercourse. The infection in most, if not all, cases enters the alimentary tract with drinking-water, milk, or other food, directly or remotely contaminated by the intestinal discharges of persons ill with the disease. Exceptionally the virus may be directly con- veyed to the mouth by unclean hands, or it may become dried and reach the nose or mouth through the air, eventu- ally finding its way into the intestines. These facts are ab- solutely established by evidence of the most reliable charac- ter. The immediate cause is doubtless the bacillus described by Eberth, though there is much to be settled regarding the complete life history of this micro-organism. Certainly it does exist in enormous numbers in the intestines of persons suffering from typhoid fever, and in this disease alone. The morbid changes in the body in typhoid fever are prin- cipally found in the lower part of the small intestines, where the Peyer’s glands undergo swelling, necrosis, and, finally, deep ulceration. The spleen and the lymphatic glands of the abdominal cavity become enlarged, and the other organs of the body may suffer changes in consequence of continued fever. The disease begins very gradually. At first the patient suffers with headache, backache, and unaccountable lassitude; frequently the nose bleeds, and sometimes colic and a little looseness of the bowels exists, though as a rule there is con- stipation. Gradually, day by day, the temperature rises, reaching a height of 103° or 104° F. in five or seven days. After this the fever remains elevated to about the same point, falling in the morning and rising again toward even- ing. The characteristic symptoms of the disease are noted in the second week of the disease and after that time. These are the regular fever, the great lassitude, the devel- opment of abdominal distention with tenderness over the seat of the ulcers in the ileum—that is, in the right side of the abdomen—and diarrhoea. In many cases, especially when the fever is decided, muttering or delirium, twitching of the muscles, and great prostration supervene. Stupor, and even complete coma, may occur. After about two weeks these symptoms gradually abate, the fever slowly descends, and a slow convalescence is established. About the seventh to the ninth day a rash is noted in the skin of the abdomen, con- sisting of small red spots, which appear in separate crops, and last but a few days, when they fade from view. Many variations from this, which is the ordinary clinical course of the disease, are encountered. Sometimes there is scarcely any fever, or other signs of illness, and the case is spoken of as walkérzg typhoid; again, the symptoms may be so intense that the case assumes a veritable malz'gnwnt character. Fortunately, the latter are very rare. Minor variations in the symptoms, such as absence of the rash or of the diarrhoea, are quite common. Death may occur from perforation of the intestines or hzemorrhage from deep ulceration; from slow exhaustion; or from various com lications, as pneumonia, peritonitis, or the like. The morta ity in typhoid fever varies greatly in different epidemics and at different periods of the same e i- demic. Modern methods of treatment have lowered t e death-rate very materially. Treatmem‘.—Fi1*st and foremost in importance is proper nursing. Without this any treatment is seriously embar- rassed. The patient must be confined to bed from the very first possible moment, in mild or severe cases alike; he must make no unnecessary physical exertion of any kind; and he must be given a diet which will be least irritating to the intestinal ulcers. Universal opinion has decided that diet to be milk, of which a quart to two quarts, diluted or undiluted, according to the digestive power, should be given an adult patient iii the twenty-four hours. Sometimes eggs beaten in milk, broths, and similar food are better borne than milk. The direct treatment of the disease is mainly concerned with the control of the fever. Remedies have been vaunted as specifics to cut short the disease, or to hold it in control, but these claims have not been accepted by the medical 334 TYPI-ION profession. It is very probable that no remedy has power to alter materially the course of this disease. The control of fever by cold water, however, is of most decided value in preventing the serious results of continued high tempera- ture; and has certainly the most marked influence in amel- iorating the intensity of all the symptoms. In this way it has in practice reduced the mortality from 15 or 20 per cent. to 1 or 6 per cent. Properly carried out, this treatment con- sists in the immersion of the patient in a bath of about 70° F. every few hours, if the temperature reaches a high point. The patient at first is apt to shiver and to complain, but after a few baths grows accustomed to their use. Unfortu- nately, in private practice it is difficult to find the facilities, and the friends are led by mistaken sympathy to object to what appears cruel treatment. The results of hospital treat- ment, as well as of the private practice of those who have persisted sufficiently to overcome the objections of friends, leave not the slightest doubt as to the value of this method. Cold sponging, the application of cold cloths and the like, are also useful, though less so than tub-bathing. Febrifuges are all to be avoided as far as possible on account of their depressive action. Remedies maybe needed to control diar- rhoea, to aid digestion, to relieve nervous excitement, and to combat untoward symptoms of other kinds. During conva- lescence the utmost care should be exercised to prevent in- testinal irritation by a too early return to the use of solid food. Tonics may be needed. Frequently the patient’s health is much better after than before an attack, but this is not always the case. Not rarely relapses occur immediately after the attack; but once the patient has completely recovered there is nearly always immunity from subsequent seizures. Now and then, however, instances are met with of second or even third attacks. See also the article FILTH DISEASES. WILLIAM PEPPER. Typhon: See SET TYPHoN. Typhoon, ti-foon': a tropical cyclone, especially that of the China Sea. The storms firstcome in view in the south- ern part of this sea, and take a northeastern course, destroy- ing shipping on whatever part is traversed by them and doing great damage on shore in the Philippine islands, For- mosa, and even so far N. as Japan, and they are sometimes encountered far out on the Pacific Ocean on the latitudes of the latter country. They occur in late summer and in au- tumn and, except in minor details due to local geography, they are like the hurricanes of the West Indies and North Atlantic. The name typhoon is also frequently applied to similar great, intense storms of tropical origin in the south- ern hemisphere—about Samoa and the Fiji islands, and in the Indian Ocean about the Mascarenes. See HURRICANES. The center of a typhoon, round which the wind blows in cir- cles, is usually a calm which varies in diameter from one- tenth to one-fifth of the storm-area. In the northern hemi- sphere the bearing of this center is always 8 points or 90 degrees to the right of the direction of the wind; for exam- ple, when the wind is N. the center bears E. In the right- hand half of the storm-disk the wind always changes to the right of the point from which it blows, while in the left half it changes to the left. When caught in such a storm the first change of wind will indicate to the careful seaman whether he is in the right half or the left half. If in the former it has been found that his safety lies in heaving-to on the starboard tack, and heading off from the center, but if in the left-hand half he will heave-to on the port tack and head toward the center. This is true of the northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere the direction in which the vessel will head when lying-to will be the reverse of this. Among the Chinese names for typhoon is Kiw- ffmg, which is defined by one authority as a “ four-quarter wind,” and by another as a “ wind which blows from four sides at once." MARK W. PIARRINGTON. Typhus Fever [typhus is Mod. Lat., from Gr. 'ri)¢0s, smoke, cloud, stupor arising from fever] : an intensely contagious disease, which is characterized by high fever, lasting ten days to two weeks, by a specific rash, and by great prostra- tion. It occurs where squalor, destitution, and overcrowd- ing abound, and has therefore been variously designated as ship-fever, jail-fever, camp-fever, and the like. In former centuries it was a common scourge, but is now almost lim- ited to half-civilized countries and to the slums of great seaports. Local outbreaks are met with from time to time on ships, in jails, or other places of like character. The specific cause of the disease has not been discovered, though there is but little doubt that it is a micro-organism. TYRCON N EL The onset of the disease is very abrupt. After a brief period of preliminary indisposition, or without such, the patient falls into a chill or convulsion, or is seized with vomiting; fever develops rapidly and rises to a high point, and the patient is tormented with violent pains in the head, back, and limbs. The pains and fever continue, strength is rapidly lost, and soon the patient sinks into a condition of stupor or delirium. The tongue is dry and coated; the breath is heavy and offensive; the skin dry and excessively hot, often pungent; the eyes are bloodshot. On the third to the fifth day an eruption of hzemorrhagic spots of dark red “mulberry” color appears in the skin and persists for some days, fading gradually. If the patient survives, about the tenth to the fourteenth day a sudden subsidence of the fever is likely to occur. So sudden is this crisis and so im- mediate the improvement in the patient’s condition in many cases, that some authors have been led to recall the scrip- tural passage : “ On such a day the fever left him and he was well.” The mortality in typhus fever is sometimes extremely high, most cases dying of exhaustion, of high fever, or of some complications, such as pneumonia. The treatment sim- ply consists in the control of the fever and in stimulation. Pain may require sedatives. WILLIAM PEPPER. Typography : See PRINTING. Tyr [Icel. T§r : O. Eng. Tdw; cf. O. H. Germ. Zio, Gr. Zezis, Lat. Ju- in Jupiter, Diesptter. See TUESDAY]: in Scandi- navian mythology, a son of Odin. He is the bold god of war, and heroes pray to him for victory. When the gods were about to put the chain Gleipner on the Fenriswolf, and the latter refused to permit this to be done unless one of them laid his hand on the wolf’s mouth as a pledge that no deceit was intended, the only god found willing to make this sacrifice of a hand was Tyr. The third day of the week is called after him, Icel. T;/rsdagr, fl]?/sdagr, Dan. Tirsdag, Eng. Tuesday. See SCANDINAVIAN MYTHOLOGY. Rasmus B. Annnnsou. Tyran'nidae Mod. Lat., named from Tyramnus, the typi- cal genus, from at. tg/ran’nus, tyrant]: a family of clama- torial birds containing the king-bird and related forms. They have ten primaries and twelve tail-feathers; the bill is hooked and flattened, and the bristles about the mouth are well developed. A characteristic feature is the “ex- aspidian” tarsus, the horny covering consisting of plates separated vertically on the inner side only. Although su- perficially resembling the, Old \Vorld fly-catchers (.Muscz'- capidce) in form and habits, they are very distinct and are confined to America, being most numerous in the tropics. See FLY-CATCHERS and KINGBIRD. F. A. Lucas. Tyrant [(with 3/ restored from Lat.) from 0. Fr. timn, tirant (with If by analogy of parties. in -amt) unor; (2) O. Eng. it (< im) < Teuton. un; as us < its : Germ. uns ; (3) O. Eng. it < Teuton., as but < butan, cf. Goth. in‘; thumb <]>iuna, cf. Germ. daumen; (4) O. Eng. 5 < Teuton. 5, as must < mdste, Goth. gam5tan; (5)0. Fr. u, as sufier < sufirc, butler < butelcr. - Sgmbolism.—U :: uranium (chemist1‘_V) ; U. C. : Upper Canada; U. S. : United States; U. S. N. : United States navy. See ABBREVIATIONS. BENJ. Inn WHEELER. Uaupés : See R10 NEGRO (Brazil). Uher’ ti, FAZIO, degli : poet (proper name BONIFAZIO) ; b. at Pisa between 1305 and 1309 ; a member of the family of the Uberti, who in the thirteenth century had been the lead- ers of the Florentine Ghibellines ; entered the service of the Scaligers and other noble families; wandered about much, even into France and Germany, leading a wild life until near his fortieth year. D. after 1368. His Dittarnondo, com- posed after 1350 in imitation of Dante’s Dirina Co'm2ncdia, is a poem in tcrza rizna, in which he fancies himself guided about the world by the geographer Solinus, and instructed in the history of various places. It was not finished (1st ed. V icenza, 1474). His lyrical poems, containing many pleas- ing love verses, have been edited by R. Renicr: Liriche cditc e inedite di Eazio degli Ubcrfi, etc. (Florence, 1883). See Th. Paur, Fazio dcgli Uberti, ein Epigone Danz‘e‘s, in 1Vcues Lausiz‘zisches J1’ agazin, lxvii., 2 ff. ; article by Renier in Giorn. di Filol. rorn., iii. J. D. M. FORD. Ucayali, oo-ka“a-yaa'leVe : a river of Peru, one of the great southern tributaries of the Amazon, and by many regarded as its true head. It is formed by the union of the hlaiitaro, Apurimac, Vileamayu. and Paucartambo, all of which rise on or near the eastern side of the western cordillera, and after flowing through the high sierra region break through the Andes in narrow cafions. The lllantaro, called in its upper course the J auja and Ancas-yacu. has its source in Lake J unin near the head-waters of the Marafion, and flows 419 at first S. E., turning abruptly N. and N. E. The Apuri- mac rises near 14° 30’ S., S. E. of Cuzco, flows N. W., and 'oins the Mantaro after cutting through the Andes. The Tilcamayu rises in the Vilcafiota cross range close to the Titicaca basin, and it receives the Paucartambo, which rises near the sources of the Madre de Dios. Collectively these rivers water the finest and most thickly settled part of Peru, and after passing the Andes all of them become navigable. In Peru the name Ucayali is given only to the united flood, which lies entirely in the lowlands and has a general north- ern course, though with many windings; the whole of it has been navigated by Tucker and others with small steam- ers, and its length is calculated at over 1,000 miles. Its course is through a forest-covered plain, and it is frequented only by rubber-gatherers and a few wild Indians; ultimately it must become the great eastern outlet of Peru. Entire length. with the Apurimac, nearly 1,500 miles. See Castel- nau, Ea;pe'dition dans les parties centrales de Z’Amérigue du Sud (vol. iv., 1851); the reports of Tucker; Ldifler, in Peter- manns fllittheilungen (1886, part i.). HERBERT H. SMITH. Uccello. o“ot-chel’l5, PAOLO : painter ; b. in Florence, Italy, in 1397. His family name was Doxo, but from his love of painting birds he was called Uccello. After prac- ticing the goldsmith’s art he became an assistant of Loren- zo Ghiberti at the time the latter was working on the doors of the baptistery at Florence. The frescoes Uccello painted in the cloisters of Sta. Maria Novella in Florence have been almost entirely eifaced by time. A colossal equestrian por- trait of Sir John Hawkwood in chiaroscuro in terra rerde is in the Duomo of Florence; also some giants in the same method in the Casa dei Vitaliani at Padua, which Vasari tells us were much admired by M antegna. Uccello was much devoted to geometry and perspective, but, according to Va- sari, the study of these branches made him “more needy than famous." D. in Florence, Dec. 11, 1475. The Louvre possesses a icture on panel by Uccello containing portraits of Giotto, on-atello, Brunelleschi, Giovanni Manetti, and himself. The National Gallery also has pictures by this master. See Gaye, Carteggio inedito d’ArZisz‘i (vol. i., p. 146) and Milanesfs edition of Vasarfs Lives of the Painters. W. J . STILLMAN. U'chean Indians: a linguistic stock of North American Indians which must have been divided into many tribes liv- ing distant from one another at an early period. but of whose tribal names none has come down to us except that of Yu- chee or Euchee. They were scattered through parts of South Carolina, Georgia. and Florida at the time of de Soto’s expe- dition, and reached Alabama not earlier than 1729. The center of their early settlements appears to have been the lower Savannah river. In bodily size they are smaller than the Creeks, but lithe, active, and wiry. In settling private disputes they are the most pugnacious of the Indians S. of the-_ Appalachian ridge, and, although members of the Creek confederacy, never were friendly to those tribes. In revenge for this the Creeks regarded them as slaves. and antagonize them even yet. Regarding their ancient customs and rites, they are more conservative than any other of the southern tribes. They attribute their origin directly to the sun; his- torically they never appear as acting in a body, but only as detached, a single tribe inhabiting a village on the lower Tallapoosa river. another on the Chattahoochee, three on Flint river and its side creeks, several on the Savannah river, on the watercourse of Southern Georgia, and on the coast tracts of South Carolina. After 1835 they removed with the Creek Indians to the Indian Territory, where they are now settled S. of the Arkansas river to the number of over 600. See Bartram. Trarels through North and South (‘aro- lina. etc. (Philadelphia, 1791, and later editions): Hawkins, A S/retch of the Creel; Counz‘rg. etc. (New York, 1848; Sa- vannah, 1848). See INDIANS or NORTE AiiERidi. J. W. PGWELL. U’ dall, l\TICI~IOLASC author and divine; b. in l-lampshire, England, in 1505 or 1506 : educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford (graduated in 1524), where he became a fellow ; wrote verses for the city of London pageant at the coronation of (337) sss UDINE Queen Anne Boleyn. May, 1533; took orders in the Church of England; was a zealous advocate of the Reformation; was master of Eton School 1534—43, where he was noted as a severe disciplinarian; published Florres for Latin Spehynge, Selected and G-at/zered out of Terence, and the same translated into Englysshe (1533); wrote several Latin and English plays to be performed by his pupils, one of which, Ralph Roister Doisler, probably produced as early as 1540, though not printed until 1565, is memorable as the earliest English comedy known to be extant. Udall was dismissed from the mastership of Eton in 1543 in conse- quence of having removed from the chapel some silver images —a proceeding for which he was charged with robbery by his Roman Catholic adversaries; was vicar of Braintree, Es- sex, 1537-44; entered the service of Queen Catharine Parr; obtained on the accession of Edward VI. the rectory of Cal- borne in the Isle of \Vight; edited, with a dedication to the Queen Dowager Catharine, The First Tome or Volume of the Paraphrase of Erasmus upon the IVew Testament (1549), translated partly by himself, partly by the Princess Mary, afterward queen, whose tutor he seems to have been; be- came canon of IVindsor 1551—56, and head master of IVest- minster School 1555, and wrote for the queen’s entertain- ment various Dialogues and I nterlades. D. at VVindsor in Dec., 1556. He was author of several schoolbooks and of some poems, and translated Latin works of Peter Martyr and‘ others. No copy of his Ralph Roister Doister was known to exist until 1818, when it was discovered and re- printed by Rev. Mr. Briggs; was again issued, with notes, by F. Marshall (1821). by Thomas White in his Old English Drama (1830), by William Durant Cooper (1847), who edited it for the Shakspeare Society, prefixing an elaborate Life of Udall, and by Arber in his series of English Reprints (1869). It was identified as the earliest English comedy (a distinction previously accorded to Gammer Gurlon’s 1Veedle) by J. Payne Collier in his IIistory of English Dramatic Poetry (1831), by means of a quotation from it found in the Arte of Logigue (1551) of Sir Thomas Wilson. The name of Udall also occurs under the forms Owdall, Dowdall, IVod- dall, Uvedale, and Vuedale. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Udine, oo’de“e-nd (anc. Vedinum): capital of the province of Udine, Northern Italy; at the foot of the Alps, 354 feet above the sea, and 25 miles from the Adriatic (see map of Italy, ref. 2—E). It is nearly circular, handsomely built, with clean and commodious streets and large squares flanked with fine porticoes. It has many forges and foundries, and manu- factures oils, matches, silk and cotton thread and tissues, dyes, leather, and furniture. The castle near the center of the city, now used for military purposes, was designed by G. Fontana, and occupies the site of a still earlier castle which was destroyed by an earthquake. The municipal palace, built in 1457, was damaged by fire in 1876, but has been re- stored, and is a very fine Gothic building, resembling the ducal palace of Venice and very rich in frescoes. The epis- copal palace has frescoes by Giovanni da Udine. The Met- ropolitana (1236), injudiciously restored, except the west front, in 1706. contains some admirable pictures, and there are many other interesting churches. The Bartoliniana Li- brary and that of the Casa di Florio are very rich. Udine first appears historically in the ninth century; was gov- erned for a time by the patriarchs of Aquileia ; was long the chief city of the duchy of Friuli, and formed an important portion of the Venetian republic when the latter fell. It is now an active center of industry and traffic. Pop. of com- mune (I893) 36,600. Revised by M. NV. HARRINGTON. Udine, GIOVANNI, da: painter; b. at Udine, Italy, Oct. 27, 1487, of a family bearing the name of Ricamatori, perhaps from their skill at embroidery. IIe studied at Venice with Giorgione; afterward went to Rome with an artist called il Morto da Feltre, who invented a new kind of grotesque decoration which Giovanni practiced also. In Rome he be- came an assistaiit to Raphael in the decoration of the loggie of the Vatican and the Sala dei Pontifici in the Vatican ; he painted the musical instrinnents in Raphael’s Santa Cecilia. He was the first to make grotesque decorations in stucco, and became famous for his graceful productions. After the sacking of Rome he wandered about in Italy, returning to his native city, whence Clement VII. called him to Rome again to paint the standards for the castle of S. Angelo. tcwarding the artist with a pension, Clement also sent him to Florence to work in the sacristy of San Lorenzo. During the time Giovanni was thus occupied the pope died, and Giovanni, disgusted with ill fortune, returned to Udine, where UGANDA he married and settled, executing works for his native city, also a chapel of Sta. Maria of Cividale. I11 the year 1550 he returned to Rome as a pilgrim, where Giorgio Vasari pro- cured for him the renewal of the pension which Clement VII. had given, as he was then in great poverty. D. in Rome in 1564. W. J. STILLMAN. Ueberweg, 'u’ber-rech, FRIEDRICH: classical scholar; b. at Solingen, Rhenish Prussia, Jan. 22, 1826; studied at Glit- tingen and Berlin. In 1861 the Vienna Academy awarded him the first prize for his treatise entitled Untersuchungen ilber die Echtheit uncl Zeitfolge Platonischer Schriften und ilhcr die IIauplmomente aus Plato’s Leben, a work which secured him a call to the chair of Philosophy at Kiinigsberg, where he died June 7, 1871. He edited the Poet/zics of‘ Aristotle with a German translation, but is chiefly noted as the author of a valuable System der Logih, and of a standard work on the History of Philosophy from Thales to the Present (3 vols., 1863; 7th ed., by M. I-Ieinze,. 1888) which, although primarily intended for students, em- bodies considerable original research. See Friedrich Ueber- /weg, by F. A. Lange (Berlin, 1871). ALFRED GUDEMAN. Ufa: government of Eastern Russia; area, 47,112 sq. miles. It extends along the rivers Ufa and Belaia, which flow to the Ural, and is to a great extent covered by branches of the Ural Mountains, but the western part is a great plain extending to the Kama river. The ground is well supplied with forests, and the rich soil is largely devoted to agri- culture, so that much grain is exported. Bee-keeping and cattle-raising are carried on, though the cattle are fewer than formerly. The climate is cold but healthful. is an important branch of industry; gold, lead, copper, and especially iron, are mined in large quantities, and of supe- rior quality. The transit trade between Europe and Asia, or rather between Nijnii-Novgorod and Bokhara, is im-- Pop. (1890) 2,039,300. Capital, Ufa. Revised by M. W. I-IARRINGTON. Ufa: capital of the government of Ufa, Eastern Russia; portant. on the Ufa, at its influx in the Belaia; 200 miles N. of Orenburg (see map of Russia, ref. 7-H). It has several good educational institutions, some manufactures, and an active trade. Pop. (1888) 28,342. Ugan'da: long famous as the most powerful native king- dom of the lake region of Central Africa; lying on the northern and western sides of Victoria Nyanza. Bordered on the E. by the Nile, its northern limit is, approximately, in the same latitude as Lake Gita. it includes about half the territory between that lake and Lake Albert Edward, being limited on the S. by the Kagera river; also the Sesse archipelago and other islands in V ic- toria Nyanza. It consists of undulating uplands, in part well timbered, and so high above the sea that the climate is fairly salubrious, though under the equator. The soil is very fertile, and the plantations are devoted chiefly to the cul- ture of the banana, plantain, maize, and yam, which form the larger part of the food-supplies, though beef, goat’s flesh, and fish are also eaten. One family has reigned in Uganda for over three hundred years, and the king, though lie has been shorn of almost all his authority by the British, who are now in possession, is still regarded with superstitious reverence by many of the peasantry. The people belong to the Bantu family of African tribes, and are much higher in intellectual development and civilization than any other Cen- tral or East Africans. They are fully clad, are skilled in brass, iron, and copper working, and were a prosperous and very numerous people when discovered by Speke (1862) and described by Stanley (1875). For a number of years after 1884 the country was greatly exhausted by desperate civil wars and by the attempt of the king, Mwanga, to extirpate Christianity by wholesale massacres. Christianity, however, has taken a firm hold upon the country, which is (1895) di- vided into three political and religious parties, the Moham- medans, Catholics, and Protestants. Peace is fairly well maintained only by means of a native military force in the service of Great Britain. The population is not over 500,000, less than half what it was at about 1875. The British Gov- ernment decided (June, 1895) to build a railway from Mom- basa, on the Indian Ocean, 800 miles away, and a preliminary survey has been made. The country is of great strategical importance, as it dominates Lake Victoria and controls the head-waters of the Nile. See Speke‘s Journal of the Dis- covery of the Source of the JV/ilc; Stanley’s T/z.ro'z/gh the Darh Clontincnf; Ashc‘s Two Ifl'Il[/8 of Uganda; and Stocks The Story of Fganda. C. C. Anxus. Mining . IV. of Victoria N yanza,. UGLITCH Uglitch' : town; in the government of Yaroslav. Russia; on the right bank of the Volga; 60 miles NV. S. \V. of the city of Yaroslav; contains many fine buildings (see map of Russia, ref. 6—E). It has extensive tanneries and some other manufactories. Pop. (1888) 14,172. Ugoli’n0 (la Siena: a name borne by four painters, na- tives of Sienna, living in the fourteenth century. Vasari tells us that one of them was an intimate friend of Stefano Fiorentino (nephew and pupil of Giotto). This Ugolino was much employed in Italy. He retained the Byzantine style, and followed Cimabue rather than Giotto; he is said to have painted the high altarpiece in Santa Croce of Flor- ence, and other works there, also the altar-piece in Santa Maria Maggiore, and a Madonna in Or San Michele. Only the first mentioned of these works exists, and that one only in part and not in its original place, nor all its parts to- gether. Two pictures in the National Gallery in London are supposed to be parts of its predella. See Vasari (Mil- anesi’s edition, vol. i.); Catalogue of the National Gallery, London (1889). W. J . STILLMAN. U'g1‘ianS: common name for a Finnish stock inhabiting parts of the government of Tobolsk, Siberia. They speak a primitive Finnic dialect, much mixed, however, with Tartar elements, and occupy a very low stage of civilization. They are nominally Christians. but their religion is really a mix- ture of Christianity and Shamanism. They are nomads, and hunting and fishing are their chief occupations. Uhehe. oo-ha’ha: a warlike tribe of Africans occupying a considerable area between lat. 7° and 9° S. and lon. 35° and 37° E., on the middle Rueha and upper Uranga rivers. In 1891 they defeated with considerable loss of life a German expedition under Lieut. von Zalewski. and in 1892 sacked the German trading-station of Mpuapua, in the Usagara country, 50 miles N. of their usual limits. M. W H Uhland, oo'la‘-‘ant, LUDWIG: poet and scholar; b. at Tubin- gen, Germany, Apr. 26, 1787; studied law at the university of his native city; went to Paris in 1810 for the purpose of studying Old French and Old German manuscripts: practiced law in Stuttgart 1812-30; was elected to the Wiirtemberg assembly in 1819; was appointed Professor of the German Language and Literature at Tiibingeu in 1830, but resigned in 1833; became a member of the national assembly of Frankfort-on-the-Main 1848 ; retired to private life; d. Nov. 13, 1862. Among the great lyric poets of Germany in the nineteenth century Uhland takes a foremost place. At the beginning of his poetic career he was deeply influenced by the romantic school, but he kept himself free from the fantastic extravagances of this school. VVhile the latter looked upon the Middle Ages with a vague enthusiasm and an undue overestimation, Uhland’s love for mediaeval Ger- man life and poetry resulted from an intimate knowledge of both, which was based upon thorough studies. \Vhen- ever he, therefore, undertakes to revive the German an- tiquity in his poetry, his productions bear the stamp of truthfulness, besides being the works of a great poet schooled in the art of Goethe. Most of his lyric poetry can be compared only with Goethe’s songs and the best of the Volkslied, and so perfectly did he know how to reproduce the spirit of the latter that many of his poems became folk-songs. As a writer of ballads he has few equals in German literature. But while these ballads, which are classic specimens of their kind, are full of dramatic power, his dramas, .Herzog Ernst (1818) and Lurlzvig der Bayer (1819), though highly poetical in many passages. are lacking the true dramatic effect. During the latter part of his life Uhland devoted himself exclusively to scientific research in the fields of literature and mythology, and the results of his investigations are collected in the Sc7m'fz‘e/a 2202' Ge- sohichte der Dz'0Mang 11-ml Sage, published after his death (8 vols.,1865—72). Among these the essay Ueber das ali- f/1'a'2tz(')'s'L'sc7Le.E',1)0s (1812), the excellent biography of Walther von der V ogelweide (1822), the treatise Ueber den 111,2/time von Thor (1836). and the classical collection Aife hoch- zmcl m'ederde/atso/zc VoZ7.:sZz'ede'r (1844) may be mentioned espe- cially. Equally great as a poet and scholar, Uhland also played a conspicuous and noble part in politics. and his ac- tivity in the latter field shows the same devotion, simplicity, and manliness which characterize his entire career. See Fr. Vischer, Kr’2Tt;1Isc7z.e (:7~c'l32z;(/0. iv., 97; H. v. Treitschke, I-I1Ts1fo7'1Ische qmd y)0Z1.'z"1,'sc71.e Aaflséifze ; O. J alm, LacZm‘g Uh- Zand (Bonn, 1863); F. N otter, Ladwz“g U/zlami (Stuttgart, 1863); .L/adzuig Z/Vzhmds Leben, /von se/z'ner l/l"z'I‘z‘2('e (Stutt- gart, 1874); H. Fischer, Ludwz'g Uhland (1887); Dederich, UKRAINE 339 U7zZancZ als Dichter and Pafrz'ot (Gotha, 1886); E. Paulus, lmclwig Uhland and s-cine Heimazf (Tiibingen, 1887). JULIUS GOEBEL. Uhrich, J EAN JACQUES ALEXIS: general; b. at Pfalzburg, Lorraine, then in France, Feb. 15, 1802; educated at the Military Academy of St.-Cyr, France; served in the cam- paign of 1823 in Spain; afterward in Africa; attained the rank of brigadier-general in 1852; served with distinction in the Crimean war, where he became general of division, and in Italy in 1859; became grand oificer of the Legion of Honor in 1862; transferred to the reserve in 1867 ; resumed active service at beginning of war between France and Germany, and commanded at Strassburg. This important strategic point was ill fortified, and held but a small garri- son. In Aug., 1870, it was invested by the Germans, who, upon Uhrich‘s refusal to surrender, began a destructive bombardment, in the course of which 200.000 projectiles were thrown against the city. Uhrich‘s brave resistance lasted till Sept. 27. 187 0, when, convinced of its uselessness, he surrendered. For his services he was rewarded with the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor. He is the author of Documents ’/'eZatz?fs au Siege dc b‘z‘rasbo/2/Jrg (1872). D. at Passy, France, Oct. 9, 1886. Uhrichsville: city (founded under the name of “Tater- ford in 1833, name changed to its present one in 1839): Tus- carawas co., O.; on the Stillwater creek, and the Cleve., Lorain and IVheel., and the Pitts., Cin., Chi.. and St. L. railways; 99 miles N. E. of Columbus. and 101 miles S. of Cleveland (for location, see map of Ohio. ref. 4-H). It is in an agricultural and wool-growing region. and contains 6 churches, several public schools, electric street-railway, 2 private banks, 2 weekly newspapers, and manufactories of sewer-pipe, drain-tile, and fire-brick. The village of Dun- nison adjoining is a separate corporation. but the two places practically form one city, with a local and suburban po u- lation of 8.000 to 10,000. Pop. (1880) 2,790; (1890) 3,842; (1895) estimated with suburbs, 5,000. EDITOR or “ Tuscmmwxs CHRONICLE.” Uist, wist, North and South: two islands of the Outer Hebrides, belonging to Scotland. North Uist is 18 miles long and from 3 to 13 miles broad, with 3,371 inhabitants. South Uist is 20 miles long and 7 miles bread. with 3.825 inhabitants. Both islands are high and rocky. and ill suited for agriculture; fishing is the principal business. Ujiji, oo-jee'je“e : a place in Africa. consisting of a number of mud huts, and situated on the shore of Lake Tanganyika, in a district of the same name, in lat. 4° 58' S., lon. 30° 4' E. (see map of Africa. ref. 6—F). It became noted as the point where Stanley met Livingstone on Nov. 10, 1871. Ujina: a port situated in the inland sea of Japan. close to the city of HIROSHDIA (q. 1*.) and to the naval station of Kure, where is located the Imperial Naval College. removed thither in 1890 from Tokio (see map of Japan. ref. 7—B). The port admits the largest vessels. and was the center of naval activity in the war with China in 1894-95. The court moved westward in the summer of 1894 to Hiroshima. as a safer and more convenient locality for directing warlike operations. J . M. D1xoN. Ukerewe. oo-ke”er-yu’ : native name for the great African lake called VICTORIA NYANZA (Q. 22). Uki’ah: city (founded in 1857); capital of Mendocino co., Cal.; on the Russian river. and the San Fran. and N. Pac. Railway: 121 miles N. I/V. of San Francisco (for location, see map of California, ref. 5—E). It has a picturesque loca- tion; contains 3 public schools. a State bank with capital of $250000, a private bank, the Sacred Heart Convent of Mercy. and 2 weekly newspapers: and is engaged in agriculture. fruit. hop. and wool growing, lumbering. and stock-raising. Pop. (1880) 933; (1890) 1.627: (1895) estimated. 2,300. Enrroa or “REPUBLICAN Pauss." U’ kraine (the frontier-land) : the name commonly given to that easternmost portion of Poland which. extending on both sides of the Dnieper along its middle course. and con- quered by the Poles in 1320. formed the frontier of the Polish empire against. the Tartars; it hardly ever signified a polit- ical division with precisely defined boundaries. but it soon became a matter of contention between Russia and Poland. In 1654 ten Cossack tribes settled on the eastern bank of the Dnieper, fell away from the Polish crown. and surrendered themselves to Russian authority. By the Treaty of Andrus- sow (1667). and finally by the Peace of Grzymultowsk (1686). this territory was ceded by the Poles and annexed to Russia 3&0 ULCER under the name of Russian Ukraine. or Little Russia. The rest of the country. situated on the western bank of the Dnieper, remained with Poland, under the name of Polish Ukraine, until the second division of Poland. when Russia took the whole and divided it into various govermnents. ' Revised by l\I. W. HARRlNG'l‘ON. Ulcer [from Fr. uleere < Lat. ul'cus, ulcerts, sore, ulcer; cf. Gr. ‘e'Mcos, wound, sore, ulcer]: a localized disintegration on one of the external or internal surfaces. Two processes are concerned in ulceration : the molecular death of part of the surface involved, and inflammatory conditions at the base and sides. The causes of ulceration are those of in- flammation, with an added element of poor reaction on the part of the tissue involved. Local injuries, as by pressure, foreign bodies, as splinters and the like, are the immediate exciting cause in external ulcers. Internally, as in ulcers of the mouth, stomach, or intestines, the immediate exciting cause is either injury by foreign bodies or by micro-organ- isms and decomposed secretions or other contents. To make the exciting causes spoken of operative to the production of an ulcer, diminution in the resisting power or reparative ac- tivity of the tissues is necessary. This explains the occur- rence of ulcers on the lower extremities in old people when the veins are varicosed and the circulation therefore slug- gish: in the rectum in case of l1tBl110l‘l’l10l(lS; in anaemic, debilitated, or syphilitic subjects; in parts of the body ex- posed to constant wetting; and in tissues where the nerve tone is lowered, as in paralyzed parts. The appearance of ulcers varies greatly in different cases. In general there is an irregular excavation, with a base cov- ered with pus and showing small red elevations, the inflam- matory granulations by which nature repairs the injury. Ac- cording to the variations from this general appearance and from the greater or less tendency to heal there are described: (1) Indolent ulcers, in which the base and edges are hard and healing is very slow; they are common on the legs of old people; (2) e'rrttable ulcers, which are painful and bleed easily; (3) inflcmned ulcers, in which from irritation active inflammation is evident; (4) sloughtng ulcers; (5) serptgt- nous ulcers, in which there is a tendency to spread in a ser- pentine fashion; (6) ])hugetlem't'c ulcers, in which great tis- sue destruction occurs; (7) oedemutous ulcers, which are moist and boggy; and (8) fungatt'ng] ulcers, in which the granulations in the floor of the ulcer grow excessively. Other terms, such as 8])60/LI/i6, epttlz.eltomutous, and the like, are in use, but do 11ot belong to the anatomical classifica- tion given above. There are certain parts of the body specially liable to ul- cer formation. Such are the lower part of the legs, the mouth, the stomach, the intestines (especially in typhoid fever and in tuberculosis), and the rectum. The tendency of ulcers is to get well spontaneously. Na- ture is best assisted by cleanliness of the part, local or gen- eral tonic remedies to build up the reparative power, and stimulating applications to the ulcer, strapping, or incision when there is a tendency to indolence. WILLIAM PEPPER. Ulema, oo-le-1na‘a’ [Arab., wise]: a plural term in Mus- sulman countries including all persons learned in religious law. Till 1846 the ulema controlled all Mussulman educa- tion in Turkey. From them are chosen the cadis, mollahs, and imams. E. A. G. Ulex: scientific name of Foazn (q. u). Ulfeldt, LEoNoRA CHRISTINA: prose-writer; b. at the palace of Frederiksborg, Denmark, July 18, 1621. She was a daughter of Christian IV. and Kirstine Munk, and was married in 1636 to Korfitz Ulfeldt, one of the most power- ful ol' the Danish nobility. On the conviction, in 1663, of her husband of high treason, she fell a victim to the jealousy of the queen, Sophie Amalie, and was confined in the Blue Tower in Copenhagen until the death of the queen in 1685. During her imprisonment she wrote an account of her suf- ferings, Jmnmers Mtnde (The Memory of Grief),'first pub- lished in 1869 by S. Birket Smith, who calls it “the most important Danish prose work of the seventeenth century.” D. at Maribo cloister, Mar. 26, 1698. D. K. Donen. Ulfilas: See Gornic LANGUAGE. Uliasu'tai, or Uljassutai : an important commercial sta- tion of Mongolia, in lat. 48° 22’ N., lon. 97° E., on the line between the Russian frontier and Si-ngan-foo, capital of the Chinese province of Shensi, and principal dépdt for all goods destined for the markets of Central Asia (see map of China, ref. 1-F). It consists of a civil and a military quarter, the ULM latter occupied by the Chinese garrison, the former by in- habitants who are partly Chinese and partly Mongolian. The Mongolian nomads who visit the city during the fair live in tents. Revised by M. I/V. HARRING'1‘ON. Ulllnalin. KARL: theologian; b. at Epfenbach, Palati- nate, Mar. 15, 1796; studied theology at Heidelberg, T i1bin- gen, and Berlin; lived in friendly intercourse with Hegel and Daub; afterward with Schleiermacher and Neander; was appointed Professor of Theology at Heidelberg in 1821; founded in 1828, together with Umbreit, the Theologtsche S’tude'en und Krrfihen, which is still the principal represent- ative of that school of German theology which believes in, and tries to work out, a complete reconciliation between Christianity and the modern culture; went as professor to Halle in 1829, but returned to Heidelberg in 1836; was made president of the chief ecclesiastical council of Baden in 1856, but resigned this oflice in 1861, and retired into private life. His principal writings are Gregory ofNdztunz'us (Darmstadt, 1825; 2d. ed. 1867; Eng. trans., London, 1851); I-Itstore'sch oder mg/t/n'sch .9 (Hamburg, 1838; directed against Strauss); The Worslttp of Genius (Hamburg, 1840; translated into English 1846); Reformers before the Reformcdton (2 vols., 1841; translated into English by Robert Menzies, Edin- burgh, 2 vols., 1855); Apologettc Vtew of the S/tnless Char- acter of Jesus (Jena, 1828; Eng. trans., Edinburgh. 1841; from 7th ed. [1863] 1870); The Essence of Oltrris/zlun/tty (Gotha, 1845: 4th ed. 1854; Eng. trans., London, 1860). See his Ltfe, by W. Beyschlag (Gotha, 1866). D. at Carlsruhe, Jan. 12, 1865. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Ulloa, ool-y5’a‘.a, ANToN1o, de: naval officer and scientist; b. at Seville, Spain, Jan. 12, 1716. He early entered the navy, and in 1735 was appointed, with Jorge Juan, to ac- company the French scientific expedition to Peru. (Sec LA CONDAMINE.) During a residence of nine years in that country, Ulloa and Juan made extensive surveys, and stud- ied the history and social condition of the people. A secret report which they sent to the Spanish Government was pub- lished in English in 1826. It is of great historical impor- tanee, especially in showing many of the abuses which sub- sequently led to the revolution. Returning to Europe at the end of 1744, Ulloa was captured by a British cruiser, but was soon released. In 1748 he published, with Juan, Relact6n 7L'l8l67"lCCt del otaiyie (2 la Ante'rt'cu mere'd't0ndl, which has been translated into various languages, and is widely known. A second work relating to the expedition, Nottctas Amer’1.'cunc(.s, appeared in 1772. Ulloa became a leader of science in Spain, and founded the first metallurgical labo- ratory in the country, and the observatory at Cadiz. He was intrusted with several important oflices, for which, however, he showed little aptitude. In 1766-68 he was governor of Louisiana. D. near Cadiz, July 3. 1795. H. H. S Ulloa, FaANoIsco, de: navigator; b. in Spain about 1485. He was with Cortés in Mexico, and in July, 1539, was placed in command of three vessels which left Acapulco to explore the Gulf of California. One ship was wrecked; with the others he penetrated to the head of the gulf, and, returning, coasted the western side of the peninsula of California, which had been supposed to be an island. The extant ac- counts of this voyage are confused and somewhat contra- dictory, but it is certain that Ulloa proved the peninsular form of Lower California. It is stated that he perished in a shipwreck, but another account says that he returned to Acapulco, and was murdered there soon after. H. H. S. Ulloa y Pereira, -ee-pd-I'a'e“e-1'a“a, LUIS, de: poet; b. at Toro, Leon, Spain, in 1590; was a magistrate, but devoted himself also to literature. producing lyrical poems and sev- eral prose treatises. D. 1660. He is sometimes subject to the faults of the school of Gongora. Rachel, the best-known of his poems, treats the love-episode of Alfonso VIII. and a beautiful J ewess of Toledo. One of his prose pieces is a dis- course in defense of the comedy (1659), at that time assailed by the clergy. See the Obras de J). Luis de Ulloa : Prosa.'s 3/ Verses (2d ed. Madrid, 1674). J . D. M. Foan. Ulm: city; in the kingdom of \Viirtemberg, Germany; at the influx of the Blau into the Danube, which here be- comes navigable (see map of German Empire, ref. 7-E). It is 58 miles S. E. of Stuttgart, is fortified, and is a place of much interest to the tourist, on account of its many fine old buildings. Its cathedral (Protestant), begun in 1377 and carried on till 1494, then left unfinished till 1844, was com- pleted in 1890. It is a magnificent edifice in Gothic style, 455 feet long, 186 feet broad, and 134 feet high, and contains ULMACEZE the largest organ in Germany. The open-work spire is the highest in the world (530 feet). The town has a great vari- ety of manufactures, of which no single branch, however, is extensively developed, although its sweet bread is famous. On Oct. 17, 1805, Gen. Mack, at the head of an Austrian army of 30,000 men, here capitulated to Napoleon. Pop. (1890) 36,191. Ulma’ceae: See NETTLEWORTS and ELM. Ulmic Acid and Ulmin : See Hones. Ulna: See ARM, OSTEOLOGY, and SKELETON. Ulphilas, or Ulfilas: See GOTHIO LANGUAGE. Ulpia' nus, DOMITIUS: jurist, of Tyrian origin; b. about 170 A. D.; entered public life in Rome under Septimius Severus; obtained the greatest reputation as a jurist, and held various judicial offices under Septimius Severus and Caracalla; lost his influence and his offices under Elagaba- lus, but came again into power after the accession of Alex- ander Severus, but incurring the enmity of the pretorian guard, he was murdered by them in 228. Of his writings, which were very numerous and extensive, only fragments exist, but about one-third of the Digest of Justinian con- sists of excerpts from his books. The Tituli ea: Corpore Ulpiani, generally called Fragmenta Ulpiani, was edited by Hugo (1834) and by Bticking (1845). Revised by G. L. HENDRICKSON. Ulric, SAINT: bishop; b. at Augsburg about 890: d. July 4, 973. He came of noble parents, and having become a monk was in the line of promotion to the episcopacy, to which he attained in 923. As was customary, he combined worldly pomp with spiritual authority and acts of piety. He stirred up the people to a great fight by which they repelled the Magyars in 955.‘ This caused him to be held in grateful es- teem. He dispensed alms lavishly. built churches and mon- asteries, and did much to beautify Augsburg. He was very devout, and exerted strict discipline over his priests. He was particularly given to the worship of relics, and made long journeys to secure them. He resigned his see shortly before his death and died as a Benedictine monk. His re- tirement was considered a sin by the Council of Ingelheim (972). He enjoyed repute for holiness while he lived, and his first biographer, Gerhard, does not hesitate to ascribe miraculous power to him. Miraculous cures were wrought on his grave. His successor, on the strength of these state- ments, claimed that the whole Christian world should honor him. In Feb., 993, Pope John XV. issued a bull laying such an obligation upon Christendom—-interesting as the first in- stance of a papal command raising a local saint into the company of saints of the Roman Catholic Church. Several writings have been falsely attributed to Ulric, particularly a memorable rejoinder to the decree of a certain Pope Nich- olas, who sought to enforce sacerdotal celibacy, which the author contends was going beyond Scripture. This was pub- lished by Flacius in his Catalogus testium yeritatis, qui ante nostrazn cetatem reclamarunt Papae (Basel, 1556); best by Martene and Durand, Amplissima collectio, pp. 449-454, and translated An epistel of moche learning, sent by saint flut- dericus, Bisshoppe of Augusta, called Augsburgh, unto lVic- olas, Bysshoppe of Rome, the fyrst of that name: against the unmaried chastitie of pryestes (London, 1550). But there was no pope of that name in the tenth century. For his biography, see \Vaitz, edition of Gerhard‘s biography in 1l1'onumeuta .' Scriptores I V., pp. 377, seg. “ SAMUEL MAOAULEY J AcKsoN. Ul1'i' ci, HERMANN : philosopher : b. at Pl'Orten, Branden- burg, Mar. 23, 1806; studied law at Halle and Berlin, but devoted himself after 1829 exclusively to the study of phi- losophy, and was appointed Professor of Philosophy at the University of Halle in 1834. He wrote Ueber Princip and ll/Iethode der Ifegelschen Philosophie (1841) ; Grwndprtneip der Philosophie (2 vols., 1845-46) ; System der Logil; (1852) ; Glaubcn and lVissen (1858); Got-t and die iVatur (1862); Gott und der Jlfensch (1866; 2d ed. 1874); Der Philosoph Strauss (1873; translated by C. P. Krauth. 1874); Ueber S/z.al:espeare’s dramatische K/unst (1839 ; 3d ed. 1868 : trans- lated into English by A. J . VV. Morrison, London, 1846). D. at Halle, Jan. 11, 1884. Revised by J . M. BALDWIN. Ulster: the northernmost of the four provinces into which Ireland is divided ; borders N. and W. on the Atlan- tic and E. on the North Channel and the Irisl1 Sea; area 8,613 sq. miles. The surface is greatly diversified; the west part is mountainous. some summits being over 2,000 feet high. The province contains the large loughs N eagh, Strangford, ULTRA vIREs 341 and Erne. Pop. (1891) 1,619,814, of whom more than half are Protestants. Ultramarine [from Lat. ul'tra ma're, beyond the sea. So called because originally brought from Asia; cf. Span. ultramarino] : a blue pigment formerly obtained from lapis lazuli, a mineral containing silica, alumina, soda. lime, sul- phuric acid, a little sulphur and iron, with a very little chlo- rine and water. It is found in Siberia. Transylvania, Persia, China, Tibet, Tartary, and the East Indies, and furnishes a beautiful and very durable pigment. The analysis of lapis lazuli led to the production of artificial ultramarine. a prize of 6,000 francs being offered in 1824 by the Société d’En- couragement of Paris for this purpose. It was awarded i11 1828 to Guimet of Toulouse, who first produced it 011 a large scale, although Gmelin had shortly before made it by a process essentially the same as that now followed. YVa-gner (Chemical Technology) gives the following classification of the different methods followed: The sulphate or Glauberls salt ultramarine is prepared by intimately mixing 100 parts of dried kaolin, 83 to 100 parts of calcined Glauber’s salt, and 17 of charcoal, or else 100 of kaolin, 41 of Glauber’s salt, 41 of calcined soda. 17 of charcoal, and 13 of sulphur, and heating the mixture very strongly for seven to ten hours in fire-clay crucibles. The contents are then re- peatedly treated with water, pulverized, washed, dried, ground, and sifted, furnishing green ultramartne, ready for the market. (See CHROMIUM.) To convert it into blue ultra- marine about 4 per cent. of sulphur is mixed with it, the whole roasted at a low temperature, with access of air, and this treatment repeated until the desired blue color is pro- duced. The blue product is pulverized, washed, dried, and separated into different qualities. Soda ultramarine is either made with a mixture of soda and sulphate or with soda alone, as in the following mixture: kaolin 100. soda 100, charcoal 12, sulphur 60. The ignition is best performed in a reverberatory furnace, and the conversion into blue ultramarine in a large muffle, with addition of sulphur, the product being finer than the former. By increasing, within certain limits, the quantities of soda and sulphur, blue ultra- marine may be at once obtained. Silica ultranzarine is soda ultramarine prepared with kaolin which has received an addition of 5 to 10 per cent. of silica. It is at once ob- tained by calcination as blue ultramarine, withstands the action of alum. and has a violet tint. Ultramarine is decomposed by the mineral acids, even dilute, with evolution of hydrogen sulphide. The natural ultramarine is far more durable, but the artificial is now very extensively employed as a pigment for calico- rinting, coloring paper and cotton fabrics, and various ot ier pur- poses for which smalt was formerly used. It should not be used for coloring candies. Sometimes it is mixed with chalk, kaolin, and barytes to make the tints lighter. Cobalt ultramarine is Thénard‘s blue. (See COBALT.) Yellow ultra- marine is a name sometimes applied to barium chromate. Ultramarine ashes is a pale residue obtained in the prepa- ration of native ultramarine. Ultramarine is largely manu- factured in Germany, France, Belgium, and to some extent in England. Its manufacture is an important industry in the U. S., and according to the Jllineral Resources of the United States for 1893 113,647 tons were produced in that year. Revised by IRA REMsEN. Ultramon’tanism [from Late Lat. ultramonta/n-us, ultra- montane; ultra, beyond + mon’tes. mountains (i. e. the Alps), viz., generally in relation to France] : in the Roman Catholic Church the principles and tendency of those who desire rather to increase than to minimize the authority and power of the pope. The opposite tendency is known as Gallieanism. Not unfrequently, in the ardor of recent dis- cussions, the genuine teachings of the Catholic Church have been classed as Ultramontanism. JOHN J . KEANE. Ultra Vi’ res [Lat., beyond the powers] : a term applied to the contract of a corporation when it is beyond the pow- ers conferred upon this artificial person by its charter and the general laws applicable thereto. The term is quite mod- ern, having been introduced by Baron Bramwell as counsel in East Angliau R. Co. vs. Eastern Counties R. Co.. 11 Common Bench 775, in 1851. Since its adoption it has been employed in a variety of senses. It has been applied to authorized acts which the corporation has performed in an unauthorized manner. It has been applied also to acts within the power of the corporation, but not within the authority of the olllcers or agents who have done them. Still again it has been applied to positively illegal acts of ULUGH BEG corporations. The tendency of recent decisions, however, is to limit the term to the signification stated at the open- ing of this article. Ultra Vires Contracts.—The general rule is that they are not enforceable. This rests upon three reasons: 1. The interest of-the public that the corporation shall not trans- cend the powers granted. 2. The interest of the stockhold- ers that the capital shall not be subjected to the risk of enterprises not contemplated by the charter, and therefore not authorized by the stockholders in subscribing for the stock. 3. The obligation of every one, entering into a con- tract with the corporation, to take notice of the legal limits of its powers. (Railway Cos. vs. Ifeolml»; Bridge Co., 131 U. S. 371.) So long as an ultra vires contract remains ex- ccutory on both sides, neither party can maintain an action for its enforcement nor for damages for its breach. If it has been executed by one party, its ultra vires character is still a defense to the other, provided the latter has not re- ceived and retained the benefit of its performance. For example, a savings-bank gives an order to a broker for the purchase and sale of cotton futures. The broker buys, sustains a loss, and sues the bank for his commissions and loss. Ultra vires is a good defense. (Jemison vs. Bank, 122 N. Y. 135.) Had the bank received and retained the cotton, a different question would have been presented. In such a case, according to some authorities, the bank would have been liable on the contract, on the ground of ESTOPPEL (q. v.). “The basis upon which the enforcement of the con- tract in such cases rests is that the company is estopped from setting up its own unauthorized act, and its own incapacity to evade performance on its part after receiv- ing the fruits of the bargain.” (Camden, ete., R. Co. vs. Jlfays Landing R. Co., 48 N. J. L. 530, 568.) According to other authorities, the bank would not have been liable on the contract, but would have been subject to a quasi-con- tractual obligation. This seems to be the better view. It was clearly and forcibly stated in Central Transportation Co. vs. Pullman’s Car Co. (139 U. S. 24). “A contract ultra vires being unlawful and void, not because it is in itself im- moral, but because the corporation by the law of its crea- tion is incapable of making it, the courts, while refusing to maintain any action upon the unlawful contract, have al- ways striven to do justice between the parties . . . In such case, however, the action is not maintained upon the unlaw- ful contract, nor according to its terms, but on an implied contract of the defendant to return, or, failing to do that, to make compensation for property or money which it has no right to retain.” See Keener, Quasi Contracts, p. 272. Torts committed by corporations are not within the doc- trine of ultra vires. The U. S. Supreme Court has declared that it has been found necessary to hold corporations re- sponsible for torts or quasi-criminal acts not strictly within their corporate authority, when done in their corporate name, and by ofiicers competent to exercise corporate pow- ers. (Salt Lake City vs. Ifollister, 118 U. S. 256.) To per- mit the defense of ultra vires in such cases would be equiva- lent to a license to corporations to indulge in unlimited wrongdoing. testraining Ultra Vires Acts.—Suits for this purpose may be brought by stockholders or creditors. In some jurisdic- tions such suits may be instituted by the State, but in the absence of statutory authority therefor they will not be sustained unless some plain and sufficient public mischief be shown as a warrant for State interference. (Attorney- General vs. Railway, 11 Chancery Div. 449.) Ultra vires acts may be so deliberate and flagrant as to justify a for- feiture of the charter by the State. (People vs. North River Sugar Refining Company, 121 N. Y. 582.) For a full dis- cussion of this subject, the reader is referred to Green’s edi- tion of Brice‘s Ultra Vires. FRANCIS M. BURDICK. Ulugh (oo'loog) Beg: ruler and astronomer; b. in 1394; a grandson of Timur. Ile succeeded his father on the im- perial throne of Persia in 1447, but was put to death in 1449 by his own son. lle founded the observatory at Samarkand, encouraged the study of astronomy, wasa diligent and accu- rate observer himself, and wrote several astronomical works in Arabic, which have been translated into Persian: into Latin by Greavcs (London, 1650-52) and by Thomas I-Iyde (Oxford, 1665); into French by L. A. Sédillot (1846-53). An edition of his catalogue of stars appeared in the 1lIemoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xiii (1843). Ul’verst0ne: town; in Lancashire, England; on More- cambe Bay; 8 miles N. E. of Barrow-in-Furness (see map of UMBRELLA-BI RD England, ref. 5-F). It manufactures different kinds of coarse woolen and linen fabrics, and exports considerable quantities of pig iron, bar iron, iron ore, limestone, and slate. Pop. (1891) 9,948. U’ lybuschew, or Oulibicheff (Ulybuschcw is the German mode of spelling the name), ALEXANDER DMITRIWICH, von: musical critic; b. in 1795 in Dresden, where his father was Russian ambassador; descended from a Tartar family; studied at various German universities; served in the Rus- sian army and subsequently entered the ministry of foreign affairs, but resigned his position in 1831 and lived on his estates near Nijnii Novgorod, devoting himself to the study of music. He wrote Nouvelle Biographie dc Mbzart (3 vols., Moscow, 1844) and Beethoven, ses Critiques et ses Glossa- teurs (Leipzig and Paris, 1857), both of which were trans- lated into English. The latter was in reply to Lenz, who had attacked Ulybuschew for depreciating Beethoven. In Russian he wrote a great number of musical essays and criticisms in various periodicals. which exercised a great influence on the development of musical taste in Russia. D. at his residence J an. 24, 1858. Revised by HENRY BALDWIN. Ulysses, or Ulixes: See Onrsseus. Umatil’la River : a stream which rises in the Blue Moun- tains of Oregon, fiows VV. and N. \V., and empties into the Columbia river at Umatilla, on the boundary between Ore- gon Rnd VVashington ; length about 150 miles. Umba'g0g‘, Lake: a body of water lying chiefly in the town of Errol, Coos co., N. H., but extending into Oxford co., Me., and there connecting with the most southerly of the Rangeley lakes. It is about 9 miles long and from 1 to 2 miles wide. It is in a wild and beautiful region, and owing to its fine trout is a famous resort in summer for fishermen, Umbel’lifers. or Umbe1lif’eree [umbelliferce is Mod. Lat. ; Lat. umbel’la, umbrella + fer’re, bear, produce; named in allusion to the shape of the umbels or clusters of flowers and fruit] : a family of 1,400 species of dicotyledonous herbs, or rarely shrubs, abounding in both hemispheres, chiefly in cool regions. Most have hollow striated stems, and flowers in umbels, but these are not perfectly constant characters. Various as these plants are in aspect, it is diificult to define accurately their generic and specific distinctions. Among its useful plants are the carrot, parsnip, skirret, chervil, fen- nel, caraway, dill, coriander, anise, parsley, and celery. Some are useful in medicine, m any being active poisons——the medi- cines conium, cicuta, assafoetida, ammoniac, galbanum, etc. Revised by CHARLES E. BEssEY. Umber [from Fr. ombre, short for terre d’ombre, transl. of Ital. terra di ombra, liter., shadow earth ; terra, earth + di, of + ombra, shadow]: a mineral pigment formerly ob- tained from Umbria in Italy, but at present chiefly import- ed from the island of Cyprus. Small quantities of umber are found in the U. S., chiefly in Pennsylvania. Its compo- sition is : Silica, 13 per cent. ; alumina, 5 per cent.; iron ox- ide, 48 per cent.; manganese oxide, 20 per cent.; water, 14 per cent.; being essentiallyr a siliceous brown hematite. It forms brown or yellowish-brown masses, possessing a hard- ness of 1'5 to 2'5 and a specific gravity of 22; adheres to the tongue; shines when rubbed, and dissolves to some ex- tent in hot hydrochloric acid, the solution giving the reac- tion of iron. When gently heated, water is expelled, and a dark-brown pigment termed raw umber is formed: at.a higher temperature it is completely dehydrated, and con- verted into a soft red-brown modification known as burnt umber. The dark colors of these pigments depend upon the manganese. They are extensively used as oil and water-color pigments, and are often mixed with other colors. Umber, or Umbre: the Scopus umbretta, a bird of the heron family, better known as SHADOW-BIRD (g. v.). Umberto I. : Italian form for IIUMBERT I. (q. v.). Umbreit, oom’brit, FRIEDRICH WILI-IELII KARL: theolo- gian; b. at Sonneborn, Saxe-Gotha, Apr.11, 1795; studied theology at Géittingen, and in 1820 was appointed Professor of Theology and Philosophy at Heidelberg, where he died Apr. 26. 1860. In connection with Ullmann he founded the Theologische Studien und Kritihen (1828); author of Nom- mentar ilber die Spritche Salomos (1826), and Ifommentar itber die Propheten des alten Testaments (4 vols., 1841-46). Umbrella-bird : a name given to certain o:f the cotingas (Cotingidce) belonging to the genus Cephalopterus, because they bear a large, recurved crest which seems to shade the UMBRELLAS AND PARASOLS head like an umbrella. The most familiar species, Cepha- lopferus omazfas, has a long feathered wattle hanging from the lower part of the neck. It is nearly the size of a at I '3 - ~ ; .. 7///}2/'////.’;/////- ' The umbrella-bird. crew and of ablue-black color. It inhabits the forests of Northern and Eastern South America. F. A. L. Umbrellas and Parasols [umbrella is Lat. form of Ital. omlwella : Fr. omb/relle : Rouman. 'u,ml2're' < Lat. *umbreZla, dimin. of ambm. shade: ]9(67’6Z80lS is from Fr. pcvrasol : Ital. jaamsolc < Lat._pama’rc, prepare (in Romance langs., be ready, ward olf)+sol, sun] : portable shades or canopies, capable of being folded ; intended as shields against rain or sun. The umbrella is of ancient origin. The Egyptian and Ninevite sculptures, of the earliest dates, have representations of it, but only in connection with royalty. The umbrella was spread like a halo over the head of the monarch, whether in a chariot or in open-air feasts. The Chinese adopted it at an early period of their history, and were the only people who did not confine its use to the king and princes. VVith them, the man who was privileged to bear an umbrella was one of wealth and high position. The Japanese have used the um- brella ever since they established themselves in their island empire. The use of the umbrella or parasol is universal throughout India, but in Burma and Siam it is a mark of rank. In Burma the umbrellas of the king were of white silk, and no other person was allowed to carry a white one. In some of the Hindu sculptures Vishnu is represented as visit- ing the infernal regions with an umbrella spread above his head. In Greece the umbrella or parasol was much used by women of rank, and there are allusions to it in the Greek poets. In Rome its use was confined to women and efiemi- nate men who used it as a protection from the sun, and it was made substantially like those of the present. Thence it extended to the countries of Southern Europe and Northern Africa. In the Middle Ages its use among women was less common, but it was all emblem of rank in the Church. All the large churches, especially cathedral churches, owned an umbrella to be used in processions. The umbrella was intro- duced into England as early as the fourteenth century. The parasol came into use in France and England, probably from China, about the middle of the seventeenth century. The forms and the material indicate its Chinese origin, though it was used in Italy nearly seventy-five years earlier. In Eng- land it was carried by women as a protection from both the rain and the sun as early as 1700. Jonas Hanway, an eccen- tric traveler and philanthropist, is believed to have been the first man of note who carried one in the streets, and he en- countered much ridicule for doing so. The umbrella in use at this time was made of oiled muslin or silk, sometimes of a tough oiled paper, and rarely, as in Hanway‘s case. of silk. It was generally very heavy. Improvements in its con- struction have made it light and graceful, and it is now universally used. Besides its hand-service, it is used for express-wagons, omnibuses, and carriages, where it takes the place of the leather carriage-top. Modifications of it are the parachute and the umbrella-tent. UMBRIDZE 343 The umbrella, in the general construction of its frame, has changed but little in thousands of years, though the materials used have been improved. Chinese frames, which have been largely the models of others, were 1nade of bam- boo and light but strong woods. In Europe the ribs were at first made of rattan or split bamboo, then of wood, usu- ally white oak. afterward of whalebone. They are now made of the best steel (and often grooved) in the finer classes of goods, and of rattan in the cheaper. In the finest umbrellas the covering is of silk or of silk and cotton, while for the cheapest cotton alone is used. Waterproof materials, such as rubber, are also sometimes used. The paragon frame, in which the ribs and stretchers are grooved, has been im- proved by a slight bending inward of the ribs, so that when closed they fit compactly round the stick. Parasols are made like umbrellas, though occasionally lined, trimmed, or covered with lace, etc. The English market is the chief one for umbrellas, single manufacturers making millions of them in a year. Umbrellas have been made in the U. S. since 1802, and in considerable numbers since 1812, but except for the cheapest goods, the sticks, the ribs. the stretchers, and the coverings were imported. A large part of the silk, the steel ribs, and a large proportion of the sticks are still (1895) imported, though paying a heavy duty. The census of 1890 reported that there were in the U. S. that year 435 establishments for the manufacture of umbrellas and canes, employing 6,863 persons, paying wages during that year amounting to $3,204,797, and producing $13,771,927 worth of goods. During the fiscal year of 1894 umbrellas, parasols, and sunshades (together with sticks for the same) valued at $86,305'75 were imported into the U. S. See L’()mZ/rclle, Ze Gcmz‘, le lklcmchon, by Octave Uzanne (Paris, 1882). Revised by Masons BENJAMIN. Umbrella-Sllell [so called from its shape] : any gastero- pod mollusc of the genus Umbrella (family PZ€'Zl7’0b7‘d7ZC7l idoe), which contains only three known living and two extinct species. The small, flattened umbrella-shaped shell covers only the more important organs, and the shell itself is often concealed by the mantle. , Umbrella-tree: a small tree of the magnolia family (ltlagnolla z‘m'])ez‘ala,). found in the U. S. along the Alleghany Mountains from Pennsylvania to Kentucky. It has obovate- lanceolate leaves, pointed at both ends, and a rose-colored fruit. It takes its name from the fact of the leaves being crowded on the summit of the flowering branches in an umbrella-like circle. Revised by Cnaarms E. BESSEY. Un1'bria: an ancient division of Italy, extending along the east side of the upper Tiber, and embracing the valleys formed by the smaller watercourses of the Apennines E. to Adriatic. In classical times the Tiber formed the western boundary between Umbria and Etruria, while the eastern border extended along the Adriatic from the Rubicon to the Zlilsis. The region contained no important towns, but was inhabited by a population devoted to agriculture and graz- ing, living in small hamlets. The inhabitants were related in race and language to the Sabine and Latin peoples to the south and west. For an account of their language and its relations, see ITALIC LANGUAGES. G. L. llnxnaiexsox. Ulll'l)l‘i(l33> [Mod. Lat., named from Unibrai, the typical genus, from Lat. um’Z)'ra, a kind of fish, liter., shadow]: a family of haplomous fishes, represented in North America and Eastern Europe. In form they resemble the “killie- fishes " or “ minnows ” (Cyprz'n0d0nz‘z‘(lcr): the body is cov- ered with moderately large scales; the lateral line is obso- lete; the head is conic in profile, and covered with moderate scales like those on the body; the eyes are lateral: the oper- cular normal and unarmed; the mouth is moderate and has a lateral oblique cleft; the upper jaw is formed by the in- termaxillaries as well as supramaxillaries; teeth are present on the jaws and palate; branchiostegal rays five or six ; the dorsal fin has articulated and branched rays, and is above the ventrals; the anal is smaller and farther back than the dorsal; the ventrals abdominal and with six rays. The in-‘ testinal canal has a simple stomach and no pyloric czrca; the air-bladder is simple. The species of the family are from 3 to 5 inches long, a11d live in fresh and brackish water ponds and the waters in the eastern parts of Europe and many portions of the U. S. The European species is Unzbra cramerl; the American are Unzbra Z’l'I)Z-‘l and Dallia pecto- ralzls. The American species live, it may be said, in the mud, and patches of water which appear destitute of fishes may yield considerable numbers of this kind by being dragged and the bottom stirred up. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. 844 UMLAUT Umlaut, oom’lowt, or Mutation [umlaut is Germ., modi- fication or reconstruction of a sound; cf. um/tletclen, dress anew, '1!/77l,a')'b6‘l:I‘6'I2, retouch, make over, etc.]: a technical term of Teutonic historical grammar denoting in its strict- est application the influence exercised upon an accented syllable by ‘the vowel 2' or its consonant j Q) in a following syllable. The application of the term has been extended to the parallel, though less common, phenomena, resulting from the influence of other vowels than 11, so that it is possi- ble to speak, e. g., of t-umlaut, o-umlaut, u-umlaut; but in its proper and original significance. and when left unqualified, the term applies to 2'-umlaut. The phenomena of /l-umlaut belong to the separate life of the different Teutonic lan- guages, and the laws of their occurrence must be stated sep- arately for each branch, e. g. for O. Eng., for O. H. Germ. or M. II. Germ., for O. Norse, etc. In O. Eng. the action of these laws was in the main complete by the beginning of the eighth century A. D., having begun in the sixth. Their chief results are the following: (1) d((e)> e, settcm : Goth. sdtjan; (2) (Z > re, hdl : Goth. hulls versus hcizlun < *7zdlcn'n : Goth. haziljrm; cf. Eng. whole versus heal—-so Eng. one versus um , lode versus lead; (3) 0 >y, gold versus gylden < *goldin, of. Eng. glld, also fox versus ft.z:en, m'a;en; fore versus first; foal versus filly; born versus birth; (4) 5>e, dom, judg- ment, versus demon, to judge : Goth. domjctn; of. Eng. doom versus deem—also goose versus geese, foot versus feet, tooth versus teeth, food versus feed (Goth. foclyun), booh versus beech, blood versus bleed, etc.; (5) u > y, full versus fyllan < *fullian : Goth. fulljun; cf. Eng. inch, from Lat. unetd; dung versus dtngy, stunt versus stlnt, won versus urlnsome; (6) u > g, cu, cow versus e§, kine; of. Eng. mouse versus mice, louse versus ltee; (7) ea> y (vie, t). eald, old versus teldra, elder; cf. Eng. old versus elder; (8) ed>g] (to), oectp versus ejjpan (ee'pan) ; cf. Eng. cheap versus heep; (9) eo, eo >y, fl] (te, /Ze), weore, work versus wlerecm, to work. Similar re- sults of umlaut- in German are gust versus gclste, lamm versus ldmmer, hraut versus hrctuter, trost versus trosten, etc. The phenomena of umlaut do not differ in their es- sential character from the various forms of assimilation between syllables, which appear in other languages and elsewhere in Teutonic, receiving various names, as epenthe- sis, fracture (breehung), vowel-assimilation, vowel-harmony, etc. See ABLAUT. BENJ. Inn WHEELER. Umnak, oom-naahh’ : one of the Aleutian islands, Alaska, the westernmost of the Fox islands group; in about lat. 53° N., lon. 168° 80' \V.; 65 miles long and 10 miles broad at its broadest part; lying N. E. and S. ‘V., and separated from Unalashka by the narrow Umnak Pass (5 miles wide). It is mountainous and bare, and the climate, though mild, is too cool for ordinary crops, except potatoes. The popu- lation is Aleut, very small, and mostly centered in the little village of Nikolski, of less than 300 inhabitants, on the west coast. The chief industries are fishing and sealing. The island has a ridge of mountains along its axis, culmi- nating with the volcano of Vsevidoff, said to be 8,000 feet high, and which, though not active, occasionally smokes. Other volcanic peaks of the island are sometimes active, and in 1817 one of the northern peaks emitted such clouds of ashes as to cover the island several inches thick. The small volcanic island of Bogosloff, which appeared in 1796, is just N. and connected with Umnak by a reef. Many hot springs are known to exist on the island. In a small valley inland there are several, all boiling; one is said to rise and fall a distance of 2 feet four times an hour. Near Deep Bay, at the northeastern end, are several with temper- atures ranging from lukewarm to boiling. Lignite, fossil- wood, and fire-clay have been noted on Umnak. The first recorded visit to the island was that of a Russian skipper named Nikiforoif in 1757. l\lARK W. HARRINGTON. Umritsir: another spelling of AMRITSIR (q. u). Unadil’1a: village; Otsego co., N. Y.; on the Susque- hanna river, and the Del. and Hudson Railroad ; 44 miles E. of Binghamton, and 05 miles S. W. of Albany (for location, see map of New York, ref. 5-H). It has a milk-condensing establishment, foundry, machine-shop, wagon-factory, four churches, high school. academy, a privatebank, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 922; (1890) 1,157; (1895) estimated, 1,500. EDITOR or “ TIMES.” Unalashka, oon-a‘a-lasl1’ka“a: an Alaskan island, middle one of the Fox islands, and second largest of the Aleutian chain; lying between the parallels 53° and 54° N. and the meridians 166° and 168° W.; about 75 miles long, 25 broad in its broadest part, mallet-shaped, mountainous, bare, and UN CONSCIOUS STATES treeless. The great Captain’s Bay at the northern end is a common naval rendezvous. Population small, aggregated in a few small villages, of which by far the largest is Una- lashka town (native Iltultuh), near the head of Captain’s Bay, and containing 307 inhabitants in 1890, mostly Aleuts, a few Russians and Americans. The only industries are fish- ing and sealing. The climate, though moderate, is too cool for the ordinary crops, except potatoes. The thermome- ter very rarely falls below zero at Iliuliuk, and very rarely passes 80° in summer. The grasses are very juicy and luxu- riant. The mountains are volcanic, and Makushin, iii the northwestern part of the island, 5,061 feet high, constantly smokes, and is occasionally in active eruption. Earthquakes in its vicinity are not rare. Metallic copper has been re- ported from Unalashka. The land fauna is poor in species and numbers. The black and silver foxes of the island, formerly much prized, are exterminated. Unalashka is one of the most important points in Alaska. Cave explorations show that the early inhabitants had developed a relatively considerable art, and tradition attributes to them unusual skill in whaling. Soloirofi and Glottoif, Russian adventur- ers, wintered there with a party in 1765-66, and then began a series of cruelties on the Aleuts which soon reduced them to a condition of helpless subserviency to Russian masters. In 1824 the cloud was lifted in part by the appearance of Father Veniaminofi, a noble and devoted missionary, the apostle of the Aleuts, who devoted himself to their well- being and education. Unalashka has been often visited by explorers and whalers, was long an administrative center, and is, after the Pribilof islands, the most important place W. of Kadiak. ' MARK W. HARRINGTON. Unau : the two-toed South American SLOTII (q. u). Uncas: an Indian sachem; b. in the Pequod settlement, Connecticut, about 1600. Originally a war-chief of the Pe- quods, he revolted against Sassacus, the sachem, in 1634; made friends with the whites, and became chief of the M o- hegans. In 1637 he joined Mason’s expedition against the Pequods, and was rewarded with some of their lands; made several treaties with the settlers in Massachussets and Con- necticut, and in 1648 joined them in a war against l\lianto- nomo, the Narragansett sachem. In 1657 he was besieged in his stronghold on Connecticut river by the Narragansetts, but when on the point of starvation was relieved by Ensign Thomas Leffingwell, to whom it is said that he granted the land upon which Norwich now stands, although he subse- quently sold it to others. Many complaints were made against him by other Indians, and in 1654 he was warned by the com- missioners of the united colonies that he would not be pro- tected in any unlawful, treacherous, or outrageous course. He was always on good terms with the whites. D. in 1683. See Stone, Uneds and Jli'e'antonomo (New York, 1842). Uneial Letters [transl. of Late Lat. ltt’tene unez'a’les, liter., inch letters, i. e. letters of considerable size; uneta.l is from Late Lat. unet'ct’l'1Ts, liter., of or pertaining to an inch, deriv. of un’eta, a twelfth part, ounce, inch]: a name used in palzeography for the rounder characters which took the place of capitals in the manuscripts of the early Middle Ages. The angular capitals of the inscriptions could not be written with ease and speed on papyrus or parchment; and already in the first century A. D., in the Herculanensian rolls and the wall-scratches and waxed tablets of Pompeii, the germs of a rounder script may be seen. By the fourth cen- tury this style was fully developed, and till the eighth the uncial was the prevailing hand of books. The letters which especially show the change are ct, d, e, h, m (which then took on the forms so familiar in our small letters), and, in less degree, g, Q, t, u. The name uncial is borrowed from St. Jerome, who censures the luxury of books written “ unetale'- bus ut oulgo atunt litter/ts ”; though there is every reason to believe that he meant large letters in general. A style of writing, common from the fifth century, in which forms derived from the cursive hand of documents are mixed with uncials, is often known as half-uncial or semi-uncial. The development of Greek handwriting was similar to that of Latin; and the name uncial, borrowed from Latin palaeography, is applied also to the rounded Greek capitals which, appearing as early as the third century B. c., remained the current book-hand till the ninth century A. D. For specimens of Greek uncials, see under Connx ALEXANDRINUS. GEORGE L. BURR. Unconscious States: states of mind considered as still mental when they are not present in consciousness or thought, as, for example, our memories when we have no occasion to UNCTION, EXTREME call them consciously to mind. The psychologists have found it a difficult question to decide whether such supposed modi- fications of mind have any right to be called mental at all when there is no trace of their actual presence in conscious- ness. The school of Herbart—a great German psychologist and philosopher—hold that nothing that the mind has once experienced can ever be entirely lost to it; but each such experience preserves its identity as a presentation or mental picture, although it becomes unconscious. The memory then of a thing or event once experienced is its literal recall from the sphere of the unconscious where it has been lying since its last appearance in consciousness._ To this view the name “pigeon-hole theory” has been given, especially to the view that memories are stored away somewhere in the soul, of which the Herbartian theory is a refinement. In opposition to it many psychologists hold what is known as the “ functional” theory, according to which the memories which at any time we are not thinking about at all, those which are not in consciousness however dimly, simply do not exist. The reappearance of a memory in consciousness is a new exhibition of the function involved in its original appearance. It is a new creation. It has not persisted since its earlier appearance. The only thing that has per- sisted is a tendency to have the same functional reinstate- ment again; and this tendency may be largely accounted for as an easier—because more habitual——stirring up of the brain processes which occur with this particular memory. Many striking facts have been discovered showing what the mind may do in apparent unconsciousness; but they seem all to be capable of explanation on the functional theory. See the Psyc/t0l05/les cited in the article PSYCHOLOGY, espe- cially the works of James, Brentano, and Baldwin. J. MARK BALDWIN. Unction, Extreme: See Exrnnnn Unccrron. Underground Railways: railway lines built below the level of the streets of a city, partly in tunnels. The under- ground railways of London were begun in 1860, and in 1884 the inner circle, connecting the principal railway termini on the north side of the Thames, was completed; this is 13 miles long, with four tracks and twenty-seven stations. The Metropolitan District Railway forms an outer circle, with ex- tensions leading to the suburbs. In these railways the cost of construction was extremely high, owing largely to the difficulties of tunneling and excavating without disturb- ing the foundations of buildings; it ranged from $1,800,- 000 to $2,500,000 per mile. The number of passengers carried on the inner circle is about 90,000,000 per year. The motive power is mainly steam, the exhaust steam and smoke bei 1g condensed in water-tanks during the passage through the tunnels. The City and South London line, opened in 1890, uses a system of electric traction; this is 3% miles long, and runs under the Thames. Underground railways. to be operated by electricity, are proposed or under construction in Berlin, Paris, and other large cities. The railway lines entering New York have an under- ground way along Fourth Avenue above Forty-second Street ; the length of this is 4% miles, and it was constructed in 1874 at a cost of $6,400,000. Many projects for an un- derground line on Broadway have been worked out, and in 1871 a pneumatic road one block in length was constructed by way of trial. The diificulties of such construction are, however, surmountable only at very great expense, in con- sequence of the large number of sewer, water, steam, and gas pipes beneath the surface. An estimate made in 1894 gives the cost of the 2'85 miles S. of Fourteenth Street as $12,150,000. An underground belt-line in Baltimore, 7 miles long, was completed in 1892; it has four tunnels, the principal one being 8,350 feet in length. This was built to enable the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad to reach the central part of the city. Its cost was about $1,000,000 per mile. See TUNNELS AND TUNNELING. l\lANsF1ELD MERRIMAN. Underl1ill,JotIN: colonist; b. in \Varwickshire, England, 1597; went to America with Winthrop in 1630 ; was a rep- resentative in the general court from Boston, and in 1637 was associated with Capt. Mason in command of the colony troops in the Pequod war. Banished from Boston on ac- count of his religious opinions. he went to England, where in 1638 he published an account of the Pequod war in a work entitled lVewes from A'me'rio(t. Returning to Amer- ica, he was in 1641 governor of Excter and Dover (N. H.) ; removed to Stamford, Conn., and in 1646 to Flushing, L. I., and held a command in the war between the Dutch and the UNGER 345 Indians. In 1665 he was a delegate from Oyster Bay to the assembly at Hempstcad, and in 1667 the Mantinenoc Indi- ans gave him a tract of 150 acres of land on Long Island, which is still held by his descendants. D. at Oyster Bay, L. I., 1672. Revised by F. M. CDLBY. Under-lease : See LANDLORD AND TENANT. Understanding: the mental function of knowledge or intellect as contrasted with feeling and will. (See KNOWL- EDGE.) The use of the word in this more general sense, which is in near accord with the popular use of it, is in con- trast to its earlier philosophical meaning. The older view of the understanding considered it a higher faculty for the apprehension of the ideas. It was thus a kind of higher endowment for taking in abstract (6 prz'or/i truths, such as the ideas of God, immortality, freedom, etc., which come as a kind of revelation to this faculty without the admixture of error, the tentative formulations, etc., which necessarily belong to all the knowledge which rests upon experience. The current meaning given to the word in psychology is based upon the denial of the existence of any special human faculty for the apprehension of the abstract or universal. According to it all mental activity is alike in its nature and function. Abstract notions are due simply to the further exercise of the same function that gives the perception of concrete things. All knowledge is both abstract and concrete, both singular and universal; and all knowledge is dependent upon experience in exactly the same sense. So the word knowledge when properly defined covers the whole case; and other words, such as understanding, if used at all, sim- ply become alternative or synonymous terms. J. M. B. Underwood, Lucmx MARCUS, Ph. D. : botanist; b. at New \Voodstock, N. Y., Oct. 26, 1853; educated at Caze- novia Seminary and Syracuse University: Professor of Geology and Botany in Illinois Wesleyan University 1880- 83; Professor of Biology in Syracuse University 1883-91; became Professor of Botany in De Pauw University 1891. He has published OzzrIVctz‘/lee Ferns and ffow to Study Them (1881), revised as Our Native Ferns and z‘heir Allies (1882 ; 4th ed. 1893); D8807'Z}{)tlU6 Catalogue of IVorth Amevdcan Ifepaticce (1884); 1Yepaiz'oce in the sixth edition of Gray’s Jllanual of Botany (1890) ; besides many papers on similar subjects in the botanical journals. He prepared An I Hus- z‘rmfzIve Century of Fzmgi, 100 specimens (1889), and He- pate'ecc Ameflcrmce, 160 specimens (1887-93). C. E. B. Underwriter and Underwriting: See MARINE Lyssa- ANCE. Undulation: See WAvEs, Acousrres, and Lrenr. Undulatory Theory of Light: See Lrerrr. Unger, FRANZ: botanist; b. near Leutschach, Styria, Nov. 30, 1800; studied medicine at Prague and Vienna; practiced as a physician, but in 1836 was appointed Professor of Botany and director of the botanical garden at Gratz ; removed in 1850 to Vienna: undertook extensive scientific journeys in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, subsequently in Egypt and Syria. His principal works are Anaiomie emrl Physz'ologz'e cler Rflemz-en (1855); Versuch ez'ncr Gesclzz'cln‘e der Pjiun- eenwell (1852) ; Bofavnzfsehe Sz‘.re2',f2iZge a/uf elem Gebiefe rler lfullvergeselzic/z.1‘e (1857); Genera, et Species Plamfalrunz Fos- s2Tlz"um (1850): Ico'nog/raplzda Plur/nfa.r‘um Fossil/tum (1852): Syllogc Plan2‘a.rum Fossz'lium (1860) ; Die Fossile Flora von Sotzla (1850) ; Die Fossile Flora eon Kzmrzl m Eubeea (1867). D. near Gratz, Feb. 13, 1870. Revised by CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Unger, J osnrr-1 : statesman and jurist ; b. in Vienna, Aus- tria, July 2. 1828: studied law in Vienna 1846-50; held a position in the university library at Vienna 1850-53 ; taught as privat docent in 1853, in which year he was made Pro- fessor of Jurisprudence in the university at Prague, and in 1857 he was installed as Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of Vienna. Here he entered i11 the discussion of the political questions of the day, and in connection with the revival of the constitutional 'ré_(71'mc in Austria he published Z201‘ L6sung der /zz»ngorlsolzen F1'((ge, in which he espoused the cause of the liberals. He was successively a member of the Landtag, Reiehsratl1, and cabinet, but retired from the cabinet in Feb., 1879, upon the reorganization of the ministry. In 1881 he was made president of the Supreme Court. As a jurist he has been most celebrated for his work in systema- tizing the laws of Austria, and his greatest works are S}/stem ales i)'sterre'zIchisclwn allge/mefnen P1"l'va.t2'ecl1,fs (Leipzig, 1856- 59) and Das dsle/)'1'e'z'c7z zische Erbreclz1‘ (Leipzig, 1864). Besides these he has written many other works, including Die recid- 846 UNGULA liche I\Tat2tr cler ]nhal)erpa])iere (Leipzig, 1857) ; Reeiclierter E/i1‘u'u/'f eines Ziiimge/'lz'chen Gesetzlmc/rs fill‘ (las KC'nigreich Sachs-en (Leipzig, 1861); and (with Joseph Glaser) b'amm- Zmzg eon. civilrechtlichen .En.tscheitl2mren ales obersten Ge- richts/zofs in lVien (Vienna, 1859-85). . STURGES ALLEN. Un'gu1a [Mod Lat., from Lat. nn'gnla, dimin. of nnguis, nail, claw, talon. hoof. So called from its being like a horse’s hoof in shape] : a segment of a volume. An ungula of a cone or cylinder is a portion of the cone or cylinder included between the base and an oblique plane intersecting the base. A spherical ungula is a portion of a sphere bounded by two semicircles meeting in a common diameter. Ungula'ta [Mod Lat., fro1n Lat. nn’gula, hoof]: a name applied in various senses to placental mammals having digits terminated by hoofs. ' I. By Linnzrus the name was employed for all the hoofed mammals in contradistinction to the clawed and mutilate (finned) mammals. These, again, were differentiated into two orders-(1) Pecora, including all the ruminating forms, and (2) Bellnre. embracing the equine and hippopotamine forms : Rhinoceros was referred to the Glires (rodents), and E lephas to the Bruta (chiefly edentates). II. The errors of Linnaeus in his references of the genera Rhinoceros and Elephas were corrected by his successors, and all the true ungulate mammals were combined under the name Ungulata or hoofed quadrupeds. III. By Cuvier (1817, etc.) the ungulate mammals were differentiated into two orders—(1) “ les Pachydermes,” e uiv- alent to the Bell/are of Linnaeus after the inclusion of hi- noceros and Elephas, and (2) " les Ruminants,” identical with the Pecora of Linnaeus. This classification for a long time prevailed, and was the one found in most of the popular works on natural history still longer. IV. By de Blainville (in 1816) the group, under the name “les Unguligrades,” was restricted to the ordinary hoofed quadrupeds, the elephants being isolated as the representa- tives of a distinct order named “les Gravigrades.” The Un- guligrades were in turn differentiated into two groups—(1) those with unpaired digits, embracing the normal pachy- derms and equines, and (2) those with paired digits, includ- ing the suilline forms as well as the ruminants. The mana- tee was added, erroneously, as an anomalous form of the order. These modifications, except the last, constituted a very decided advance in classification. They, however, at- tracted but little attention till Owen (in 1840, etc.) revived the same views, and adopted the groups in question under other names. Accepting the division of ungulates as a nat- ural whole, he divided it into three subordinate ones—(1) Isoclactyle or Artioclactyla, answering to the paired-toed Un- guligrades of de Blainville; (2) Anisoclactyle or Perissoclac- tyla, equivalent to the odd-toed Unguligrades of de Blain- ville ; and (3) Pro?/oseielea, identical with the Gravigrades of de Blainville. These three divisions were finally raised to ordinal rank by Owen. V. By Huxley and later writers the living ungulate mam- mals have been mostlydistinguished into three orders, char- acterized by placental well as skeletal features. name Ungulata has been reserved for the bulk of the spe- cies. which have again been divided into the sub-orders Peris- sorlaet]/la and Artioclactyla; (2) the term Hyracoiclea has been introduced as an ordinal term by Huxley to cover a form (Hyrar) which had been confounded with the perisso- dactyle ungulates and approximated to the Rhinoceros by Cuvier and others; (3) the group P1-obosciclea has been ac- cepted as another order. VI. In addition to the recent forms of ungulate mam- mals. there are several extinct types which are also by some authors regarded the representatives of other orders; such are the f['o.eoclo/itia of South America, the Dinoeerata of North America, etc. The order Ungalata, in the sense now generally used, is characterized as follows: The teeth are, archetypically, in full number (44), but often a number are suppressed; the molars have generally grinding surfaces, and are two- or three-rooted ; the canines are very diversiform, generally rudimentary or wanting, sometimes (as in Tragnliclre, Saiclte, etc.) extremely developed ; the incisors are, typically, six in each jaw, but often wanting entirely in the upper, and are implanted by simple roots and have incisorial crowns; the legs at their proximal joints (humerus and femur) are more or less inclosed in the common abdominal integument (least in the camels) ; the feet are upraised, and their palmar and plantar surfaces are invested in a hairy skin undistinguish- (1) The ' UNIFORMITY OF NATURE able from the rest of the integument; the carpal bones are in two interlocking rows; the cuneiform narrow, and afford- ing a diminished surface of attachment forward for the ulna (which is retrorse beside the radius); the unciform and lunar articulating with each other, and interposed between the cuneiform and magnum; the hind foot has the astragalus at its anterior portion scarcely deflected inward, and articu- lating more or less with the cuboid as well as navicular; the scaphoid and lunar are separate ; the toes of all the feet are never more than four in number, and the terminal joints are invested in thick nails or “ hoofs ”; the brain is well devel- oped, and the cerebrum covers more or less of the olfactory lobes and cerebellum; the placenta is non-deciduate; the rectal and generative apertures are well separated ; the tes- tes more or less exposed. The order thus defined embraces about 250 living species. The existing forms are grouped under two sub-orders and fourteen families, viz.: (1.) Artic- claetyla, with the families (1) Cameliclre, (2) Girafiiclaa, (3) Saigiiche, (4) Boviclce, (5) Antilocagariclce, (6) Cereiclte, (7) Tragnliche, all of which are ruminants, and (8) Phacochoe- riclce, (9) Snielce, (10) Dicotyliclce, and (11) I-Iippopotaonictce, which are non-ruminants: and (II.) Perissodactyla, with the families (12) Egniolee, (13) Rhinoceroticlce, and (14) Tapiriclze. Of these, the second, third, seventh, eighth, ninth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth are now peculiar to the Old World, and the fifth and tenth to the New World; but in ancient times the case was very different, the Rhinocerotidce and Egnidce having abounded in North America in the Miocene epoch. A large number of extinct forms are now known which connect together types that are at present far removed. Among the most notable are the Anoplot/ieriiclte, Orcoclon- ticlce, and Hyopotamiolw, which bridged the existing chasm between the ruminant and non-ruminant ungulates. These had fully developed upper incisors, combined with the char- acteristic double lunate-ridged molar teeth of the living ruminants, and thus on the one hand were related to the typical ruminants, and especially the Tragaliclce, and on the other to the omnivorous artiodactyles, and perhaps most to the peccaries. Also to be noticed in this connection are 0l‘0h'l]9]9’iCl£8 and Anchitheriiclm, as well as Ilipjyarion, which form a series with the Paleeothcriiclce, and demonstrate the relation between the Rhinocerotidm and Egnidce of the pres- ent epoch. The order was represented by typical examples as early as the beginning of the Eocene period, and undoubt- edly very long before, although no remains of an earlier date have been yet discovered. Over twenty families, now en- tirely extinct, are known from their fossil remains. The order has therefore played a very important part in the earth’s past history, and the extinct types already known outnumber the recent. Why certain of the forms formerly existent in America, but later confined to Africa and Asia, became extinct in the former, can scarcely be surmised, as when reintroduced (as have been the horse and hog) they multiply and flourish as much as in their native lands. The order is also noteworthy as furnishing by far the largest por- tion of the meat-food which man uses, as also the beasts of burden which he employs. Almost all the species—and, above all, the ruminants—are hunted or kept for the meat they yield, and even the perissodactyles—horse, rhinoceros, and especially tapir—are esteemed as food by some peoples. Beasts of draught and labor are obtained chiefly from the Egnitlaz (horse and ass, etc.), the Booiclce (ox, buffalo, etc.), and Cereiclre (reindeer). Their contributions in other ways are manifold; the most noteworthy are milk, hides, glue, etc. See the names of the different sub-orders and families, as well as the domesticated animals, and especially the arti- cle HORSE. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Uniaxial Mica: See BIOTITE. Unicorn [Lat. imns, one + cornn, horn]: described by various writers, from Ctesias, Aristotle, and Pliny down, as a horse-like creature with a straight horn in the middle of the forehead. Its figure occurs as a heraldic charge. The word reem in the Hebrew Bible, translated “unicorn” in the English version, denotes some horned creature, perhaps the buffalo. Uniformity of Nature: the principle that there are no breaks in the operation of natural law. The principle has two great applications: (1) It underlies the formulation of all the so-called laws of nature, since the possibility of arguing from one or in ore observed facts in nature to other facts of the same kind which are not observed must rest upon the presumption that the sequences of events in na- ture are stable and regular. If a certain combination of UNIGENITUS BULL chemical elements takes place to-day under certain condi- tions, the chemist expects the same combination to take place under the same conditions to-morrow. And it does. So, on the basis of this uniformity, he announces the dis- covery as a fact which any other chemist can confirm. (2) The second application of the principle is made in phi- losophy. It consists in the demand that uniformity shall be given due criticism, and its meaning in the world as a whole made out. This demand has led to various views, i. e. that uniformity is itself a hypothesis respecting nature, resting upon the experience that nature repeats her events ; again, that uniformity is an inborn regulative principle of the human mind. The construing of uniformity, however, has been largely confined to external nature, mind and its events being held to present in free will a phenomenon which vio- lates it. As to the merits of this position, see NV ILL. The rise of the evolution hypothesis has broken this tradition; the mind is treated as a natural thing and the science of its movements as involving the presuppositions of the natural sciences. J . MARK BALDWIN. Unigen'itus Bull [so called from its first word being Lat. um'ge’m'tus. only begotten]: a bull issued in 1713 by Pope Innocent VI. against 101 propositions contained in the Reflea;z'ons momles of Pasquier Quesnel (1634-1719). This book had been proscribed by the pope in 1708, but the parliament objected to the prohibition of French books by any other authority than their own. But the king and the great majority of the French bishops were anxious for the pope to pronounce sentence on the subject. Of the 101 propositions condemned by the bull 43 concern grace, 28 treat of the theological virtues, and 30 deal with the Church, her discipline and sacraments. One of the propositions was con- demned for holding that all love, except the supernatural love of God, is evil ; another, that every prayer ‘made by a sinner is sinful; another, that sinners should not hear Mass at all. No note was assigned to each proposition. Some are evidently not heretical, while others, if examined apart from the spirit which prompted them and the context in which they are found, are capable of a good sense. They have notes aifixed only in globe, some as heretical, some as ill sounding, scandalous, etc. See A. Schill, Die Constitu- tion Umgcm'tus (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1876). J . J . K. Unimak, oon-i-1naal:l1’: the easternmost and largest of the Aleutian islands; lying between 54° and 55° N. lat. and 164° and 165° W. lon.; nearly rectangular; about 50 miles long by 20 broad; separated from the Peninsula of Alaska by an impassable strait or lagoon called Isanotski or False Pass, which is said to be shoaling. The island is mountain- ous, rocky, treeless, and is less known and visited than the other large islands. Population, Aleut, very sparse; climate mild, but not favorable to ordinary crops because of the cool summer. Volcanic phenomena are very common, and Shi- shaldin, the bes't-known volcano, 8,955 feet high, is generally smoking and often emits flames. Sulphur is found in crevices on Shishaldin, and is reported in large fields near Program- noi village, at the western angle. M ARK W. I-IAR1u.\'e'roN. Uninhabited Islands: See Boum Ismnns. Union: town; Knox co., Me.; on the George’s Valley Railroad: 13 miles N. W. of Rockland (for ldcation, see map of Maine, ref. 9-D). It was settled in 1774 as Tavlor Town, organized as the plantation of Sterlington in 1786, and incorporatedunder its present name the same year, and had part of its territory set ed as the town of I/Vashington in 1811. It contains the villages of Union, North Union, South Union, and East Union; has 2 churches, high school, 2 libraries, a weekly newspaper, and manufactories of car- riages, furniture, organs, mowing-machines, and stoves; and is in an agricultural region. Pop. (1880) 1,548; (1890) 1,436. Union Christian College: a coeducational institution at Merom, Ind., founded in 1859 by the denomination called Christians. It has a good working endowment, com- modious buildings, and beautiful grounds. It offers thorough instruction in the classics, sciences, the Bible, pedagogy, music, business, and fine arts. The enrollment is steadily increasing from year to year. President, Rev. L. J . Ald- rich, D. D. Union City: city; Randolph co., Ind.; on the Cleve, Cin., Chi. and St. L. and the Pitts, Cin., Chi. and St. L. railways: 30 miles \V. by N. of Piqua, and 84 miles N. E. of Indianapolis (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 5—G). It 15 1n a region abounding in walnut, oak, ash, hickory, and omen eonnnen 847 other valuable woods; and has a public high school, 2 State banks with combined capital of $180,000, a daily and 2 weekly newspapers, improved water-works, and several flour- mills and other manufactories. Pop. (1880) 2,478; (1890) 2,681. Union City: village; Branch co., Mich.; on the St. Joseph river, and the Mich. Cent. Railroad ; 11 miles N. \V. of Coldwater. and 41 miles W. S. '\/V. of Jackson (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 8—I). It is the trade-center of a large agricultural region. and has a variety of manufactories; there are 2 national banks with combined capital of $100,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,280; (1890) 1,156. Union City: borough; Eric co., Pa.; on the Eric, the Penn., and the \V. N. Y. and Penn. railways; 26 miles S. E. of Erie (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 1—A). It is in an a'gricultural region; has 6 churches, a public high school, business college, co-operative trust company, gravity and Holly system of water-works, electric lights, and a weekly newspaper; and contains an oil-refinery, tannery, several flour-mills, and manufactories of barrels, carriages, furni- ture, pumps, and cabinet ware. Pop. (1880) 2,171; (1890) 2,261. EDITOR OF “ Turns.” Union City: town; capital of Obion co., Tenn.; on the Mobile and O. and the Nash., Chat. and St. L. railways; 154 miles W’. by N. of Nashville, and 204 miles S. by E. of St. Louis (for location, see map of Tennessee, ref. 6—B). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and has 6 churches for white people and 4 for colored, a public school for white children and one for colored, a training-school, 2 hotels, union railway station, electric lights, canning-works, 2 plan- ing-mills. saw-mill, furniture, duck, spoke, and ice factories, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a State bank with capital of $50,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,879; (1890) 3,441, with 500 in suburbs. EDITOR or “ Dnuoear.r.” Union College: an institution of learning at Schenec- tady, N. Y. : incorporated in 1795. It owes its name to the fact that it was founded by a union of several Christian de- nominations. In 1779 some 500 citizens of Northern and Eastern New York petitioned the Governor and Legislature for the establishment of a college in the city of Schenectady to be named after the first Governor, Clinton. The petition was denied, but in 1785 an academy was incorporated in Schenectady, and on Feb. 25, 1795, this academy became Un- ion College. the charter of the college being the first one granted by the newly constituted board of regents of the State of New York. The first class, numbering three stu- dents, matriculated Oct. 19, 1795, when the Rev. John Blair Smith, D. D., assumed the office of president. Dr. Smith re- signed in 1799. and was succeeded by Jonathan Edwards the younger, who died in 1801, and was followed by Rev. Jona- than Maxcy, D. D. In 1804 the Rev. Eliphalet Nott, then pastor of the First Presbyterian church at Albany, was elected president, and held the office until his death, in 1866, this being the longest presidential term in the history of col- leges in the U. S. During Dr. Nott’s presidency the college became one of the foremost educational institutions of the country. Many of the greatest scholars and educators were members of its faculty, among them Francis \Va_vland, aft- erward president of Brown University. Alonzo Potter, after- ward Bishop of Pennsylvania, Tayler Lewis. Isaac \V. Jack- son, and \Villiam M. Gillespie. The number of students increased steadily until the outbreak of the civil war, when the college suifered greatly from the withdrawal of the large number of Southern students, and from the enlistment of a company of Northern undergraduates. who marched to the front under the command of the Professor of Modern Lan- guages, Elias Peissncr. Col. Peissner was killed at Chancel- lorsville; many of the students never returned from the war, and few returned to the college to graduate. Upon the death of Dr. Not-t. Dr. Laurens P. I-Iiekok, who had been vice- president for fourteen years, was elected president and served for two years. In 1869 he was succeeded by the Rev. Dr. Charles A. Aiken, and on his resignation, in 1871, the Rev. Dr. Eliphalet Nott Potter, son of Bishop Alonzo Potter and grandson of President Nott, became president. Under his administration the college made substantial progress. En- dowments were increased, new buildings erccted, the educa- tional facilities enlarged, and the college advanced in num- bcrs. In 1884 Dr. Potter resigned, and for four years Judge Judson S. Landon was president ad z'nz‘e'r1'm. In 1888 Har- rison E. Webster, LL. D., was elected president, and was fol- lowed in 1894 by the Rev. Dr. Andrew V. V. Raymond. In 3.18 UNIONIDZE 1873 the Albany Law School, the Albany Medical College, and the Dudley Observatory were united with Union Col- lege to form Union University. In 1881 the Albany College of Pharmacy was established and incorporated as a depart- ment of the University. Union College was the first non- sectarian college in the U. ; it was the first to introduce the study of the modern languages, the first to add a scien- tific course to the time-honored classical course; the first to recognize the importance of technical training, organ- izing a school of civil engineering in 1845. It also origi- nated the fraternity system, and the oldest of the Greek- letter societies were founded here. It offers to students a choice of courses leading to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Philosophy, Bachelor of Science, and Bachelor of Engineering. A department of electrical en- gineering is now organizing, in co-operation with the Gen- eral Electric Company, whose great shops are located at Scheneetad . The faculty consists of twenty-eight mem- bers besides twelve regular and many occasional lecturers, and the students number (1894-95) 275. B. H. RIPTON. Union’id2e [Mod. Lat., named from U'ntc, the typical genus, from Lat. n’nio, a single large pearl, liter., oneness, unity. See ONION] : a group of bivalve (Lamellibranch) molluses containing the so-called fresh-water clams and mussels, especially well developed in the U. S., where innu- merable so-called species have been described. Each ani- mal has a large feet, a short anal siphon, the branchial siphon present or absent. The shell is equivalve, closed by two adductor muscles. The hinge varies considerably, and the shell is internally nacreous. The fresh-water mus- sels are unfit for food, and their sole value lies in the pearly character of the shells, for they occasionally produce pearls of value. In Ohio, New Jersey, \Viseonsin, and elsewhere in the U. S. many pearls have been found in such mussels, including some valued as high as $2,000. Pearl-fishery was maintained for many years in Scotland, and pearls valued at £10,000 were obtained in the Tay in 1761-64. The in- dustry is also carried on in Germany and China. The chief literature on the American species is Lea’s Synopsis of the iVcn'ads (1870) and his Observations on the Genus Unto (13 vols., 1827-73). The embryology has been studied by Rabl, Jenatsche Ze't'tschr'1Ift f. N atnrwtss., vol. X. (1876), and Lillie, Jenn 1110?-ph0Z., vol. x. (1895). J. S. KINGSLEY. Union, La, laa-oon-y5n' : seaport ; in the southeastern part of Salvador, Central America; capita of a department of the same name; on an arm of the Gulf of Fonseca, called the Bay of La Union (see map of Central America, ref. 6—G). Most of the commerce of the eastern part of the republic centers here, and until recently it was the most important seaport of Salvador. The harbor is good, but the town is somewhat insalubrious. Pop. about 2,500. H. H. S. Union Springs: town; capital of Bullock co., Ala.; on the Cent. Railroad of Ga. ; 40 miles E. S. E. of Montgomery, and 55 miles W. S. \V. of Columbus, Ga. (for location, see map of Alabama, ref. 5—E). It is an agricultural and fruit-grow- ing region, and has a college for women, a male and female institute, an academy for males, several cotton-mills, 2 cot- tonseed-oil mills, 2 grist-mills, 3 ginneries, canning and spoke and handle factories, a State bank with capital of $70,000, an incorporated bank with capital of $52,000, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,862; (1890) 2,049; (1895) 2,349. Enrron or “ HERALD.” Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York: the corporate name of an institution for the train- ing of students for the Christian ministry; at 700 Park avenue. According to the preamble to the constitution, it was the “design of the founders to provide a theological seminary in the midst of the greatest and most growing community in America, around which all men of moderate views and feelings, who desire to live free from party strife, and to stand aloof from all extremes of doctrinal specula- tion, practical radicalism, and ecclesiastical domination, may cordially and affectionately rally.” The first board of directors was elected on Jan. 11, 1836; instruction began on Dec. 5, 1836, in the houses of the professors, and after Dec. 12, 1838, in the first home of the seminary at 9 University Place, where it remained till Sept., 1884, when it was re- moved to its present quarters. The seminary was incorpo- rated by act of the New York Legislature on Mar. ~7, 1839. Its board of directors is a self.-perpetuating body. The charter specifies that “the government of the seminary shall at all times be vested in a board of directors,” con- sisting of fourteen ministers and fourteen laymen, and that UNITARIANISM “ equal privileges of admission and instruction, with all the advantages of the institution. shall be allowed to students of every denomination of Christians.” No denominational name appears in the charter. Although not under ecclesi- astical control, it is a Presbyterian institution, and for some thirty years stood in intimate relations with the New School branch of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. During that period several of its professors were moderators of the General Assembly of the Church. After the reunion of the Old and New School branches of the Church in 1870, it granted to the General Assembly a veto power upon the appointment of its professors; but in 1892, in consequence of a difference touching the terms and scope of this veto, and on the ground that it had violated its charter and constitution in conceding such a power, the seminary terminated the agreement of 1870. By the pro- visions of the constitution it is required that the president of the faculty and the professors of systematic and practical theology shall be ordained ministers, and the adoption of the Westminster Confession of Faith is required of all mem- bers of the faculty and directory. In 1894-95 the curric- ulum was broadened by the introduction of optional and elective courses, and by the extension of the “ seminar” method of instruction to an increased number of subjects. There are seven endowed professorships. Connected with the seminary are also three lectureships: The Ely founda- tion, on The _E"u't'cZcnces of Clwtst/£ctm't3/; the Morse, on The Relattons of the Bible to the Sciences; and the Willard Parker, for hygienic instruction. There are also endowed instructorships in vocal culture and music. The scholastic year extends from about Oct. 1 till the middle of May, di- vided into two terms by the holiday recess. The library con- tained in May, 1895, about 70,0()0 volumes, 28,000 pamphlets, and 186 manuscripts. Relations exist with Columbia Col- lege and the University of the City of New York, by which the students of the seminary are allowed post-graduate privileges in both these institutions, while members of the colleges may take part of the seminary course as special students. The whole number of students connected with the seminary from its foundation to the close of the year 1894-95 was 2,784, of whom 1,779 were graduates. The seminary confers no degrees, but grants diplomas to those who have pursued the full course. Among the notable names of those (now deceased) who have been connected with the corps of instructors are Hen- ry White, Edward Robinson, Thomas Harvey Skinner, Henry Boynton Smith, Roswell Dwight Hitchcock, William Adams, Philip Schaff, and William Greenough Thayer Shedd. CHARLES R. GILLETT. Uniontown: borough; capital of Fayette co., Pa.; on the national pike and the Balt. and Ohio and the Penn. railways; 40 miles S. E. of Pittsburg (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6—B). It is in an agricultural, coking, and iron-mining region; has natural gas, water-works, electric lights, electric street-railway, 2 national banks with combined capital of $200,000, a State bank with capital of $50,000, and a daily and 4 weekly newspapers ; and contains 12 churches, 2 public-school buildings, stone court-house and jail, 2 glass-works, and steel and structural iron-works. The borough was laid out by Jacob Beeson in 1783, was first known as Beesontown, and was incorporated in 1796. Pop. (1880) 3,265; (1890) 6,359 ; (1895) estimated, 8,000. W. F. ULER-Y. Unionville : town (founded in 1853) ; capital of Putnam co., Mo.; on the Chi., Burl. and Kan. City Railway; 44 miles W. S. 'W. of Bloomfield, 1a., and 140 miles N. of Jef- ferson City (for location, see map of Missouri, ref. 1—F). It is in an agricultural and coal-mining region, and has 4 churches, 2 public-school buildings, 2 national banks with combined capital of $100,000, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 772; (1890) 1,118; (1895) estimated, 1.500. Enrrons or “ PUTNAM COUNTY LEADER.” Unita’rianism [deriv. of nne‘targ/, as if from Lat. *mm'ta- We’/as deriv. of n’ntta.s~ unit deriv. of n’n/as one : in theol- ’ 3 7 7 ogy, the doctrine that God exists in one person only. This involves the denial of the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus Christ. The historical origin of the name is uncertain. Some have traced it to the Transylvanian Uniti, a league of toleration between Roman Catholics, Cal- vinists, and Socinians. Ever since thinking man has been in the world there have been speculations about the Cause of all things——about its nature, or its action, or the mode of its existence. These speculations have always held to UNITARIANISM 34:9 one Being supreme, while they have been put into various forms-—polytheism, trinity, or simple and indivisible unity. The tendency, however, in successive ages, has always been to the latter. In the Jewish and Christian systems this has come to be distinctly maintained; for the Trinity, at- least while it is conceived of merely and abstractly as a mode of existence, has not been construed to be a denial of the Unity. It is impossible, perhaps, in strict thesis, to decide which of these views is true ; for of the mode of the Divine Existence, if we presume to think upon it, we can not un- dertake to form any judgment ; and it is not the business of this statement to argue for one or the other, but only to give an historical account of the latter—i. e. of Christian Unita- rianism. Judaism was undoubtedly unitarian, and it is held that Christianity was at the start. That the first disciples, who had passed one or two years in daily intercourse with their Master, should have thought of him as God, or, if they did, should have failed plainly and pre-eminently to teach this doctrine, is doubtless hard to believe. It is certain that the earliest churches of which we have any definite knowl- edge upon this point consisted in the mass, or at least in great numbers, of Unitarians. Believers in Christ at the beginning were simply denominated, as at Antioch, Chris- tians, and doubtless continued to bear that common name ; but the oldest body of Christians holding a distinctive faith upon the point in question—i. e. the Ebionites—were un- doubtedly Unitarians; and the earliest Fathers, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Origen. while advocating their “ Economy,” the initial form of Trinity, evidently wrote in an apologetic strain, as if they felt that there was a great body of opinion against them; and Tertullian at the end of the second century complains of the mass of people-—- “ z'cllotee,” he calls them—as obstinately opposed to the Economy. And later, Chrysostom and Athanasius under- take with considerable explanation to show why the apostles did not plainly teach the sublimer doctrine of the Economy or Trinity, the reason being that the people were not pre- pared to receive it. Gradually, however, the early Fathers, falling in with Platonic speculations, were tending to ideas of a Trinity. but it was not till the fourth or fifth century, as J . H. Newman has shown in his Development of Clz,-r'z7s- ticm Doctrine, that the doctrine of the Trinity was com- pletely formulated and established. And this continued for several centuries—except with the great Arian division, which was essentially unitarian—-to be the settled orthodoxy of the Church, till in the sixteenth century Unitarianism was revived by the Socini. UmIta1't'ctnt'sm in _En1'o}2e.——Laelius and Faustus Socinus, uncle and nephew, were Italians of a noble family. It is the more remarkable that they should have been learned men and studious in the Scriptures, and that both should .have broken off from the religion of their education and social position to embrace new and unpopular opinions—-so unpopular and, indeed, dangerous to them, that they both found it expedient to leave, for their evidently honest con- victions, their home and country. Luelius went to Switzer- land, where he died in Zurich in 1562, after having gone to Germany and Poland and made visits of some length in those countries. After the death of his uncle Faustus re- sided in Basel, and spent some time in collecting and ar- ranging the papers which Laalius had left to him. and then went to Transylvania, where, with the aid of the celebrated physician Blandrata, a number of Unitarian churches were formed and established. Thence he removed to Poland, and, marrying into a noble family and becoming settled in life, had leisure for study and wrote theological works. which are to be found in the Fratres Poloni. His opinions met with favor among the higher classes, with whom he was associated, and it appeared for a time as if he were likely to escape the usual fate of reformers. But his speculations gave offense to the lower classes; they rose against him, and that which happened to Priestley in Birmingham befell him : a mob broke into his house, tore him from a sick-bed, exposed him in the market-place, ransacked his dwelling, and destroyed his manuscripts : and he died near Cracow in 1604, a martyr to his faith. There is still left, however. in Hungary and Transylvania, a considerable body of Unita- rians who inherit his faith, and by their character are doing signal honor to his memory. They have 106 churches, with parishes, numbering 60,000 persons. They have parish schools and schools of theology in which are professors who are discharging their duties with salaries scarcely able to support them. In the British empire there are about 350 places of worship, of which fully 300 are in Great Britain. In Germany the speculations of many of her eminent theologians and critics have been in the direction of Unitarianism, without any formal separation from the Lutheran Church; while in France only the honored names of the Coquerels, father and son, have been distinctly known in connection with it. In England its earliest confessors were men unknown to fame, but remarkable for their virtues—-Thomas Firmin, a mer- chant of London, and well known as a friend of Archbishop Tillotson, and John Biddle, who set up in London the first Unitarian public worship known in England. He was a scholar bred at Oxford, who was able to expound and de- fend his opinions ; who drew upon himself the attention of Parliament and of Cromwell, and of Archbishop Usher to convert him from his heresy; whom courts and judges pur- sued and hounded through five imprisonments, till on the sixth he died in a dungeon on Sept. 22, 1662, at the age of forty-seven. He was a man whose memory, for his unblem- ished probity, for his calmness and firmness, and for his cruel fate so bravely met, deserves to be remembered, and would do honor to the lineage of any body of men holding dear their opinions and their history. Indeed, it is by a lineage of remarkable men that English Unitarianism has been most distinguished—in which are the names of Milton. Locke, and Sir Isaac Newton, William Penn. and Sir William Jones; and of authors such as Na- thaniel Lardner, William Roscoe. Samuel Rogers, Charles Lamb, Priestley, Joseph Blanco YVhite and his biographer, J . H. Thom, and James Martineau. The earlier of these were Arians in their Christology, the later Socinians—i. e. humanitarians. Richard Price, however. against whom Burke directed his Reflections on the French Revolution, held the Arian opinion in a Socinian gen_eration. The works which have been written expressly in its defense are Em- lyn’s I-Inmble Inqaz'ry and Xates's Vz'nd‘2'cati'on, and many others. Some of the later writings even of the divine Watts show that although he did not come to any decided result he distrusted his theology and leaned to the Uni- tarian view. Penn wrote ably against the Trinity and its kindred doctrines in the Sandy Founclatz'on Shaken, for which he was put in prison and when he came out sturdily said, “ I have not budged a jot.” There too, in prison, he wrote No Cross, No Crown, a work as remarkable as that other book written in prison, Boethius on The Consolation of Phe'losophy. Also to be mentioned among English Uni- tarians are Dr. Samuel Clarke, of a former day, Ricardo, the political economist, Sir John Bowring; and not the least to be honored, John Pounds, of Portsmouth, the founder of the ragged school: and of celebrated women, Joanna Baillie and Florence Nightingale. In the U. S.—-Boston, with its vicinity, may be called the birthplace of Unitarianism in America. The controversy which brought matters to that result in a good many churches there and elsewhere in New England, carried on by Dr. Noah ‘Worcester. of Salem, and Prof. Moses Stuart, of Andover, on one side. and YVilliam E. Channing and Prof. Henry ‘Ware, Sr.. and Andrews Norton on the other, broke out in 1812. Just before, in 1810, Noah \Vorcester had published his Bible Nave. Nearly thirty years before Dr. James Freeman. of King‘s chapel, in Boston, had taken the same ground. and his congregation altered the Liturgy in accordance with his views. It was the first church in the U. S. that decidedly espoused the Unitarian faith. though many years before Jonathan Mayhew, pastor of the \Vest church in Boston, was known as an Arian. In Boston and its vicinity also there were several distinguished laymen who took the same side. as the Presidents Adams, father and son. the celebrated jurist Theophilus Parsons, George Cabot. Nathaniel Bowditch the astronomer. Harrison Gray Otis, Daniel Webster, and others. As early as 1718 Dr. Ebenezer Gay, of Hingham, was settled, and became gener- ally known as a Unitarian. In 1794 Dr. Priestley removed to the U. and, though he was received with attention in Philadelphia, he chose to retire to Nortlnunberland, Pa... to pursue his philosophical studies. where he also collected a small congregation for worship. Two years after a church was formed in Philadelphia, of which, in 1825, Dr. \V. H. Furness became )2tStOI‘. According to the census of 1890, there were in the L . S. 421 organizations and 67 .7 44 members. The American Unitarian Association was formed in Bos- ton in 1825, chiefly for the publication and distribution of tracts and books. It has used its funds also to build churches and assist feeble ones, and to send out preachers 350 TNITARIANISM in the U. S.: for a number of years supported a mission- ary in India, the devoted Charles H. A. Dall, who did an excellent work there by his schools, by circulating books, and by publications of his own, and also through communication with the BRAHMA SOMAJ (q. /0.) and its thousand congrega- ' tions. Chunder Sen, their chief preacher and leader, visited England, and made a most favorable impression in London (as Rammohun Roy did before him) by his liberal and earnest inculcation of universal religious truth and virtue. Mo- zoomdar, the successor of Chunder Sen, has maintained re- lations of the liveliest sympathy with English and American Unitarians. Tenez‘s.—The first general convocation of the Unitarian clergy of America was held in New York in 1865, consisting of ministers and delegates from the churches; and on this occasion arose and was keenly debated the question about a creed. But the word met with no favor in the confer- ence. With regard to the distinctive tenets of Unitarians, indeed, except that which the name indicates, it is less easy precisely to define them, because Unitarianism is an em- bodiment of principles-—principles of reasoning and criti- cism—rather than a collection of institutes like the Insti- tutes of Calvin or the Con_fessz'ons of Augsburg and Dort, or the Tlvérty-2t'i'2zc Artz'0Zes of the Church of England. Its history is a history of individual opinions, rather than of organizations, measures, or methods of action. It is bio- graphical, not national. Heresies, as they are called, rather than creeds, are the forms it has taken. Protests rather than professions have marked it. It has been called by its opposers a system of negations, though it is to be consid- ered that every negation implies an affirmation. The affir- mations of the conference were——that every man has a perfect right to judge for himself, unbound by any set of articles; that while professing itself to be a Christian body, it left every one to decide for himself what Christian- ity itself is—i. e. without forfeiting his place in the body, to choose among the conflicting views of Christian doctrine and statement that which seemed to him to be true and right. In fact, Unitarianism is characterized not so much as being a system of thought as a way of thinking; and that may be called, whether for praise or blame, the rational way. Religion it regards as addressing itself to reason and conscience alike, requiring of men to believe nothing which contradicts reason, and to do nothing which they have not ability to do. Human nature, in its view, is not a mass of helpless depravity, but is endowed with moral qualities which are capable of good, and which are to be educated to virtue and religion, just as truly as the mental powers are to be educated to knowledge a.nd the highest intelligence. Human life is appointed to be the sphere of this culture, with all its toils, cares, trials, and sufferings-— its natural affections and enjoyments also not to be crushed down, but intended to minister to the same end. In short, the stand taken by Unitarianism is for nature, for human nature, for everything that God has made, as the manifestation of his will as truly as anything written in the Bible. This world, the world of nature and of life, does not lie under the curse of Adam’s sin nor any other curse, but is ordained by infinite wisdom and goodness to be the field of human training for a life to come, whose al- lotments are to be in accordance with the law that “ what- soever a man soweth, that shall he also reap.” Righteous- ness, and not dogma, is the everlasting condition of all wel- fare in this world and the next, and what needs to be done for religion is to free it from all falsehoods, from all substi- tutions of ceremony, profession, and sensational experience for truth and virtue, and thus to purify and rationalize it- to lift it up, not as a terror to men, but as friendship and help, as strength and comfort, as a joy and delight-, and so to relieve it of the mystery or misery that it is to many. In fine, the ground taken by this Christian body is that sub- stantially held by the Universalists and to which many other denominations are approaching, and is this-—that Christianity is not a philosophy, but a divine power; that the acceptance of it is not the believing in a creed, but be- lieving with the heart; that Jesus Christ himself in his life and death. all dogmatizing apart, is the embodiment of his religion; that he holds that supremacy in the beauty and power of his life which makes it, of all that has appeared upon earth, the fittest to be imitated and followed; and that he who comes nearest to that is the best Christian. The growth of Unitarianism as an organized body has been more rapid since 1880 than at any time in its history UNITED COPTS since the division of the New England Churches. In this growth New England has rivaled the Middle West, and the Pacific slope. The average opinions of the body have under- gone a great change since Channing’s death in 1842. Parker and Emerson are now equally revered with Channing as leaders of the faith. Its most radical but generally accepted criticism of the New Testament is James Martineau’s Seat of Aa2‘h0'rt'ty in Rclz'gz'on. Martineau is the acknowledged head of English philosophic thought, and his philosophical opinions attract to him many who find his critical opinions too destructive of the traditional beliefs. Revised by J our: W. Cnanwmx. United Armenians : those Armenian Christians who ac- knowledge the pope, the orthodox Armenians being called Gregorians. The Armenian Rite in the Roman Catholic Church has 1 patriarch and primate (in Cilicia), 4 arch- bishops (at Constantinople, Aleppo, Seleucia (or Diarbekir), and Lemberg), besides 2 /m1)arte'bas, and 16 bishops. Their union took place 1316-34. They number some 100,000, of whom 78,000 are in Turkey and Persia (20,000 under the Archbishop of Constantinople, 56,000 under the Patriarch of Cilicia, and 1,000 in Mt. Lebanon), and the remainder in Austria-Irlungary, Russian Caucasia, and Siberia. The United Armenians, amounting to about 4,000, who with Bishop Kuppelian left the Catholic Church in 1870, re- turned in 1879 and with him submitted to Leo XIII. See Silbernagl, If/t'rcl1.ea dos Om'em‘s, and Hergenroether’s article in Herder’s Kz'7'c7wnZe.m'h0n, edited by F. Kaulen. Revised by J . J . KEANE. United Baptists: See BAPTISTS. United Brethren, or Unitas Fratrum: See Moaavmn CHURCH. United Brethren in Christ: a denomination of Prot- estant Christians which arose in the U. S. under the lead- ership of the Rev. Philip William Otterbein (1726-1813), a German missionary of the Reformed Church, and Martin Biihm. It is often confounded with the United Brethren (see MORAVIAN CHURCH). It dates from 1789, but its pres- ent name was not adopted until 1800; and the first general conference was held 1815. Their polity is a mixture of Methodism, Congregationalism, and Presbyterianism. They oppose Freemasonry and the manufacture, sale, and use of alcohol in drinks. Beginning with Germans exclusively, they have prospered greatly, especially in the Northwest and in Pennsylvania, but now less than 4 per cent. of their congregations use German in worship. Their confes- sion of faith was adopted in 1889. They have an episcopal organization and sustain a publishing-house at Dayton, 0. They support several colleges and seminaries. (See O'l"l‘ER— BEIN UNIVERSITY.) According to the statistics of 1893, they had 2,130 ministers, 4,188 organized churches, and 208,452 communicants. See their history in vol. xii. in American Church History Series (New York, 1894). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. United Christians of St. Thomas: a body of East Ind- ian Roman Catholics, chiefly found in Travancore. at the southern extremity of India. In 1599 the synod of Diamper (Udiamperur) compelled the ancient Church of St. Thomas Christians (see CI-IRISTIANS or ST. Tnonas) to conform to the Church of Rome, conceding to them a modified Syrian rite. In 1653 nearly all fell away, but were soon after induced in great numbers to return, chiefly by the labors of the Bare- footed Carmelites. At present more than half are of the Latin rite, but a portion retain the Oriental rite. They are chiefly in the vicariate apostolic of Verapoly (Latin rite), reported as having about 300 priests and 233,000 mem- bers. See Germann’s Die ./('L'9'chc der fl’/z.0nzasclz/ristea (1877) ; Assemani, Bt'bZ’l:0t]l/666» 0'm'eataZ'is, iv., p. 2; Silbernagl, 1669'- chea des Orvlcnts ; G. B. Howard, The C’7w"z'sz"1Ia/as of St. Thomas, and t/wa'r L'it/wrgies. Revised by J . J. K.EANE. United Copts: since 1741 the designation of a body of Roman Catholic Copts (native Egyptians) of the Eastern rite. They number (in Egypt) 12,000 or 13,000, and are under a vicar apostolic of their own rite, established (1781) by Pius V I. at Cairo. The United Copts are of two rites, the Egyptian and the Ethiopic or Abyssinian. According to the reports of Roman Catholic missionaries, the latter would appear to be the more numerous. Since 1879 there exists in Egypt a Coptic seminary under the charge of the Jesuits. Their missionaries are also educated at the Propa- ganda Collcge, Rome. See \Nerner‘s ()rbz's .’Z’c/1"l'm"zmz, Calholicus (Freiburg, 1890). Revised by J . J. KEANE. UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH United Evangelical Church: the state church of Prussia; formed by the union of the Lutheran and Re- formed bodies in 1817. United Greek Church: a body of Roman Catholics of Eastern rite, who accept the papal supremacy and the doc- trines of the Roman Church. Their secular clergy are al- lowed to marry, but only before ordination to deaconship. At any time thereafter they are forbidden to contract mar- riage under pain of deposition. Their rites are four in number—the Roumanian, the Ruthenian, the Bulgarian, and the Greek Melchite (Greeks of Syria, etc.). The Melchites proper are estimated to number from 75,000 to 100,000. The United Greeks of Bosnia and Herzegovina are about 265,000. In Austria there are over 2,500,000 United Greeks, mostly of Ruthenian rite, a11d in Hungary 1,500,000. There are some United Russian Greeks of Ruthenian rite in the an- cient dioceses of Chelm and Minsk, and there are about 250,000 in Russian Poland, the remnant of those forced by violence to conform to the orthodox Russian Church in 1839. The few Catholic Bulgarians of European Turkey are found at Constantinople and scattered in small numbers through Thrace and Macedonia. The Greek Catholics of Poland numbered 388,223 in 1887. In Southern Italy and in Sicily there are a few Greek Catholics. See Silbernagl, Kérchen des 0rz'enzfs; the Gerarchzla Caitolica (1895); O. \Verner, S. J., Orbts Terra,9'am Cat/tolicus (1890). J . J . K. United Irishmen : the name of an Irish political society formed to aid GRATTAN (q. 1).) in carrying out his reforms. It was originally a peaceful organization, but about the year 1795, under the influence of THEOBALD WOLFE Tons (q. 1).), it became active in fostering rebellion against the British Gov- ernment. Tone was captured in 1798, but the rebellion was not put down till 1800, and was followed by the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland : the official designation of the British islands since the legisla- tive union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. See GREAT BRITAIN, ENGLAND, IRELAND, Seornmn, and WALES. United Methodist Free Churches : See l\/Inrnomsn. United Nestorians: a body of Roman Catholics of the Syrian rite, more often called CHALDEAN CHRISTIANS (g. 1).), dating from 1553. United Original Seceders: a Presbyterian sect of Scot- land dating from 1820, when a number of ministers of the General Associate Synod refused to reunite with the Asso- ciate Synod. For an account of their origin, with recent statistics, ete., see PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. W. J . B. United Presbyterian Church of North America: a religious denomination which is the result of the union of several bodies. This makes its early history complex and fragmentary. It is the principal American representative of the Dissenting churches of Scotland. In 1751 the Re- formed Presbytery of Scotland sent the Rev. John Cuth- bertson to visit the Covenanters settled in Southeastern Pennsylvania; in 1773 two more ministers followed, and in Mar., 177-l, they organized the Reformed Presbytery of Amer- ica. In 1753 the Associate Synod of Scotland “ missionec ” Messrs. Gellatly and Arnot to those of their faith in the val- ley of the Susquehanna, and in November of the same year they organized the Associate Presbytery of Pennsylvania. Every Covenanter and Seceder, lay and clerical, in the coun- try was a patriot, a large number entered the Revolutionary army, and when national independence was won they de- cided to establish a free church in a free state. As both arties held to the same standards and had been kept apart y the union of Church and state in the fatherland, they united Oct. 31, 1782, and formed the Associate Reformed Synod. Two Associate ministers and three or four congre- gations refused to go into this union, and, re-enforced from Scotland. continued their organization, which grew into a synod. This at the union of 1858 contained 230 ministers, 300 congregations, and 25,000 communicants. By new ar- rivals from Scotland the Covenanting Church was rebuilt, and has (1895) between 100 and 200 ministers. Instead of one church the union made three, and the Covenanters and Seceders continued to recognize a subordination to the mother churches in Scotland. The Associate Reformed Church prospered, and in 1804 formed a delegated General Synod, but as the church members were scattered from Boston to Georgia and W. to the Wabash, and the means of travel were slow and expensive, its meetings called for too formed Church was also early in this field. UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH 351 much money and time; so in 1822 it was dissolved and the Church fell apart into the independent but atliliated synods of New York, the \Vest, and the South, and some twelve or fourteen disaffected ministers passed to the Presbyterian Church. All these synods, Associate and Associate Re- formed, labored diligently in their respective spheres and were reasonably successful. Their principal field of labor was among those of Scotch-Irish descent, but they did what they could for others, and in addition to their home work they all undertook missionary work in foreign countries. Difficulties and prejudices gradually faded away and a yearning came year by year for closer union and co-opera- tion. They were one in origin, one in faith, one in govern- ment, and one in worship, and there could be no sufficient reason why they should not be one in organization. In 1842 a movement was made toward a union, but the negotiations dragged on until May 26, 1858, when the Associate and As- sociate Reformed Synods, except that of the South, which stood aloof because of slavery, united in Pittsburg, Pa., and formed the United Presbyterian Church of North America. The terms of union were the Westminster standards, with the addition of a Testimony containing eighteen items, which it was thought were not sufiiciently stated in the Confession. It holds strictly to the Calvinistic system of theology as set forth in the Westminster Confession, and practices re- stricted communion, requiring the same qualifications in strangers that it does in its own, and confines its praise service to a metrical version of the Psalms of the Bible. It has always insisted upon the most thorough education of its ministers, a collegiate course, and at least three years of theological training. In the latter it is indeed the pioneer in the U. S., for in 1794 the Associate Church established a theological school at Service, in Beaver co., Pa., under Dr. John Anderson. It was the first fully organized school of the kind in the U. S., with a salaried professor, prescribed curriculum, library, and dormitory. The Associate Re- In 1805 it opened in New York a theological seminary under the dis- tinguished Dr. John M. Mason, with eight students. The United Church has under its care two theological seminaries with over a hundred students, seven colleges with more than 2,000 pupils, and several classical schools. It has maintained missions in Trinidad, Syria, China, India, and Egypt, but for the sake of efficiency has latterly concentrated all its force upon the last two. In the Punjaub, in India. its mission em- braces a synod with three p1'esbyteries. 35 foreign mission- aries, over 200 helpers, and 7.000 communicants, and a training-school for native ministers. In Egypt it has a presb_vtery, 38 foreign missionaries, 325 native helpers, con- gregations all along the Nile from Alexandria to Assouan, with over 4,000 members, and over 15,000 scholars in its day schools and 6,000 in the Sabbath-schools. and issues a religious newspaper in Arabic. Its home mission work is well organized, stretching from Boston to San Diego, and employing over 200 ministers. Its freedmen’s board has large schools in several Southern States, and colleges at Knoxville, Tenn.. and Norfolk, Va. It has a large publica- tion house in Pittsburg, which sends forth all needed helps for Sabbath-schools and denominational purposes. The sta- tistics of 1895 show 12 synods, 64 presbyteries, 900 ministers and licentiates, 938 congregations, 117 .236 members, 103.000 Sabbath-school scholars, and contributions for all purposes $1,400,000. Javns B. SCOULLER. United Presbyterian Church of Scotland : a religious denomination, the third in size of the Presbyterian Churches in Scotland, formed in 1847 by the union of the United Se- cession Church and the Relief Church. The larger of these two churches traces its origin back to 1733. The immediate occasion of this first secession from the Church of Scotland was the oppressive exercise of pa- tronage in the “ planting of vacant churches "—-the dissatis- faction caused by this being intensified by the failure of the Church courts to check or punish what many regarded as grave errors in doctrine. In 1712 the right of patrons to present ministers to vacant congregations, of which they had been deprived in 1690, was restored to them by an net of Parliament; and in 1732 the little that had been left to the people of power, in certain circumstances, to elect their own ministers had been taken away by an act of Assembly. which made the elders and Protestant heritors jointly the electoral body in these cases. At the opening of the Synod of Perth and Stirling, Oct. 18, 1732. the retiring moderator. Ebenezer Erskine, preached a sermon in which he com- 352 mented on the recent act of Assembly and on other eccle- siastical proceedings in such terms as to bring upon him the censure of the Synod. He appealed, along with three others who adhered to him, to the General Assembly, but only to receive the rebuke of that court (May, 1733) in its turn. They thereupon tabled a protest against being thus wronged, avowing their purpose to preach the same doc- trines and to testify against defections as before; and on N ov. 16 the connnission of Assembly, to which their case l1ad been referred as one of contumacy (although they were only availing themselves of their legitimate privilege of protest), loosed them from their charges and declared them to be no longer ministers of the Church. Against this sentence these ministers lodged a protestation, maintaining their right to continue the exercise of their ministry though compelled to make “ a secession from the judicatories of the Church,” and appealing to the “ first free, faithful, and re- forming General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.” A few weeks later (Dec. 5, 1733)“ The Four Brethren,” as they were called, Ebenezer Erskine, William YVilson, Alex- ander Moncrieff, and James Fisher, ministers at Stirling, Perth, Abernethy, and Kinclaven respectively, met in a cottage at Gairney Bridge, near Kinross, and after solemn deliberation constituted themselves into a presbytery. This is the point of departure of the new denomination. The Assembly of 1734 empowered the Synod to restore them to their charges, but the evils which they had complained of and for which they had suffered had not been removed, and they could not resile from their secession. Though asso- ciated as a presbytery, they “ agreed that they would not be too sudden in proceeding to any acts of jurisdiction,” and they acted generally with great moderation and caution ; for instance, in the title of the “Act, Declaration, and Testi- mony ” which they put forth in 1736 they designate them- selves “seine Ministe associate together for the exercise of Church-Government . d Discipline in a presbyterial capa- city.” But it soon appeared that there was throughout the country a widespread and increasing sympathy with the attitude assumed by the seceding ministers and the views they expressed. Other ministers joined them ; and a great- er number, without seceding, openly expressed more or less agreement with them. Many of the people rallied round them, and they had to organize congregations and adminis- ter ordinances at the people’s call. Upward of thirty se- ceding congregations had been formed when “The Four,” with four others who had joined them, persisting in their secession, were eventually (May 15, 1740) deposed by the Assembly, and ejected from their churches, in which they had till then continued to preach. “The Associate Presbytery,” as the court of these associ- ated minsters had been named, was converted into “ The Associate Synod,” Oct. 11, 1744, embracing the three Pres- byteries of Edinbugh, Glasgow, and Dunfermline. Shortly after this an unhappy division took place, occasioned by Par- liament in 1745 (doubtless on account of the Jacobite rising of that time) requiring all persons becoming burgesses in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth to take the following oath : “I protest, before God and your Lordships, that I profess and allow with my heart the true religion presently pro- fessed within this realm, and authorized by the laws there- of ; I shall abide thereat, and defend the same to my life’s end, renouncing the Roman religion called Papistry.” The taking of this oath was held by the one party to imply con- donation, if not approval, of the still existing evils which had ‘ led to the secession, and was therefore not to be tolerated in members of their congregations ; the other party denied the alleged implication, and held that the oath might warrant- ably be taken. The stern conscientiousness of all of them expressed itself in an extremely hot contention, and the separation known as The Breach took place Apr. 9, 1747. Both parties claimed to be the true “Associate Synod,” but those opposing the burgess oath came at a later period to call themselves the General Associate Synod. Popularly, however, they were spoken of as Burghers and Antiburgh- ers,1and the memsbers of both denominations were ordi- nari y designated i eceders, especially by outsiders. Thus separated, the two churches remained apart for up- ward of seventy years, a strong feeling of antagonism long existing between them. Toward the end of the century diversity of opinion arose in both Synods on the question of _ the relation of the civil magistrate to matters of religion, and both were -divided into what were popularly called New Light and Old Light sections. The New Lights, cor- responding to the “ voluntaries ” of later times, were largely UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF SCOTLAND in the majority, and secessions of Old Lights took place- some nine congregations leaving the Burgher Synod in 1799 and four leaving the Antiburgher Synod in 1805. Steps were ultimately taken in the direction of union, and in 1820 the Associate and General Associate Synods united to form “The United Secession Church.” The denomination thus incorporated grew and prospered during the twenty-seven years of its existence, taking a prominent part in the so- called voluntary controversy, and initiating and successfully prosecuting important missionary enterprises, but its history was otherwise uneventful. The Relief Church dates from the formation of a presby- tery by three ministers, two of whom had for a considerable time been pastors of ecclesiastically isolated congregations that had been formed in consequence of the intrusion of ministers into charges against the will of the people. Thomas Gillespie, minister at Dunfermline, often regarded as the founder of the Relief Church, had, when minister of the neighboring parish of Carnock, been deposed by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1752, be- cause, with five other members of his presbytery, who were merely censured, he had refused to take part in inducting a minister at Inverkeithin g in the face of the strenuous op- position of the parishioners. Thomas Boston, minister at J edburgh (a son of the author of the well-known Fourfold State), had seceded from the Church of Scotland, in which he held a pastoral charge, to take the oversight of a congre- gation formed in J edburgh by nearly all the people of the parish, dissatisfied by the enforced settlement of a minister. These two met at Colinshurgh, in Fife, for the induction of Thomas Colier as pastor of a congregation formed there in 1760 by reclaimers against the settlement of a minister in the parish; and the three Thomases then organized “ The Presbytery of Belief,” Oct. 22, 1761, “ for,” as they ex- pressed their purpose in their minute, “ the relief of Chris- tians oppressed in their Christian privileges.” The Pres- bytery became "‘ The Relief Synod,” with subordinate presbyteries, in 1773. The name assumed by these dissent- ers was indicative of reaction against oppression. A dis- tinctive feature of this church was liberty of “free com- munion.” Wliile Burghers and Antiburghers were mutually intolerant of attendance at the services of the rival denomi- nation, “visible saints” who were not even Presbyterians were from 1773 permitted by the Relief Church to sit occa- sionally at times with their members at the Lord’s Table. The United Presbyterian Church (colloquially the “ U. P.” Church, its members similarly being called “U. P.’s”), in these its lines of ancestry and in its recent development, has been steadily progressive and increasingly prosperous. 111 1820 the 154 Burgher congregations united with 129 of the 137 Antiburgher congregations to form the United Seces- sion Church. On May 13, 1847, the Church was incorpo- rated under its present name by the union of the entire number of the United Secession congregations (400) with 118 of the 136 Relief congregations. At the end of 1875 these 518 congregations had increased to 620, with 190,242 members; but in 1876 ninety-eight congregations in Eng- land, having over 20,000 members, were, by a friendly re- adjustment, made over to the Presbyterian Church of Eng- land, the religious body in that country which corresponds to and is in close connection with the Free Church of Scot- land. At the end of 1894 the U. P. congregations numbered 578, with a membership of 190,950. The returns for 1894 give 848 Sabbath-schools, with 12,565 teachers and 106,682 scholars, and 810 ministers’ and elders’ classes, attended by 36,803 students. I11 the Church’s foreign mission fields in Jamaica, Trinidad, Old Calabar, Katfraria, India, China, and Japan 150 fully trained agents and about 750 native helpers are at work; 116 congregations have been formed, and 170 are in process of formation, the total membership being about 20,000. The total income of the Church in 1894 was £391,607, the income for congregational purposes being £262,837. There is a Theological Hall at Edinburgh, con- ducted by a principal and four professors. The three large denominations in Scotland are separate, not on account of differences with regard to doctrine, or government, or mode of worship (in all of which, with some diversity of details, they are in substantial agreement), but as a result of the fact that the Church of Scotland is an es- tablished and endowed state Church. The United Presby- terian Church is a voluntary church; it is the belief of the vast majority of its members (although this is not a term of communion) that the civil magistrate, in his magisterial ca- pacity, has nothing to do with matters of religion, that church POLITICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES SCALE OF MILES 200 300 7 . San Al hnio Grconw ich ‘ . R1101?-‘N T - \I‘‘‘’.‘j,,,,..l.-¢m¢ ' Bradley J Hutu, Engr'l, N. 1'. _ -_“h-._ _.'..- UNITED PROVINCES organizations should be independent alike of state support and of state patronage and control. It can not therefore unite with the Church of Scotland unless that church is dis- established and disendowed. The Free Church professes the belief that some kind of state connection is right, and may be obligatory; but practically its position, as shown by the action of a large majority of its mem- bers, differs but slightly from that of the United Presbyterian Church. Like the others, the United Presby- terian Church,has as its standards, subordinate to the Scriptures, the \Vestminster Confession and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms. but adherence to these is professed in view of a Declaratory Act, passed in 1879, which, while reiterating the ex- ception to these standards that the Church has long taken in the line of its “ voluntaryism,” gives an outline of the doctrines which the Church regards as embodying the substance of the faith, and allows liberty of judgment and of teaching in matters outside of these doctrines. The su- preme court of the Church is not a general assembly, but a synod, under which there are twenty-nine presby- teries. Every one who is minister in a charge or is a “pas- tor emeritus” has a seat in the synod, as also has one rep- resentative elder from each congregation, such elder being preferably but not necessarily an elder in that congregation. The United Presbyterian Church was the first of the Pres- byterian Churches in Scotland to permit the use of instru- mental music in public worship (1872), and it has otherwise taken the lead in so-called “ innovations.” The Relief Synod sanctioned a collection of hymns in 1794 and another in 1833. The United Preslrz/terian Hymn-book, issued in 1852, considerably in advance of the Church of Scotland and Free Church collections, was superseded by a new book. the Pres- byterian Hymnal, in 1877. The three Churches have for some time been acting in concert for the production of a common hymn-book, and in May, 1895, the joint committee appointed by them submitted to the three supreme courts the draft of a hymnal designed to be used in Presbyterian services generally. GEORGE M‘ARTIiUR. United Provinces : the seven northern provinces of the NETHERLANDS (q. 2).), united Jan. 23,1579, at Utrecht, for mutual defense. United Provinces of La Plata : See LA PLATA, UNITED PROVINCES OF, and ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. United Secession Cllurcllz a religious body formed in Scotland in 1820 by a reunion of the Associate and General Associate Synods. In 1847 it was united to the present United Presbyterian Church. See PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. United Society of Believers: See SIIAKERR United States: a federal republic composed (1895) of forty-four States, four organized 'I‘erritories. the District of Columbia, Indian Territory, and Alaska; capital, Washing- ton, D. C. GEOGRAPHICAL AND PHYSICAL. The country consists of two detached portions: one, con- taining five-sixths of the area and over 99 per cent. of the plopulation and wealth, occupies the middle portion of the I orth American continent, extending from lat. 24° 20’ to 49° N., and from lon. 66° 48' to 124° 32’ WV. from Greenwich; the other portion, known as the Territory of Alaska, occu- pies the northwestern part of the continent, is very sparsely settled, and almost unexplored. The limits of the main body of the U. S. are as follows: The eastern boundary is the Atlantic coast. The northern. beginning at the east- ern limit of Maine. extends up the St. Croix river, thence runs northward until it strikes the St. John river, which it follows around the northern end of Maine ; then it runs along the highlands which separate the St. John river from the streams flowing into the St. Lawrence river, and follows them to the head of the Connecticut river. This stream serves as the boundary southward to the 45th parallel. along which it runs westward to the St. Lawrence river. It then follows this river, winding among its many islands, to Lake Ontario, passes through the Great Lakes and connect- ing streams to a point near the head of Lake Superior; Obverse. UNITED STATES 353 then leaving the lake, it follows a chain of small lakes and connecting streams to the Lake of the \Voods, W. of which point it follows the 49th parallel to Puget Sound. The western coast is the western boundary of the country. On the south the line is formed by the Gulf of Mexico. the Rio Grande, and thence by a series of parallels and great circles .,;”,-"I------LI ' ~-3's!-Ill-I--I-\§ ‘=i"—=i&—-_—--_-_———/';;:),.>-‘ii---------.-\¢—'~=‘ ‘-F ----- ‘*4-T—=~"' '“ _ vii $5 I 1-§;11u b;.'~q-'_- __ Great seal of the U. S. to the Pacific coast, which it reaches just S. of the city of San Diego. The boundaries of Alaska are as follows: Be- ginning at the southern point of Prince of Wales island, the line ascends Portland channel to the 56th parallel of N. latitude; thence runs parallel to the coast and 10 marine leagues inland therefrom as far as the oint of intersection of the 141st meridian. thence along tie 141st meridian to the Arctic Ocean. The western limit passes through a point in Bering Strait on the parallel of 65° 30' N. latitude, at its intersection by the meridian which passes midway be- tween the islands of Krusenstern and Ratmanof. and pro- ceeds due N. into the Arctic Ocean. The same limit, be- ginning at the same initial point, also proceeds in a course nearly S. W. through Bering Strait and Bering Sea. passing midway between the northwest point of the island of St. Law- rence and the southwest point of Cape Choukatski to the me- ridian of 172; thence southwesterly, including the island of Attu and the Copper island of the Korandorski group in the North Pacific Ocean, to the meridian of 193, including the whole of the Aleutian islands E. of that meridian. The following tables summarize the extent of the ocean shore- line and of the land, lake, a.nd river boundaries of the main portion of the country (the boundaries of Alaska, especially upon the seaboard, are not sufiiciently well known to war- rant giving similar measurements) : OCEAN SH OR E-LINE. Includlng bays, Excluding Excluding islands, COAsTS' islands, etc. islands. bays, etc. NORTH ATLANTIC : Miles. Miles. Miles. Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,486 784 27 8 New Hampshire . . . . . . . . . -19 41 18 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . 886 622 286 Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 2-15 45 Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 240 104 New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980 50 None. New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 300 120 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 106 23 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 411 33 SOUTH ATLANTIC: Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 348 116 North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . 1,611 1.039 320 South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . 756 267 220 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 480 128 Florida, east coast . . . . . . 2,474 1,034 -172 l\L[EXIC‘-AN GULF: Florida, west coast . . . . .. 1.562 383 674 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 247 58 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287' 225 88 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,250 1.256 552 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,330 940 392 PACIFIC : California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.477 1.063 r713 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 4-12 392 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,332 1.028 238 North Atlantic coast . . . . . . 6.150 2.799 907 South Atlantic coast . . . . . . 6.209 3.218 .256 Mexican Gulf coast . . . . . . . . 5,744 3.551 1,764 Pacific coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,251 2,533 1,343 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,354 12,101 5,270 420 354 UNITED LAND, LAKE, AND RIVER BOUNDARY. Length, miles. Along the 49th parallel to Lake of_the Woods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,275 Lake of the \Voods to Lake Superior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Lake Superior to river St. Mary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 River St. Mary to Lake Huron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Lake Huron to river St. Clair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River and Lake St. Clair and river Detroit to Lake Erie . . . . . . . 80 Lake Erie to Niagara. river. ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Niagara river to Lake 011021.110... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Lake Ontario to St. Lawrence river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160 St. Lawrence river to New York State line (near lat. 45°) . . . . . . 120 Along lat. 45° to Hall‘s stream. . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Hall‘s stream and highlands to Mame State hne . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40 \Vest line of Maine to St. Francis river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 St. Francis river to St. John river ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 St. John river to New Brunswick hne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 ‘Vest line of New Brunswick to head of St. Croix river . . . . . . . . 90 St. Croix river to Passamaquoddy Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Boundary toward Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,700 Rio Grande to lat. 31° 47’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,420 Along lat. 31° 47’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 South line to lat. 31° 20’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Along lat. 31° 20’ to lon. 111° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160 From lat. 31° 20’ and lon. 111° to Colorado river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Colorado river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Colorado river to the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Boundary toward Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,105 Total ocean, land, lake, and river boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,075 Dhnensions and Area.—Greatest extent (excepting Alas- ka) E. and W., 3,100 miles; N. and S., 1,780 miles. Area (including Alaska, 570,000 sq. miles), 3,595,600 sq. miles. Areas of States and Terre't0m'es.—-'.l‘he following table gives the areas of the States and Territories (according to the U. S. census report of 1890) and the total area of the ' country (exclusive of Alaska) : STATES AND TERRL STATES AND TERRI- Toiims. Am‘ TORIES. Am Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,025,600 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,510 : llgevaglla . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118,700 . ' _ _ _ _ _ ' _ . . _ H 52 250 ew amps ire . . . . . . 5305 ij.?Zb()a‘I$a’ ' ' _ . _ _ _ 113‘0<30 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . 7,815 Arkansa-s '.‘.'.'.'.'.'.'... .1 . . 531850 New Me-‘I100 --------- -- 128580 California . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158,360 Ilew YOPIP ': ' - - - - - ~ -- 42\1'Z0 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103.925 horth Omohna - - - - - - - - 5~»2'~>0 Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,990 NOT-‘h Dakota’ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' - - 701795 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,050 Ojlllol ' ' ' - - - - - ' - ' - ' - - - -- ‘$3368 District of Columbia. .. 70 O K a loma - - - - - - - - - - ' - 94030 Florida ............... .. 58,680 OPQg?1?-- - - -. --------- - - 993 Georgia .............. . . 59,475 P°nnb>'1"&n1a ------- - ' 4-5215 Idaho 84 800 Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . 1,200 Illinois‘ - ' I ' ' ' ' ' I I ' I ' ' ' . ' 56-‘6-50 S0111‘/ll Carolina . . . . . . . . 30,57 1ndiana;:::::::::::::::: 35350 south Dam ------- ~ 77550 Indian Territory . _ _ _ ' _ _ 31,400 Pennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42,900 Iowa ................. . . 56,025 Texas --------------- ' - 26°» ' (50 Kansas .............. . . 82,080 Utah ---------------- - - 849‘? Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,400 I§?m.1°.nb ' ' ' ' ' - ' ' - - - - ' - 95?” Louisiana ............ .. 48 720 I 1“g1[%1° ------------- - - 42,400 Blaine . . I _ _ ‘Waslnn_gton_. . . . . . . . . . . Maryland '.:I'.'. .1 .11 . . . 121210 W?“ V“‘.»%' "119 ------- -- 24780 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . 8,315 W;1ScOn.Sm ' - - : - - ' - - - - - ' 5,2340 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58,915 “ yommg - ' ' ‘ - ' - - - - - ~ - 9‘ i890 Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83,365 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.810 Delaware Bay . . . . . . . . 620 Missouri, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69,415 Raritan Bay and lower Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 146,080 New York Bay . . . . . . 100 Play/steal Fcatmcs.--Tlie main body of the U. S. presents two great systems of uplift. One is in the East near the At- lantic coast, and is known as the Appalachian system ; the other, much higher, broader and more complex, occupies the western third of the country, and is known as the Cor- dillcran system. The A]2palac7i'z?ans.—The Appalachian system extends from Canada southwesterly into Alabama. The base from which it rises, known as the Atlantic Plain, has in New England an elevation of some 300 or 400 feet at the base of the mountains. Toward the southwest, this plain becomes broader, and at the foot of the mountains is much more ele- vated, rising in North Carolina to an altitude of about 1,000 feet. The northern part of the Appalachian system is sharply distinguished in character from the southern part. In New England and Northern New York—that is, E. of the Hudson river and N. of the Mohawk river-——the system is represented by isolated groups of mountains and by north and south ridges. Of the former type are the Adirondacks of Northern New York, the White Mountains of New I-lampshire, and the broken, irregular hills of Maine. Of the latter type are the Green hlountains of Vermont and the Berkshire Hills of Massachusetts. The most important of these in point of altitude are the WVhite Mountains, which rise in the highest summit, Mt. Washington, to an altitude STATES of 6,293 feet, with several .other summits in its immediate vicinity approaching 6,000 feet. (See WHITE l\’lOUN'1‘A1NS.) Among the Adirondacks the dominant peak is Mt. Marcy, with an altitude of 5,379 feet. (See Anmounaox l\'lOUN- TAINS.) Among the Green Mountains the highest peaks are Mts. Killington and Mansfield, 4,380 and 4,389 feet respec- tively (see GREEN MOUNTAINS), and in the Berkshire Hills, Mt. Greylock, in the northwestern corner of Massachusetts, rises far above its fellows, with an altitude of 3,505 feet. In Maine the highest summit, so far as known, is Mt. Ka- tahdin, elevation 5,200 feet. S. and W. of the Hudson river, extending through New York, Pennsylvania, Mary- land, Virginia, ‘\/Vest Virginia, the Carolinas, Eastern Ken- tucky, Tennessee, Northern Georgia, and Alabama, the Ap- palachian system presents a different type. The eastern member of the system, which fronts the Atlantic Plain, is known in Pennsylvania as South Mountain, and in the States farther S. as the Blue Ridge. This is throughout most of its course a single ridge, having an altitude in Pennsylvania of less than 1,000 feet. It rises at the gap cut by the Potomac river at Harper’s Ferry to some 1,500 feet above sea-level, and farther S., in Central Virginia it reaches altitudes of 4,000 feet, as in Stonyman, 4,031, and the peaks of Otter, near Lynchburg, 4,001 feet. In North Carolina the character of this ridge changes. It becomes a plateau, with an escarpment to the S. E. and a gentle slope to the N. I/V., this escarpment having an average elevation of about 4,000 feet. Upon this escarpment and its western slope stand numerous ridges and groups of mountains trending, so far as any trend can be detected, in a northeast and southwest direction. They cover the western portion of North Carolina, extending slightly into Northern Georgia, and among them are found countless peaks exceeding 5,000 feet in altitude, while one short range, known as the Black Mountains, contains several peaks exceeding 6,000 feet. Among them is Mt. Mitchell, which, with an altitude of 6,688 feet, is the highest summit E. of the Rocky Mountains. W. of the Blue Ridge stretches from Pennsylvania to Ala- bama a broad valley—the Appalachian. It is intersected throughout its entire extent by ranges and ridges, each fol- lowing the general direction of the valley. These ranges are narrow and abrupt in slope, with level tops extending for scores of miles, except where cut through here and there by water gaps. The streams generally follow the valleys be- tween these ridges. In some places the water gaps are so frequent as to reduce the ridges to lines of knobs. Rising from this valley at its northwestern limit is an escarpment, known in Pennsylvania as the Allegheny Mountains, in Maryland and \Vest Virginia as the Allegheny Front, and in Southwestern Virginia and Eastern Tennessee as the Cum- berland Mountain. From the summit of this escarpment a plateau slopes gently to the N., terminating at the Allegheny and Ohio rivers, and limited farther S. by the Blue Grass Region of Kentucky and Tennessee. The escarpment ranges in altitude from 2,500 or 2,800 feet in Pennsylvania to 4,000 feet in West Virginia, diminishing again toward the south- ward. In most localities it is so deeply scored by streams that there is little except the skeleton of the plateau re- maining, its form being that of a succession of abrupt ridges and gorges; the summits of the ridges are nearly all upon the same level, betraying the former altitude of the plateau. In some places, however, considerable areas of the summit have remained intact. This feature is known as the Alle- gheny plateau in New York, Pennsylvania, and West Vir- ginia, and as the Cumberland plateau in Tennessee. It ex- tends southward to Central Alabama, and dies away into the low country. See 1-\PPALACHIAN l\’lOUNTAINS. The ill/L'ssc‘ssz';1)]n' Valley/.—Bctween the Appalachian sys- tem and the Room MOUNTAINS (q. o.) stretches a broad val- ley, the southern and much the greater portion of which is drained by the Mississippi river and other streams into the Gulf of Mexico, the northern portion into the Great Lakes, and a smaller area into Hudson Bay, by way of the Red River of the North. Speaking broadly, this country is a plain, but looking at it closely it presents irregularities of surface, many of which are significant. The northern por- tion, near the shore of the Great Lakes, especially upon the upper peninsula of Michigan, Northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota, has been greatly disturbed by the agency of the great continental glacier which in ancient times covered it. In certain regions this glacier eroded the surface, carrying off all the softer rock and leaving the harder and tougher portions standing in the form of miniature mountains, as Keweenaw Point and the Marquette iron range in Northern ' *1 .0f§§(>§ he Woods ‘ ' , > '4 ‘2 HYPSQMiETRTC MAP _v . OF ‘ ‘ E ' ‘ ‘ . ~3AL[\‘I\E‘vSc1?g>P:l. UNITED STATES SCALE OF MILES 200 300 100 EXPLANATION Sea Level to 50011. E 200"fl- to 50001?‘ :: ] 500 ft. to /oooft. [:1 soooft. to sooofl. 5 I000 ft. to 2000ft. :1 Elevation over 8000 ft, i Below Sea Level I J Longitude ‘ Greenwich Brudlq; .j- Mm, Enyri. N. Y. UNITED Michigan. In other parts, especially farther S. and W., the glacier deposited material in the form of drumlins and moraines. In Southern Ohio and Indiana streams tributary to the Ohio river cut their courses deeply, leaving consider- able relief in the form of bluffs. The Ohio, Mississippi, Missouri, and other streams are also bordered by high bluffs throughout much of their course. The greatest relief in the Mississippi valley is afforded by the Ozark Hills. These, like the Appalachian Mountains, present two different characters of surface. S. of the Arkansas river, in Western Arkansas and Southern Indian Territory, they consist of a group of narrow, abrupt ridges, which in spite of their serpentine course have a general E. and IV. trend. They rise to altitudes of 2,500 to 3,000 feet above the sea. N. of the river the Ozark Hills consist of a plateau presenting an es- carpment to the S., with a gentle slope N., the surface being deeply scored by streams. From the Mississippi and lower Missouri rivers the country rises gradually in a long incline over a breadth of more than 500 miles to the base of the Rocky Mountains. This great incline, known as the Great Plains, extends from the northern to the southern boundary of the country, and forms one of its grandest features. Its eastern base has an altitude ranging from sea-level to per- haps 2,000 feet, while at the base of the Rocky Mountains the plains range from 4,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea. The Rocky .M02mz.‘a.z'ns.—-This system is a part of the great Cordilleran mountain system which borders the Pacific coast through North and South America, extending from the Aleutian islands and Alaska through British Columbia, the U. S., Mexico, and the Central American republics, and thence, as the Andes, through South America to Cape Horn. In the U. S. this system has its greatest breadth and com- plexity. It extends from lon. 105° to 124°, and comprises an area which may be roughly estimated at one-third that of the country, or in the neighborhood of 1,000,000 sq. miles. The mountain ranges stand upon a plateau, the eastern slope of which is the Great Plains. This plateau has an altitude ranging from 4,000 to 10,000 feet, being highest in Colorado and diminishing in elevation to the N. and S. The great rivers here indicate by their courses the directions of slope of the plateau upon which the mountains stand. The region may be divided for purposes of description into a number of districts, the Stony Mountains, the Park Ranges, the Plateau region, the Great Basin, the Cascades and Sierra Nevada, the Pacific valley, and the Coast Ranges. The Stony Mountains form the eastern member of this system, front- ing the plains in Montana, Idaho, and \Vyoming. They con- sist of a number of ranges, generally parallel, and trending slightly IV. of N. and E.. of S. In Montana few of the peaks exceed 12,000 feet, while the general altitude of the ranges here is 9,000 or 10,000 feet. In NVyoming, one of the mem- bers of this sub-system, the I/Vind River Range, which sepa- rates the head of the Big Horn from Green river, rises to nearly 14,000 feet. In Southern \/Vyoming the Stony Moun- tains disappear, and are succeeded by a broad plateau hav- ing an average altitude of fully 8,000 feet. This break in the continuity of the ranges is traversed by the Union Pacif- ic Railroad, so that the traveler by this route crosses most of the Rocky Mountain region without passing among mountains. In Southern Wyoming, near the Colorado boundary, the Park Ranges rise from the plateau, and in Colorado they reach their greatest altitude and complexity. Here are a score of mountains exceeding 14,000 feet in height, and hundreds exceeding 13,000 feet, and here also the plateau from which they spring attains its greatest alti- tude. In these high mountains are the head branches of the Platte, Rio Grande, Arkansas, and Grand rivers, the lat- ter a fork of the Colorado river. Farther southward in New Mexico the ranges begin to die away, and in the neighbor- hood of Santa Fé their continuity disappears. In Utah there is a range which is in the nature of a spur from the Stony Mountains, known as the \Vasatch Range. It extends S. along the eastern border of Great Salt Lake and its system of tributary lakes to the central part of the Territory. Plateau Rcgion.—Tlie region drained by the Colorado is hardly paralleled on the earth. It consists of cafions and of plateaus whose surfaces are horizontal or but slightly in- clined and terminated by cliffs. All streams flow in canons ——deep, narrow gorges with precipitous and even vertical walls. Besides these cut by living streams, there are many in which at ordinary times no water flows. so that in many places the plateau is a mere skeleton of narrow, fiat ridges, separated by equally narrow, precipitous gorges. Of these cafions, the series which has been cut by the Colorado is the STATES 35*“ most remarkable. It culminates in the Grand Canon in Northern Arizona, which at its deepest part exceeds 6.000 feet. From summit to summit of the plateau the distance is in many places from 10 to 12 miles, the walls descending from top to bottom of the gorge by a series of precipitous steps. The Great Bc.sin.—\V. of the Wasatch Range, comprising_ parts of Utah, Nevada, California, and Oregon, is a region which, owing to its deficient rainfall. has no natural system of drainage. It is, in fact, not a single basin, but a vast number of basins, most of which have no connection by drainage lines with other basins. The streams which flow down from the mountains on its expanse sink into the earth or are evaporated. This basin is intersected by many mountain ranges, trending generally parallel in a direction nearly N. and S. Their bases are buried deeply in the de- tritus worn down from their sides and deposited in the in- tervening valleys. The principal basins among the many which are found on its surface are those of the GREAT SALT LAKE (q. 1).), at the west base of the Wasatch Range, and those of the Carson and Humboldt at the east base of the Sierra Nevada. See GREAT BASIN. Cascades and S'2Tcr'ra.—Ti'avei'sing I/Vashington, Oregon, and California is a system of mountains known in its north- ern part as the Cascade Range and in the southern as the Sierra Nevada. The former is a volcanic plateau. from which rise numerous cones to altitudes of 12,000 to 14,440 feet. Among these are Mts. Rainier, Shasta, and Hood, 14,444, 14,350, and 11.225 feet respectively. (See CASCADE RANGE.) The Sierra Nevada rises with an abrupt, precipi- tous front to the E., and a long, deeply eroded slope to the W. The altitude, which in the northern part of California is perhaps 12.000 feet, increases southward until near its southern end it has many peaks from 14,000 to 15,000 feet. From this point it descends rapidly in altitude, swings around to the S. and joins with the Coast Ranges. (See SIERRA NEvAi)A.) IV. of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada lies a long valley trending parallel to the coast, which in \Yash- ington is occupied partly by Puget Sound and several minor streams; in Oregon by the Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue rivers, and in California by the Sacramento and its tributar_v, the San Joaquin. This valley is the gr'eat wheat-field of the Pacific coast. Separating it from the coast is a series of ranges and ridges, known collectively as the Coast Ranges. In Northwestern \Vashington a part of them are known as the Olympic Mountains, and exceed 8,000 feet. In Oregon these ranges are of little importance, but in Northwestern California they rise again to a considerable height. The system is broken through by the Bay of San Francisco, rises again to the S., and in Southern California reaches a height of 3.000 to 4,000 feet. AZtz'fudc.—Tlie mean elevation of the U. S., excluding Alaska, is about 2,500 feet. The areas of the different zones of elevation above sea-level are given in the following table : Zones, feet. Areas. sq. m. Zones, feet. Areas. sq. m. 0 to 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . 200.510 1.000 to 2.000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 636.596 100 to 500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388.305 2.000 to 3.000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 262.635 500 to 1,000 ........... .. 545,770 3.000 to 4,000 .......... .. 1s2,s00 —___- —— 4,000 to 5,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 263.830 0 to 1,000 . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,133.835 5.000 to 6.000 . . . . . . . . . . .. 215.160 —-— ————- 6,000 to 7,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 159,515 1,000 to 1,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390.080 7.000 to 8,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.109 1,500 to 2,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240,516 8.000 to 9,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.000 —— ———- 9.000 to 10.000 . . . . . . . . . . .. 19.110 Above 10,000 . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,260 River S}/sfcm.s.—Tlie river systems may be grouped into four grand divisions, viz., the Northern Lake, Atlantic. Gulf, and Pacific. The first consists of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, together with their connecting and tributary streams, the water of which is poured by the St. Lawrence into the Atlantic Ocean. These lakes and the St. Lawrence river form a navigable system which is ex- ceeded in the U.S. only by the Mississippi river and its tributaries, and bears an amount of trailic which in bulk is equaled by that of few \vater\vays. From the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the head of Lake Superior is nearly 2.400 miles. The followine‘ table presents the area, dimensions, I C‘ X depth, and elevation of the Great Lakes: I I . . P Area, square Length. Breadth, Depth, Elm anon. LAI\Ls' miles. miles. miles. feet. feet. Lake Superior . . . . . . . . . . . 31.200 -112 107 1,008 002 Lake Huron, . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,000 263 101 02 581 Lake Michigan . . . . . . . . . . 22,450 345 81 hr 0 581 St. Clair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 396 29 . . 19 576 Erie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.900 250 60 910 59% Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,240 190 54 738 2-1. 356 UNITED With this system may be associated for convenience the Red River of the North, which drains a small area in Minnesota and the Dakotas northward through Lake Winnipeg into Hudson Bay. The entire system embraces 175,340 sq. miles of territory. See articles on the Great Lakes severally, NIAGARA FALLS. and Sr. Lxwaexcn Rrvna AND GULF. The second division comprises all those streams which flow E. and S. into the Atlantic, including all those of the Appalachian Mountains. These are all comparatively short streams, navigable only a short distance above their mouths. Among them are the Penobscot, Kennebec, Con- necticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, Rap- pahannock, James, Roanoke, Neuse, Cape Fear, Pedee, San- tee, Edisto, Savannah, Ogeechee, Altamaha, and St. Johns. The area of this division is estimated at 276,890 sq. miles. The third division embraces the Mississippi system, includ- ing the great river with all its tributaries, and also the streams of W'estern Georgia, W'estern Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, which flow into the Gulf of Mexico. The total area of this division is 1,725,980 sq. miles, or more than half the territory of the U. S., excluding Alaska, and of this great area 1,240,039 sq. miles is drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries, the principal of which, with their several drainage areas, are as follows: River. Drainage area. Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 527,155 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 201,720 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185,671 Red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89,970 Among other tributaries which elsewhere would be im- portant, but are here of secondary importance, are the Min- nesota, Des1noines, Illinois, and Yazoo. Of the rivers emptying directly into the Gulf the most important are the Suwanee, Appalachicola, Mobile, Pearl, Sabine, Trinity, Bra- zos, Colorado of Texas, Nueces, and Rio Grande. (See Mrs- SISSIPPI, Mrssounr, OHIO, ete., rivers.) The fourth division, that of the Pacific, has an area of 619,240 sq. miles. The principal rivers of this system are the Columbia, with its great branch, the Snake; the Sacramento; and the Colorado of the West. (See COLUMBIA, Sxcnxunnro, and COLORADO rivers.) Besides the areas enumerated is to be considered the Great Basin, which has an area of 228,150 sq. miles. AZas7to;.——Tl1e topographic features of Alaska are very simple. The Cordilleran system passes up through Canada, following the Pacific coast, and enters Alaska in its south- eastern part. This portion of Alaska is entirely occupied by these mountains. Proceeding to the N. W., they hug the coast closely as it swings around to the W. and S. W., ulti- mately dropping into the sea, from which their summits emerge as the islands of the Aleutian Archipelago. Their greatest elevation in Alaskan territory, so far as definitely known, is Mt. St. Elias, 18,100 feet. N. of the Cordilleras is mainly a great plain, stretching northward to the Arctic Ocean. The great river is the Yukon, which, rising in the mountains of Southeastern Alaska and British Columbia, flows N. and then \/V. to the Bering Sea. In length and vol- ume of water it ranks among the great rivers of the conti- nent. See Amsxx and YUKON RIVER. Geology:-The most ancient part of the U. S., from a geo- logical point of view, is the northern portion of the Appa- lachian Mountains, together with the western portion of the Atlantic Plain in the Southern States, including the Blue Ridge. The eastern limit of this ancient Archaean region is indicated by the fall line on the rivers flowing to the At- lantic Ocean. At this point the rivers pass from ancient to recent rocks, from hard to soft rocks, and the point is marked by falls or rapids in the streams, which put an end to navi- gation from the sea and which have been utilized for water- power. This fall line is at Trenton on the Delaware, Phila- delphia on the Schuylkill, Georgetown on the Potomac, Richmond on the James, Columbia on the Santee, and Au- gusta on the Savannah. Seaward from these points the surface rock is of Tertiary age, and these Tertiary beds, ex- tending around the southern end of the Appalachian system and up the Mississippi valley to Cairo, occupy much of Ar- kansas and Texas, and all of Louisiana. The upper part of the Mississippi valley is occupied mainly by the Carbonifer- ous, Devonian, and Silurian formations, the first being pre- dominant. The Great Plains are more recent, being mainly covered by Cretaceous and Jura Trias. The Rocky Moun- tain region is one of extended and violent volcanic action. By the slow action of internal stresses and strains, the moun- tain ranges have been slowly upheaved, and violent action has resulted in the pouring forth owl’ lava which has spread STATES over enormous tracts, as the Snake river plains of Idaho. Much of this work is recent, and in the Yellowstone Park in \Vyoming the remains of its action are still visible in the form of thousands of hot springs and geysers. Sec GEOLOGY, and especially the geological maps of the U. S. accompany- ing that article; also the articles on the various geological periods, formations, and groups. CZt'mctte.—-Tlie climate of the U. S. ranges widely in dif- ferent parts, since the country stretches over twenty-four de- grees of latitude and from sea-level to 15,000 feet elevation. With every variation of surface it possesses every variety of climate, from that of the tropics to that of the Arctic regions. It is at the same time one of the hottest and one of the cold- est countries ; one of the wettest and one of the driest. Tc'm_pemL"m'e.-—The temperature ranges with the latitude and the altitude. Along the Gulf coast and on the lower Colorado the mean annual temperature is 75° F., thence it diminishes until at the northern boundary it falls below 40°, while on the high peaks of the Rocky Mountains it is far below freezing-point. The average annual temperature of the whole country is estimated at 53° F. In the eastern part, which has a moist climate and an ample rainfall, the range between summer and winter is not so great, but in the Rocky Mountain region, where the altitude is great and the climate arid, the range is extensive. R0m.'nfaZZ.——Tl1e rainfall differs greatly in different sec- tions. Over the eastern half it is abundant, over most of the western half it is scanty, and on the northern part of the Pacific coast it is often excessive. The South Atlantic and Gulf coasts receive an annual rainfall exceeding 60 inches ; thence northward the recipitation diminishes gradually until about the Great akes it commonly does not exceed 30 inches. It diminishes also westward on the slope of the plains, and over most of the Rocky Mountain region it ranges from 10 to 20 inches, being naturally greater on the mountains and less on the valleys and plateaus. In the Great Basin and Southwestern Arizona it is commonly less than 10 inches, and in some localities for years no rain falls. On the northern Pacific coast the rainfall is very heavy, in some localities exceeding in certain years 100 inches, while in the Pacific valley in Oregon and \/Vashington it common- ly ranges from 40 to 50 inches. The average annual rainfall on the country as a whole is estimated at 267 inches. Over the eastern half of the country the winter rainfall exceeds the summer. The same is the case in so much higher de- gree on the Pacific coast that the winter is locally known as the rainy season and the summer as the dry season. In the Rocky Mountain region, however, these conditions are re- versed. Of the scanty rainfall the greater part falls in sum- mer, and the winter is practically dry. because in winter the ranges near the Pacific coast drain the moisture from the air-currents, while in summer these currents carry most of their moisture over these ranges and deposit it on the moun- tains and plateaus farther E. See CLIMATE and METEOR- OLOGY. Flam.-—The flora of the U. S., as might be inferred from the wide range of soil, topography, and climate, is both rich and varied. Tropic species are found in the extreme south, in Florida, Texas, California, and Arizona, and near the northern border and on the high mountains boreal species are found. Throughout the greater part of the country the species are those of the north temperate zone, and are, to a great extent, peculiar to North America. The whole num- ber of indigenous species, exclusive of the lower crypto- grams, probably amounts to 5,000, many of which have a wide range. The number of woody species is not less than 800, and over 400 are large enough to be called trees, 250 of which are common. Of the larger and more important, ex- cluding all the smaller and rarer ones, and also those trop- ieal forms found only along the extreme southern border, there are about 120 species in sufficient abundance to have economic importance. Twelve of these occur 200 feet high, and five or six are sometimes 300 or more feet. About 50 of the 120 species belong to the Comfcrcc. Compared with Europe the local fioras are poorer in the actual number of species but vastly richer in trees, many of which belong to older types. The hickories, sequoias, magnolias, liquidam- bar, sassafras, ete., so abundant or noteworthy in the New World, are only found fossil in the Old. The U. S. has con- tributed a few species to the useful plants of cultivation. Many valuable varieties of grasses have originated from na- tive species. Near the Atlantic coast and along the southern borders European explorers found maize, squashes, tobacco, and other useful plants in cultivation among the Indians. UNITED STATES. '7' --._-\~:\\“ ~ \?\‘‘\\‘‘I’\ Q . / Mean annual rainfall in inches. UNITED The forests are _mainly confined to the eastern, well-wa- tered portion of the country. The Atlantic States and those bordering the Gulf westward as far as Central Texas are mainly covered with heavy forests, except where cleared by man. This region includes many of the States of the Mis- sissippi valley, its western limit following roughly the line between Oklahoma and Indian Territory and the western boundary of Missouri as far N. as the mouth of the Kansas river, whence it turns E., excludes the prairies of Northern Missouri, and passes across Southern Illinois, Northern Indi- ana, and Southern Wisconsin. In Minnesota the line may be said to follow the course of the Minnesota river, and near its head it turns N., following the eastern edge of the Red river valley to the Canadian border. This limit is not a def- inite line, but a broad belt of country, in which the forests gradually become thinner until they disappear. The plains are treeless, except a narrow belt along the watercourses, and are covered with grasses, grading in the more arid re- gions into artemesias and cacti. In the Rocky Mountain region, excepting in the extreme N. W., there are no for- ests, tree vegetation being found, as a rule, only upon the mountains. The valleys and plateaus are covered in the north with artemesias and other desert shrubs, and in the south with cacti, Spanish bayonet, and other plants peculiar to the desert. In Western Washington and Oregon and on some of the elevated plateaus and valleys of I/Vestern Mon- tana, the rainfall is sufficient to induce forest growth. This is especially the case W. of the Cascade Range, where the rainfall is superabundant and the forests are luxuriant. It is estimated that altogether, allowing not only for those re- gions naturally devoid of forests, but those which have been cleared by man, 38 per cent. of the country, or a little over one-third, excluding Alaska, is covered with tree growth. In the low country bordering the Atlantic and Gulf plain the prevalent timber is pine, of various species; in the South the long-leaved, short-leaved, and loblolly pines, in the North the white pine. In the Appalachian Mountains and the upper Mississippi valley, broad-leaved, deciduous trees, oaks, chestnuts, walnuts, poplars, and cherry predominate; and about the lakes and generally in the northern part of the country, pines, firs. spruces, and larches are most abundant. In Western \/Vashington and Oregon, and in the Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada, the forests consist mainly of coniferous trees. In the latter regions the forest growth has its greatest development. In the Sierra are found the gigantic sequoia and sugar pines, and on the Coast Ranges are found redwoods. See FORESTRY and the names of indi- vidual trees. l7'mma.—I11 general, the fauna is the same as that of North America, which is especially rich in fresh-water forms, for the reason, doubtless, that North America has been a continent ever since the Carboniferous period. The species of vertebrata described number about 2,250, the principal of which may be classified as follows : l\Iammalia, 310; Aves, 756 ; Reptilia, 257 ; Batraehia, 101 ; Pisces, 816. The Mollusca found in rivers and lakes number 1.034 spe- cies; about 400 more are terrestrial and air-breathers; the marine species are very numerous, but nothing approaching a complete enumeration is possible. Of the number of spe- cies in the inferior division of the animal kingdom only the rudest estimates can be made. Of the larger quadrupeds, the buffalo, once extremely abundant on the plains and in the Rocky Mountain region, is now practically extinct. The elk or wapiti, several species of deer, and the antelope are still found in unsettled regions. The black cinnamon and grizzly bears are found away from the haunts of man, and on the plains and among the mountains wolves of sev- eral species are abundant. POPULATION AND Rxcns. The census of the U. S. is taken, under a provision of the Constitution, every ten years. The work is done under a superintendent, with headquarters in \Vashington. The country is divided into districts, of which at the census of 1890 there were 175, each under the control of a supervisor, who reported directly to the superintendent. Each super- visor’s district was divided into a large number of enumera- tion districts, the estimated population of which was in no case greater than 4,000, and to each was assigned an enu- merator. A house-to-house and farm-to-farm canvass was made in the month of June. The results are tabulated in the otlice in 'Washington. See CENSUS. P0})QtZ(tt’iO7b.——Tl1O population June 1, 1890, was 62,622,250, showing a rate of increase of about 25 per cent. in the ten STATES 357 years preceding. This total does not include the population of Alaska, or Indians living on reservations or in tribal relations. Adding these the population closely approxi- mated 63,000,000. The density of population, counting all the inhabitants and the entire area of the country, was 1737 per square mile. The following table shows the population at each census, the rate of increase, and the average number of inhabitants per square mile: CENSUS. Population . £3-l_ec:snet' Density. 1790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 929,214 4'75 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,308,483 35'10 6'-11 1810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7.2‘39,881 3638 3'62 1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9.633.822 33'07 4'82 1830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,866,020 3355 6'25 1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,069,453 3267' 8'29 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,191,876 358?’ 7'7 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,443.321 35'58 1039 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,-"558.3'i'1 233 '63 10‘? 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.155783 30'08 13 '92 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.622,250 24'8()' 17'37 The Settled Area.—Adopting the census definition of a settled country, that is, one which has a population of two or more to the square mile, the settled area in 1890 comprised nearly 2,000,000 square miles, or somewhat more than half the area of the entire country, and about two-thirds of its area, excluding Alaska. The following table shows the set- tled area at each census, and the proportion which it bore to the total area: SETTLED AREA AT EACH CENSUS. CENQUS Settled area, Proportion of settled to ‘ “' square miles. total area. per cent. 1790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239,935 29 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305,708 37 1810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407.945 20 1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508.714 25 1830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632.71?’ 31 18-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807,292 39 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979.249 33 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,194,754 39 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,2T2,2I . 35 1-: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,509,570 44 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,947.285 5-1 Center of P0puZa{'zTon.—Tl1e center of population is the center of gravity of the population, each individual being supposed to have the same weight and to press downward with a force proportional to his distance from that center. The movements of this point from census to census consti- tute a net resultant of all the movements of population. The following table, with the accompanying map. shows this movement since the first census. In a century the cen- ter has moved well into Indiana from a position near Balti- more, keeping all the time close to the 39th parallel : POSITIOl\T OF THE (“EI\"I‘ER OF POPULATION. 790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ¢.° 165’ N. lat., 76° 112' IV. lon. 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39° 16‘1’ 76° 565’ 1810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. ° 11‘5’ 77° 372’ 1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39° 5"?’ 78° 33-0/ 1830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38° o7‘9' 79° 169’ 1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39° 2'0’ 80° 180’ 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . .. 38° 59'0’ 81° 190’ 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39° 0'-1' 82° 488’ 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39° 12'0’ 83° 2357’ 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. 39° 41’ 84° 39"?’ 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39° 11'9’ 85° 329’ Urban P0puZa.z‘z'oa.—Tlie urban population has increased at a much more rapid rate than the total population. In 1790 the inhabitants of cities of 8,000 or more constituted but 3 per cent. of the total population. In 1890 they consti- tuted 29 er cent. The increase of the urban element is set forth in t 1e following table : URBAN POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS. Proportion of urban CENSUS. Urban population. to total population, per cent. 1790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131,472 3 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210.873 -1 1810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.‘>0_920 5 1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475.135 5 1830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864,509 7 1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.~1.s3,994 9 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,897.58!) 2 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0T"3.“"w6 16 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,071.87‘) 21 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,318,517 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,284,385 29 358 UNITED The States containing the highest proportion of urba.n population are those of the North. More than half the popu- lation of the North Atlantic States is contained in cities of 8.000 or more inhabitants, while of the North Central States more than one-quarter are found in similar cities. Indeed, four-fifths of all the urban population of the country is found in the Northern States. In 1890 there were 28 cities containing 100.000 or more inhabitants each, and of these three~—New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia—contained more than 1,000,000 inhabitants each. The following is a list of these cities, with their population: CITIES OF OVER 100,000 POPULATION IN 1890. New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,515,301 Detroit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205,876 Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.099.850 Milwaukee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204.468 Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,046,964 Newark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181,830 Brooklyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 806.343 Minneapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. 164.738 St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 451,770 Jersey City . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163,003 Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 448,477 Louisville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161,129 Baltimore . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 434,439 Omaha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 140,452 San Francisco . . . . . . . . . .. 298.997 Rochester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133.896 Cincinnati . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 296,908 St. Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133.156 Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 261,353 Kansas City . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 132,716 Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255,664 Providence . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 132,146 New Orleans . . . . . . . . . . .. 242,039 Denver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .. 106,713 Pittsburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 238.617 Indianapolis . . . . . . . . . . . , .. 105,436 X\’ashington . . . . . . . . . . . .. 230,392 Allegheny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105,287 Size of Fmnz'Zz'es.——Tl1e average number of persons to a family in 1890 was 493. The size of the family is dimin- ishing slowly, but steadily, as shown by a comparison of this with the figures for previous censuses: AVERAGE SIZE OF FAMILIES AT EACH CENSUS. 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 555 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 528 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 09 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 04 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 93 The smallest families are found in the North Atlantic and \Vestern States, and the largest in the Southern States. Sc.r.—In 1890 5121 per cent. of the population were males and 4879 per cent. were females. In most of the Atlantic States the females exceeded the males in number, but in the remaining States males were in excess, and in the newer States of the Rocky Mountain region they were largely in excess. The general excess of males is due to immigration. Race.—In 1890 the Negroes, including in that term all those of full or mixed blood, numbered 7,470,040. and the whites 54,983,968, the remainder of the population being made up of Chinese, Japanese, and citizen Indians. The proportion of the Negroes has steadily diminished during the century, being only about two-thirds as great in 1890 as in 1790. WHITE AND COLORED AT EACH CENSUS. W1-IITE. COLORED.* CENSUS. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. 1790 . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . .. 3,172,006 80 73 757,208 1927 1800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4306.446 81 '13 1,002,037 18'87 1810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5, 62,073 80'97 1,377,80 1903 1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,862,166 8161 1,771,656 1839 1830 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,537,378 81 '90 2,328,642 18' 10 1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,195,805 8317 2,873,648 16 83 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. 19,553,068 8431 3.638808 15'69 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,922,537 85'62 4,520,784 14'38 1870 . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333.589.3377 87' 11 4,968,994 1289 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43,402,970 8654 6,752,813 1346 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54,983,968 87 '80 7,638,282 12 20 * Including Chinese, Japanese, and citizen Indians. The colored were found mainly in the Southern States, seven-eighths of them living S. of Mason and Dixon’s line, the Ohio river, and the southern boundary of Missouri. In these States, as a whole. they constituted nearly one-third of the entire population in 1890; in Louisiana they consti- tuted one-half, and in Mississippi and South Carolina very nearly tliree-fifths. The Chinese population has remained unchanged in consequence of the enforcement of the Chi- nese Exclusion Act. In 1890 they numbered 107,745. 1Y71!1,'r£z‘y.—Ii1 1890 there were 9,249,547 persons of foreign birth, leaving 53,372,703 natives, of whom 45,862,023 were native whites. The foreign born constituted 14'77 per cent. of the population. The following table gives the numbers of the native, na- ti ve white, and foreign-born elements since 1850. the year of the census in which statistics giving these particulais were first obtained : STATES NATIVITY OF THE POPULATION, 1850 TO 1890. CENSUS. Native. Native white. Foreign born. 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,947,274 17,273,804 2,244,602 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,304,624 22,862,794 4,138,697 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32,991,142 28,111,133 5,567,229 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,475,840 36,895,047 6,679,943 1890 . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53,372,703 45,862,023 9,249,547 The following table converts the above figures into per- centages of the population : CENSUS. Native. Native white. Foreign born. 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9032 7324 9'68 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . .. 8684 7346 13'16 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . 85'56 7291 14‘44 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8668 7356 13'32 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85‘23 73'24 14'77 The source of the element of foreign birth is immigration from Europe, which has been exceedingly active for nearly half a century and particularly since 1880. Between 1880 and 1890 5,246,613 immigrants entered the U. S. The fol- lowing table shows the innnigration in each ten-year period since statistics were first obtained : IMMIGRATION. 1321 to 1330 ..................................... .. 143.439 1331 to 1340 ..................................... .. 599.125 1341 to 1350 ..................................... .. 1,713,251 1351 to 1860 ..................................... .. 2,579,530 1331 to 1370 ..................................... .. 2,232,737 1371 to 1330 ..................................... .. 2,312,191 1331 to 1390 ..................................... .. 5,246,613 See IMMIGRATION and SOCIOLOGY. The following table classifies the foreign born by the principal contributmg nationalities: FOREIGN BORN, BY PRINCIPAL NATIONALITIES, 1890. Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,784,894 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,871,468 England. Scotland, and Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,251,397 Canada and Newfoundland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980,941 Norway, Sweden, and Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933,249 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182,645 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182,580 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147,440 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . 123,271 Bohemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118,106 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113,174 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 106,462 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104,069 Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62,435 This element of foreign birth is found mainly in the Northern States, only a trifling number having gone into the Southern. VVith the exceptions of the Norwegians and Swedes the foreign element is found principally in the cities, where it is often in far higher proportion than is the native. The number of persons whose parents were of foreign birth, including the foreign born, was 20,263,902, constituting 32 per cent. or nearly one-third of the entire population. The dis- tribution of this class is similar to that of the foreign born, CONSTITUENTS OF THE POPULATION OF THE GREAT CITIES. Native whites Native whites Fore, n CITIES. of native of foreign barf Colored. parentage. parentage. ' Milwaukee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 48 39 New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 38 42 2 Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 56 23 . . Detroit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 38 40 1 San Francisco . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 27 42 10 Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 43 35 . . St. Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2: 36 40 1 Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 38 37 1 Jersey City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 40 2 St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .. 26 42 26 6 Cincinnati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 45 24 4 Brooklyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 41 32 .. Pittsburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 37 31 3 Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30 33 35 2 Rochester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 40 30 .. New Orleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 30 14 26 Newark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 37 30 2 Minneapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 30 37 . . Allegheny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 36 25 3 Providence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 30 30 3 Louisville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 29 15 17 Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 21 35 4 Baltimore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 26 16 15 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 12 8 33 Omaha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 23 25 3 Denver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 21 24 4 Indianapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 23 14 9 Kansas City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 19 15 11 --‘lJ-|i:....~,.,:_..Aw.r.>.w ==.H.: .>> i.__:.:_-#%---f:- \ ‘ Z ':1..mH||. A55 5. ofih |.| - 1l|i.5. 1, . . . zomm M \..\./\.\ /.0/J S
>o:w Q. a x . 1 / u . W AH < .2‘ F / 1 /./W. _ .1‘ i A ; .5 .;l . 1.|..|,, ..,w§ Q .~\ \.:.\.. , Eo§z3 50,543 1 279,258 1 228,923 147,838 Kentucky . . . . . . . .. 1,858,635 1,590,462 268.17: 1 799.279 1 531,222 59,356 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . 1,118,587 558,39) 560,192 1 068,840 509,555 49,747 Maine , . . . . . . . . . . ., 661,086 659,263 1,823 582,125 580.568 78,961 Maryland . . . . . . . .. 1 042,390 826,493 215.897 948,094 7‘ 2.706 94.296 Massachusetts 2,238,943 2,215,373 23,570 1,581,806 1,561,870 657,137 Michigan . . , . . . .. 2,093,889 2,072,884 21,005 1,550,009 1 531,283 543,880 Minnesota . . . . . . .. 1,301,826 1 296,159 5,667 834.470 829,102 467,356 Mississippi . . . . . . .. 1 289,600 44,851 744,749 1 281.648 537,127 7,952 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . 2.679.184 2,528,458 150,726 .2 444.315 2 294,176 234.869 Montana . . . . . . . . .. 132,159 127,271 4,888 89,063 86.941 43,096 Nebraska . . . . . . . .. 1,058,9101,046,888 12,022 856.368 844,644 202.542 Nevada . . . . . . . . . .. 45,761 39,084 6, 77 31.055 27,1 14,706 New Hampshire. 37653 375.840 690 304,190 303,644 72.340 New Jersey . . . . . .. 1,444,933 1,396,581 48,352 1,115,908 1,068,596 328,975 New Mexico . . . . .. 153,593 142,719 10,874 142,334 131,859 11,259 New York . . . . . . . . 5,997,853 5,923,952 73,901 4,426,803 4,358,260 1,571,050 North Carolina. .. 1,617,947 1 055,382 562,565 1,614,245 1.051.720 3,7 2 North Dakota . . . . 182.719 182,123 596 101.258 100,775 81,461 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,672,316 3,584,805 87.511 3,213,023 3,126,252 459,293 Oklahoma . . . . . . .. 61.834 58.826 3,008 59,094 56,117 2.740 Oregon . . . . . . . . .. 313,767 301,758 12,009 256.450 253.936 57.317 Pennsylvania. . . .. 5,258,014 5 148.257 109,7. 7 4,412,294 4,304,668 845,720 Rhode Island. . . .. 345,506 337,859 7,647 239,201 231,832 106.305 South Carolina... 1 151,149 462,008 689,141 1,144,879 455,865 6,270 South Dakota. . , .. 328,808 327,290 1,518 237,753 236.447 91.055 Tennessee . . . . . . .. 1,7 7,518 1,336,637 430,881 1,747,489 1 316.738 20.029 Texas . . , . . . . . . . . .. 2,235,523 1 745,935 489.588 2,082,567 1,594,466 152.956 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 207,905 205,899 2,006 154,841 153,766 53.064 Vermont . . . . . . . . .. 332,422 331,418 1.004 288.334 287,394 44,088 Virginia . . , . . . . . . . 1,655,980 1 020,122 635,858 1,637,606 1,001,933 18.37 \Vasl1ington 349,390 340,5 3 8,877 259,385 254.319 90.005 West Virginia . . .. 762,794 730,077 32.7 7 743,911 711,225 18,883 Wisconsin . . . . . . .. 1 686,880 1,680,473 6,407 1,167,681 1,161,484 519,199 ‘Wyoming . . . . . . . .. 60,705 59,275 1,430‘ 45,792 44,845 14,913 Alaska, 32,052, of whom 4.298 are white. Indian Territory, 179,321, of whom 50,055 are Indians and 109,384 are wlntes. Indz'(ms.—Indians "‘ not taxed ”—i. e. in tribal relations- are excluded by the Constitution from the basis of political representation. The several tribes are regarded as domestic, dependent nations, governed by their own laws, yet subject to the sovereignty of the U. S. ; having a right of occupancy in their lands, yet without the power to cede those lands except to the U. S. The policy of removing the Indians to lands \V. of the Mississippi was inaugurated about 1825, and largely carried out in the twenty years following, espe- cially with the Southern or Appalachian Indians—the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Cherokees, and Seminoles. Besides the Indian Territory, other large reservations have been set apart for Indian occupation, especially in Montana and the Dakotas. The total area of these reservations was, in 1894, STATES 359 85,580,882 acres, or 138,720 sq. miles. The total Indian popu- lation, as returned by the census of 1890, was 249,273. Of these there were on reservations and under the control of the Indian oflice, 133,382. The Five Civilized Tribes in the Indian Territory, who are self-supporting, numbered as fol- lows: Cherokees, 29,590; Chickasaws, 7,182; Choctaws. 14,- 379 ; Creeks, 14,632; Seminoles, 2,561—total, 68,344, of whom 52,065 were reported as Indians, including mixed bloods, the remainder being whites who had married into the tribes or colored citizens of the tribes. The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico numbered 8,278; the Six Nations of New York. 5,304; and the Eastern Cherokees of North Carolina, 2,885. Indians who had abandoned tribal relations and established themselves among the whites numbered 32,567. See INDIANS or NORTH AMERICA. flfortalzlfy.—The estimated death-rate of the population is 18 per 1,000. Among persons of foreign birth the rate is greater than this. and among the colored it is much greater, being in the cities very nearly double that of the whites. The rate in the cities is naturally very much greater than that in the rural districts, especially among young children. The most prevalent and fatal diseases are in the order men- tioned : Consumption, which in 1890 was the cause of 116 per cent. of all deaths; pneumonia, 88 per cent.; diarrhoeal dis- eases, 85 per cent. ; diphtheria and croup together, 48 per cent.; enteric fever, 31 per cent.; and malarial fever, 21 per cent. See also VITAL STATISTICS. Deioelnclents and Pm's0ners.—Tl1e number of insane in 1890 was 106,254, or 1,649 per 1,000,000 of inhabitants; feeble- minded, 95,571, or 1,526 per 1,000,000; deaf and dumb, 41,- 283 (659 per 1,000,000); blind, 50,411 (805 per 1,000.000); and prisoners, 83,329, of whom '7 5,924 were men and 6,405 were women. Of prisoners, 57,810 were white and 25,019 colored. Classifying them by nativity and race, and reducing the numbers to proportions of the total number of inhabitants, it appears that of white natives of native parentage 6 out of every 10,000 are prisoners; of white natives of foreign parentage, 13 out of every 10,000; of the foreign born, 17 out of every 10,000: and of the colored, 32 out of every 10,000. The number of paupers in almshouses was 73,015. Classifying these also by race and nativity, and obtaining the proportion between the number of paupers and the number of population of each race and nativity, it appears that 9 out of every 10,000 of the native whites were paupers; while the similar figures for the foreign born are 30 out of every 10,000; and of the colored, 9 out of every 10,000. The low proportion of paupers among the colored is probably due to the fact that there are few almshouses in the South. For other statistics, see the article VITAL STATISTICS. PUBLIC LANDS. Accessions of TerrzY‘0rg/.—Tl1e original limits of the U. S. extended on the W'. to the Mississippi river, and on the S. to the 31st parallel. From time to time accessions of terri- tory were made, as set forth and illustrated in the following map and table: AREA OF ACQFIRED TERRITORY. DATE. Source. i Area, sq. miles. 1803 Louisiana purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,171,931 1821 Florida purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59,208 1845 Annexation of Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375,239 ‘ 1848 Mexican cession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545.783 1853 Gadsden purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.535 1867 Purchase of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ , . . . . . 570.000 360 UNITED Of the original territory much was unsettled, and was - claimed by certain of the original States, their claims over- lapping one another in a perplexing manner. As a simple method of settling these conflicting claims, these States ceded them to the U. S., and thus the U. S. became a large landowner. Each addition of territory has added to the Government's land holdings, with the exception of Texas. (1) .Methods of SubcZz'm's'z'0a.--In order to subdivide the lands into parcels convenient for disposal, they have been cut up into townships, sections, and quarter-sect-ions, under a uniform system—a section comprising a square mile and a township 36 sq. miles. The method of survey is as follows: Starting from an initial point, selected arbitrarily, an east and west line, known as a base line, and a north and south line, known as a principal meridian, are run through it. At intervals of 24 miles on the principal meridian, lines are run east and west. These are known as standard parallels, or correction lines. At similar intervals of 24 miles on the base line, and on these standard parallels, lines are run N. 24 miles, to the next standard parallel. In this way the land is divided into tracts approximately 24 miles on a side. On account of the convergence of meridians, the tracts are not exact squares, but are narrower at the N. than at the S. These tracts are then divided into townships by lines following meridians and parallels, and the townships are divided into sections in a similar manner. The ranges, as the north and south tiers of townships are termed. are numbered E. and \V. of the principal meridian, and the townships are numbered N. or S. of the base line. The sec- tions are numbered within each township, beginning with the northeasternmost, running thence westward to the west line, the northwestern one being numbered 6, while that S. of it is 7, and thence the numbers increase to the E., then to the W. again, etc. For example, the southwest sec- tion of a township may be designated as See. 31, Twp. 4 N., R. 15 W. of the 6th Principal Meridian. (2) Met/iods 0 f Dz'sposal.—The policy of the U. S. in dispos- ing of its public lands has been to use them to aid in the extension of settlements and the development of its do- main rather than for purposes of profit. Accordingly, lib- eral homestead and pre-emption laws (see HOMESTEAD Laws) have been enacted, by which actual settlers can obtain land for little more than the cost of surveying it; grants have been made to railways to enable them to extend their lines into unsettled regions; and donations have been made for educational purposes. Apart from special grants, the public lands have been acquired by individuals in the following ways: (1) Under the Homestead Act, by which a tract of 80 acres at $2.50 an acre (called double minimum land), or 160 acres at $1.25, may be obtained through the payment of certain fees and commissions, ranging from $7 to $34, on condition that the applicant resides on and cultivates the land for five years; (2) under the Pre-emption Act, through which a person may, by entering at the appropriate land office a tract of 80 or 160 acres, secure a right to take the land at Government rates whenever it may be offered for sale (repealed in 1891); (3) by auction, whenever ofiered by proclamation of the President or by public notice from the general land office at Washington ; (4) after a failure to sell by auction, the lands remain subject to purchase by what is called private entry at any subsequent period; (5) by timber- culture, or planting trees on 10 acres, one may obtain a patent for 160 acres free, at the end of three years (repealed in 1891); (6) by providing means of irrigation, settlers may take up a full section, 640 acres, of desert land. Excluding Alaska, the entire area of the public lands may be estimated at 1,440,000,000 acres. Of this area the U. S. had, to July 1, 1894, disposed of 895,000,000 acres, leaving 545,000,000 acres still in its possession. The following table shows the principal items of disposition : DISPOSITION OF PUBLIC LANDS. A . Homesteads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147,503,000 Cash sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 224,000,000 Railway land grants patented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80,000,000 Swamp lands to States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70,000,000 Land bounties for military services . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,000,000 Of the remainder, a large part, say one-sixth, consists of Indian reservations; another large part, perhaps an equal proportion, has been granted to railways, but is not yet patented, since the conditions under which the grants were made have not been fulfilled ; and a third large part, which it is impossible to estimate, has been filed on by settlers, but title has not yet passed. STATES PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS. In the early part of the nineteenth century public im- provements were made by the individual States. During this period many great works were undertaken and carried through by them. Among these is the Erie Canal, built by the State of New York, which is still one of the most im- portant factors in transportation from the West, notwith- standing the development of railways. A number of canals were also built by Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, and Indiana, but most of them are now merely matters of history. After 1820, or thereabouts, the general Government undertook public improvements, and constructed several wagon-roads, among them the great Cumberland road across the Appa- lachian Mountains. In 1850 it inaugurated a policy, since carried out on a large scale, of aiding in the construction of railways by grants of lands. The first railway to be so aided was the Illinois Central in Illinois. At first grants were made to the railways through the medium of the States; subsequently, however, the grants were made directly to the corporations. By these grants the construction of many of the roads of the far West was made possible. The lands were granted in alternate sections for a certain breadth on each side of the road, the Government retaining the other sections. As it often happened that certain lands within these belts had already passed into other ownership, indem- nity strips were added outside of the grant—strips from which the companies could select land to indemnify them- selves for such sections of the grant as had already passed from Government ownership. The price of the Government sections within the grant limits was immediately doubled, so that while the Government encouraged the building of railways by granting lands, it suffered no loss, the increased price being easily obtained on account of the facilities af- forded by the railway for transportation. This policy of the Government has resulted in great good to the country by inducing rapid settlement. The total amount of land which had been so patented to railways in 1894 was 80,000,000 acres. In addition to these land grants, States and municipalities have made large subsidies to railways, usually in the form of subscriptions, either to bonds or to capital stock. In 187 0 the general Government began making direct appropria- tions for river and harbor improvements in aid of navi- gation. The appropriation amounted in that year to the modest sum of $2,000,000, but it increased, with a few set- backs, until in 1890 it was in excess of $25,000,000. While these appropriations are in many instances unwise and the money is used in a wasteful manner, both upon unworthy objects and under had plans, still many useful results have been attained; the navigation of the great rivers, the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri, has been greatly improved; the construction of the jetty system at the mouth of the Missis- sippi river has made New Orleans an important port and has given it an immense commerce; the construction of the canal at Sault St. Marie has connected the navigation of Lake Superior with that of the lower lakes; the entrances to many harbors have been deepened, and the shelter which they afi’orded has been improved by means of breakwaters. The U. S. maintains an admirable system of coast lighting, for details of which see LIGHTHOUSE. It also maintains an efficient life-saving service upon its coasts. See LIFE-saw ING SERVICE. MEANS or COMMUNICATION. Rm'Zways.—At the close of 1893 there were in operation 177,753 miles of railway, the capital stock of which was $5,080,032,904; funded debt, $5,570,292,613; and floating debt, $410,361,503. The total liabilities therefore, which may be regarded as representing the cost of the roads, are $11,060,687,020. The average cost per mile for construction was $63,021; the gross earnings, $1,222,618,290, or 111 per cent. the cost of construction; the net earnings were $364,- 591,109 ; and the dividends paid during the year $95,337,681, which is 1'86 per cent. of the stock. The average rate of inter- est paid on the bonds and floating debt was 4'1 per cent. The number of passengers carried 1 mile was 15,246,711,952; average receipts per passenger per mile, 205 cents; amount of freight carried 1 mile, 90.552,087,290 tons; average re- ceipts per ten per mile for freight, 089 cents. See RAIL- wavs, TUNNELS, etc. Rz'vers.—'l‘he rivers furnish a system of internal naviga- tion of the highest importance. The system of the St. Lawrence river and the Great Lakes provides, with the aid of two canals, access from the ocean to the head of Lakes Superior and Michigan, in the heart of the continent, and UNITED STATES. 0‘) ll" ii‘ x\\x\ N: n I. LESS THAN 5 PER CENT l: MORE THAN 25 6 OR MORE PERSONS TO A FAMILY LESS THAN $500 uzss THAN 4% msasous 3 To A f-'AM||_Y \ 434-5 PERSONS TO ILFAMILY X ' Average size of families (I890). 500-1000 - OVER 3000 /Wealth (in dollars) per capita of the population (1890). 'SH.LV.I.S GH.LINfl UNITED this is utilized yearly by nearly 1,000,000 tons of ship- ping. The rivers of the Atlantic Plain have but short navigable courses, ranging from 100 to 200 miles in length, as their navigability is stopped at the fall line. The Mis- sissippi is the greatest artery of the country. The main stream is navigable, by the aid of a canal at Rock Island, Ill., to the Falls of St. Anthony at Minneapolis ; the Ohio is navigable to Pittsburg; the Missouri at high water to Great Falls, Mont.; the Arkansas to Fort Smith, Ark,; the Red river to Shreveport, La. Besides these, many other branches of the great river are navigable for considerable distances, making it possible for river traffic to compete with railway transportation over a large part of the Mississippi valley. Uanals.—-Prior to the construction of railways, many canals were built in the Eastern States, in part at State ex- pense and in part by private corporations. The advent of the railway checked their construction, and has since in- duced the discontinuance of fully half of them. In 1890 the total mileage of canals in operation was 2,704, of which 2,598 miles were canals proper, and 106 miles slackwater naviga- tion. The tonnage which passed through them in that year is given as 21,046,857. The gross income of the canals was $3,900,000, and the expense of maintenance $2,070,589, leaving a profit of $1,829,425. See CANALS and articles on individual canals, such as the ERIE, 1LLINoIs AND MIcHIeAN, JAMES RIVER AND KANAWHA. Postal Serm'ce.—The statistics of postal service for 1894 are as follows : Total number of post-ofiices, 69,805 ; extent of post routes, 454,746 miles, of which 169,768 was railway routes; revenue of the department, $75,080,479; expendi- ture, $84,324,414; deficit, $9,243,935. See PosTAL SERVICE. Tclegraphs and Telephones.—The telegraph system is al- most entirely in the hands of a single corporation, the \Vest- ern Union Telegraph Company, which in 1894 had 21,166 offices, operated 190,303 miles of line, over which were strung 790,792 miles of wire, sent over 58,600,000 messages, and had receipts of $21,900,000 and expenditures of $16,000,000. (See TELEGRAPH.) The telephone business is almost entirely in the hands of a single company, which in 1894 had 838 ex- changes and 237,186 subscribers, operated 353,480 miles of local and 154,106 miles of long-distance lines, and paid divi- dends amounting to $3,339,156. See TELEPHONE. INDUSTRIES. Agm'cult'wre.—Tl1e latest statistics of agriculture which are reliable are from the U. S. census of 1890, and concern the crops of the preceding year. Up to and including the census of 1880 agriculture was in all respects the leading industry of the country. Returns from the census of 1890 indicate that while it was still the leading industry as re- gards the number of persons engaged in and supported by it, it had become secondary to manufactures i11 respect to the value of the product. Probably two-fifths of those en- gaged in profitable occupations among the population were engaged in agriculture, and a corresponding proportion of the total population were supported thereby. The value of agricultural products in 1890 was returned as $2,460,000,000, the increase over corresponding figures for 1880 being at the rate of 11 per cent., a rate of increase very much less than that of the population. The estimated net value of manu- factures in 1890 was a trifle over $4,000,000,000, and the rate of increase in the value of the net product in the ten years preceding was slightly in excess of 100 per cent., a rate very much greater than that of the population. These facts in- dicate that the increase in population between 1880 and 1890 went in great measure to manufacturing industries rather than to those of agriculture. In 1890 the number of farms was 4,565,000, the rate of increase during the ten years pre- ceding being but 14 per cent. The value of farms in 1890 was $>13,276,000,000; the rate of increase in the ten years preceding was 30 per cent., a rate greater than that of the number of farms and indicating an increased value per farm. Farming tools and machinery were valued at $494,000,000. From 1850 to 1880 the average size of farms diminished from 203 to 134 acres. The census of 1890 showed a slight increase, the average size being 137 acres. The extent of im- proved or cultivated land in 1890 was 358,000,000 acres, or about 560,000 sq. miles, being about 18 per cent. of the area of the country, excluding Alaska. The proportion of cul- tivated land in the different States ranges very widely. It is highest in the States of Illinois and Iowa, where nearly three-fourths of the total area is cultivated, while in Ohio more than two-thirds and in Indiana three-fifths is under cultivation. In Southern New England about one-half the STATES 361 area is cultivated. In the Southern States the proportion is about one-quarter of the total area, and in many of the States of the Cordilleran region less than 1 per cent. is as yet under cultivation. The cotton crop is one of the most important, and as an ex ort crop the most important, of all the products of agri- c ture. The crop of 1892, as appears fro1n the estimates of the Agricultural Department, was the largest ever raised, comprising 9,038,707 bales, and that of 1893 was 7,493,000 bales. The crop of 1889, as shown by the census returns, was 7,434,687 bales. Cotton is produced mainly in the South Atlantic States S. of Virginia and in those bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, together with Arkansas. The following table shows the product in each of these States during the census year : YIELD OF COTTON IN 1889, BY STATES. State. Bales. Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,470,353 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,191,919 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . .. 1,154,406 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 915,414 South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 46,798 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691,423 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659.583 North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 336.2-15 About two-thirds of the cotton crop is exported, mainly to Great Britain, and most of the remainder is manufactured in New England. (See COTTON.) The wheat crop in 1894 was, according to the estimates of the Department of Agri- culture, 460,000,000 bush.: in 1891, by the same authority, 612,000,000, the largest ever produced ; and in 1889, by the census returns, 468,000,000. This crop is produced mainly in the Northern States of the Mississippi valley. One-third to one-fourth of the crop is annually exported. (See WHEAT.) Indian corn or maize is cultivated to an enormous extent and over a wide area, extending from the southern to the northern limits of the country. The greater proportion of the crop, however, is produced in the Middle States of the Mississippi valley, from Kentucky and Ohio westward to Kansas and Nebraska. The largest crop ever produced was that of 1889, which amounted to 2,122,073,463 bush. In 1894 the estimates of the Department of Agriculture reported a crop of only 1,213,000,000 bush. (See MAIZE.), Oats is a crop of great importance, and its cultivation is rapidly in- creasing. It is produced mainly in the Northern States of the Mississippi valley and about the Great Lakes. The product of 1889 was 809,000,000 bush. Since then it has fluctuated in different years, being in 1894. according to the estimates of the Department of Agriculture, 662,000,000 bush. (See OAT.) The product of rye in 1894 was 27,000.- 000 bush. ; of barley 61,000,000; and of buckwheat 13,000,000. These are hardy crops and are produced mainly in the North- ern States. The tobacco crop of 1894 was 407,000,000 1b.; in 1889, 488,000,000. Nearly half of it was produced in Kentucky, and this State, with Virginia, Ohio, North Caro- lina, Tennessee, and Pennsylvania, produced over 400,000.- 000 lb. It was raised to a greater or less extent in 42 of the States and Territories. (See TOBACUO.) The hay crop is one of the most valuable. See HAY. The number of farm animals in 1895 was as follows : Horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.893318 Mules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,333,108 Cows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16.50-1,629 Oth -r cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34,364,216 Sheep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42,294,064 Swine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43,892,708 The value of live stock was estimated at $1,818,000,000. See CATTLE, SHEEP. SWINE, etc. The wool clip was estimated in 1894 at 278,000,000 lb. The sugar product of the same year was as follows, in millions of pounds. Cane . . . . . . . , . . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 611 2 Sorghum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0 9 Beet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45 2. Maple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 6 See SUGAR. In-z'gatlon.—ln the States and Territories of the Cordil- leran region, with the exception of the northwestern part of California, VVestern Oregon, and Washington, irrigation is necessary for the successful prosecution of agriculture, ow- ing to insullicient rainfall. This area includes about 1,250,- 000 sq. miles, or two-fifths of the total area of the country, excluding Alaska. The full utilization of the water re- sources of this region may possibly result in the reclamation of one-tenth of this area. In 1890, however, only about 362 UNITED one-half of 1 per cent. of the entire area had been thus re- claimed. See IRRIGATION. fl[cmuf'aetures.-—l\Ianufactures, in respect to the value of products, constitute the leading industry of the U. S., and their importance is increasing more rapidly than that of ag- riculture. In 1890 the census returns showed that the num- ber of manufacturing establishments having an annual prod- uct of more than 8500 each numbered 355,415; the capital employed in these establishments was $6.139,000,000; the number of employees was 4.712.622 ; and the total expendi- ture in wages was 82,283,000,000, an average to the em- ployee of 8485, which may be assumed as the average yearly wage. The cost of the material used was $5,162,000,000, and the gross value of the product $9,372,000,000, showing a net product, after deducting the materials used, of $4,210,000,- 000. All these figures show an enormous increase since 1880. The number of establishments increased 40 per cent. ; capi- tal, 121 per cent., showing a great increase in the average capital per establislnnent, and a consequent centralization of industries; wages, 131 per cent., being at a greater rate than the increase of capital ; cost of material, 48 per cent. ; and the value of products, 69 per cent. The manufacturing section is situated mainly in the North Atlantic States, spreading with diminishing importance westward, following closely the distribution of the urban population. About half of the manufactured product of 1890 came from the nine States included in the North Atlantic group, and about one- third from the North Central States. These two groups of States together produced fully 83 per cent. of all the manu- factured product of the country. The principal branches of manufacture, as measured by the value of product in 1890, are set forth in the following table, which includes all those whose product exceeds $50,000,000 : VALUE OF MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. Agricultural implements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881,000,000 Blacksmithing and wlieelwrighting . . . . . . . . . . .. 54,000,000 Boots and shoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256,000,000 Bakeries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128,000,000 Brick and tile manufactures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68,000,000 Butter and cheese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.000,000 Carpenter-ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 281,000,000 Carpets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,000,000 Carriages and wagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115,000,000 Cars, construction and repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206,000,000 Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59,000,000 Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 503,000,000 Colfee and spice, roasting and grinding . . . . . .. 75,000,000 Confectionery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56,000,000 Cotton goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 268,000,000 Flouring and grist mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514,000,000 Foundries and machine-shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 413,000.000 Furniture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119,000,000 Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57,000,000 Hosiery and knit goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67,000,000 Iron and steel . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562,000,000 Leather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171,000,000 Liquors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 290,000,000 Lumber products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 587,000,000 Masonry, brick and stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204,000,000 Painting and paper-hanging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74,000,000 Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74,000,000 Petroleum-refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85.000000 Plumbing and gasfitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81,000,000 Printing and publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275,000,000 Silk manufactures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87,000,000 Slaughtering and meat-packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565,000,000 Sugar-refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123,000,000 Tin, copper, and sheet-iron working . . . . . . . . . .. 67,000,000 Tobacco manufactures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 195,000,000 Woolen goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139,000,000 Worsted goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79,000,000 See the articles FAcToRIEs AND FACTORY SYSTEM, STRIKES AND LocKoUTs, CoTToN MANUEAcTUREs, etc. Patent-s.—In its patent system the U. S. is far in advance of any other country. During the year 1894 20,867 patents were issued. See PATENTS. METALLIC PRODUCTS. PRODUCTS. Quantity. Value. Pig iron, long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,124,502 $84,810,426 Silver, troy ounces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60,000,000 77,575,757 Gold, troy ounces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,739,081 35,950,000 Copper. pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 337,416,848 32,054,601 Lead, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163.982 11,839,590 Zinc, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78,832 6,306,560 Quicksilver, flasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,164 1,108,527 Aluminium, pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339,629 266,903 Antimony, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 45,000 Nickel. pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49,399 22,197 Tin, pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,938 1,788 Platinum, troy ounces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 17 Total value of metallic products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?$249,981,866 STATES NON-METALLIC MINERAL PRODUCTS. PRODUCTS.’ Quantity. Value. Bituminous coal, long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114,629,671 $122,751,618 Pennsylvania anthracite, long tons . . . . . . . . . . 48,185,306 85,687,078 Lime, barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58,000,000 35,960,000 Building-stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33,865,573 Petroleum, barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48,412,666 28,932,326 Natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,346,250 Clay (all except potter‘s clay) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,000,000 Cement, barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,002,467 6.262,841 Mineral waters, gallons sold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,544,495 4 246,734 Phosphate rock, long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941,368 4,136,070 Salt, barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,816,772 4,054,668 Limestone for iron flux, long tons . . . . . . . . . . . 3,958,055 2 374,833 Zinc white, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24,059 1 804,420 Potter‘s clay, long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 400,000 900,000 Gypsum, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253,615 696,615 Borax, pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,699,000 652,425 Mineral paints, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,714 530,284 Fibrous talc, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,861 403,436 Asphaltum. short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47,779 372,232 Pyrites, long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83,277 275,302 Precious stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 264,041 Soapstone, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21,071 255,067 Corundum, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,713 142,325 Novaeulite, pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135,173 Bromine, pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 348,399 104,520 Mica, pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66,971 88.929 Barytes, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28,970 88,506 Fluorspar, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12,400 84,000 Feldspar. long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18,391 68,037 Manganese ore, long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,718 66,614 Flint. long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,671 63,792 Graphite, pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843,103 63,232 Sulphur. short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,200 42,000 Maris, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75,000 40,000 Infusorial earth, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,582 Chromic iron ore, long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,450 21.750 Millstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,645 Cobalt oxide, pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,422 10.346 Magnesite, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 7,040 Asbestos, short tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 50 2,500 Total value of non-metallic mineral prod- ucts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $358-839,804 Total value of metallic products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249,981,866 Estimated value of mineral products un- specified . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .. 1.000.000 Grand total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $609,821,670 Jlltneml Production.-—The preceding tables give the quan- tities and values of the metallic and non-metallic mineral products of the U. S. for the calendar year 1893, as estimated by the U. S. Geological Survey. For details regarding the distribution of the leading mineral products, see articles under their several heads. 17'e'shem'es.—Tl1e fisheries of the U. S. form a.n important industry; in 1893 the exports alone amounted to over $5,500,000, and the total value is over $40,000,000. Nearly three-fourths of this comes from the Atlantic States, over 5 per cent. each from the Gulf States and from the Great Lakes, and nearly 15 per cent. from the Pacific States. In the last-named the salmon is the most important fish taken. See also the articles FIsI-IERIEs and FISIIERY R-ELATIoNs or THE UNITED STATES. CoMMERcE. The commerce of the U. S. is of enormous proportions, but by far the greater part of it is internal, consisting of an in- terchange of commodities from one part of the country to another. It is estimated that its internal trade is twenty- four times as great in volume as its external trade, and in value ten times as great. In 1894 the domestic exports had a value of $869,204,937, and the total exports $892,140,572; the imports avalue of $654,994,622. The principal items of export were raw material, consisting principally of agricul- tural products, as follows : Article. Value. Cotton (raw) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $210.1-369,289 Breadstuffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166,777,229 Meat and dairy products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145,270,643 Petroleum and products’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,083,891 Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,712,641 The followm g are the principal Items of nnport : Article. Value. Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $126,871,889 Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,314,676 Tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,144,243 Silk goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22,346,547 Woolen goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,594,366 Cotton manufactures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,346,547 Manufactures of iron and steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,594,366 See COMMERGE and INTERSTATE COMMERCE. S72/l])p2Ing.—I11 1890 the amount of shipping which sailed under the U. S. flag was 7,633,676 tons, including that UNITED engaged in foreign trade and in domestic trade on the sea- coast and Great Lakes, and on the rivers. Classified as above the tonnage was: V eswls. Tons. Engaged in foreign trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928,062 Coastwise trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.385.879 Lake trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926,355 River traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,393,380 In other words, only about one-eighth of the shipping was -engaged in foreign tratfic, the remaining seven-eighths being engaged in domestic trade, while fully two-fifths of the whole amount was engaged on the navigable rivers. The shipping may also be classified as follows: Vessels. Tons. Steam-vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,820,386 Sailing vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.795.443 Unrigged vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,017,847 This large class of unrigged vessels consists mainly of barges. largely employed upon the great navigable rivers, where a number of them are towed by tugs as a locomotive draws a train of freight-cars. They are of considerable ca- pacity, averaging 500 tons each. The amount of freight moved by water in 1890 was 172,110,423 tons; the average length of journey is unknown, and therefore these figures -can not be compared with transportation by rail, but it is probable that, measured in tonnage, water transportation is in volume about one-fourth that by rail, while measured by values it is doubtless much less, inasmuch as articles con- veyed by water are commonly bulky and less costly. Sltip-bm'Zd'z'9zg.—Tlie statistics of ship-building for 1894 show that the total number constructed was 838, with aton- nage of 131,195, classified as follows: Sailing vessels : Ships and barks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 Schooners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253 Sloops, canal-boats, and barges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 289 Steam-vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 293 Total ............................................ H A55 Of the above, 39 vessels, with a tonnage of 51,470, were built of iron, the remainder being of wood. See SHIP- BUILDING. Brmlcs-—The number of national banks in 1894 was 3,755: their net earnings were $22,192,422, and dividends $22,101,- 910, being 3'3 per cent. of the capital stock. The following tablggsets forth the liabilities and Qssets of national banks in 1 4: STATES 363 ASSETS. Loans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $2.007,100.000 Bonds for circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199,600,000 Other U. S. bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,900,000 Stocks. bonds, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193,300,000 Due from banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399,300,000 Real estate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97,900.000 Specie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371300.000 Legal-tender notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 120.-500.000 National bank-notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,600,000 Clearing-house exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88.500000 U. S. certificates of deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.100000 Due from U. treasurer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.600.000 Other sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,200,000 Total - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $3,-£3,900,000 The savings-banks numbered 1,025 ; had deposits amount- ing to 551,77 7,900,000, and surplus of 8139,7 00,000 ; undivided profits $26,000,000, and other liabilities 337,100,000. There are also numerous banks in each State, operating under State charters or acts of incorporation, which report to the State authorities only. See BANK and SAVINGS-BANKS. See also articles on BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS, CLEARING- HOUSE, FIRE-INSURANCE, LIFE—INSURANCE, etc. GOVERNMENT. The government is based on the Constitution of Sept. 17, 1787, and amendments made thereto in the years 1791, 1798, 1804, 1865, 1868, and 1870. The electors of the most numerous branch of the several State legislatures are quali- fied voters either directly or indirectly in the States respect- ively for all elective oflicers of the Federal Government. All legislative powers are vested in a Congress, which con- sists of a Senate of two members from each State, elected by the Legislature thereof for six years, and a House of Repre- sentatives. the members of which are apportioned according to population, and elected by the people directly in districts for two years. Each State is entitled to at least one repre- sentative. The Constitution provided for a specific number of Representatives to the first Congress, but afterward the number was designated by a vote of Congress itself after each decennial census. Besides its ordinary legislative ca- pacity, the Senate is vested with certain judicial functions, and its members constitute a high court of impeachment. N 0 person can be convicted by this court unless on the con- currence of two-thirds of the Senators present, nor does judgment extend further than to removal from office and disqualification to hold a federal office thereafter. The House of Representatives has the sole power of impeach- LIABILITIES- ment. The executive power is vested in a President. who Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $669,900,000 is elected by an electoral college chosen by popular vote. or %‘g -p-l;6I;,l-t-S - ' ‘ - - - - ~ - - - ‘ ' - - ' ' - - - - - ~ -- 2'é'g~§88»88g by the legislatures of the States. the number of electors (A-c..1....O........::::::;::::3:::::::.':::::::: 17533003000 from each State being equa-1 to the iiuniber of its Semiors Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,742,100,000 and Representatives iii Congress. His term of office is four 1(g}:1k‘l9eE‘°1il:3)Y;Et$ié-S - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - -- 5§g»%88~(£g years, and he is eligible for re-election, but custom has pro- ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " 7 ’ ’ nounced against a third term. The electors forming the Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83,473,900,000 college are themselves chosen in the manner prescribed by PRESIDENTS AND YICE-PRESIDENTS. Term Presidents. Vice-Presidents. Held ofiice. 1 George Washington, Virgi_nia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J ohn Adams. Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Apr. 30, 1789, to Mar. 4, 1793 2 George vWaslnngton, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. John Adams, Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 4, 1793, to “ 1797 3 John Adams. Massaeliiisetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Thomas J efferson. Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1797. to “ 1801 4 Thomas J eiferson, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Aaron Burr, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1801, to “ 1805 5 Thomas J el_ferson,_ Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . George Clinton, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1805, to “ 1809 6 James Madison, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . .. George Clinton, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1809. to “ 1813 7 James Madison, Yirginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Elbridge Gerry, Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1813, to “ 1817 8 James Monroe, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Daniel D. Tompkins, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 1817, to “ 1821 9 James Monroe, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniel D. Tompkins. New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1821, to “ 1825 10 John Quincy Adams, Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . .. John C. Calhoun, South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 1825, to “ 1829 11 Andrew Jackson, Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. John C. Calhoun, South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1829, to “ 1833 12 Andrew Jackson, Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . ..< . . . . . . . Martin Yan Buren, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1833 to “ 1837 13 MZLl‘_t,"1_ Van Buren. N91)’ York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Richard M. Johnson, Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 1837, to “ 184 14 1 William Henry H_a_rrison, Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. John Tyler, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1841 to Apr. 4. 18-11 lJohn Tyler, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Apr. 6, 1841, to Mar. 4, 1845 15 James K. Polk. Tennes_se_e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. George M Dallas, Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar 4, 1845, to “ 18-19 16 l Z-acliary Taylor. Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Millard Fillmore, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1849, to July 9, 1850 ~ 7 Milla_rd F_illmore, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 9, 1850, to Mar 4 1853 I Franklin Pierce, New Hampshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. William R. King, Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar 4 1853. to “ 1857 18 James Buchanan, Pei_ins__vlvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. John C. Breckinridge, Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1857, to “ 1861 19 Abraham Lincoln, Ilhnois._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hannibal Hamlin, Blaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 1861, to “ 1865 20 1 Abraham Lincoln, Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Andrew Johnson, Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1865, to Apr. 11, 1865 7 Andrew J ohnson, Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Apr. 15, 1865 to Mar. 4, 1869 21 Ulysses Grant, Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schuyler Colfax. Indiana . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar 4, 1869, to “ 1873 2:2 Ulysses S. Grant, Illinois ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Henry Wilson, Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 1873, to “ 1877 23 R.utherford B. Hayes, Olno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. \Villiam A. \Vheeler, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 5, 187 to “ 1881 24 1 James A. Garfield, Ohio. .7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Chester A. Arthur, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 4, 1881 to Sept 19, 1881 l Chester A. Arthur, New Y ork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 20, 1881 to Mar 4, 1885 25 Grover Qlevelaiid, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ThomasA. Hendricks. Indiana. D.Nov.25,1885. Mar 4, 1885, to “ 1889 26 B9I1_'|£Ul'llI1 Harrison. Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Levi P. Morton. New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1889 to “ 1893 27 Grover Cleveland, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Adlai E. Stevenson, Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1893. 364 UNITED the laws of the several States, but an act of Congress pro- vides that the presidential electors shall be all chosen upon the same day—-viz., on Tuesday after the first Monday in November. (See ELEOTORS.) A majority of the aggregate number of votes given is necessary to the election of Presi- dent and Vice-President; and if none of the candidates has such a majority, then the election of President is deter- mined by the House of Representatives from among the three candidates having the highest number of electoral votes, and that of the Vice-President by the Senate from among the two candidates having the highest number. In voting for President the vote is taken by States, the entire delegation from any State having but one vote. No person can be President or Vice-President who is not a native-born citizen. The President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia when in the service of the Union. Vi/ith the concurrence of two-thirds of the Senate he has the power to make treaties, and to appoint civil and military oflicers. He has a veto on all laws passed by Con- gress, but so qualified that, notwithstanding his disapproval, any bill becomes a law on its being afterward approved of by two-thirds of both Houses of Congress. The President has a salary of $50,000 a year, and the Executive Mansion at VVashington for a residence during his official term. The Vice-President is ex-ofiicio president of the Senate; and in case of the death, resignation, or other disability of the President the powers and duties of that office devolve upon him for the remainder of the term for which the President STATES had been elected. This provision of the Constitution came into operation for the first time in 1841, on the demise of William H. Harrison, who died one month after his inaugu- ration, when John Tyler, the Vice-President, succeeded to the presidency. Vice-President Fillmore succeeded Presi- dent Taylor. Vice-President Johnson succeeded President Lincoln in 1865, and Vice-President Arthur succeeded Presi- dent Garfield in 1881. In case of the removal, death, resig- nation, or inability of both the President and the Vice- President, the Secretary of State is the first officer in the- line of succession. See CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, CONGRESS, LAW-MAKING, METHODS or; and LEGISLATURES. The administrative business of the nation is conducted by several high oflicers, of whom six have the title of secre- tary, and who form what is termed the cabinet, or advisory council, of the President. These are the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Post- master-General, the Attorney-General (the official law au- thority for advisement in administrative affairs), and the Secretary of Agriculture. They are appointed by the Presi- dent, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and the several departments of the Government are under their direct control. (See the articles on the respective depart- ments.) The following table gives the names and dates of appointment of those who have held the several offices since the adoption of the Constitution, although the Postmaster- General was not a member of the cabinet till 1829: SECRETARIES OF STATE. Thomas Jefferson, Va . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 26, 1789 Hugh S. Le aré, S. C . . . . . . . . . . .. May 9, 1843 James G. Blaine, Me . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1884 Edm. Randolph, Va . . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 2, 1794 Abel P. Ups iur, Va . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 24, 1843 Fred. T. Frelinghuysen, N. J. . .. Dec. 12, 1881 Timothy Pickering, Mass . . . . . . .. Dec. 10, 1795 John C. Calhoun, S. C . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1844 Thomas F. Bayard, Del . . . . . . . . . Mar. 5, 1885 John Marshall, Va . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 13, 1800 James Buchanan, Pa . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1845 James G. Blaine, Me . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1889 James Madison, Va . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1801 John 111. Clayton, Del . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7, 1849 John W. Foster, Ind . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 29, 1892 Robert Smith, Md . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1809 Daniel Webster, Mass . . . . . . . . . .. July 22, 1850 Walter Q. Gresham, Ill . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1893 James Monroe, Va . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Apr. 2, 1811 Edw. Everett, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . .. Nov. 6, 1852 Richard Olney, Mass . . . . . . . . . . .. June 1, 1895 John Q. Adams, Mass . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1817 William L. D/Iarcy, N. Y . . , . . . . ,. Mar. 7, 1853 Henry Clay, Ky , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7, 1825 Lewis Cass, Mich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1857 Martin Van Buren, N. Y . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1829 Jere. S. Black, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Dec. 17, 1860 Ed. Livingston, La . . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 24, 1831 \Villiam H. Seward, N. Y . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1861 Louis McLane, Del . . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 29, 1833 Elihu B. Washburne, Ill . . . . . . . . . Mar. 5, 1869 John Forsyth, Ga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 27, 1834 Hamilton Fish, N. Y . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 11, 1869 Daniel Webster, Mass . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1841 William M. Evarts, N. Y . . . . . . .. Mar. 12, 1 ’77 SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY. Alexander Hamilton, N. Y . . . . .. Sept. 11, 1789 George M. Bibb, Ky . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 15, 1844 William Windom, Minn . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1881‘ Oliver Wolcott, Conn . . . . . . . . . .. Feb. 2, 1795 Robert J. Walker, Miss . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1845 Charles J. Folger, N. Y . . . . . . . .. Oct. 27, 1881 Samuel Dexter, Mass . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 1, 1801 William M. Meredith, Pa . . . . . .. Mar. 8, 1849 VValter Q. Gresham, Ind . . . . . . .. Sept. 24, 1884 Albert Gallatin, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 14, 1801 Thomas Corwin, O . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 23, 1850 Hugh McCulloch, Ind . . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 28 1884 George W. Campbell, Tenn. . . .. Feb. 9, 1814 James Guthrie, Ky . . . , . . . . . . .. Mar. 7, 1853 Daniel Manning, N. Y . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 185 Alex. J. Dallas, Pa, . . . . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 6, 1814 Howell Cobb, Ga . . . . . . , . . . . . . ,. Mar. 6, 1857 Charles S. Fairchild, N. Y . . . . .. Apr. 1, 1887 William H. Crawford, Ga . . . . . .. Oct. 22, 1816 Philip F. Thomas, Md . . . . . . . . .. Dec. 12, 1860 ¥Villiam IVindom, Minn . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1889 Richard Rush. Pa . . . . . . . . . , . . . .. Mar. 7, 1825 John A. Dix, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 11, 1861 Charles Foster, O . . . . . , . . . . . . . .. Feb. 24, 1891 Samuel D. Ingham, Pa . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1829 Salmon P. Chase, O . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7, 1861 John G. Carlisle, Ky . . . . . . . . . . ..‘ Mar. 6, 1893 Louis McLane, Del . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Aug. 2, 1831 William P. Fessenden, Me . . . . .. July 1, 1864 William J. Duane, Pa . . . . . . . . . .. May 29, 1833 Hugh McCulloch, Ind . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7. 1865 Roger B. Taney, Md . , . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 23, 1833 George S. Boutwell, Mass . . . . . .. Mar. 11, 1869 Levi Woodbury, N. H . . . . . . . . .. June 27, 1834 William A. Richardson, Mass... Mar. 17, 1873 Thomas Ewing, O . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1841 Benjamin H. Bristow, Ky . . . . . .. June 4, 1874 \Valter Forward, Pa . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 13, 1841 Lot M. Morrill, Me . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 7, 1876 John C. Spencer, N. Y . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 3, 1843 John Sherman, O . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 8, 1877 SECRETARIES OF WAR. Henry Knox, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 12, 1789 Joel R. Poinsett, S. C . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7, 1837 John A. Rawlins, Ill . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 11, 1869 Timothy Pickering, Mass . . . . . .. Jan. 2, 1795 John Bell, Tenn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1841 William W. Belknap, Ia . . . . . . .. Oct. 25, 1869 James lWIcHenry, Md . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 27, 1796 John C. Spencer, N. Y . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 12, 1841 Alphonso Taft, O . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 8, 1876 Samuel Dexter, Mass . . . . . . . . . .. May 13, 1800 James ‘V. Porter, Pa . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 8, 1843 James D. Cameron, Pa . . . . . . . .. May 22, 1876 Roger Griswold, Conn . . . . . . . . .. Feb. 3, 1801 William ‘Wilkins, Pa . . . . . . . . . . .. Feb. 15, 1844 George W. McCrary, Ia . . . . . . . .. Mar. 12, 1877 Henry Dearborn, Mass . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1801 William L. Marcy, N. Y . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1845 Alexander Ramsey. Minn . . . . . .. Dec. 10, 1879 William Eustis, Mass . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7, 1809 George W. Crawford, Ga . . . . . .. Mar. 8, 1849 Robert T. Lincoln. Ill . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1881 John Armstrong, N. Y . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 13, 1813 Charles M. Conrad, La . . . . . . . . . .. Aug. 15, 1850 William C. Endicott, Mass . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1885 James Monroe, Va . . . , . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 27, 1814 Jefferson Davis, Miss . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1853 Redfield Proctor, Vt . . . . . . . . . . . . Mar. 5, 1889' William H. Crawford, Ga . . . . .. Aug. 1, 1815 John B. Floyd. Va . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1857 Stephen B. Elkins, W. Va . . . . . .. Dec, 22, 1891 George Graham, Va . . . . . . . . . . .. Apr, 7, 1817 Joseph Holt, Ky . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J an. 18, 1861 Daniel S. Lamont, N . Y . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1893 John C. Calhoun. S. C . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 8, 1817 Simon Cameron, Pa . . , . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1861 James Barbour, Va . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7, 1825 Edwin M. Stanton, Pa . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 15, 1862 Peter B. Porter, N. Y . . . . . . . . , .. May 26, 1828 Ulysses S. Grant, Ill. (ad Mt.) .. Aug. 12, 186 John H. Eaton, Tenn . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 9, 1829 Lorenzo Thomas. Del. (ad int). Feb. 21, 1868 Lewis Cass, Mich . . . . . . . . . , . . . .. Aug. 1, 1831 John M. Schofield, Ill . . . . . . . , . .. May 28, 1868 SECRETARIES OF THE NAVY. Benjamm Stoddert, Md . . . . . . . .. May 21, 1798 Abel P. Upsher, Va . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 13, 1841 George M. Robeson, N. J . . . . . .. June 25, 1869' Robert Sm1th_, Md . . , . . . . . . . . . . .. July 15, 1801 David I-Ienshaw, Mass . . . . . . . . .. July 24, 1843 Richard W. Thompson, Ind. . . .. Mar. 12, 1877 Jacob Crowninshield, Mass. . . .. Mar. 3, 1805 Thomas W. Gilmer, Va . . . . . . . .. Feb. 15, 1844 Nathan Goff, Jr., W. Va . . . . . . .. Jan. 6, 1881 Paul Hamilton, 8. C . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7, 1809 John Y. Mason, Va . . . , . . . . . . . .. Mar. 14, 1844 William H. Hunt, La . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1881 William Jones, Pa . .I . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 12, 1813 George Bancroft, Mass . . . . . . . .. Mar. 10, 1845 William E. Chandler, N. H . . . .. Apr. 12, 1882 Ben]. W. Crowninshield, Mass.. Dec. 19, 1814 John Y. Mason, Va . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 9, 1846 William C. Whitney, N. Y . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1883 Smith Thomson, N. Y . . . . . . . . .. Nov. 9, 1818 William B. Preston, Va . . . . . . . .. Mar. 8, 1849 Benjamin F. Tracy, N. Y . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1885 Samuel L. Southard, N. J . . . . . .. Sept. 16, 1823 William A. Graham, N. C . . . . . .. July 22, 1850 Hilary A. Herbert, Ala , . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1899 John Branch, N. C . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 9, 1829 John P. Kennedy, Md . . . . . . . . . .. July 22, 1852 Levi Woodbury, N. H . . . . . . . . . .. May 23, 1831 James C. Dobbin, N. C . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7 1853 Mahlon Dickerson, N. J . . . . . . .. June 30, 1834 Isaac Toucey, Conn . . . . . . . . . , . .. Mar. 6, 1857’ James K. Paulding. N. Y . . . . . .. June 25, 1838 Gideon Welles, Conn . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1861 George E. Badger, N. C . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1841 Adolph E. Borie, Pa . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1869 UNITED STATES SECRETARIES OF THE INTERIOR. Thomas Ewing, O . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 8, 1849 Jacob D. Cox, O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5. 1869 John W. Noble, Mo . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1889 Alexander H. H. Stuart, Va. . .. Sept. 12, 1850 Columbus Delano, O . . . . . . . . . . .. Nov. 1, 1870 Hoke Smith, Ga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1893 Robert McClelland, Mich . . . . . .. Mar. 7‘, 1853 Zach. Chandler, Mich . . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 19, 1875 Jacob Thompson, Miss . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6 1857 Carl Schurz, Mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 12 1877 Caleb B. Smith, Ind . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1861 Samuel J. Kirkwood, Ia . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1881 John P. Usher, Ind . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 8, 1863 Henry M. Teller, Col . . . . . . . . . . .. Apr. 6 1882 James Harlan, Ia . . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 15, 1865 Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Miss . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1885 Orville H. Browning, Ill . . . . . . .. July 27, 1866 William F. Vilas, Wis . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 16, 1888 POSTMASTERS-GENERAL. Samuel Osgood, Mass . . . . . . . . . .. Sept 2" 1789 Samuel D. Hubbard, Conn . . . . .. Aug. 21, 1852 Timothy C. Howe, Wis . . . . . . . .. Dec. 20, 1881 Timothy Pickering, Mass . . . . . .. Aug 12, 1791 James Campbell, Pa . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1853 Walter Q. Gresham, Ind . . . . . . .. Apr. 3, 1883 Joseph Habersham, Ga . . . . . . . .. Feb 25, 1795 Aaron V. Brown, Tenn . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1851 Frank Hatton. Ia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 14 1884 Gideon Granger, Conn . . . . . . . . .. Nov 28, 1801 Joseph Holt, Ky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 14, 1859 William F. Vilas, I/Vis . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5 1885 Return J. Meigs, O . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar 17, 1814 Horatio King, Me . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Feb. 12, 1861 Don M. Dickinson, Mich . . . . . . .. Jan. 16 1888 John McLean, O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 26, 1823 Montgomery Blair, Md . . . . . . . .. Mar. ’ 1861 John Wanamaker, Pa . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5 1889 William T. Barry, Ky . . . . . . . . . .. Mar 9, 1829 William Dennison, O . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 24, 1864 Wilson S. Bissell, N. Y . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6 1893 Amos Kendall. Ky . . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 1, 1835 Alexander WV. Randall. Wis . . -. July 25, 1866 Wilham L. Wilson, W‘. Va . . . . .. Apr. 1, 1895 John M. Niles, Conn . . . . . . . . . . .. May 25, 1840 John A. J. Creswell, Md . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1869 Francis Granger, N. Y . . . . . . . .. Mar 6, 1841 Marshall Jewell, Conn . . . . . . . . .. Aug. 24, 1874 Charles A. Wickliffe, Ky . . . . . .. Sept 13, 1841 James N. Tyner, Ind . . . . . . . . . . .. July 12, 1876 Cave J ohnson, Tenn . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar 6, 1845 David M. Key, Tenn . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 12, 1877 Jacob Collamer, Vt . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar 8, 1849 Horace Maynard. Tenn . . . . . . . .. J une 2, 1880 Nathan K. Hall, N. Y . . . . . . . . . .. July 23, 1850 Thomas L. James, N. Y . . . . . . .. Mar. 0, 1881 ATTORNEYS-GENERAL. Edmund Randolph, Va . . . . . . . .. Sept. 26, 1789 Hugh S. Legaré, S. C . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 13, 1841 George H. Williams, Ore . . . . . .. Dec. 14, 1871 1/Villiam Bradford, Pa . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 27, 1794 John Nelson, Md . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1813 Edwards Pierrepont, N. Y . . . . . . Apr. 26, 187 5 Charles Lee, Va . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 10, 1795 John Y. Mason, Va . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1845 Alphonso Taft, O . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 22, 1876 Theophilus Parsons, Mass . . . . .. Feb. 20, 1801 Nathan Clifford, Me . . . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 17, 1846 Charles Devens, Mass . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 12, 187 Levi Lincoln, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar 5, 1801 Isaac Toucey, Conn . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 21. 1848 W'ayne MacVeagh, Pa . . . . . Mar. 5, 1881 Robert Smith, Md . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar 3, 1805 Reverdy J ohnson, Md . . . . . . . .. Mar. 8, 1849 Benjamin H. Brewster, Pa . . . . .. Dec. 19, 1881 J . Breckinridge, Ky . . . . . . . . . . . .. Aug 7, 1805 John J . Crittenden, Ky . . . . . . . .. July 22, 1850 Augustus H. Garland, Ark . . . .. Mar. , 1885 Caesar A. Rodney, Del . . . . . . . . .. Jan 28, 1807 Caleb Cushing, Mass . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 7, 1853 William H. H. Miller, Ind . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1889 William Pinkney, Md . . . . . . . . . .. Dec 11, 1811 Jeremiah S. Black, Pa . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1857 Richard Olney, Mass . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6 1893 Richard Rush, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Feb 10, 1814 Edwin M. Stanton. Pa . . . . . . . . .. Dec. 20, 1860 Judson Harmon, O . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 7, 1895 William Wirt, Md . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Nov. 13, 1817 Edward Bates, Mo . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. ’ 1861 John McP. Berrien, Ga . . . . . . . .. Mar. 9, 1829 Titian J . Coffey, Pa. (ad int). .. June 22, 1863 Roger B. Taney, Md . . . . . . . . . .. July 20, 1831 James Speed, Ky . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Dec. 2, 1864 Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y . . . . . .. Nov. 15, 1833 Henry Stanberry, O . . . . . . . . . .. July 28, 1866 Felix Grundy, Tenn . . . . . . . . . . .. July 5, 1838 1/Villiam M. Evarts, N. Y . . . . . . .. July 15, 1868 Henry J. Gilpin, Pa. . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 11, 1840 Ebenezer R. Hoar, Mass. . . Mar. 5. 1869 John J . Crittenden, Ky . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5, 1841 Amos T. Akerman, Ga . . . . . . . . .. June 23, 1870 SECRETARIES OF AGRICULTURE. Norman J . Coleman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Feb. 12, 1889 J. M. Rusk. Wis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 5. 1889 J . Sterling Morton, Neb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 6, 1893 SUMMARY OF POPULAR AND ELECTORAL VOTES FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE U. S. PR.ESIDENTS.* VICE-PRESIDENTS.* Year of Number Tntal e1ec- of states electoral Political party. VOW E1 t Q1 tion. voting. vote. Candidates. Candidates. ec,°r" States. Popular Electoral. vow‘ 1789 110 73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. George Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. John Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84 John Jay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Richard H. Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 John Rutledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 John Hancock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 George Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Samuel Hunt-ingdon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘3 John Milton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 James Armstrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Benjamin Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Edward Telfair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Vacancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1792 15 135 Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . .. George Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. __ Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . .. John Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. George Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50 Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 Aaron Burr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Vacancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1796 16 138 Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . .. John Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68 Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . .. Thomas Pinckney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Aaron Burr . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30 Samuel Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Oliver Ellsworth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 George Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 JohnJay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 James Iredell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 George Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 John Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Samuel Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Charles C. Pinckney . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1800 16 138 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 173 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ .. Republican . . . . . . . . . . . Aaron Burr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1? Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . .. John Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65 Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . .. Charles C. Pinckney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64 John Jay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 * Previous to the election of 1804 each elector voted for two candidates for President ; the one receiving the highest munber of votes. if a majority, was declared elected President. and the next highest Vice-President. 1" Three States out of thirteen did not vote—viz., New York, which had not passed an electoral law, and North Carolina and Rhode Island, which had not adopted the Constitution. 1 There having been a tie vote, the choice devolved upon the House of Representatives. which was a.s follows: JelTerson—-Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Ver- mont, and Virginia—10 States; Burr—Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Isl-and—4 States; Blank—De1aware and South Carolina—2 States. A choice was made on the thirty-sixth ballot, 366 UNITED STATES SUMMARY OF POPULAR AND ELECTORAL VOTES FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE U. S.—(CON'l‘INUED.) I PRESIDENTS. VICE—PRESIDEN’I‘S. Year of Number Total . . V elec— fstates electoral Political party. °te- F] _t 1 tion. 0 ' vote. Candidates. Candidates. ‘ eh ‘m1 States. Popular Electoral. Vote‘ 1804 17 176 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . .. 15 . . . . . . .. 162 George Clinton . . . . . . . . . . .. 162 Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . .. Charles C. Pinckney . . . . .. 2 . . . . . . . 14 Rufus King . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14 1808 17 176 Republican . . . - . . . . . .. James Madison . . . . . . . . . .. 12 . . . . . .. 122 George Clinton . . . . . . . . . . .. 113 Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . .. Charles C. Pinckney . . . . .. 5 . . . . . . .. 47 Rufus King . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47 George Clinton . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 6 John Langdon . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 James Madison . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7 James Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 _ Vacancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1812 18 218 Repubhcan . . . . . . . . . .. James Madison . . . . . . . . . .. 11 . . . . . . .. 128 Elbridge Gerry . . . . . . . . . .. 131 Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . . . De Witt Clinton . . . . . . . . . 7 . . . . . . . . 89 Jared Ingersoll . . . . . . . . . . . 86 _ Vacancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1816 19 221 Repubhcan . . . . . . . . . .. James Monroe . . . . . . . . . . .. 16 . . . . . . .. 183 Daniel D. Tompkins . 183 Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . .. Rufus Kmg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . .. 34 John E. Howard . . . . . . . . .. 22 James Ross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 John lllarshall . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 _ Robert G. Harper . . . . . . . . . 3 Vacancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1820 24 235 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. James 0IOlll'O(:‘. .' . . . . . . . . .. 24 . . . . . . .. 231 Daniel D. Tompkins . . . . .. 218 Opposition . . . . . . . . . . .. John Q. Adams . . . . . . . . . .. ._ . . . . . . .. 1 Richard Stockton . . . . . . . .. 8 Daniel Rodney . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 Robert G. Harper . . . . . . . . . 1 Richard Rush . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Vacancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1824 24 261 Republican . . . . . . . . . . . Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . .. 10 155,872 99 John C. Calhoun . . . . . . . . .. 182 Coalition . . . . . . . . . . . . .. John Q. Adams . . . . . . . . . .. 8 105,321 84 Nathan Sanford . . . . . . . . . .. 30 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Wm. H. Crawford . . . . . . .. 3 44,282 41 Nathaniel Macon . . . . . . . .. 24 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Henry Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 46,587 37 Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . .. 13 Martin Van Buren . . . . . . . . 9 Henry Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Vacancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1828 24 261 Democratic . . . . . . . . .. Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . .. 15 647.231 178 John C. Calhoun . . . . . . . . .. 171 National Republican. . John Q. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . 9 509,097 83 Richard Rush . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 William Smith . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 1832 24 288 Democratic . . . . . . . . . . . Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . . . 15 687,502 219 Martin Van Buren . . . . . .. 189 National Republican. . Henry Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 530,189 49 John Sergeant . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 John Floyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 33 108 11 Henry Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Anti-Mason . . . . . . . . . .. William Wirt . . . . . . . . . .. i 1 ’ 7 Amos Ellmaker . . . . . . . . . . . 7 William Wilkins . . . . . . . . . . 30 Vacancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1836 26 294 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. Martin Van Buren . . . . . . .. 15 761,549 170 Richard M. Johnson Jr. . . . . 147 Whig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. \Vm. H. Harrison . . . . . .. ) 7 73 Francis G1‘a11ge1' - - - - - - - - -- 77' Whig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hugh L. White . . . . . . . .. 2 736 6.6 26 John Tyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 \Vhig ................ .. Daniel \Vebster . . . . . . .. i 1 i ° 14 William SInitl1 .......... .. 23 1Vhig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Willie P. Mangum . . . . .. J 1 11 1840 26 294 1Vhig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Wm. H. Harrison . . . . . . . .. 19 1,275 017 234 John Tyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 234 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. Martin Van Buren . . . . . . . . 7 1,128,702 60 Richard M. Johnson . . . . . . 48 Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. James G. Birney . . . . . . . . .. .. 7,059 Littleton ‘W. Tazewell.. . . . 11 James K. Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1844 26 275 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. James K. Polk . . . . . . . . . . .. 15 1,337,243 170 Geo. M. Dallas . . . . . . . . . .. 170 \Vhig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Henry Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 1,299,068 105 Theodore Frelinghuyscn.. 105 Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. James G. Birney . . . . . . . . .. .. 62,300 1848 30 290 Whig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Zachary Taylor . . . . . . . . . .. 15 1,360,101 163 Millard Fillmore . . . . . . . . .. 163 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. Lewis Cass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15 1,220,544 127 William O. Butler . . . . . . . . 127 Free Soil _ . . . . . . . . . . . .. Martin Van Buren . . . . . . .. .. 291,263 .. . Cl1&S- F. Adams - - - . - - . . - -- 1852 31 296 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. Franklin Pierce . . . . . . . . . .. 27 1,601,47 254 William R. King.‘ . - - . - - - - .. 254 1Vhig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Winfield Scott . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 1,386,57 42 William A. Gmlialll - - - . -. 42 Free Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . .. John P. Hale . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 156,149 .. . George ‘V. Julian . . . . . . . . . 1856 31 296 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. James Buchanan . . . . . . . .. 19 1,838,169 74 John C. Breckinridge. . . .. 174 Republican . . . . . . . . . . . John C. Fremont . . . . . . . .. 11 1,341,264 114 William L. Dayton . . . . . . . 114 American . . . . . . . . . . . . . Millard Fillmore . . . . . . . . .. 1 874,534 8 Andrew J. Donelson . . . . . . 8 1860 33 303 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Abraham Lincoln . . . . . . . .. 17 1866,2352 180 Hannibal Hamlm . . . . . . . .. 180 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. John C. Breckenridge. . . .. 11 845,763 72 Joseph Lane . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 Cons. Union . . . . . . . . .. John Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 589.581 39 Edward Everett _ _ _. _ _ __ 39 Ind. Dem . . . . . . . . . . . .. Stephen A. Douglas . . . . . .. 2 1 375,157 12 Herschel V. Johnson . . . .. 12 1864 125 314 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Abraham Lincoln . . . . . . . .. 2 2,216,067 212 Andrew Johnson . . . . . . . . .. 212 Democratic . . . . . . . . . . . George B. McClellan . . . . . . 3 1,808,725 21 George H. Pendleton . . .. 21 Vacancies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 . . . . . . . . 81 . . . . . . . - - . - - - - . - - - - - . - - . - . . 81 1868 §34 317 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Ulysses S. Grant . . . . . . . . .. 26 3,015,071 214 Schuyler Colfax . . . . . . . .. 214 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. Horatio Seymour . . . . . . . .. 8 2,709,613 80 Frank P. Blam J1‘ - ~ - - - - -- 80 Vacancies . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . 23 . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1872 37 366 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Ulysses S. Grant . . . . . . . . .. 29 3,597,070 286 Henry Wilson . . . . . . . . . . .. 286 Dem. and Liberal. . . .. Horace Greeley . . . . . . . . . .. 6 2,834,079 B. Gratz Brown . . . . . . . . . .. 7 Democratic . . . . . . . . . . . Charles O'Conor . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,408 . . . George W. Juha_n . . . . . . . . . 5 Temperance . . . . . . . . .. James Black . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,608 Alfred H. Colqmtt . . . . . . .. 5 Thomas A. Hendricks .. .. . . . . . . .. 42 John M. Palmer . . . . . . . . . 3 B. Gratz Brown . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. 18 Thomas E. Bramlette. . . .. 3 Charles J. Jenkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 William S. Groesbeck. . . .. 1 David Davis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Willis 13- M90119" - - - - - - i - 1 Nathaniel P. Banks . . . . . . 1 1876 38 369 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Rutherford B Hayes. . . .. 21 4,033,950 185 William A. \Vlieel_er . . . . .. 185 Democratic . . . . . . . . . . . Samuel J. Tilden . . . . . . . . .. 17 4,284,885 184 Thomas A. Hendricks 184 Greenback . . . . . . . . . . .. Peter Cooper . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 81.740 Prohibition . . . . . . . . . .. Green Clay Smith . . . . . . . .. 9,522 Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,636 1880 38 369 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. James A. Garfield . . . . . .. 19 4,449,053 214 Chester A. Arthur . . . . . . .. 214 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. \Vinfield S. Hancock . . . . .. 19 4,442,035 155 VVilliam.I'I. Enghsh . . . . . .. 150 Greenback . . . . . . . . . . . . James B. ‘Weaver . . . . . . . . . . . 307,306 . . . Benjamin J - Cl1&I11beI'S. Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,576 * No choice having been made by the electoral college, the election of a President devolved upon the House of Representatives, in ac- This directs that only the three candidates who stand lnghest iii cordance with a provision of the twelfth amendment to the Constitution. the electoral vote shall be voted for. North Carolina, and Virginia-4 States. i No candidate having received a majority of the votes of the electoral college, the Senate elected R. M. Johnson Vice-President, who received 33 votes ; Francis Granger received 16. _ _ _ I _ . N _ _ rEleven States did not vote—viz., Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Ten- nessee, Texas, and_Virginia. _ _ _ . _ _ D _ § Three States did not vote—viz., Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia. A choice was made on the first ballot, which was as follows : Adains—Co11neCticut, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massaclmsetts, Missouri, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Vermont—i3 States; Jackson -Alabama, Indiana, ll/lississippi, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Tennessee—7 States; Crawford—-Delaware, Georgia, UNITED STATES 67 SUMMARY OF POPULAR AND ELECTORAL VOTES FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE U. S.—(CONTINUED.) PRESIDENTS. VICE-PRESIDENTS. Year of Number Total 7 elec- electoral Political art . 1 ote. tion, of states‘ vote. P y Candidates. , Candidates. Elépmral States. Popular. l Electoral. ‘Ow 1884 38 401 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. Grover Cleveland . . . . . . . .. 20 4.911.017 219 Thomas A. Hendricks . . . .| 219 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. James G. Blaine . . . . . . . . . . 18 4 848.334 182 John A. Logan . . . . . . . . . . .. 182 Prohibition . . . . . . . . . . . John P. St. John . . . . . . . . .. . . 151.809 .. . William Daniel. Greenback . . . . . . . . . . .. Benjamin F. Butler . . . . . .. Absalom M. West. Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,362 1888 38 401 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Benjamin Harrison . . . . . .. 20 5.440.551 233 Levi P. Morton . . . . . . . . . .. 233 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. Grover Cleveland . . . . . . . .. 18 5.538434 168 Allen G. Thurman . . . . . . .. 168 Prohibition . . . . . . . . . .. Clinton P. Fisk . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 250.290 John A. Brooks. Union Labor . . . . . . . . .. Alson J . Streeter . . . . . . . . .. .. 147.045 Charles E. Cunningham. Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.312 1892 44 444 Democratic . . . . . . . . . .. Grover Cleveland . . . . . . . .. 23 5556.918 277 Adlai E. Stevenson . . . . . ._ ‘ 77 Republican . . . . . . . . . .. Benjamin Harrison . . . . . .. 16 5,176,108 145 Whitelaw Reid . . . . . . . . . . .. 145 People’s Party . . . . . . . . James B. Weaver . . . . . . . .. 5 1,041,028 22 James G. Field . . . . . . . . . .. 22 Prohibition . . . . . . . . . .. John Bidwell . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 264,133 James B. Cranfield. Social Labor . . . . . . . . . . Simon Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 21,164 Charles H. Matchett. ELECTORAL VOTE FOR PRESIDENT, 1864-92. 1864. 1868. 1872. 1876. 1880. l 1884. 1888. l 1892. STATES. S3 .:_-'_5 .:':’ 6.; 5? '%M,-'2 65 gg 5;»; -E.;. 55. as 655. as 45. as ‘<5; gs as 52. .55. is *‘;3 En g we ,3 ;‘Q g Q ‘)5 en 0Q 23 »'-§ ofl 0G *5’ *6 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 10 . 10 .. 10 10 -. .. 10 11 .. .. Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. 5 .. .. .. 6 .. 6 7 .. .. 7 8 .. .. California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 . . 5 .. 6 6 .. 1 5 . 8 8 . . 8 1 .. Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. 3 .. 3 .. .. 3 3 .. .. .. 4 Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 .. 6 .. 6 .. 6 6 . . 6 .. . . 6 6 .. Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 3 .. 3 3 .. 3 .. 3 3 .. . . 3 3 . Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ._ 3 .. 4 4 .. .. 4 4 .. .. 4 4 . . Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. 9 .. .. 11 .. 11 12 .. .. 12 13 . .. Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 3 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 16 . 21 . . 21 . . 21 . . . . 22 22 . 24 . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 13 . 15 . .. 15 15 . 15 .. 15 .. 15 .. Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 8 . 11 .. 11 .. 11 .. .. 13 13 .. .. 13 .. Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 .. 3 .. 5 .. 5 .. 5 .. .. 9 9 .. . .. 10 Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ll .. 11 .. 8 .. 12 .. 12 13 .. .. 13 13 .. . Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ._ .. 7 .. .. 8 .. .. 8 8 .. .. 8 8 .. Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 7 .. 7 .. 7 .. 7 .. .. 6 6 .. 6 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 .. 7 .. 8 .. 8 .. 8 8 .. .. _ 8 8 .. Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12 12 . 13 .. 13 .. 13 .. .. 14 14 .. . . 15 . Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 . 6 11 .. 11 . 11 .. .. 13 13 .. 5 9 .. Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 . 4 5 .. 5 .. 5 .. .. 7 7 .. .. 9 .. Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. 8 . . . . 8 . . 8 9 . .. 9 9 . . . . Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 . 11 .. 6 .. 15 15 16 .. .. 16 17 .. .. Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3 .. Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. , 3 . 3 . . 3 . 3 . 5 5 .. . . 8 . . Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 , 3 .. 3 3 . .. 3 3 3 .. .. .. 3 New Hampshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 _ , 5 . . 5 5 . . 5 . . . . 4 4 . . . . 4 . . New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 7 .. 7 9 .. 9 .. 9 9 .. .. 9 10 .. . New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 _ . .. 33 35 . . 35 35 . . 36 . . 36 . . 36 . North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. _ 9 .. 10 .. 10 .. 10 11 .. .. 11 11 .. NorthDakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 1 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 21 . . 22 22 22 1 22 . . Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 .. 3 3 3 3 3 3 . 3 1 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 26 .. 29 29 29 . 30 30 . . 32 . . Rhodelsland . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 4 4 4 .. .. 4 4 .. .. 4 . South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 6 7 .. 7 . . .. 7 9 . . .. 9 9 . . SouthDakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 4 Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 10 .. 12 .. 12 .. 12 12 . .. 12 12 .. Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. 8 .. 8 .. 8 13 .. .. 13 15 .. Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 5 5 5 .. 5 . . . . 4 4 . . .. 4 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. 11 .. 11 11 12 .. .. 12 12 .. \Vashington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. 4 \Vest Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 5 .. 5 . . 5 6 .. . . 6 6 . . Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 8 10 10 . . 10 . . . . 11 11 . 12 . . lVyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. . . 3 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 21 214 80 286 42 185 184 214 155 219 182 233 168 27 7 145 22 Number of States voting . . 25 34 37 38 38 38 38 44 * In 1872 Horace Greeley, Demo B. _Gratz Brown, of_Missour1. for President, Georgia 2 votes for 11018 ; and 17 votes irregularly cast were not counted by Congress. C0m*z‘s.—Tl1e judicial powers of the U. S. are vested in a Supreme Court and such other inferior courts as Congress may from time to time establish. The present judicial establishments consist of a Supreme Court. circuit courts, and district courts. The Supreme Court, the highest judi- cial tribunal of the Union, is composed of a chief justice and eight associate justices. One session is held annuall_v at the capital, beginning on the first Monday in October cratic and Liberal-Republican candidate for President. having died before the electoral vote was cast, the Greeley electors voted as above for Thomas A. Hendricks in five States. _ _ _ Charles J . Jenkins, of Georgia, and Missouri 1 vote for David Davis. of 1.111- Kentucky, Georgia, and Blissouri cast 18 electoral votes for and closing generally early in May. Six justices are required to constitute a quorum. The jurisdiction exercised is both original and appellate. but chiefly, in practice. the latter. The original jurisdiction extends to all cases affecting am— bassadors, other public ministers, and consuls. and those in which a State is a party, except that in the latter case no suit can be prosecuted against any State by the citizens of another State. See CQURTS. CHIEF JUSTICES AND DATES OF APPOINTMENT. John J ay. N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 26, 1789 Roger P. Taney, Md .. John Rutledge. S. C. . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1. 1795 Salmon P. Chase, 0... Ohver Ellsworth, Conn . . . . . . . .. Mar. 4. 1796 Morrison R. Waite, O John Marshall, Va . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J an. 27, 1801 Melville W. Fuller, Ill . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 28, 1835 . . . . . . . . .. Dec. ‘ 6, 1864 . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 21,1874 . . . . . . . . . .. July 20,1888 368 UNITED The circuit courts are held by a justice of the Supreme Court and the judge of the district in which the court sits, conjoint-ly. The U. S. is divided into nine judicial circuits, in each of which a session is held twice a year. CIRCUITS. I. Me., N. H., Mass., R. I. VIII. Minn., Ia., Mo., Kan., Ark., II. Vt., Conn., N. Y. Neb.,Col.,N.Dak.,S.Dak., III. Del., N. J., and Pa. Wyo.. N. Mex., Okla., and IV. Md., Va., Vt’. Va., N. C S C Uta . IX. Cal., Ore., Nev., Mont., Wash., Ida., Ariz., and Alaska. V. Ga.,Fla.,Ala., Miss., La.’,T.ex: . O., Mich., Ky., and Tenn. . Ill., Ind., and Wis. The district courts are held by the district judges alone. Each St-ate forms one or more districts. There are, besides these, territorial courts, which are temporary, and lose that character whenever a Territory becomes a State. Each court has a clerk, an attorney, and a marshal. All judges of the U. S. courts are appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and hold their otfices during good behavior. See COURTS. Political Sabdz'mJst'0'ns——Tlie political organization of the States is essentially similar to that of the general Government, the chief executive oflicer being the Governor. Legislative functions are carried on by a Legislature consisting of two STATES subdivided in various ways. The relative power reposed in the county government and in that of its subdivisions dif- fers greatly in different States. In New England the coun- ties are divided into towns or cities, and these towns and cities retain nearly all the powers of government not as- sumed by the States, the county being comparatively unim- portant as a political division. In the northern States of the Mississippi valley the counties are, as a rule, divided into townships, and the powers are shared in almost equal pro- portion by these townships and the counties. In the South- ern and most of the \Vestern States, the subdivisions of the county are politically very feeble, nearly all the powers being held by the county government. These subdivisions bear various names, being known in Delaware as hundreds, in Maryland, Florida, and other States as election districts, in the Virginias and Kentucky as magisterial districts, in the Carolinas and Arkansas as townships, in Georgia as militia districts, in Alabama and Mississippi as beats, and in Louisiana as wards. Various classes of municipalities are chartered in different States. Cities are chartered in all States, and in some all municipal incorporations are designated as cities of a cer- tain class, as in Missouri, where four classes of cities are chartered. The New England city is simply a chartered SUMMARY OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. SETTLEMENT. DATE OF ACT CREATING Term of TERM on LEGIS: sures AND TERRITORIES. Governor, LATURE’ YEARS Capital. By whom. Date. Territory. State. 3'em.S' Senate. House. ‘ Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. French. 1713 Mar. 3, 1817. Dec. 14, 1819. 2 4 2 Montgoniery. Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Russians. 1805 May 17, 1884. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 .. . Sitka. Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Spanish. 1598 Feb. 24, 1863. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 2 PhO6l1iX- Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. French. 1670 Mar. 2, 1819. June 15, 1836. 2 4 2 Little Rock. California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Spanish. 1769 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 9, 1850. 4 4 2 Sacramento. Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Americans. 1860 Feb. 28, 1861. Mar. 3, 1875. 2 4 2 Denveli Connecticut. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . English. 1633 Original State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , _ 2 2 2 Hartford. Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Swedes. 1627 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 2 Dover. District of Columbia . . . . . . . . .. Md. and Va. Mar. 3, 1791. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Spanish. 1564 Mar. 3, 1822. Mar. 3, 1845. 4 4 2 Tallahassee. Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . English. 1733 Original State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 Atlanta- Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Americans. 1852 Mar. 3, 1863. July 3, 1890. 2 2 2 Boise. Illinois ..................... .. French. 1749 Feb. 3, 1809. Dec. 3, 1818. 4 4 2 Springfield- lndiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . “. 1730 May 7, 1800. Dec. 11, 1816. 4 4 2 Indianapolis. Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Americans. 1835 July 3, 1838. Mar. 3, 1845. 2 4 2 D98 M0i11€S- Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. _ f‘ . 1850 May 30, 1854. Jan. 29, 1861. 2 4 2 Topeka. Kentueky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Virginians. 1775 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 1, 1792. 4 4 2 Frankfort. Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. French. 1699 Mar. 3, 1805. Apr. 30, 1812. 4 4 4 B8-i3OI1 Rouge- Mame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. English. 1630 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 15, 1820. 2 2 2 Augusta- Maryland . - . . . - . . - - . . . . . . . . . . “ 1634 Original State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 2 Annapolis- lilassachiisetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 1620 “ _ _ , , _ _ , . _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ 1 1 1 Boston. Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. French. 1670 June 30, 1805. Jan. 26, 1837. 2 2 2 Lansing. _\1inn_es_oia, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Americans. 1847 Mar. 3, 1849. May 11, 1858, 2 4 2 St. Paul. Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. French. 1716 Apr. 7, 1798. Dec. 10, 1817. 4 4 4 Jackson. l\1lSSOLlI'l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “_ 1763 Apr. 30, 1812. Aug. 10, 1821. 4 4 2 Jefferson. Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Americans. 1858 May 26, 1864. Nov. 8, 1889. 4 4 2 Helena. Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1850 May 30, 1854. Mar. 1, 1867. 2 2 2 Lincoln. Nevada . . . . .._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “_ 1850 Mar. 2, 1861. Oct. 31, 1864. 4 4 2 Carson. New Hampshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . English. 1623 Original State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 2 2 Concord. New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Swedes. 1627 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 1 Trenton. New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Spanish. 1598 Dec. 13, 1850. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 2 2 Santa Fé. New York . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dutch. 1613 Original State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 1 Albany. North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . English. 1650 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 2 Raleigh. North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Americans. 1860 Mar. 2, 1861. Nov. 2, 1889. 2 4 2 Bismarck. Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Va and_N. Eng. 1788 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Nov. 29, 1802. 2 2 2 Columbus. Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Americans. 1890 May 2, 1890. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 2 2 Guthrie. Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. English. 1796 Aug. 14, 1848. Feb. 14, 1859. 4 4 2 Salem. Pennsylvarna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 1682 Original State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 4 2 I-Iarrisburg. Bhode Island ............... .. “ 1631 “ .............. .. 1 1 1 Providence and N ewport. South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “_ 1689 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 2 Columbia. South Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Americans. 1860 Mar. 2, 1861. N 0v. 2, 1889. 2 2 2 Pierre. Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. N. C. and Va. 1765 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 1, 1796. 2 2 2 Nashville. Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Spanish. 1630 . , . . _ . . . . . , . . , .. Dec. 29, 1845. 2 4 2 Austin. Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Americans. 1847 Sept. 9, 1850. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 2 2 Salt Lake. rnont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. English. 1763 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mar. 4, 1791. 2 2 2 Montpelier. Y\;18£}1a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ 1607 Original State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 2 Richmond. “Tas 1‘I71_§_’,'t()_l1._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Americans. 1848 Mar. 2, 1853. Nov. 11,1889. 4 4 2 Olympia. West irginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. English. 1607 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June19, 1863. 4 4 2 Charleston. Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Amei"1cans. 1831 June 3, 1836. May 29, 1848. 2 4 2 Madison. yommg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1864 July 25, 1868. July 10, 1890. 4 4 2 Cheyenne. houses, similar to the Federal Congress, and the laws are enforced by a. State judiciary. The government of the or- ganized Territories is in part by the general Government and in part by the people. The President appoints the Governor and certain other territorial officers, while the Legislature is elected by the people of the Territory. The District of Columbia is governed directly by the general Gove_rmnent, the President appointing its executive, which consists of three commissioners. Its laws are made by Con- gress. and its judi'ciary is appointed by the President. Ind- ian Territory and Alaska are unorganized Territories. TheStates are divided into counties, which in the case of Louisiana are known as parishes, and the counties are town. In some States cities are independent of the town- ship organization, in others are subject to it. Some cities are independent of county organization, as Baltimore and St. Louis, and some comprise the entire county, as New York and San Francisco. In most of the States towns and vil- lages are incorporated; in New Jersey and Pennsylvania boroughs are chartered; and in Ohio minor incorporations, known as hamlets, exist. Altogether, there were, in 1890, nearly 45,000 distinct governments coexistent in the U. S., including the States, Territories, counties, townships. and other county sub- divisions, and the various classes of municipal incorpora- tions. UNITED ARMY AND NAVY. The army consists of 2,169 commissioned ofiicers and 25,000 non-commissioned officers and privates. The organ- ization is as follows: 0 ‘s1 d N -commi ‘cued DIVISIONS’ on<1>;dl:ei-:.ne 0fi1(<)>:rs and gilivates. General staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 400 ._. Ordnance corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58 400 Engineer corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113 500 10 regiments of cavalry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 432 6,050 5 regiments of artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 3,675 25 regiments of infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 877 12,125 Indian scouts, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 2,200 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,169 25,000 See ARMY, MILITARY AcADEMIEs, MAcHINE AND RAPID- FIRE GUNS, MAGAZINE—GUNS, ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE, and SMALL-ARMS. .ZlfiZe'2h'a.—lVIost of the States maintain an organized militia force. In 1893 this comprised 9,278 commissioned officers and 102,912 enlisted men, exclusive of the naval militia main- tained by some of the maritime States. In 1895 this force comprised 226 officers and 2,706 men, with 13 practice-ships, assigned to as many States by the Federal Government. Navy.—The naval force consists (1895) of 726 officers, 8,250 enlisted men and boys, and a Marine Corps of 2,177 officers and men. The U. S. has been engaged since 1884 in reconstructing its navy, and rates as fifth among nayal powers. It has (1895) 6 armored battle-ships in commission or under construction and nearly completed, 2 armored cruisers, and 20 monitors, most of which are of an old type, and were constructed during the war of 1861—65. Of un- armored cruisers she has 3 of the first-rate, 11 second-rate, 9 third-rate (built in recent times), together with 3 gun- boats, and 7 torpedo-boats. There are also in commission 16 vessels, most of them of wood, and of old construction. See SHIPS or WAR, NAVY, and NAVAL ACADEMIES. Pcnsions.—There were expended in 1894 by the pension bureau $140,772,163, making the total payments since 1861 on account of pensions $1.717,275,718. The number of pen- sioners on the rolls was 969,544, of which 754,382 were inva- lid pensioners and 215,162 were widows and children. FINANCE. The total receipts for the year ending June 30, 1894, $372,802,498.29, derived from the following sources: Source. Amount. Customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $131,818,530.62 Internal revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147,111,232.81 Postal service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75.080,479.04 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,792,255 .82 The total disbursements for the year were $442,605,’? 58.87, the constituent items of which were: were Legislative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $8,921,301 .27 Executive, proper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138,935.48 State Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,842 245.26 Treasury Department (except int. on debt). 59,55|,915.45 Interest on public debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27,8-11,405.64 War Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56,841,758 51 Navy Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interior Department (except pensions) . . . . . . 19.204.536.37 Pensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141,177,284.96 Post-office Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85,825,418.64 Department of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,7 04,118.11 Department of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167,833.?’ Department of Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 283,398.60 Judicial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,008,948.38 See FINANCE, TARIEFS, SUBsIDIEs, PROTECTION, and FREE TRADE. Oirculatz'0n.—The total amount of money of all kinds in circulation in the country in 1894 was $1,660,808,708, or $24.33 per capita of estimated population, besides which there was in the U. S. treasury $759,626,073, making the total amount of money in circulation and in the treasury $2,420,434,781, or $35.44 per capita. The following table classifies the currency as gold, silver, different kinds of pa- per, etc.: Gonn : In treasury, including bullion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $131,316,471 In circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495,976,730 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $627,293,201 Certificates in treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $48,050 In circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66,339,849 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866,387,899 STATES 369 SILVER: Silver dollars and bullion in treasury . . . . . . . . . $495.435,370 Subsidiary coin in treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17,738,968 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $513,174,338 Dollars in circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 852,56-1.662 Subsidiary coin in circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58,510,957 Total .................................... .. $111,075,619 Certificates in treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810,457,768 In circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385,925,736 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $396,383.504 PAPER: U. S. notes in treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $80,091,414 In circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266,589,602 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3-346,631,016 National bank-notes in treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86,635,044 In circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 200,219,743 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. $206.854.787 FRACTIONAL CURRENCY : In treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17.902,988 In circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 134,681,429 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $152,584,417 See the articles COINAGE, MINT, MONETARY STANDARDS, SIL- vER COINAGE, etc. Public Debt.-—The public debt, which, less cash in the treasury, amounted in 1866 to $2,773,000,000, has been great- ly reduced, and in 1894 amounted to only $899,313,380, or $13.17 per capita of the population. Of this amount, $635,- 041,890 was interest-bearing, almost entirely at 4 per cent. The debts of States aggregated in 1890 $228,997,389, show- ing a rapid reduction in the preceding ten years. The debts of counties amounted in the same year to about $145,000,000, and that of municipalities to $724,463,060, these classes showing a slight increase in the ten years preceding. See DEBT, PUBLIC. lVeaZth.—The total assessed valuation of property in 1890 was 825,47 3,17 3,418. On this there were levied taxes amount- ing to $471,365,140. Of the total assessed valuation, 818,- 956,556,675 was on real estate, and $6,516,616,743 on per- sonal property, being in the proportion of about three to one. The true valuation has been estimated at the time of each census since 1850 as follows: CENSUS YEAR. Estimated valuation. Per capita. 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $7,135,780,228 $308 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,159.616,068 514 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,068,518,507 780 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43,642,600,000 870 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65,037,091,197 1,036 The following are the particular items of the estimate for 1890 : Real estate and improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $39,544,544,333 Live stock, farm implements. and machinery. 2,703,015.040 Mines, quarries. and products on hand . . . . . . . . . 1,291,291,579 Gold and silver coin and bullion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.153,7 7 ,948 Machinery of mills and products on hand, either raw or manufactured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,058,593,441 Railways and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,685,407,323 Telegraphs, telephones, shipping, and canals. . 7 01,755,712 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,893,708,821 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $65,037,091,197 RELIGION. In the U. S. the utmost freedom regarding religious be- lief prevails, and this fact, coupled with the great diversity of the peoples and the independence and boldness of thought, has resulted in the existence of a most bewildering number of religious denominations, the principal of which, with the membership of each, are given in the following table : Roman Catholic . . . . . . . .. 6,257,871 German Evangel.Synod.. 187,432 Methodist . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,589,284 Latter-day Saints . . . . . . . .. 166,125 Baptist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,762,729 Evangelical Association .. 133,313 Presbyterian . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,278,332 Jews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130,496 Lutheran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,231,072 Friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107,208 Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 744,77‘ Dunkards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73.795 Protestant Episcopal... 540,50 Unitarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67,749 Congregational 512,771 Adventist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60,491 Reformed . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 309,458 Universalist . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49.194 United Brethren . . . . . . .. 225,158 Mennonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41.541 As is seen, the Roman Catholic is the most powerful re- ligious body. Its membership as reported represents the entire Roman Catholic population, as compared with the 421 370 UNITED communicant members of other denominations. It is derived from various sources widely dispersed over the country. In the Northeastern States it is made up largely of Irish and French-Canadian stock, while farther \Vest, along the shores of the Great Lakes, the Roman Catholics are principally French Canadians by birth or extraction. In Maryland they are the descendants of some of the early settlers; in Louisiana of the early French settlers : and in Texas, Ari- zona, New Mexico, and Southern California, the Mexican population is responsible for the strength of this denomina- tion. The Methodist and Baptist denominations have the greatest strength in the Southern States, both among the white and colored, nearly all the colored race belonging to one or the other of them. The Presbyterians are found mainly in the Middle and Southern States and in the upper Missis- sippi valley. The Lutherans are a German denomination, and are found in their greatest strength wherever the Ger- man element predominates. The Christians are scattered widely over the country. The Episcopalians are found very largely in the Northeastern States, especially in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. The Congregationalists were formerly confined chiefly to New England, but since 1850 have increased rapidly in the Northwest. From the returns of the census of 1890 it is learned that the value of church property in 1890 was $680,000,000; the number of clergy- men, preachers, ete., 108,879; and the number of communi- cants 20,661,046—-a trifle more than one-third the population of the country, and a half of that part of the population ten or more years of age. EDUCATION. Elementary education is mainly provided for by public schools. The number of children enrolled in all schools, public, private, and parochial, in 1890, was 14,373,670, of whom 12,967,468 were white and 1,416,202 colored. This is about 75 per cent. of the children of school age. Of the total number entered in all schools, about nine-tenths are in the public and the remainder in about equal proportions in private and parochial schools. The enrollment in the schools is much more nearly complete in the Northern than in the Southern States, and most complete of all in Kansas, where 94 per cent. of the children of school age are enrolled, while Maine and Ohio each enrolled 93 per cent. The total number of teachers was 363,935, of which a little more than one-third were males and a little less than two-thirds were females. The total expenditure for public schools was $140,277,484, an average rate of $17 per pupil in average attendance. The amount expended per pupil in the North was, as a rule, above this average, while that in the South was below it. Of schools for higher education, including universities and colleges, there were 476, employing 11,843 professors and instructors. Of these, 2,709 were employed in the preparatory departments, 6,263 in the collegiate, and 2,871 in the professional. Of students there were in the preparatory departments 45,188; the collegiate, 60,415 ; and , the professional, 21,265—-total, 126,868. The property, in- cluding buildings and grounds, productive funds, and other items, is in excess of $220,000,000; the total income of all these institutions is $15,365,612. See EDUCATION, ScrIooLs, CoMMoN ScHooLs, CoLLEcE, and UNIVERSITY. The following is a general summary of statistics of pro- fessional schools for 1893-94: CLASS OF SCHOOLS. Schools. Instructor-s. Students Graduates. Theological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 963 7,658 1,462 Law_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 621 7 ,31 1 2.454 Medical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 4.195 21,802 5,133 Dental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 794 4.152 877 Pharmaceutical . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 283 3,658 988 Veterinary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 118 554 171 Nurse traming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 . . . 2,710 970 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 6,974 47.845 12,055 Jlltteraog/.—'I‘l1e number of illiterates was reported in 1890 as 6,324,702. This is 133 percent. of the population over ten years of age. per cent. of all the whites over ten years of age, while the corresponding proportion for colored is 568 percent. In 1880 70 per cent. of all the colored were illiterate. showing a rapid reduction of illiteracy among this race. Of the na- tive white population ten years of age and over, 62 per cent. were illiterate, while among the foreign born the per- centage of illiteracy was 13'1, being more than twice as great as among the native whites. Illiteracy is much greater The white illiterates comprised but 77 STATES in the South than in the North. Among the native whites of the N orth, less than 3 per cent. are illiterate; among the native whites of the South the proportion is nearly 15 per cent. The State having the smallest proportion of illiterates among its entire population is Nebraska, with 31 per cent., and that having the largest is Louisiana, where 458 per cent. of the people are illiterates, due to the large proportion of colored population. Pere'odz'cals.—-According to Rowell, the total number of periodicals published in 1895 in the U. S. was 19,530. They were classified as follows by frequency of issue : Weekly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14,096 Bi-weekly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79 Monthly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,548 Bi-monthly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Dail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,956 Tri-weekly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Semi-weekly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Tri-monthly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Semi-monthly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Semi-quarterly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Quarterly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182 The total yearly issue of all periodicals is estimated at 3,481,610,000 copies, an average of 50 per inhabitant. HISTORY. The Colonial and Provincial Pere'od.—The discovery of the North American continent by the N orsemen, the Spain- iards, the English, and the French is sufficiently described under the titles VINLAND, NORUMBEGA, PoNcE DE LEON, CA- BOT, Soro, CHAMPLAIN, RALEIGH, SMITH, PURITANS, and the other explorers and settlers prominently connected with this early period. Under the names of the several States information concerning the settlement and colonization of particular localities will also be found. Results only can be considered here. The coming of the Norsemen in the tenth century left no permanent impression; and the only abiding influence of the discovery of Florida by the Span- iards was the Spanish claim to that territory, which was purchased by the U. S. in the nineteenth century. With the English and the French, however, the matter was very dif- ferent. In a general way, it may be said that the English es- tablished permanent settlements along the coast-line from Florida to Nova Scotia, and claimed the territory extending indefinitely westward ; while the French, taking the river St. Lawrence as the basis of their advances, pushed along the line of the Great Lakes and down to the mouth of the Mis- sissippi. Thus English methods and institutions came to prevail in the eastern part of what is now the U. S., while the institutions of France established themselves in the North and West. It was inevitable that disputes concerning the boundary-lines should take place at an early day. The claims of the English and those of the French were quite irreconcil- able. Both nations tried to establish lines of defense and at- tack along the lakes and on the Ohio river. The French were far more skillful than the English in dealing with the Indians, and consequently the Indians generally fought on the French side. King George’s war (1744 and 1748) settled nothing, and the final trial of strength did not come until the French and Indian War (see FRENCH WAR), which was really a part of the SEVEN YEARs’ WAR (q. o.), and extended from 1754 to 1763. While France was occupied in the great contest with Frederick the Great, Great Britain, which un- der the statesmanship of Pitt was enlisted on the other side, pushed the war in America to a definite conclusion. The efeat of MoNTcALI\I by WOLFE (qq. 2).), and the consequent fall of Quebec Sept. 15, 1759, put the British in possession of all the territory E. of the Mississippi river. While this long contest had been going on, the British colonies along the coast had been developing their institu- tions according to English methods. The colonial divisions were determined primarily by the charters received from the mother government; and as time advanced, the enter- prise of the settlers and the liberality of the charters deter- mined the size and prosperity of the respective colonies. Along the rivers and valleys colonization pushed in some regions slowly, in others rapidly, toward the West, so that at the time of the Revolutionary war each of the more impor- tant colonies S. of New England had established personal and political, as well as territorial, connections with the vast domain extending into the valley of the Mississippi. (See the article FRONTIER; also Roosevelt’s Wz'nn'2,'ng of the West.) In Virginia, the typical Southern colony, the charter re- tained large powers for the Governor, and gave few powers to the people. Not a little turbulence was the result. (See BAeoN’s REBELLIoN.) The part of the mother country was not skillfully played, and therefore when the troubles ante- cedent to the Revolution broke out Virginia was one of the foremost to urge a policy of vigorous resistance. South UNITED Carolina was animated by a similar spirit. But it was in New England that the most advanced ideas prevailed. In Massachusetts and Connecticut the colonists were able for the most part to control and shape their own local and po- litical affairs. Harvard College was founded within sixteen years after the first settlement at Plymouth, and only a little later a general school system was adopted. Similar provisions for a somewhat comprehensive system of educa- tion were adopted in Connecticut, and in the Dutch colony in New York. With many characteristics in common, the colonies had also many individual peculiarities, and thus it came about that each colony for itself built up on a basis of great liberality a system of social, educational, and political institutions that enabled it to contribute something to that great stock of political opinion which was at length embod- ied in the Federal Constitution. N 0 government was ever more perfectly developed out of the past. Each colony grew up independently of the others, and so far as its char- ter permitted framed its government, in its own way, on the general model of British institutions. It was not strange, therefore, that when the colonies were forced to unite their interests in a common cause they brought to this service an amount of political experience and wisdom that has rarely been equalled. As the colonies derived the form and es- sence of their government from Great Britain, so the Fed- eral Constitution was built out of materials furnished by the colonies. Efiorts to Unite the 00Z0m'es.--Although the political history of the U. S. begins in 1774, there had been several efforts to unite the colonies before that time. The mother country had provided no common government in which the colonies should take part, and the relations into which these occasionally entered under the stress of Dutch, French, and Indian wars were voluntary and transient. Planted along the Atlantic coast, each having its own harbors and river systems, the colonies had felt no drawings toward general union. To this statement of geographical independence an exception may seem to have existed in the case of Delaware and Pennsylvania, which, even after the legislative secession of 1703, continued under a common governor. With this possible exception no colony depended on the consent of any other for the exercise of any vital privilege. One or more of the colonies had taken advantage of superior harbors to tax the products of their neighbors going out through their ports; Connecticut and Massachusetts quarreled for a while (1647-50) over the dues levied by the former at Saybrook on goods destined for Springfield in the latter colony; Virginia and Maryland long maintained a dispute concern- ing their respective rights to the navigation of Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac river; while even the adoption of the Constitution has not wholly prevented controversy between New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut in the matter of the control of New York Bay, as in the case of the claim of cer- tain patentees of New York to the monopoly of steam-navi- gation within those waters. But none of these issues was vital, while the exigencies of a common defense against the savages were held to be sufiiciently met by an occasional common armament and joint expedition of two, three, or four contiguous colonies. One exception, indeed, is found. In 1643 the four colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven, which afterward formed two of the thirteen original States, united in a confederation, known as the United Colonies of New England, for defense against the savage tribes. In this confederation the four colonies, though very unequal in size and population, were to have equal power, but all war-expenses, which were to be a common charge, were to be apportioned according to the number of male inhabitants in each colony. Runaway servants and fugitives from justice were to be mutually delivered up, and the judgments of courts of law and pro- bates of wills in each colony were to receive full faith and credit in every other. This confederation, thus limited in extent, had but a feeble existence, and expired after about half a century with the exigency i11 which it had its rise. No other attempt at confederation was made until 1754, though in the interval colonies were temporarily or per- manently consolidated by the crown, sometimes with and sometimes without their consent. In the year named a convention was held at Albany, New York, in view of the approaching hostilities with the French and Indians, and on the instance of the British Board of Trade. Com- missioners were present from New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the four New England colonies. Delegates were also present from the famous Six Nations of New smrns 371 York. Under the leadership of Benjamin Franklin, a plan of permanent union for the colonies was adopted, to be dependent for effect on the sanction of the British Par- liament. The scheme comprised a president-general, named and supported by the crown, and a council of forty-eight members, to be chosen every three years by the legislatures of the colonies. Each colony was to have representation in proportion to its contributions to the general cause, no colony, however, to have less than two or more than seven members of the council. The council was to undertake the common defense, apportioning quotas of men and money therefor, controlling the forces raised, and enacting ordi- nances of general interest. The president-general was to have a negative on all acts of the council and the appoint- ment of all military officers. Civil officers were to be ap- pointed by the council, with the consent of the president. This promising scheme was, however, rejected by the Board of Trade as conferring dangerous powers on the colonies, and by the colonies themselves as giving too much authority to the crown in matters which they had jealously reserved to themselves; so that the colonies had to sustain the ensuing war, which broke the power of France upon the continent, with no other concert than that derived from the voluntary concurrence of the several legislatures or executives. The forces which thus for more than a century withstood union were not found alone in the indifference growing out of the natural independence which has been noted. There was also a decided repugnance, if not between individual colonies, between groups of colonies, arising out of differ- ences in race, religion, and political institutions. New England was almost purely English; the populations of the middle colonies were most curiously and variously composed of a great number of nationalities. New England was chiefly Puritan; in the middle colonies the Quakers and Lutherans dominated; at the South, the Church of Eng- land had formally established its offices. But the repug- nance caused by differences of race and religion was proba- bly less than that due to differences in the political franchises and institutions of the several sections. The charter gov- ernments of New England (excepting New Hampshire) were in strong contrast to the proprietary governments of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware and the provincial governments of the South. The political habits and apti- tudes which resulted were widely diverse, especially in re- spect to the forms in which political power was exercised and to the modes of taxation in use. Evidence abounds that the total efiect of all these causes was to produce a strong disinclination to confederation among the colonies, and especially that the Episcopal and aristocratic prejudices against the leveling spirit of New England, and the Quaker opposition to war, to which the New England colonies were from the first exceedingly prone, constituted obstacles to union which no cause but the single one which actually brought the colonies together could for more than one gen- eration have overcome. Causes of the War of Independe/nce.——In 1765 the general opposition to Grenville’s Stamp Act led to a congress of delegates from nine colonies. appointed by various authority, which met at New York and formed a union for the pur- pose of resisting taxation by Parliament. This congress, however, assumed no powers of government; its proceedings were limited to deliberation and remonstrance, and the union expired with the repeal of the obnoxious law in 1766. In 1774, however, the opposition to Charles Townshend‘s measures for raising a British revenue within the colonies. inflamed by the stirring events at Boston—the “massacre” of 1770 and the “ tea-party ” of 177 3—resulted in a congress of the colonies, which met at Philadelphia on Sept. 5. Twelve colonies were soon represented, Georgia being the exception. This congress was in reality an assemblage of committees. The colonies voted as entire bodies, casting single votes, the question of proportional representation being waived for the sake of harmony. The congress under- took to exercise no coercive powers. Separation from Great Britain was not then determined on, and was not even gen- erally in contemplation. The important measures of the congress of 1774 were a declaration which based the rights of the colonies on the laws of nature, the principles of the British Constitution, and the several charters or compacts between the colonies and the crown, and denied expressly and completely the right of Parliament to tax the colonies, though recognizing the power of commercial regulation; and, second, non-importation and non-exportation agree- ments, the article tea being particularly named in the A 372 UNITED former, while rice, the product of Carolina, was specially ex- cepted from the prohibitions of the latter. The congress adjourned in October, recommending that another congress be held in 1775, should the grievances of the colonies not meanwhile have been redressed. During the winter which followed, rapid progress was made toward revolution in Massachusetts. The Governor, on the part of the crown, dis- solved the General Assembly, and called new councilors into ofi‘lce by mandamus, under authority of an act of Parliament revoking so much of the charter of the colony as authorized the assembly to elect the council. The Governor’s council- ors were compelled by a show of popular violence to resign, while a new Assembly. elected by the people in defiance of an executive proclamation, met at Salem and resolved them- selves into a provincial congress, whose recommendations had all the effect of law throughout the colony. On Apr. 19, 1775, occurred the battle of Lexington, an unforeseen collision between the royal troops marching to seize military stores at Concord and the militia and citizens. The second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia on May 10, following. Most of the delegations had been chosen before the battle of Lexington, when armed resist- ance to the obnoxious acts of Parliament was not in contem- plation. “They were,” says Mr. Bancroft, “committees from twelve colonies, deputed to consult on measures of conciliation, with no means of resistance to oppression be- yond a voluntary agreement for the suspension of importa- tions from Great Britain. They formed no confederacy; they were not an executive government ; they were not even a legislative body.” Such, indeed, they were in theory; but the course of events threw upon this body of committees the duties of a revolutionary congress. Blood had been shed ; the British troops were besieged in Boston by the militia of New England; Congress, by the necessity of the situa- tion, became the organ of the common resistance. A Con- tinental army was raised ; a commander-in-chief, George Washington, of Virginia, was chosen, in whose commission the phrase “United Colonies” was first used ; a Continental currency was created; a general treasury and post-office es- tablished; while the whole management of lndian affairs was assumed by Congress. Here we see most of the parts of government emerge. What, meanwhile, had become of the governments of the colonies‘? Much stress has been placed by some writers on the fact that the revolutionary govern- ments of the colonies were generally not organized until after the Continental Congress had assumed powers of legis- lation, and had recommended the establishment of new governments in the several colonies. But no inference can justly be drawn from this fact adverse to the full political rights of each colony. The priority noted was a priority in time, not in logic. It was due to the urgent military neces- sity of the situation, and intimated no supremacy on the part of the Continental Congress. It is not conceivable that the latter body should have assumed to disregard the entity of a single colony, even the smallest, or have pro- ceeded to do anything authoritatively in respect to the or- ganization of colonial governments, or to take territory from one colony for the benefit of another. The colonies in no respect owed their existence or their political rights to the Continental Congress, which was their creature, the or- gan of their voluntary common action. On June 17 was fought the battle of Bunker Hill, be- tween the garrison of Boston and the besieging provincials. Though this action was not, as now, regarded as a substan- tial victory for the Americans, it did much to strengthen the purpose of resistance and to quicken the growth of revolutionary ideas. The progress of the popular mind of the colonies toward independence of Great Britain was has- tened by the refusal of Parliament to receive the petition of Congress; by the bombardment of the town of Ealmouth, now the city of Portland ; by acts of Parliament prohibiting trade with the colonies and authorizing the capture of their vessels; and by the active impressment of seamen on the North American coast. The military operations of the au- tumn and winter had not been decisive. The expedition of Montgomery and Arnold against Canada had resulted dis- astrously; on the other hand, \Vashington had been ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the Continental forces, and in consequence of the skill of his manoeuvers the British garrison had been compelled to evacuate Boston. A British fleet had also been beaten off Charleston in the action at Fort Sullivan. The War of Independence.-—On June 7, 1776, a resolution of independence was introduced into the Continental Con- STATES gress by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, and referred to a committee consisting of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Liv- ingston. The DECLARATION or INDEPENDENCE (g. 1).) was drawn by Jefferson, and on July 4, after slight modifications, was adopted and promulgated, the delegations being gener- ally instructed to that end by the respective colonies. On the same day on which the committee was appointed to prepare the Declaration, a committee was appointed to prepare Ar- ticles of Confederation, it being fully recognized that inde- pendence of Great Britain necessitated union among the colonies, now become States. Yet this committee did not report a lan for confederation until Nov., 1777, nor were the Artie es adopted by all the States before Mar. 1, 1781. During the whole of this period the States, united only by their free consent, were carrying on war with Great Britain at a distinct disadvantage by reason of the absence of authori- tative government. This long delay in such an exigency affords a measure of the difficulties of union. One obstacle, however, additional to those previously mentioned, requires to be stated. Seven States, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia, owned or claimed considerable tracts of land to the W. of their present limits. The six other States objected to sign- ing the Articles until these unoccupied lands, which were to be defended by the arms and resources of the Confederation, should be ceded for the benefit of the Confederation. This objection, however, was maintained with less vigor by some of these States than by others. Before the close of July, 1778, ten States had ratified the Articles. New Jersey ac- ceded Nov. 26, 1778; Delaware May 5, 1779; Maryland re- mained out until Mar. 1, 1781. The contention of Maryland was that without such cession the States owning Western lands would pay their war expenses by sales of lands instead of by taxation; and, secondly, that when this Western ter- ritory should be settled, the communities there formed would become politically and socially the satellites of the States under whose laws and administration they had grown up. The contest was finally settled by the patriotic action of New York, which authorized (Feb. 19, 1780) its delegates to cede its Western lands. This action was accepted by Maryland as an earnest of what she had claimed, and she joined the Confederation as stated. Sooner or later all the landed States followed the example of New York——Virginia, 1784; Massachusetts, 1785; Connecticut, 1786; South Caro- lina, 1787; North Carolina, 1790; Georgia, 1802. Meanwhile the war had been prosecuted without a gov- ernment having coercive power. The States, when called upon by Congress for contributions of men and money, re- sponded in their own time and way. The British troops under Sir William Howe defeated the American army on Long Island Aug. 27, 1776, and soon afterward occupied the city of New York and the country of the lower Hudson. Before the close of the year Washington had been obliged to retire beyond the Delaware river with a small,ill-pro- vided army, but by the brilliant surprises of Trenton and Princeton the British were thrown back and New Jersey was largely recovered. During the summer of 1777 Sir l/Villiam Howe transferred the greater part of his force by water to the neighborhood of Philadelphia, which city he captured, after defeating the American army on the Bran- dywine, Sept. 11. A bold attack by Washington on the British forces at Germantown (Oct. 4) was repulsed. At the North, however, the cause of independence found this year a better fortune. Gen. Burgoyne, in command of an army composed of British regulars, Hessians, Canadians, and Indians, in July captured Ticonderoga and \Vhitehall, and began a movement intended to gain possession of the Highlands of the Hudson, and by opening that river from its source to its mouth to isolate New England. The expe- dition, however, was wholly disastrous. A strong detach- ment of British was defeated by a militia force under Gen. Stark at Bennington Aug. 16, and in September Burgoyne was brought to bay near Saratoga, and after two severe ac- tions (Sept. 19 and Oct. 7) was compelled to surrender (Oct. 17) to Gen. Gates. The battle of Saratoga has often with much reason been regarded as the turning-point or decisive battle of the war. If Burgoyne had succeeded, an open line of communication would probably have been established be- tween Canada and New York, and New England would have been cut off from the possibility of giving active support to Washington. The failure of this brilliant project kept the colonies united and greatly embarrassed the British. Nor was this all. The victory at Saratoga gave great reputation UNITED abroad to the American arms, and decided the French king to join in treaties of alliance and commerce with the U. S., which were signed in Paris in Feb., 1778. Meanwhile Wash- ington had been reduced to straits in keeping the field against the British, and his army encountered the greatest hardships during the winter of 1777-78 at Valley Forge, a day’s march N. of Philadelphia. The want of an authoritative govern- ment was severely felt in the slow and partial responses made by the States to the requisitions of the Congress. In this strait the issue of bills of credit was resorted to. The depreciation was of course rapid. Mar. 1, 1778, $1 in specie exchanged for $1.75 in paper; Sept. 1, for 554; Mar. 1, 1779, for $10; Sept. 1, for $18; Mar. 18, 1780, for $40; Dec. 1, for $100; May 1, 1781, for $200-$500. During the opera- tions of 1778 the co-operation of the French fleet under d’Estaing proved delusive, but the conduct of the British armies was ineffective; Sir Henry Clinton, who succeeded Howe, evacuated Philadelphia and retired on New York. During the movement an indecisive action was fought at Monmouth, the army of Washington remaining in possession of the field. The British forces still held Rhode Island, which they had occupied two years before. Toward the close of 1778 Sir Henry Clinton sent a force against the city of Savannah, which fell Dec. 29. This result turned toward the South the efforts of both armies. During the summer of 1779 the British overran the whole of Georgia, but were compelled to abandon Rhode Island in view of an expected expedition of the troops and fleets of France and Spain, the latter country having declared war against Eng- land in June. In September the Americans under Lincoln, assisted by the French fleet, made a futile attack on Savan- nah, being repulsed with heavy loss. In Apr., 1780, Clin- ton in person invested Charleston, which was held by Gen. Lincoln. The defense was weak, and the city was surren- dered with the garrison in May; South Carolina was com- letely overrun, and Cornwallis, who was left in command By Clinton, threatened North Carolina. In this emergency troops were detached from the Northern army under the command of Gen. Gates, who was re-enforced by the militia of Virginia and North Carolina, but was routed with great loss at Camden, while the patriotic corps of Sumter, who since the conquest of South Carolina had not ceased to harass the British outposts, was destroyed by Tarleton on the banks of the Wateree. The three southernmost States were now held by the British, while to the disaster at the South was nearly added the capture of the strongholds on the Hudson through the treachery of Benedict Arnold. In October, however, a considerable detachment of the British army was destroyed by militia at King’s Mountain, inducing Cornwallis to retire into South Carolina; and in December Gen. Greene arrived from the North, superseding Gates. The close of the year found Holland also in arms against Great Britain, though not taking part in the military oper- ations in America. The campaign of 1781 was destined virtually to close the war in favor of the Americans. Jan. 17 the British, under Col. Tarleton, were defeated at Cowpens, S. C., by Gen. Morgan; Mar. 15 a severe action was fought at Guilford Court-house between Greene and Cornwallis, by which the British, though they held the field, were so far weakened that they were compelled to retire: on Sept. 8 was fought the severe action of Eutaw Springs, in which the Americans had the advantage. The effect of these actions, combined with the activity of the American partisans under Marion, was to compel the abandonment of North Carolina and nearly all of South Carolina by the British, who were con- tent to hold a few places by garrisons. Meanwhile Corn- wallis, moving into Virginia with a view to forming a junc- tion with Sir Henry Clinton, was hemmed in at Yorktown by the troops of I/Vashington and Rochambeau, and after a siege of about three weeks was compelled to surrender his whole force, about 8,000 men, Oct. 19. The surrender of Cornwallis practically ended the war. No operations of importance followed. I11 July, 1782, the British evacuated Savannah; a preliminary treaty of peace was signed Nov. 30 of that year at Paris; Dec. 14 Charleston was evacu- ated; the definitive treaty was signed Sept. 3, 1783; New York was evacuated by the close of November; in Decem- ber WASHINGTON (q. o.) resigned his commission as com- mander-in-chief. The O0nfedcmt'zI0n.——'l‘l1e Government which, as recited, had been brought into existence Mar. 2, 1781, remained in effect during two years of war and six years of peace. Its constitution is given in full under the title CONFEDERATION, STATES 373 ARTICLES OF. It was early shown to be a hopeless failure. It had no coercive power over States or individuals. The Congress could not even command the attendance of its own members. In consequence, the States ordinarily neglected or refused to comply with the requisitions of Congress, and settled their disputes or contended over them without regard to the authority of the U. S.; while Congress itself sank to be, in the language of Mr. Curtis, “ a feeble junta of about twenty persons,” moving about from city to city as circum- stances required. On Feb. 21, 1787, Congress called upon the States to send delegates to a convention at Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation, “to render the Fed- eral Constitution adequate to the exigencies of the Govern- ment and the preservation of the Union.” The convention met in May, George Washington being president. Among the most eminent members were Benjamin Franklin, Alex- ander Hamilton, James Madison, Edmund Randolph, George Mason, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, John Rutledge, Charles C. Pinckney, Rufus King, and Roger Sherman. Rhode Island was not present by delegates. It was long doubtful whether the conflicting interests could be brought to agreement. The small States feared they would lose their identity; the large ones that they would be deprived of their superiority. This difficulty was settled by giving the small States equal representation in the Senate and the larger ones the advantage of representation in the House of Representatives on the basis of population. A still more difficult question was that of slavery, and it is safe to say that but for the spirit of concession on both sides, the North and the South could not have been brought into a single Union. Then there were radical difierences of opinion as to the nature of the Government to be established. Hamil- ton desired a strong central power, while, at the other ex- treme, the followers of J eiferson insisted upon the recog- nition of State sovereignty. Both sides made concessions, and a final agreement was reached. The question, however. as to the relative authority of the Federal Government and the individual States was not conclusively determined. If it had been, it is hardly probable that the Constitution, even if adopted by a majority of the delegates, would have been ratified by the States. The convention'was dissolved in Sep- tember, having submitted a form of constitution essentially different from the Articles of Confederation. The main fea- tures of the plan of government thus proposed are given in this article under the title Government: see also the article Consnrorrox or THE UNITED Smrns. The order of ratifica- tion by the conventions of the States was as follows: Dela- ware, Dec. 7, 1787. unanimously; Pennsylvania, the same day, by a vote of 46 to 28 ; New J ersey, Dec. 12, unanimously ; Georgia, Jan. 2, 17 88. unanimously; Connecticut, Jan. 9, by alarge majority: Massachusetts, Feb. 7, 187 to 168: Mary- land, Apr. 28, 63 to 11 : South Carolina, May, by a large ma- jority; New Hampshire, June 21, 57 to 46; Virginia, June 25, by a majority of 10; New York. July 26, 30 to 27. The ratification of nine States being sufficient. the new Govern- ment went into operation before Rhode Island and North Carolina had acceded, which they did shortly after. Ten amendments to the Constitution were immediately proposed and adopted, constituting a sort of Bill of Rights desired by some of the ratifying States. In(vzzg'uraz‘z'0n of I718 Federal Gorernnzent.—The new Gov- ernment was inaugurated, nominally, on Mar. 4, really on Apr. 6,1789. George XVashington, of Virginia, was found to have received the entire number of votes in the electoral college, and was declared President; John Adams, of Mas- sachusetts, having received a plurality of second choices, was declared Vice-President. The cabinet was announced as follows: Thomas J efferson. Secretary of State: Edmund Randolph, Attorney-General; Alexander Hamilton, Secre- tary of the Treasury; I-Ienry Knox, Secretary of War. At the election party distinctions had not been formulated. though it was not to be doubted that the divisions of senti- ment which had been developed in the constitutional con- vention would eventunte in the formation of parties under the Constitution. The cabinet even gave testimony to fundamental differences of political belief between North and South. Hamilton and Knox were pronounced advocates of what became known as Federalism; Jefferson and Ran- dolph were strong asserters of those views of the powers of the general Government, and of its relations to the States, which characterized the Anti-Federalist party. The F0'rma,1fzT0'n, of P0Z'z?tz'ca,l Par1"£es.—Two measures of Washington‘s first term especially promoted the division of Q 374, UNITED the country by party lines. These were the creation of a national bank by act of Congress, and the assumption by the U. S. of the war debts of the several States. The former measure was opposed in the cabinet by Jefferson and Ran- dolph, and supported by Knox and Hamilton, the latter being the author of the scheme. Washington, who had strong Federal associations and proclivities, though disown- ing party obligations, gave the bill his approval. The bank went into operation in 1791, the charter having twenty years to run. The State debts were assumed in a limited amount ($21,500,000) after an embittered contest in Congress, in which the party asserting the utmost fullness of national powers under the Constitution triumphed. During the ad- ministration of Washington the U. S. progressed steadily toward industrial and financial prosperity, and entered into diplomatic relations with several of the principal powers of Europe. War was, however, waged with the Miami confed- eration of the Ohio, over which, after two successive disas- ters to the armies under Gens. Harmer and St. Clair, Gen. Anthony Wayne, the hero of Stony Point in the Revolution- ary war, won a decisive victory, which led to peace and the cession of nearly the whole of Ohio by the Miamis in 1795. No opposition was made to the re-election of Washington in 1793, but during his second term the antagonism of the Federalists and Anti-Federalists (now called Republicans) became intense. The Republicans sympathized strongly with the progress of the Revolution in France; and the more forward, incited by the acts and appeals of Genet, minister from France, strove to commit the U. S. to an active support of that cause, which the Federalists, who were popularly charged with English sympathies, as strongly opposed. The treaty negotiated by Chief Justice Jay as special envoy to England was resented by the Republicans as a surrender of American rights, and the debates thereon in Congress were marked by extraordinary bitterness. This treaty, while it secured the surrender of the posts in the Western territory held by Great Britain for twelve years in violation of the articles of the treaty of peace in 1783, left other questions open to remain the cause of alienation and dissatisfaction, to ripen many years later into war. The financial policy of Congress, which was controlled by the Federalists, also en- countered much factious opposition from the Republicans, which culminated in 1794 in open rebellion against the whisky tax in Western Pennsylvania, only suppressed by the levy of the militia of Maryland and Pennsylvania. (See Wrusxv REBELLION.) The increasing bitterness of feeling in the second term of Washington led to the disruption of his cabinet, in which the eminent statesmen who originally constituted it were finally replaced by Oliver Wolcott, Sec- retary of the Treasury; Timothy Pickering, of State; James McHenry, of War; Charles Lee, Attorney-General. ' At the presidential election of 1797, Washington declin- ing to be a candidate, Jefferson was supported by the Re- publicans and Adams by the Federalists. The latter was elected by a vote of 71 to 68. As the second choices of the Federalists were divided, Jefferson, receiving the highest number next to Adams, became, under the Constitution as it then was, the Vice-President and the leader of the oppo- sition. Adams’s administration was an unfortunate one throughout. He mistakenly retained Washington’s secre- taries, who either gave him no hearty support or intrigued against him in the interest of Hamilton. Adams was fin- ally compelled to dismiss Pickering and McHenry. The President further alienated his own party by renewing ne- gotiations with France after that power, deeming itself out- raged by the Jay treaty with Great Britain, had ordered the U. S. minister out of her territory. Further than this, she had insulted the special envoys, Marshall, Pinckney, and Gerry, who had been sent to adjust the difficulties which threatened war between the two powers to the extent that both nations prepared for action, and captures and conflicts occurred on the ocean. In the U. S. the war-spirit ran so high among the Federalists, especially those who supported Hamilton, that the coursel of the President in dispatching other envoys on what was deemed insufficient evidence of the better disposition of France, provoked deep hostility to Adams, and was an important cause of his subsequent de- feat. The embassy was, however, successful, and a treaty was concluded in 1800. But while Adams was thus alienat- ing sections of his own natural supporters, the Federal party as a whole was sowing the wind from which it was to reap the whirlwind by the enactment in Congress, which that party still controlled, of the Alien and Sedition laws-—acts authorizing the summary removal by the executive of sus- STATES pected aliens, and providing severe penalties for seditious publications. These measures, which were an excellent imi- tation of those by which Pitt was strivinglto keep down the growth of revolutionary sentiments in fngland, were re- sented as inconsistent with the genius of republican institu- tions, and led to the famous declarations of the right of nul- lification known as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (see NULLIFICATION) of 1798-99, those of Virginia being drawn by Madison, those of Kentucky by Jefferson. During the preparations for war with France in 1798, the Navy De- partment was created, and Benjamin Stoddert, of Maryland, was appointed secretary. The policy of maintaining a large naval force had always been advocated by Adams from the earliest days of the Revolutionary war. At the fourth presidential election Adams was defeated, receiving only 65 votes against 73 for Jefferson. As, how- ever, Aaron Burr, the intended Vice-President, received also 73 votes, there being no designation on the ballots as to which should be President and which Vice-President, the election was thrown into the House of Representatives, where the States, in such an event, have equal power, each casting a single vote. After thirty-five ballots, in which the Federalists, in order to defeat J efterson, who was peculiarly obnoxious to them, supported Aaron Burr, Jefferson received the votes of ten States and was elected; Mr. Burr became Vice-President. This contest led to the adoption of the 12th Amendment to the Constitution, which provided that the candidates for President and for Vice-President should be voted for separately. Accession of Anti-Fcdc¢aZz'sts.—The defeat of the Feder- alists had been decisive—so much so that Mr. Jefferson was accustomed to speak of “ the revolution of 1800 ” in refer- ring to the election of that year; and in 1804 Jefferson was re- elected, with George Clinton as Vice-President, the Federalist candidates receiving but 14 votes against 162. J efferson’s cabinet consisted of James Madison, Secretary of State ; Sam- uel Dexter, of the Treasury; Henry Dearborn, of War; Benja- min Stoddert, of the Navy; and Levi Lincoln, Attorney-Gen- eral. Dexter was afterward replaced by Albert Gallatin, and Stoddert by Robert Smith. Consistently with his theory of government, Jefferson sat and voted with the secretaries in cabinet session upon equal terms, so that the executive resembled a directory. The President and his cabinet were, however, perfectly harmonious, and the Republican party continued to gain power rapidly in every section. The prin- cipal measures and events of J efierson’s administration con- cerned the foreign relations of the U. S. In 1801 war was declared against the U. S. by the Bey of Tripoli, to whom the U. S. had paid tribute for the privilege of navigating the Mediterranean. Hostilities continued with slight practical result, though much to the credit of the American navy, till peace was made in 1805. In 1803 Rob- ert R. Livingston and James Monroe, as envoys of the U. S., concluded a treaty with Napoleon, by which the whole of the vast possessions of France W. of the Mississippi, embracing, as com uted, 1,171,931 sq. miles, were ceded to the U. S. for about . 15,000,000. This purchase, admitted by Jefferson to have been made by a great stretch of constitutional author- ity, was a remarkable act of concession to the principles of the Federalists ; but the immeasurable advantage to be gained by the undisputed possession of the Mississippi river and all the territory W. of it were enough to induce even Jefferson to set aside his doctrine of strict construction. This cession greatly exasperated Spain, who deemed her pos- session of Florida threatened thereby. Friendly relations between the two nations were interrupted, and some acts of hostility took place. In her desperate efforts to stay the progress of Napoleon, then fast overrunning the continent of Europe, Great Britain at that period exercised with un- wonted severity her always disputed rights of search and impressment. Napoleon, seeking to effect the commercial isolation of Great Britain and the independence of conti- nental Europe, issued successive decrees from Berlin, from Milan, and from Rambouillet. (See NAPOLEON.) These de- crees, together with the retaliatory orders in council issued by Great Britain in 1807, were without a shadow of justifica- tion in the law of nations, and were peculiarly oppressive to American commerce. But while France and Great Britain were equally in the wrong as regarded their attitude toward the U. S. as a neutral power, the superior naval force of Great Britain rendered her course practically the more injurious. It was this view which constrained Jefferson and his successor more and more to overlook the wrongs done by France, and to seek to direct the public thought of the nation toward Eng- UNITED land as the real enemy of the U. S., though at times the sug- gestion of a “ three-cornered war ” was made with more or less seriousness. In 1806 James Monroe and William Pink- ney, as envoys, negotiated a treaty with Great Britain, by which it was sought to remove or reduce the points in dis- pute, but the treaty was rejected as insuflicient by the Presi- dent without reference to the Senate. In 1807 occurred the affair of the Chesapeake and the Leopard, which did much to arouse those feelings of exasperation which made war possible. A British frigate, in asserting the British claim to recover British seamen wherever found, attacked a U. S. public armed vessel in U. S. waters, and after compelling a surrender took off four seamen. Reparation for this act was delayed four years. In Dec., 1807, on the recommendation of the President, an embargo was declared by Congress, all ves- sels being prohibited from sailing for foreign ports, while the coastwise trade was placed under stringent restrictions. This policy was continued until Mar. 1, 1809, the commer- cial interests of the country suffering meanwhile the deepest distress. The blow fell with especial severity on New Eng- land, where the exasperation of the community was carried almost to the point of open resistance to the law. Three days after the repeal of the embargo—which, though _still approved by the President, could no longer be sustained against the force of public feeling—Mr. J eiferson, having declined re-election, went out of office, leaving the settle- ment of the disputes with England to his successor, James Madison, of Virginia, who had long been his pupil in politics and his Secretary of State during the eight years of his ad- ministration. Mr. Madison, with George Clinton for Vice- President, had been’ elected in 1808 over the Federal candi- dates, Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King, by a nearly three-fourths vote. The cabinet was constituted of Robert Smith, Secretary of State; Albert Gallatin, of the Treasury; William Eustis, of War; Paul Hamilton, of the Navy; Caesar A. Rodney, Attorney-General. For the embargo prohibiting all foreign trade were now substituted acts prohibiting trade with England and France, but containing provisions intend- ed to induce one of those powers to seek a restoration of in- tercourse at the expense of the other. This policy of invit- ing the belligerents to bid against each other for the privilege of open trade with the U. S. was continued through three years, with the effect that France, after one ambiguous an- nouncement—which the Republican party welcomed as sat- isfactory, while the Federal party and the British minister denounced it as insuflicient and insincere—repealed her ob- noxious decrees. Great Britain followed by a repeal of her orders in council; but five days before——viz., on June 18, 1812—Congress had declared war upon the recommendation of President Madison, who, though personally averse to ex- treme measures, was urged forward by younger men now rising into power, notably Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. The arrival of the news of the repeal led to a renewal of ne- gotiations, but the U. S. feared to give time for the strength- ening of the fortifications of Canada, and hostilities com- menced. The War of 1812.—The war was to be fought upon the very issues which had been evaded in the Jay treaty of 1794, but the eighteen years that had elapsed had brought a great gain of numbers and resources to the U. S. The population had grown from 4,500,000 to 8,000,000. and the wealth of the nation had trebled or quadrupled in the in- terval. The number of States was now eighteen, Vermont having been admitted in 1791, Kentucky in 1792, Tennessee in 1796, Ohio in 1802, Louisiana in 1812. The war was fought on three faces-—viz., along the lakes, on the North Atlantic shore, and along the Gulf of Mexico. It opened in the N. by the invasion of Canada from Detroit by Gen. Hull, Governor of the Territory of Michigan. In about a month Hull had surrendered his entire force without fighting. and Michigan and parts of Ohio were overrun by the British, whose progress was withstood by Gen. William Henry Har- rison, who in the preceding year had earned distinction by defeating the Shawnees under their chief TECUMSEH (q. 1;.) and his brother the Prophet. The campaign of 1813 gained little credit to the American arms. Gen. Jacob Brown suc- cessfully defended Sackett’s Harbor, and Harrison routed the British and their savage allies on the Thames, killing Tecumseh; but other attempts at invasion by Wilkinson and Hampton resulted in disgraceful retreats, while the British overran Western New York and burned several towns in retaliation for the burning of Toronto (then York). In September, however, Lieut. OLIVER H. PERRY (q. "v.), of the U. S. navy, in command of an extemporized fleet, de- STATES 375 feated and captured the British squadron, giving the Ameri- cans complete control of Lake Erie. The campaign of 1814 witnessed a marked change. On the one hand, the British forces in Canada were heavily re-enforced by veteran troops from Europe; on the other, the American soldiery were ac- quiring discipline, and able young commanders were com- ing to the front. Under Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott the Americans won the victories of Chippewa and Bridge- water (or Lundy’s Lane). On the other end of the Canada line the invasion of a powerful army under Sir George Prevost was defeated through the destruction, oif Plattsburg, of the supporting squadron by an American fleet under MacDonough. This practically closed the war on the north- ern frontier. On the Atlantic coast the years 1812 and 1813 were marked by the gallant efforts of the six or eight U. S. frigates, and as many sloops of war, to sustain them- selves against the numerous cruisers, and, later, the power- ful fieets, of Great Britain. In spite of victories in single combat which refiected the highest credit on American sea- manship and courage, the few armed vessels of the U. S. were one by one captured by superior force or blocked up in the northern harbors, and in 1814 the British fieets cruised without serious opposition along the whole coast, depredat- ing and destroying at will, though American privateers still swarmed over the seas inflicting great damage upon British commerce. In Aug., 1814, a British army under Gen. Ross, supported by a powerful fleet under Admirals Cockburn and Cochrane, captured Washington after an insignificant conflict at Bladensburg, and burned the Capitol and the President’s mansion. In September the same force attacked Baltimore, but both the army and the fieet were beaten off, Gen. Ross being killed at North Point. The third theater of war was at the Southwest. The Creeks of Alabama having taken up arms, Gen. Andrew Jackson with a body of Western levies invaded their country, and defeated them with great slaughter at Tohopeka in Mar., 1814, compelling the cession of the larger part of the Creek lands. In the summer of the same year a British party occupied Pensacola, then claimed by the Spaniards, and later assaulted unsuccessfully Fort Bowyer near Mobile. In December the British advanced to a formidable attack on New Orleans, and Jackson prepared for its defense. A night attack was made (Dec. 23) on the British camp, for which considerable effect has been claimed; but on J an. 8, 1815, the British commander, Pakenham, ad- vanced with a greatly superior force of Wellington’s veter- ans against the U. S. lines, and was repulsed, he himself, his second in command, and 2,600 men falling in the attack, while the U. S. loss was less than 100. Never had a British army been so disastrously beaten. Meanwhile peace had already been concluded at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. By the ar- ticles of the treaty all conquests on both sides were to be restored, while the questions of search and impressment, concerning which the war had been begun, were not men- tioned. See GHENT, TREATY or. The Rise of lVew Issues.—With the war of 1812-15 closed what may be called the first era of the political history of the U. S.—t-he era when the foreign relations of the country engrossed public attention. The second era, which extended from 1816 to 1843, was the era in which financial and in- dustrial questions assumed supreme importance before the country, and gave purpose and passion to party. The war with Great Britain had, by cutting off the foreign supply, called into existence considerable manufactures of iron, of cotton, and of wool, which on the return of peace were threat- ened with destruction. Moreover, Great Britain had, by the corn-laws of 1815, set the example of attempting to stereo- type war prices for the time of peace. At this time a strong impulse to protection came from the South, where the cot- ton-planting interest desired the creation of a home market. Upon the recommendation of President Madison. and under the leadership of Calhoun and Lowndes, of South Carolina, the first distinctively protective tariff of the U. S. was en- acted in 1816. The charter of the first U. S. Bank had ex- pired in 1811 without renewal. The second, with a capital of $35,000,000, one-fifth owned by the Government, which had a corresponding share in the direction, was chartered by Congress, after a severe struggle, in 1816. The course of the Federal party had been downward. At the elections of 1812 the imminence of war and the unpopu- larity of the Embargo and Non-intercourse Acts had given them a tem orary strength, and at the election of that year they had po led 89 electoral votes for De Witt Clinton against 128 for Madison, with whom was elected Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, as Vice-President. But the opposition of 376 UNITED the Federalists during the war, as shown in the refusal of the Federal governors of two States to allow their militia to march at the orders of the national executive, and in the holding of the Haarroan CONVENTION (q. o.) in Deo., 1814, at which measures for restricting the authority of the gen- eral Government were discussed, and which was charged with being in the interest of a separate New England con- federation, practically destroyed the party. At the election of 1816 James Monroe, of Virginia—who, upon the resignation of Robert Smith on the ground of his opposition to the war with Great Britain, had become Secretary of State in 1811— was elected President by 183 votes, against 34 Federal votes for Rufus King, all from the States of Massachusetts, Con- necticut, and Delaware. At the election of 1820 Monroe received every electoral vote but one, and the so-called era of good feeling began, with party lines wholly obliterated. Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, was chosen Vice-Presi- dent. Mr. Monroe constituted the cabinet as follows: John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State; William H. Crawford, of the Treasury; John C. Calhoun, of War; Benjamin NV. Crowninshield, of the Navy ; \/Villiam Wirt, Attorney-Gen- eral. One of the earliest important events of Monroe’s ad- ministration was Jackson’s successful expedition against the Seminoles in 1818. This arose from depredations com- mitted by the Indians residing in the Spanish territory of Florida upon the frontier settlements of Georgia and Ala- bama. Gen. E. P. Gaines, in command of U. S. troops at Fort Scott, attacked the Indians, who avenged themselves by a massacre of a body of whites on the Appalachicola river and threatened Gaines’s garrison with superior forces. Jackson was ordered to take the field, and, believing that the outrages were incited by British subjects under the pro- tection of the Spanish authorities, carried the war into Florida, captured the Spanish post of St. Mark’s, and seized the persons of two British subjects, Arbuthnot and Am- brister, suspected of having incited the Indians against U. S. citizens. These men were court martialed, found guilty, and executed. This provoked much indignation in Great Britain and Spain. The Spanish minister protested against the invasion of Florida, but the U. S. Secretary of State, J. Q. Adams, fully sustained J ackson’s conduct. Other noteworthy events of the administration were (1) the cession of Florida, embracing about 60,000 sq. miles, by Spain in 1819, for the sum of $5,000,000 ; (2) the enunciation by the President, in his annual message in 1823, of the so-called l\IoNaoE DOCTRINE (q. o.)—-that is, that all attempts of European governments to acquire new territory on the American continent, or to reconquer provinces that had achieved independence, would be regarded as hostile acts, the declaration being especially aimed at Spain, whose South American colonies had revolted, and had been ac- knowledged as republics by the U. S.; and (8) the enact- ment of the tariff of 1824, by which the system of protec- tion to U. S. manufactures was extended and fortified. But the chief political measure was the Missouri Compro- mise. It was the era of new States. Indiana had been admitted in 1816, Mississippi in 1817, Illinois in 1818, and Alabama in 1819. After the preliminary steps had been taken for forming a State government in Alabama, Missouri applied for admission. Of the nine States already admitted since 1789, four had been free States, five slave States. It was now claimed to be the turn of the free States. Great opposition was made to the admission of Missouri with slavery; intense feeling became aroused North and South, and threats of disunion were loudly made. Various propo- sitions for compromise were rejected, but the admission of Maine in 1820 as a free State, formed out of the territory of Massachusetts, prepared the way for an amicable adjust- ment, and a compromise was reached by which Missouri was admitted as a slave State, while slavery was for ever prohibited in all unorganized territory N. of 36° 30’. This was the first, and one of the most bitter, of the struggles re- lating to slavery under the Constitution. At the presidential election of 1824 four candidates, all calling themselves Republicans, were voted for in the elec- toral college. Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, received 99 votes; John Quincy Adams, of hlassachusetts, 84; William H. Crawford, of Georgia, 41; Henry Clay, of Kentucky, 37. The election devolved upon the House of Representatives, whose choice was by the Constitution confined to the three highest candidates. Clay being thus thrown out, his friends united with those of Adams, and the latter was elected, re- ceiving the votes of thirteen States, while seven voted for Jackson and four for Crawford. This unexpected alliance STATES of Clay and Adams, taken in connection with the appoint- ment, which followed, of the former as Secretary of State, led to the charge of “ a corrupt coalition,” which was urged with great bitterness at the time, and was reiterated at a subsequent period, but appears not to have been justified by the facts. The correspondence of Clay, Jackson, and Buchanan, together with the speeches in Congress on the subject, form a conspicuous feature in the political litera- ture of the U. S. The other members of the cabinet were Richard Rush, Secretary of the Treasury; James Barbour, of War; S. L. Southard, of the Navy; William Wirt, At- torney-General. The chief events and measures of Adams’s administration were—-1, the appointment, against violent opposition in Congress, of envoys to represent the U. S. at Panama in a proposed congress to be composed of rep- resentatives of the principal American states—a scheme in the spirit of the Monroe doctrine, but which was aban- doned through, first, the death of the U. S. envoy, and sub- sequently through revolutions in Central America; 2, a controversy with the State of Georgia, arising out of the action of the general Government in protecting the Creek Indians against the efforts of the State authorities to ex- trude them under cover of a pretended treaty, during which Gov. Troup threatened open war and the State militia was embodied; 3, a series of complications, resulting, fortunately, in the negotiation of the Gallatin treaty, by which trade was opened between the U. S. and the British West Indies; and 4, the tariff of 1828 known as the “act of abominations ” (see TARIFFS), by which the protective system instituted in 1816 and extended in 1824 was carried to a much higher point, the feeling of the sections on this question being now re- versed—New England, under the lead of Daniel Webster, advocating high duties, while the South, under the lead of Calhoun, who was the virtual author of the tariff of 1816, denounced the existing system and its proposed extension as uneonstitutional. Adams, a former Federalist, and the son of a Federal President, had been elected President in 1824, the distinc- tion of Federalist and Re ublican being no longer formally maintained. But grave ifferences of political feeling and of constitutional theory did not lose their power for want of names to characterize them. From the day of Adams’s election he was the subject of unceasing attacks having in view his defeat in 1828. Especially in the Senate, where the ablest leaders were in opposition, was the war of resolutions, motions. and speeches most fiercely carried on. The Presi- dent, on his side, instead of assuming the initiative, promptly occupying the field, and by the use of his power and patron- age recruiting as largely as possible that as yet unnamed political entity which was to become known as the Whig party (see VVIIIG), sought to remain the President of the whole country. As a result, the opposition by its aggres- siveness won over all the loose elements of the political field, especially among young men having no party traditions, and acquired at this time that power and cohesiveness which has characterized the DEMOCRATIC PARTY (Q. ’U.). At this period the word “Democrat,” which at an earlier date had been almost a term of offense, assumed by only the most advanced French sympathizers, had come to supplant the word “ Re- publican.” At the election of 1828, Adams, styling himself a National Republican, was defeated by Gen. Jackson, who received 178 out of 261 votes in the electoral college. Cal- houn, who in 1824 had been elected V ice-President with Adams, was re-elected. The cabinet was constituted of Mar- tin Van Buren, Secretary of State; Samuel D. Ingham, of the Treasury; John H. Eaton, of War; John Branch, of the Navy; John M. Berrien, Attorney-General. Heretofore, the Postmaster-General had not been a member of the cabinet, but Gen. Jackson now appointed William T. Barry Post- master-General, with a seat at the council-board. Imme- diately, the maxim “to the victors belong the spoils” was put in force. Hundreds of removals from office took place in the first six months of this administration, and the civil service became, as it long remained, prostituted to the pur- poses of party. See CIVIL SERVICE AND CIVIL SERVICE RE- roan. The Southern States had been deeply dissatisfied with the tariff of 1828, having become convinced that a home market for their cotton crop was a matter of indifference, while the protection of cotton, woolen, and hempen goods. and of iron manufactures at the North was in no small de- gree at their expense. South Carolina and Georgia had, as States, formally protested against a tariff for protection as un- constitutional. In 1832 South Carolina held a convention UNITED which proceeded to “nullify” the obnoxious acts as an in- vasion of the rights of the State. (See NULLIFICATION.) The ground of the “nullifiers” was that of the resolution of 1798-99-viz., that there being “ no common judge” be- tween the States and the nation (the office of the Supreme Court, in this regard being denied), each State remained the proper judge for itself both “ of the fact of an infraction” of the terms of “ the Federal compact” and “ of the mode and measure of redress.” The tariff acts were declared null and void, the collection of customs duties within South Carolina was prohibited, and the convention announced that any at- tempt by the U. S. to enforce such collection would be deemed a dissolution of the Union. It was in this emer- gency that Jackson issued his famous proclamation, drawn by Edward Livingston, who had succeeded Van Buren as Secretary of State, in which the rights and powers of the Government of the U. S. were asserted in the fullest degree. Everything portended war. The Governor of South Carolina put the State in a condition for defense, while U. S. troops were forwarded to re-enforce the garrison of Charleston. At this juncture Virginia ofiered her mediation, in the very act of doing so corroborating the position of South Caro- lina, that a State may assert itself, by its own agencies, against the general Government, instead of seeking redress and relief through the Supreme Court. At the same time, Henry Clay, in the Senate, appeared as the advocate of con- cession, and succeeded in carrying through the compromise tariff of 1833, by which the duties of 1828 were to be re- duced in ten years, by a sliding scale, to a general rate of 20 per cent. This concession and the mediation of Virginia were accepted by South Carolina, and the ordinance of nul- lification was repealed. The second Bank of the U. S., chartered, as has been said, in 1816, for twenty years, had still seven years to live when Gen. Jackson was inaugurated, but its doom was sealed. The President’s hostility was shown in his first message, and the bill for recharter which passed Congress in 1832 was vetoed. In the face of favorable reports from the Treasury and from committees of both Houses of Congress, Gen. Jackson determined that the U. S. deposits should be with- drawn. This, however, by law, could be the act of the Sec- retary of the Treasury alone. Louis McLane, who had suc- ceeded Ingham in the Treasury Department, and had shown himself moderately favorable to the bank, had opportunely been translated to the State Department. William J . Duane, who succeeded, refused to do the President’s bidding in the matter of the deposits, and was replaced by Roger B. Taney, who had succeeded Berrien as Attorney-General in the gen- eral cabinet overturn of 1831. Taney did the task for which he was appointed, and in 1833 the Government deposits were placed in State banks. The U. S. Bank, as a national insti- tution, had received its deathblow; after a brief struggle against the enmity of the administration, it accepted a charter from Pennsylvania, but after the great financial storm of 1837-39 it suspended specie payments (Feb., 1840), and soon afterward its aifairs were wound up. The bank was charged by Gen. Jackson with many technical viola- tions of its charter, with expending money for political purposes, and with using its vast power of discount with favoritism toward some and malignity toward others. Gen. Jackson had been re-elected in 1832 by 219 electoral votes, against 49 for Henry Clay, of Kentucky, 11 for John Floyd, of Virginia, and 7 for William Wirt, of Maryland, the last-named being the candidate of the anti-Masonic party. Martin Van Buren, of New York, became Vice-President. For years, under the high tariff of 1824 and the higher one of 1828, together with the large sales of public lands, the revenue had been in excess of the ordinary expenditures by 25, 50, and even 100 per cent. As a result, the public debt, which at the close of the war in 1815 had amounted to 127.- 000,000, was rapidly reduced, and in 1835 was extinguished. This excess of revenue had proved a powerful weapon in the hands of the advocates of tariff reduction in the strug- gle of 1828-33. It now became a serious embarrassment to the administration. lVhat to do with the surplus was the great question of 1833-36. In the latter year the monstrous expedient of depositing $28,000,000 in the several State treasuries was resorted to. The division of this sum was according to population, although the money, having been largely raised by indirect taxation, had originally been con- tributed according to the consumption of taxed articles. which varied greatly among the several States and sections. The occurrence of the financial crisis in 1837 relieved the Government from any further embarrassment of this nature. srxrns 377 During the administration of President Jackson the two domestic questions of hlasonry and slavery led to great agi- tation of the public mind. The abduction and presumed 1nurder of Morgan in New York for betraying the secrets of the Masonic order led to the formation of an anti-Masonic party, which, however, proved unable to sustain itself in the face of a more exciting issue. No political party was yet formed adverse to slavery; but anti-slavery societies had commenced the agitation of the subject at the North and the “moral invasion of the South” through pamphlets and newspapers, leading to many riotous acts, and to efforts, through Congress and the administration of the post-office, to suppress the circulation of “ incendiary documents.” Two Indian wars—one (1832) known as the “Black Hawk war,” against the Sacs and Foxes of the Northwest, the other (1835-39) against the Seminoles of Florida under their leader OSCEOLA (q. '11.), extending later to the Creeks— had their origin in the prosecution of the policy started by President Monroe of removing the Indians ‘N. of the Missis- sippi. In each the Indians were subdued, though in the lat- ter case not without some dishonor to the U. S. on the score of treachery. The foreign policy of Gen. Jackson was throughout vigorous. Denmark, Naples, Spain, and Portu- gal satisfied claims of long standing for spoliations on U. S. commerce, while France, after diplomatic complications which at one time threatened war, paid over $5,000,000 on account of depredations committed more than thirty years before. Gen. Jackson, though declining a third term in deference to the example of his predecessors, was able to determine the succession; and Martin Van Buren, of New York, was elected President in 1836, receiving 170 votes against a divided opposition—now known as the Whig party, corre- sponding in many features to the Federal party of the earlier time. William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, received 73 votes, Hugh L. \Vhite, of Tennessee, 26, Daniel \Vebster, of Massachusetts, 14, Willie P. Mangum 11. No one having received a majority of the votes for Vice-President, Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, was chosen by the Senate out of the two highest names on the list, this being the only oc- casion on which the Senate has been so called to act. Upon Van Buren’s administration fell the financial distress which had been generated in the preceding administration, wheth- er due, as the Whigs claimed, to the removal of protec- tion from U. S. manufactures by the compromise tariff of 1833, to the shock given by the war on the bank. and the excess of worthless issues by the State banks when that great regulative institution was destroyed, or due, as the Democrats claimed, to the speculation induced by the opera- tions of the bank before the deposits were withdrawn, which operations, in their opinion. justified that withdrawal. In May. 1837, the banks of New York and other cities sus- pended payment, and widespread bankruptcy ensued. A second and more severe commercial shock occurred in 1839. The ordinary agencies of trade and exchange were largely destroyed, industry was paralyzed, and the revenue of the Government fell sharply off. It was not until 1842 that prices and wages reached the minimum, and a revival of business with a restoration of confidence began. During the later years of this crisis eight States in whole or in part re- pudiated their obligations, either as to the interest or the principal. Except Lewis Cass, Secretary of War‘. Mr. Van Buren retained all the members of Gen. Jackson’s latest cabinet-namely, John Forsyth, Secretary of State: Levi Woodbury, of the Treasury; Mahlon Dickerson, of the Navy ; Benjamin F. Butler. Attorney-General: and Amos Kendall, Postmaster-General, though he subsequently made several changes. His Secretary of 1/Var was Joel R. Poinsett. The chief financial measure of V an Buren’s administration was the establishment of the sub-treasury system, by which the public moneys were to be kept i11 Government offices until required for current expenses. instead of being kept in banks, State or national. This scheme was proposed in Mr. V an Buren’s first annual message (1837), but not adopted till 1840, to be repealed the next year. when the \Vhigs came into power. A serious difliculty, threatening the peace of the U. S., arose from the acts of certain sympathizers with the insurrection which took place in Canada in 1837. A steamer (the Caroline) in this interest was destroyed in U. S. waters by a detachment of British troops, and the act avowed by the British Government as done in self-defense. Three years later a Canadian sheriff was arrested in New York on the charge of murdering a U. S. citizen who had perished on the Caroline, and tried by the State authorities against 378 UNITED the protest and threats of the British Government, which demanded his release on the ground that the act was done under its authority. Fortunately, the prisoner was acquitted on the evidence. The long-continued financial and industrial distress of Van Buren’s administration had lost the Democratic party, for the time, its hold on the country, and Gen. William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, with John Tyler, of Virginia, as Vice-President, was chosen in 1840 by 234 electoral votes, against 60 for Van Buren. At this time a “Liberty party” was formed in the anti-slavery interest, which polled about 7,000 of the nearly 2,500,000 votes cast. From the inaugu- ration of the Government under the Constitution, the scheme of nominating candidates for the presidency and vice-presidency had been by a CAUCUS (q. 1).) of the mem- bers of Congress of each party, but this had become dis- credited when the Republican party in 1824 repudiated the nomination of Crawford. By 1840 the scheme of national conventions, consisting of delegates chosen by the votes of the party throughout the U. S., had been fully established, and has continued the accepted method of nomination ever since. See N OMINATING CONVENTIONS. The \/Vhig party, having come into power on the issue of opposition to the sub-treasury and a demand for protec- tion to American manufactures, repealed the sub-treasury —or, more properly, the independent treasury——act in 1841, and in 1842 enacted a tariff by which the existing duties were largely increased. But in other respects that party was doomed to disappointment. Gen. Harrison had scarcely constituted his cabinet when, within one month of his inau- guration, he died. Tyler, who succeeded to the presidency, had never been a Whig, but had been selected by the Whigs for his antagonism to Van Buren, the leader of the Northern and more moderate wing of the Democratic party. His veto of a bill chartering a new national bank led to an open quarrel with the party which elected him, and to the resig- nation of the entire cabinet except Daniel Webster, Secre- tary of State. For his course in remaining in office Webster was severely blamed, but he was able afterward to point for his ample justification to the so-called Webster-Ashburton treaty, which he was then negotiating with England. By this treaty the claims of the U. S. in several important par- ticulars were fully conceded, and every question in dispute between the two nations, excepting that relating to Oregon, was finally adjusted. For this much was due to Webster, much also to the logic of events. The thirteen States had become twenty-six (Arkansas having been admitted in 1836, Michigan in 1837, the first since Missouri in 1821), the four millions of people had become eighteen. Texas and the Mexican War.—A motive was now found sufficient to restore the Democratic party to power. Texas had been largely colonized between 1821 and 1835 from the Southern States. In the latter year it revolted from Mexico, and the next year asserted independence, with the unques- tioned purpose of ultimately joining the U. S. Independ- ence in fact was soon achieved under the leadership of Houston, and Texas in 1837 offered herself for admission to the Union. The accession was desired by the Southern States, both on account of kinship and for the opportunity that would thus be afforded for extending slave-labor over new soil. The national instinct of territorial aggrandize- ment came to re-enforce these motives, especially in view of the probability that Great Britain or France might seek to become the protector of the republic. Throughout the ad- ministration of Van Buren the movement acquired but little headway. President Tyler, a man of strong Southern feel- ings, the only Senator who voted against the Force Bill for compelling the obedience of South Carolina in the nullifica- tion contest, warmly approved of annexation, and a treaty to that effect was negotiated by Calhoun in 1844, which was rejected by the Senate. The question thus became the principal issue in the election of that year. The Whigs, having their main strength at the North, opposed the an- nexation of Texas as being in the interest of slavery. and nominated Henry Clay, of Kentucky. The Democrats threw over Van Buren on account of his opposition to annexation, and nominated James K. Polk, of Tennessee, a strong advo- cate of that measure. Polk received 170 electoral votes, Clay 105; but before the inauguration of Mr. Polk a resolution for the incorporation of Texas was passed by Congress, signed by President Tyler, Mar. 1, 1845, and notice sent to the government of Texas on the last day of his administra- tion. Florida and Iowa also came in as States about the same time. STATES President Polk formed his cabinet as follows: James Bu- chanan, Secretary of State; Robert J . Walker, of the Treas- ury; William L. Marcy, of War; George Bancroft, of the Navy; Cave Johnson, Postmaster-General; John Y. Mason, Attorney-General. The annexation of Texas involved war, inasmuch as Texas and the U. S. claimed the territory to the Rio Grande, while the Mexican Government insisted that Texas only embraced the territory bounded by the river Nueces. Upon this issue hostilities commenced early in 1846. Congress voted men and money, and Gen. Zachary Taylor, commanding the forces on the Rio Grande, entered Mexico and fought the victorious battles of Palo Alto (May 8) and Resaca de la Palma (May 9), and, after being re-en- foreed by volunteers under Gens. Worth and Wool, cap- tured Monterey Sept. 23. In February of the next year he was attacked in position at Buena Vista by a large Mexican force under the President, Santa Anna, who was repulsed with great loss, and retreated, leaving Taylor in full posses- sion of the northeastern provinces. Meanwhile New Mexico had been occupied by the U. S. troops, and an invasion of Chihuahua took place with partial success. At about the same time a band of Americans under Capt. John C. Fremont, of the U. S. army, declared the inde- pendence of California at Sonora July 4, 1846, and with the co-operation of a fieet under Com. Sloat, soon superseded by Stockton, succeeded in reducing that province. But the army which was to decide the issue of the war was gather- ing for a movement up the valley of Mexico. In Mar., 1847, Vera Cruz, long deemed impregnable, was reduced after three days’ bombardment; and Gen. Winfield Scott, with about 10,000 troops, mainly regulars, commanded by Gens. Worth (who had been detached from Taylor’s army), Pillow, Quitman, and Twiggs, moved on Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna was posted with a superior force. This position was carried Apr. 18 and 19, but Gen. Scott awaited re-enforce- ments, having lost many men by the termination of their enlistments. In August he entered the valley of Mexico, which Santa Anna defended with 35,000 men. Sanguinary battles followed: Contreras, Aug. 19, 20; Churubusco, Aug. 20; Molino del Rey, Sept. 8; Chapultepec, Sept. 12, 13; and on Sept. 14 Gen. Scott, with 6,500 men, all that remained of the invading column, entered the city of Mexico. The capture of the Mexican capital practically concluded the war; and by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848, Mexico ceded the whole of Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California, while the U. S. paid $15,000,000, besides assuming certain claims of its citizens against Mexico on account of long-continued depredations in the Gulf, which had been the subject of negotiations since 1837, to the amount of more than $3,000,000. The U. S. subsequently (1850) paid Texas $10,000,000 on account of her claims to territory not included within the limits of the State. While war was waging with Mexico a rupture was threat- ened with Great Britain, on account of the conflicting claims to Oregon. The U. S. claimed as far N. as 54° 40’; Great Britain claimed the mouth of the Columbia. The territory in question had long been in joint occupation, but all at- .tempts at compromise had failed. At the election of 1844 one of the watchwords of the Democratic party had been “ Fifty-four Forty, or Fight I ” and President Polk gave for- mal notice that the U. S. receded from the arrangements for joint occupation that had subsisted. At this serious juncture Great Britain offered terms which were accepted, by which the 49th parallel became the boundary-line of the U. S. on the N. W., while Vancouver’s island was relinquished to Great Britain. The failure in the treaty to define the status of the smaller island of San Juan led to further com- plications, which were not settled till 1871. The important financial measures of Polk’s administration were the permanent re-establishment of the sub-treasury system in 1846, and the tarifln of the same year, by which duties were largely reduced. The election of 1848 found a third party in the field. The Liberty party had polled about 7,000 votes in 1840, and over 60,000 in 1844. In Aug., 1848, a convention at Buifalo, comprising the members of the Liberty party, with others, many of them Democrats, and some Whigs, disaffected by the course of the old parties respecting slavery, put forward a declaration of principles, and presented as a candidate for the presidency Martin Van Buren, of New York, with Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts, for the vice-presidency. The new party suc- ceeded in polling nearly 300,000 votes, though, as it carried no State, it cast no vote in the electoral college. Its leading principle was opposition to the extension of slavery into UNITED new territory, and to the admission of new slave States out of territory already acquired. In all essentials its political doctrines were those which afterward led to the formation of the new REPUBLICAN PARTY (q. 1).). Slavery was to be sectional, freedom national——slavery to be local and excep- tional, to exist only where protected by the laws of States already members of the Union; freedom was to be the gen- eral law of the land. These principles were regarded as embodied in the Wilmot Proviso, a proposition offered in 1846 by DAVID WILMOT (q. o.), of Pennsylvania, in prospect of the acquisition of territory from Mexico through the war then wagmg. The Democrats, who had accomplished the annexation of Texas, and had conducted the Mexican war to its successful termination, nominated Lewis Cass, of Michigan. The Whigs nominated Gen. Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, for President, and Millard Fillmore, of New York, for Vice-President, on a platform intended to conciliate the anti-slavery sentiment of the country. Taylor was elected by 163 votes against 127 for Cass. His cabinet consisted of John M. Clayton, Secretary of State; William M. Meredith, of the Treasury; George \/V. Crawford, of War; William B. Preston, of the Navy; Thomas Ewing, of the Interior (that ofiice having just been created); Jacob Collamer, Postmaster- General; Reverdy Johnson, Attorney-General. A little more than a year after his inauguration—viz., on July 9, 1850- Gen. Taylor died; Mr. Fillmore succeeded to the presidency. The cabinet was entirely reconstructed, as follows: Daniel Webster, Secretary of State; Thomas Corwin, of the Treas- ury; Charles M. Conrad, of War; William A. Graham, of the Navy; A. H. H. Stuart, of the Interior; N. K. Hall, Post- master-General; J . J . Crittenden, Attorney-General. The Compromz'se of 1850.—Congress and the country were already in heated conflict, arising out of the proposed ex- tension of slavery to the new territory acquired by the treaty with Mexico. California had in 1849 formed a constitution prohibiting slavery, and applied for admission as a State. The Southern State Rights party, led by Calhoun, demanded the rejection of California, as well as a guaranty, through an amendment to the Constitution, against the further pro- scription of slavery. New Mexico also appeared as an appli- cant for admission, while Texas made extensive claims upon the territory of New Mexico. In 1850 Henry Clay again ap- peared as a pacificator, proposing and carrying the Com- promise measures of that year, by which, on the one hand, California was admitted without slavery and the slave-trade was prohibited within the District of Columbia, and, on the other hand, extensive concessions were made to Texas, and the rendition of fugitive slaves was sought to be secured by stringent provisions. As to Utah and New Mexico, the issue was for the time avoided by leaving them under territorial governments and remitting the question of slavery to the inhabitants. The series of measures containing these ro- visions and known as the Compromise of 1850 passed on- gress, with the support of Webster,.and were approved by Fillmore in September. The most important measures con- cerning the foreign relations of the U. S. in this adminis- tration were (1) the so-called filibustering expedition to wrest Cuba from Spain, which resulted in the capture and execu- tion of many of the adventurers; and (2) the negotiation of a treaty with Japan by Com. Perry, who had entered the waters of that country with a fleet for that purpose. The Slavery Q/u.estt'on.——In the Constitution slavery, which had been introduced into the country as early as 1620, was treated as though it were of transient significance. In many of the Northern States it had already been abolished. In the South, however, owing largely to the invention of the cotton-gin, the raising of cotton by slaves soon became a very profitable industry. What, therefore, Washington and J elferson regarded as a transient evil, to be eradicated at an early day, came to be strongly intrenched in what were believed to be the financial interests of the people. Instead of diminishing, the number of slaves increased, even after the lawful importation of slaves was discontinued. Mean- while, in the horth, a strong anti-slavery sentiment was de- veloped. Though at first the sympathisers with the agita- tion were few, the number steadily increased. Anti-slavery papers, started by LUNDY and GARE.-ISON (gq. ea), slowly but surely gained adherents. John Quincy Adams led the attack for the exclusion of slavery from the District of Columbia, and PHILLIPS (q. o.) aroused public opinion for the abolition of slavery from all parts of the country. Intense excite- ment and bitterness resulted. The people of the North were not generally in favor of interfering with slavery where it existed, believing that it was a domestic institution, which srarns 37 9 under the Constitution could be dealt with only by the indi- vidual States. But they were intensely opposed to the in- troduction of slavery into territory where it did not already exist. They insisted, moreover, upon the right of agitation for the purpose of forming and moulding public opinion. The people of the South, on the other hand, insisted that as slavery was a domestic institution, the people of the North had no right to interfere with it, even by the promulgation of anti-slavery opinions. Anti-slavery books and papers. as far as possible, were excluded from the South. The publi- cation of Mrs. Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, in 1852 created a profound and almost universal impression in the North. By means of these conflicting opinions the gulf between the North and the South grew wider and wider. VVILLIAM H. SEWARD (g. e.) in 1858 spoke of the subject as an “ irrepress- ible conflict.” The intensity of the strain was increased by the fact that many in the North refused to assist in the re- turn of fugitive slaves. Some even assisted in the escape of slaves to Canada, where they could not be arrested and re- turned. The election of 1852 found both the great political parties insisting on the Compromise of 1850 as “ a finality.” Many of the dissatisfied Democrats who had voted for Van Buren in 1848 had gone back to their party, and the popular vote of the Free-soil or Liberty party of 1852 was little more than half of that of the election previous. Gen. Scott, who had been nominated by the Whigs, was defeated, receiving but 42 electoral votes, all from four States, against 254 votes for Franklin Pierce, who, with William R. King, of Alabama, for Vice-President, had been nominated by the Democrats. President Pierce’s cabinet consisted of William L. Marcy, Secretary of State ; James Guthrie, of the Treasury; Jefier- son Davis, of War; James C. Dobbin, of the Navy; Robert McClelland, of the Interior; James Campbell, Postmaster- General; Caleb Cushing, Attorney-General. In 1853 the U. S. acquired, by purchase from Mexico, the tract S. of the river Gila in Arizona and New Mexico, containing 45,535 sq. miles, known as the Gadsden purchase. Early in 1854 Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, the most conspicuous of the younger leaders of the Democratic party, introduced into the Senate a bill for the organization of territorial governments in Kansas and Nebraska, prepara- tory to their admission as States. By the Missouri Compro- mise of 1820 slavery was to be forever excluded from that region, but the Kansas-Nebraska bill repealed this rovision, leaving the question to be determined by the in abitants themselves, under the principle advocated by Douglas, known as “squatter sovereignty.” This most unwise and disastrous effort to open the burning question once more by making it possible for slavery to be introduced into Ter- ritories N. of the Compromise line, encountered earnest resistance from the Whigs and the few Free-soilers in Con- gress. and aroused intense indignation in many portions of the N orth. The bill was, however, firmly pressed, and be- came a law in May. The Kansas lVar.—A contest at once began for the colo- nization of Kansas, the more southerly of the two Territories, active efforts being made in the free States to induce migra- tion hostile to slavery, while the opposing party sought to secure Kansas both through immigration and through peri- odical raids from the border counties of Missouri. Violence was freely resorted to, and many undoubted wrongs were perpetrated by both parties. This struggle, which at times amounted to civil war, continued through the presidency of Pierce, and was bequeathed to his successor. The anti- slavery sentiment of the North was still further inflamed by a conference between the U. S. ministers to France, Spain, and Great Britain, which resulted in their issuing a circu- lar known as the Ostend Manifesto, favoring the acquisition of Cuba in the interest of slavery, and by a violent assault made in 1856 by Preston S. Brooks, of South Carolina, for words spoken in debate, upon Senator Charles Sumner (see SUMNER, CHARLES), of Massachusetts, who with Chase, of Ohio (see CHASE, SALMON P.), and Seward, of New York, had led the opposition to the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The Free-soil party of 1848 and 1852 now passed into the Republican party, which for the election of 1856 nominated John C. Frémont on a declaration of opposition to the ex- tension of slavery into the Territories. So strong had be- come the sense of the inadequacy of the Whig party to ofier resistance to the encroachments of the slavery propagan- dists that the popular vote for Frémont rose above 1,300,000. This, while nearly 500,000 short of the vote for Buchanan, the Democratic candidate, was yet 500,000 in excess of the 880 UNITED vote for Fillmore, the former President, who had been nomi- nated by the Whigs. In the electoral college Buchanan re- ceived 174 votes, Frémont 114, Fillmore 8. This passage of the Whigs into the Republican party was assisted by a vio- lent popular agitation in 1854 against the political influence of foreigners who had been naturalized as citizens of the U. S. These generally voted with the Democratic party. This agitation against foreign influence led to the forma- tion of a secret political society known as the Native Ameri- can order, more popularly as the Knownornmes (q. 1).), which in 1854 carried several States and elected many mem- bers of Congress, but in 1856 fell away in the presence of the more exciting issue of slavery. On the last day of Pierce’s administration (Mar. 3, 1857), a tariff bill passed Congress which greatly reduced the customs duties of 1846. Buchanan, who as U. S. minister to Great Britain had taken art in the Ostend conference, constituted his cabinet of ewis Cass, Secretary of State; Howell Cobb, of the Treas- ury; John B. Floyd, of vWar; Isaac Toucey, of the Navy; Jacob Thompson, of the Interior; Aaron V. Brown, Post- master-General; and Jeremiah S. Black, Attorney-General. The troubles in Kansas still continued to agitate the en- tire country. In the struggle between the Free-State and the Slave-State parties the power of the administration was thrown in favor of the latter, and that party in Congress, in spite of the opposition of a minority of its members headed by Stephen A. Douglas, carried through a bill submitting to the people of Kansas for ratification the so-called Le- compton constitution, which had been framed by the pro- slavery party, constituting an unmistakable minority of the State. Meanwhile several of the Northern States passed acts intended to assert the personal liberty of their citizens against certain of the provisions of the Fugitive-slave laws, which were deemed unconstitutional, by securing a jury trial and the privilege of habeas corpus in the cases of al- leged fugitives from service. On the other hand, the Su- preme Court, of which Roger B. Taney, once Gen. J ackson’s Attorney-General and Secretary of the Treasury, was chief justice, decided in the Dred Scott case in favor of the claim of the extreme Southern State Rights partisans, that the slaveholder should be allowed to carry his property with him anywhere under the protection of the Constitution. The question of slavery had now become the one question of national politics, and it was evident that, as the Whig party had been rent by the antagonisms developed by this issue, the Democratic party was to be likewise disrupted in the efforts of the Southern leaders to assert the nationality of slavery. The leader of the more conservative Democrats was Senator Douglas, by whose act in 1854 the question of slavery in the Territories had been reopened after the settle- ment of 1820. The approaching conflict of arms was inti- mated toward the close of Buchanan’s administration by the attempt of JOHN BROWN (q. 11.), formerly a leader of the Free-State party in the Kansas struggles, to seize the U. S. armory at Harper’s Ferry, Va., for the carrying out of plans he had formed for the wholesale escape of the slaves of that region. After a brief success and a fierce resistance, Brown and his party were overcome by a detachment of U. S. troops, and were given up to the State authorities for trial and execution. The disruption of the Democratic party, in consequence of the manner in which the issue of the nationality of slavery was pressed by the Southern wing, occurred at the national convention held at Charleston in Apr., 1860, for the nomination of Buchanan’s successor, when the majority of the Southern delegates withdrew upon the passage of a resolution declaring that the constitutional status of slavery should be determined by the Supreme Court. In conse- quence of the secession, the convention was adjourned till June, when Douglas was nominated. The seceding dele- gates met later in convention and nominated John C. Breck- enridge, of Kentucky, who had been Vice-President with Buchanan. A convention representing what was called the Constitutional Union party, embracing many former Whigs, with what was left of the Native American party, nomi- nated John Bell, of Tennessee, with Edward Everett, of Massachusetts, for Vice-President. The Republican nation- al convention nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, with Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice-President, on a decla- ration of principles which, while leaving “inviolate the rights of the States, and especially the right of each State to order and control its own domestic institutions,” made freedom “the normal condition of all the territory of the U. S.” Douglas received 12 votes from Missouri and New STATES Jersey; Bell received 89 votes from Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee ; Breckenridge received all the Southern votes re- maining, 72 in number ;‘ Lincoln received all the Northern votes remaining, 180 in number, and was elected. Among other events and measures of Buchanan’s admin- istration must be noted the expedition under Col. Albert S. Johnston against the Mormons in Utah, to assert the au- thority of the Government, which had been defied by Brig- ham Young ; the admission of Minnesota as a State in 1858, and of Oregon in 1859; but particularly the commercial and financial crisis of 1857, which began in Se tember with the failure of a large trust company in New ork, produc- ing a panic which spread rapidly, until in two or three weeks’ time the banks had generally suspended and numer- ous failures, mainly commercial, had occurred. The recov- ery from the effects of this disaster was, however, very prompt, and no long suspension of industry resulted. The Civil l'Van~.-—The canvass preceding the election of Lmcomr (q. 1).) had been highly exciting. Extensive prepa- rations for conflict followed at the South. with a general arming and drilling of the population. The Southern lead- ers declared the election of a President pledged to oppose the extension of slavery to be a moral invasion of the Slave States, and a violation of their constitutional rights. South Carolina led in secession in Dec., 1860; other slave States followed, and in February, 1861, their delegates met in con- vention at Montgomery, Ala., and framed a constitution for “the Confederate States of America.” Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was chosen President, Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-President. Apr. 12 the troops of South Carolina opened fire on the U. S. garrison of Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, which two days later surrendered. The news of actual conflict overcame alike the scruples of the Democrats at the North and of the Unionists at the South, and each section went into the war practically entire. Eleven States, with an aggregate population of 9,000,000, were arrayed against the Government. Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware remained in the Union, though the first two fur- nished many soldiers to the Confederate armies. Lincoln had been inaugurated on Mar. 4. His cabinet was constituted as follows: I/Villiam H. Seward, Secretary of State; Salmon P. Chase, of the Treasury; Simon Cam- eron, of War; Gideon Welles, of the Navy; Caleb B. Smith, of the Interior; Montgomery Blair, Postmaster-General ; Edward Bates, Attorney-General. The day following the surrender of Sumter the President issued a call for 75,000 militia, which were put under arms in a surprisingly short time. The strong sympathy with secession in Baltimore led to an attack by a mob upon the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment, on the way to Washington, Apr. 19, in which several soldiers were killed. A military occupation of the city soon suppressed the rebellious senti- ment, and the arriving militia took position along the Poto- mac in defense of Washington, already menaced by the Confederates. For an account of this and the other events of the civil war, see GONFEDERATE Srarns. The conduct of the civil war (1861—65) had been much embarrassed by fears of interference on the part of France and Great Britain. Such action was rendered more proba- ble on the part of the latter power from the irritation caused by the seizure of Mason and Slidell, Confederate envoys to England and France, who were taken off the British vessel Trent bv Capt. Wilkes, of the U. S. steamer San J acinto, in . Nov., 1861. War was averted by the release of the envoys on the demand of Great Britain. The occupation of Mex- ico by the European powers and the attempt to establish an empire by the aid of French troops (see l\/IAXIMILIAN) were also regarded by the U. S. Government as a menace. Perhaps in no war has the conduct of affairs been more affected by political exigencies. In 1862 and 1863 elections in several States went against the administration, and the necessity of resorting to a draft in the summer of 1863 led to riots in New York, which involved much less of life and property, and required for their suppression considerable detachments from the army. (See DRAFT Rrors.) The measures which were especially obnoxious were the suspen- sion of the Habeas Corpus Act, the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and in the Territories, the enlistment of colored soldiers, and the proclamation of the President (J an. 1, 1863), declaring free all persons held as slaves in all States and parts of States in rebellion. In 1864 the Democrats nominated for the presidency Gen. George B. McClellan on a platform denouncing the arbi- trary measures of the executive and declaring the war a UNITED failure. Lincoln was renominated by the Republican party, and elected, with Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, as Vice- President, by 212 votes against 21 for McClellan. On Apr. 14,1865, a little more than a month after his reinauguration, President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by J . Wilkes Booth. Booth was killed by his pursuers, and four of his accomplices were executed on the sentence of the military court. Vice-President Johnson succeeded to the presidency. No one was criminally punished for participation in the war of secession. Jefferson Davis, President of the Con- federacy, after the fall of Richmond, escaped southward, was ca tured in Georgia, placed on trial, and released on bail. Several successive amnesty proclamations of increas- ing scope were issued between May, 1865, and Dec., 1868, the last being universal. By proclamation of the President of the U. S. the civil war was declared at an end on Apr. 2, 1866. The financial legislation of the war covered the issue, in 1862 and subsequently, of notes of the U. S., constituting a legal tender; the issue of interest-bearing bonds of several different descriptions; the establishment of the national banking system; the increase of customs duties from the low average under the tariff’ of 1857 to an average of nearly 50 per cent. ; the imposition of a great variety of excise du- ties and a direct tax. (See the titles BANK, CURRENCY, and TARIFFS.) The ordinary expenditures of the Government which had to be thus provided for rose from $60,000,000 in 1860 to $1,217,000,000 in 1865. Reconstr/uctz'0n.—The work of political reconstruction constitutes the great feature of the history of the U. S. from 1865 till the withdrawal of Federal troops from the Southern States in 1877. In 1863 fifty counties of Virginia W. of the Alleghanies were admitted to the Union as the State of West Virginia, being the thirty-fifth State, the re- quired formal assent of Virginia thereto being given by a legislature gathered from a few counties adjacent to Wash- ington. In Dec., 1863, a proclamation of the President pro- vided for the re-establishment of civil government in any seceded State on the initiative of a number of qualified voters, not less than one-tenth of the number voting at the presidential election of 1860. Under this scheme govern- ments were instituted in 1864 in Louisiana and Arkansas. In 1865 the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, abolish- ing slavery within the U. S. and all places subject to their jurisdiction, was ratified by three-fourths of the States, and was proclaimed by the Secretary of State Dec. 18. In 1865 provisional governors were appointed by the President in most of the Southern States, the regular army of the U. S. still remaining in occupation of the territory, though the volunteers had been disbanded. By these provisional gov- ernors conventions were to be called to place the several States in a position to resume their interrupted federal re- lations, the principal conditions being the repeal of the or- dinances of secession, the repudiation of ublic debts in- curred in aid of the Confederacy, and tie abolition of slavery by the authority and as the act of the States them- selves. Such conventions were held and ordinances passed. but the action was not satisfactory to the Republican party in Congress, with which President Johnson soon broke even more completely than President Tyler had broken with the Whig party in 1842. It was alleged by the Republican leaders that the Southern whites were seeking by stringent laws of apprenticeship and vagaboudage to reduce the late slaves to a condition of virtual slavery. Congress there- fore refused to admit the Senators and Representatives of the reorganized governments, and in April, by a two-thirds vote, assed over the President’s veto. the Civil Rights Bill, inten ed to protect the freedmen, and enlarging the juris- diction of the U. S. courts to this end. In J une, 1865. the two houses of Congress proposed the 14th Amendment to the Constitution, which was subsequently ratified by the requisite number of States, and proclaimed July 28, 1868. This provides in its first section that all persons born or naturalized in the U. S., and subject to the jurisdiction thereof. shall be deemed to be citizens of the U. S. and of the State where they reside, and that no State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or im- munities of citizens of the U. S.; nor shall any State de- prive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdic- t1on the equal protection of the law; and Congress is author- ized to enforce these provisions by appropriate legislation. The second section of the amendment sought to induce the STATES 381 States to confer the right of suffrage on the blacks by pro- viding that otherwise the representation of any State should be diminished in the proportion which the excluded classes bore to the total population; but, inasmuch as a subsequent amendment conferred the right of suffrage without distinc- tion of color and without reference to the choice of the States, this section of the 14th Amendment remains wholly without content. The third section prohibits certain classes of persons, participants in the rebellion, from holding ofiice under the U. S. or any of them until such disability shall have been removed by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress. The fourth section provides that the validity of the public debt of the U. S. shall not be questioned, and that the U. S. or any of them shall never assume or pay any debt incurred in insurrection, or any claims for the loss or emancipation of any slave. The antagonism between the President and the Repub- lican majority in Congress gradually increased, until Con- gress, in Mar., 1867, passed over the veto the Tenure of Office Act, to limit the President’s power of removal from oifice. In Feb., 1868, the President, in defiance of this law- which he deemed an unconstitutional invasion of the execu- tive functions——designated Gen. Lorenzo Thomas, adjutant- general of the army, as Secretary of War ad interim, remov- ing STANTON (Q. 2).) from the office. This led immediately to an impeachment of the President by the House of Repre- sentatives, which was tried by the Senate, the chief justice presiding. President Johnson was acquitted, the prosecu- tion failing to secure a two-thirds vote for conviction. Sec- retary Stanton, resigning. was succeeded by Gen. John M. Schofield, and Attorney-General Stanbery, a little later, was succeeded by William M. Evarts, who had been of the Presi- dent’s counsel. The presidential election approaching, Johnson failed of renomination by either party, the Democrats putting for- ward Horatio Seymour, formerly Governor of New York, the Republicans nominating Gen. U. S. Grant, with Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, Speaker of the House of Representatives, for Vice-President. Grant and Colfax were elected, receiv- ing 214 votes againt 80 for their opponents; three States, Virginia, Texas, and Mississippi, were not admitted to the electoral college. The accessions to the U. S. during J ohnson’s administra- tion had been through the admission of Nebraska as the thirty-seventh State in 1867, Nevada having been admitted as the thirty-sixth State in 1866, and the purchase of Alaska from Russia for the sum of $7,000,000. In Feb., 1869, just before the expiration of J ohnson’s term of office, the 15th Amendment to the Constitution was passed by Congress over the veto. This amendment provides that the rights of citi- zens of the U. S. to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the U. S.. or by any State, on account of race, color, or pre- vious condition of servitude. It received the ratification of the requisite number of States, and was proclaimed Mar. 30, 187 0. In President Grant’s administration the oflice of the At- torney-General was enlarged to constitute the administra- tive department of justice, having supervision of U. S. dis- trict attorneys and marshals. All the States were restored to representation in Congress. Between 1869 and 1873 the tariff duties imposed during the war sufiered considerable reductions, while the internal revenue duties were mainly abolished, except as to spirits and tobacco. The reform of the civil service was begun in this administration ; but Con- gress failed to furnish the requisite means for carrying it on, and no great progress was made. The completion of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railways. making a con- tinuous line from the Missouri to the Pacific, was effected in 1869. Out of the connection of the Government with these roads arose much scandal from the alleged corru tion of certain members of Congress, who were charged wit 1 re- ceiving stock of the Credit Mobilier Company, which built the road. The charges were investigated by Congress in winter of 1872-73, with much injury to the reputation of several members. During the presidential election of 1868. which was the first national election after the 15th Amendment to the Constitution‘, numerous outrages were erpetrated upon the colored people of several of the Sout 1Gl‘11 States, and in- timidation was largely exercised to restrain their political action. These acts were generally committed by masked men, supposed to belong to a widespread organization to which was popularly given the name KU-KLUX KL.-il\* (q. 2!.) In Apr., 1871, an act was framed under the authority of the 382 UNITED 14th Amendment to the Constitution, enlarging the juris- diction of the U. S. courts for the punishment of such of- fenses. In 1871 a treaty was negotiated at Washington between commissioners on the part of the U. S. and of Great Britain for the settlement of the Alabama and other claims against Great Britain arising out of the depredations of the Con- federate cruisers built in England, and also for the adjust- ment of the conflicting claims of the two countries to the islands of the San Juan group between Vancouver’s island and the continent on the Northwest. The latter were re- ferred to the Emperor of Germany as arbitrator, who de- cided in favor of the U. S. The Alabama and kindred claims were referred to a tribunal to be convened at Geneva, consisting of five arbitrators, appointed, one each, by the President of the U. S., the Queen of England, the King of Italy, the President of the Swiss Confederation, and the Emperor of Brazil. The arbitrator on the part of the U. S. was Charles Francis Adams, who had been minister to Great Britain during the war. The tribunal assembled in Dec., 1871, and, after hearing the evidence and the arguments, awarded to the U. S. a gross sum of $15,500,000, to be dis- tributed by the Government. By the same treaty certain other claims, both of American citizens against the British Government and of British citizens against the Government of the U. S., were referred to a joint commission of three. The commissioner on the part of the U. S. was James S. Frazer. The commission met at Washington in Sept-., 1871, and sat nearly two years, making a net award against the U. S. of about $2,000,000. Another commission, provided for by the treaty for determining the disputed rights of navigation and fishing between Canada and the U. S., met at Halifax in 1877, and awarded $5,500,000 to Great Britain. The unsettled condition of affairs in Santo Domingo in 1869-71 led to propositions for its acquisition by the U. S., and the President appointed a commission to visit that ter- ritor and report respecting the state of society therein; whic they did, -but with no practical result. As the presidential election of 1872 approached, consid- erable dissatisfaction was developed among a section of the Republican party in consequence of many alleged abuses of the public patronage, especially the manner in which the power of the administration had been used to sustain Re- publican ascendency through Negro votes in the Southern States. In May a convention of Liberal Republicans met at Cincinnati and nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, for President. This nomination was ratified by the Democratic convention, though a very small section of the party repu- diated the action and nominated Charles O’Conor, of New York. The Republicans in convention at Philadelphia re- nominated President Grant, with Henry Wilson, of Massa- chusetts, for Vice-President. The Republican ticket received the electoral vote of twenty-nine States—-in all, 286 votes. The votes of Arkansas and Louisiana were thrown out for irregularities. The remaining six States, all late slave States, went Democratic, but Greeley having died before the as- sembling of the electoral college, this vote was scattered ac- cording to local preferences. In Oct., 1873, the steamer Virginius, carrying the U. S. flag, and having on board munitions of war and recruits for the insurgents in Cuba, was captured by a Spanish armed vessel, and a number of the prisoners shot by the authorities in Cuba. War was anticipated, and considerable naval preparations were made by the U. S., but the lawless char- acter of the Virginius was fully established, and friendly relations were restored, Spain paying a sum for the relief of the families of the victims. In the same year there was a commercial crisis resulting in frequent and disastrous failures in business, owing to the unsatisfactory condition of the currency and the prevalent spirit of speculation. At the outbreak of the war a paper currency was issued in such quantity that at the close of the struggle the “greenback” dollar was greatly depreciated. Prices rose enormously and the spirit of speculation became general. It was the era of railway building. Enormous for- tunes were made, and these enticed people into unsafe ven- tures. The commercial crisis that followed was laid at the door of the administration, and consequently the congres- sional elections of 1874 turned a Republican majority of sixty or seventy in the House of Representatives into a nearly equal Democratic majority. After the panic of 1873 both houses of Congress passed a bill for the further inflation of the currency, but this bill was vetoed by the President. Just before the incoming of the new House of Representatives, STATES Congress passed an act declaring that specie payments, which had been suspended early in the civil war, should be resumed by the U. S. on Jan. 1, 1879. In the autumn of 1875 the elections in the States of Ohio and Pennsylvania were severely contested between the Democrats and the Republicans on the currency issue, popu- larly known as “hard money” or “soft money,” the position taken by the former party being that the Resumption Act of 1875 was arbitrary, ineffective, and injurious to the industry of the country. Both these elections were carried by the Republicans. The Democrats coming into power in the House of Representatives for the first time in sixteen years, many investigations were made by special and standing committees into the conduct of affairs by the Republicans, and reports were 1nade censuring the conduct of various cabinet officers and subordinate officials. On the report of a committee to examine the expenditures of the War Depart- ment, William W. Belknap was impeached as Secretary of War for corruption in the appointment of a post-tradership. The impeachment was tried by the Senate, and Mr. Bel- knap, who had resigned from office before the vote of im- peachment, was acquitted, less than two-thirds voting for conviction. In May, 1876, an international exhibition was opened at Philadelphia under the auspices of the U. S. Government, which made an appropriation of $1,500,000 for the purpose, while the private, municipal, and State subscriptions aggre- gated several times that amount. One of the features of President Grant’s administration was the appointment of Indian agents upon the recommen- dation of the religious societies and missionary boards hav- ing the spiritual charge of the tribes. This did not, how- ever, prevent three Indian wars. The first occurred with the Apaches in Arizona, who, after numerous depredations and massacres, were severely punished by Gen. Crook. A second with the Modocs, a small band under “Captain Jack,” ranging in Southern Oregon and Northern Califor- nia, began in 1878 with the massacre of Gen. Edward R. S. Canby while treating with the savages, and was closed by the utter destruction of the band after severe losses to the U. S. troops, from the difficult character of the lava-beds in which Captain Jack made his stand. The third began in 1876 with a large body of Sioux Indians under Sitting Bull in Montana, who refused to receive the terms of the Gov- ernment and remain at the agencies established for them. In June Gen. George A. Custer moved against the hostile Sioux with a regiment of cavalry, and, dividing his com- mand, advanced with five companies into the neighborhood of a camp of more than 2,000 warriors. Custer and his troops were surrounded and every man fell, no one remain- ing alive to tell the tale. The other companies of Custer’s command were attacked by the Indians, but were saved by the arrival of Gen. Terry with a large body of infantry. Extensive preparations were at once made by the Govern- ment for punishing this band, and a formidable expedition under Gens. Crook and Terry was sent against them, but without important result. On the approach of the presidential election of 1876 the Republican party in convention at Cincinnati nominated for President Rutherford B. Hayes, Governor of Ohio, with William A. Wheeler, of New York, for Vice-President. The Democratic convention nominated for President Samuel J . Tilden, Governor of New York, with Thomas A. Hendricks, Governor of Indiana, for Vice-President, on a platform de- manding the repeal of the Resumption Act of 1875. The election that followed resulted in one of the greatest strains to which the Constitution was ever subjected. From South Carolina, Florida, Louisiana, and Oregon two sets of returns were sent in. In each of these States one set of the votes was entirely Republican, while the other set was entirely Democratic, except in Oregon, where two votes were Repub- lican and one Democratic. If all these States should cast their entire vote for the Republican ticket Hayes would have 185 votes and Tilden 184. If even the odd Democratic vote of Oregon should be cast for Tilden he would have 185 votes and would be elected. The Senate was Republican and the House was Democratic, and therefore Congress could not agree on a method of counting the votes. It was finally decided that the disputed points should be submitted to a commission of five Senators, five Representatives, and five members of the Supreme Court. The commission had eight Republicans and seven Democrats. Every question was decided by a strict party vote, and consequently Hayes received 185 votes and was declared elected. The decision UNITED was not announced until Mar. 2, two days before the inau- guration. See PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORAL COMMISSION. The administration of President Hayes was free from the scandals that had but recently prevailed. One of his first acts was to withdraw the Federal troops from the South and thus leave the Southern States to govern themselves. The period of reconstruction was closed by this act. In 1873 the Coinage Act had put an end to the free coinage of silver in the U. S. (See SILVER GOINAGE IN THE U. S.) In 1878 the Bland Silver Bill, providing for the coinage of silver dollars of 412% grains in quantities of not less than $2,000,000, and not more than $4,000,000 a month, became a law. In 1879 specie payment was resumed. Beginnings of Civil Service Ref0rm.——In 1880 James A. Garfield, the Republican candidate, was elected President and Chester A. Arthur Vice-President, Garfield receiving 214 electoral votes as against 155 cast for the Democratic candi- date, Gen. Hancock. No sooner was the result of the elec- tion known than the clamor for offices broke out with un- wonted violence. Congress had given very meager support to the efforts of the Presidents to establish civil service re- form (see CIVIL SERVICE AND CIVIL SERVICE REFORM), and the contributors to Garfield’s success now claimed their reward. The President refused to comply with the demands of the Senators from New York in regard to the collectorship of the port of New York city, whereupon both Senators tendered their resignations to the New York Legislature. On July 2 the President was shot in a railway station in Washington by a man named Guiteau, who had failed to obtain a small office. After more than ten weeks of painful lingering the President died Sept. 19, and was succeeded by Vice-President Arthur. The horror of this great crime awakened the peo- ple to the evils of the “ spoils system,” and an act was soon passed for the reform of the civil service. The strength of the reform movement thus set on foot during the adminis- tration of President Arthur showed itself in the election of 1884. The candidates were the Republican leader JAMES G. BLAINE and the Democratic Governor of New York GROVER CLEVELAND (qg. 1).). Many Republicans now identified with the reform movement refused to support Blaine, who re- ceived 182 electoral votes, while Cleveland received 219, and was therefore elected. The reform of the civil service con- tinued to be slowly but surely advanced. Financial Qneszfions.—-As the great questions involved in the civil war and the reconstruction of the Southern States were gradually settled, questions of finance assumed increas- ing importance. The pension laws for the assistance of vet- erans of the war made large and increasing demands on the treasury. The existing tariff laws were highly unsatisfac- tory to Cleveland’s administration. The I/Valker tariff of 1846, enacted, for the most part, for revenue only, had con- tinued, with modifications still further reducing the rates in 1857, till the outbreak of the war. The necessity of addi- tional revenue and the advent to power of the Republican party, which had inherited the old Whig doctrines of a tariff for protection as well as revenue, led to the high protective Morrill acts of 1861 and 1862. These acts from time to time were modified, the modifications being often in the in- terest of higher protection. In 1887 President Cleveland made the question of the tariff the subject of his message to Congress. Advocating an abandonment of the protective policy, he urged the establishment of a revenue tariff which should tend toward the ultimate establishment of free trade. This message brought the tariff question into immediate prominence, and caused it to overshadow all other issues in the next election. The Republicans put forward as their candidate Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, a grandson of President William Henry Harrison. Cleveland received 168 electoral votes and Harrison This popular indorsement of the principle of protection led to the enactment of the McKinley tariff of 1890, which large- ly increased the duty on certain articles and diminished it on others, all the provisions of the act being adjusted for the purpose of further emphasizing the principle of protection to American industries. At about the same time the pen- sion laws were modified so as greatly to increase the de- mands upon the treasury from this source. In the mean- while the operation of the Bland silver law had stimulated the development of mines and the production of silver, and this result had emphasized the popular call for a more lib- eral rate of coinage. The demand was met by the Sherman act, which provided for large monthly purchases of silver bullion. An attempt to pass what was commonly called the Force Bill, providing for Federal supervision of elections, STATES 383 intensified political feeling. There were also unmistakable signs of financial uneasiness. The very rapid accumulation of silver in the treasury caused by the Bland and the Sher- man acts awakened a financial distrust which was followed by a large balance of trade against the country, and the consequent embarrassment of large exports of gold. These several untoward facts contributed to the result of the elec- tion in 1892. Harrison and Cleveland were both renomi- nated; Cleveland received 277 electoral votes, Harrison 145. The so-called People’s Party cast 22 electoral votes. The House of Representatives became overwhelmingly Demo- cratic, and the victorious party also obtained a slight ma- jority in the Senate. Thus for the first time since the civil war the Democrats were placed in control of both the elec- tive branches of the Government. During President Har- rison’s term, six new States—-the two Dakotas, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Washington—had been admitted to the Union. The census of 1890 showed that the Northwest had enormously increased in population and wealth during the preceding ten years. That the influence of this region had grown in corresponding measure was- shown by the fact that, after a very warm contest between different cities for the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893, Congress decided that it should be held at Chicago. The first important act of Cleveland’s second administra- tion was to call an extra session of Congress for the purpose of dealing with the financial situation. The exports of gold and the accumulations of silver were so great that the President earnestly recommended the repeal of the silver clause in the Sherman act. Congress adopted this recom- mendation, though only after a long discussion which dis- closed a formidable faction or party that advocated the free coinage of silver. The repeal, however, did not avert the impending crisis. In view of an anticipated radical change in the tariff, the manufactures of the country fell into deep depression, and the rapid fall in the price of silver caused a very general wreck of industries in the mining States. The crash resulted in the suspension of many banks and the fail- ure of many business houses. The Wilson Tariff Act, adopted in 1894, was far less radical as a measure for revenue only than the one the leaders of the party had advocated, for the reason that a few Democratic members of the Senate could not be brought to co-operate with their party colleagues. The act was a source of bitter disappointment to a majority of the people in many ways. It fell short of what the advo- cates of tariff reform desired, and it provided for a tax upon persons having incomes of more than $4,000 a year. The opposition aroused by these two features of the measure and the continued financial depression led to overwhelming Re- publican victories throughout the country in N ov., 1894. The Senate was given a small Republican majority. while in the House of Representatives the victorious party had more than twice as many members as their opponents. On May 21, 1895, the Supreme Court, by a majority of five judges against four, declared those portions of the Wilson act which established an income tax invalid, on the ground that they provided for what is practically a “ direct tax,” in a man- ner not authorized by the Constitution. This decision by a majority of one in a court of nine judges is a most inter- esting and significant example of the authority of this branch of the Federal Government. The court was not di- vided on partisan lines. AUTHoRIrIEs.—1. General : Among the official publica- tions of the U. S. are various bulletins and reports (mostly annual), published by the Department of the Interior (espe- cially the decennial census reports), the Department of Ag- riculture, the Treasury Department, etc., the Bureau of Statistics, the Geological Survey (especially lllineral Re- sources and Dicz‘i0nary of Alfiz‘/udes), the Fish Commission, the \Veather Bureau, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the commissioner of education, the commissioner of internal revenue, the director of the mint (on the statistics of the production of the precious metals), and the commissioner of labor. There are also some unofficial annuals devoted in whole or in part to subjects connected with the U. S., such as Appletons’ Arm-u.al Cg/cZ0p(cclz'a', Poor’s Jl1annal of the Railroads of the Z/"n.iz‘eel States, Rowell’s Ainerican iVews- paper Directory. and almanacs, giving statistical informa- tion, published by newspapers (e. g. those by the New York Tribune and W'orlcl and the Chicago Tribune). Bryce‘s American Commomverzlllh (2 vols., 3d ed., London. 1898-95) is a comprehensive account of the political and social insti- tutions. See also Civil Gorermnent in the Unz'z‘ecl States. by John Fiske (Boston, 1890); J. Macy, Our Government 384 UNITED STATES BANK (Boston, 1886) ; N. S. Shaler, The United States of America (2 vols.. New York, 1894); Josiah H. Strong, Our Country (New York, 1886; 170th thousand, 1894); Henry Gannett, Building of a .Nation (New York, 1895); James MacFar- lane’s American Geological Railway Guide (2d ed., New York, 1890); Appletons’ General Guide to the United States and Canada (New York); and Baedecker’s United States (Leipzig and New York). 2. Historical.—The most important for the use of teachers and investigators is Winsor’s .Narratioe and Critical His- tory of America (8 vols., royal 8vo). Bancroft’s History of the United States (latest ed., 6 vols.) is the most complete account of the colonial and provincial period. The same author’s History of the Constitution of the United States (2 vols., 8vo) is also of great importance. Hildreth’s History of the United States, of which three vols. are devoted to the colonial and three to the constitutional period, is of impor- tance. Lodge’s Short History of the American Colonies and Frothingham’s Rise of the Republic (each in 1 vol.) are valuable. Of the constitutional period, Schouler, 6 vols., gives the best general view of the political development, and McMaster (6 vols.), of the social. On the French and their relations with the English in America, Parkman’s several. works are of unrivaled importance. Fiske’s Discovery of America (2 vols.), Beginnings of New England (1 vol.), American Revolution (2 vols.), and Critical Period of Ameri- can History, 1783-89, 1 vol., and Winsor’s Handbook of the Revolution, which gives the sources of information, may all be used with advantage. Henry Adams’s History of the United States under Adams and Jefferson (9 vols.) is a clas- sical authority. Roosevelt’s Winning of the West (6 vols., completed 1895) and Hinsdale’s Old lVorthwest (1 vol.) are the authorities of importance on the subjects of which they treat. H. H. Bancroft, in 31 vols., 8vo, has collected an in- valuable mine of information on the history of the Pacific coast. Von Holst’s Constitutional History of the United States, from 1781 to 1861 (9 vols.) is better adapted to the use of discriminating students than general readers. For the civil war, see works by the Count of Paris, Greeley, Nicolay and Hay, Stevens, Davis, and Grant. Of the works designed specially for the use of schools, The Epoch Series of Thwaites, Hart, and Wilson (1 vol. each), and The Ameri- can History Series of Fisher, Sloane, Walker, and Burgess are excellent. The works of Ridpath and Andrews are adapted to the use of the general reader. The American Statesman Series is an excellent collection designed to show the part some thirty of the most prominent statesmen have taken in the development of olitical institutions, and the American Commonwealth Series gives the history of many of the most important States. Jameson’s Dictionary of United States Histori , 1492-1894, is an invaluable work of reference. For lists of works on special topics and periods, with descriptive comments, see Adams’s lllanual of IIistor- ical Literature. HENRY GANNETT, FRANcIs A. WALKER, C. K. ADAMS. United States Bank : See BANK. United States Christian Commission: See CIIRIsTIAN CoMMIssIoN. United States Homestead Legislation: See Homa- STEAD LAws. United States, Literature of: See ENGLISH LITERA- TURE and NEWSPAPERS. United States Military Academy : See MILITARY AoAD- EMIES. United States Naval Academy: See NAVAL AcADEMIEs. United States of Brazil: See BRAZIL, UNITED STATES OF. United States of Colombia: See CoLoI1EIA (History). United States of Mexico: See MExIco. United States of Venezuela: See VENEZUELA. United States Sanitary Commission: See SANITARY CoMMIssIoN, UNITED STATEs. United Synod of the Presbyterian Church: the name taken by the Southern members of the New School Presby- terian Church in the U. S. who withdrew in 1858. See PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. United Syrians: in general, a body of Christians who, together with the Chaldaeans, the Maronites, and the United St. Thomas Christians, comprise the Syrian rite in the East- ern rite of the Roman Catholic Church; more particularly, the converts from the Jacobite or Monophysite Church in Syria, usually known as Syrian Catholics. The United Syr- UNITIES ians have a patriarch at Aleppo, styled Patriarch of Antioch, and Archbishops of Aleppo, Babylon, Damascus, and Selen- cia, besides eleven bishops. They number about 30,000. They date from the sixteenth century, when (1546) one of their congregation was converted to the Catholic Church. In 1650 the Capuchins converted Achigian, the Jacobite Bishop of Aleppo. The movement of conversion, however, dates chiefly from the end of the eighteenth century. The Patri- arch of Aleppo has jurisdiction over the Syrian Catholics of Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, but is himself immediately subject to the Propaganda and to the vicar-apostolic of Aleppo as apostolic delegate. See Silbernagl, Kirchen des Crients; Gerarchia Cattolica for 1895; 0. Werner, S. J ., Or- bis Terrarum Catholicus. See also MARONITES, CHALDZEAN CHRIsTIANs, EASTERN RITE, and UNITED CIIRIsTIANs OF ST. THOMAS. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Unities, THE DRAMATIc : fundamental principles sup- posed to appear in every artistic dramatic composition. As finally elaborated, the Unities were three in number—Unity of Action, Unity of Time (or of the Day), and Unity of Place. Insistence on the rigid observations of these principles is pre- eminently to be found in the French dramatists and critics of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, beginning with Corneille. These writers, however, believed that they were but restating laws that had governed the Greek and Latin dramas, and that had first been definitely formulated by Aristotle in his treatise on the Poetics. To this work, there- fore, we must turn, it we would rightly understand the ori- gin and meaning of the conceptions designated as the Dra- matic Unities. In the Poetics (which, it must be remembered, is not a completed work, but rather a series of not wholly harmo- nized notes and observations), Aristotle discusses at greatest length two forms of poetry-—epic and dramatic. His method is at once inductive and synthetic. The materials used for induction were the Homeric poems and the already existing plays of the greatest Greek dramatists, fEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The synthetic, or constructive, part of the treatment, on the other hand, was largely determined by the analogy that Aristotle felt to exist between art and nature, the creations of the poet and the living forms of the natural world. His observations on the drama, accordingly, need careful discrimination to avoid the confusion of generaliza- tions derived from the limited forms of the drama known to him, with principles believed by him to exist of necessity in all successful works of art, by reason of the organic charac- ter of true artistic creation. To this latter class of principles belongs the one form of dramatic unity that Aristotle most insists upon, and indeed alone treats as absolutely indispensable, namely, Unity of the Action (vrpagts). The one primal necessity of any organic form of life whatever is that it be clearly separated and dis- tinguished from what is unbounded (dwecpov), undefined, in- determinate. It must be in itself one (Z1/),a whole (ditov). The various parts of it must belong functionally together; they must tend to a single total result or end (re'Aos). Hence Aristotle’s definition of tragedy (Poetics, ch. vii.): “Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is complete and whole and of a certain magnitude ; for there may be a whole that is want- ing in magnitude. A whole is that which has beginning, middle, and end. A beginning is that which does not itself follow anything by causal necessity, but after which some- thing naturally is or comes to be. An end, on the contrary, is that which itself naturally follows some other thing, either by necessity or in the regular course of events, but has noth- ing following it. A middle is that which follows something, as some other thing follows it.” These definitions have at first sight the appearance of too great obviousness, yet in them is really to be found Aristotle’s whole theory of art. His “beginning,” “middle,” and “end” by no means ex- press mere consccutiveness of events. Rather he indicates by them a certain body of fact, bounded and limited in con- trast with the variety of fact in the universe, but at the same time tied together by the closest bonds of causality. As Lowell has excellently put it (The Old English Drama- tists, p. 55) : “ In a play we not only expect a succession of scenes, but that each scene should lead, by a logic more or less stringent, if not to the next, at any rate to something that is to follow, and that all should contribute their frac- tion of impulse toward the inevitable catastrophe. That is to say, the structure should be organic, with a necessary and harmonious connection and relation of parts, and not mere- ly mechanical, with an arbitrary or haphazard joining of UNITIES one part to another. It is in the former sense alone that any production can be called a work of art.” ' Of quite a different character is Aristotle’s Unity of Time, in so far as he has formulated it at all. The necessities of the Greek stage were such that a dramatic story had to be told upon it in a highly concentrated form. The Athenian audience, furthermore, was in general perfectly familiar with the themes employed by the dramatists, and had not to be informed of all the long preliminaries that led up to the tragic situation. The development of character, too, which requires some lapse of time, was severely subordinated to the plot. As Aristotle says (Poetics, ch. vi.) : “ The Plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were, the soul of trag- edy ; character holds the second place.” Consequently, the best, though by no means all, of the Greek tragedies famil- iar to Aristotle depicted merely the brief final moment, the catastrophe, of the life of the hero. He was led, therefore, to make the empirical statement (Poetics, ch. iv.), that “ trag- edy endeavors, as far as possible, to confine itself to a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this limit; whereas the epic action has no limits of time; . . . though at first the same freedom was admitted in tragedy, as in epic poetry.” From this statement, and this alone, modern critics have derived the principle of Unity of Time. Even less substantial is the Unity of Place. Aristotle does not mention it at all. Most of the existing Greek trag- edies, to be sure, show it, probably because the chorus regu- larly consisted of onlookers whose character remained un- changed throughout the piece, and whose songs embodied the reflections of the community in which the tragic catas- trophe was supposed to occur. This, however, is clearly an accidental feature of the Athenian drama, quite unconnected with any inner principle. In modern times it has chiefly been defended as a logical deduction from the Unity of Time, though the logic is far from close or compulsive. The importance of the Unities in modern discussions of the drama is largely due to the exaggerated authority at- tributed during the Renaissance to all utterances of the classical world. It was in Italy, early in the sixteenth cen- tury, that Aristotle’s Poetics began to be studied as the ba- sis of the art of poetry. A Latin translation by G. Valla was printed in Venice in 1498, and the Aldine editio prin- ceps of the Greek text appeared in 1508. These were fol- lowed by the Latin translations, Anon. (Venice, 1515), A. Pazzi (Venice, 1536); and the Italian versions of B. Segni (Florence, 1549), L. Castelvetro (Vienna, 1570), and A. Pic- colomini (Venice, 1575). Besides these appeared Fr. Rebor- telli’s In librum Aristotelis de Arte Poeticd ezvplicodiones (Florence, 1548); V. Maggi’s In Aristotelis librum dc Poe- ticd expldndtiones (Venice, 1550); and P. V ettori’s Com- mentdtiones in primum librum Aristotelis de Arte Poetarum (Florence, 1560). The Italian criticism of the time fully re- flects the great interest implied by these numerous versions and comments. By the end of the century no cultivated Italian ventured to doubt the authority of the principles Aristotle was supposed to have laid down. From Italy the discussion passe into France. In the middle of the same century Ronsard and his school, the Pléiade, in their eager- ness to establish classicism in French literature, made much of the dicta of the treatise, though they but partially under- stood them and poorly applied them. The tragedies of Seneca. however, which alone among ancient lays they really knew, from their triviality and essential y literary rather than dramatic character, seemed to bea.r out fully Aristotle’s principles. In the next century, the seventeenth, however, the doctrine of the Unities found an advocate in Corneille, who in his Cid gave the first example of a play in which they were strictly observed. The genius of Racine still more completely established their authority, and they held undisputed sway in France for nearly two hundred years. England and Germany (and to a less extent Spain) also submitted to their rule, and not till the romantic move- ment of the nineteenth century was their absoluteness called seriously into question. The best discussion of the real meaning of Aristotle’s prin- ciples is to be found in S. H. Butcher, Aristotle’s Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, with Critical Text and Translation of the Poetics (London. 1895). Much of value is to be found in the notes of T. Twining, Aristotle’s Treatise on Poetry, translated with .Notes (London, 1789). For the discussion of the Unities by Corneille and his school, see the Discours of Corneille, especially Discours I II., Des trois Unités. See also Heinrich Breitinger, Les unités d’Aristote a/vant le Cid dc Corneille (Geneva, 1879). A. R. Maasn. UNITS 385 Units [unit is shortened from unity, from Lat. u’nitas, oneness, unity, deriv. of u’nus, one]: certain known quanti- ties, of the same kind as the quantities to be measured, taken as standards of reference. The numerical value of a con- crete quantity is the number of such units which the quan- tity contains. Every expression for a quantity consists, therefore, of two factors—the numeric and the unit. Thus 10 feet, 50 grammes, 30 seconds. FUNDAMENTAL UNITS. A system of units contains as many different ones as there are quantities to be measured; they may be quite arbitrary, but it is convenient to connect them together in such a man- ner that they may be defined in terms of three arbitrary or underived units. These are called fundamental units in distinction from all others, which in turn are called derived units. The fundamental units adopted in science are those of length, mass, and time. This particular selection is a matter of convenience, and rests upon several considerations which have properly determined their choice. The standard unit of length in Great Britain is the im- perial yard; in the U. S. it is the distance between the _27th and the 63d inch divisions of the Troughton scale. This at 596° C. is equal to the imperial yard. In France the unit of length is the metre des archives. The standard of mass in Great Britain is the avoirdupois pound; in the U. S. it is the “troy pound of the mint,” according to which the coin- age of the U. S. is regulated. It is a certified copy of the lost imperial standard of 1758, and contains 5,760 grains. The avoirdupois pound adopted by the Treasury was derived from the troy pound and contains 7.000 grains. In France the unit of mass is the kilogramme des archives. By act of Congress in 1866 the meter was defined to be 3937 inches. The weights and measures of the metric sys- tem are lawful in the U. S., and the standards of length and mass are the “national prototypes” of the meter and the kilogramme, made by an international commission, and preserved at the Bureau of Weights and Measures in Wash- ington. They were authorized by a metric convention which was signed at Paris by the representatives of seventeen gov- ernments on May 20, 1875. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The universal unit of time is the second of mean solar time. The C. G. S. or centimeter-gramme-second system is based upon the centimeter, the gramme, and the second as the fundamental units. It was proposed by the British As- sociation for the Advancement of Science in 1861. DERIVED UNITS. A. lllechanical--The derived units will be defined in the C. G. S. system. The corresponding units for any other sys- tem are easily derived from them. The unit of area. the square centimeter, the area of a square with sides 1 cm. long; unit volume, the cubic centi- meter, the volume of a cube with edges 1 cm. long; unit velocity, the velocity of a body moving through 1 cm. in 1 sec.; unit of acceleration, the acceleration which in 1 sec. produces an increase in velocity of 1 cm. a second; unit force, the dyne, or that force which acting on a mass of 1 gramme generates a velocity of 1 cm. per second (see DY- NAMICS); unit of work and energy, the erg, the work done or the energy expended by 1 dyne through 1 cm.; unit of power, the power represented by the expenditure of 1 erg per second. B. Electrical and Jlfagnetic.--Electrical units are either electrostatic or electromagnetic. The electrostatic units are based upon the phenomenon of the attraction and re- pulsion between charges of electricity, the law of which was established by Coulomb. The electr‘omagnetic units are based upon the phenomenon of the magnetic field produced by a current, and they are derived from the definition of unit magnetic pole. All electrical units may be defined in either system. The electrostatic units are as follows: Unit quantity, the quantity which repels an equal and similar quantity at a distance of 1 cm. with a force of 1 dyne; unit difl‘ere22'ce o_f potential between two points. a difference such that 1 erg of work is expended in moving unit quantity from one point to the other: unit current. a current conveying unit quantity in 1 sec.; unit capacity, the capacity of a conductor which is charged to unit potential by unit quantity. See POTEN- TIAL. The electronzdgnetic units are as follows: Unit ‘magnetic pole, a magnetic pole which repels an equal and similar pole at a distance of 1 cm. with a force of 1 dyne; unit magnetic 422 886 UNIVERSAL EXPOSITIONS field, a field in which unit pole is acted upon by a force of 1 dyne ; unit current, a current which, flowing in a circle of 1 cm. radius, produces at its center a magnetic field of 2 11' units; unit magnetizing force, a magnetizing force produc- ing unit magnetic field, equivalent to 11,51 1r ampere-turns per centimeter length; nnit electromotive force (E. M. F.), the electromotive force which does 1 erg of work per second when unit current is flowing; unit resistance, the resistance of a circuit in which unit E. M. F. produces unit current. C. Practical Units.-—Since some of the C. G. S. units are inconveniently large and others inconveniently small, the practical units are some multiple or sub-multiple of ten times the corresponding C. G. S. units of the electromagnetic sys- tem. The practical units defined by the International Elec- trical Congress at Chicago, 1893, are as follows: Unit of re- sistance, the ohm, represented by the resistance offered to an unvarying current by a column of mercury at the tempera- ture of melting ice and 144521 grammes in mass, of a con- stant cross-sectional area, and 1063 cm. in length; unit of current, the ampere, which is the practical equivalent of the unvarying current, which, when passed through a solution of silver nitrate in water, deposits silver at the rate of 0001118 gm. per second; unit of electromotive force, the volt, or the E. M. F. that, steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is 1 ohm, will produce a current of 1 ampere; it is equivalent to -{-2-3,’; of the E. M. F. of the Clark cell at a temperature of 15° C. ; unit of quantity, the coulomb, which is the quantity transferred by 1 ampere in 1 sec.; unit of capacity, the farad, the capacity of a condenser charged to a potential of 1 volt by 1 coulomb; unit of work, the joule, the energy expended in 1 see. by an ampere in an ohm; unit of power, the watt, the work done at the rate of 1 joule per second; unit of induction, the henry, the induction in a cir- cuit when the E. M. F. induced is 1 volt while the inducing current varies at the rate of 1 ampere per second. The relation between these practical units and the C. G. S. units is set forth in the following table: RATIO OF PRACTICAL PHYSICAL QUANTITY. Practical unit. To C’ G‘ S‘ UNITS‘ Electromagnetic. Electrostatic. Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coulomb. 10“ 1 3 x109 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ampere. . 10 ' 1 3 x 10° Electromotive force. . . . . . Volt . . . . . . . . . 10’3 §>< 10 - 2 Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ohm . . . . . . .. 109 Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Farad . . . . . . . 10 _ 9 9 x 101 1 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Henry . . . . . . 10° Woi‘k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Joule . . . . . .. 107 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Watt . . . . . . . . 107 HENRY S. CARHART. Universal Expositions: See EXPOSITIONS, INTERNA- TIONAL. Ul1iVc1"Salis1n [from Lat. universa’Zis, of or belonging to all or to the whole, universal, deriv. of anioer’sas, all together, whole, entire, liter., turned into one; n'nas, one + oer'tere, oer'swn, turn]: in theology, the doctrine that all mankind will finally attain salvation. Stated more fully, the beliefs which constitute this doctrine are: that God is; that his infinite power, wisdom, and justice are modes of his essential nature, which is love; that he holds to man the relations of Creator and Father; that he is manifested through his works and providence; that he has disclosed through holy men, and especially through Jesus Christ, his character, will, and purpose as related to the duty and des- tiny of man; that he is continually working upon mankind through his cosmic and ethical forces, and by his Holy Spirit of truth, faith, hope, and love; and that thus guided and inspired, all his children will eventually clear themselves from evil and achieve perfected character with its resulting power, peace, and joy--so that a final moral harmony of the universe will be attained, and God will be all in all. Jl[an.—It is held by Universalists that man is not under the wrath and curse of God for the sins of his ancestors, but that he is under the difficulties and dangers of inherited and ac- quired incompleteness and defect; that his chief peril, the real, demonstrable hell into which he may fall, is degeneration —-the failure to live up to his organic capacity; that the evils in which he is enmeshed are, however, challengers of his strength; that pain is the great stimulus of his energy—the prolonged birth-pang of his higher powers; and that his agonizing conflict with evil is but the fair price of perfected character and enduring life. Universalism em hasizes the importance of faith in man as the chief work of od and the UNIVE RSALISM highest organism in the visible creation; and it contributes to the Christian creeds this new article of faith: “We be- lieve that man is created in the spiritual image of God, and is capable of knowing and doing his will.” It is aifirmed that man is not a fallen being, a worm, a slave, a wreck, but a developing being who began low down and is on his way up, not a ruin, but a mine full of latent riches. His capaci- ties are great, some of them are sublime; he is God’s fellow- worker, co-operator, and agent, through whom the divine purposes are wrought out on earth. God furnishes the arena, the organism, the constant inspirations, but man does the work, and in doing it he develops the one thing which God does not create, namely—character. Universalism affirms the spiritual unity of the race, and the universality and es- sential ethical identity of all of God’s revelations to man. Satoation.—-It is held that moral development is not con- fined to the present state of existence, but is conterminous with the whole duration of man; that salvation consists in the formation of a character conformed to God’s will; that such character can not be instantaneously acquired, nor pro- duced in any other way than by the voluntary action of the individual; that rewards and punishments are aids to the development of character and not ends or finalities; that God’s love is as clearly shown in penalty as in reward, since, by the return of his deeds upon his head, man is made aware that there is Somebody in the universe who cares which way he goes; that punishment is medicinal and corrective; that the remission of the penalties of voluntary disobedience would be unmerciful; that forgiveness does not involve such remission, but works a change in the attitude of the soul which enables the sinner to endure the consequences of his sin in such a way that they will ennoble, instead of degrad- ing him. Universalism affirms that the revelation of the divine character through the Christ is the most potent awakener of the moral energy of men; that the chief func- tion of the Church of Christ is to hold his ideal of life and character before men and assist them to attain it; that man can not find salvation by withdrawing from the sphere of life’s appointed activities and duties, but that the great school of moral discipline and spiritual culture is to be found in the common personal relationships and ordinary pursuits of life. The Bibte.—The Universalist Confession of Faith says: “ We believe that the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments contain a revelation of the character of God, and of the duty, interest, and final destination of mankind.” It is held that the moral and spiritual content of the Bible constitutes a progressive revelation; that it is adapted to the successive stages of man’s development; that, since a revelation must necessarily be intelligible to those to whom it is addressed, the Bible must be interpreted according to the present canons of historical criticism and in the terms of man’s present understanding and conscience; that it con- tains a record of man’s spiritual experience and moral growth through many ages under the tuition of God’s Spirit; and that it stands pre-eminent in its ower of communicating moral energy to the struggling sou s of men. llIethocZs.—It is held that all moral transformation and growth is from within outward ; that the incarnation of God in Christ is representative of the possibility of the in- dwelling of God’s Spirit in all men; that every soul is capa- ble of receiving that Spirit; that the entrance of the divine life into humanity is not an exceptional, official, or magical act, but a process whose laws can, to a large extent, be dis- cerned and obeyed; and that repentance of sin, the wor- ship of God, loyalty to the Christ, the service of men, the diligent discharge of humble duty, and the honoring of the comm on relationships of life, are all channels through which the soul may receive in ever-increasing measure that divine energy which lifts it out of the power of sin and sorrow, and forwards it on the way to perfection. Resurrection and the Future Life.—It is held that the resurrection is experienced by each soul when, at the disso- lution of the body, it enters upon a new order of existence. It is not conceived that death works any moral transforma- tion, but that the soul enters the next state with just the spiritual character which it achieved on earth. It is be- lieved that in the future life all the opportunities for further growth which the powers of the soul open to it will be ac- corded; that it will there be under the ministry of truth and love, until truth and love have wrought within and upon it their perfect work. . Historical.-—Universalism in its essential features dates from a high antiquity in the Christian Church. It was UN IVERSALS held by Clement of Alexandria (A. D. 190), by the great and learned Origen (A. D. 225), and a little later by Theodore of Mopsuestia, and others. When the Latin form of Chris- tianity triumphed over the Greek form, and Rome gamed supremacy, the doctrine of purgatory gradually superseded the Universalist belief in moral progress beyond death. In the rigors of the Reformation, the recoil from the abuses of the doctrine of purgatory took the form of a rigid denial of the possibility of any moral change after death. But through all this period Universalism had its isolated scholars and saints, and the reformed Christianity produced many able and devoted advocates of the universal hope, in Germany, France, and England. Universalism began its development in America in the last half of the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth centuries, through certain Enghsh and French Mystics, through the German Brethren, the Moravians, and through a few learned divines of the Epis- copalian and Congregationalist bodies. John _Murray came from England in 1770, and began to proclaim it openly. Its doctrines spread rapidly, but it acquired institutional power slowly. The organization of the Universahst branch of the Christian Church in America was accomplished in 1803, at Winchester, N. H., by the adoption of a confession of faith and the acquisition of a legal status. The Church now (1895) numbers more than 1,000 parishes, organized under forty State conventions and one general convention ; owns church property worth over $9,000,000, besides nearly $4,000,000 invested in educational institutions, which com- prise four colleges, one polytechnic institute, three divinity schools, and five seminaries and academies. REFERENCES.-—FOI' detailed information and statistics, see The Universalist Register, Boston, published annually; for history, Hosea Ballou, The Ancient History of Universal- ism (Boston, 1878) ; Richard Eddy, Universalism in Amer- ica (2 vols., Boston, 1886); for doctrine, Thomas B. Thayer, The Theology of Universalism (Boston, 1870) ; Samuel Cox, Salvator jllancli (London, 1874) ; Frederic W. Farrar, Jllercg and Judgment (New York, 1881); The Columbian Universalist Congress (Boston, 1893); Joseph S. Dodge, The Purpose of Goal (Boston, 1894); 0. Cone, Gospel Criti- cism and Historical Christianity (New York, 1891). JAMES M. PULLMAN. Universals [from Lat. unioersa’lia, neut. plur. of uni- oersa’lis, belonging to the whole, collective, general. See UNIVERSALISM]2 a term used in various ways. Universals are either metaphysical, anioersalia ante rem, denoting the archetypal forms of things as far as they existed in the Di- vine Mind before the real things were created; or physical, anioersalia in rem, denoting the archetypal forms as far as they actually exist in things created; and finally logical, nniversalia post rem, denoting the archetypal forms as far as they are abstracted by the human intellect from the things. See REALISM, NOMINALISTS, and GENERALIZATION. Revised by W. T. HARRIS. Universe [from Lat. iinioer’s'am, all things, the universe, liter., neut. of aniver’sns, all together, whole, entire. See UNIVERSALISM]: a term employed to signify the grand and total aggregate of created things. Regarding this aggregate as a material structure, it is, so far as we know, made up of what we familiarly call the heavenly bodies. Particulars respecting these bodies and the systems which they form are found in the articles As- TRONOMY, Asrnaom, Comsrs, NEBULA3, PLANET, SOLAR SYS- TEM, STARS, and SUN. In this‘ article is summed up what may be said of the whole creation. Wlien the telescope was pointed at the heavenly bodies, and the law and consequences of gravitation developed by Newton and his successors, the universe was, in thought, divided into two parts. There was first our solar system, composed of a definite number of bodies, of which the sun was much the greatest; and there was outside this system another, composed of countless stars, seemingly scattered through all space. The void space between the outermost planet and the nearer stars, which to the early. astronomers seemed not very wide, became, as astronomical research was continued, of immeasurable extent. After Herschel explored the heavens with his great telescopes, it became continually clearer that our sun was in reality simply one of the millions of those shining bodies called stars. In other words, it became clear that the stars were suns. The natural outcome of this conception, aided by measures of parallax, was the conclusion that the distance between our sun and the nearer surrounding stars was perhaps no UNIVERSE 387 greater than that which separated most of the stars from each other. Photometric measures, combined with deter- minations of the parallax of the stars, have shown that our sun is probably rather a small star, whose actual bright- ness is exceeded manifold by Sirius, and perhaps by a ma- jority of the stars which stud the heavens. Our conclusion is that a being flying through the entire universe, and scan- ning its great bodies as he passed, would notice our sun merely as one among the millions of those bodies. Lambert’s Theorg.—Even before all these conclusions were fully established, Lambert formed the sublimest con- ception of the universe that has yet entered into the mind of man. We see that our solar system is made up of a number of minor systems. Each of the latter is formed by a planet, with its attendant satellites, when it has any. Each of these systems revolves around the great central lu- minary, the sun, preserving its general form through all ages. So far as we can see, the solar system, as thus consti- tuted, is fitted to endure forever. Should an inhabitant of the earth visit our system at the end of any number of aeons, the presumption is that he would still find all the planets revolving around the sun in their regular order, each with its attendant satellites, under the same laws which now direct their motions. The similarity of the stars to the sun being established, the presumption is that each of the former is the center of a system of planets. A num- ber of the stars, each with its attendant planets, may re- volve around some great unknown center, forming a system of yet higher order. Each cluster of stars was supposed to be such a system. All these clusters or systems which our telescopes can see may again revolve around a yet greater center. Thus Lambert reached the conception of a univer- sal system including all created bodies, and fitted to endure forever without undergoing any change in its general ar- rangement. The Stars Irregular in .Motion.-—Sublime though this conception is, it is not verified by modern research. Not only is there no evidence that the stars as a whole form an organized system of the kind we have described, but it is only in the exceptional cases of binary or ternary systems that two or three stars are seen to have any relation to each other. The proof is very simple. Were the stars thus aggregated into systems. we should see a certain regularity in their motions, by which we could form some idea of the center around which each revolved. But no such regularity can be detected. The general rule is that each star seems to be moving forward in a straight line entirely independ- ent of the lines of motion of other stars. The only modifi- cation that this statement requires is that in many cases a number of stars in the same region of the heavens seem to have the same proper motion. Of these. we may say that they are moving through space together. But even in these cases there is no such orderly arrangement among them as there would be if they formed a system in any way like our solar system. If any orbit is being described, either by the individual stars or by star clusters, many thousands of years of observation will be required to make it out, and in all probability it would be found to be not an orbit of any definite form, but only an irregular curve, determined by the attraction of great numbers of other stars. This view is still further strengthened by the widest gen- eralization of modern science, that of the dissipation of en- ergy. If we admit that the law of the conservation of en- ergy and of the correlation of its different forms, which is established by our experiments and observations on the earth’s surface as one of the most universal and far-reach- ing laws of nature. holds good throughout the whole uni- verse, and in all time, then we must admit that the life of all the stars is finite ; that at a certain time in the past, very long when measured by human life, yet not long wheh measured by geological ages, a time only a small number of millions or hundreds of millions of years back, the stars did not exist in their present form, but were great nebulous masses. filling the space now occupied by the universe. Looking forward, the same considerations lead us to the conclusion that before a system organized on the plan sup- posed by Lambert could make many revolutions. the heat and light of the component stars, which is their life. would come to an end. From this point of view, the motions among the stars are merely a continuation of the motions of the nebulous masses which originally formed them. modi- fied in each case by the attraction, more or less great, of innumerable other stars. The Universe probably Finite in E'.ctent.——Ass1uning this 388 conclusion, two questions arise. First, is the universe of stars infinite in extent‘? Every addition to the power of our telescopes reveals new and probably more distant bod- ies. If this power were increased without limit, would we eontinually find yet more distant stars, without end, or would we at length reach a boundary to the whole system beyond which is only empty space? This question was an- swered both in the positive and negative by Kant, in one of his Antinomies. He proved both the positive and the nega- tive by what seemed to him equally conclusive reasoning. The modern scientific philosopher would set aside both courses of reasoning as necessarily inconclusive, because the question is one of fact, which can be settled only by ob- servation, and observations are not yet sufiiciently compre- hensive to settle it. We may, however, take a step toward doing so. Were an infinite number of stars scattered through space in such a way that every region of fixed size, however great, would in a general average contain one or more stars, then it can be shown by mathematical reason- ing that these stars would fill the heavens with a blaze of light like that of the noonday sun. We may therefore say concluslvely that either the universe, as we understand it, is finite in extent or that the light of the stars does not travel through infinite space. The former conclusion is that most in consonance with the ideas of modern science. But this does not prove that there is a boundary beyond which no stars exist. It shows the finitude only of the col- lection of stars, a few of which are within the reach of our telescopes. In the infinite depths beyond may lie other stars and systems without end. Arrangement of the Stars and Nebulae.—Granting this conclusion, which is that the 50,000,000 of stars and the un- known masses of nebulae which are visible with the most powerful telescopes of our time form at least a considerable part of a system of stars scattered within a limited region of space, we meet the second question. Should a being view this collection of stars from a point outside of it, what form would it present? In other words, what is the actual arrangement of the stars and nebulae in space”? This question we can artially answer. The great majority of stars visible with t e telescope are seen in the region of the Milky Way. It follows that the great mass of stars which compose the universe are, so far as our telescopes show them, not arranged spherically, but rather form a flat disk ; possibly a great number of them form a ring. Our sun ap- pears to be situated nearer to the center of this ring than to its circumference. On the two sides of the disk or ring are scattered comparatively few stars, but a great number of neb- ulae. Adopting the modern views of cosmogony, these nebulze are ultimately to condense into stars. In this arrangement of a disk or ring of closely connected stars, with numerous scattered stars lying all around on each side and in the center, and nebulae arranged on either side, we have the closest approach to a system that modern science can yet see in the arrangement of the universe. S. N EWCOMB. University: an institution for the promotion of higher education by means of instruction, the encouragement of literary and scientific investigation, the collection of books and apparatus, and the bestowal of degrees. The term has had a different meaning in different ages and in different countries. In Latin it conveyed some such idea as our word incorporation, the totality of a society formally organized by a recognized authority. The dictionaries give various il- lustrations, among them the phrase Ineolcmmz Oppidi Um‘- versitas, the corporation of a city. From this meaning of the whole or entirety of a society the term became restricted to a body of masters and students associated for learning, and then it came to signify that all departments of knowl- edge were studied. It is true that in the Middle Ages the idea of a place for general education was expressed by Stuclium G’-enerale, a seminary where higher studies were pursued in many fields. Denifle has discovered the use of this phrase in 1233—34; yet he has found a still earlier use of the word university in its modern academic sense. UM- oersqlias Jllagz'stroru/nz (interpreted by the words Commuvmio _Magt'st1'09'/am) occurs in a rescript of Pope Innocent III. to the Parisians, dated in 1208-09; and a few years later, in 1221, the formal title appears in the statutes, Nos, Univer- sitas Magis romm et Seh0Zam'um I)a1't's'£ens/éuovz. So it is safe to say that the Word, in the sense of a society of schol- ars, dates from the early part of the thirteenth century. Amid the differences that have developed respecting the legitimate authority, scope, subdivision, statutes, and usages UNIVERSITY of universities, one idea has never disappeared. Since their origin, universities have been organizations in which stu- dents were taught the highest branches of knowledge. Moreover, universities have been places where man’s inher- itance from the past has been preserved and interpreted to living generations. Independence of thought, habits of in- quiry, investigation, and research, and the art of reasoning have been encouraged or developed within their walls--not always with fervor, it must be conceded, yet perpetually, according to the light of each passing age. The univer- sity, everywhere and always, has been a society of masters and scholars associated for the acquisition and advancement of knowledge. It may be more; it must be this. As education has advanced, and especially as instruction has been provided in many technical branches which call for the ablest intellectual exertion, the word university has come to imply advanced instruction, given by superior teachers to well-qualified students, in very wide domains of knowledge. In almost every civilized land the work of a university is supposed to rest upon that of a reliminary or introductory college, gymnasium, or Zyeée. IE1 the U. S. an unfortunate confusion has resulted from the occasional adoption of the term university by institutions which, how- ever excellent in their work, represented a lower grade of instruction than that which is given in the best European and American universities. Dt'stt'net'i0n between ct College and a Umlrersqltg/.—The col- lege is understood to be a place for the orderly training of youth in those elements of learning which should underlie all liberal and professional culture. Ordinarily the confer- ring of the bachelor’s degree marks the conclusion of the college course. Often, but not necessarily, the college pro- vides for the ecclesiastical and religious as well as the intel- lectual training of its scholars. Its scheme admits but little choice. Frequent daily drill in languages, mathematics, and science, with compulsory attendance and repeated for- mal examinations, is the discipline to which each student is submitted. Often (especially in France, England, and the U. S.) the students of this grade are provided with lodgings and sustenance by the college authorities. This work is simple, methodical, and comparatively inexpensive. It is everywhere understood and appreciated. In the university, more advanced instruction is given to those who have already received a college training or its equivalent, and who afterward desire to concentrate their attention upon special departments of learning and research. Libraries, laboratories, and apparatus require to be liberally provided and maintained. The holders of professional chairs must be expected and encouraged to advance by positive researches the sciences to which they are devoted, and arrangements must be made in some way to publish and bring before the criticism of the world the results of such investigations. Primarily, instruction is the duty of the professor in a university as it is in a college; but uni- versity students should be so mature and so well trained as to exact from their teachers the most advanced instruction, and even to quicken and inspire by their appreciative re- sponses the investigations which their professors undertake. Such work is costly and complex ; it varies with time, place, and teacher ; it may be remote from popular sympathy, and it is of course liable to be depreciated by the ignorant and thoughtless. Nevertheless it is by the influence of univer- sities, with their comprehensive libraries, their costly instru- ments, their stimulating associations and helpful criticisms, and especially their great professors, indifferent to popular applause, superior to authoritative dicta, devoted to the dis- covery and revelation of truth, that knowledge has been promoted, and society released from the fetters of supersti- tion and the trammels of ignorance, ever since the revival of letters. The Idea of Liberal Stud'L'es.——We are not to suppose that universities did not exist in antiquity because this word, in its academic sense, is of mediaeval origin. From the time of Aristotle and Plato until now the idea of “liberal” studies in distinction from those that are “practical” has been handed down. Thoughtful men have recognized the fact that many things must be learned without reference to their professional or technical profit. Intellectual strength, en- joyment, sagacity are worthy to be cultivated, quite as much as skill in turning one’s knowledge to account. In modern times it is held that any study may be pursued either with freedom or in a restricted and narrow spirit, and conse- quently that a liberal education does not depend so much upon the subjects that are taught as upon the ways in which UNIVERSITY they are taught. In the Middle Ages also, it may be said, methods were all in all; but the methods were anything but liberal. The written texts, even such inadequate texts as translations, commentaries, and glosses, were the ultimate ap eal. Such an idea as that of scientific verification, or of re erence to and dependence upon original sources of knowl- edge, in the modern sense, was rarely proposed; and those who suggested this method of establishing the truth were liable to be silenced by the portentous utterance, Somp- tam est. The doctrine of liberal studies is distinctly stated in the fourth and fifth books of Aristotle’s Politics (of. Welldon). Proceeding from the dictum that all life is divided into business and leisure, he says that “there is a certain educa- tion which our sons should receive, not as being practically useful nor as indispensable, but as liberal and noble”; and again, “ the universal pursuit of utility is far from becom- ing to magnanimous and free spirits.” From the time of the ancient Greeks different schedules of the liberal arts have been given. The number seven is first clearly indi- cated about the beginning of the sixth century by Martianus Capella, who enumerates grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, ge- ometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. Of these, the three first named constitute the trz'm'nm; the four last named, the qnadm'm'nm. Cassiodorus (468-568) finds a sug- gestion of this mystical grou in a verse of the book of Proverbs, which reads: “Wis om hath builded her house. She hath hewn out her seven pillars.” Much curious lore upon these points, collected by Prof. A. F. West in the Princeton College Ballete'n (1890), is reproduced in David- son’s Aristotle and the Ancient Edncaf/lonal Ideals. Gradu- ally the trivium and the quadrivium were crystallized in educational systems. The fourteenth and fifteenth chap- ters of the second book of Dante’s C’onm'to illustrate the scope of liberal studies in his time. The seven sciences of the trivium and the quadrivium are here represented as like unto the seven heavens. To the eighth sphere, the starry heaven, physics, and metaphysics correspond ; to the ninth, moral science; and to the tenth or quiet heaven, divine science or theology. Davidson has reduced these ideas to a formal schedule in the appendix of his Aristotle, and he adds the remark that here we have the culmination of the ancient and medieeval systems of education. The schedule is worth reproducing as a significant landmark, for “ Dante,” says Lowell, “was a mystic, with a very practical turn of mind ; a Platonist by nature, an Aristotelian by training.” THE LIBERAL ARTS, ACCORDING TO DANTE. Liberal Arts. Grammar . . . . . . . . .M0on . . . . . . . . . .Angels. Trivium . . . . . . . . . . . . Dialectic . . . . . . . . .Mercury . . . . . . .Archan gels. Rhetoric . . . . . . . . . .Venus . . . . . . . . .Thrones. firithmetic . . . . . . . .1SIun . . . . . . . . . . . .Dominions. . usic . . . . . . . . . . . . . ars . . . . . . . . . .Virtues. Quadmvium ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' Geometry . . . . . . . . .Jupiter . . . . . . . Principalities. Astrology . . . . . . . . . Saturn . . . . . . . . .Powers. _ Philosophy. PIg§’)1fi§,S?’cI;d me' } Starry heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Oherubim. Moral science . . . . . .Orystalline heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Seraphim. Theology . . . . . . . . . .Empyrean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .God. To the modern student the liberal arts of the early Chris- tian centuries and of the Middle Ages present a very restrict- ed domain, especially when compared with the modern ency- clopaedia of knowledge or with t 1e needs of civilized society. The enlargement of the idea of liberality, the foundation of modern progress, was closely associated with the organiza- tion of universities. It may not be easy to determine which was the cause or which was the effect. Did the universities evoke freedom, or did liberal thought create universities‘? There was action and reaction. A great step forward was taken when medicine, law, and theology found a place by the side of philosophy, as subjects of the highest educational value. Thenceforward they have been exclusively con- sidered as the liberal or learned professions, until recently. In the nineteenth century the liberal arts include scores of subjects which during previous ages had not entered the minds of men, except perhaps in the most rudimentary form, and liberal professions are no longer limited to the primitive three. The Imvnedlate Precursors of _Moa'ern l.7nz'eers2Tzf'z'es.—- While in general terms the origin of modern universities is dated from Salerno, Bologna, and Paris, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, yet the beginnings of these and kin- dred institutions are lost in the obscure past. We may as- 389 sume that there has never been a period in the history of civilization without arrangements for the advancement and dissemination of knowledge, corresponding with what in modern times is called the university. Babylon, Heliopolis, Athens, Alexandria, each must have been a seat of higher learning. Nor were they alone. So in Western and South- ern Europe, certainly from the time of Charlemagne, there were schools of more or less dignity in courts, cathedrals, monasteries. For example, in France, at the beginning of the twelfth century, three religious schools were famous, those of Paris, Laon, and Chartres. William of Cham peaux opened a school of logic in Paris in 1109, and was followed by his brilliant pupil Abelard (1079—1142), cm’ soli patnit seibile gaidqnid erat, whose lectures were heard by throngs of hearers. Laon won its distinction under Anselm, the “ Doctor of Doctors,” and his brother Ralph. The school at Chartres became famous at an earlier period under Fulbert, a pupil of Gerbert. Its fame was still greater under the lead of Bernard Sylvester, of whose methods of instruction an account is handed down by John of Salisbury. (Consult Poole's lllustra2fz'ons of Mediwz*al Thought, where abundant references are given to original sources of information.) As to the subjects studied in these schools of the Church, we have very good records which have been well arranged and condensed in the work of Mullinger on the University of Cambridge. An abstract of his statements will here be given. Under Gregory the Great (590—604) the Church rested on the authority of the three fathers, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine. From the first, she derived her conception of sacerdotal authority; from the second, her attachment to monasticism; from the third, her dogmatic theology. In Augustine, and especially in his work entitled De Clo/lfate Devi, may be found the key to the belief and practice of the Church in the Middle Ages. In face of the destruction of Rome, he proclaimed the dominion of a new city, the New Jerusalem. A sublime theocracy was to supersede the rule of the Caesars. Under Charlemagne (742-814), in the circle where Alcuin taught the mysteries of logic and grammar, there is evidence of a spirit very different from that of Greg- ory, and in advance of the ecclesiastical ideas of the time. For example. steps were taken for the collection and revision of manuscripts. But these higher aspirations soon ceased. Only here and there the lamp of learning shone with no un- certain light—-for example, at Ferrieres, where Lupus was bishop. As the twelfth century approached instruction was almost entirely founded on the writings of Martianus Ca- pella and Boethius (non-Christian writers) and of Orosius, Cassiodorus, and Isidorus (Christian writers), all of them compilers from Greek and Roman authors. Other books were read, but these works were the usual school-books. The histories of Orosius (about 416), a kind of abstract of the De (]2'vzTla,te, formed a somber treatise, full of wars, plagues, famines, and other tokens of the wrath of God. Through the allegorical treatise of Martianus Capella, De nngotehls Phllologe'ce et ]l[ereurz'z', ez.‘ de se_;ozfem Azfibus liberaltbus, the modern universities inherited their notions of the trivium and quadrivium. To this far from contemptible curriculum we must be careful not to attach our modern conceptions. To Boethius (475-524) is due the transmission of that ele- ment of purely Greek thought which was during seven cen- turies nearly the sole remaining tradition of the Aristotelian philosophy, although the Aristotle of \Vestern Europe, from the sixth to the thirteenth century, was simply Aristotle the logician. Of Cassiodorus (468-568) there was a meager man- ual of education, De Artzibzls lz'l)eral1Inm lite-rarum. The Or/igzfnes of Isidorus (d. 636) constitute a kind of encyclo- paedia, a laborious collection of such fragments of knowledge as were still discoverable. Two conclusions are based upon this study: that the liter- ature from the seventh century to the tenth was scanty in the extreme, and what learning existed was almost exclu- sively possessed by the clergy. Those who wish to prosecute the inquiry further will be aided by a reference to the writings of Gerbert. better known as Pope Sylvester II. (about 991), printed (1867) in a critical edition edited by Olleris. A list of the authors upon whom he commented in his school at Rheims, before he was chosen to the holy see, has been preserved by his pupil Richerus, and it indicates instruct-ion remarkable in thoroughness and extent. Certainly, from Abelard to Aquinas, Aristotle ruled the university world—not the original Aristotle, but his lineal descendant, bearing his name and exhibiting his character- istics, often modified and attenuated, yet not so altered as 390 to lose the original qualities. A couplet of Godfredus de S. Victor, quoted by Denifle, illustrates the rev_eren_ce_ for the writings of the Stagyrite in the medraeval universities: Omnis hinc excluditur, omnis est abiectus Qui non Aristotelis venit armis tectus. It is not uncommon to hear the studies of the Schoolmen spoken of with contempt, but it should never be forgotten that their aim was to establish correct habits of reasoning. By the precepts and example of Aristotle,logic_was taught. This logic was often employed upon questions rightly called trivial. Time was wasted upon fruitless inquiries. But as years rolled on and new generations arose, the Aristotelian habit, directed to new themes, emancipated the mind and led the way to the modern advancement of knowledge. Although the data are vague, precedence in the list of modern universities is generally accorded to Salerno, where medicine was taught at a very early period._ In the_ ninth century Salerno was spoken of as Uzoitas Iftppocraitca; to the eleventh century a poem is attributed, which bears the title Flos flfcdtctnw Scholce SaZerm'; and there are statutes regulating the school which belong to the year 1231, Dur- ing the next quarter of a century there are many evidences of the importance of the school. In the face of political changes, Salerno continued to be a seat of medical science until the time of Napoleon’s interference. The influence exerted by the Saracens upon the school of Salerno, “their legitimate offspring,” as Gibbon calls it, would be a most interesting line of research. The Um't'e¢'st'tt'cs of Bologna and Pam's.—Respecting the early days of the Universities of Bologna and Paris, the an- tiquaries have brought together so many curious particu- lars that it is difficult to separate the important from the secondary. It is easy, however, to see that usages, regula- tions, titles, phrases still in academic vogue, even in the new world, go back to the beginnings of these institutions. In- deed it is hardly possible to understand the unwritten laws by which modern universities are governed without refer- ence to their historic basis. Nevertheless the main utility of such investigations is found in a revelation of the long and wearisome steps by which the human race has been advancing in its searches after truth. It has taken fully seven centuries for the most civilized nations of mankind to establish the proper relations of literature and science to a liberal ed cation, and the most efficient methods of pro- moting ledlrning. At certain periods the universities have even seemed to hinder the advancement of knowledge and the appreciation of literature; nevertheless, as a general rule, their influence, direct and indirect, has perpetuated the study of the great writers of antiquity and the great leaders of human thought; their influence also, especially during the last century, has favored the employment of sci- entific methods. The exact date when the university was organized in B0- logna is of little importance compared with the fact that the Roman law was there introduced as a subject of study by a teacher who had the power of attracting and inspiring large companies of students. The influence of Irnerius (d. 1118) was soon and strongly felt far beyond Italy. All historians of this period recognize the fact that the emancipation of the human mind, and also the development of the modern state, were largely due to this revival of interest in the Corpus Ju/ris C"t'm'Z/is. For example, James Bryce says, “It can not be doubted that, in Germany and in England, a body of customary Teutonic law would have grown up had it not been for the notion that since the German monarch was the legitimate successor of Justinian, the corpus j'/arts must be binding on all his subjects.” Paris shares with Bologna the honors of priority. As Bologna was renowned for the study of law, Paris was dis- tinguished for its attention to theology and the liberal arts, while the student of medicine resorted to Salerno and a lit- tle later to Montpellier. There was a saying, “Italy has the pope, Germany the emperor, France the university.” The usages and example of Paris were followed in England and in Germany, and indirectly at least in other countries. The publications of Father Denifie reveal the condition of affairs in the University of Paris during the thirteenth cen- tury in minute details. It is amusing to read the original papers thus brought together, and observe howexactly hu- man nature then corresponds with human nature now. There are the same jealousies, ambitions, ditficulties, strifes, and victories. If a writer with the skill of Froude would do for this mass of documents what he has done for the cor- respondence of Erasmus. a volume of even greater interest UNIVERSITY might be forthcoming. Meanwhile, as much of this material is unknown to the general reader, a few illustrations will here be given, for it is certain that but few will have the patience to go through this great repository. Those who wish for a briefer story will find an excellent article, by Rev. H. Rashdall, in the Englislt .[“1’J8iO7"JOLZZ Romlcw for 1886, the conclusions of which were reached by independent studies. Thus, for example, there are questions of prerogative or jurisdiction between the chancellor or external authority, representative of the Church, and the rector or intramural representative of the teaching body. The faculty of theol- ogy dispute the power of the rector. In the faculty of medicine there is a quarrel about the election of deans and examiners. There are the rudiments of a “curriculum,” prescribing what books may be read and what may not be read, particularly on holy days. We have indications of trouble between gown and town, the students and the night- watchmen. Academic degrees and titles are abused, and must be protected. Especially, unauthorized persons must not practice medicine. Surgeons and apothecaries must keep to their own special departments. Expulsion from the university is a penalty for continued neglect of studies. Masters of arts must not dictate their lectures. Fees are to be made proportionate to the time of residence. Students must be punctual at their meals, and may be punished for misconduct. Presents to the chancellor, on receipt of a license from him, are not allowed. Steps are taken by the university to control the sale of books. Heresy must be stamped out by vigorous measures. Certain teachers who hold to the doctrine of the Trinity in an unacceptable form are burned at the stake—a scculo mt'graocmmt is their eu- phonious epitaph. These citations are taken here and there from papers that are dated between the middle of the thir- teenth and the middle of the fourteenth centuries. Only one more extract will be given, and this will show that academic boasting is not the invention of the nineteenth century. A paper that belongs to the end of the fourteenth century, attributed to Gerson, but, according to Denifle, more probably the work of another, begins with this lauda- tion of the University of Paris: “Just as the University of Paris is prior in origin, so, too, in glory and dignity it has always surpassed all others. Some derive it from Rome, others from Athens, others from Egypt. Some even trace it to the prophets, while others find its origin in paradise, either that earthly paradise where the knowledge of things divine and things human is said to have been infused into Adam, or that heavenly paradise, where, if we are to believe the poets, Minerva, goddess of wisdom, sprung from the head of Jove. The Wise One himself, as if in agreement with them, has asserted that ‘Wisdom was sent down from heaven’ (WVisdom, ix., 10), and elsewhere (Eccles. xxiv. 5) that it ‘proceeded out of the mouth of the Most High,’ and ‘was an image of his good- ness’ (Wisdom, vii., 26). VVithout, however, continuing this discussion we know this for certain, that the other seats of learning derived their origin from Paris, it being as it were a living fountain, which, dividing into four faculties like so many rivers, irrigates the whole surface of the earth with the waters of learning. I know, indeed, that other schools contribute in no small degree to the store of learning, and that they are by no means without reputation, each one be- ing strong in its particular branches; but ours embraces all in its more ample bosom, so that there are some who think that it was from this fact that the Parisian school got the distinctive name of ‘university,’ because it has accumu- lated within itself the particular prerogatives and branches of learning of the individual schools. In philosophy, meta- physics, and theology it surpasses all others, even as in brilliancy the sun surpasses the moon. To use the words of Marc, it is a British whale among dolphins.” The quo- tation. however, is not from Vergil, but from the tenth satire of J uvenal, v., 14. The Universities of Paris and Bologna were the gradual evolution of the times. Not the Church nor the state, but students following the lectures of masters made the first universities. The associations or societies of students at Bologna, called 'am'vc7'st'zfatcs, more than four of them at one time. were in fact akin to guilds of craftsmen, combina- tions of those whose pursuits were similar, for mutual pro- tection and advantage. Like confederations arose in other seats of learning, as at Vercelli and Padua. So in Paris (probably after the example of Bologna) four “nations” were constituted, including both teachers and pupils—name- ly, the French, Picard, Norman, and English “nations,” UNIVERSITY each of these terms having a very broad territorial signifi- cance. These constituted the faculty of arts. Presently the faculties of medicine, canon law, and theology were grouped around the faculty of arts, which was in a certain sense tributary to the three other faculties. With respect to the inner life of the university, Mullinger has pointed out the differences between Bologna and Paris. In the former, instruction was entirely professional, designed to prepare the student for a definite and practical career in after life; in the latter, it was sought to provide a general mental training, and to attract the learner to studies which were speculative rather than practical. In the sequel, the less mercenary spirit in which Paris cultivated knowledge added immensely to her influence and reputation. The Rapid Spread of Universities in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Oentu/ries.—-It is now time to consider the spread of universities. When their importance was perceived, pope and emperor, cities and sovereigns, rivaled one another in efforts to establish seats of learning. Consequently, includ- ing Bologna and Paris, fifty-five high schools were initiated prior to 1400, some of them destined indeed to premature death, but most of them surviving at the end of the century. A group of a dozen schools (Maeerata, Lyons, Brescia, Mes- sina, Palermo, Vienne, Palma, Rheims, Todi, Pistoja, Man- tua, and Parma) may be passed by as wrongly called univer- sities. Nine grew into universities by usage and privileges-— namely, Salerno, Oxford, Orleans, Angers, Padua, Vercelli. Reggio, Modena, Vicenza. Sixteen establishments were based upon papal charters-—that of the papal court, Rome, Pisa, Ferrara, Toulouse, Mont ellier, Avignon, Cahors, Grenoble, Cambridge, Valladolid, Heidelberg, Cologne, Erfurt, Fiinf- kirchen, and Buda. A group of ten institutions received im- perial or other civil charters—Arezzo, Sienna, Naples, Trevi- so, Orange, Paleneia, Salamanca, Seville, Lérida, Huesca. The fourth group, nine in number, received both papal and civil authority—Perpignan, Lisbon, Perugia, Florence, Pia- cenza, Pavia, Prague, Vienna, Craeow. Finally, nine pro- jected universities did not come into being Fermo, Verona, Orvieto, Pamiers, Dublin, Valencia, Alcala, Geneva, and Lucca. Such an exhibit justifies the statement that the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are the epoch of uni- versity foundations. The Rise of the German Universities.-If Germany was not the original seat of the modern university, it has certain- ly been its most congenial home. Paulsen has arranged by eriods the names of those institutions in which the German anguage is employed for instruction. thus including the Austrian universities and some of the Swiss. The first period is prior to the invention of printing; the second prior to the Reformation; the third is the period of religious wars, when denominational universities dependent on the state and Church came into being—Marburg, Ktinigsberg, Jena, Giessen, etc., on the Protestant side, and IViirzburg, Gratz, Innsbruck, etc., on the Catholic side. The fourth period, covering the last two centuries, is naturally divided mto an earlier epoch (that of Halle, G6ttingen, Erlangen, etc.), and a later, which has seen the ascendency of Berlin, Bonn, M unich, and the rejuvenated Strassburg. In the following table, taken from Paulsen, the figures indicate the date of foundation. and in certain cases the date of suppression, or of transference to a new site: First Period. Tlzirol Period. Prague (Austrian), 1348. Marburg, 1527. Vienna (Austrian), 1365. Ktinigsberg, 1544. Heidelberg, 1385. Dillingen, 1549-1803. Cologne, 1388-1794. J @1181. 1558- Erfurt, 1392-1816. Braunsberg, 1568; reorgan- Leipzig, 1409. ized, 1818. Rostock, 1419. Second Period. Greifswald, 1456. Freiburg (Baden), 1457. Basel (Swiss), 1460. Ingoldstadt, 1472-1802. Treves, 1473-1798. Mentz, 1477-1798. Tiibingen, 1477. Wittenberg, 1502-1817 ; trans- ferred to Halle. Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1506- 11811 ; transferred to Bres- au. Helmstii-dt, 1576-1809. Olmiitz (Austrian), 1581-1855; now a theological faculty. \Viirzburg, 1582. Gratz (Austrian), 1585. Giessen, 1607. Paderborn, 1615-1818. Strassburg, 1621; founded, 1872. Rinteln, 1621-1809. Altdorf, 1622-1807. Salzburg (Austrian), 1623- 1810. Osnabriick, 1630-1633. Bamberg, 1648-1803. newly G5ttingen, 1737. Erlangen, 1743. Herborn, 1654; converted in- to a theological seminary, 1818. Miinster. 1780. Duisburg, 1655-1818. Berlin, 1809. Kiel, 1665. Bonn, 1818. Innsbruck (Austrian), 1672. Munich, 1826. Zurich (Swiss), 1832. Berne (Swiss), 1834. Fm/mth P6/fwd‘ Czernowitz (Austrian), 1875. Halle, 1694. Freiburg (Swiss), 1889 (lec- Breslau, 1702; re-organized, tures partly in German, 1811. partly in French). Spread of Uniiiersities through Europe, etc.-—The Univer- sity of Oxford was modeled upon that of Paris. Like that of its antecedent, its origin is obscure, and its early vears show the influence of many subtle forces rather than the impulse of the crown or the Church. Certain monastic schools. St. Frideswyde and Oseney, are supposed to have been the’ nu- cleus of the university. Vacarius, a follower of Irnerius, brought from Bologna to Oxford the knowledge of the Roman law, and previously (1133) Robert Pullen had arrived from Paris and lectured upon the Bible. In the twelfth century Giraldus Cambrensis describes Oxford as a place where “ the clergy in England chiefly flourished and excelled in clerkly lore.” Early in the thirteenth century large numbers of students migrated from Paris to Oxford and Cambridge. In the year 1257 the Oxford authorities speak of theirs as a school second only to Paris. The earliest ppcllieges were University (1249), Baliol (1263), and Merton The University of Cambridge is a little younger than that of Oxford. In the twelfth century there were probably schools connected with the Church of St. Giles. In 1224 the Franciscans came. and half a century later the Domini- cans. In 1231 and 1233 there are indications that the uni- versity is an organized body with a chancellor at its head, and in 1318 a formal recognition of the place as a studinm generate is received from the pope. The earliest colleges are Peterhouse (1286), Michaelhouse and King’s Hall (1326), Pembroke (1347), Gonyille (1348), Trinity Hall (1350), Corpus Christi (1352). The modern universities in England are Durham (1657; revived in 1831). London (1825; reorganized in 1836), and Victoria (chartered in 1880). There are four universities in Scotland—St. Andrews (1411). Glasgow (1453), Aberdeen (1494). Edinburgh (1582). In Ireland the leading university is that of Dublin, com- monly known as Trinity College, Dublin, founded in 1591. The Royal University (1880), which is chiefly an examining body akin to the University of London, cofnprises also the Queen‘s colleges of Belfast, Cork, and Galway. which were formerly associated in the Queen‘s University. ‘ The Catholic University (1854) is in Dublin. and St. Patrick’s College at Maynooth was founded in 1795 for the education of priests. IVhere British colonization and conquest have gone—in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India—universities of the English type have been established. Among the higher in- stitutions in Canada the most important are the Uni\'e1'sity of Toronto (1828), the McGill University in Montreal (1821), Laval University in Quebec (1852), Dalhousie University in Halifax (1820), and Queen’s University in Kingston (1841). In Australia there are the Universities‘ of Adelaide, Sydney, and Melbourne. New Zealand has its universitv. India has fi_ve institutions for superior instruction under‘Englisl'1 aus- pices. The University of Tokio in Japan, an establishment of great promise, is based upon the observation of German, English, and American experience. In France, the antiquity of Montpellier comes next to Pans. Its six hundredth anniversary was celebrated in 1890. As far back as 1181 medical instruction was there given, and a faculty of jurisprudence was instituted before the close of the twelfth century. Pope Nicholas IV. gave Montpellier a charter in 1289. Toulouse in 1233 received a charter recognizing it as a stu,dzTum gmzerale, and Orleans not far from the same time. As already stated. the univer- s1t1es of Angers, Avignon, Cahors, Grenoble, Perpignan, and Orange (the two last named having but a nominal Exist- ence) were established before the end of the thirteenth cen- tury. In the course of the Revolution (1793) the ancient universities of France were suppressed, together with the professional faculties. In their place, when Napoleon as- sumed the rule of centralization, the University of France was instituted by a decree of Mar. 17, 1808, as a central 391 392 authority, which should control nearly all the higher insti- tutions of learning in the country. “ Academies” took the place of “universities.” The College de France, founded in 1530 (spared by the Convention and restored in 1831), the Ecole Polvtechnique (begun in 1794), and the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes (instituted in 1868), with other_founda- tions, supplement the faculties _in Paris, and amid many political changes, have maintained their autonomy and their distinctive characteristics. The name of one of the oldest colleges in the University of Paris,_ the Sorbonne, has been perpetuated since its foundation in 1250 until the present time, and the magnificent buildings recently con- structed in Paris as a home for the liberal arts bear the name of the New Sorbonne. . For many years past a movement has been in progress tending toward the revival of the ancient foundations, or, in other words, for the transformation of the existing “ fac_ul- ties” into universities. In 1875 a law was passed relative to the liberty of superior instruction, and inaccordance therewith the Roman Catholics began university work at Paris, Lille, and Angers. This law made provision for future legislation in the interest of still greater reforms. Such leg- islation was actually proposed in 1890 by M. Bourgeois, then Minister of Public Instruction. In the meanwhile the Gov- ernment had been actively engaged in the improvement of the buildings and apparatus devoted to higher education in different cities. The New Sorbonne illustrates this ac- tivity. So in other seats of learning, where, until.recent- ly, only lecture-halls were found, laboratories for instruc- tion and research, cabinets, libraries, studies, and conference- halls have been provided by liberal expenditures. _ The pro- visions for retaining governmental supervision while certain powers are transferred to the local universities proved to be a difficult problem. The number of students has ra idly increased as better opportunities have been offered _t em. See a paper on Edueate'0n in France, by A. T. Smith, in Report of United States Commesseoner of Edueateon for 1891-92. The other states of Northern Europe—Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, and Switzerland- maintain their universities very much in accordance with German models. In the south of Europe, Spain followed Italy in the early establishment of universities, among which, for nearly five centuries, from the thirteenth to the eighteenth, Salamanca was the most distinguished. Madrid is now frequented by a large number of students. Coimbra, in Portugal, is flourishing. In recent years the universities of Italy—sixteen of them pertaining to the state, and four being free from governmental control—have shown new life. In Greece the University of Athens (1837) has acquired distinction. _ 0 _ . . Attendance upon European U’)?/L’Z)€7‘S’bt’I:68.—-T116 list of uni- versities given in Minerva for 1894-95 includes 129 names, besides the 16 faculties of France, 63 colleges or academic institutions of a high rank, and 7 examining bodies more or less akin to the University of London. Of those enrolled as universities, 64 have an attendance of more than 1,000 stu- dents each, and 48 others are attended by more than 500 students each. The largest numbers are found in Paris, 10,643 ; Berlin, 8,343 (of whom 4,735 are “ hearers”); Madrid, 5,867 (of whom 2,906 are “ hearers”) ; Vienna, 4,856 (of whom 3,913 are “ hearers ”); Naples, 4,822 (of whom 4,732 are “ hearers ”). The number attributed to Oxford is 3,222, and to Cambridge 3,156. Une'oersu‘e'es in the U. S.—Higher education in the U. S. was at first promoted by simple colleges. Harvard,'Yale, and William and Mary were based upon the conception of the college as it existed within the universities of Oxford and Cambridge in the early part of the seventeenth century. Columbia, Princeton, Rutgers, Brown, Williams, Bowdoin, Union, and scores of other institutions were formed substan- tially upon the model of Harvard and_Yale. At the begin- ning of the nineteenth century broader ideas prevailed. Pro- fessional schools of law, medicine, and theology were grafted upon the original stock, or were founded in close proximity to existing colleges. In the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury schools of science (Lawrence, Sheffield, Chandler, etc.) were inaugurated. Still the name “university” was very cautiously employed. . . . _ . The organization of the University of Virginia, in 1826, brought new methods forward. Thomas Jefferson was fa- miliar with the continental ideas of universities, and he iii- troduced many of their features, which were quite distinct from those of the English colleges. With the opening of UNIVERSITY the Northwest separate States were persuaded to give their name and their funds to the foundation of universities; and at a still later period the so-called agricultural college grant gave to scientific education all over the land a new impulse. Thus it may be seen that the universities of the U. S. may be arranged in four groups : First, those which are the out- growth of the early colleges, like Harvard, Yale, Columbia, etc. ; second, those which have been founded by some of the separate States of the Union, like Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, California, Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, etc. ; third, private foundations, like Cornell, Johns Hopkins, Leland Stanford, Tulane; and fourth, ecclesiastical univer- sities, as in Chicago, Washington, Evanston, Sewanee, etc. Although the administration of these institutions may ap- pear to differ widely, yet within the walls, the courses of iii- struction, the methods of discipline, and the terms of pro- motion will be found quite similar. The differences that exist are due rather to differences of income than to dif- ferences of aims. The hope is sometimes expressed that the attempt will be made to give emphasis in each strong insti- tution to particular branches of learning, philology, natural science, mathematics, etc., but no such tendency is yet manifest. Each institution, so far as its means will permit, endeavors to cover just as wide a range as possible. Four distinct periods are also to be noticed in the devel- opment of universities in the U. S. In colonial days, until the Revolution, the English college was the simple form by which higher education was promoted. Next came a period early in the nineteenth century, when professional schools of medicine, law, and theology were instituted-sometimes in close connection with the older colleges, and often quite independently. A third period began in the middle of the nineteenth century, when scientific schools and technological institutes were devoted to the advancement of pure and a - plied science. In the fourth period opportunities of stu y and for investigation and for publication have been given far beyond those ever offered in previous days. In the city of Washington, at the present moment, we may see the different forces of society at work upon the uni- versity problem. Since the early part of the nineteenth century the national capital has been the seat of the Colum- bian University, a private corporation, which has been large- ly controlled by one religious denomination. It includes schools of law, medicine, science, and the liberal arts. For reasons which need not here be discussed it has not acquired that distinction among universities of the U. S. which might have been expected from its relations to the seat of govern- ment. Consequently, the demand has sprung up for a na- tional university, to be established in Washington and en- dowed by the Government. Able men have worked to- gether in the advocacy of this idea. Bills have been repeat- edly introduced in the Congress, and have passed through one or more of the requisite stages of legislation, but final action has not been taken. While this discussion has been in progress, the Roman Catholics have begun a university at the capital, having secured for it a large tract of land, upon which commodious halls have been constructed. Faculties of theology and philosophy have been orgaiiized, students assembled, and publications of a scientific character have appeared. It is a remarkable fact that the authority of this foundation proceeds from the see of Rome, being embodied in a papal decree issued by Leo XIII. Closely coincident with the action of the Roman Catholics is that of the Metho- dists. Under the auspices of leading members of this de- nomination, a charter has been secured, land acquired, and plans matured for the American University. Thus we have in Washington a Roman Catholic, a Methodist, and a Bap- tist university, with the possibility that a national university will be added to the number. Eaesteng Forms of European Une'oe9'se'm'es.—Tlie existing forms of university organization in Europe may be arranged in these groups: 1. The most common is the German type, which has these characteristics: The authority, the ultimate direction, rests with the government of each state. Students are pre- sumed to have received a good reliminary training in the gymnasium, or in some correspom ing institution. The philo- sophical faculty usually includes the chairs devoted to lan- guage, literature, history, philosophy, mathematics, physical and natural sciences. Sometimes there is a division, as, for example, in Munich, where the political sciences are attrib- uted to a separate faculty. and the philosophical faculty is divided into two sections: (a) philosophy, philology, and history; (b) mathematics and natural sciences. UNIVERSITY Many students pursue for a time a course of hilosophical studies, though their chief interests are elsew ere. Three other faculties are grouped around the philosophical—name- ly, law, medicine, and theology. Laboratories and institutes for special subjects are growing up under the university control. Technical schools are for the most part regarded as without the pale. This type prevails in Germany, Aus- tria, Holland, Belgium, Scandinavia, Russia, and Switzer- land. The prevalence of this form of organization induced the remark of a distinguished German professor, that there is not as yet in the U. S. a single university in the sense attached to the word by Europeans. 2. The French type was established under Napoleon by the decree of Mar. 17, 1808. The ancient universities had been suppressed. In their place nearly all institutions of learning, from the lowest to the highest, were constituted the University of France. The ministry of Public Instruc- tion, aided by a council, controls everything. This council includes five directors of (a) superior, (22) secondary, and (0) primary education ; (d) of the ofiice of secretary and comp- troller; and (e) of the fine arts. The educational system of France is divided into academies. At the head of each is a rector, named by the minister, who directs in his domain the three grades of instruction—primary, secondary, and superior. A vigorous movement is in progress to restore to the ancient universities—Montpellier, Lyons, etc.—their former prerogatives and prestige. The law of 1880 (Feb. 27) so far reorganized the university councils that the inner forces, the teaching forces, have now a greater share in the govern- ment. By this law the Conseil Supérieur has become the representative of the intellectual and scientific interests of the country. The nearest approach to the French idea in the U. S. is the University of the State of New York, the regents of which exercise a limited control over all universities, colleges, academics, and schools which are organized by the laws or charters of the State. 3. The two great English universities, Oxford and Cam- bridge, have preserved more of the ancient forms. They are groups of colleges, associated in a university, each re- taining independence in the holding of property and in the training of youth. Above the colleges are the authorities of the university by whom degrees are conferred, professors appointed, and regulations of general importance prescribed an enforced. By various boards and syndicates the teach- ers of kindred subjects are brought into close co-operation with one another, and by their college enrollment the stu- dents are divided into distinct companies and subjected to tutorial discipline and instruction. Of recent years the colleges have united in the establishment and maintenance of professorships, the instruction of which may be accessible to all members of the university, and, under certain regula- tions, to others who are qualified to attend. In 1880 a charter was given to the Victoria University, the oflicial title of a group of colleges. of which Owens College, at Man- chester, is the leader. 4. The University of London is unique. It exists as an examining body, having the power to confer academic de- grees upon students who have conformed to certain definite requirements. The examinations of this body have been conducted with so much accuracy and skill that diplomas thus secured have a very high value as certificates of pro- ficiency ; but they afford little evidence of the possession of such an academic spirit as is usually produced by residence in a well-developed university. Measures are now in prog- ress for the organization of a teaching university in Lon- don, and a voluminous report upon the subject has been presented to Parliament. Domtnomt Subjects of Study/.—Far more interesting than a statistical, chronological. or territorial account of univer- sities is the story of the subjects that have successively come into prominence, especially in the faculty of philosophy or the liberal arts. VVe have seen how, at Salerno and Mont- pellier, medical science was fostered, at Bologna the study of law, and at Paris theology and scholastic philosophy. The intense enthusiasm exhibited by the Schoolmen never reached a higher point than it did in the lecture-rooms of Abélard (1079-1142), but for two centuries afterward the dis- cussions of the N ominalists and the Realists were vigorous and absorbing. It is hard to appreciate the importance at- tached to the distinctions of these acute dialect-icians, except by bearing in mind that philosophy and theology were close- ly interlocked (as they are still), and that the doctrine of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist turned largely 393 upon the meaning of the word real and the nature of ab- stract existences. “ Are abstract terms words only, or are there physical beings corresponding to every abstract term ‘P’ Aristotle was at the bottom of all this dialectic. The Sen- tences of Peter Lombard (d. 1164) applied the principles of the Stagyrite to Christian doctrines, and remained for a long period the manual of theological students. In St. Thomas Aquinas, “the angelic doctor” (1227-74), mediaeval philoso- phy bore its richest fruit. He was unwearied, says a recent Roman Catholic writer, in laying stress upon the funda- mental principle that between the truths of reason and the truths of revelation, when rightly understood, there is neither divergence nor discord. It is for this reason that he still retains his ascendency. His writings, republished by the Vatican in a sumptuous edition, are commended by Leo XIII., in the eneyclical Eternt Patrts of 1879, to renewed and earnest study. “Greatly enriched as he was with the science of God and the science of man, he is likened to the sun, for he warmed the whole earth with the fire of his holiness and filled the whole earth with the splendor of his teaching.” (Cf. Aristotle, etc., by Brother Azarias.) A Prot- estant historian (Flint, P/mil. Hist.) emphasizes the fact that St. Thomas recognized “progress to be a universal law of things, and all knowledge to be progressive.” This comes very near to the modern law of continuity, and the more re- cent doctrines of evolution. Whatever repugnance to the scholastic philosophy may be felt, no mistake will be made if we remember what has already been said, that to its indirect influence may be attributed the ascendency of reason above authority which has characterized the modern era, and of which the end is not yet. Roger Bacon (1214-92) was one of the most able of edu- cational reformers. He advocated a study of Greek, He- brew, and Arabic, but to mathematics, divine mathesis, he gave the highest place. It was long indeed before such views were prevalent. The mathematics of his time were rudimentary indeed. Geometry held its place, but we are told that the student seldom crossed the pens astnorwn. In the early days of the Universities of Prague, Vienna, and Leipzig, as well as in Paris, provision was made for the study of mathemathics, but not until. the discoveries of Newton and Leibnitz was there an adequate recognition of the value or even of the significance of mathematical thought, and it was not until the nineteenth century that the dignity and possibilities of this science were discovered. The revival of letters in the last half of the fifteenth cen- tury quickly made its influence felt in the universities. The migration of Eastern scholars to the West, consequent upon the capture of Constantinople by,the Turks (1453), was of great significance, for they brought to Italy knowledge and appreciation of Greek letters. The invention of printing (about 1454) and the production by the Aldi (1490-1597) and other enlightened printers of the great works of antiquity were likewise events the potency of which can not be esti- mated. A century earlier Petrarch (1304-74) had given an impulse to the study of classical literature. especially Latin, and the collection of manuscripts by Guarino, Filelfo, Au- rispa, and Poggio established the reign of the humanities. Classical learning was ascendant. There was “a resurrec- tion,” as Symonds has said. “of the mightiest spirits of the past.” It took a long while for Greek literature to win its place. The annals of Cambridge show what hostility the new education encountered. Latin was the tongue of the Church, of the received Scriptures, of current theology and philosophy. It was a sanctified language—but Greek ! That was the language of heresy. Reuchlin, at Basel. brought forward the Greek text of Aristotle, and was vehemently as- sailed by the seniors of the university, who declared that to give instruction in the opinions of schismatic Greeks was contrary to the faith and an idea only to be scouted (Mul- linger). Oxford was more hostile than Cambridge to Greek, a circumstance which led Erasmus to begin his career as a teacher of Greek in England in Cambridge. Slowly but surely the battle was won. and Greek and Latin letters have ever since had their place in every university. Their efiects are seen in all departments of modern literature. The exact observation of natural phenomena and the per- formance of physical experiments. chief factors in the ad- vancement of modern science, have only recently found a place in the domain of university instruction. But now they receive almost everywhere abundant encouragement. Let the programme of any flourishing university of this day be compared with that of the most expanded university 100 years ago, and the change will seem marvelous. A great 394 advance was made when Liebig, at Giessen, introduced the laboratory as an agent in university instruction. The methods of instruction and research first employed in chem- istry have been carried into other sciences-—physics, anat- omy, physiology. pathology, botany, zoology, geology, mm- eralogy. The example of the laboratory methods has even been felt in literary, philological, and historical studies, where the critical scrutiny of original authorities is gener- ally encouraged, in “ seminaries.” The comparative method of investigation has been fruitful. Indeed the historian Freeman has said that “the discovery of the comparative method in philology, in mythology—let me add, in poli- tics and history and the whole range of human thought—— marks a stage in the progress of the human mind at least as great and memorable as the revival of Greek and Latin learning.” To Bopp is due the honor of initiating the study of comparative grammar, and to Stein and Ranke the en- couragement of Quellenforschung, an investigation of the sources of historical literature. ' The Functions of a Unioersity.—-It may now be well to enumerate some of the principal functions of a university at the end of the nineteenth century. In the first place, it adheres to its original task of instruction. Youth, fitted by previous studies to follow the highest attainments of human thought, are encouraged to do so by teachers who have won distinction in the various branches of knowledge which they profess. It is by this quality that universities are dis- tinguished from academies and learned societies, which are associations of scholars for their mutual benefit and for the promotion of knowledge, but without any reference to the training of youth. Universities are also distinguished from colleges, the object of which is to provide a preparation for life or to lay foundations for the subsequent study of law, medicine, theology, and innumerable modern vocations, in- cluding those of the teacher and investigator. 2. It is the duty of universities to perpetuate all the best achievements of mankind in former ages, to provide for the study of the, languages, literature, religions, laws, philoso- phies, customs of antiquity, so that nothing that the human race has achieved may be lost sight of. Everything that illustrates the experiences of our race or its endeavors to establish good social conditions and to promote the highest intellectual and moral progress should be taught in a uni- versity. Especially in these days should the study of com- parative religion and comparative politics be encouraged, the sources from which have sprung the modern ideas of government and religion. Literatures remote from those of modern Europe, by their antiquity or by their appearance in Oriental countries, are not to be neglected. 3. It is another function of universities to extend the borders of knowledge, es ecially to investigate, with the newer methods of researc , and with the co-operation of scholars in every part of the world, the phenomena of nature. Such researches begin with an extension of the field of mathematics. Astronomy, physics, dynamics, logic, follow closely. Chemistry stands next. The functions of living organisms in health and disease, animal and vege- table, open wide domains. The structure of the earth and the processes by which it has been brought into its present form are another field of observation. The laws of climate are closely connected with those of geology. Then there is the wide range of economic and financial laws and the study of those subtle processes by which social institutions have been organized and established. 4. For the prosecution of such work universities must form large collections of books, works of art, coins, speci- mens in natural history, maps, scientific apparatus, and in- struments of precision. It is not essential that such collec- tions should belong to the corporate body known as the uni- versity, but every company of scholars must have the easiest possible access to literary and scientific collections, to labo- ratories, observatories, museums, cabinets, and libraries. 5. It is an important function of universities to bestow, upon suitable evidence, certificates, academic titles, and licenses, both in the liberal arts and in the various depart- ments of professional activity. It is quite time that in the U. S. there should be a rehabilitation of degrees. They have been brought into ridicule partly by multiplying such dis- tinctions and partly by bestowing them unworthily. In Europe academic diplomas convey many rights and privi- leges of an important social character. They are guarded both by law and by public opinion. In the U. S. degrees are awarded with unfortunate freedom by any institution which bears the chartered name of a college. It may be as UNIVERSITY diificult to limit this power as to limit the suffrage, but every step taken in that direction is to be commended. 6. It is the business of universities to disseminate as widely as possible by means of publications, perhaps also by popular lectures, the knowledge of which its members are the possessors and guardians. There is danger that college publications will be regarded as advertisements of the insti- tution from which they proceed, and not as the means of conveying to the highest scientific and literary courts of the world, the results of original work. Nevertheless the prin- ciple holds good that the members of a university are bound to bring before the public the results of their study. 7. Another function of the university is to discover and encourage unusual talent, not merely by offering to needy students of merit financial support, but by recognizing and encouraging the rare abilities which appear alike among the poor and among the rich. 8. From what has been said it is apparent that univer- sities should uphold the highest standards of professional learning, in law, medicine, theology, in education, in investi- gation, and in scientific service. 9. In the future development of American universities, the possibility and desirability of co-operation and federa- tion should be considered. In every large city the forces which are working together for the promotion of culture should, by some process or another, be brought into a state not of passive friendliness, but of active co-operation. James Bryce explains the structure of the American Federation by a reference to the federal system as it long existed in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The Universities of Harvard and Yale are largely the federation of separate foundations. Columbia College, in New York, is becoming the central point of many local institutions devoted to medi- cine, pedagogics, natural history, and the fine arts. In Cali- fornia the State University has its seat at Berkeley, with certain of its departments in San Francisco and the Lick Observatory scores of miles away. In New Orleans, around the foundation made by Tulane, several institutions are grouped. The three great libraries in the city of New York, the Astor, Lenox, and the Tilden, have come under one administration. All these signs are encouraging. They look toward the promotion of independence in special direc- tions, with an obligation to respect and help on what is done in other institutions. Dr. S. S. Laws, in the U. S. Commissioner’s Report for 1891—92, advocates, as Dr. James McCosh suggested long ago, the federation of the colleges of a State under the leadership of a State university. Conclusion.—The German authority already quoted, Dr. Paulsen, surveying the field outside of Germany, makes this significant remark: “ Thus far the greatest measure of suc- cess has perhaps been reached by some of the most promi- nent American universities in their eflorts to carry out the German principle of the union of scientific investigation and scientific teaching.” But lest this encouraging word should be too grateful, it may be well to temper it with a warning from another German, Dr. Conrad, who wisely says that “what is wanted in American higher education is not so much quantity as quality. There exist centers at least sufficiently numerous for the teaching of the higher sub- jects; the teaching given is sufficiently cheap; it is much valued, and affects a large proportion of the po ulation. In these respects America may seem to resemble Ciermany and Scotland rather than England, where the lower middle and poorer classes remain outside the sphere of university influ- ence. But there are still few among the transatlantic uni- versities——and this applies to Canada no less than to the U. S.——which have an adequate staff of professors, which duly recognize the less popular subjects, which have ex- panded their old curriculum or evolved new curricula so as to keep pace with the recent development of the sciences, the moral, political, economic, and philological, as well as the natural sciences.” Dr. Stanley Hall, in an article in the Academy, 1891-92, expresses the opinion that “the last quarter of this century will be remarkable hereafter as the educational era in the world’s history ” ; and he adds that “ universities have be- come the leading question of our age. Their patronage is the chief glory of the modern state, and their discoveries now kindle the brightest lights upon the Muses’ sacred hill.” For further information on the subject of universities. the reader should consult the writings of the four investigators whose statements have been freely quoted in the body of this article-—Prof. J. B. Mullinger, of the University of Cam- bridge, England; Prof. Paulsen, of the University of Berlin; UNIVERSITY Prof. Conrad, of the University of Halle ; and the Rev. Father Denifle, O. P., who is one of the archivists of the Vatican. They represent respectively English, German, and French university history. In the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1891-92, translations, by L. R. Klemm, of the papers by Paulsen and Conrad are given. The modern interest in the origin of universities is due, in no small degree, to the learned historian of the Roman law, Friedrich C. Von Savigny, one of the early professors in the University of Berlin. His first volume was printed in 1815, and the last in 1832. President Woolsey, in The New Englander, has given to American readers a careful estimate and abstract of the university chapters. But since Savigny a flood of light has been thrown upon the subject by special volumes devoted to particular foundations—for example, Bologna, Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, Montpellier, Freiburg, Edinburgh, Dublin, Heidelberg, Vienna, Basel, Erfurt, Leipzig, and Louvain. Perry’s translation of Paulsen’s study of the Organiza- tion of German Universities, introduced by N. M. Butler (New York, 1894), supplemented by the English translation, introduced by J. Bryce, of Conrad’s German Universities during the Last Fifty Years (1889), and compared with the impressions of an English critic, M. Arnold, Schools and Universities of the Continent (1868), and of an American observer, I. M. Hart, will give a good impression of the con- dition and methods of German institutions. For the earliest period, Denifle’s Entstehung d. Univ. des ll/[ittelalters bis 1400 is almost indispensable, but it has not been translated. The three volumes in quarto, Cartularium Universitatis Parisiensis (Paris, 1893-94), edited by Father Denifle, with extended and learned annotations, is an inexhaustible mine of information respecting the origin of the University of Paris, and incidentally of its kindred elsewhere. For the period that it covers it supersedes all other histories of that great foundation in Paris which was known as “ the mother of universities.” The writings of J . Bass Mullinger not only give the early history of the University of Cambridge, but exhibit the relations of the great English universities to the progress of learning and education on the Continent. To the student of English and American education these dis- criminating volumes, with a smaller book by the same au- thor on the University of Cambridge in the sixteenth cen- tury, will be found instructive. For this period a part of Froude’s Erasmus is suggestive. During many years Huber’s English Universities, trans- lated by F. W. Newman (1843), was a standard. For Ox- ford, Anthony a Wood’s Athenre Oxonienses will always be an important book; see also Lyte’s History of the Uni- versity to 1530 (1886), Brodrick’s History of the University (1886), Andrew Lang’s Historical and Descriptive Notes (1890), A. Clark’s Colleges of Oxford (1891), Oxford and Ox- ford Life, by J . Wells, and the City of Oxford, by Boase. In addition to the works of Mullinger, already cited, which give the history of Cambridge to the accession of Charles I. (2 vols., 1873 and 1884), reference should be made to the Architectural History of the University of Cambridge, by Willis and Clark (4 vols., 1886). There are two books by Americans who have studied in Cambridge—Five Years in an English Universit'z, by C. A. Bristed (1852), and On the Cam, by William Everett (1866). The histories of separate colleges in Oxford and Cambridge should also be consulted. Grant’s Ifistory of the University of Edinburgh, prepared for the tercentenary celebration, is admirable. The lectures of S. S. Laurie on the Rise of Universities, Sir William Hamilton’s Discourses, \Vordworth’s Scholae Amdemicre, Mark Pattison’s Suggestions on Academic Or- ganization, various essays of Prof. Goldwin Smith. H. Rash- dall on the Universities of the Middle Ages. Cardinal New- man 011 the Idea of the University, and the voluminous blue books of the British Government, including one on the Evidence taken by the Gresham Commission (1894), may be read with profit by those who are concerned in the organiza- tion and administration of American universities. For the U. S. the best sources of information are the inaugural speeches of college presidents and the annual reports of colleges and universities, with some special articles to be found in various journals of education edited by H. Barnard, N. Murray Butler, and G. Stanley Hall. Valuable contribu- tions to American educational history are found in the series of monographs edited by Herbert B. Adams and issued by the U. S. bureau of education, each one of which is devoted to the higher education of a particular State. About twenty of these have been issued (1895). D. C. GILMAN. UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 395 University Extension: an educational movement, the main idea of which is to furnish teaching by university 1n- structors to those who, for any reason, can not reside at the universities. The term extension may, in this connection, be interpreted as meaning both (1) the extension of univer- sity activities beyond university premises, and (2) the exten- sion of university studies beyond the period of youth and throughout adult life. people, itself made up of all classes, in the towns and cities, who wish to read and study under such direction as col- leges and universities can give through the living teacher. It has been termed the school for adults, the university of the busy. In the words of Prof. James Stuart, of London, at whose suggestion this work was first organized, it is an attempt “ to bring the universities and the people together.” It is not, however, to be understood as designed for those only “ who can not come to the universities,” if that be in- terpreted to mean those who have never had and never can have the advantages of resident study. It is rather one form of education for adults of every class, and finds among its constituents (1) college graduates who desire to continue courses of reading and study in their favorite subjects ; (2) teachers who Wish university instruction and direction both as to method and as to subject-matter; (3) those who seek relief from the routine of business and toil; (4) parents who desire to be closer intellectual companions with their children in the schools ; (5) those who desire to be better in- formed upon matters pertaining directly to citizenship, such as political science, history, social science; and all, in general, who desire such stimulus and instruction as may thus be enjoyed. Whatever may have been the original de- sign as to the precise class for whom this form of instruction was intended, it may now be said to contemplate as wide a variety of constituents as society itself presents, attempting in every practicable way to bring the teaching resources of universities within reach of those outside the universities for the enrichment of life and the improvement of culture. Jllethod-—University teaching is thus extended principally by three methods : (1) By lectures at intervals of one or two weeks, conducted by the university instructor, with special aids for student work in the interval; (2) by correspondence, lesson-sheets being prepared and mailed to the student, with detailed instructions how to proceed, and with test exercises for work ; (3) by means of classes organized in the city or the suburbs about the university itself, which classes are taught by the university instructor in the same subjects and by the same methods as classes upon the university premises. Usually the second and third varieties of uni- versity extension instruction are sought by those who, while they can not become residents at the universities, desire to pursue courses exactly parallel with those pursued in the universities themselves, either because they find such courses especially adapted to their present needs or because they wish university recognition with a view to subsequent resi- dence study. The method first described, however, is that usually denoted by the term university extension, and is especially suited, not to those who desire to pursue, as non- resident students, the courses laid down in the curricula of universities, but rather to those in every walk of life who desire a broader view of those subjects taught in the uni- versities, a knowledge of which is essential to general cul- ture and intelligent citizenship. The distinctive features of university extension lectures are (1) the connected series instead of the single lecture, and (2) the aids to student work already referred to. These consist of (a) the syllabus or printed outline of the lecture, which is furnished to each member of the audience or class ; (b) ref- erences for reading designated by the lecturer; (c) the trav- eling library, a collection of books especially bearing upon the subjects discussed; (d) the review—hour in connection with each lecture, affording opportunity for familiar discus- sion, and for question and answer between the instructor and the audience; (e) the written aper upon topics sug- gested by the lecturer and designated in the syllabus. The performance of all work is voluntary with the student, it being open to all who so desire to do nothing further than attend the lectures. The lecturer gives instruction in six or twelve lectures at intervals of one or two weeks. The lec- ture usually lasts one hour. Its aim is to interest the hearer. and to give him a working knowledge of the subject, such as will stimulate his desire for further knowledge and will guide him in his thinking and reading. After or before the lecture-hour the lecturer reviews and discusses the preced- ing lecture with such of his hearers as desire this. In this Its constituency is the large class of . 396 exercise use is made of such written papers as members of the audience may have furnished to the lecturer. Usually a large proportion of the lecture audience remains to the review-hour. Those attending the lectures thus have the opportunity, the use of which is entirely voluntary, of read- ing some or all the works assigned, and further of writing for examination and comment short papers on designated topics, and so of suggesting the basis for general discussion at the review. Usage varies in the different colleges as to the recognition accorded to those who do the work. In some cases a certificate of readings performed and written exercises rendered is given to the student in the name of the university. In the case of courses of twelve lectures, where the nature of the course permits it, the student who performs all the designated work and takes the university examination is, by some institutions, allowed credit as anon- resident student of the university, and this credit stands in his favor if he at any time becomes a resident student. Obviously not all subjects of study are equally adapted to teaching by university extension lectures. This is espe- cially true of subjects that can be pursued best in labora- tories, as well as the direct teaching of languages and mathematics. However, owing both to the nature of the subjects as they lend themselves to this kind of teaching and to the desires of the people, the subjects especially de- manded are literature, history, sociology, economics, political science, and certain phases of biblical study. Geology, chemistry, and biology have received considerable attention, and the study of the history of art and art criticism is also successfully carried on in this manner. Organization.—The organization of the university ex- tension center is comparatively simple. Two or three per- sons interested in securing such an organization for their town or neighborhood usually procure university extension literature from any college engaged in the work, and pro- ceed to interest first of all a few persons of public spirit and general influence in the community. Through these inter- est in the subject may easily be spread until it becomes practicable to secure a general meeting representative of the various elements in the town. Sometimes a representative from the university is present to give a specimen lecture, and to explain briefly and simply the nature of the work, answer any questions that may arise, and give such advice as may be needed. As soon as the interest warrants it, steps are taken to form a simple organization consisting usually of a president, secretary, treasurer, and local committee. A choice of lecturer and course is then made, a canvass for tickets proceeds, and in due time the work begins. Circu- lars of information explaining all practical details are com- monly furnished on application by the institutions engaged in this work. History/.——As a differentiated and organized form of edu- cational activity university extension was first recognized in 1873, when “the University of Cambridge (England), at the instance of James Stuart [then fellow and lecturer of Trinity College, and now (1895) member of Parliament], offered to supply the towns of England with capable in- structors in the various departments of knowledge, under the supervision and with the sanction of the university it- self.” As early as 1867 Prof. Stuart had been invited by a company of ladies in the north of England to give them a lecture on teaching.* He replied that, “as a thing is often best described by showing a piece of it,” he would prefer to give them a course of lectures, in which he would attempt to teach somethipg. The thought prom ting Prof. Stuart in sending this reply was the very germ 0 university exten- sion methods-—namely, that the single lecture should be re- placed by the series of lectures on a given subject, occurring at intervals, and that these lectures were to be distinctively teaching lectures. The lectures by Prof. Stuart constitute really the beginning of university extension, and they clear- ly display the evolution of the special features of this kind of instruction—namely, the syllabus, the weekly paper, and the review. Prof. Stuart says that he received the idea of the syllabus from Prof. Ferrier, of St. Andrews, who had used the syllabus in his own classes as a means of indicating to his students what sort of notes he desired them to take. Prof. Stuart found that oral questioning of his audience was not in all respects satisfactory, and asked his hearers to write short papers upon various topics connected with the lectures and mail them to him. At the following meeting these papers were commented upon as their contents seemed to UNIVERSITY EXTENSION demand. The origin of the so-called class or review-hour is interesting. One of the managers of the Crewe Railway works asked Prof. Stuart in 1867 if he would give a lecture to the workingmen. He accepted the invitation, and spoke on the subject of meteors. Thelecture received unusual and gratuitous advertisement by copious showers of meteors that fell the evening before, and was so acceptable that the men requested him to give them a course. When Prof. Stuart came for the second lecture he found a number of his hear- ers gathered about some diagrams that had been left in the hall, discussing them with much interest. The result was that he was asked if he would come to the hall somewhat earlier than the time for the beginning of the lecture, to ex- plain and further discuss these illustrations. This gave him an idea of the so-called “class ” or review, which is a feature of the university extension lecture. Soon after this Prof. Stuart gave similar courses, accompanied by the features described, in Leeds, Sheffield, Manchester, and Liverpool, so that when, in 1873, the university took up the work its characteristic features were well developed. All conditions were favorable for the success of the move- ment. The great and rich towns, with few exceptions (Man- chester had a college), were practically untouched by uni- versity influence. The two great universities of England were utilized by a small fraction of the population. The general diffusion of easily accessible free schools and insti- tutions of all grades, so familiar in the U. S., was unknown in England. The idea of establishing teaching posts or “centers” for university teaching in the towns met with eager response. Centers were first established in the autumn of 1873 in Nottingham, Derby, and Leicester, and since that time the system has been an integral part of the university’s work. In 1876 the London Society for the Extension of University Teaching was formed for the purpose of carrying on this work in the metropolis. In 1878 the University of Oxford engaged in the work, but for a time abandoned it. That university, however, resumed it in 1885, and has car- ried it on successfully ever since. The first direct efforts to introduce this form of teaching into the U. S. were made in 1887 by persons connected with Johns Hopkins University.* The subject was first publicly presented to the American Library Association at their meeting in Sept., 1887. It was at once taken up in a practi- cal way by J. N. Larned. superintendent of the Buffalo Library. Mr. Larned secured the services of Edward W. Bemis, a graduate student of the Johns Hopkins University, and by him twelve lectures were delivered, at intervals of one week, upon Economic Questions of the Day. The regu- lar English university extension system was followed. The first formal organization of the work on‘ a large scale, how- ever, was effected in 1890 within and about Philadelphia through the exertions of Provost William Pep er and his associates in the University of Pennsylvania. eorge Hen- derson was sent by them to England, and made a valuable report on the English movement. The name of the first organization was the Philadelphia Society for the Extension of University Teaching. The society was soon reorganized on a larger scale, and was called the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching. This society has continued its work vigorously and successfully until the present time (1895), and has formed the most considerable central organization for the work in the eastern part of the U. S.+ The University of New York took up the work, and organized it on a large scale in the spring of 1891. The Legislature appropriated $10,000 for the purpose of organ- ization. In the autumn of 1891 the Chicago Society for University Extension was formed. It drew its lecturers from anumber of allied colleges, including the Universities of Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, the Northwestern University at Evanston, Ill., Lake Forest University, Illinois, Beloit Col- lege, and Wabash College. Other central organizations for prosecuting this work were formed at Brown University, Bowdoin College, Colby University, Colgate, Rutgers, the Universities of Cincinnati, l\/lichigan,Minnesota, Iowa, Mis- souri, Kansas, and California. The most noteworthy step, however, in the development of this work in connection with auniversity in distinction from an organization like the Philadelphia society was taken when, at the organization of the University of Chicago, which opened in Oct., 1892, a dis- tinct division of the university was equipped for the prose- cution of the work of university extension. A separate faculty * See Sadler, The Development of University Extension (Philadel- phia, 1892). * See article by Prof. Herbert B. Adams, The Forum (July, 1891). 1" See pamphlet entitled Review of the Work of the American Society, etc., E. J. James (1895). UNIVERSITY was selected for this work, a special set of administrative offi- cers was chosen to organize and direct it, and special offices were set apart and equipped for the business involved. The administrative staff consists of a director and five secre- taries of departments——the departments, namely, of lecture- study, correspondence-study, and class-study, library, and district organization and training. This organization has been substantially continued until the resent, and has been found essential to the prosecution of t e work as conceived and planned.* The results of the efforts of some of these organizations are partially shown in tables below. It may be added, however, that the work attained so great impor- tance as a form of education that a special congress on uni- versity extension was held among the world’s congresses at Chicago in the summer of 1893, and the twenty-first anni- versary of university extension was celebrated by a congress of workers from every part of the world assembled in Lon- don in June, 1894. Early Promoters.—Names forever to be associated with the beginnings of this work are those of Prof. James Stuart; university magnates like Bishops Westcott and G. F. Browne, (Cambridge), and the Right Hon. Arthur Acland (Oxford), Minister of Education in Lord Rosebery’s government; or- ganizers like Dr. R. D. Roberts and T. J . Lawrence (Cam- bridge), and M. E. Sadler (Oxford); men of reputation in the lecturing field, like Dr. R. G. Moulton (Cambridge), Rev. T. Hudson Shaw (Oxford), Churton Collins (London). It is right to mention also names of distinguished local organ- izers, like those of Dr. Paton, of Nottingham, and Miss Jessie D. Montgomery, of Exeter. The name of Dr. Moul- ton belongs to both Great Britain and the U. S.; under the auspices of the Philadelphia organization at its initiation, and subsequently of the University of Chicago, he has had perhaps a larger share than any other individual in repre- senting university extension before the people of the U. S. The Jlfovement in Great Britain and in the United States.-— The motives for the extension of university teaching and the constituency which responds to this movement have thus EXTENSION 397 the U. S., on the other hand, it would be more correct to say that the universities have reached out, and have entered into co-operation with all classes of persons outside of their own premises, not so much for the enlightenment of the unedu- cated as to meet the demands of intelligent people of every class for co-operation in the interests of the intellectual life of the country at large. In Great Britain one peculiar result of university extension has been the establishment of so-called university extension colleges, the best examples of which are at Reading and at Exeter. In the U. S. such a result as this would be quite impossible, since the latter country has been filled with free high schools, academies, institutes, and small colleges from the earliest colonial times. Results-—The chief central organizations for the prosecu- tion of university extension are those of Cambridge, Oxford, and London in England, and of Philadelphia (the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching), Albany (University of the State of New York), Rutgers College, at New Brunswick, N. J ., and Chicago (the University of Chi- cago) in the U. S. The University of Wisconsin is organiz- ing a separate department for this purpose. The following statements, necessarily somewhat incom- plete, will convey an idea of the results of the attempts to extend university teaching: Cambridge, England, reports (for 1893-94) 137 courses given, with an average total at- tendance for that season of 10,600 ; Oxford, 223 courses, 23,500 attendance ; London, 152 centers, 15,150 attendance; Philadelphia reports (1894-95) 91 active centers, at which 126 courses have been given, with a total (estimated) attend- ance of 20,000. The extension department of the Univer- sity of the State of New York reports (1894-95) 20 active centers, at which 31 courses have been given, with a total attendance at the lectures of 50.489 ; Rutgers (1894-95) re- ports 19 centers, at which 14 courses have been given, with a total attendance of 1,518. The University of Chicago makes the following report of the three departments of uni- versity extension work, as developed since Oct., 1892, at which date the university began its work : TABULATED STATEMENT OF THE IVORK OF THE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION, 1892-95. Lecture-study Department. , Autumn Vilinter Spring, Autumn I ‘Winter, Spring, Autumn Wi t , S ri , QUARThR' 1892. ’ 1893., 1893. Tmls‘ 1893. Q 1894. 1894. T°ta1S' 1894. 1818:.r i)89];.g Tml‘ Number of courses ................. ._ as 81 2 121 35 39 9 83 64 52 11 127 Num}l;er 0% {active centers . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3(1) 38 2 3(1) 33 35 9 77 62 44 10 116 Num er 0 ecturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘ 17 16 4 17 1 17 2 18 Total attendance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.070 16,443 215 26,7 5.120 7,059 1,875 14,054 11,968 9,724 2,065 23,757 Average attendance at each lecture. . 265 203 108 . . . . . . 147 181 208 . . . . . . 187 187 188 . . . . . . Average attendance at each class . . .. 101 99 15 . . . . . . 80 96 145 . . . . .. 127 157 126 . . . . .. Class-study Department. Autumn, I VVinter, Spring,* Autumn 'Winter E Spring Autumn, I Winte , I S ' , QUARTER‘ 1892. I 1893. 1893. T°“‘15' 1893. , 1894. ’ I 1894. , T°m15' 1894. I 1895.r I T°ts1" Number of classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 I 7 . . . . 11 I 1 15 l 13 :29 49 I 30 I 23 102 Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 79 . . . 1:29 5 109 68 182 I 1.156 ‘ 689 I 352 2,197 Average number per class . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 11 . _ j 5 '" 5 ... if 24 I 23 I 17 . . . . Number of instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 I 7 7 1 I 13 I 10 13 ' 33 ' 22 I 14 33 Correspondence-study Department. QUARTER Autumn, Winter, Spring, Summer, Autumn, \Vinter, Spring, D Summer, Autumn, Winter, Spring, I Summer, ' 1899, 1393, 1893, 1893, 1893. 1894. 1894. 1894. 1894. I 1895. 1895. 1895. l I I Number of courses in progress . . . . . . . I 12 25 26 28 L 29 27 I 25 30 I 34 Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 635 692 688 695 I ‘73 466 461 419 380 ' 376 1 Number of mstructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I 3 11 10 13 I 16 17 17 15 21' I 7 I I * No courses offered. far been somewhat different in Great Britain from what they have been in the U. S. In the former country there has been a much more keenly felt need for bringing educational advantages within reach of the people. College education has been by no means so generally diffused among the people of Great Britain as among those of the U. S. Among wage- earners in England there is a much larger class of men of good intelligence who earnestly desire educational advan- tages, which formerly have been beyond their reach. Fur- ther, in the English schools there is a large number of “ pu- pil-teachers ” who are able, by attending university extension courses and taking examinations, to make direct progress toward gaining their full teachers’ certificates. These cir- cumstances and others which they imply have made for uni- versity extension in England a constituency to which, in a sense, it may be said the universities have reached down. In * See article in University Extension (Philadelphia, Dec., 1894). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—(1) Books and pamphlets treating of the movement in general: R. G. Moulton, The University Ew- tension Jlfovement (London, 1885); the same. An Address before the American Society (Am. Soc., iii., Philadelphia); R. D. Roberts, Eighteen Years of University E.ttension (Cambridge, England, the University Press, 1894); Mac- kinder and Sadler, University Eatension, Past, Present, and Future (London): University Ezrtension and the Uniz'ersity of the Future, notes supplementary to the Johns Hopkins University Studies in Aspects of ./lfodern Study (New York, 1894); R. A. Woods, English Social 1110-zements, chap. iv., pp. 119-141, University Eoctension (New York, 2d ed. 1894: this chapter appeared originally in The Analorer Reziezv, Mar., 1891) ; R. M. Wenley, M. A., The University E.rtensz'on llfovement in Scotland (Glasgow, 1895) ; R. G. Moulton, H is- torical and Political Science, No.1(1891) ; C. Hanford Hen- derson, University Jghrtension (New York, 1892) ; Walter C. 398 UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH Douglas, The Y. M. C. A. and University Extension (Am. Soc., iii., Philadelphia); Proceedings of the First Annual lleeting of the I)/'ational Conference on University Extension (Philadelphia, 1892); Michael E. Sadler, The Development of the University Extension Idea (Am. Soc., iii., Philadel- phia) ; the same, The Function and Organization of a Local Center (Am. Soc., iii., Philadelphia) ; Report of the Proceed- ings of the London University Extension Congress (1894) ; William T. Harris, The Place of University Extension in American Education (reprinted from the Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the National Conference on University Extension. held at Philadelphia, Dec., 1891, in Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1891-92, vol. ii.) ; E. J . James, Review of the W'orlc of the American Society (Philadelphia, 1895). (2) Magazines containing important articles: The Forum, July, 1891, University Extension in America, Herbert B. Adams; University Extension World, Sept., 1893 (the University of Chicago Press), University Extension in England, James Stuart, M. P.; The University Extension llfovement in America, Katharine L. Sharp; Uni- versity Extension World, Oct., 1894; University Extension, Dec., 1894 (American Society for the Extension of University Teaching, Philadelphia), The University Extension Class Courses of the University of Chicago ; University Extension, Feb., 1894, University Extension and the University of Chi- cago, Nathaniel Butler ; The Place of University Extension, Simon N. Patten. (3) Journals published in the interests of university extension: Oxford University Extension Gazette (Oxford, England); .Melbourne University Extension Jour- nal (Melbourne, Australia) ; University Extension Journal (London, England); University Extension (Philadelphia); University Extension W'orld (University of Chicago) ; Bul- letins of the University of the State of New York (Albany). NATHANIEL BUTLER. University of the South: an institution at Sewanee, Tenn., founded by Leonidas Polk, Bishop of Louisiana, and chartered in 1858. Its cornerstone was laid in 1860, but buildings and endowments ($300,000) were swept away by the civil war. The domain of 10,000 acres was saved from lapsing by the planting of a small school by Bishop Quint-ard of Tennessee in 1868. In 1870 a collegiate department was added, in 1873 a theological department was opened, in 1892 a medical, and in 1893 a law department. The growth of the institution has been steady in spite of its lack of endow- ment. The faculty in 1894 numbered thirty-eight professors and instructors, the students 300. The bishops and three elected representatives of fifteen dioceses of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Southern States constitute the board of trustees. The administrative head is the vice-chancellor, B. Lawton Wiggins, M. A. The tone of the institution is conservative and English. The Sewanee Review is the lit- erary organ of the university. B. LAWTON Wreenvs. University of the State of New York: an organiza- tion including all incorporated institutions of academic and higher education in New York, with the State Library, State Museum, and such other libraries, museums, or other insti- tutions for higher education in the State as may be admitted by the regents to the university. It was incorporated May 1, 1784; reorganized Apr. 13, 1787; had its powers enlarged and its laws revised and consolidated June 15, 1889, and Apr. 27, 1892. Its object is, in all proper ways, to encourage gnd promote academic and higher education throughout the tate. Besides the State Library and State Museum there are in the university (1895) 466 institutions—381 academies and high schools, and 85 degree-conferring and professional institu- tions, viz.: 21 colleges of arts and science for men, 8 for women, and 5 for men and women, 7 law schools, 18 medical schools, 3 schools of pharmacy, 12 theological schools, 1 poly- technic, and 10 special institutions. Of these, 1 college of arts and science, 1 medical college, 4 theological schools, 2 law schools, and 1 special school confer no degrees. The 18 medical schools include 1 homoeopathic, 1 eclectic, 2 for women, 1 of dentistry, 2 veterinary, and 1 post-grad- uate college. Of the 12 schools of theology 3 are Baptist, 2 Presbyterian, 1 each Lutheran, Episcopal, Universalist, Christian, Roman Catholic, Germ an Lutheran, and Reformed. The 10 special schools (except the Dudley Observatory, which is part of Union University), include only institutions with degree-conferring powers, though to show the full facilities of the State many institutions doing similar work should be included in this list. The law ranks as “ colleges” only those with degree-conferring powers. These include 2 pop- UNIVERSITY SETTLEMENTS ular institutions (Chautauqua and Pratt Institute), 3 eda- gogic colleges, 1 each of art, music, and magnetics. Thile there are in the State 76 institutions in which degrees may be earned, there are only 55 degree-conferring bodies, as in a university or a college having a professional school at- tached a single board of trustees confers all degrees. Co- lumbia thus confers degrees in the arts, science, law, and medicine. Union confers degrees in law, medicine, and pharmacy; the University of the City of New York in law, medicine, theology, and pedagogy; St. Lawrence and Al- fred Universities in theology; Cornell in law, pharmacy, and engineering; Syracuse in medicine and art; Niagara in law, medicine, and theology. The powers of the university are vested in twenty-three regents, including the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Sec- retary of State, and Superintendent of Public Instruction, ex ofllcio. Regents are elected by the two houses of the State legislature in joint session, in the same manner as Sen- ators of the U. S., and serve without salary and for life. The regents have power to incorporate, and to alter or re- peal the charters of colleges, academies, libraries, museums, or other educational institutions belonging to the univer- sity; to distribute to them all funds granted by the State for their use; to inspect their workings and require annual reports under oath of their presiding ofiicers; to establish examinations as to attainments in learning; and confer on successful candidates suitable certificates, diplomas, and de- grees, and to confer honorary degrees. They apportion annually an academic fund of $106,000, a part for buying books and apparatus for academics and high schools raising an equal amount for the same purpose, and the balance on the basis of attendance and of the regents’ examinations. The regents meet regularly on the second Thursday of February and the second Wednesday in December. Nu- merous special meetings are held as called by the chancellor or on request of five regents. The university convocation of the regents and the officers of institutions belonging to the university, for consideration of subjects of mutual interest, is held annually at the Capitol in Albany usually on the first Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday after July 4. The work of the university is divided into five depart- ments: 1. Executive—-including incorporations, supervision, in- spection, reports, finances, and a 1 other work not assigned to another department. 2. Examinations—including preliminary, law student, medical student, academic, higher law, medical, library, and any other examinations conducted by the regents. 3. Extension—including the work of extending more widely opportunities and facilities for education to adults and others unable to attend the ordinary institutions of higher education. 4. State Library—including public libraries department, duplicate department, library school, and all other library interests intrusted to the regents. 5. State .Museum—-including the work of State geologist, palseontologist, economic geologist, botanist, entomologist, and zoiilogist, together with all other scientific interests of the university. I/ibraries.—Besides the State Library of over 160,000 vol- umes, which is open daily throughout the year, except Sun- days, from 8 A. M. to 10 P. M., there are eight other libraries of more than 3,000 volumes each—i. e. those of the Albany Female Academy, Albany Institute, Medical College, High School, St. Agnes’s School, Court of Appeals, Normal College, and of the Young Men’s Association, the last having nearly 20,000 volumes. MELVILLE DEWEY. University Settlements : homes in the poorer quarters of a city, where educated men and women may live in daily personal contact with the working people. Here they may identify themselves as citizens with all the public interests of their neighborhood, may co-operate with their neigh- bors in every effort for the common good, and share with them, in the spirit of friendship, the fruit and inspiration of their wider opportunities. No definite date can be assigned for the origin of the university settlement movement. The establishment in London of the Working Men’s College, in 1860, by Freder- ick Denison Maurice, and the beginning of the university extension movement from Cambridge in 1867, were among the early expressions of the spirit that later was to produce UNIVERSITY SETTLEMENTS the settlement. The essential idea of settlement work- the establishing of the home among the poor-—had its rise at Oxford. In 1867 Edward Denison, an Oxford man of wealth and position, went to John Richard Green, the Eng- lish historian, then vicar of St. Philips, at Stepney, in Lon- don, and asked an opportunity to live and work in hlS parish. Denison lived but a short time, and left his work still in the form of an experiment. During the time of INS residence in the East End he discussed with a few friends plans for the social elevation of the poor, and the idea of the university settlement was then evolved, but no steps were taken for beginning the work. In 1875 Arnold Toyn- bee, tutor to the Indian civil service students at Oxford, decided to spend his summer vacation at Whitechapel, Lon- don. This he did for several successive summers, becoming an intellectual leader among the working men of the vicin- ity. After his death, as a memorial to him, his friends at Oxford determined to secure a hall at the East End, where, through university extension and other methods, it was de- signed to give the working men of the neighborhood the benefit of education. It was due to the influence of Samuel A. Barnet, vicar of St. Jude’s, in Whitechapel, that this original plan was enlarged, and in addition to the lecture- hall a settlement for university men, Toynbee Hall, was es- tablished. It began its work in Whitechapel in 1885, with Mr. Barnet as warden. The movement was rapid in its de- velopment, and within a few years settlements were started in various districts in London and in several of the cities of Scotland, and in 1887 the founding in New York city of the Neighborhood Guild, which in 1891 came under the control of the University Settlement Society. marked the beginning of the settlement movement in the U. S. Jflethods of W07‘/wing.--The most vital part of the work of a settlement is the expression, in the widest measure, of a wise friendship toward its neighborhood. This attitude results in many opportunities for usefulness that can not be classified. The definitely organized efforts of every settle- ment are mainly social, educational, and civic. In a neigh- borhood where overcrowding and poverty have destroyed the best social life, the settlement seeks to be a social center. It provides entertainments, organizes clubs, and in general constitutes itself a meeting-ground for the people of the neighborhood. Among the people who spend their days in toil there is the greatest need of elevating relaxation. In offering them the hospitality of a home of refinement and culture, the settlement helps to satisfy this need. Much work is done for the children through books, music, pictures, and story-telling; every attempt is made to brighten their lives and awaken in them a desire for better things. The settlement also attempts to bring together in social inter- course all classes of society, with the hope that, through the better mutual understanding and wider sympathies that must result, aid may be given toward the solution of eco- nomic and civic problems. In its educational work a settle- ment aims to give a fuller life and broader sympathies, rather than any technical perfection. Toynbee Hall, Lon- don, and Hull House, Chicago, are “ outposts” of university extension, and all settlements have undertaken some work of this kind. The settlement exists not only as an education for the neighborhood, but as a school for the workers, many of whom take part in the work with a view to study and investigation, in order to obtain accurate data with regard to the problems of poverty. In the settlements in general an earnest enthusiasm is felt for gaining and promulgating a right understanding of the aims and methods of the labor movement. When no definite attitude is taken toward the movement a general sympathy is accorded it, and in many settlements active work is done in organizing unions and giving them support. The first duty of a settlement-worker is to fulfill the offices of a good citizen. As far as possible the resident takes an active part in local government, and serves on committees and boards appointed to look after the health, education, and general well-being of the neigh- borhood. In this way important service is rendered in a communitywhere unsuitable laws often go unchanged in the absence of intelligent criticism. and good laws are badly administered because of the lack of wise direction. The settlements are generally supported by associations formed for that purpose. These organizations do not at- tempt to control the work to any extent. The management of each settlement is delegated to a local committee or to the resident workers. The head worker is in direct charge of the settlement, and is free to plan and develop its activi- ties. The service is voluntary, each resident worker paying UPAS 399 part of the current expenses of the house. The head worker only receives a salary. The expenses of the clubs, classes, etc., are usually paid by the members. The character and scope of the work are determined largely by the tastes and ability of the residents, and by the needs of the neighbor- hood. Leading Settlements.—The leading English settlements are in London. Among them are Toynbee Hall, Oxford House, the \Voman’s University Settlement, Mayfield House, and Mansfield House. In Scotland settlement-work has been undertaken in both Glasgow and Edinburgh. I11 the U. S. the increase in the number of settlements has been rapid. At the present time (1895) they exist in New York city, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Jersey City, Boston, Hartford, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, and San Francisco. Among the leading settle- ments in the U. S. are the University and College Settle- ment in New York city, Hull House in Chicago (which, however, designates itself a social rather than a college or university settlement), Philadelphia College Settlement, Denison House and Andover House, Boston. The movement has also spread to India, where there is a missionary university settlement in Bombay. ADA S. WooLFoLK. Unlawful Assembly: See R101‘. Unleavened Bread, Feast of: See PASSOVER. Unst: the northernmost of the SHETLAND ISLANDS (g. 11.). Unterwalden, oon’ter-va“al-den: canton of Switzerland, bordering N. on Lake Lucerne; area, 295 sq. miles. It is surrounded and traversed by mountain ranges, forming two long, narrow valleys which open toward Lake Lucerne. There are several other minor lakes in the canton. The surface is rarely level enough for agriculture, but the forests are extensive and rich in timber. Apples, pears, and chest- nuts are raised in great quantities and of excellent quality. Cattle-breeding and dairy-farming are the chief employ- ments, cheese and timber the principal exports. Pop. 27,- 581, who are Roman Catholics and speak German. Unter- walden is divided into two semi-cantons, having certain federal relations in common, but their local governments separate. Obwalden, or Upper Unterwalden, has an area of 183 sq. miles; pop. (1888) 15,043. N idwalden has an area of 112 sq. miles; pop. (1888) 12,538. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Unwin. WILLIAM CAw'rHonNE, F. R. S.; engineer; b. at Coggeshall, Essex, England, 1838; educated at the City of London School: served an apprenticeship in the works of Sir William Fairbairn at Manchester 1855-62; instructor at the Royal School of Naval Architecture, South Ken- sington, 1868-72; Professor of Mechanical and Hydraulic Engineering, Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, 1872-84; Professor of Engineering, Central Institu- tion of the City and Guilds Institute, South Kensington, 1884-. His principal works are Wiroughz‘-Iron Bridges and Roofs (1869); The Elements of ll[aehine Design (1877 ; 11th ed. 1890-91); and The Testing of 1lIaz‘em'als of Construction (1888). Unyo' r0: one of the largest of the native states of inner Africa. It is N. and N. W. of Uganda, which separates it from Victoria Nyanza, and it lies between Lake Gita on the E. and Albert Nyanza on the \V. It is an elevated, fertile, and populous country, whose king, a great slave raider and trader, has been much opposed to the introduction of white influences. His power was much weakened by the war upon him (1893-94) by the British native forces from Uganda, and the country is likely soon to be brought entirely under the control of Great Britain. The inhabitants (Wanyoro) are farmers and cattle-raisers. Polygamy is common. The mili- tary organization is inferior to that of Uganda, and the Wanyoro have generally been worsted in their many wars with the Waganda. C. C. AnA.\1s. Upanishads [Sanskr.]: a group of over 100 mystical treatises, mostly in prose, attached to the Br5.hmanas or ritualistic precepts which form the second division of the Veda. They contain the beginnings of Hindu philosophy, and cast aside matters of rites and ceremony to deal with the mysteries of creation and existence. See the article SAN- SKRIT LITERATURE; l\Ionier-Williams. Indian Wisdom (4th ed. London, 1895); and vols. i. and xv. of the Sacred Books of the East, edited by Max Miiller (Oxford, 1879, 1884). Upas [from Malay dpas in pfllzvz-flpas, upas-tree. liter., poison-tree; pWzn, tree + flpas, poison]: a tree indigenous 400 UPOOTT to the forests of Java, where it is called Bohun upas; the scientific name is Antiaris toaicaria. The viscid juice of the plant dries into a resinous mass termed by the Javanese antiar. This exudation is extremely poisonous, and when introduced into the circulation of an animal death speedily ensues. The stories of the early travelers respecting the pernicious character of exhalations from the foliage of this tree are believed to be gross exaggerations. Specimens of the plant are cultivated in the conservatories of all large botanic gardens. The plant belongs to the bread-fruit fam- ily. The leaves are ovate or obovate, 4 or 5 inches long and conspicuously veined. The minute flowers are monoecious. The fruit is drupaceous. Other species of Antiaris are known to be innocuous. Upcott, WILLIAhIt historian and bibliographer; b. in Ox- fordshire, England, in June, 1779; served an apprenticeship to a London bookseller; became purchasing agent for sev- eral book-collectors, and on the foundation of the London Institution in the Old Jewry, 1806, was appointed sub-libra- rian, the celebrated Person being librarian. He made the most extensive known collection of autographs, which com- prised more than 36,000 letters; was the discoverer and first editor of Evelyn’s Jflemoirs; furnished most of the originals for the publication of the State Letters (1820) of Henry Hyde, second Earl of Clarendon, and Ralph Thoresby’s Diary and Correspondence (4 vols., 1830-32); wrote a con- tinuation of Edmund Carter’s .History of the County of Cambridge (1819), and a considerable part of a Biographical Dictionary of Living Authors of Great Britain and Ireland (1816). and published A Bibliographical Account of the Prin- cipal IVorlcs relating to English Topography (3 vols., 1818). He resigned his position at the London Institution 1834. D. at Islington, Sept. 23, 1845. His collection of autographs was dispersed at auction in 1846, but a large part was se- cured by the British Museum. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Upfold, GEORGE, M. D., D. D., LL. D. : bishop; b. at Shem- ley Green, near Guildford, England, May 7, 1796 ; taken by his arents to the U. S. 1802, the family settling at Albany, N. Y; graduated at Union College 1814, and in medicine in New York 1816; commenced practice at Albany, but soon entered upon the study of theology; was ordained in the Protestant Episcopal Church 1818 ; was minister at Lan- singburg, N. Y., 1818-20; rector of St. Luke’s, New York, 1820-28, being also assistant minister of Trinity church 1821-25; rector of St. Thomas’s church, New York, 1828- 31, and of Trinity church, Pittsburg, Pa., 1832-50; and was consecrated Bishop of Indiana Dec., 1849. D. in Indianap- olis, Ind., Aug. 26, 1872. Upham, CHARLES WENTWORTH: clergyman and author; b. at St. John, New Brunswick, May 4, 1802; son of a loyal- ist refugee, judge of the supreme court of the province; graduated at Harvard College 1821, at Cambridge Divinity School 1824; colleague of John Prince, pastor of the First church in Salem, 1824-44; left the profession on account of bronchial weakness; edited The Christian Register 1845-46 ; traveled and lectured as agent of the Massachusetts board of education; was elected mayor of Salem; was member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1849, of the State Senate 1850-51, of the national Congress from the Sixth District 1854-55; State Senator 1858, Representative 1859-60. During his ministry, which fell in controversial times, Mr. Upham made his mark as a writer by his Letters on the Logos (1828) and Prophecy as an Evidence of Christianity (1835), both written in the Unitarian interest. The Lectures on VVitc/wraft, comprising a History of the Salem Delusion of 1692, afterward, in 1867, rewritten and expanded into an elaborate work (in 2 vols.) appeared in 1831. Mr. Upham was a diligent student of New England times and men. For Sparks’s American Biography he wrote the Life of Sir I-Ienry Vane (1835). In 1856 appeared from his pen the Life, Letters, and Public Services of John Charles Fremont. His last work was a M'emoir of Timothy Pickering (4 vols., 1867-72). D. in Salem, Mass, June 15, 1875. Upham, THOMAS COGSWIJLL, D. D.: educator and author; b. at Deerfield, N. H., Jan. 30, 1799; graduated at Dart- mouth College 1818, and at Andover Theological_Seminary 1821 ; became assistant teacher of Hebrew in the seminary, and translated J ahn’s Biblical Archaeology ; in 1823 was or- dained pastor of the Congregational church in Rochester, N. H.; in 1825 was chosen Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy in Bowdoin College. His principal works are Jllanual of Peace (1830) ; Philosophical and Practical Trea- tise on the Will (Portland, 1834) ; Elements of Jllental Phi- UPPER SANDUSKY losophy (1839; abridged ed. 1864); Outlines of Disordered and Imperfect Jlfental Action (New York, 1840); Life of Faith (1848) ; Treatise on the Divine Union (Boston, 1851 ; London, 1858) ; Religious ll:/a.vims (2d ed. Philadelphia, 1854) ; Jllethod of Prayer (London, 1859) ; and Christ in the Soul (210 hymns, New York, 1872). D. in New York, Apr. 2, 1872. Revised by G. P. FISHER. Upington, Sir THOMAS, K. C. M. G., Q. C.: jurist and statesman ; b. in County Cork, Ireland, Oct. 28, 1844; edu- cated at Cloyne Diocesan School and Trinit College, Dub- lin, where he took the degree of M. A.; cal ed to the Irish bar 1867; became secretary to Lord O’Hagan, Lord Chan- cellor of Ireland; settled at the Cape of Good Hope 1874; elected member of the Legislature for the division of Coles- berg 1878; Attorney-General for the colony 1878-81 ; elected leader of the opposition in the Cape Parliament; Prime Minister of the Cape Colony 1884-86; Attorney-General 1886-90; appointed a puisne judge in the Supreme Court at the Cape 1892; is one of her Majesty’s counsel for the Cape, and as lieutenant-colonel commands a volunteer regiment in Cape Town. Upjohn, RICHARD: architect; b. in England, J an. 22, 1802. He became a cabinet-maker and builder first in Eng- land, and followed that trade afterward in the U. S., having settled in New Bedford, Mass., about 1829, and in Boston a few years later. As trained architects were rare in the U. S. at that time, he was employed occasionally on minor pieces of architectural designing, and afterward built St. J ohn’s church in Bangor, Me. The iron fence around Bos- ton Common, with its entrance gate-ways, was put up from his designs. Trinity church, New York, was to be rebuilt in 1839, and Mr. Upjohn’s designs for the new structure were accepted. The building was not finished until 1846. It was built with unusual care and great ex ense for the time, and its design was studied from the nglish Per- pendicular, adapted with considerable skill. In connec- tion with the Church of The Holy Trinity in Brooklyn, built about the same time by another architect, it estab- lished the character of American churches for a number of years. The tower and spire were especially notable, not only for their general architectural merit, but also because of the great height of the steeple (285 feet), a height not reached for many years by any other building in the U. S. After this many other churches were built by this architect, one of the most successful being Trinity chapel, belonging to the same foundation as Trinity church, and completed about 1856. This is a study in English Gothic of an earlier style than that of Trinity church, highly decorated, and of unusual solidity and excellence of construction. The Church of the Ascension, in Fifth Avenue; University Place Pres- byterian church, and the Church of the Hol Communion —all in New York city; several churches in rooklyn; St. Stephen‘s at Providence; St. Paul’s at Buffalo; St. Paul’s at Baltimore ; and a number in other parts of the country were built by Mr. Upjohn. He built also a number of country- houses, in many of which there is considerable architectural character, much beyond what was usual at the time of their erection; also Trinity building in New York, and the Corn Exchange Bank, which was replaced in 1893 by a sixteen- story building. His latest important building was St. Thomas’s church, at Fifth Avenue and Fifty-third Street, New York, finished in 1870. The exterior of this church is remarkable for its tower capped by a lantern instead of spire. Mr. Upjohn was president of the American Institute of Architects while it was a New York society merely, from 1857 till about 1868, and was then the president of the en- larged and nationalized institute until 1876. D. at Garri- son’s, Putnam co., N. Y., Aug. 16, 1878. RUSSELL Sruncus. Upolu’ : an island of SAMOA (q. v.). Upper Alton: city; Madison co., Ill.; on the Burl. Route and the Chi. and Alton railways; 2 miles N. of Alton (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 8-D). It is the seat of Shurtleff College (Baptist, opened in 1827, chartered in 1835), which at the end of 1893 had 19 professors and in- structors, 269 students, 26 scholarships, 2 endowed professor- ships, and 10,000 volumes in its library. The city has an at- tractive public park, street-railway, manufactory of roof-tile, and 2 monthly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 1,534; (1890) 1,803. Upper Peru (Span. Alto Peru) : one of the colonial names for the country now called BOLIVIA (g. v.). Upper Sandus’ky : village ; capital of Wyandot co., O. ; on the Sandusky river, and the Col., Hock. Val. and T01. and UPSALA the Penn. railways ; 17 miles W. of Bucyrus, and 60 miles S. of Toledo (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 3-E). It contains foundries, machine-shops, carriage-factories, a national bank with capital of $105,000, and a daily, 2 semi-weekly, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,540; (1890) 3,572. EDITOR or “ UNION.” Upsa’la: town of Sweden ; 45 miles N. W. of Stockholm ;' has a beautiful cathedral and a flourishing university (see map of Norway and Sweden, ref. 10-G). The cathedral was built between 1289 and 1435, and is 370 feet long, 128 feet broad, and 92 feet high. Its interior is magnificent and richly decorated, but its exterior has sufiered much from fire. Among its relics are the silver shrine of St. Eric, the tomb of Gustavus Vasa, the monument of Linnaeus, etc. The university was founded in 1477 by Sten Sture, devel- oped ra idly, produced a great number of illustrious schol- ars, an at times exercised a decisive influence on Swedish civilization. It has about 2,000 students and its library contains over 250,000 volumes. Pop. (1891) 21.511. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Upshur, ABEL PARKER : cabinet officer: b. in Northamp- ton co., Va., June 17, 1790; studied law under William Wirt at Richmond, where he practiced 1810-24; was repre- sentative in the Legislature, and in 1826 was appointed a judge of the general court; in 1829 was a member of the State constitutional convention, and in 1841 was appointed Secretary of the Navy, but after 'Webster’s resignation was made Secretary of State in 1843. In politics he belonged to the pro-slavery party, and was in full accord with Presi- dent Tyler’s policy of annexing Texas. He was killed by the bursting of a gun on board the U. S. steamer Princeton on the Potomac river, Feb. 28, 1844. He published several es- says, reviews, and addresses, and an Inquiry into the Nature and Character of our Federal Government (1840). Upsilonismz See CzEcH LITERATURE. Upson, ANSON JUDD, D. D., LL. D.: educator; b. in Phil- adelphia, Pa., Nov. 7, 1823 ; A. B., Hamilton College, 1843 ; A. M. 1846; D. D. 1870; LL. D., Union, 1880 ; tutor, Ham- ilton College 1845-49; Adjunct Professor of Rhetoric and Moral Philosophy 1849-53; Professor of Logic and Rhetoric 1853-70; Professor of Sacred Rhetoric and Pastoral Theology, Auburn Theological Seminary, 1880-87 ; professor emeritus since 1887; ordained to the ministry (Presbyterian) J an. 29, 1868, at Rome, N. Y. ; pastor Second Presbyterian Church, Albany, N. Y., 1870-80; trustee Hamilton College 1872-74; regent University of the State of New York 1874 :, elected vice-chancellor of the University of the State of New York 1890, and chancellor 1892; member Presbyterian General Assembly 1871, 1877, 1884; delegate to Evangelical Alli- ance, Belfast, Ireland, 1884; author of numerous educa- tional and collegiate addresses, sermons, and articles in periodicals. C. H. TEURBER. Upton : town (incorporated in 1735); Woi'cestei' eo., Mass.; on the Grafton and U ton Railroad ; 13 miles S. E. of Worcester, and 33 miles N . S. W. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-G). It contains the villages of Upton Centre and West Upton; has Congregational, Uni- tarian, Methodist Episcopal, and Roman Catholic churches, high school, seven public schools, and a public library; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of straw hats. Pop. (1880) 2,023; (1890) 1,878. Upton, EMORY: soldier; b. at Batavia, N. Y., Aug. 27, 1839 ; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy, May, 1861. and commissioned second lieutenant of artillery; served in the Manassas cam aign, engaged in the battles of Black- burn Ford and Bul Run, where he was wounded. In the Peninsular campaign of 1862 he commanded his battery at Yorktown, Gaines’s Mill, and Glendale ; in command of ar- tillery brigade at South Mountain and Antietam ; appointed colonel 121st New York Volunteers, Oct., 1862, and engaged at Fredericksburg, Salem Heights, Gettysburg, and was in command of a brigade during the subsequent Rapidan cam- paign. In the Richmond campaign of 1864 he led his bri- gade (Sixth Corps) through the Wilderness battles to the front of Petersburg. particularly distinguishing himself at Spottsylvania Court-house; transferred with his corps to the Shenandoah July, 1864, he was wounded at Opequan Sept. 19, while in command of a division. Returning to duty in December, he was assigned to a division of cavalry in the \/Vest, and was engaged in the expedition into Ala- bama and Georgia in the spring of 1865 resulting in the capture of Selma, Columbus, etc. Mustered out of the vol- URALSK 401 .unteer service Apr., 1866, he was in July transferred to the Twenty-fifth Infantry with rank of lieutenant-colonel, and engaged in perfecting a System of Infantr;z/ Tactics, which was adopted in Aug., 1867, for the use of the army and mili- tia of the U. S. He was transferred to the Eighteenth In-I fantry in 1869, and to the First Artillery 1870; was com- mandant of cadets at West Point 1870-75; on professional duty in Asia and Europe 1875-77; commanded several ar- tillery posts, and was on the board to codify army regula- tions 1878-81. He received the brevets from major to major-general in the U. S. army. D. in San Francisco, Cal., Mar. 15, 1881. See his Life and Letters, by Prof. P. S. Michie (New York, 1885). Revised by J AMES MERcUR. Upton, GEORGE PUTNAMI journalist and musicographer ; b. at Roxbury, Mass., Oct. 25, 1834 ; educated at Brown Uni- versity, Providence, R. I., graduating in 1854; went to Chi- cago and entered upon a journalistic career. In 1862 he became connected with The Chicago Tribune, and was its music critic until 1882. He has published Women in flfusio (1882); The Standard Operas (1885); The Standard Ora- torios (1886); The Standard Cantatas (1887); The Standard Symphonies (1888); and has translated several of Mohl’s I/ices of Eminent lU'usz'eians, all of which were published in Chicago. D. E. H. Upup'idaa [Mod. Lat., named from Upupa, the typical genus, from Lat. u’pupa, hoopoe ; cf. Gr. %’11-01]/] : a family of birds typified by the common hoopoe of Europe, character- ized by a desmognathous palate, perforate episternal process, pointed manubrium, and spinal feather-tract forked on the upper back. The singing apparatus is lacking. On account of its peculiarities the family is considered as representing a distinct sub-order, having its nearest relations with the horn- bills. See HooPoE. F. A. L. Urabfi, Gulf of : See DARIEN. GULF or. U1‘te’1nia : a condition resulting from the imperfect action of the kidneys, whereby substances which would normally be excreted are retained in the blood. It occurs especially in cases of Bright’s disease; the symptoms are headache, con- vulsions, delirium, nausea, etc. Uraga, oo-raang'a"a : a port of Japan '; at the western en- trance to the Bay of Tokio (see map of Japan, ref. 6-E). The town is built~ on both sides of a narrow fiord-like har- bor, which are connected by a bridge and a ferry. Formerly all junks entering the bay were stopped for inspection here. Uraga is associated with the opening up of the empire, for it was here that Commodore Perry cast anchor July 8, 1853, when sent by President Fillmore with a letter for the em- peror. The place has daily steam communication with the capital, the journey taking four hours : and is noted for the production of nzidzu-anze, a sweetmeat resembling barley- sugar. It is a minor naval dép6t and has a naval gunnery school. Pop. (1895) 12,719. J . M. DixoN. Ural : river of Russia, which rises in the Ural Mountains, flows S., forming the boundary between Europe and Asia, and enters the Caspian Sea after a course of 930 miles. It is not navigable on account of sandbanks, but is very rich in the finest kinds of fish, particularly near its mouth. where the Cossacks have important fisheries. Its delta is very large, and is still increasmg. Ural-Altaie Lang‘uag‘es : See LANGUAGE. Uralian Emerald : See GARNET. ~ Ural Mountains : a range of plateaus rising from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, and with a breadth of from 16 to 66 miles. They begin in the Arctic Ocean, in lat. 70° N ., and stretch southward to lat. 50° N ., forming the natural boundary be- tween Europe and Asia. They are rich in gold, platinum, copper, iron, and other ores. Of precious stones, beryl, topaz, amethyst. and diamonds are found; coal is abun- dant. The Obdorsk Mountains branch off from the middle chain of the Ural Mountains in lat. 62° N ., and extend 500 miles N. N. \V. Revised by M. )V. HARRINGTON. Uralsk' : province of Russia; at the southern end of the Ural Mountains, on the Ural river, and N. E. of the Caspian Sea (see map of Russia. ref. 7-1). It lies partly in Europe. but is essentially Asiatic, and is one of the provinces of the general government of the Kirghiz steppe. It is chiefly dry steppe and desert, and much of it is below sea-level. Area, 139,168 sq. miles. Pop. (1889) 559,552. The capital. Uralsk. is near the northern border, on the Ural river, is well built, and has a fine trade in fish. hides, tallow, grain, and im- ported goods. Pop. (1890) 26,034. M. \V. H. 423 402 URANIA Ura'nia [: Lat. : Gr. Obpavia, liter., the Heavenly One, fem. of obpohuos, of the sky or heaven, deriv. of obpavds, sky, heaven]: in Grecian mythology, one of the nine Muses, the goddess of astronomy, and a daughter of Zeus and Mne- mosyne. She was generally represented as holding a celes- tial globe in the one hand and pointing at it with the other. Uranine: the sodium salt, Og0H1°N&gO5, of fiuorescein. Its yellow solution exhibits the most wonderful fiuores- cence, which is instantly destroyed by acidulating it; for this reason it has been recommended as an indicator in volumetric analysis. See PHTHALIG ACID. Uraninite, or Pitehblende: a pitch-black mineral with a specific gravity of 95. It is found at J oachimstal, Bohe- mia, in sufficient quantity for commercial purposes; also in Cornwall, England, and other localities. In addition to uranoso-uranic oxide (U808) it contains lead sulphide, silica, lime, etc., and from 1 to 25 per cent. of a gas which was first supposed to be nitrogen, but in 1895 was shown to be a mixture of the gases argon and helium. U1‘a’niiini [Mod. Lat., named from the planet Uranus] : a name given by Klaproth in 1789 to a metal whose oxide he discovered in the mineral called pitchblende (uraninite of Dana), which contains from 40 to 90 per cent. of the ox- ide U808. It was not until as late as 1840, however. that metallic uranium was first discovered by Peligot, what had previously passed for the metal having been ascertained by im to be the dioxide, UO2. There are a large number of mineral species that contain uranium, but the only one oc- curring in sufficient quantity to be available for the extrac- tion of uranic compounds is pitchblende. In the U. S. it is found as eoraeizfe, on the north side of Lake Superior, and as auiunite, on the Schuylkill above Philadelphia. To obtain uranium compounds from pitchblende it is ground and washed to remove impurities, roasted to re- move sulphur and arsenic, and dissolved in nitric acid, evap- orated then to dryness, which decomposes the ferric nitrate. Water dissolves from the dried mass little but the pure uranic nitrate, which is further purified by crystallization, and sev- eral recr_vstallizations when required perfectly pure. From this salt the pure oxide, USOB, may be obtained by ignition alone, and the dioxide, UO2, by ignition with reducing agents, and the tetrachloride, UCl.,, by heating with charcoal in chlorine gas. The metal was obtained by Peligot from the tetrachloride by heating with metallic potassium or sodi- um. It is hard, but somewhat malleable, and can be scratched by a file. The maximum density was 1868; the color approached that of iron. It tarnishes to a yellowish color in air. It takes fire, when in powder, at a tempera- ture of about 500° F., burning brightly to U308, of a dark- green color. It does not decompose water in the cold, but evolves hydrogen with dilute acids, dissolving with a green color. It combines directly with sulphur and chlorine. Ura- nium nitrate, or uranyl nitrate, is one of the commonest commercial compounds of uranium. In the usual method of preparation of uranium oxide from pitchblende, the ura- nium is first obtained as this nitrate, which has the for- mula UO._>,(NO9)2. Sodium uranate, Na2U2O-,, is a fine yel- low powder which is manufactured on a large scale and sold under the name uranium yellow, as a pigment for glass, etc. Ammonium uranate, (NH4)2U2O-,, is also manufactured on a large scale. Uranium compounds impart to glass a greenish-yellow fluorescent color. Revised by IRA REMSEN. U’ ranus [: Lat. : Gr1‘.Oi)paVds,llt61'., sky, heaven] : in Gre- cian mythology, the son of Gaia, the earth, and by her the father of the Titans, Cyclopes, Hundred-handed, etc. He hated his children, and confined them in Tartarus, but on the instigation of Gaia, Cronus, the youngest of them, overthrew and dethroned him. See GAIA and ZEUS. Revised by J . R. S. STERRETT. Uranus [: Mod. Lat., named from the Greek deity Uranus-:_oi:pa1/6:, heaven]: the seventh planet in order of distance from the sun, and, with the exception of Nep- tune alone, the outermost member of the planetary family. Uranus travels at a mean distance of 1,753,869,000 miles from the sun, but, its orbit being considerably eccentric. its greatest distance, 1,835,561,000 miles. exceeds its least'dis- tance, 1,672,177.000 miles. by nearly 163,400,000 miles, or not much less (relatively) than the ent.ire span of the earth’s orbit. Since the earth’s mean distance from the sun is 91,430,000 miles, the opposition distance of Uranus varies from about 1,744,100,000 miles to about 1,581,700,000 miles; and as the planet is farther from the sun in the former than in the lat- URATES ter case, and therefore less brightly illuminated, there arises a considerable variation in the apparent brightness of Uranus. In fact, Uranus is more favorably situated for telescopic study when in opposition near perihelion than when in opposition near aphelion, in the proportion of (17,441)2 x (18.356)9:(15,- 817)2 x (16,723)), or nearly as 3 to 2 (more exactly as 63 to 43). The eccentricity of the orbit of Uranus is 00466. The planet completes a sidereal revolution in 306868208 days, or in 84 years and 65 days. lts synodical period is 369656 days, exceeding a year by little more than four days. The incli- nation of the orbit to the ecliptic is about 465’. The mean diameter of Uranus is estimated at about 33,000 miles ; the compression of the globe is not known. Its volume exceeds the earth’s about seventy-four times, but its mean density is so small (0'17—-the earth’s as 1) that its mass exceeds that of the earth only about twelve and a half times. It has been said that Uranus rotates on its axis in nine and a half hours, but no reliance can be placed on the assertion, as the most powerful telescopes fail to show any clearly defined markings on this distant globe. Uranus was discovered by Sir William Herschel Mar. 13, 1781, when he was examining the small stars in the neighborhood of n Geminorum. He was led by the apparent size of a star in this region to suspect that it was a faint comet. Examining the object with higher powers, and finding its disk enlarged (which would not have been the case with a fixed star), he was confirmed in this suspi- cion. But soon after the discovery had been announced the mathematicians who had undertaken the calculation of the stranger’s orbit found the path to be an ellipse of moderate eccentricity, and concluded that the new orb was a member of the planetary family. This was placed beyond doubt be- fore long; and in 1787 two satellites were discovered whose motions indicated that the supposed comet had amass many times exceeding that of our earth. Herschel proposed to call the new planet Georgium Sidus, in honor of George III. Continental astronomers for a long time called it Herschel, but the name Uranus, suggested by Bode, of Berlin, is now universally adopted by astronomers. Satellites of Uranus.—Uranus is attended by four satel- lites. The two brighter ones were discovered by Sir William Herschel, who afterward thought that he had discovered four more, so that until the middle of the nineteenth century Uranus was considered to have six satellites in all. But Lassell, of England, in pointing his great reflectors on Uranus, announced that these four additional satellites had no existence, but that two very minute ones circulated be- tween Uranus and the bright ones. It is now established that Uranus has these four satellites, and no others have so far been discovered. Their times of revolution are shown in the following table: ELEMENTS OF URANUS’S SATELLITES. Sidere l revo- Mea d‘ t i NAME’ lutnion. radil1 of BI?!-Ii1i(I:ieuslI d. h. m. Ariel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 12 28 7'44 Umbriel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 3 27 10'37 Titania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 16 55 17'01 Oberon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 11 6 2°‘75 R. A. Paocron. Revised by S. N EWCOMB. Urari : another spelling for CURARI (q. 2).). U1'a'slliina Taro: in Japanese folk-lore, a legendary personage. incidents in whose story furnish frequent themes for art treatment. He is the Rip Van Winkle of Japan. A fisherboy, he was caught in a storm and rescued by a god- dess who rode upon a large tortoise. Mount'ing beside her, he descended to the bottom of the sea, and was royally en- tertained in a magnificent palace. After seven days he wished to return, and his request was granted. But he found that he had been centuries away. The story is told at length in Griifis. The ]l[ilcaclo’s Empire, and in Chamber- lain, Classical P0ei‘rg/ of Japan. J . M. DIXON. U’ rates, or Lithates [urates is deriv. of uric; see Ume Aein ; Zithafes is deriv. of lit/iie, deriv. of lithium; see Lrrn- IUM] : compounds of uric acid with bases. Both neutral and acid urates of most metals are known. They are sparingly soluble in water, but dissolve in warm alkaline solutions and in solution of borax. The acid ammonium, sodium, and calcium urates are frequent ingredients of URINARY CALCULI AND DEPOSITS (q. 2).), the proportion of the calcium salt, how- ever, being very small. The lithium is the most soluble of the urates; for this reason lithia-water is sometimes used as URBAN a. remedy for gout and for superabundance of uricacid in the system. Ammonium urate is occasionally applied me- dicinally, in chronic cutaneous affections, in the form of an ointment; but urates should be taken internally very cau- tiously, as they may give rise to the formation of oxalic acid in the urine. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Urban (Lat. Urbanns): the name of eight popes. (1) URBAN I. (about 222-230), son of Pontianus, a Roman noble ; a martvr, according to somewhat doubtful authority.—(2) URBAN. II., Othon de Lagny (1088-99); b. at Ch:§.tillon-sur- Marne, in France, about 1042; was successively a disciple of St. Bruno, canon of Rheims, and monk of Cluny, where Gregory VII. made his acquaintance. This pope invited him to Rome, made him cardinal and Bishop of Ostia, em- ployed him as his legate in Germany, and on his death-bed named him among those worthy of the succession, which in fact became his after the short reign of Victor III. (1086-87). The main object of Urban’s life was the continuationof the policy of Gregory VII. against the lay investitures, srmony, and priestly concubinage. Henry IV. and the anti-pope Guibert of Ravenna (Clement III.) maintained for a long time possession of all or part of the city of Rome, and much of Urban’s life was spent outside the city. In the eleven years of his pontificate he bore up manfully against the em- peror, helped in turn by the rebellion of the latter’s son Conrad, by the marriage of the Countess Mathilda to Welf, the son of the Duke of Bavaria, by King Roger of Sicily, and by the first crusaders. (See CRUSADE and PETER THE HERMIT.) Urban held a number of councils in Southern Italy for the reformation of manners and the maintenance of the independence of the holy see, notably that of Bari, at which St. Anselm of Canterbury assisted and aided in the refutation of the Greek arguments against the Latin doc- trine concerning the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son. Urban died in Rome, July 29, 1099, fourteen days after the capture of J erusalem.-URBAN III., Umberto Crivelli (1185-87), a native of Milan. His short and stormy pontificate is chiefly noted for the struggle with Frederick Barbarossa, whom he was about to excommuni- cate when death surprised him at Ferrara, Oct. 20, 118”'.—- URBAN IV.. Jacques Pantaléon (1261-64), a Frenchman; son of a shoemaker; became canon of Liége, Bishop of Verdun, and Patriarch of Jerusalem. He carried on the long papal struggle against the Hohenstaufen in Southern Italy and Sicily, and made over these possessions to the house of Anjou, by inviting Charles of Anjou to take the place of the untractable King Manfred. Urban endeavored to bring about the union of the Latin and Greek Churches ; he also established for all Christendom the feast of Corpus Christi, first celebrated at Orvieto, June 19, 1264. Urban died at Orvieto, Oct. 2, 1264.-—URBAN V., Guillaume Grime- ard (1362-70) ; aBenedictine monk; distinguished professor of canon law and Scripture; abbot of St. Victor at Mar- seilles, and papal legate. Yielding to the necessities of the situation and to the entreaties of such persons as Petrarch and St. Bridget of Sweden, he returned from Avignon to Rome Oct. 16, 1367. and ended the long exile of the popes. But his passionate love for France drew him back again to Avignon, where he died Dec. 16, 1370. He was a mild-man- nered, studious 1nan, the friend of scholars, and founder of a school of medicine at .ll’lOI1t-p8lll8l‘.——UR-BAN VI.. Bar- tolommeo Prignani (1378-89); Archbishop of Bari; elected Apr. 8, 1378, to succeed Gregory XI., a Frenchman, who, it is said, had been meditating a return to Avignon. Shortly after his election the French cardinals, dissatisfied with his zeal and somewhat harsh manners. took flight to Anagni, and there elected anti-pope Cardinal Robert of Geneva (Clement VlI., 1378-94). They claimed that the Roman people had forced them by violence to elect Urban. but it is sure that they assisted at his authorization. at his consis- tories, and asked favors from him. Thus the papacy was divided, and the great schism of the W'est inaugurated, which filled all Christendom with woe. The hasty, impetu- ous temperament of Urban did not aid matters; his latter days were embittered by the ill success of his plans in the kingdom of Naples and by the conspiracy of his own car- dinals, who tried to create a kind of tutorship for him, but paid for it with death or imprisonment. D. in Rome. Oct. 15. 1389.-URBAN VII.. John Baptist Castagna(1590) ; Arch- bishop of Rossano. cardinal, and legate to Spain ; d. after a reign of thirteen days Sept. 28, 1590.-URBAN VIII., Matteo Barberini (1623-44); built. the Collegium Urbanum, or Col- lege of the Propaganda; established the Vatican Seminary; URE 403 gave its final shape to the bull In Ccena Domini; increased and strengthened the fortifications of Rome; gave to the cardinals the title of eminence; regulated the number of feasts of obligation; inherited the state of Urbino by extinc- tion of the Della Rovere family ; issued an emendated brevi- ary, in which the ancient Christian style in the hymns was replaced by classic exactness of metre. He has been accused of excessive nepotism, and of furtherance ofFrench inter- ests in the Thirty Years’ war. To his pontificate belongs also the condemnation of Galileo by the Congregation of the Hply Oflice. See Les piéees dn proces de _(1'aZi_leo, by H. de l’Epinois (Paris, 1877), and I/Vard, Copernican/mm and Pope Paul V. (Dublin Review, 1871). D. in Rome, uly 29, 1644. Urban was a man of polished manners and literary tastes, and was personally gentle and refined. J ons J. KEANE. Urban’a: city; capital of Champaign co., 111.; on the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L., the Ill. Cent., and the Wabash railways; 31 miles W. of Danville, and 50 miles E. S. E. of Bloomington (for location. see map of Illinois, ref. 6-F). It is in an agricultural and mineral region; is the seat of the University of Illinois; and has a national bank (capital $50,- 000), a private bank, and a weekly paper. Pop. (1880) 2,942; (1890) 3,511. Emroa or “ CHAMPAIGN COUNTY HERALD.” Urbana: city; capital of Champaign co., O.; on the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L., the Erie, and the Pitts., Cin., Chi., and St. L. railways; 46 miles W. of Columbus, and 100 miles N. of Cincinnati (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 5—D). It is in an agricultural region, and is the seat of Urbana University (New Church, chartered in 1850). It con- tains a high-school building that cost $125,000, a public library, a soldiers’ monument in the center of Monument Square, 3 national banks with combined capital of $300,000, 5 building and loan associations, and a daily and 3 weekly papers. The business interests include the shops of the U. S. Rolling Stock Company, machine-works, agricultural-imple- ment works, tannery. carriage and wagon shops, stove-foun- dry, woolen-mill, water-wheel works, and straw-board, fur- niture and table. broom, and shoe factories. Pop. (1880) 6,252; (1890) 6,510. EDITOR or “TIMES—CIT1ZEN.” Urbi’n0 (anc. Urbinum Horte'n.se): an old town in the province of Urbino, Italy; on two steep and lofty hills of the Umbrian chain, between the Metauro and the Foglia; about 25 miles S. VV. of Pesaro (see map of Italy, ref. 4-E). The walls were erected by the celebrated mathematician Federigo Commandini, and the town was afterward further strengthened with a castle and towers by the lords of Mon- tefeltro (1213). The large cathedral is of the seventeenth century, the ancient church on this site having been de- stroyed by an earthquake. The ducal palace (begun 1447) is a noble edifice in the early Renaissance style, and, be- sides much striking medizeval ornament, contains ancient inscriptions and has-reliefs of great interest. Several of the private alaces possess rare artistic treasures, especially that of the taccoli Castraeane, where there is a fine collection of the famous ceramics of Urbino, Casteldurante. and Gub- bio. The modest house in which the painter Raphael Sanzio was born (1483) is now used as a town museum. There is a free university, founded in 1564. Urbino is among the most ancient cities of Italy, acquired the rights of Roman citizen- ship in 89 B. C., and suffered many vicissitudes during the breaking up of the Roman empire. It recovered some im- portance in the early part of the thirteenth century, but the first who assumed the title of Duke of Urbino was Fe- derico di M ontefeltro (1474), and he and his immediate suc- cessors, as wise and virtuous as they were prosperous, made Urbino famous in the history of the medireval world. In 1508 the duchy passed to the Della Revere house; in 1631 it became the direct property of the Church, and so re- mained, with the brief exception of the French domination. till united to the kingdom of Italy. Urbino is distinguished for the number of remarkable men to whom it has given birth, and for the general intelligence and activity of its citizens. Both agricultural and manufacturing industries are flourishing. Pop., with the commune. 17.230. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Urchin-fish, or Porcupine-fish: See Drones. Ure, yur, ANDREW. M. D.. F. R-.8. : chemist; b. in Glas- gow. Scotland, May 17, 1778; educated at the Universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, where he also graduated in medicine; became Professor of Chemistry at the Anderso- nian Institution at Glasgow 1804. and director of the Glasgow Observatory 1809; removed to London 1830; was appointed 404 UREA analytical chemist to the board of customs 1834; and suc- cessfully applied chemical discoveries to the arts and to manufactures. He was the author of A New Systematic Table of the Materia llfedioa (1813) ; A Dictionary of Chem- istry (2 vols., 1821 ; republished in the U. S. by Dr. Robert Hare and Dr. Franklin Bache, Philadelphia, 1821)-a work which was the undisputed standard for several years; A .1“/Iew System of Geology (1829); The Philosophy ofJl[anu- factures (1835); The gotten Jklanufacturc of Great Britain (2 vols., 1836; new e . 1861); and A Dictionary of Arts, ll/lanufactures, and Mines (1837), which was rewritten and enlarged by Dr. Robert Hunt (3 vols., 1859-60; 7th ed., 4 vols., 1875-78). D. in London, Jan. 2, 1857. U’rea [Mod. Lat., from Gr. ofipou, urine; cf. URINE, etc.]: an isomer of ammonium cyanate, first obtained by Rouelle in 1773, -afterward in a state of greater purity by Fourcroy and Vauquelin in 1799. It is an essential constituent of the urine of mammiferous animals, particularly of the Carniv- ora, but is also found in that of birds and of Amphibia. Urea also occurs, to some extent, in human blood and per- spiration. in the vitreous humor of the eye, and in the lymph and chyle of various animals. It is the chief outlet for the oxidized nitrogen of the tissues of the system, a healthy adult excreting more than an ounce daily. It is not formed in the kidneys, which appear merely to separate it from the blood in which it is pre-existent. Urea may be formed arti- ficially in several ways, but its preparation by the action of cyanic acid on ammonia (discovered by Wéihler in 1828) pos- sesses special interest as being the first synthetic formation of an organic compound: Ammonium cyanate. Urea. H4N.GNO : GH4NgO. It is also obtained from cyanamide (CN-ZI-I2) by the addition of one equivalent of water, and by the decomposition of nu- merous complex organic compounds, such as creatin, gua- nin, and URIC ACID (q. o.); likewise by the action of car- bonyl chloride (COCl2) on ammonia; but in the laboratory it is usually prepared either from urine or by the evaporation of a solution of ammonium cyanate. In the former process the urine is evaporated to dryness on the water-bath, and the residual mass exhausted with alcohol, which is evapo- rated to dryness. The second residue is then extracted with pure alcohol, which, upon evaporation, leaves the urea in a slightly colored state. In another method the urine is concentrated by evaporation, and nitric or oxalic acid added, by which a precipitate of urea nitrate or oxalate is formed, from which the urea is obtained by decomposition with barium or calcium carbonate, filtering the solution, and purifying the urea by repeated recrystallization from alco- hol. Urea is, however, most readily and abundantly pre- pared from ammonium cyanate in the following manner: Potassium cyanate is first formed by heating a mixture of 56 parts of carefully dried potassium ferrocyanide and 28 parts of dry manganese dioxide to dull redness. The res- idue, when cold, is treated with cold water, and 41 parts of ammonium sulphate are added, when ammonium cyanate and potassium sulphate are formed. The solution is then evaporated, and treated with hot alcohol, from which, on cooling, the urea crystallizes out. Urea. crystallizes in colorless striated prisms, which fuse at 248° F., but are decomposed at a higher temperature. Its specific gravity is 1'30. It is very soluble in water and in hot alcohol, but is nearly insoluble in ether. Its solution possesses a neutral reaction and a cooling bitter taste. When heated in a sealed tube to about 284° F., urea com- bines with two molecules of water, and is converted into ammonium carbonate, CH4N2O+2I~IQO : (I-I4N)2COS. The same change takes place when urine is exposed to the air, owing to the action of micrococci (micrococcus urerc). It is to the formation of ammonium carbonate that the alkaline reaction of stale urine is due. \Vhen it is heated above its melting-point, biuret (CQOQHSNQ) and cyanuric acid (@303- HQNS) are formed, with evolution of ammonia. Urea com- bines with acids, forming crystalline compounds, and also with metallic oxides, such as those of mercury and silver. Numerous substitution-derivatives of urea (compound ureas) have also been obtained. For the quantitative estimation of urea in urine, see URINE. Revised by IRA REMsEN. Uredin'eae, or Uredines [Mod. Lat., named from Ure’do (a form or stage of development of the Uredineae, and for- merly considered a genus), from Lat. ure’do, burning, blast, blight, deriv. of u’rcre, burn_|: an order of minute parasitic fungi popularly known as the RUsTs (g. 1).). They consist URIA of branching colorless threads which penetrate the tissues of their hosts (flowering plants or, rarely, ferns), eventually producing their characteristic rust-colored spores. About 1,500 species are known to botanists, all falling within the family Uredinacecc, and divided among about a dozen gen-' era, the more important of which are Uromyces, Puccinia, Gymnosporangium, and Phragmidium. C. E. BESSEY. Ure’ter [Mod. Lat., from Gr. 0l,Ip'flT'f]p, urethra, ureter, deriv. of obpefu, urinate. See URET1-IRA] : the excretory duct of the kidney. In man it is a cylindrical membranous tube about 17 inches long, and as large as a goosequill, passing from the pelvis of the kidney to the base of the bladder. It has a fibrous (or outer), a muscular, and a mucous (or inner) coat. Each kidney normally has a distinct ureter. Ure’thra [Mod. Lat., from Gr. o1’1p'r/)6pa,tl1G passage for urine, deriv. of obpeiu, urinate, deriv. of ofipoz/, urine]: the name of the membranous canal by which the urine is emp- tied from the bladder. In the female it is but a short passage opening below the clitoris. In the male it is a canal of about 8 to 9 inches in length, and of a somewhat complicated struc- ture, conducting not only the urine, but also the semen. Going from the bladder outward, the urethra is divided into three parts : (1) the prostatic part, surrounded by the pros- tate gland. in which (part) are the openings of the seminal ducts; (2) the membranaceous part, 8 to 10 lines long; and (3) the cavernous or spongy part, surrounded by the sporigy tissues of the penis. The caliber of the urethral canal is different in the different parts and different individuals, and ranges from 3 to 7 lines in diameter, the orifice being the narrowest part. The urethra is lined throughout with a delicate coating of mucous membrane, which is a direct con- tinuation of that of the bladder. For obstructions of the urethra, see STRICTURE. Revised by W. PEPPER. Urfah : See ORFA. Urga [palace], the Russian name of the Mongolian Bog- do-Kuren or Da-Kuren [holy camp] : the capital of North- ern Mongolia; on the Tola, in lat. 47° 58' N., lon. 106§° E., at an elevation of 4,370 feet, between Kiachta and Peking, on the principal caravan route between Russia and China (see map of Asia, ref. 3-G). Urga consists, like all Mon- golian towns, of a Mongolian and a Chinese quarter. The latter, which contains the fort, is also called Jlfai-mai-chin (trading-place), and stands 24; miles from Bogdo-Kuren. Bogdo-Kuren contains large Buddhist monasteries and tem- ples, and is the seat of the supreme Mongolian Kutukhtu, who is considered the terrestrial representative of Buddha, and ranks in holiness next to the Dalai lama of Lhassa and the Panchen Rinpoche of Shigatse, both in Tibet. The monasteries are extensive structures of stone, and contain numerous shrines and relies, which are subjects of the deep- est veneration; the occupants, the monks, are called lama, and number about 10,000. The custom is not to bury the dead, but to leave them, in accordance with Buddhistic doc- trines, to be devoured by the dogs and birds of prey; only those of priests and princes are interred. The Mongols set- tled here belong to the Khalka tribe. During summer, nu- merous pilgrims from all parts of Mongolia gather to the city, and a brisk trade springs up. The unit of value was formerly the tea-brick, but this has given way to Chinese cash. Tea, mixed with cows’ blood, was moulded into the form of bricks, and from twelve to fifteen such bricks were paid for a sheep, or from 120 to 150 for a camel. The sur- rounding country has a South Siberian character; the mean temperature of the year is 25'70° F.; the number of rainy or snowy days is forty-one. A Russian consul is stationed here, with a small detachment of Cossacks for his protection. Russian merchants and scholars often visit Urga, and under- take from here extensive journeys into Northern Mongolia. Pop. about 30,000. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Uri : one of the forest cantons of Switzerland, bordering N. on Lake Lucerne, and having St. Gothard on its southern frontier. Area, 415 sq. miles. It consists of one valley, in- closed by lofty mountains and traversed by the Reuss. Rear- ing cattle and dairy-farming are the principal employments. Pop. (1894) 17,249, who are Roman Catholics and speak Ger- man. Chief town, Altorf. It was one of the three original cantons of Switzerland. M. I/V. H. Uria, or Hyria: an inland city of ancient Calabria, in Southern Ita.ly; situated on the Appian Road, about mid- way between Brundusium and Tarentum. Dflerodotus rep- resents it as having been the metropolis of the Messapians, founded by a colony of Cretans on their return from Sicily. ‘niacal vapors cease. URIO ACID Uric Acid, or Lithic Acid ['u/rvlc is from Gr. ofipav, urine; Zz'thz'c, i. e. pertaining to the formation of stone or uric acid concretions in the bladder, etc., is from Gr. 7u6m6s, of a stone or stones, deriv. of 7\i6os, stone]: a substance first discov- ered by Scheele in 1776, and subsequently more thoroughly investigated by Wiihler and Liebig in 1838 ; formula, C5N4- H403. Later Adolf Bayer gave attention to the uric group of compounds ; and Emil Fischer finally solved the problem of the chemical constitution of uric acid. Uric acid occurs in a small proportion in human urine, but is much more abun- dantly contained in’ the excretions of insects, land-reptiles, and birds, usually as the ammonic salt. It is extensively found in the guano-beds of the Pacific islands, also in the form of ammonium urate, and is said to be contained in the human spleen, liver, and lungs; also in the blood, which latter, in certain diseases, as gout, contains a very consider- able amount; indeed, in persons suffering from gout it often accumulates around the joints, forming what are com- monly but incorrectly termed “chalk-stones,” which con- sist chiefly of sodium urate. When secreted in excess, it is discharged by the kidneys, and is deposited from the urine as red gravel, or it accumulates in the bladder and forms a constituent of URINARY GALCULI (q. 21.). Uric acid is most advantageously prepared from the dried urine of serpents, by dissolving the powdered mass in a large quantity of boiling water, to which caustic potash enough to dissolve all the acid is added, and heating until ammo- The fluid is then filtered, and the po- tassium urate decomposed by hydrochloric acid, uric acid ap- pearing in minute white crystals. It can also be obtained by boiling guano with a weak borax solution. whereby a solution of sodium urate is formed, from which the uric acid is precipitated by hydrochloric acid. Uric acid crystallizes in small white rhombic prisms ; but if slowly deposited from a dilute solution, it frequently separates in large crys- tals containing two molecules of water ; when obtained from animal fluids, its crystalline form is often very much modified. It is almost insoluble in water, requiring 10.000 parts of cold water, and is quite insoluble in alcohol and in ether. It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid, from which it is precipitated in a hydrated form by the addition of water. When dry uric acid is heated, it is decomposed without fusion, and hydrocyanic acid is evolved, a subli- mate, consisting of cyanuric acid, urea, with ammonium cya- nate and carbonate, being formed. The most remarkable property of uric acid is the facility with which it is altered by oxidizing agents, such as nitric acid, plumbic dioxide, etc., and transformed into numerous well-defined crystalline compounds, some of which, how- ever, are obtained from the immediate products of oxida- tion by the action of reducing agents, acids, and alkalies. More than thirty of these compounds (many of which are termed are/ides) have been prepared, including the follow- ing: alloxan, allorvamin, rwamz'l, allanfoz'n, gZ'_z/colurfl, mu- reanjde; also the acids m'0a:a,m'c, Z2(trbz'-1‘um'c, bz'0Zw'2Tc, 1712:0- nuflo, 0a:aZ'wm'c, pa/rabmz/ic, and meso.valz'c. Uric acid has been synthetically produced. Uric acid is dibasic. and forms both normal and acid salts. (See URATES.) Its presence ca11 often be recognized with the aid of the microscope by its peculiar crystalline struc- ture—rhombic tablets, frequently associated with dumb- bell-shaped crystals. When moistened with nitric acid and gently heated, a residue is obtained, which, upon treatment with ammonia, assumes a fine violet-red color (mure.rz'de), and when treated with potassium hydroxide acquires a vio- let-blue color ( ]J0tc1ss2I/zz/221. pu.rpzu'a.i‘e). It may also be de- tected by dissolving in sodium carbonate. and placing a drop of the solution on paper moistened with silver nitrate. upon which it produces a brown spot, caused by the reduction of the silver. (For the quantitative estimation of uric acid in urine, see URINE.) One of ‘the uric acid series (/mu're.2;1Tde) was formerly used in cotton-dyeing. Revised by Ina REMSEN. Urim and Tllllllllllilll [U7rt"n2, : I-Ieb. Teri/n2,, plur. of 17-2‘, flame, fire; cf. 61', light; T7m2n’mzTm is from Heb. Z‘?t7)L- mtm, plur. of z‘6~m, perfection, truth, deriv. of Z‘d'/)7l'(U)21, be perfect] : sacred symbols of the high priest of Israel given at Sinai (Ex. xxviii. 30), but lost forever at the destruction of the first temple (Ez. ii. 63: Neh. vii. 65). They were two objects placed in a pocket behind the breastplate of the high priest, and used to cast lots or to receive answers to questions and thus determine the divine will. It is not known just how the divine will was learned. In the Sep- tuagint translation of 1 Sam. xiv. 41 the following descrip- -URINE 405 tion of their use occurs, and this is the clearest knowledge we have: “And Saul said, Lord God of Israel, why hast thou not answered thy servant to-day? If I or Jonathan my son has sinned, then Lord God of Israel give ‘light’; but if it be thy people Israel who have sinned, then give ‘right.”’ The questions to be answered by the Urim and Thummim were public and not private, and only the high priest could use them. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Urinary Calculi and Deposits: Urine in disease often deposits on standing various kinds of sediments, which dif- fer in properties and composition according to the causes which induce their formation. Both morphological and chemical bodies are thus separated. The former class in- cludes such substances as blood, pus, epithelial cells, etc. ; to the latter class belong urates, uric acid, phosphates, calcic oxalates and carbonates, hippuric acid, cystin, leucin, xan- thin, tyrosin, etc. Perhaps the most common urinary sedi- ment is that known as Zateritious or brie/c-dust deposit. It occurs in health when active perspiration or free move- ment of the bowels renders the urine concentrated. It is a constant symptom in conditions of excessive urinary acidity as in gout. As a rule, the deposit occurs when the urine cools, and it may be redissolved by heat. In cases of dis- ease, however, the urates and also uric acid may be present as deposit in the urine at the moment it is voided. If small masses are voided they are spoken of as gravel; if larger masses, as calculi or stones. Uric acid and urate stones are especially prone to form in the pelvis of the kidney. They are red in color, and fuse on platinum foil without leaving a residue. The same conditions which occasion urates in the urine frequently cause calcium oxalate also to appear. The latter maybe due likewise to certain vegetables and fruits rich in oxalates. and is then less significant. Oxalate calculi are usually formed in the pelvis of the kidney ; they are generally tuberculated, or of a mulberry appearance. and on fusing them a residue of calcium carbonate remains on the foil. Phosphates may appear in the urine as a whitish sediment, or, when ammoniacal decomposition has taken place, triple phosphates (ammonium-magnesium phosphate). These may cause the white or mixed phosphatic calculi in the bladder. They fuse in the blowpipe and are soluble in acids. Other calculi are rare, such as those composed of xanthin, cystin, calcium carbonate, and others. Calculi are liable to cause serious obstructions to the flow of urine. and also severe inflammatory conditions of the pelvis of the kidney and of the bladder, where they most commonly occur. It is to be remarked, however, that the in- flammatory conditions may in the first place cause the calculi by favoring the deposit of the urinary salts, and that the calculi afterward aggravate the original trouble. Once formed. medication robably has no power to dis- solve calculi. Occasionally t ey break spontaneously, and are discharged as fragments. Their formation is often pre- ventable by careful medication. the use of waters, and care in diet. exercise, etc. Their removal when necessary in- volves cutting, crushing, and other operations. See LI- THOTOMY. WILLIAM PEPPER. Urinary Organs: See KIDNEY and HISTOLOGY. Urine [via O. Fr. from Lat. u/r2I'na'. urine; cf. Gr. odpoz/. urine : S811Sl~Il‘.‘l‘(I/I‘, water : Icel. fer, drizzling rain]: an ex- crementitious fluid excreted by the kidneys. Urine in health possesses a hght amber color, a slight acid reaction, a peculiar odor, and a bitter saline taste. During the process of digestion it sometimes acquires an alkaline reaction. It has a sp. gr. of T024, but this also changes with the diet and state of health of the individual. It becomes more strongly alkaline on standing, owing to ammoniacal decomposition. (See UREA.) The urine excreted in the morning has a dif- ferent composition from that passed in the evening, which has absorbed various substances taken into the stomach during the day. An average sample of healthy human urine has the following composition: In 1,000 parts. water = 95680 parts. In 100 parts of solid matter : Urea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33'00 Uric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ()‘86 Organic matters. Alcoholic extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2903 [Aqueous “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5'80 Vesical mucus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0' 7 [Sodium chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16‘73 I Phosphoric pentoxide . . . . . . . . . . . 4'91 Sulphuric t-rioxicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3'94 Fixed salts . . . . . .. Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0'49 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (T28 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4'47 LSoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0'12 406 URINE Besides the constituents named, the following compounds are occasionally contained in healthy urine, usually in mi- nute quantities: Iron, ammonia, sugar, xanthin. creatm, creatinin, and lactic, succinic, oxalic, formic, phenylic, and hippuric acids. Free gases also occur: In 100 cubic cm. of urine, Planer found 087 nitrogen, 0'06 oxygen, 454 free and 207 combined carbonic acid. Certain pigments, the composition of which is uncertain, are likewise present. There are a number of pigment matters in the urine, of which the most important is urobilin. Indigo-blue appears to be a product of the decomposition of other pigments, as it occurs in urine which has been exposed to the air for some time. Among the other bodies said to be contained in urine may be mentioned certain ferments and albumi- noid matters, casein, leucin, tyrosin, taurin, acetone, and taurocholic, glycocholic, and cholic acids, which latter are present only in the abnormal or diseased excretion. The acidity of urine is due to the presence of acid sodium phosphates, and hippuric and other acids. Numerous sub- stances appear to pass unchanged through the urme, such as many alkaline salts and numerous compounds of metals, alkaloids and organic acids, while others suffer a partial or complete transformation; thus malic acid is converted into succinic acid; sulphites and sulphides are changed into sul- phates; tannic acid is converted into gallic acid; benzoic acid is transformed into hippuric acid; iodine changes to alkaline iodides ; potassium ferrocyanide to the ferricyanide ; and indigo-blue is reduced to indigo-white. In the disease diabetes a large amount of grape-sugar (glucose) is contained in the urine, owing to an incomplete digestion of the food, sometimes in the proportion of over a pound in the liquid voided during twenty-four hours. Small amounts of glucose occasionally appear in the urine in health or in persons not suffering with diabetes. In ALBUMINURIA (q. v.) a large quantity of albumin is secreted, the formation of which is due to a lack of secretive power on the art of the kidneys. ANALYSIS OF URINE.—U7‘6LZ may be etermined in a va- riety of ways. Liebig’s volumetric method is executed as follows: Dissolve 100 grammes of pure mercury in 500 grammes of nitric acid, evaporate to a sirup, add a little nitric acid, and dilute to 1,400 cubic cm.; this forms the standard mercury solution, 1 cubic cm. of which is equal to 1 centigramme of urea. Its strength should be actually determined by estimating a known weight of urea in the manner described further on. A baryta solution is next prepared by mixing 2 volumes of baryta-water and 1 volume of a solution of barium nitrate, both saturated in the cold ; 15 cubic cm. of this baryta mixture is then added to 30 cubic cm. of the urine to be tested ; the liquid is well stirred, and then filtered through dry paper; 15 cubic cm. of the filtrate (:10 cubic cm. of the original urine) is then measured off in a beaker-glass, and the standard mercury solution is slowly added from a burette as long as any precipita- tion occurs, the precise end of the operation being deter- mined by adding a drop of the mixture to a solution of sodium carbonate contained in a watch-glass, when a distinct yellow color should be produced. The number of cubic centi- meters of the mercury solution used is read off, each cubic cm. indicating 1 centigramme of urea in the 10 cubic cm. of urine. In this method the presence of an excess of urea and of sodium chloride affects the accuracy of the result, and renders a correction of the figures obtained necessary. Dave;/’s method consists in adding a small quantity of the urine to a graduated glass tube filled one-third with mer- cury, completely filling the tube with sodium hypochlorite, and immersing it in an inverted position in a concentrated solution of sodium chloride, in which position it is allowed to remain for several hours, after which the quantity of gas (nitrogen) evolved is read off: 1549 cubic inches of nitrogen at 60° F. : 1 grain of urea. A modification of this method in which sodium hypobromite is used is more useful. Uric acid is roughly determined by adding to about 200 cubic cm. of the urine 10 cubic cm. of hydrochloric acid, and allowing the mixture to stand for two days, when the precipitate formed is collected on a smaller filter, washed, dried, and weighed. Care should be taken not to use more than about 30 cubic cm. of water in washing the precipitate, as otherwise a partial solution of the uric acid is to be feared; and all albumin present should at first be removed by eo- agulation with dilute acetic acid, in which case this acid, in a concentrated form, should be employed as the precipitant of the uric acid. Sugar (glucose) is estimated by its reducing action on a boiling cupric solution in presence of an alkali, or it can URODELA also be determined by adding a small quantity of yeast to the urine, and measuring the amount of carbonic acid formed by the fermentation of the sugar. Albumin is sep- arated by heating the urine to boiling, and adding a few drops of nitric acid until complete coagulation takes place. Chlorides may be estimated by a volumetric method (as with silver and potassium dichromate solutions); ammonia by placing 20 cubic cm. of the urine in a shallow dish, over which is placed a similar vessel containing 10 cubic cm. of a standard solution of sulphuric acid ; 10 cubic cm. of milk of lime is then added to the urine, and"an air-tight bell-jar is placed over the whole. In two days the ammonia will have been absorbed by the acid, and is estimated by titrating and comparing the residual acidity with that of the standard acid. Revised by WILLIAM PEPPER. Urine, Retention of: See RETENTION or URINE. U1‘in0m' eter [urine + Gr. ,u.e"rpoz/, measure]: an instru- ment used in the determination of the specific gravity of URINE (q. v.). It consists merely of an ordinary hydrometer, in which the scale runs from 1,000 to the limits of density of urine, 1,060 or 1,070. Urinous Fermentation : See FERMENTATION. Urmia., or Urumia: town; in the province of Azerbi- jan, Persia (see map of Persia and Arabia, ref. 1—F) ; on an elevated plain 12 miles W. of Lake Urmia. It is well built, and is in a densely peopled and well-cultivated district, which by European travelers has often been compared with Lombardy. The Protestant mission has here a very pros- perous station, with a printing-press, which has issued over 3,000 volumes in the old and new Syriac languages. The station has several native preachers and teachers. Pop. es- timated at from 25,000 to 50,000. Urmia or Urumia, Lake : in the province of Azerbijan, Persia; 64 miles S. W. of Tabriz; covers an area of 1,420 sq. miles, and is 4,000 feet above sea-level. It receives sev- eral large rivers, but has no outlet. Its waters are so im- pregnated with saline substances that neither fish nor mol- luscs can live in it. U’ rochorda : a name sometimes given the TUNICATA (g. v.) in allusion to the fact that the notochord is restricted to the caudal region. Urode'la, or Urodeles [from Gr. oi; oi, tail + 8§‘;)\os, evi- dent]: one of the subdivisions or “ or ers” of AMPIIIBIA (q. v.), often called Gradientia in allusion to their walking as opposed to the jumping gait of the frogs and toads, the Salientia of systematists. The urodeles have an elongate body terminated by a long tail which is flattened in the aquatic forms, rounded in the terrestrial species. In all forms (except Siren, which has no hind legs) the body is sup- ported on two pairs of limbs, but in several species these are small, and show a tendency toward degeneration in the di- minution in number of digits from the typical four fin- gers and five toes. In the larval stages respiration is effected by external gills upon the sides of the neck, and in a few forms (Perennibranchiata) these are retained throughout life. In others they entirely disappear, and the gill slits on the sides of the neck may remain open (Derotremata) or en- tirely close (Caducibranchiata). In these latter respiration has been supposed to take place by lungs, but recently it has been shown that in a few species lungs are never developed, and that in all stages all traces of a trachea or windpipe are lacking. Most of the urodeles lay their eggs in water, but Amphiuma wraps the long strings of eggs about her, thus recalling the habits of several of the frogs and toads. It is to be noted that Cope has restricted the order Urodela on skeletal characters, taking from it the Siren, Proteus, and Necturus, and adding to it the C2EcILID1E (q. v.). The classification of the urodeles is yet in an unsatisfac- tory condition. One scheme has been outlined above; a second divides them into Ichthyodea and Salamandrina, ac- cording as eyelids are absent or present; while Cope ar- ranges the ten families which he recognizes in four groups based upon peculiarities of skull and vertebral column. There are about 100 species known from the whole world, the order being best represented in North America. Among the more interesting forms may be mentioned the common salamander of the Eastern U. S., Diem-(2/ctylus viridescens, in which two stages occur originally described as distinct genera. The first, after leaving the water, is red, and indi- cates a period of sexual immaturity; it later enters the water, changes its shape slightly, becomes an olive green, and is then sexually mature. Later no change occurs. UROPELTIDEE Among the species of A/mblystoma the larval branchiate condition is retained until the animal becomes of consider- able size, and these larvae were long known as a distinct ge- nus, Siredon, and in some cases these larvae were capable of sexual reproduction without the assumption of the adult characters. The axolotl of the Lake of Mexico is apparently a Siredon stage of some Amblystoma, but its transformation into the adult has never been witnessed, the many records of such change being in reality made upon another species, Siredon lichenoides, the young of Arnblystoma mavortium. In the Salamandra atra of the Al s the young are born alive. In the oviduct with the deve oping young are other eggs which serve as nourishment. The young before birth have very large gills, but these are entirely absorbed before birth. A strange feature is found in the Spanish Pleuro- deles, where the ends of the ribs penetrate the skin, protrud- ing as a series of spines along either side. LI'rERA'rURE.—Cope, Batrachia of North America, Bulle- tin U. S. Nat. Museum N o. 34 (1889): Boulenger, Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia in the British llfuseum (Lon- don, 1883). J . S. KINGSLE1'. Ur0pel'tidae [Mod. Lat., named from Uropel’t»is, the typical genus; Gr. obpd, tail+1re’M-17, shield]: a family of snakes. The body is cylindrical, the head short and pointed. with no apparent neck ; the eyes are very small; the cleft of the mouth is comparatively narrow; teeth are in both jaws, but none on the palate ; there are no rudiments of posterior extremities; the tail is short and blunt, and has a naked terminal shield of keeled scales. The family is composed of several genera, mostly confined to the East Indies and the Philippine islands. F. A. L. Urpethite : See Wax. Urquhart, ur’kart, Dxvmz political writer; b. at Brack- lanwell, County Cromarty, Scotland, in 1805 ; educated at St. J ohn’s College, Oxford ; entered the diplomatic service: trav- eled extensively in the East; was secretary of legation at Constantinople 1835-36 ; resigned that post in consequence of his opposition to Lord Palmerston’s Eastern policy, which he denounced as subservient to the ambitious views of Russia; made a vigorous warfare upon that policy in the press for several years, and continued it in Parliament, where he sat as a Conservative member for Stafford 1847-52. D. in Na- ples, May 16, 1877. His writings did,much to foster jeal- ousy and suspicion of Russia’s Eastern policy. Among them may be mentioned England, France, Russia, and Turkey (1835) ; The Spirit of the East, a Journal of Travels through Roumeli (2 vols., 1838); Diplomatic Transactions in Cen- tral Asia (1840) ; The Progress of Russia in the lVest, lVorth, and South (1853); Letters and Essays on Russian Aggressions (1853) ; Recent Events in the East (1854). Urquiza, oor-kee'tha“a, J USTO J osE, de: general and politi- cian ; b. near Concepcion del Uruguay (now in Entre Rios, Argentine Republic), Mar. 19, 1800. He received a rudi- mentary education at Buenos Ayres, became a clerk and a country storekeeper, and gradually acquired great influence over the gauchos. From 1835 to 1842 each province fell, practically, into the hands of a dictator, who in most cases was more or less subservient to Rosas, the dictator of Buenos Ayres. As leader of the federalist party, Urquiza became the chief power in Entre Rios, and he was elected governor in 1846. His rule was irresponsible and was directed mainly toward his own aggrandizement. He acquired great wealth, but by wise management was generally able to maintain peace and prosperity while cementing his power. In 1844- 45, as an ally of Rosas and Oribe, he marched into Uruguay with 4,000 men, and defeated Rivera at the battle of India Muerta Mar. 28, 1845. He was also successful in a war with the unitarian faction which had risen to power in Corrientes. When the dictatorship of Rosas threatened the autonomy of the provinces, Urquiza turned against him and in 1851 joined with Brazil and the government of Montevideo. Marching into Uruguay, he compelled Oribe to capitulate Oct. 8, 1851. The allied forces then invaded Buenos Ayres, and Rosas was defeated and overthrown at the battle of Monte-Caseros Feb. 3, 1852. Urquiza was proclaimed provisional dictator, and the provinces, except Buenos Ayres. having adopted a federal constitution, he was elected president of the Argen- tine Confederation for the term of six years beginning in May, 1853. By his victory over Mitre at Cepeda Oct. 23, 1859, he compelled Buenos Ayres to join the confederation. At the end of his presidential term he took command of the army against Buenos Ayres, which had revolted. Mitre de- feated him at Pavon Sept. 17, 1861, and the federalist con- URUGUAY 407 stitution was abandoned for the unitarian one now in force. Urquiza retired to Entre Rios where he continued to exer- cise a semi-dictatorial power, though nominally subject to the central government. He refused to take part in the Paraguayan war. On Apr. 11, 1870, a band of political op- ponents murdered him on his estate near Concepcion. HERBERT H. SMITH. Ursa Major [:Lat., liter., Greater Bear]: the first of Ptolemy’s northern constellations, including the fine group of seven stars known as Charles’s I/Vain, the Dipper, or the Butcher’s Cleaver, near the north pole, formerly called also Septentriones (likewise Septemptriones) and the Plow. Ursa Minor [=Lat., liter., Lesser Bear]: one of Ptol- emy’s northern constellations, containing the North Star (Polaris) and the group anciently known as Cynosura, the Dogs Tail. Polaris is a star of the second magnitude. About 150 from it is another equal star, B Ursaa Minoris. In the latitude of the Northern U. S. neither of these stars ever sets. S. N. Ur'sidae [Mod. Lat., named from Ur’sus, the typical ge- nus, from Lat. ur'sus, bear; cf. Gr. iipm-os : Sanskr. rhsa-, bear] : a family of carnivorous mammals embracing the bears. These have the body heavy, the hair abundant, the muzzle more or less pointed, the feet plantigrade, and each with five digits fully developed, armed with sharp non-re- tractile claws; the teeth in adult 36 to 42 (M. §-, P. M. -31- (8), C. -,L, I. +} (1%) x 2); last true molar of the upper jaw is oblong and exceeds the first ; the last premolar of the upper jaw, as well as the succeeding true molars, is tubercular; the first true molar in the lower jaw is narrow, but longest; the sec- ond oblong and broader. The family is widely distributed, and has representatives in the extreme arctic regions as well as in the temperate and torrid zones-—in America, Europe, and Asia, and in the north of Africa. About fifteen species are known, which have been distributed by recent system- atists under six genera—viz., Thalaretos (polar bear), Ursus (ordinary bears), Trernarctos (South American), Helarctos (Indian, etc.), Jlfelursus (the Ursus Zabiatus of India), and E5/'luro_p0da, (Tibetan): the last two are very distinct; the others closely related. See also BEAR. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Ursua, o“or-soo'-a‘a, or Orsua, PEDRO, de: soldier; b. at Ursua, Navarre, about 1510. He joined a Spanish expedi- tion to New Granada : was governor of that country 1545-46 and subsequently led two expeditions to the E. and N. E. of Bogota, in search of El Dorado. Pamplona and other towns now in Santander were founded by him. In 1555-57 he com- manded a force against the Cimarrones or fugitive slaves of the Isthmus of Panama, and completely subdued them. In 1559 the Viceroy of Peru placed him in command of an ex- pedition, the avowed object of which was to find and con- quer the reported “ kingdom" of the Omaguas, on the up- per Amazon ; secretly, the viceroy’s purpose was to get rid of the turbulent soldiers who had been drawn to Peru by the civil wars, and in this he was successful. several hun- dred of them enlisting for the expedition. Ursua assumed the title of governor of Omagua and El Dorado: he em- barked on the Moyobamba in Sept., 1560, and descended the Ucuyali to the Amazon. There a conspiracy was formed against him by LOPE DE AGUIRRE (g. v.) and others, and he was murdered at Machiparo, J an. 1, 1561. H. H. S. Ursula, SAINT: See URSULINES. Ur’sulines [deriv. of Ursula (see below), liter., dimin. of Lat. ur’sa, bear]: an order of celibate women in the Roman Catholic Church, named in honor of St. Ursula, who, ac- cording to legend, suffered martyrdom in the third, fourth, or fifth century, being massacred, together with her army of virgins, by the Huns near Cologne. The order was founded by St. Angela Merici of Brescia, who in 1537 be- came its first superior. In 1544 Paul III. approved the order, and Gregory XIII. and Clement VIII. gave it their sanction. St. Charles Borromeo was another powerful friend of the Ursulines. They have houses in various countries, and are chiefly devoted to the training of girls. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Urt-ica'ceae: See NETTLEWORTS. Urticaria: See NETTLE—RASH. Urug'ua.y, S an. pron. o‘o-ro"o-gwi’ (oflicially. Re ziblica Oriental del /'ruguay, formerly Cis_platine Repu lie or Estado Oriental): the smallest of the South American re- publics; in the southeastern part of the continent and 408 entirely in the south temperate zone; bounded N. by Brazil, E. by the Atlantic and Brazil, S. by the Rio de la Plata, and ' IV. by the Uruguay river, separating it from the Argentine Republic. Area, 72,170 sq. miles. Physical Features.—The general surface is rolling or‘ hilly, with many ridges crossing in different directions. In the central and northern parts some of these are over 1,500 feet high. Bordering the Uruguay there are fertile plainsi resembling the pampas of the Argentine, and near the At- lantic are extensive swamps and lagoons, separated from the ocean by wide sand-dunes. Most of the land is open prairie; the largest areas of forest are in the western part. Besides the Uruguay and Plata, the only important river is the Negro, which flows to the Uruguay and is navigable for small vessels in its lower course. Lake Miri, on the north- eastern frontier, is entirely included in Brazil, but furnishes an outlet to the N. for the Uruguayan territory bordering on it. Uruguay has no good natural harbors. The best is that of Montevideo, on the Plata. where elaborate improve- ments have been planned. Maldonado, at the extreme southeast angle of the coast, is protected only by a project- ing point, but it is much used for a shelter during storms. -A few rocky islands in the Plata belong to Uruguay; Flores, one of these, is the quarantine station. The climate is tem- perate and healthful; the winter months (May to October) are marked by a lower but not unpleasantly cold tempera- ture, with occasional light snows and severe southerly storms called pamperos; rains are abundant almost all the year. lVatural Products ,' Industries.—Gold is washed on a small scale ; there are fine marbles, much used for building at Montevideo, and agates and fossil woods are exported to Germany. Other minerals, including coal, are reported, but their richness has probably been exaggerated. The soil in many places is very fertile ; wheat and fruits (apples, pears, quinces, etc.) are extensively grown, especially in the valley of the Uruguay. But the principal and almost the only prominent industry is stock-raising, for which the land is especially adapted. In 1890 there were 5,281,000 cattle, 360,000 horses, and 13,760,000 sheep, the latter rapidly in- creasing in numbers. Much of the land is held in large estates on which the cattle run almost wild; nearly all the small land-holdings are in the agricultural districts settled by recent immigrants. Subsidiary to the grazing industry are many saladeros, where jerked beef is prepared, one or two condensed-meat factories, and a few tanneries. Communicat/ion.—The common roads are generally bad ; the ordinary vehicles are huge, squeaking, two-wheeled‘ carts, each drawn by several yokes of oxen. Diligences, drawn by mules, are much used. In some of the more re- mote districts traveling is still somewhat dangerous, owing to brigands. Uruguay has now several railways, most of them radiating from Montevideo and one crossing the coun- try to the Brazilian frontier; in 1892 the aggregate length open for traffic was 974 miles. There is a fairly good in- terior system of telegraphs and cable communication with Europe and the U. S. Commerce is very active, the exports exceeding $25,000,- 000 and the imports $30,000,000 annually. Nearly all of this is carried on foreign vessels, the Uruguayan merchant marine being small. The principal exports are wool, hides, bone-ash, tallow, frozen, salted, and condensed meats, wheat, and fruits. The trade is mainly with Great Britain (about one-third), France, Belgium, and Brazil. The imports from the U. S. were valued in 1890 at $3,210,112, but have since‘ fallen ofi ; the exports to that country reach about $2,000,- 000 annually. The standard of value is the peso fucrte or dollar, equal to $10352 in U. S. currency; no gold and little silver are coined, but gold coins of other countries cir- culate freely, their value being fixed by law. Government paper, and to a certain extent bank-notes, fluctuate in value. The metric system of weights and measures has been legal- ized, but the old Spanish standards are still in general use. Population.-In 1892 this was 728,447. The native popu- lation embraces a small educated and wealthy class, but the great mass, especially in the grazing districts, is of the mixed race called GAUCHOS (q. v.); owing to their roving and turbulent disposition these people readily follow any revolutionary leader. For many years a steady stream of immigration, mainly from Italy, Spain, and Brazil, has added a laborious and useful class to the population. In -1890 about two-fifths of the inhabitants were of foreign birth, and they held over half of the wealth; commerce is almost entirely controlled by foreign merchants. All the culture and much of the wealth are gathered at Montevideo, URUGUAY the capital and only large city. In the frequent civil wars Montevideohas generally been held by one party and the interior by the other. Government, Religion, Education.-—Uruguay is a central- ized or unitarian republic, divided, for administrative pur- poses, into nineteen departments. Congress consists of two houses ; these, in joint session, elect the president for a term of four years, and he is ineligible for re-election during the two following terms. The established religion is the Roman Catholic, but the Church receives only a small subvention, and all other sects are tolerated. Primary education is compulsory ; in 1892 there were 904 public and private schools. Montevideo l1as a national university, school of arts and trades, museum, etc. The army, on a peace foot- ing, consists of 3,500 men, and the navy is insignificant. On June 30, 1893, the entire internal and foreign debt, accord- ing to an official statement, was $103,820,489. The finances are in bad condition, the revenue (mainly derived from customs duties) being constantly less than the expenditure if the service of the debt is included. By an arrangement with bondholders, made in 1892, the interest on the foreign debt was reduced one-half. History-—Of all the South American countries Uruguay was the last settled by Europeans. This was partly owing to the fierce character of the Charruas and other Indian‘ tribes near the coast, though the interior was inhabited by the pacific Guaranys. In 1624 the mission of Santo Do- mingo de Soriano was founded on the Rio Negro. Portu- gal claimed all the land N. of the Plata, and in 1680 estab- lished Colonia de Sacramento, a fortified post, nearly opposite Buenos Ayres ; this was repeatedly besieged, and was alter- nately held by the Portuguese and Spanish until its final cession to the latter in 1778. Portuguese who had fortified the bay of Montevideo were driven out in 1726, and the city was founded soon after. It became the capital of the coun- try and the residence of governors who, after 1776, were subor- dinate to the viceroy at Buenos Ayres ; in 1807 the city was taken by the British, but it was soon evacuated. The revo- lution of 1810 in Buenos Ayres quickly spread to the gau- chos of Uruguay, but a strong Spanish force held Monte- video until 1814. The country remained in a disordered state under the irresponsible government of Artigas, a gau- cho leader. Depredations on the northern frontier gave a pretext for the interference of the Portuguese, who still claimed this region as a part of Brazil. After a desultory war of several years, Artigas was driven out and Uruguay was annexed to Brazil as the Cisplatine state (later, when Brazil became independent, the Cisplatine province). Revolts, encouraged by Buenos Ayres, broke out in 1825, and were finally successful in 1828, when both Brazil and Buenos Ayres recognized the independence of Uruguay. The po- litical parties, Blancos and Colorados, speedily plunged the republic into fresh civil wars, alternately seizing the presi- dency. Rosas, dictator of Buenos Ayres from 1835. wished to extend his power into Uruguay; and Montevideo was the special object of his hatred because it sheltered the numerous fugitives from his tyranny, and, profiting by his narrow commercial policy, was rapidly absorbing the trade of the Platine region. He therefore espoused the cause of Oribe, the revolted chief of the Blancos, who, thus aided, held most of the interior from 1842 to 1851, besieging Mon- tevideo at intervals ; this period is known as the Nine Years’ Siege. Brazil and Entre Rios at length interfered. Oribe was forced to capitulate in 1851, and Rosas was overthrown soon after. In 1862, the Blancos being in power. ex-Presi- dent Flores led a revolt of the Colorados, and was even- tually supported by Brazil, which had unsatisfied claims against the regular government. Thus aided, Flores took Montevideo and became president in 1865. Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, made this afiair the pretext for a war on Bra- zil, in which Uruguay and the Argentine engaged as allies of the latter country. This war, one of the most bloody ever known in South America, was ended by the death of Lopez in 1870. From that year until 1876 Uruguay had several civil wars. Since then the country has been comparatively quiet and prosperous, and it is probable that the extension of railways will furnish a check to the dangerous gaucho class. In 1890-91 there was a sharp financial crisis. AU'rHoRrr1Es.——Apuntes para la historia de la Repiiblica Oriental del Uruguay, por A. D. de P. (2 vols., 1864) ; De- Maria, Compcndio dc la historia de la Re ublica Oriental del Uruguay (1875) ; Mulhall, Handbook o_‘ the River Plate. (6th ed. 1892); Bureau of the American Republics, Hand- book of Uruguay, with map (1892). HERBERT H. Snrrn. URUGUAY Uruguay: a river of South America; rises on the west- ern slope of the Brazilian Coast Range, on the confines of Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul; flows W. be- tween these two states, then S. W. between Rio Grande do Sul and the Argentine Republic, and finally S. between Uruguay and the Argentine, and em ties into the Rio de la Plata, which is the estuary of the ’arana and Uruguay combined. The upper portion is called the Pelotas, and locally the Uruguay is said to be formed by the junction of the Pelotas and Canoas. It is essentially a highland river like the S2730 Francisco and upper Parana; the only exten- sive flood-plains are on the western side near its mouth, and the river brings down comparatively little sediment. The valley is varied with hills, and contains much forest, espe- cially in its upper portion, which is an almost unknown wilderness; lower down there are extensive grassy plains suitable for grazing, and from about lat. 29° S. there are numerous stock-farms and some considerable towns. As a means of communication the Uruguay is important, though much inferior to the Parana. Large steamers ascend to Paysandu, in Uruguay, about 1.50 miles from the Plata, and small ones to Salto, 50 miles farther. At this point there is a fall, but beyond it barges are used for 300 miles, and a considerable part of the trade of Western Rio Grande do Sul takes this channel. The exports by the river are hides, cattle, meat, etc. Whole length of the Uruguay and Pelotas, over 1,100 miles. Toward the mouth the river is 7 or 8 miles wide, but divided by islands. The annual flood in September or October attains 20 and occasionally 40 feet. The principal afiluents are the lbicuy, in Rio Grande do Sul, the Quaraim or Cuareim, forming part of the boundary between Brazil and Uruguay, and the Rio Negro in the lat- ter country. HERBERT H. SMITH. Uruguay: a city of Argentina. See GONCEPCION DEL URUGUAY. Urllg‘uaya11a, oo-roo-gwi-aa’na"a: a town of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; on the river Uruguay, near the southwestern angle of the state, and connected with Pelotas and Monte- video by railway. It is the center of the grazing industry of Western Rio Grande do Sul, and has an important river trade. Here, on Sept. 18, 1865, the Paraguayan invading army of 6,000 men surrendered to the allies, who were com- manded by the Emperor of Brazil, President Mitre of the Argentine Republic, and President Flores of Uruguay. Pop. (1894) about 6,000, and rapidly increasing. H. H. S. Urumia : town and lake of Persia. See URMIA. Urumt' Si: city of Central Asia, with a population esti- mated at 40,000; at the northern foot of the T’ien Shan Mountains (see map of China, ref. 2-D). It became the capital of the Chinese Mongolian province of the same name, and in 1862 it formed the center of the Dungan re- bellion. In the commerce of Central Asia, Urumtsi formerly occupied the same position as Nijnii-Novgorod in that of Eastern Russia. Goods from Russia, Turkistan, Persia, and Kashmir flowed to this place, numerous merchants’ offices and Chinese banks were established here, and by its well- stocked magazines Urumtsi held a perpetual fair. But the uncertainty consequent on the Dungan rebellion put an end to this traffic. Dungan, a corruption of Tan gut, is the name of the 4,000,000 Mussulmans of Turkish-Tartarian descent who inhabit the northern provinces of China, and who on account of the enormous taxes rose in revolt in Shen-si in 1862, and pushed into Southern Mongolia, where they took Urumtsi. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Urus [: Lat., from Teuton.; of. O. H. Germ. Q72‘ : Icel. {err : O. Eng. rim‘ >Eng. owre (obs.), aurochs; cf. also O. H. Germ. nrohso (i'lr+oh so, ox) > Mod. Germ. auerochs, whence Eng. awroohs]: a wild ox, the Bos l/orimzTgen'z'ns, now ex- tinct, although mentioned by Caesar as inhabiting the forests of Germany, and, so late as the sixteenth century, an object of the chase. It was very large, with a flat forehead. and spread of horns of 4 feet or more. Judging from the re- mains, it was domesticated by the Swiss lake-dwellers, and the modern Scotch cattle, and possibly the CHILLINGHAM CATTLE (q. /0.), are its direct descendants. See also the arti- cle AURocns. F. A. LUcAs. Usage: the habitual practice of a person, a class. a trade, or a community. The term is used often interchangeably with custom. Strictly speaking, however, custom is a usage which has acquired the force of law. For example, the custom of merchants allowing days of grace on a bill of ex- change or promissory note has long been a part of English USENER 409 common law. A custom need not be proved; judges will take judicial cognizance of it, and contracting parties can not plead ignorance of it. On the other hand, a usage must be proved by the party whose case depends upon its exist- ence. It may be established by the evidence of one witness if his means of knowledge and his credibility are satis- factory. A usage may be proved for the purpose of adding a term to a written contract or to give a special meaning to its lan- guage. This is allowed on the theory that the parties did not mean to express in writing the whole of their agree- ment, but contracted with reference to the usage in question. It is assumed that the parties knew of the usage. Hence if either of them can show that he had neither knowledge nor notice of the usage it can not affect him. Moreover, it can influence the construction of the contract only when it is, in the opinion of the court, not unreasonable, is not contrary to the positive rules of law, and is not inconsistent with the clear provisions of the contract. In other words, a usage is competent to explain or annex incidents to a contract, but not to contradict its express terms. For a full treatment of the subject, the reader is referred to Clarke’s edition of Browne’s Usages and Customs; Lawson. Usages and Cus- toms. FRANCIS M. BURDICK. Usamba’ra: the mountainous northeastern part of Ger- man East Africa, separated from the Indian Ocean by a low coastal plain. Coffee and cotton are successfully raised in this district, and a railway is (1895) being built to connect Tanga, the chief port, with these upland plantations. The climate is fairly healthful. C. C. A. Uscup’, or Sc0p'ia (lookout): town; in the vilayet of Kossova, European Turkey; on the Vardar (see map of Tur- key, ref. 3-B). It is on the Salonica-Mitrovitza Railway, and is the proposed point of junction of the South Danu- bian railway system. Besides being the residence of the provincial governor it is the seat of a Greek archbishop. It manufactures leather and has a large transit trade. Pop. 13,000. E. A. G. Use : See UsEs. Use and Occupation: Whenever the land or building belonging to one person is occupied by another. either under an express agreement or under such circumstances that the law will infer an agreement. but without any stipulation as to the amount of rent, the owner may recover from the ten- ant such compensation in the nature of rent as the occupa- tion is reasonably worth. The action under these circum- stances is said to be for the “use and occupation of the premises.” The right to recover is based upon the notion that the possession was taken and held in pursuance of a contract, express or implied, and the action is brought upon the tenant’s implied promise to pay. If, therefore, the entry is tortious, and the land is held adversely and not in subor- dination to the owner‘s right, no action for use 'and occupa- tion can be maintained, since no promise can be inferred. The remedy of the owner in that case is an action for dam- ages resulting from the unlawful trespass. See LANDLORD AND TENANT. Revised by G. W. KIRcHwEY. Usedom, oo’ze-d6m: a low, irregular. and little produc- tive island belonging to Prussia; situated at the mouth of the Oder, between the Baltic and the Stettiner Haif; area. 157 sq. miles. On its northeastern shore is the port of Swinemiinde. Usener, HER-MANN : classical scholar; b. at Weilburg, Ger- many, Oct. 23, 1834; studied under Ritschl at Bonn, in Hei- delberg, Giittingen, and Munich : teacher at the Berlin J oa- chimsthaler Gymnasium in 1858; professor extraordinary at Berne in 1861: ordinary professor in Greifswald 1863. whence he was called to Bonn in 1866. Among his many famous writings are Analecta Theoph/rastea (1858); Alexan- drt Aph1'od'zIens2's Prolflenzafa (1859): Soholia in Lncannm (1869); Anecdoton Ifolderi. Etn Beitrag zur Geschiclzte Roms in ostg01.‘hz'sche'r Zett (1877); Legenden der hez'lz'gen Pelagta (187 9); Altgfleehtsolzer Versbaa (1887); Epic/urea~, the standard work on the subject (1887): Religz'o-nsge- sclz./zIch.I‘lz'che Untersnohnngen (1889); Theodoros /11. Kgrzlllos; der heilifge Theodosios (1890); Unser Platoz‘e.rt (1892); Die Unte/rlage des Lae'2't'z.'/u.s Diogenes (Berlin Aead. publications, 1892); and numerous penetrating treatises, published in Rhetnz'sohes llil/aseam, university program m es. and elsewhere. He also edited Kayser’s lYomem'sehe Abhandlmzgen (Leip- zig, 1881) and J. Bernays’s G'esa/mnzelte lVer/l*e (2 vols., Berlin, 1885). ALFRED GUDEMAN.. 4,10 USE RTESEN User’tesen, or Usertsen: the name of three kings of the twelfth Egyptian dynasty, who with Amenemhat I.-IV. composed one of the most notable royal families in Egyp- tian history. Their period was one of great brilliancy. and its special chronology is as exactly determinable as any in Egyptian annals. It succeeds a period of anarchy and the rule of petty princes. but it gradually grew to a degree of power unequaled except under Thothmes III. of the eigh- teenth and Ramses II. of the nineteenth dynasty. The ex- cellence of its artistic work was surprising, and is contrasted vividly with that of later times, particularly in the instances where its monuments were usurped by the degenerate Me- neptah, of the nineteenth dynasty. Usertesen I. (Kheper-lea-ra, the Sesonchosis of Manetho) was for ten years associated with Amenemhat I. as co- regent. It is probable that the latter came to the throne at advanced age, and that the administration of affairs, at first foreign and later domestic as well, early fell into the hands of Usertesen I. His total reign covered about forty years, and he succeeded in strengthening the strong government established previously. In his earlier years he waged war with the Libyans and with the Ethiopians. In Sinai he opened the mines that had been worked under the earlier dynasties; at Tanis he built temples and erected several statues. which have come down to us, showing great fine- ness of work and excellence of execution and finish; he erected a temple to Osiris at Abydos; Worked the quarries of Hammamat; adorned the temple at Koptos; built a temple at Heliopolis, whose only remnant is the solitary obelisk now in situ. A broken obelisk at Begig in the Fayfim shows that he was also busy in this region, which was the scene of much active labor on the part of his suc- cessors. During the last two years of his reign Amenemhat II., his son, was associated with him. Usertesen II. (Kha-hheper-ra, the Sesostris of Manetho) succeeded Amenemhat II. and enjoyed a long reign, sup- posed by Petrie to have covered thirty-nine years. The en- tire uncertainty as to the chronology of the dynasty falls upon this reign, and the length of it is uncertain. The highest monumental record is of the tenth year, but Ma- netho assigns forty-eight years to him. His pyramid is that at Illahun, at the mouth of the Fayum. It has as a core a mass of native rock, in which the sepulchral chambers and passages were cut, and it was composed of brick with a fac- mg of limestone. Unlike other similar structures, it has two entrances on the south side, apparently to perplex would-be robbers. But one of them was discovered by workmen of Ramses II., and the contents were then rifled. The houses of the workmen at Kahun even new cover 18 acres, and their remains were mistaken by Lepsius for the ruins of the labyrinth. Usertesen III. (Kha-hau-ra, the Lachares of Manetho), the following king, built as his mausoleum the northerly brick pyramid at Dahshur, adopting a plan for the deposit of funereal remains different from any previous method. Subterranean passageways were excavated around the base of the structure with adjacent chambers in which the mum- mies were placed. The pyramid was explored by de Morgan in 1894. Usertesen III. also built temples at Tanis, Bubas- tis, and elsewhere in the Delta region, but he is best known on account of the expeditions which he led into Nubia. In order to facilitate transportation to the southward, he caused a canal to be constructed around the first cataract of the Nile. In his eighth year he built forts and temples at Sem- neh and Kummeh, 30 miles S. of the second cataract, erected several stelae there. and prohibited the passage of Negroes northward except for the purpose of trade. Under him Egypt entered upon the policy of foreign conquest, which reached its climax during the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. His reign lasted thirty-eight years. His suc- cessor, Amenemhat III., devoted himself to internal im- provements, regulated the flow of the Nile by means of dams erected to control the flow of water into and out of the Fayfim (Lake Moeris), which is supposed by some au- thorities to have constituted a large inland sea at that time. From the lake he reclaimed certain portions, and on them built his pyramid at Hawara and also the neighboring laby- r1nth. CHARLES R. GILLETT. USES [viii 0. Fr. from Lat. u’sus, a using, use, deriv. of u'ti, u’sus, to use]: in law, rights, recognized only in e uity, to the possession and enjoyment of real estate, the lega title to which is vested in another. At an early day the English ecclesiastics, in order to avoid the Statutes of Mortmain, USES which forbade them to take or hold lands in England (see I\’IORTMAIN), contrived a plan whereby they might enjoy all the benefits of ownership without taking or holding the for- bidden title. The land was conveyed by the donor to some person in the ordinary manner, but the conveyance was ac- companied with the direction-which might be contained in the deed, or charter, of feoffment, or which might be a mere oral declaration of intention-that the grantee should hold the land to the use, or to the benefit (ad usum or ad opus), of a designated person or corporation. Originally the obligation and duty thus imposed upon the person to whom the land was conveyed-that he should be seized of the land, but for the benefit of another; that he should have the legal title, but that another should be allowed to enter upon and enjoy the land--was purely conscientious and could be enforced, if at all, only by the power which resided in the Church. There is no doubt that in very many cases a par- tial or complete deprivation of spiritual rights and privi- leges, and in -some cases the infliction of temporal pains as well, awaited the feoflee to uses who was disposed to rest upon his legal rights and to ignore the intention with which the land was conveyed to him. As early as the reign of Richard II., however, the indefinite sanctions of the Church had been re-enforced by the growing jurisdiction of the chan- cellor, who, himself usually an ecclesiatic, was the natural custodian of the king’s power to enforce even conscientious and extra-legal obligations. The courts of common law knew nothing of all this. If the chancellor chose to hold men to the performance of pious duties undertaken by them, he might do so; but nevertheless the title, the property, was effectually vested in the feoifee, who was, notwithstanding the uses, the only one possessing any legal interest. Mean- while, however, the court of chancery enforced the trust that had been imposed on the feoffee, and regarded the bene- ficiary, or cestui que use, as the real owner, entitled to the possession, profits, and complete control of the land. This was the “use.” From this time on the practice of conveying lands to uses, even as between private and non-religious persons, grew apace. It was of the utmost convenience to all sorts and conditions of men and, even more, of women. Not only the religious houses, but also married women and aliens—who were equally incapacitated from holding lands at common law—might be the beneficiaries of uses. More- over, being utterly unknown to the common law, not being an estate or interest in lands, the use was of course en- tirely free from the vexatious and burdensome incidents and restraints of tenure as it existed at common law. It could be devised by will, and conveyed without any public delivery of possession (livery of seisin), while it would yet descend to the heir, if not otherwise disposed of, just as the legal title descended at common law. The cestui que use was not, under the feudal régime, liable to perform the serv- ice of military duty, nor could he be called upon for “aids” or “reliefs,” nor was he subject to the feudal exactions of “ wardship” or “marriage.” (See TENURE.) It is there- fore not to be wondered at that the system of conveying lands to be held “to uses” became exceedingly prevalent, nor, on the other hand, that it was in the highest degree obnoxious to the king and the other great landowners. Several ineffectual attempts were made by Parliament to remedy this anomalous and, as it was considered, mischiev- ous state of affairs, and these attempts finally culminated in that drastic effort of legislation, the Statute of Uses, passed in the twenty-seventh year of Henry VIII. (A. D. 1535). This celebrated enactment provided. in substance, that whenever lands should be conveyed in fee to one person for the use or benefit of another, the complete title. legal and equitable, should at once vest in the latter, free from any use, and that no interest whatever should attach to the former. “ The object of the statute was, by joining the pos- session or seisin to the use and interest (or, in other words, by providing that all the estate which would by the com- mon law have passed to the grantee to uses should instant- ly be taken out of him and vested in cestui que use), to anni- hilate altogether the distinction between the legal and bene- ficial ownership, to make the ostensible tenant in every case also the legal tenant, liable to his lord for feudal dues and services, etc.” But so far as this, its main object, was con- cerned, the statute was almost a complete failure. It did not have the effect of abolishing uses; it did not. except to a very limited extent, restore to the lord his feudal dues. Partly in consequence of the looseness with which the stat- ute was drawn, partly as a result of a long and ingenious USES, CHARITABLE process of judicial construction of its terms, the courts of equity were not long in reviving the system of uses under the name of “ trusts.” In that form and under that desig- nation this system has continued with great vigor and suc- cess to the present day, when it is the chief ornament of the equity tribunals. See TRUSTS. The statute, however, in so far as it was allowed to operate, had another and wholly unanticipated effect. By virtue of the fact that the practice of conveying lands to uses con- tinued unabated, and the further fact that the statute “ exe- cuted ” certain of these uses, i. e. converted them into legal estates, the courts of common law at once acquired jurisdic- tion over a vast number of new interests in land. This spe- cies of legal estate, being created “ by way of use,” was al- lowed by the common-law tribunals to retain in large measure the form and character which had been impressed upon it in equity before it had acquired legal recognition. The equity tribunals had recognized uses which bore no analogy to estates as they existed at common law and which were, in- deed, repugnant to the common-law system. Thus it was an inflexible rule of that system that no future estate could arise, or be “ limited,” except as a “ remainder” or “ rever- sion,” and it was a characteristic of these estates that the remainder or reversion must be immediately consequent upon some prior estate less than a fee simple. Thus a limi- tation to A for life, with remainder to B after the death of A, would be good; but a limitation of a future interest to B, to take effect a year or even a day after A’s death, would be bad as a remainder. But there was no reason why the court of chancery should not enforce a use to arise at any time in the future, whether it was supported by a precedent use or not. Hence arose those varieties of future interests known as “ springing” and “ shifting uses,” and when the courts of common law took jurisdiction of executed uses under the statute, they preserved these new and useful forms of estates under those names, and added them permanently to the older body of common-law limitations. It was in this indirect and unintended way that the English law of real property was revolutionized and brought into conformity with modern conditions. The new methods of conveyanc- ing introduced by virtue of this transformation persisted for three hundred years, until abolished by statute in England and the U. 8. See BARGAIN AND SALE. Uses, under that name and as a separate system, no longer exist, all conveyances “ by way of use” being referred either to the jurisdiction of equity as trusts or to the common-law limitations of real property, as above described. The whole system as thus developed and altered, together with the Statute of Uses, forms a part of the jurisprudence of the U. S., except in a few jurisdictions where it has been ex- pressly abolished by statute. The learning of uses is somewhat refined and abstruse, and has engaged the attention of many of the ablest minds at the English bar. Perhaps the most elaborate treatises are those of Sir Francis Bacon (Reading upon the Statute of Uses) and Lord Chief Baron Gilbert (Law of Uses and Trusts). The various authoritative works on real property and conveyancing contain satisfactory statements of the system and its influence upon the law of property. The best modern authorities for that purpose are Leake. Digest of the Law of Property in Land, and Digby, History of the Law of Real Property. The older treatises of Littleton, Coke, Blackstone, Lord St. Leonard (Handy Book of Property Law) and Preston (on Conveyancing and on Estates) should also be consulted. The History of English Law by Pollock and Maitland contains a valuable note (vol. ii., pp. 224, 231) on the origin of uses. GEORGE W. KIRGHWEY. Uses, Charitable: See CHARITABLE UsEs. Ush’ ant (Fr. Ouessant) : the largest of a group of islands of the same name, off the coast of Brittany, France; belong- ing to the department of Finisterre. Area, 20 sq. miles. It is fertile, and has about 2,300 inhabitants, engaged in the rearing of cattle and in fisheries. Ussher, or Usher, JAMES, D.D.: archbishop; b. in Dub- lin, Ireland, J an. 4. 1580, or 1581; educated at Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, where he became a fellow 1600; took orders in the Church of England 1601 ; became chancellor of the Ca- thedral of St. Patrick about 1604; was Professor of Divinity at the University of Dublin 1607-20; drew up the Articles of Faith of the Irish Church 1615; became Bishop of Meath 1620, Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ireland 1624- 25; had his house destroyed by the Irish rebels 1641, while visiting England, in which country he thenceforth remained; USURY 411 was given by Charles I. the temporalities of the vacant see of Carlisle, which made him practically the bishop, and as such he acted, and was preacher of Lincoln’s Inn, London. 1647-54, residing chiefly at Oxford. D. at Reigate, Surrey, England. Mar. 21, 1656, and by order of Cromwell was buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey. He was the author of numerous theological treatises, mostly in Latin, of which a complete edition was published by the University of Dublin (17 vols., 1847-64), with a Life by Rev. C. R. El- rington. His Annales Veteris et lVoci Testamenti (2 vols., 1650-54) contains a scheme of biblical chronology, since printed in the margin of the Authorized Version of the Bible and generally adopted by English and continental historians, though now admitted to be inexact. Another Life, with that of John Selden, was written by Dr. John Aikin (1811). His library now belongs to Trinity College, Dublin. He was a learned antiquarian, and the Epistles of Polycarp and Ignatius were first published by him. He was twice elected by the Long Parliament to the Westminster Assembly of Divines, but from loyalty to the king did not attend. He prepared the Irish Articles of Religion (1645), and proposed a system of reduced episcopacy as a compromise between Episcopalians and Presbyterians. Revised by S. M. J AcKsoN. UStilagin'eae: See SMUTS. Usufruct: See SERviTUnEs. Usumacin"ta: a river of Guatemala and Mexico; formed by the union of several branches which drain the northwest- ern half of the former country ; flowing with a general northwesterly but very crooked course, and joining, in Ta- basco, the Grijalva, through which it reaches the Gulf of Mexico. Length about 400 miles. The lower part is naviga- ble, and is connected by channels with the Bay of Cam peche and the Laguna de Terminos. By the treaty of 1882 the upper Usumacinta, with its principal head, was agreed upon as part of the boundary between Mexico and Guatemala. After a survey, Guatemala claimed that the Salinas was the head; Mexico claimed that this was the Rio de la Pasion, which would extend her territory at one point so far E. as nearly to cut Guatemala in two. This question nearly led to a war in the early part of 1895. The disputed territory is mainly covered with forest. H. H. S. Usury [usury is from O. Fr. usure < Lat. usu'ra, use, usury, interest, deriv. of uti. u’sus, use]: “ \Vhen money is lent on a contract to receive not only the principal sum again, but also an increase by way of compensation for the use,” the increase “is called interest by those who think it lawful, and usury by those who do not so.” (Blackstone’s Com- mentaries, 2, 454.) The term is now applied to the taking of an illegal rate of interest. For the early English statutes on this subject, see the article on INTEREsT. Its economic bearings are considered in the article on POLITIGAL ECONOMY, under the heading Government Interference with Industry. All usury laws in England were repealed in 1854, and the example has been followed to some extent in the U. S. Most of the States, however, prescribe a lawful rate of interest, and subject the taker of any excess to punishment as a crim- inal, as well as to the forfeiture of a part or the whole of the principal and lawful interest. In order to have a case of usury there must be a loan or forbearance of money. Hence one who buys negotiable instruments, bonds, or mortgages, or other choses in actions for less than their face value does not engage in a usurious transaction. (Cram vs. Hendricks, 7 Wendell (N. Y.) 569.) In many jurisdictions, however, it is held that the buyer of accommodation paper is a mere lender of money, and hence if he pays less than the face and legal discount the transaction is usurious. This doctrine is based on the view that the paper has no legal inception when delivered by the accommodating to the accommodated party, but takes its inception from its delivery to the buyer. (Claflin vs. Boorum, 122 N. Y. 385.) Corrupt intention is essential to usury. From this it follows, on the one hand, that what- ever may be the form of the transaction, however cunning may be the devices for evading the statute, if the parties have in effect bargained for the loan or forbearance of money at a prohibited rate of interest, the transaction is under asttutory ban : on the other hand, if an illegal rate of interest is agreed upon or paid by mutual mistake, the statute is not violated, but the mistake may be corrected and the agree- ment really intended by the parties enforced. A valuable compilation of the modern statutes upon this subject is con- tained in Perley’s Law of Interest (Boston. 1893). FRANGIS M. BURDICK. 412 Utah: one of the Territories of the U. S. of North Amer- ica (Western group); organized Sept. 9, 1850. ‘Capital, Salt Lake City. Location and Area.—It extends from lat. 37° to 42° N ., and from lon. 32° to 37° W. from Washington; is bounded \“\\k\ x\\\\\\\\\\\\“‘“‘\ \“ \i\“§\\\\N\\\\A\\\‘\\\\\“\\\\::\:\* N \\\’\\\\v' ism‘~\\‘\“‘ K Seal of Utah. N. by Idaho and Wyoming, E. by Wyoming and Colorado, S. by Arizona, and W. by Nevada. Greatest length, about 350 miles; greatest width, nearly 300 miles. Area, accord- ing to the U. S. census 1890, 84,970 sq. miles (54,380,800 acres), of which 2,780 sq. miles are water surface; or, according to the U. S. Surveyor-General for Utah, 84,476 sq. miles. Physical Features.-—Utah is traversed N. and S. by one great range of mountains, the Wasatch, and there are several minor ranges, as the Deep Creek, Oquirrh, and San Fran- cisco in the west, and the Roan or Book, the La Salle, the Sierra Abajo, and the Orejas del Oso in the east and south- east, all extending in the same general direction. There is also one great transverse range running E. from the Wasatch to the Rocky Mountains, along the northeast boundary. E. of the Wasatch Range the water flows into the Du Chesne, Green, Uinta, Price, Grand, White, Dirty Devil, San Juan, and San Rafael rivers, reaching the Pacific Ocean through the Colorado river and Gulf of California. W. of the Wasatch Mountains the waters, for the most part, flow into the Great Salt Lake, though there are several fresh-water lakes and “sinks” S. of the Salt Lake valley which receive the flows from the mountain rivers and streams. The Wasatch and Uinta Mountains are high and rocky, broken and furrowed into cafions and deep gorges. Some of their peaks reach an elevation of 14,000 feet. The other ranges are lower and less rugged. The only rivers of importance within Utah are the Green and the Grand, forming the Colorado. The others are little more than mountain streams, some of them of considerable volume in the spring and early summer, but receding or disappearing entirely later in the season. The rivers named have formed deep cations or ravines, ranging in depth from 500 to 4,000 feet, the stream at many places being inaccessible. E. of the Wasatch Range the country is broken and rough, consisting of mountain spurs, high plateaus, and arid mesas, the soil being hard and clayey and generally weak. W. of the Wasatch there is a succession of valleys, extending N. and S. These vary in length from 1 to 40 miles, and in width from 1 to 15 or 18 miles. The valleys and mesas range in elevation from 4.000 to 7,000 feet. W. of the GREAT SALT LAKE (g. o.) is a vast alkaline desert, 100 miles in length and 40 miles in width. The chief fresh-water lakes are Bear Lake, 18 by 8 miles, in the extreme northeast corner; Utah Lake, 24 by 10 miles, in the central part; and Sevier Lake, 25 by 5 miles, in the southwest. Soil and Pr0ductions.—In the main the soil is arid and much of it alkaline, some sections being so strongly impreg- nated with the salts as to render its reclamation impracti- cable. The soil of the valleys is sedimentary, gravelly, clayey, and sandy; that of the mesas is generally hard clay or rocky. However, the land is not, as a rule, difficult of reclamation where water for irrigation can be obtained, and with sufficient water the soil is extremely fertile. Agricul- ture is entirely dependent upon artificial irrigation, the rainfall being so slight and uncertain as to put reliance on it out of question. Weeks and sometimes months pass with- UTAH out a shower. In the valleys rain is infrequent and light from May until October. The result has been the develop- ment of an extensive system of reservoirs, canals, and ditches for irrigation purposes. The chief agricultural products are wheat, oats, barley, Indian corn, peas and beans, potatoes, beets, carrots, pumpkins, squashes, melons, and garden prod- ucts; of fruits, there are apples, peaches, lums, apricots, cherries, grapes, etc. Vast quantities of ried fruits are regularly shipped to the East. Though the mountains and more elevated valleys are not susceptible to cultivation, they produce succulent grasses, thus providing excellent ranges for live stock in summer, and in the southern part good ranges also in winter. The following summary from the census reports of 1880 and 1890 shows the extent of farm operations: FARMS, ETC. 1880. 1890. Per cent.’-k Total number of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,452 I 10,517 11 '3 Total acreage of farms . . . . . . . . . . .. 655,524 1,323,705 101 '9 Value of farms, including build- ings and fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $14,015,178 $28,402,780 102'?’ * Increase. The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of the principal crops in the calendar year 1894: CROPS. Acreage. Yield. Value. Indian corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,575 209,230 bush. $121,353 Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107,252 2,359,544 “ 1,250,558 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,609 878,097 “ 298,553 Rye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,594 68,286 “ 38.923 Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,303 207,999 “ 95.680 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,011 811,485 “ 243,446 Hay . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 179,575 452,529 tons 2,516,061 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338,319 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $4,564,574 On J an. 1, 1895, the farm animals comprised 69,803 horses, value $1,129,671; 1,789 mules, value $45,731; 56,704 milch cows, value $553,998; 358,616 oxen and other cattle, value $4,184,866; 2,039,226 sheep, value $2,998,885; and 54,443 swine, value $386,200--total head, 2,580,581; total value, $9,299,351. Minerals.—Next to agriculture the chief industry is min- ing. Gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, and zinc ores exist in large quantities and in various parts of Utah, and extensive measures of coal are found in Summit and Uinta Counties in the northeast, San ete, Carbon, Sevier, and Emery Coun- ties in the central and eastern sections, and in Iron County in the south. The most extensive ledges of iron are in Iron County, though both hematite and magnetic ,ores exist in other districts. Silver is found in very nearly all the moun- tains from one end of Utah to the other. The principal gold deposits, whether in placer or in quartz,‘are in the Oquirrh Mountains, S. W. of Salt Lake City; in the Tm- tic Mountains, J uab County; in the Camp Floyd district of Tooele County; and along the Green and Colorado rivers. The chief silver-lead mining districts are Park City, Summit County ; Tintic, Dugway, and Fish Springs, Juab_County; Ophir and Deep creek, Tooele County; Big and Little Cot- tonwood, Salt Lake County; San Francisco, Beaver County; and Ohio, Piute County. A su erior quality of onyx has been found on the west shore of tah Lake. In addition to the minerals named there are extensive beds of sulphur in Beaver County, alum, borax, gypsum, rock-salt, and asphal- tum, the last-mentioned being used largely for paving streets in Salt Lake City. It is also being shipped to Eastern cities. The following is a summary of the mineral production in 1893: Gold, 54,072 fine oz., value $1,081,440; silver, 7,107,- 503 fine oz., value $5,233,965; unrefined lead, 70,097,079 1b., value $1,542,135; copper, 1,062,467 lb., value $69,060; coal, 413,205 short tons, value $611,092; asphaltum, 3,200 tons, value $90,000; salt, 108,570 barrels, value $30,075; and sand- stone to the value of $136,462. The total export value of the gold, silver, lead, and copper product was $7,926,600; the mint value of the gold and silver and the seaboard value of the lead and copper swelled the total value to $12,832,074. Climale.—-Tlie climate is mild and equable in the valleys, but extremely cold in the winter in the mountains. In the south the snowfall is light. In the northern and middle sections snows come in November and continue until March, or even later, though the depth is seldom great, except in the mountains, where snow is perpetual. The temperature rarely reaches zero in the valleys, and seldom goes above 95°. L0ngitu.deN W 110 from Greene 19 _ '1 - _ 1 i Scale oflliles f0 20 in so 80 County TOWM O Railroads A This type indicates a population of 2,000 or over 1 i 1 Q mzuon : LAKE Lg./B ' GAO LAND cuFF5l J". QM ld Willgafiéjee --_-_.__ Fillmore -1 IQ urnt C0 al .¢°/'~ , Meadow ' L y )3“-“ S V‘ ' V M ', I\8.llOSl1:r‘\ -' °1m1m,,11‘zR§'n,i; auaosi _. ck Rock ‘X > ; . J ,..",.-9 ilgard 1. ! J ' if ‘ " """“"‘ : " rystal $p!".e,8}fEl'aAENRTrE I I //" R - : J-/‘ rub)? J I "Desert SPr Rock ‘>5!-O P“ P“ ~- = : men ms.-' edar City 1 - . . ._..__._,.__.._. M ‘ b\Al&dl L. _,_ :67 ' niblli1!{olLumTE exan bkrrg‘-._..J.i"e :36 I .-Q ' - . , ‘T .. _. . __.1_r£g.* r . 7‘ A ’7:‘Qv{V 0 o>' _’ ll use *3’ \ I Meadow . L QTL-Q‘, ' ‘n-F ‘- I o I O ~ O "' ashington If - LGeorge 0 > ' Q Lees Ferry 0 _' 0;. - I [*0 ...1'‘’- e N \ >2“ - L E '5 ‘ 37 K 36 L Longitude 35 6 West M from 34 UTAH The accompanying table shows the mean temperature and the rainfall at Salt Lake City during 1893 : Mean tem- Preci ita— 1 Mean tem- Precipita- MONTHS' perutum. tioii. : MONTHS’ perature. tion. January..... 27'6°F 0'82 in July . . . . . . .. 74'7°F. 1 19in February .. .. 28‘5 1'64 August. . . .. 73'3 0'71 March . . . . . . . 39 '3 2 ' 68 September.. 63 ' 0 1 '30 April . . . . . . .. 45'9 2'72 October . . . .1 52'0 1 '02 May....... . 55'1 1'68 November.‘ 394 1'18 June . . . . . . . .. 67'0 0'04 1 December. .1 362 237 Divisions.-—For administrative purposes Utah is divided into twenty-seven counties, as follows 2 COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOiVNS, WITH POPULATION. l ’ l COUNTIES. Ref. 31%: COUNTY-TOWNS. \ 31%: Beaver . . . . . . . . . . .. 7- ’ 3.918 3,340 Beaver . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,752§ Boxelder .. . . . . . . .. 2-K 6,761 7,642 Boxelder . . . . . . . . .. 2,139 Cache . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-L 12,562 15,509 Logan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,565 Carbon 1“ . . . . . . . . . . . 5-N . . . . . . . . . . Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 Davis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-L 5.279 6,751 Farmington . . . . . . . 1,036§ Emery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-N 556 5,076 Castle Dale . . . . . . 303 Garfield I . . . . . . . . . . 8-M . . . . . 2,457 Panguitch . . . . . . .. 1,015§ Grand 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-O . . . . . 541 Moab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7-K 4,013 2,683 Cedar City . . . . .. 967 J uab . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5-K 3,474 5,582 Nephi . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,034 Kane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-L 3.085 1,685 Kanab . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Millard . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-K 3,727 4,033 Fillmore . . . . . . . . . . 838§ Morgan . . . . . . . . . . .. 3-M 1,783 1,7 Morgan City . . . . .. 333 Piute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-L 1 .651 2,842 Junction . . . . . . . . . . 125§ Rich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-M 1,263 1.527 Randolph . . . . . . . . - 472§ Salt Lake . . . . . . . . .. 4-L 31,977 58,457 Salt Lake City. . .. 44,843 San Juan . . . . . . . . .. 8-N 204 365 Bluff . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190% Sanpete . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 11,557 13,146 Manti . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,950 Sevier . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-YI 4,457 6,199 Richfield . . . . . . . . .. 1,531 Summit . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-M 4,921 7,733 Coalville . . . . . . . . . . 1,166 Tooele . . . . . . . . . . .. 4-K 4,497 3,700 Tooele City . . . . . . 1,008§ Uinta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-O 799 2,762 Vernal . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.305§ Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4-L 17,973 23,768 Provo City . . . . . . .. 5,159 Wasatch . . . . . . . . . 4-N 2,927 3,595 Heber City . . . . . . . . 1,538 Washington . . . . . .. 8-K 4,235 4,009 St. George . . . . . . .. 1,377§ Wayne 1” . . . . . . . . . .. 6-M . . . . . . . . .. Loa . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 411 Weber . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3-L 12,344 22 723 Ogden . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,889 Totals . . . . . . . . . . 143,963 207,905 * Reference for location of counties, see map of Utah. 1' Organized in or since 1890. 1; Organized since 1880. §Including precinct. Principal Cities and Towns, with Population for 1890.- Salt Lake City, 44,843; Ogden, 14,889; Provo City, 5,159; Logan, 4,565; Park City, 2,850; Springville, 2,849; Mt. Pleasant, 2,254; Spanish Fork, 2,214; Brigham City, 2,139; Payson, 2,135; and Nephi, 2,034. Population and .Raoes.—In 1850, 11,380; 1860, 40,273; 1870, 86,786; 1880, 143,963; 1890, 207.905 (natives, 154,841; foreign, 53,064; males, 110,463 : females, 97,442; whites, 205,899; colored, 2,006, of whom 588 were persons of African descent, 806 Chinese, 4 Japanese. and 608 civilized Indians); in 1894, Governor’s estimate, 252,834. Industries and Business Interests.—-Manufactures were early stimulated by the necessities of the people, owing to the distance from manufacturing centers and the cost of trans- porting goods by ox and horse teams from the Missouri river. Before the advent of railways woolen and cotton mills, tanneries, foundries, and machine-shops had been es- tablished and were in successful operation, and most of these industries have been developed since in greater or less degree. The census returns of 1890 show that 531 manufac- turing establishments reported. The aggregate capital was $6,583,022. About 5,000 persons were employed, to whom $2,715,805 was paid in wages. The establishments used ma- terials that cost $4,252,030, and turned out goods valued at $8,911,047. There is an extensive woolen-mill at Provo City, another at Salt Lake City, one at Beaver, and a fourth at Brigham City. A large beet-sugar factory is in successful operation at Lchi. There are numerous silver-lead smelters and gold and silver reduction-mills in the Salt Lake valley and in the mining districts, most of the gold, silver, and lead ores produced in Utah being reduced at home. At Salt Lake City is a copper reduction and manufacturing plant which cost over $500,000, and near the city are extensive lead-refining and pipe works. Finanoc.—Tl1e revenue from the territorial and school tax in 1893 was $575,574, and the estimated true value of taxable property $115,114,842. The assessed valuations in 1894 were: Real property, $49,131,679 ; improvements, $19,- 819,969 ; personal, $18,780,242; and railways, telegraphs, and telephones, $11,771,352—-total, 399,503,242. 413 Banlcing-At the end of the fiscal year 1893-94 there were 39 banking institutions of all kinds, with aggregate capital of $5,011,800, and deposits, $9,266,569. There were also 6 building and loan associations, with 3,672 sharehold- ers and 43,054 shares in force. Post-ofiioes and Perioclicals-In Jan., 1895, there were 296 post-offices, of which 7 were presidential (1 first-class, 1 second-class, 5 third-class) and 289 fourth-class; 78 were money-order offices, and 3 were limited money-order ofiices. The newspapers and periodicals (1894) comprised 10 daily, 7 semi-weekly, 34 weekly, 5 semi-monthly, and 8 monthly pub- lications—total, 64. lkleans of Communication.—The northern and middle divisions are well supplied with railways. The Union and Central Pacific cross Utah from east to west; the Rio Grande Western, connecting with the Colorado system of roads on the eastern border, extends to Ogden; the Union Pacific operates a north and south line from Frisco, 236 miles S. of Salt Lake City, into Idaho, Montana. and Oregon; and there are short lines running from Salt Lake City and the trunk roads into the mining districts, as the Utah Central to Park City, 31 miles; the Echo and Park City, 28 miles; the Tintic mining-district branches of the Union Pacific and Rio Grande Western, the Sanpete valley, and the Sevier valley branches. In 1894 the mileage of railways of 4 ft. 81} in. gauge was 1,207; of 3-feet gauge, 140; total mileage, 1,347. There were also 72 miles of street-railway, princi- pally in Salt Lake City, Ogden, and Provo City. Churches.-—The majority of the people are Mormons, or Latter-day Saints, as they call themselves. They own nu- merous and many of them large, costl , and imposing church edifices, called temples, tabernac es, stake-houses, chapels, and meeting-houses. The temples, of which there are four magnificent structures, viz., at Salt Lake City, Lo- gan, Manti, and St. George, are not used for public services, but in them are performed the secret rites of the church. None but members are permitted to enter these buildings. The tabernacles and other church buildings number about 200, with a seating capacity of 75,000, and are for public worship. Among the other denominations which have or- ganizations in Utah, 1nost of them having church edifices and resident ministers in the cities, are the Advent, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Christian, Christian Scientist, Congrega- tional. Disciples_ of Christ, Jewish, Lutherans, Methodist Episcopal, African Methodist, Presbyterian, Protestant Epis- copal, Salvation Army, and Spiritualist. Schools.—Utah has an excellent system of free schools. supported by general and local taxation, and good schools are maintained for nine or ten months of the year. Besides the public schools there are many mission and private schools, the former maintained by the evangelical churches. The University of Utah, at Salt Lake City. is supported by di- rect appropriation from the territorial treasury, and the Agricultural College at Logan is supported in part by the Territory and in part by the U. S. Both are free in the matter of tuition. The general school taxes amount to about $360,000 per annum, and in addition to this are the sums raised from special levies in the districts. I/ib1'a'ries.-—-According to a U. S. Government report on public libraries of 1,000 volumes and upward each in 1891, Utah had 9 libraries, containing 37,993 bound volumes and 5.473 pamphlets. The libraries were classified as follows: General, 6: school, 2; society, 1. Clzarifable, Reformazfor'_l/. and Penal Insz"z‘z‘az"ions.-Tlie penitentiary at Salt Lake City belongs to the U. S.. and is maintained and controlled by the Federal authority, but territorial convicts are confined in it. There is a reform school for youth at Ogden, and an asylum for the insane at Provo. With the exception of a few of the sparsely settled, each county has a jail. Salt Lake. Weber, Cache, and Utah Counties have each a house and farm for the indigent, sup- ported by the counties. Poliz‘ical O/rganizaz‘ion.—The government is that provided by Congress for the organized Territories. restricted and modified in some respects to suit the peculiarities of the com- munity, the population being largely Mormons and until a few years ago believing in and practicing polygamy. The Governor. secretary. judges of the district courts. of whom there are four, one being chief justice, the marshal, prose- cuting attorney, and a probate judge for each county. are appointed by the President of the U. S. The terms of office are four years, with the exception of the probate judges. whose term is two years. The Legislature consists of twen- ty-four members of the House, and twelve members of the 414 UTAH Council, all chosen by popular vote; the sessions are bien- nial and limited to sixty days, and the Governor possesses the power of absolute veto. All registration and election laws are administered by a commission of five persons ap- pointed by the President of the U. S. Suffrage is restricted to male citizens over the age of twenty-one, who are not guilty of violating the statutes of the U. S. against polyg- amy. In 1894 Congress passed an act providing for the admission of Utah into the Union as a State. upon the for- mation and adoption of a constitution, republican in form, and forever prohibiting polygamy without the assent of Congress. H£st0ry.—Utah was settled by the Mormons in 1847, when it was Mexican territory. Owing to the impossibility of living at peace in Missouri and Illinois, Brigham Young, the president of the church, led his people W. into the wilderness, the first band, numbering 143, arriving in the Salt Lake valley July 24, 1847. Since then Utah has been the gathering-place and headquarters of the Mormon peo- ple. For two years there was no secular government. In 1849 a constitution was formulated and the provisional gov- ernment of the state of Deseret went into operation with a full quota of state officials. In 1850 Utah was organized into a Territory of the U. S., but the new government did not go into effect until the following year. An unfortunate incident in the history of Utah was the Mountain Meadow massacre, in which 120 men, women, and children were mur- dered by a band of Indians under Mormon leadership Sept. 15, 1857. A party of emigrants, numbering about 140, were passing through Utah on their way to California when they were suddenly attacked at Mountain Meadow in the north- ern part of \Vashington County. Though taken completely by surprise they kept their assailants at bay for five days, but were induced by two of the Mormons, John D. Lee and Isaac Haight, to lay down their arms and return to the East on the understanding that their lives would be spared. Guided by Lee and Haight the emigrants started on their return journey, but the attack was renewed from an am- bush, and all but seventeen were killed. For many years the crime was charged to the Indians, but the complicity of the Mormons was brought to light in 1874, and an investi- gation was ordered by the U. S. Government. Lee was ar- rested and tried for the offense in 1875, and on Mar. 23, 1877, was executed at the place where the massacre was committed. In 1857 the U. S. Government sent an army into Utah, it being alleged that the Mormon leaders were assuming and exercising power and authority unlawfully, and interfering with the administration of justice by the Federal courts. The Mormon militia was mobilized, and, opposing the army on the eastern border, prevented the troops from reaching Salt Lake valley until the spring of 1858. There was no actual collision between the opposing forces, but the militia burned some Government supply- trains, and so hampered and annoyed the troops as to pre- vent an advance beyond Fort Bridger on the eastern border. In 1862 Congress passed a bill to punish those guilty of polygamy, yet for years thereafter little effort was made to enforce the law. In 1882 another and more drastic act was passed against the practice, which had been continued openly until that time, and in 1887 Congress passed a bill greatly restricting suffrage and escheating most of the vast property of the Mormon church, including both real estate and per- sonality. The act of 1882 was the work of Senator George F. Edmunds, and was upheld by the Supreme Court in de- cisions that were rendered in 1884 in a series of five cases. From 1885 to 1890 there was persistent warfare against the polygamists in the courts, and in Oct., 1890, after more than 1,100 of their men had served terms in the penitentiary, the people voted in general conference to sustain the proclama- tion or “manifesto” issued a month previously by their president, discontinuing the practice of polygamy. GOVERNORS OF‘ UTAH. Brigham Young. . .. . 1850-54 ' Eli H. Murray . . . . . . . . . . .. 1880-86 Edwin J. Steptoc . . . . . . .. 1854-57 Caleb W. West . . . . . . . . . .. 1886-80 Alfred Cnmming.. .. 1857-61 Arthur L. Thomas . . . . . .. 1889-03 Stephen S. Harding .. 1861-64 Caleb W. West . . . . . . . . . .. 1893- James J. Doty . . . . . . . . . .. 1864-65 Charles Durkee . . . . . . . . .. 1865-69 J. Wilson Shaffer . . . . . . . .. 1870-71 George L. Woods . . . . . . .. 1871-'23 Samuel B. Axtell . . . . . . . .. 1873-75 George W. Emery . . . . . . .. 1875-80 (San Francisco, BYRON Gnoo. See Ifistory of Utah, by H. H. Bancroft 1888) UTERINE DISEASES Utah Lake: the largest body of fresh water in Utah; N. lat. 40° 15’, W. lon. (from Greenwich) 111° 45’. Its altitude above the sea is 4,500 feet; its length from N. to S. is 25 miles; its extreme width 13 miles; its area 150 sq. miles. The valley in which it lies is part of a great trough formed by the uplift of the Wasatch range of mountains at the E. and the Oquirrh, Lake, and Tintie ranges at the W. The eastern range is the loftier, and all the tributaries of the lake come from that side. Corn creek, Hobble creek, and the American Fork rise in the Wasatch Mountains, but the Spanish Fork and Provo river head to the E. of the range, and pass through it in deep defiles. Its outlet is the river JORDAN (q. 2).). The water contains '00030 of mineral mat- ter, of which '00018 is calcium sulphate. Ute Indians: See SHOSHONEAN Innmns. Uterine Diseases [uterine is from Lat. u’ierus, womb] : diseases of the womb or uterus (including also the derange- ments of its various appendages); the so-called “female dis- eases.” Diseases of this kind are comparatively infrequent in the women of aboriginal and savage tribes, and in civil- ized races among the women of rural districts who labor, are much in the open air, and are free from artificial and debilitating habits of dress and living. The predisposing causes of a majority of all uterine diseases are the constant recurrence of the menstrual periods during the greater part of adult life, the complications and sequelae of child-bear- ing, and the intimate nervous and vascular sympathy which connects the uterus with every other part of a woman’s or- ganism. The uterus itself is subject to congestion and to inflammation from many causes, as suppressed men- struation, catching colds, falls, blows upon the abdomen. Congestion and inflammation are indicated by a sense of fullness, weight, warmth, and pain, with tenderness on pres- sure in the lower part of the abdomen, especially in stand- ing or walking. The disease may be limited to the inner mucous membrane, to the body of the organ, or the ex- terior investing loose tissue, or rarely it may involve all. The term metritis denotes inflammation of the body proper of the organ, endo-metritis of the mucous interior, peri- metritis of the surrounding tissues. This tissue, when exten- sively inflamed, is often infiltrated with new plastic matter, the product of the vascular engorgement, and this, becoming set, fixes the uterus for a time, so that it is rigid and immov- able-—a condition termed pelvic peritonitis. This loose tis- sue is occasionally the seat of profuse haemorrhage from a ruptured vessel, as in lifting, jumping, or falling. The ef- fused blood gravitates in the pelvis, and the blood-tumor, termed pelvic haematocele, often presents in the vagina. The normal uterus is a symmetrical organ, with a straight axis, and the cavity of its body and neck slightly open ; its normal position is that of slight anteversion, or upright and from above inclining slightly backward. But attacks of congestion and inflammation change its shape, size, symme- try, and position. Thus, either from external pressure or adhesions, or from softening or thickening of its own walls, it may be drawn down, backward, forward, or to either side; the organ as a whole may be tilted, giving rise to version, or the body may be bent on the neck, a condition termed flex- ion. According to the direction which the displacement or deformity of the uterus takes, it is called anteversion, retro- version, right and left lateral version, and anteflexion, retro- flexion, and right and left lateral flexion. Flexions of the uterus are a common cause of dysmenorrhoea, or dilflcult and painful menstruation, since by the bending of the uterus its canal is bent and constricted, and the free escape of menstru- al blood is prevented ; this flexion of the uterine canal is also a cause of sterility, since seminal elements can not enter the organ and produce conception. Whenever the uterus is en- larged, as by congestion or inflammation, is the seat of a polypus or tumor. or is pressed down by growths in the cavity of the abdomen, and also whenever in debilitated persons its ligaments and outside supports are weakened and relaxed, it tends to gravitate below its natural position in the pelvis, and even t.o project from the body. This falling of the womb is termed prolapse, and, when extreme. procidentia. The lower end of the ut.erus, the neck or cervix, is often ulcerated as the result of congestion, inflammation, contact of its end with the floor oi‘ the pelvis, and the irritation of the acrid mucus discharged in endo-metritis. Tumorsjma-y develop within the cavity of the uterus. in the substance of its walls, or upon its outer surface, either beneath its serous cover- ings or loosely attached by pedicles. The uterus is often the seat of cancer, especially at the “change of life.” The UTICA ovaries are subject to congestion, inflammation, haemor- rhage, and intense neuralgia. The fibrous framework of these organs may increase and develop fibrous tumors; but especially frequent and important are ovarian cysts. The ovisac becomes distended with fluid in order to rupture and eject the ovule ; it is then filled by the serum of the coagu- lated blood from the haemorrhage consequent upon the rup- ture. The ovisac is liable to fill, and by a process of vas- cular activity and growth in its wall become a cyst of greater or less size; cysts may be present of small size and in numbers, never attracting attention, or reversely, grow either by secretion or dropsical transudation to contain 10, 20, 60, or more pounds of serous fluid. Such ovarian cysts may be single sacs, or be divided by partitions into compart- ments. The latter are more common, the single-celled cysts springing rather from the parovarium, a remnant of foetal life. The vagina is frequently the seat of catarrhal inflam- mations, causing a discharge termed LEUC-ORRHCEA (q/v.). It may also be acutely inflamed (vaginitis), or it may be the seat of ulcers, and also of spasm, with or without pain, a condition termed vaginismus. This passage is, very excep- tionally, anatomically defective, being wholly or partially wanting or constricted. The most common of all uterine diseases are merely functional derangements or irregulari- ties of menstruation. By amenorrhoea is understood absence of menstruation; dysmenorrhoea is characterized by pain, sickness, and deficient flow at the period; and menorrhagia is a prolonged and excessive menstrual flow, or persistent loss of blood from the uterus, as when cancer or polypus exists. In the treatment and cure of uterine diseases cor- rect diagnosis is essential at the outset. Most of them are benefited by use of general tonics, by rest, corrected habits, and by supporting the abdominal viscera; but many are not even alleviated by these general measures. Physical explo- ration, both manual and by aid of the speculum, will often reveal an unsuspected disease, and point to the special top- ical treatment or surgical procedure which is the essential means of cure. Revised by VVILLIAM PEPPER. U’ tica: an ancient city of Africa; on the river Bagradas, near its entrance into the Mediterranean, occupying the site of the modern village of Duar. When Carthage was taken and destroyed by the Romans, Utica rose in importance and became the capital of the Roman province. The remains of its temples, amphitheater, and aqueduct showr that it must have been a magnificent place. In the latter part of the seventh century it was taken and destroyed by the Arabs. Utica: city; capital of Oneida co., N. Y.; on the Mo- hawk river, the Erie Canal, and the Del., Lack. and W., the N. Y. Cent. and Hud. R., the N. Y., Ont. and W., the Home, Water. and Ogdens., the Utica, Ch. and Sus uehanna Val., and the W. Shore railways; 52 miles E. of ochester, and 96 miles W. of Albany (for location, see map of New York, ref. 4-H). It is built on the slope of a hill, about 500 feet above sea-level, and has 13 public squares and parks with fountains and other adornments. The surrounding country is devoted principally to dairying. General agriculture and the cultivation of roses are carried on extensively. The city is the chief cheese-market in Central New York. Water is supplied by a private corporation having a capital of $500,- 000. There are 74 miles of mains and a reservoir with a daily capacity of 4,000,000 gal. Utica is lighted by gas and electricity, and has a system of electric street-railway with over 25 miles of track. The public buildings include a U. S. Government building, city-hall, a State armory, public li- brary, and Y. M. C. A. building. Forest Hill Cemetery is a place of much artistic beauty. Clwwohes, Schools, and (]’hmz'fz'es.—There are 47 churches, divided denominatioually as follows : Protestant Episcopal, 7 ; Presbyterian, 6; Roman Catholic, 6; Methodist Episco- pal. 5; Evangelical Lutheran (German), 5; Baptist, 4 ; Welsh, 3; Evangelical Lutheran (English), 2; Congregational, 2; Moravian, 2; Universalist, 2; Jewish, 2: and Reformed. 1. The total estimated value of church property is $1,562,500, and the total church membership is 28.135. The public schools have an enrollment of 7,705 pupils, and in 1894 cost for maintenance $12-1,047. There are 22 ward schools. a training-school with a normal department, and an academy for higher education. Of private schools there are 14. at the head of which is Mrs. Piatt’s female seminary. The char- itable institutions number 16, and include the State, City, St. Luke’s_. Homoeopathic, and Faxton hospitals, Home for the Homeless, Home for the Aged, Utica Orphan Asy- lum, St. Vincent’s Protectory, and a Masonic Home. The UTILITARIANISM 415 benevolent institutions have real estate valued at over $1,500,000. Utica is known as the “ City of Charities.” Busz'ness 1m‘crests.-—The census returns of 1890 showed that 473 manufacturing establishments in Utica reported. These represented 72 industries, had $12,257,855 capital, em- ployed 11,416 persons, paid $3,535,130 for wages and $6,582,- 234 for materials, and had a combined output valued at $13,- 205,572. The principal industries, according to amount of capital employed, were the manufacture of cotton goods, $2.894,859; men’s clothing, $2,655,888; and boots and shoes, $753,932. In 1895 the value of the manufacturing output was estimated at over $17,000,000. The cotton and woolen mills in the city use upward of 30,000 bales of cotton an- nually, and the New York Mills, 3% miles distant, use about 8,500 bales. The annual output of beer is over 94,000 barrels, Other manufactures are canned goods, furnaces, iron pipe. furniture, agricultural implements, steam-gauges, oilcloth, varmsh, hosiery, trunks, and gas fixtures. In 1895 there were 4 national banks with combined capital of $1,500,000, 2 State banks with capital of $325,000, and a savings-bank w1th_surplus of $1,103,722 and deposits of $5,543,764: and 3 daily, 2 semi-weekly, 7 weekly, and 6 monthly periodicals. lifzstorg/.-—The site of the city was known in early days as Old Fort Schuyler, from the fort or block-house erected at the fording-place over the Mohawk river, near the present intersection of Second Street and the railway. The site was taken from a tract of 22,000 acres given by the king to William Crosby, the colonial governor, in 1734, which be- came known as Crosby’s manor. The place was settled by immigrants from England and New England; was incor- porated as a village Apr. 3, 1798: and was chartered as a city Feb. 13, 1832. Pop. (1880) 33,914; (1890) 44,007 ; (1895) estimated, 53,000. CHARLES S. Svmoxos. Utilitafrianism [from Lat. utilitas, usefulness, profit, deriv. of u'tz'Zz's, useful, deriv. of u'Z‘t', to use] : the doctrine that the object of all moral conduct is to subserve utility. The theory has played historically a great role in the devel- opment of ethical thought. It began in the Greek moralists. who identified the supreme good—the Summ-um Bonwm—- with happiness. In modern times the home of utilitarian- ism has been England, where the school of English utili- tarians has pressed the theory with great force and refined it with great ingenuity. The British development may be said to have begun with Locke, although Locke’s influence was exerted rather through the general bearings of his phi- losophy than through his direct ethical teachings. Then follow the names of Hobbes, Hume. James M ill, John Stuart Mill, Bentham, Bain, Spencer, Stephen, and Sidgwick. The doctrine itself has passed through several interesting phases, all inspired by the criticism of the intuitional moral- ists, who argued that the most conspicuous thing about moral conduct is just the fact that it is disinterested—i.e. not done with view to utility. The postulate of “general utility,” or “the greatest good of the greatest number," came to be substituted for the happiness of the rivate individual; and in this way Bentham and the elder Iill sought to do justice to the demand that morality should have an altruistic ingredient. The point is made in opposition to such a for- mulation of the ethical end that there is no way of telling what the greatest happiness of the greatest number is except by judging of the happiness of the individual. Another attempt to put utilitarianism above the criticism of being egoistic is that of Stuart Mill, who distinguished between the lower or more physical enjoyments to which the word “pleasure” applies and the higher or more spiritual to which the word “ happiness” should be restricted. It is 1n recognition, in the main, of this distinction that the school of utilitarian thinkers is divided into two wings—i.e. the I-ledonists, or lower-pleasure men, and the higher-pleas ure men called Eudaemonists. Mills's distinction is open, however, to the criticism often brought against it that it affords no criterion of distinction between the two classes of enjoyments. For to distinguish between them on grounds other than those of utility is to give up the utility formula. Yet a further turn has been given to the discussion by those—notabl_v Leslie Stephen--who have endeavored to save the utility doctrine by a view of society which makes the “ organic development” of “ social tissue ” the ultimate end of human progress, and endeavors to show that under this conception all of the earlier formulas may be brought. Writers who still consent to call themselvesutilitarian are seeking to work out on some such basis of social and political theory a new and more adequate view. 416 UTOPIA The need of a reconstruction in view of the newer work in social psychology is emphasized by the advances in the theory of evolution and its application of social problems. The critical point in the historical development of utilitari- anism, as indeed of all ethical theories, has been the uncer- tainty attaching to the relation of the individual’s welfare and happiness to that of society and the race. So long as no social psychology existed it was impossible to tell how far the gratification of self might tend to subserve the larger utilities of society also. Is there a real antagonism between egoism and altruism 0l—between the welfare of the individu- al and that of the social organism of which the individual is an integral part ‘i How can there be such a conflict if it be true, as the evolution doctrine declares, that both are inci- dents of a common progress‘? It may well be--and this is what current theories are beginning to teach—that the evo- lution of the individual could never have taken on a social phase or have acquired its own highest plane, if the very statement of its goal had not come to include those social values which in their operation subvert, and in their pres- ence in consciousness conceal, the more individualistic sources from which they sprang. On some such basis as this it may yet come to pass that a new utilitarianism may be erected upon these very instincts of social and anti- egoistic value to which the opponents of the older utilitari- anism made their appeal. The later adherents of idealistic philosophy have seen in a measure the value of a deeper synthesis of doctrines on this subject, and have tried to work out a formula. In their phrase “ self-realization ” is .the ethical end, and the defini- tion of self--realization is made wide enough to include the altruistic impulse. Here we may class Green in England, and his later representative, Edward Caird, together with the general school of thinkers who follow in the footsteps of Hegel. They have failed, however, to work out a consistent concrete statement, being generally led astray by verbal and logical distinctions. Their work, while aiming at a pro- founder grounding of egoism and altruism in race progress, has had no adequate social psychology to rest upon. See MORAL PHILOSOPHY, HEDONISM, and INTUITIoNALIsM. REFERENoEs.—Mill, Utilitarianism; Sidgwick, History of English Ethics and lllethods of Ethics (4th ed.); Marti- neau, Types of Ethical Theory; Stephen, Science of Ethics. J. MARK BALDWIN. Uto'pia [: Mod. Lat., liter., nowhere; Gr. ob, not + 'r61r0s, place]: an imaginary island, the abode of a people free from care, folly, and the common miseries of life, de- scribed by Sir Thomas More in his political romance De Optimo Reipublicce Statu, deque Nova Insula Utopia (Lou- vain, Antwerp, and Paris, 1516) ; translated from the Latin by Robynson (1551; 2d ed. 1556; reprinted 1880), by Bur- net (1683), and by Cayley (1808). U’ traquists: a Hussite sect, deriving their name from the fact that they demanded the Lord’s Supper administered to them sub utraque specie—that is, in both bread and wine. They were also called Calixtines, from calix, chalice. The execution of Huss at Constance created an immense ex- citement i11 Bohemia, and brought about a complete breach between his adherents and the Church of Rome. In the so- called Four Articles of Prague the Utraquists set forth their demands—freedom of preaching, comm union under both kinds, the reduction of the clergy to apostolic poverty, and severe punishment of all open sins. The war was very bloody, but successful; and it was simply the internal split in the Utraquist party which finally gave the victory to the Romanists. By the compacts of lglau the pope yielded only the one point of the Prague articles, communion under both kinds. Revised by S. M. J AcKsoN. Utrecht, yu'trekt: province of the Netherlands, bounded N. by the Zuyder-Zee and S. by the Rhine and Leek; area, 534 sq. miles. The surface is diversified by low hills along the Rhine, the soil is very fertile, and the climate drier and brighter than in the other provinces. Wheat, barley, oats, and tobacco are extensively cultivated ; cattle and sheep are reared; and several branches of manufactures, such as the making of tiles, bricks, and pottery, are practiced on a large scale. Pop. (1893) 232,316, of whom about 30 per cent. are Roman Catholics and the rest Protestants. Utrecht : capital of the province of Utrecht ; on the Old Rhine, where the Vecht branches off from it, 23 miles S. S. E. of Amsterdam (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 6—F). It is strongly fortified, is well built, traversed by canals, and UZZIAH surrounded with finely planted promenades, has two cathe- drals, and, among other educational institutions, a celebrated university, founded in 1634, with which are connected a botanical garden, a chemical laboratory, an observatory, and different museums and scientific collections. Its manu- factures of plush, velvet, and carpets, of leather, soap, salt, and brandy, of metal ware and cigars, are very extensive, and it carries on an active trade in grain, cattle, and its own manufactures. It is probably the oldest town of the Neth- erlands, called by the Romans Trajectum ad Rhenum or Ultrajectum, from which latter appellation its present name is derived. Here the fusion between the seven provinces which formed the Dutch republic was organized in 1579, and here the treaty was signed (Apr. 11, 1713) between France, England, l-Iolland, Prussia, Portugal, and Savoy, which ended the war of the Spanish succession. Pop. (1893) 91,070. Revised by M. W. HARRINeToN. Utre'ra: town ; in the province of Seville, Spain (see map of Spain, ref. 19—D). It is well built and pleasant; has sev- eral oil-mills and manufactures of soap, leather, and pot- tery; and is in a rich and beautiful district, famous for its excellent horses and ferocious bulls. Pop. 15,000. Utricula'ria: a genus of plants represented by the BLAD- DERWORT (q. v.). See also INsEoTIvoRoUs PLANTS. Uttara-Inimansaz See MIMANSA and VEDANTA. Uvalde: town; capital of Uvalde co., Tex.; on the S. Pac. Railroad; 92 miles W. by S. of San Antonio (for loca- tion, see map of Texas, ref. 5—F). It is in an agricultural, asphalt-mining, and stock-raising region, and has 7 churches, separate public schools for white and colored children, Leona Springs, several sawmills, a national bank (capital $50,000), a private bank, and 2 weekly papers. Pop. (1880) 794; (1890) 1,265; (1895) estimated, 2,000. EDITOR or “ N Ews.” 'UVic Acid: See RACEMIC AcID. Uvula: See PALATE. Uxbridge: post-village, Ontario County, Ontario, Canada; on Black river, and Midland Division of Grand Trunk Rail- way; 43 milcs N. N. E. of Toronto (see map of Ontario, ref. 4—E). It has important manufactures of iron castings, en- gines, mill-machinery, plows, axes, leather, woolens, and other articles. Pop. (1891) 2,023. Uxbridge: town; Worcester co., Mass.; on the Black- stone river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad ; 20 miles S. E. of Worcester (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3—F). It contains the villages of Uxbridge, Uxbridge Center, North Uxbridge, Calumet, Hecla, Wheelock’s, Scott’s, and Rivulet; was formerly the western part of Mendon; was set off and incorporated under its present name in 1727, and its northern part was set off under the name of North- bridge in 1772. There are 5 churches, 18 public schools, free ublic library, several cotton and woolen mills, a na- tional3 bank with capital of $100,000, a savings-bank, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 3,111; (1890) 3,408; (1895) estimated, 3,500. EDITOR or “COMPENDIUM.” Uxmal, o"osh-maal’ : a ruined city of Yucatan, 40 miles S. of Merida (see map of Mexico, ref. 7—I). The remains are the most extensive in Mexico, covering an area of several square miles; but most of them are so nearly destroyed that litt-le beyond their ground plan is recognizable. Those in better preservation are apparently temples, standing on low truncated pyramids, and built of cyclopean masonry faced with dressed and sculptured stone. One, known as the Casa del Gobernador, is 320 feet long. Many of the sculp- tures are elaborate and curious, and all the work is markedly different from that of Copan and Palenque. There are no idols. Uxmal has been frequently visited by archaeologists. It is said to have been occupied by the Mayas at the time of the Conquest, and even as late as 1673; but its origin is un- known. See CENTRAL AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. H. H. S. Uzbegs, or Uzbecks: a people of mixed Turkish blood inhabiting nearly all parts of Turkestan, where they are the dominant race. Intellectually and morally, they are the superiors of those about them. They are zealous Mo- hammedans, partly non-nomadic, and pride themselves on their culture and civilization. In 1862 the Chinese Uzbegs revolted from China, and under Yakub Beg founded a Mo- hammedan empire, with 1,000,000 inhabitants and 740,000 sq. miles of territory. At his death, in 1877, his empire be- came subject to China. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Uzziah: See AZARIAII. V : the twenty-second letter of the English alphabet. F0rm.—V and U, which until the seven- teenth century were used interchangeably as signs for both vowel w and consonant v, are merely two variant forms of the original Roman V (see under U). The Roman V had a consonant value (=w in weal), as well as a vowel value (:w in- rule). Now, when Latin consonant -w became in Old French v, i. e. like v in Eng. vile, the symbol was left unchanged; hence the symbol v (n) came to have the quite distinctive values of n as in rule and v as in vile, and with these values it was adopted into Middle English orthography. The Old Eng- lish had used for the sound v in native words the symbol f, which was thus forced to do double duty, both as f and v ; cf. O. Eng.finalan, find, and ofer, over. .Name.-—The name vce (phonet. vi) is modern, being evi- dently constructed on the analogy of the names for Z), c, cl, e, g, p, t; similarly the modern name for z. S0und.—It denotes a voiced labio-dental spirant, produced by passing voiced breath between the lower lip and the edges of the upper front teeth. Only the addition of voice distinguishes it from the sound of f. Sowrces.—The main sources of the sound are: (1) Ten- tonic v (bilabial, i. e. 23). All English words beginning with v, with the exce tion of vat, vane, vixen, are of foreign origin, mostly rench. The three exceptions are loan-words from a southern English dialect, in which O. Eng. f became v; vat < O. Eng. feet : Germ. fass: vane < O. Eng. fana : Germ. fahne; vicven < O. Eng. fgrven : Germ. fiichsin. Teutonic v (5) was represented in O. Eng. by f, being thus indistinguishable from Teuton. f. Teu- tonic v (5) has the following main sources: (a) Indo-Eur. bit; of. Eng. weave < O. Eng. wefan, Gr. 1‘/¢atvw; calves, plur. of calf < O. Eng. cealf : Germ. kalb, Sanskr. gcirbha-, offspring ; love < O. Eng. lafw : Germ. liebe, Sanskr. lubh-, Lat. lubet. (Z2) Indo-Eur. p between voiced sounds and not preceded by accent; Eng. over < 0. Eng. ofer : Germ. /fiber, Sanskr. uptiri, Gr. z‘nrép. (c) Indo-Eur. q; five < O. Eng. fif : Germ. filnf : Goth. fi-mf < Indo-Eur. pénqe > Gr. 1re'1/T6, Sanskr. pafica; wolves, plur. of wolf < O. Eng. wwlf : Goth. wnlfs, Gr. Mi/cos, Sanskr. v_rka-. (2) In loan-words from early French; cf. vain, Fr. vain < Lat. vanns; veal, O. Fr. veél < Lat. vitellus; verb, Fr. verbe < Lat. verbnrn; vine, Fr. vigne < Lat. vinea: Eng. wine came into O. Eng. direct from Latin before Latin v (w) changed from w to v; poverty, O. Fr. poverte< Lat. paw- pertas ; receive, Fr. recevoir < Lat. recipere. (3) In later loan-words from various sources, as Lat. veto, verte.v, villa; Fr. vignette, vis-a-vis; Ital. volcano, velvet; Russian verst; Scandin. viking, valhalla; Arab. vizier; Sanskr. veda, etc. Symbolism.-—V: vanadium (chem.), verb, vocative; v. : 5 ; Va. = Virginia; v. a. : active verb; v. i. : intransi- tive verb; vid. = see (Lat. vicle); viz. : namely (Lat. vide- licet); V. R. :Queen Victoria (Victoria Regina); vs. = against (versus) ; Vt. : Vermont. See ABBREVIATIONS. BENJ. IDE WHEELER. Vaca, ALVAR NUEEZ CABEZA, de: explorer; b. in Estre- madura, Spain, in 1507 ; went to Florida in 1527 in the ex- edition of Panfilo de Narvaez, and after an unsuccessful and journey, again took ship, sailed along the northern coast of the Gulf, and was cast ashore at Matagorda Bay. After six years of captivity among the Indians, he met three other survivors of the expedition, with whom he jour- neyed westward, and followed the course of a large river, probably the Rio Grande, until he fell in with some Spanish explorers on the river Petatlan and was conducted to atown in Sinaloa. Authorities disagree as to the route taken by the four travelers, some holding that it lay through New Mexico, others tracing it through Southern Texas. Chihua- hua, and Sonora. Some identify a large stream crossed by de Vaca on his westward journey with the Mississippi, and give the credit of its discovery to him instead of de Soto. 424 The kingdom of Oibola, the count of the civilized Pueblos, is thought to have been first visite by de Vaca and his men. A joint report of their travels. given by them on arriving at Santo Domingo,is contained in Oviedo’s Historia general 3/natural de Inclias. De Vaca returned to Spain in 1537, but was soon afterward appointed administrator of La Plata and went to Paraguay, of which country he was the first ex- plorer. Arrested in 1544 on the charge of one of his sub- ordinates, he was sent to Spain and condemned to exile in Africa. He was pardoned after eight years, and lived at Seville till his death, which occurred in 1564. De Vaca published an account of his adventures in 1542. It was re- printed at Valladolid in 1555, and in Barcia’s collection of narratives i11 1749 under the title of Naufragios de Alvar 1Vnr'iez cle Vaca. An English version is given by Purchas in his Pilgrims. See also a literal translation by Bucking- ham Smith (Washington, 1857 and 1871). Vaca de Castro, CRISTOVAL2 administrator; b. in Leon, Spain, in 1492. He was a lawyer and a judge of the audi- ence of Valladolid; in 1540 he was sent to Peru to inquire into alleged abuses there, and with authority to act as gov- ernor in case of Pizarro’s death. Crossing the Isthmus of Panama he narrowly escaped shipwreck in the Pacific, and finally disembarked on the coast of New Granada, purpos- ing to proceed by land. At Popayan (July, 1541) he learned of the assassination of Pizarro and the rebellion of Almagro “the Youth.” He at once assumed command. was joined by Benalcazar and others. marched through Quito to Lima, and on Sept. 16, 1542, defeated Almagro, who was captured and executed. He remained at the head of affairs until the arrival, in May, 1544, of Viceroy Vela. The latter, suspect- ing him of conspiracy, imprisoned him on a vessel in Callao harbor. He prevailed on the captain to sail to Panama, whence he went to Spain. There he was again imprisoned, and was only exonerated after eleven years. D. in 1562. HERBERT H. SMITH. Va'caville: town and village: Solano co., Cal.: on the South. Pac. Co.’s railway; 30 miles S. W’. of Sacramento, 60 miles N. E. of San Francisco (for location, see map of California, ref. 6-C). It is in an agricultural and fruit- growing region, is the seat of the California Normal and Scientific School, and has a State bank with capital of $100,- 000, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) town, 1,299 ; vil- lage, 361 ; (1890) town, 2,712; village, 725. Vaccination [deriv. of vaccine, from Lat. vacci’nus, of a cow, deriv. of vac'ca, cow]: (1) in a narrow sense, the in- oculation of an individual with the virus of cowpox, thus conferring protection against smallpox; (2) in a broader sense, the inoculation of an individual with any mild virus calculated to produce protection against malignant disease. The former use of the term is the common one. and this article treats only of the vaccination designed to prevent smallpox. It was observed that on the udders of cows an eruption was frequently seen which infected the hands of the milkers. Pustules were produced on the hands. and sometimes changed into painful sores; other parts of the body became afiected, and sometimes there was extensive disturbance of the general system. The remarkable fact was discovered that persons who had passed through this disease were protected from the pure smallpox. In Scotland, Eng- land, and Holstein in the eighteenth century inoculations were made by certain persons among the laity with the con- tents of the pustules from the udders of cows. In the year 1781 a milkmaid who had the cowpox went to London and there in the inoculation hospital attempts were made to in- oculate her with smallpox, but without success. In the medical circles of the metropolis this did not excite much attention, and it remained for a country physician, EDWARD J ENNER (g. v.), to see its general scientific importance and to make it useful to mankind. Jennefs Erperiments.——Jcnuerinoculated people who had gone through with the cowpox with the virus of smallpox, and in all cases without result. Many of the persons inoculated had had the cowpox many years before, one of them fifty- (417) 418 VACCINATION three years before, and from this Jenner concluded, although iinpi'opei‘ly, that this protection against smallpox lasted for a lifetime. On May 14, 1796. Jenner made his first vacci- nation. He vaccinated an eight-year-old child on the arm by making two superficial incisions, in which he placed the contents of a pustule of cowpox which had developed on the hand of a milkmaid. After this healed on the arm of the boy, he inoculated him in numerous places on the body with the contents of smallpox pustules, but without success. In this way he proved that when the cowpox was _conveyed_ to man by inoculation it carried with it protective material. He wrote a treatise on his experiments and the results he had obtained, and sent it to the Royal College of Physi- cians in London to make the facts generally known, but the manuscript was returned to him with a letter_ by no means flattering. In 1798 he inoculated a boy with the contents of the pustule of a cow, and by successive inocula- tions from the boy he propagated the virus through four generations, thus showing that the virus of the cowpox did not lose its efliciency when carried through different indi- viduals. Jenner afterward settled in London, where he published a treatise, giving the results of his experiments, which has become world renowned; it excited the greatest attention, and his experiments were repeated on a large scale. In the year 1801 10,000 persons were vaccinated by him and other physicians in England, and on more than half of them experiments were tried which proved that the method was entirely successful as a preventive of smallpox. Utility of Vaccination.-In 1857 the British Parliament received answers from 542 physicians to questions which were asked them in reference to the utility of vaccination, and only two of these spoke against _it. Nothing provestlns utilitv more clearly than the statistics obtamed. Especially instnictive are those which Flinzer compiled respecting the epidemic in Chemnitz which prevailed in 1870-71. At this time in the town there were 64,255 inhabitants, of whom 53,891, or 8387 per cent., were vaccinated, 5,712, or 889 per cent., were unvaccinated, and 4,652, or 7 '24 per cent., had had the smallpox before. Of those vaccinated 953, or 1'77 per cent., became affected with smallpox, and of the uninoculated 2,643, or 463 per cent., had the disease. In the vaccmated the mortality from the disease was 073 per cent., and in the unprotected it was 916 per cent. In general, the danger of infection is six times as great, and the mortality 68 times_as great, in the unvaccinated as in the vaccinated. Statistics derived from the civil population are in general not so in- structive as those derived from armies. where vaccination is usually more carefully performed and where statistics can be more accurately collected. During the Franco-German war (1870-71) there was in France a widespread epidemic of smallpox, but the German army lost during the campaign only 450 cases, or 58 men to the 100,000; in the French army, however, where vaccination was not carefully carried out, the number of deaths from smallpox was 23,400. It is known that the first idea of Jenner in regard to the duration of the protection conferred by vaccination was an erroneous one. It is positive that there is a certain degree of protec- tion which lasts during the entire life of the individual, and which in many cases is absolute, but in other cases the pro- tection gradually declines from the date Of vaccination, and in general we can say that the period of protection lasts about ten years. The best results are always Obtained by re- ieating the vaccination every ten years from‘ the first time. V hen the disease appears after vaccination,_it runs a rela- tively limited course, similar to that of V&1‘10lO1Cl or modi- fied smallpox. The numerous mortality-rates which have been collected show that the mortality due to smallpox de- pends greatly upon the number and the clearness of the scars left by vaccination. In the Stockwell smallpox hos- pital iii London, of 703 cases without vaccination scars 47 :5- per cent. died; of 516 with an imperfect scar 25 per cent. died ; of 632 with a good scar 5?-6 per cent. died ; of 677 with two good scars 4%,; per cent. died; of 301 With three good scars 2-1%; per cent. died; of 249 with four _or more good scars 1-,l0- per cent. died. From the statistics of Marson, which cover 6,000 cases, the mortality among those with the scars of several vaccinations was only 0'55 percent. Action of the Virus Described.—The susceptibility of an unvaccinated individual to the vaccine virus is almost an absolute one; there is usually a slight primary reaction in the place vaccinated which lasts until the end of the sec- ond day. On the third day a little nodule develops, and on the fifth day this begins to change into a small vesicle which gradually enlarges. On the seventh day this vesicle VACUUM reaches the limit of its development; it is then surrounded by a reddened edge, and is of a pearly color with a central yellowish or brownish depression marking the place of vac- cination. Sections made through the vesicle show a fan- like structure when examined through the microscope. There are numerous radiating branches going from the skin to the surface of the vesicle, which holds a fluid called lymph in its meshes. This is a clear, slightly yellowish opalescent fluid; a microscopic examination shows that it contains red and white blood corpuscles, small masses of fibrin, refractive globules, and usually some micro-organ- isms. On the eighth day the contents of the vesicle some- what change. The vesicle opens and the lymph has a puru- lent character. By and by the brown spot which appeared in the middle of the vesicle extends over the entire surface, and the vesicle becomes changed into a brown crust with a central depression. After three or four weeks the crust falls Off and a scar appears in its place. In the beginning this is red and superficial ; it becomes deeper in the course of time, and whiter than the surrounding skin. The base of the scar often has a reticular appearance. The depres- sions in the scar take the place of hair follicles which have been destroyed. Along with this local affection there is more or less general affection of the body; there is consid- erable irritation and itching of the spot; the neighboring lymph glands are often enlarged, and there is a slight rise in the temperature of the body. There are some disadvan- tages connected with vaccination, but these are not neces- sarily dependent upon it, and are the result of its perform- ance by inexperienced or careless persons. There is some- times an extensive gangrenous inflammation extending from the spot of vaccination; in other cases there may be severe inflammation of the glands in the axilla, with sup- puration, or in other cases an erysipelas extending from the spot of vaccination to neighboring parts. Of especial importance are the very few cases in which syphilis has been conveyed by vaccination. There have been collected in the whole history of smallpox records of fifty such cases with about 700 cases of retransference of the disease. When this number is divided among the millions vaccinated, it is easily seen that the danger must be a very slight one. All of these disadvantages connected with vaccination can be easily avoided. In the first place the danger of syphilis is always avoided by using the animal virus, and in general at the present time in civilized lands this is the only virus which is used. The other infections, the extensive inflam- mations, ete., are due to inoculation with various micro- organisms at the time when the vaccination is performed. For this the person performing the vaccination is frequent- ly directly culpable by using dirty instruments. Method of Vaccinating.—The method ordinarily used in procuring the lymph is to inoculate young heifers with the virus Of cowpox. The lace selected for the inoculation is on the mamma; when t e vesicles are fully formed and be- fore the stage of ustule formation is reached incisions are made in the vesic es and small ivory points are dipped into the fluid, or it may be drawn up in capillary tubes. When ivory points are used the lymph on them is allowed to dry, and they may then be kept for an almost indefinite time. In performing the operation the skin on the spot selected, which is usually the shoulder or upper part of the arm, should be carefully cleansed, and then with a perfectly clean instrument the epidermis should be gently scraped off over a small space, which need not be larger than an eighth of an inch square. As soon as the moist deeper layers of the skin are reached the ivory point containing the virus should be rubbed over the spot, and the small wound allowed to dry. Notwithstanding the evidence from all sides as to the elli- cacy of vaccination as a protection from smallpox, there have not been wanting opponents to the procedure. It is impos- sible for any one with any acquaintance at all with the na- ture Of the evidence, and with any appreciation of the value of evidence generally, to see on what grounds the position of these enemies to society is based. See the article IMMUNITY in regard to the way in which iminunityrby vaccination and inoculation is produced. \/ . T. COUNCILMAN. Vaccin'ium: a genus of plants to which the WHORTLE- BERRY (g. v.) belongs. Vac’ uiiln [: Lat., liter., neut. of va’cuus, empty, void] : a void; a portion of space which contains no matter. The definition implies a condition which it is impracticable to fulfill altogether, but the physicist is able to approach almost indefinitely near to the fulfillment. The ordinary mechanical VAGA air-pumps cease working before the pressure is reduced to -1-010-5 of an atmosphere, but by means of mercury vacuum pumps of the type designed by Sprengel it is possible, as is explained in the article PNEUMATICS (g. c.), to obtain an ex- haustion Of-1-0—6é‘(y(yb'. In the same article is an account of the method of measuring such high vacua. By the addition of chemical and other processes for getting rid of the traces of vapor which remain, even after the action of the mercury- ump has reached its limit, it is possible to attain to still liigher degrees of exhaustion. Thus Crookes, Rood, Bid- well, and others describe vacua of from W 5 to R-517},-mm; of an atmosphere. The properties of gases at such low pressures are of great interest. A high vacuum is, for example, the best of insulators againt the passage of heat. Dewar made use of this property in preparing a vial of liquid oxygen for transportation. The liquid, which boils at —196° C., was placed in a double flask. The inner vial was coated with a mirroring surface of mercury (fro- zen) to protect the contents from radiation. Between the walls of the inner and outer flasks the pressure was reduced to a very small quantity. In this manner, without further shield against heat conduction, the oxygen was carried with but little loss from London to Oxford, a distance of 63 miles. The phenomena which occur when an electric discharge takes place through an exhausted receiver afiord further illustra- tions of the importance of the study of partial vacua. A difference of electrical potential which is capable of send- ing sparks through only a few millimeters of air at ordinary pressure will cause a discharge through many centimeters when the pressure is reduced to a few thousandths of an at- mosphere. The form of the discharge varies in the most striking and beautiful manner as the degree of exhaustion increases. (See ELECTRIC DISCHARGE, ELEcTRiciTY, and GEissLER’s TUBES.) At a pressure somewhat less than Q5-(‘~,—5—6 atmosphere the discharge through the vacuum changes its form altogether, and a series of remarkable effects follow which have been studied by Crookes. The electrical dis- charge at these low pressures develops luminescence of the solids in its path, varying with the nature of the mate- rial. The phenomenon is known as the Crookes effect. Finally, at the very highest attenuations the discharge in oacuo ceases altogether. These partial and approximative vacua of the physicist never entirely meet the definition of that complete void the possibility of the existence of which used to form a subject of debate among the earlier philoso- phers. By virtue of the varied phenomena which they pre- sent, however, they are of much greater importance, from all standpoints excepting that of the metaphysician. E. L. NicHoLs. Vaga, PERINO, del: ainter; b. in Florence, June 28, 1500. His family name was uonaccorsi. He was adopted by an artist called Andrea dei Ceri, who took him from a druggist whom he served as assistant. Recognizing the boy’s great gifts, he placed him with Ghirlandajo, whose best pupil he soon became. He was afterward taken to Rome by a me- diocre painter called Vaga, who engaged him to help him in his work. In Rome he studied ancient art, became one of the best draughtsman of his day, and was chosen by Ra- phael to execute, together with Giovanni da Udine and Giu- lio Romano, his designs for the stucco and arabesque dec- orations of the loggias of the Vatican. He was also commis- sioned to decorate the great hall of the Appai'ta1iienti Borgia and the house of the archbishops of typrus. and executed other works, till he was driven from the city by the plague. He took refuge in Florence, where the Carthu- sians commissioned him to execute an important work for them which he designed, but was unable to carry out on ac- count of the plague that broke out in Florence. In 1525 Perino was in Rome and married Catharine, the sister of Giovanni Francesco Fatt-ore, a brother artist. It was at that time he painted The Birth of Eve in the Church of San Marcello. The sacking of Rome obliged him again to wander with his wife and child. After trouble and impris- onment he arrived in Genoa, where Prince Doria became his patron, and employed him to decorate his palace beyond the gate of St. Thomas. On his return to Rome he re- stored many of Raphael’s works and received innumerable orders, but much of his later work is inferior, owing to many commissions which led him to employ incompetent assistants. The Sala R-eale in the Vatican, begun under Paul III., from whom he received a regular salary, is his greatest work. He died in Rome, Oct. 14, 1547, worn out by overwork and dissipation. W. J . S. VAGANTES 419 Vagan’tes, Vagi Schola’res, or Go’liards: wandering clerks of the Middle Ages. The class was a large one and contained persons of the most diverse characters-students roaming from university to university, clergy willingly or unwillingly unprovided with benefices. and even mere bu_f- foons and popular entertainers who had happened to obtain something of Latinity at some monastic or cathedral school, and who used their uncertain connection with the Church as a means to keep them out of the hands of the secular au- thorities. At a very early period the obvious opportunities for abuse in such a wandering and unattached life brought upon the Vagantes the denunciations of the councils of the Church. Like the modern tramp, who is in a sense their de- generate descendant, they became the terror of the commu- nities into which they came. The lawlessness of their lives, too often unpunished, owing to their ready assertion of their right of clergy, brought discredit upon the whole body of the latter. They seem to have grown particularly prevalent dur- ing the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the period when the great European universities were coming into being. France and England were the countries in which they most flour- ished ; but they were to be found in great numbers also in Germany, Italy, Spain, and even Bohemia. At last the Church became thoroughly aroused, and by severe measures cut off from itself all those among the V agantes who re- fused to regulate their lives. With the end of the thirteenth century they ceased to exist as a distinct clerical class. The most interesting and important matter connected with the Vagantes, or Goliards. is the Latin poetry produced by them. Of this a considerable amount has come down to us. Though written by clerks, it is thoroughly profane in its character for the most part, and contrasts strangely with the hymns and other poetry of the Church. They seem to have studied Latinity only that they might use the amorous ideas and mythology of the Roman poets. They imitated, too, though in Latin, the verses of their contemporaries, the troubadours and trouveres. Often their praises of wine, women, and song reached an almost inconceivable cyni- cism. They did not limit themselves, however, to these subjects. '1‘hey were violent haters, as well as too ardent lovers; and many of their poems are devoted to denuncia- tions of their enemies, the monks and the professedly well- regulated clergy, whose vices they castigated unsparingly. A curious development of the activity of the Vagantes was the institution among them of a kind of mock order, after the manner of the orders of monks. They chose as their patron saint Goliath, probably because of the similarity of his name to Goliardi (a derivative, perhaps, of the French yaillard, gay, merry). They had mock rites and cere- monies, all parodies of those of the Church. They had a kind of pope, known as primas vagorum, or Archipoeta. or simply Golias. They had forms of initiation into the order. In short, they made their ribald lives the parody of the lives of the regular clergy. And so it came to pass that the very word goliardeis meant, as in Chaucer (Prol., v. 560), a loose and ribald fellow. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Collections of Goliardic poetry are to be found in J . Grimm and A. Schmeller, Lateinische Gedichte des X. und XI. Jahrhunderts (Gtittingen, 1838); Carmina Burana. ed. by J . A. Schmeller (Stuttgart, 1847; new ed. 1883) ; T. Wright, The Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter Jlfapes (London, 1841); E. du Méril, Poésies popu- Zaires latines antérieures au XII6 siecle (Paris, 1843), Poé- sies populaires Zatines du moyen dge (Paris, 1847), and Poésies inédites du moyen dye (Paris, 1854) ; F. Novati, Carmina medii moi (Florence, 1883). For English trans- lations see J . A. Symonds‘s Wine, Women, and Song (Lon- don, 1884). Discussions of the Goliards and their poetry are Giesebrecht’s Die Vaganten oder Goliarden und ihre Lieder (in Allgem. Illonatsc/zr. f. lVissenschaft u-nd Lit- teratur, 1853); Hubatsch, Die Zateinischen Vagantenheder des flfittelalters (G6rlitz, 1870): K. Francke, Laz‘einisehe Schulpoesie des XII. und XIII. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1879): A. Straccali. I Goliordi orrero i elerici ragowztes delle unilversita medievali (Florence. 1880); L. Ehrenthal. Studien zu den Liedern der l'aganten (Bromberg, 1891); C. Corradino, I Canti dei Goliardi (with Ital. translations, Turin, 1892); N. Spiegel, Die Vagonten und ihre Orden (Speyer, 1892) ; U. Ronca, Cultura medierole e poes/fa latina d‘Italia nei secoli XI. e XII. (Rome, 1892); J. Feifalik, Die altliohmischen G edich te rom Streite zwischeln Seele und Leib. lVebst Bez'z‘rdgen der l'agante7zpoesz'e in Bir'hmen (Vi- enna, 1861); Carmina clericorum : Studenten--L_ieder aus dem Jlfittelalter (Heilbronn, 1876). A. R. MARSH. 420 Vag-rants and Vagrancy: terms which, in their most general sense, mean “Wanderers” and “ wandering”; but as used in legal works and statutes they have come to desig- nate various classes of disorderly persons who can not be brought within any definite classification. They can be prop- erly indicated only by giving in effect the statutes which treat of them. In all civilized countries there is more or less regu- lation of vagrancy by law according as the conditions giving rise to the necessity for such regulation exist or are absent. For this same reason the laws of each country must be adapted to the suppression of that species of vagrancy which is found to be most detrimental to the public welfare, so that no general classification of the laws upon this subject can be given. Thus in the U. S. the laws regulating the subject vary widely both as to the kind of vagrancy intended to be sup- pressed and as to the severity of punishment infiicted upon vagrants. In the U. S. the term “ tramp ” is in general use as equivalent to vagrant in its general sense of a wandering disorderly person, or one wandering about without any visi- ble means of support ; but vagrant in its wider sense is ap- plied to many classes of persons who would not be termed tramps. In England vagrancy has been a subject of regu- lation by law for many centuries, and the laws there in force now apply (by extending acts) to Scotland as well as Ire- land and Wales. Owing to the gradual development of these laws and the varied conditions to which they are in- tended to apply, their history and present state will serve as a good illustration of the general treatment of the subject by the laws of other countries. Generally speaking, the class of mendicant vagrants is more freely tolerated in European countries than in the U. S. Outline of English Vagrcmcy Laws.—The first vagrancy laws of England grew out of an attempt to regulate labor by requiring laborers to continue to reside in a given place, and labor there for the wages ordinarily given. In 1349 and 1850 when the institution of serfdom was breaking down and a rise in laborers’ wages was taking place consequent to the pestilence of the black death, the Statutes of Labour- ers (two in number) were passed, for the purpose of check- ing this rise in wages, and, as has been suggested, to pro- vide a kind of substitute for serfdom. These statutes not only regulated the wages of laborers and mechanics, but confined them to their existing places of residence, com- pelling them to work for any one who should request con- venient service of them, and to take only the customary rate of wages, and fixing the wages of the most impor- tant classes of mechanics. These statutes were for 200 years confirmed, amended, and extended or modified on several occasions. The rigorous execution of their provisions was insured by giving wide authority on all the matters dealt with to the county and borough justices and police magis- trates. Vagrancy, or wandering, then became a crime, since if a man of this class went out of his own hundred or specified territory, even to look for work, he became a va- grant and a criminal. Many statutes were passed in the time of Richard II. referring to the number of persons who wandered about the country and committed all sorts of crimes, leaving their masters and associating in bands to overawe the authorities. The last of these statutes provided that “it is ordained and assented to restrain the malice of divers people, feitors, and wandering from place to place, running in the country more abundantly than they were went in times passed, that from henceforth the justices of assizes in their sessions, the justices of peace, and the sherifis in every county shall have power to inquire of all vaga- bonds and feitors and their offenses and upon them do all the law demandeth.” In 1388 an elaborate statute was passed (12 Rich. II.) con- taining many provisions as to laborers’ wages and justices, and providing that no servant should leave the hundred in which he dwelt without a letter patent from the kin g, stating the cause of his going and the time of his return, and any- one found wandering without such a letter was to be put in the stocks and kept till he found surety to return to his service. In another chapter a distinction is made between beggars “ able to labor” and “beggars impotent to serve,” and this act is the first to recognize a distinction between the impotent and the able-bodied poor. In the reign of Henry V. a remarkable act was passed which states that “the servants and laborers of the shires of the realm do flee from county to county, because they would not be justified by the ordinances and statutes by the law for them made, to the great damage of the gentlemen and others to whom they should serve because that the said VAGRANTS AND VAGRAN CY ordinances and statutes for them ordained be not executed in every shire.” It empowered justices of the peace to “ send their writs for such fugitive laborers to every sheriff in the realm of England” who were to take them and send them back to the place whence they came, and it also gave justices of the peace “ power to examine as well all manner of laborers and servants, and their masters as artificers,” and punish them upon their confession. The next important act relative to this subject was that of 22 Henry VIII., c. 12, passed in 1530. It imposed very severe penalties on vagrants. The impotent poor were to be licensed to beg within certain limits, and begging with- out a license was punishable by whipping. Vagrants able to labor were to be stripped naked, tied to a cart’s tail, and whipped through the town till bloody, and then sent back to labor, being liable to more whipping if they failed to go directly home. People pretending to knowledge in “_palnnstry or other crafty science.” and some others of a like character, were to be whipped two days together for the first offense, and for the second to be scourged two days, be put upon the pillory the third day from 9 till 11 A. M., and to have an ear out off, and for the third ofiense the same penalty, the other car being cut off. Various other provi- sions were also contained in the statute providing for the punishment by whipping or mutilation of other classes of vagrants. _ In 1547 all these statutes were repealed, as not being suffr- clently severe, by 1 Edw. VI., c. 2. which provided for the arrest as vagabonds of loitering and idle wanderers, or those who ran away from their work. As punishment they were to be branded with a V, and given as slaves for two years to any one demanding them, and they were to be fed on bread and water and refuse meat, and each was to be caused to work in such labor “how vile soever it be as he shall be put unto by beating, chaining, or otherwise.” If he ran away he was to be branded with the letter S, and adjudged a slave for life, and upon running away again he was to be hanged. Two years later, in 1549, this barbarous act was repealed and the acts of Henry VIII. were revived, and in 1552 these %)atte_r were confirmed, but licenses to beg were permitted to e ‘lV6I1. In 1572 all these statutes were repealed by an act which provided that all beggars should be “grievously whipped, and burnt through the gristle of the right ear " for a first offense, and be guilty of a felony for a second. In 1597 was passed the famous statute 39 Eliz., c. 4, which remained in force, with some changes, for over a century. It provided for the erection of houses of correction for the reception of rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars till either put to work or banished; and ordained that any such persons found begging, wandering, or misordering themselves should be stripped naked to the waist and whipped in public till bloody, and then sent to their birthplace by a fixed route (being wlnpped upon every deviation from it), to be taken to thyp (lgouse of correction, and there kept till employed or ban- is e . This act defines rogues and vagabonds not by any general characteristic, but by an enumeration of a large number of classes—-persons either disturbing the good order of the com- munity or considered detrimental to society. “ All persons calling themselves scholars going about begging; all seafar- ing men pretending losses of their ships and goods on the sea; all idle persons going about either begging or using any subtle craft, or unlawful games and plays, or feigning to have knowledge in physiognomy, palmistry, or other like crafty science, or pretending that they can tell destinies, fortunes, or such other fantastical imaginations; all fencers, bear-wards, common players, and minstrels; all jugglers, tinkers, and petty chapmen ; all wandering persons and com- mon laborers, able in body and refusing to work for the wages commonly given; all persons delivered out of gaols that beg for their fees or travel begging; all persons that wander abroad begging, pretending losses by fire or other- wise; and all persons pretending themselves to be Egyptians (i. e. gypsies) ” were included in the list. Various minor amendments and additions to this act were made up to 1713, when all laws relating to rogues and vaga- bonds were repealed, and the act of 1597 re-enacted with a few omissions. In 1744, after various repealing and amending acts, a comprehensive act was passed, which is largely the basis of all subsequent legislation in Great Britain Ionlthis subject. It distinguished three classes of ofl’enders—(1) idle and dis- orderly persons, (2) rogues and vagabonds, and (3) incorrigi- VAGRANTS AND VAGRANCY ble rogues, and made minute provisions as to their arrest, return to their place of settlement, and punishment. The act (5 Geo. IV., c. 83) which is still in force was passed in 1824, after the act of 1744 had been amended (1792) and repealed (1822). The act of 1824 (amended and made applicable to Scotland by 34 and 35 Vict., c. 112, sec- tion 15) repealed all prior acts and greatly enlarged the list of persons classed as rogues and vagabonds, including with subsequent amendments under those terms almost all per- sons who prowl about apparently with an unlawful purpose. This act provides for the punishment as vagrants of (1) idle and disorderly persons, (2) rogues and vagabonds, (3) incor- rigible rogues, and provides that the first class shall be im- prisoned with hard labor for any term not exceeding one month, the second class for any term not exceeding three months, and the third class till the next general or quarter ses- sions of the peace, when the offender may be further im- prisoned with hard labor for a year, and if a male may be whipped. In the U. S. vagrants were so comparatively few in numbers, and so generally harmless in character, that prior to the civil war the subject of the regulation of va- grancy received but little public attention. Subsequently, however, owing partly to the effects of the disbandment of the armies and the scattering of the numerous camp-follow- ers through the country, partly to the hard times of 1873 and later, and partly to the various changes of condition accompanying and resulting from the growth of the country and the increase of population and of the numbers of immi- grants, vagrants, and especially those of the class commonly designated as tramps, increased so largely in numbers, and became so much more vicious and dangerous in character, that many rural homes became unsafe for women and chil- dren, and cases of violence and crime became not uncom- mon along their routes of travel—which are fairly well fixed-— even in villages of considerable size. The evil became so great as to attract much public attention, and resulted in the enactment generally in the U. S. of vagrancy laws much more stringent and comprehensive than those which had previously existed, the larger part of them dating subse- quent to the year 1878. Nearly all the States followed to a large extent the English system of vagrancy laws, with local variations made for the sake of greater efliciency or to meet the requirements of local conditions. The States most troubled by tramps and wandering vagrants generally were those through which the great railway lines extended. The State of New Jersey passed very stringent repressive laws, as well as Pennsylvania. The latter, which was one of the first to attempt the suppression of the tramp evil, furnished the groundwork for the laws of many other States, so far as they differ from those of England. The General Vagrancy Act of Pennsylvania was passed in 1876, and included under the title of vagrancy a large num- ber of wandering and disorderly persons, being more gen- eral in its terms than the English vagrancy statutes; but in 1879 an act was passed distinguishing a tmmp from a vagrant, in general, as being ‘* any person going about from place to place begging, asking, or subsisting upon charity. and for the purpose of acquiring money or a living, and who shall have no fixed place of residence or lawful occupa- tion in the county or city in which he shall be arrested ” : and by this act such persons are made liable to imprison- ment by separate and solitary confinement at labor. in the county jail or workhouse, for not more than twelve months, while vagrants in general are liable onlyr to labor on a coun- ty farm, or upon the roads or highways, or in a house of cor- rection, poorhouse, workhouse, or common jail, for a term of not less than thirty days and not more than six months. The passage of severe laws in one State was followed by a migration to others less severe in their laws, and these States in turn increased the stringency of their laws until such laws became general throughout most of the U. S. One of the most effective, but much criticised, measures was that pro- viding for the punishment of vagrants by compelling them to work in chain gangs upon the roads or in breaking stone. The constitution of the State of California provided for the public whipping of tramps, and a determined, but unsuc- cessful, eifort was made in \Visconsin to enact a law for the whipping of tramps. The enforcement of vagrancy laws is more or less lax in a given locality according to the social, political, and econom- ical conditions which make vagrants more or less objection- able. The severities of the old laws of England have been largely done away with, partly because it has come to VAICESHIKA PHILOSOPHY 421 be recognized that here, as with other crimes, excessive severity is not proportionally, if at all, a greater deterrent; and partly because it is recognized, as the result of advances in economical and sociological knowledge, that vagrancy is due to social and economical conditions, the removal of which is the true remedy. F. STURGES ALLEN. Vagus Nerve, or Par Vagum [Lat.; par, pair + ca/gum, neut. of ea’gns, wandering]: the more usual name for the tenth cranial nerve of vertebrates, called in human anato- my PNEUMOGASTRIG NERVE (q. 7).). It acquires its greatest development in the aquatic vertebrates, where it supplies the frequently extensively developed lateral line system of sensory organs. J. S. K. Vahlen, JOHANNES: classical scholar; b. at Bonn, Ger- many, Sept. 28, 1830; studied under Ritschl; privat docent at Bonn, 1854; professor extraordinary in Breslau, 1856; ordinary professor in Freiburg 1858, but called to Vienna in the same year. In 1874 he became Haupt’s successor at Berlin. His work is chiefly devoted to Aristotle and early Latin. He edited Ennius and Naevius (1854); Lachmann’s I/ucilins (1876); Haupt’s Catntlns Tibnllus and Prcpertius (4th ed. 1879); Haupt’s Horace (5th ed. 1885); O. J ahn’s Longinus‘s Hepl W/ovs (2d ed. 1885); Koch’s Seneca (1879); Cicero’s De Zegibus (2d ed. 1883) ; Plautus’s ilfenaechmi (1882) ; Aristotle’s Poetics (3d ed. 1885), with a commentary, Beitrcige zn Aristotetes Poetik (4 pts., Vienna. 1865-67), the stand- ard works on the subject ; and Lorenzo Vatla (2d ed. 1870). Besides very numerous treatises of permanent value on Aristotle, Alcidamas, Ovid, Propertius, Ennius, etc., he is also the author of the anonymous semi-annual prooemia of the University of Berlin (since 1874), dealing with Greek and Latin texts in a way which stamps them as perfect models of critical and hermeneutical exegesis. A. G. Vaiceshika (vava-i-shash'eVe=ka“a) Philosophy : one of the six systems of Brahmanical philosophy. These systems form three pairs, and each member of these several pairs stands in especially close relation with its mate: to wit, the Mi- MZNSK with the VEn.Ti.\"rA; the SL\'KHYA with the YOGA; and the VAIQESHIKA with the NYAYA PHILOSOPHY (see these arti- cles). The last two, which teach the evolution of the world from atoms and are distinguished from the rest by a rigor- ous classification of the fundamental logical conceptions, are usually fused together in the philosophical literature of India and treated as one. On this account Occidental scholars for some time confused the doctrines of the Vziiceshika with those of the N yaya, and only recently has it become possible to de- termine the contents of the two systems in their original and distinct individuality. The Vaicesliika system is undoubtedly of greater antiquity than the Nyaya, although, indeed, the opposite opinion prevailed until recently. There is good rea- son for referring the Brahma-si'1tras or Sfitras of the VEDANTA (q. 2*.) to the beginning of our era or to a time slightly ante- rior. Since the Br-ahm a-sfitras themselves contain (ii. 2. 12- 17) a distinct polemic against the doctrines of the Va-iceshika, we are j ustified in referring the origin of the Vziiceshika sys- tem to a time prior, but not long prior, to the birth of Christ. At the close of the passage just cited we find the interesting remark that the Va-icesliika is not really worthy of any seri- ous consideration because nobody accepts it, a slight which. if well founded, stands in surprising contrast with the fact of the great popularity of the system in India in later times. On the other hand. the system can not be so old as to per- mit its derivation from the atomistic doctrines of Leucippus and DEMOCRITUS (q. 7).), although, when we consider the other manifold correspondences between Indie and Greek philoso- phy, there is often a great probability of historical connec- tion and of derivation from India. The name of the founder of the V aic-eshika system is said to be Kariada. that is. Kano + ado, or Atom-eater; and, since the Hindus have the habit of giving to the same per- son several appellations which are different in form but yet etymologically of identical signification, he is also called Kana-bliuj and Kana-bliakslia, both also meaning Atom- eater. It is likely that this was originally a mere nickname which was chosen in allusion to the character of the system, and which, after coming into general vogue, displaced the real name of the founder. The strength of the system lies in its establishment of the six categories ( pa.dd4't7z (1), under which, according to Kai_u'i.da, everything existent can be subsumed. Nevertheless, Kanfi-da does not restrict himself to the establishment of his cate- gories ; he endeavors rather in their discussion to solve the most varied problems of existence and of thought, and there- /$22 VAICESHIKA PHILOSOPHY by to arrive at a comprehensive philosophical view of the world. The categories or predicaments are as follows :_ 1, Substance (dravya) ; 2, quality (gnna) ; 3, motion or action (lcarman); 4, community or generality (sdmdnya); 5, differ- ence or particularity (m'g;esha) ; and, 6, intimate relation or inherence (samavdya). These notions are very precisely de- fined and are disposed under various subdivisions. _ 1. Under the category of substance are placed earth (1. e. all organic bodies, and all inorganic matter except the other elements), water, light, air, ether, time, space, soul, and the organ of thought. It seems surprising to us that the Val- ceshika should account space and time to be substances; but we must bear in mind that in this system “ substance ” means nothing more than that which possesses quality or motion and which is the immediate cause of a phenomenon. The difficult question of the nature of space and time, of which Kant was the first to give the definitive solution. is treated throughout the Indie philoso hies only incidentally and as a subordinate matter. The gankhya has gone furthest in its treatment, and declares space and time to be two quali- ties of the eternal primeval matter considered as a unit. The discussion of the category of substance gives Kanzida opportunity to develop his theory of the origination of the world from atoms (ann, ioaramd/nn, lcana). The atoms of earth, water, light; air, and ether are eternal and uncre- ated ; and although they themselves have no extension, yet their heterogeneous nature results, when they are combined with one another, in their extension and visibility. Even an aggregate of three atoms (try-annlta), or, according to some teachers, of three double-atoms (dvy-analca), possesses a certain extension and is visible as the mote (lrasa-rena) in the sunbeam. This whole theory is stoutly contested in the Vedanta and Sankhya works, and upon the same ground- namely, that if the single atoms have no extension, then also an aggregation thereof can have no extension, inasmuch as every attribute of a product is conditioned by a similar at- tribute of its material cause. 2. The category of quality embraces color, taste, smell, feel (and especially temperature), number, quantity, or ex- tension, individuality, conjunction, disjunction, priority, pos- teriority, intelligence, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, and vo- lition. Carhkaramigra, in his comment on the Vz1iceshika- sfltras, i. 1. 6, enlarges Kanada’s list of seventeen by the addition of seven others, which, although virtually included in the aforesaid seventeen, are yet, he opines, worthy of es- pecial mention. These are : gravity, fluidity, viscidity, sound (the especial quality of the element ether), after-effect (sams/odra), merit, and demerit. The saznslcdra manifests itself (a) as the continuance of a motion in consequence of a given impulse, (Z2) as elasticity, and (c) as memory. This enumeration, as is evident, contains not only qualities of matter, but also such as have to do with spirit. In this con- nection accordingly Kanada is led to develop his psychology. In opposition to the Szinkhyans and Vedantists, who hold that the soul is devoid of qualities, the Vzticeshika system maintains that the spiritual qualities belong directly to the soul. The soul is without beginning and without end and all-pervasive, and is thus free from the bonds of space and time. If now the soul came immediately or directly into connection with the objects of cognition, it would follow that all objects would present themselves simultaneously to con- sciousness. Kanada explains why this is not the case by as- suming an organ of thought, the manas or inner sense, with which the soul stands in the closest connection. It is only through the mediation of this manas that the soul takes cog- nizance not only of external things, but also of its own quali- ties. The manas is eternal like the soul; but, in contrast with the soul, the manas is an atom, and as such it is capa- ble of comprehending only a single object in any given in- stant. For the cognition of eternal things there is need of the co-operation of the corporeal senses with the manas. These senses, according to the Vaiceshika, are not modifica- tions of consciousness, but are material ; and are formed of the five elements: the hearing consists of ether; the sight, of light; the taste, of water; the sense of feeling consists of air; and the sense of smell consists of earth. 3 and 4 and 5. The varieties of the third and fourth categories, that is (3) of motion or action and (4) of com- munity or generality, are of small significance. The fifth category, difference or particularity, on the other hand, is of importance, inasmuch as it plays so great a part in the ex- planation of the origination of the world from atoms. And, accordingly, the name of the system, “ Vaiceshika,” is derived from the Sanskrit word for “ difference,” which is mlcesha. VAIL 6. Of especial interest is the sixth category, inherence or intimate relation. It does great credit to Kanada and his acumen that he has set it up. This notion is sharply dis- tinguished from that of connection (sarhg/oga), which is oc- casional or accidental, and not indissoluble, and which ap- pears as one of the varieties of the category of quality. In- hercnce is the relation which exists, for example, between a thing and its qualities, between a whole and its parts, be- tween every object and the general idea which is connected with it, between motion and the thing which is moving, be- tween the species and the genus. It is remarkable that this important notion has found no acceptance among the ad- herents of the other systems in India excepting those of the N a a. 3'77.yLater teachers of the Vaiiceshika system have added to the six categories a seventh, to wit, non-existence or nega- tion (abhdva), which has exercised a portentous influence upon the development of logical investigation. This cate- gory too is divided, with genuine Indie subtilety, into the four varieties of prior, posterior, conditioned, and absolute non-existence. Prior non-existence is what we should call in positive terms “future existence.” For posterior non- existence we should say “past existence.” Conditioned or reciprocal non-existence is the relation subsisting be- tween two non-identical things (e. g. a jar is not cloth). Absolute non-existence is usually exemplified by the impos- sibility of fire in water. The ultimate purpose of the Véiiceshika philosophy. like that of other Brahmanical systems, is the release of the souls from the distressing round of existences; and as the one and only means of attaining such release, the system recognizes the right knowledge of all that is knowable, which knowledge it is the aim of the system to teach. The Vaiceshika-s1'1tras constitute the principal treatise of this school ; and they have been edited, with the commentary of Car'nkaramicra, and with another commentary written by the editor himself, by Jayanarayana Tarkapancanana, in the B/lble'otheca Indlca (Calcutta, 1861). The Sfitras were translated into German, with comments, by Eduard Rtier, in the Zee'tschm'fl der dentschen morgenlc'lnde'sch en Gesellschaft, xxi. and xxii.; and into English, with copious extracts from the commentators, by A. E. Gough (Benares, 1873). Rmnxan GARBE. Translated by C. R. LANMAN. Vail, THOMAS HUBBARD, S. T.D., LL. D.; bishop; b. at Richmond, Va., of New England parents, Oct. 21, 1812. He graduated at Washington (now Trinity) College in 1831, and at the General Theological Seminary in 1835; ordained deacon in St. Mark‘s church, New Canaan, Conn., June 29, 1835; ordained priest in Grace church, Boston, Mass., Jan. 6, 1837. During the three months following his ordination to the diaconate he ofliciated in St. J ames’s church, Phila- delphia. After this he acted temporarily as assistant to Rev. J. M. Wainwright, then rector of St. Paul’s church, Boston. Under Dr. l/Vainwright’s direction he went to Worcester, Mass., and organized All Saints’ church. In 1837 he became the rector of Christ’s church, Cambridge; in 1839 of St. John’s church, Essex, Conn. ; and in 1844 of Christ church, Westerly, R. I., where he remained fourteen years, during which time he was a deputy to the General Convention from the diocese of Rhode Island, and also a member of the stand- ing committee. In Dec., 1857, he returned to Massachu- setts, and became the rector of St. Thomas’s church, Taunton; and in 1863 he became the rector of Trinity church, Musca- tine, Ia. He was consecrated first Bishop of Kansas in Trin- ity church, Muscatine, Ia., Dec. 15, 1864. He published an edition of Rev. Augustus F. Lyte’s Buds of Spring, with memoir and additional poems of his own (Boston, 1838), and wrote Plan and Outline, /un'z,‘7z, selections of books, under many heads, of a Public Dlbrary in Rhode Island (1838); Hannah, a Sacred Drama (Boston, 1839); and The Compre- hensive Church (1841 ; 3d ed. 1883). He also delivered and published a number of occasional sermons, and a volume of his charges and episcopal addresses has been published smce his death. He was president and founder of Bethany Col- lege, Topeka, Kan. The twentieth anniversary of his epis- copate was celebrated at Topeka in 1885. D. at Bryn Mawr, Pa., Oct. 6, 1889. Revised by W. S. PERRY. Vail, WILLIAM BERRIAN2 member of Canadian Privy Council; b. in Sussex Vale, New Brunswick, Dec. 20, 1823, and educated there. He represented Digby in the Nova Scotia Assembly in 1867—74, and during that period was a member of the executive council and provincial secretary, and sat for the same county in the Canadian Parliament in VAILLANT, LE 1874-78 and 1882-87. He became a member of the Privy Council, and was appointed Minister of Militia and Defense Sept. 30, 1874, and retained this portfolio until 1878, when he retired with the Mackenzie administration. N. M. Vaillant, Le: See LEVAILLANT, FRANCOIS. Vaish'navas [from Sanskr. VcZz',s-para.-, liter., masc. adj. of or pertaining to Vishnu, deriv. of Ve1_spu-, Vishnu]: a Hindu sect whose peculiar patron and most especial object of veneration is Vishnu, the second person of the Indian Trinu1rti. The sect is itself subdivided into almost innu- merable smaller sects, all of which are bound together by the one idea?-that, above all other gods of the Hindu pan- theon, Vishnu stands supreme. Roughly speaking, these sects of Vaishnavas may be classed as the “ Northerners ” and the “ Southerners,” according to the z‘psz'ssz‘ma oerrba of Hindu theology. But the tone of Vaishnava opinions is constantly changing, and we find the so-called Northerners constantly contending nowadays, in the Deccan and extreme south of India, with the Southerners. So, in reality, no hard and fast line can be drawn, and no grouping of the hundreds of sects comprising the Vaishnava sect can be satisfactorily made. The term Vaishnava is as elastic as that of Chris- tian. Even the mark on the Vaishnava’s forehead, which is shaped like a trident, can not invariably be depended upon. One sect prolongs the central prong, so to speak, of the trident to the tip of the nose, and holds that it is neces- sary to salvation that this should be done. The opposing sect sto s short at the eyebrows. Many a bloody feud be- tween aishnavas has arisen on account of this one contro- versy. Then some of the sectarian marks differ in the thick- ness of the lines; and even that, in the watchful eye of a scrupulous Hindu, is of immense importance. So are also the necklaces and rosaries, the forms of the garments worn, and, above all, the sacred initiatory formulas. The distinctive mark of the Northerners is formed by two white perpendicular streaks, or two streaks converging like the lines of a V from the roots of the hair, across the fore- head, to the eyebrows. These streaks are of powdered san- dal-wood made into an adhesive paste. From between the eyebrows another white streak is drawn, connecting the lower portion of the V to the tip of the nose, thus making the mark resemble a Y. Some of these sectaries make the line along the nose stop at the middle of its ridge. The distinctive mark of the Southerners consists of two white lines of chalk, perpendicular and parallel, from the roots of the hair to the eyebrows, with a streak of similar color join- ing the base of the lines, and running at right angles to them above the nose. In the middle, between the two perpendic- ular white lines, is drawn, parallel with them, a line of red paste composed of turmeric and lime, or simple red chalk. The Northern Vaishnavas number more than 45,000,- 000. Two out of three'Vaishnavas in Bengal are of this sect. They believe that faith in Vishnu will save more swiftly, surely, and effectually than works can. The virtues of pious meditation and abstraction are not to be compared to the virtues of belief. Knowledge is of little account; faith is all in all. It is good to subjugate the passions, to practice the yoga, to give alms, to be of a mind filled with charity, to call on the sacred name, to wear the sacred symbols on the person, to be honorable, virtuous, and meek; but faith is the sole and supreme fount of salvation. And yet these mild Hindus, who worship the Preserver, and believe that by belief alone in the nine-times-incarnate-One they shall attain heaven, tell their brethren of the Rainaiifija sect that the latter can not be saved unless they lengthen the middle stroke on their foreheads to the tip of their noses! The Raiiiaiiujas naturally reply that the performance of this lengthening of the line as arequisite for salvation is in itself a “ work,” so that the N ortherners are inconsistent with re- gard to their avowed creed. In older days these theological disputes used to lead t.o exhibitions of physical force. Tem- ples used to be hurled down. cities depopulated, women and innocent children butchered-—-all to prove whether the dis- tinctive central mark of a Vaishnava’s forehead should stop at his eyebrows or whether it should elongate itself to the root of his nose ! But, after all, the Northerners must be considered the most liberal. They are the Protestants of V aishnava theology. They insist on faith as the supreme requisite. They are not so ground down by usages and multitudinous formulas as are the Ramanujas. The latter are more in the hands of their priests ; the former own as their great high priest con- science. The Northerners adhere as much as possible to the VALATIE 423 simplest tie which can possibly bind them to the worship of Vishnu as a distinctive connecting link-—that is, the repeti- tion of the name of the god in the person of the greatest of his avatars, Krishna! Only repeat this, and worship is com- plete, and all ceremonial observances are wholly needless. The Southern Vaishnavas are especially fond of worship- ing Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. N o Vaishnava of Southern India will allow any one to look on his food while he is eating it. A look would be pollution, and he at once would treat it as ordure and bury it out of sight. He he- lieves that Vishnu is the spring, center. foundation, cause, and creator of all. Matter and spirit unite in him as God and as the Incarnate. In Southern India the Ramanuja Vaishnavas number many tens of millions, and their tem- ples are among the most splendid in India. The Vallabha-Achciryas are a strong, well-organized sect of Vaishnavas of Central India. Their head priests are called mahcZrc'tjas. The votaries of this sect are bound to reverence their teacher as God. It is said, “ The priest or maharajah is Vishnu himself ; he is Krishna incarnate ; the true believer must bestow on the priest his body-organs of sense, life, heart, faculties, wife, house, family, property, and all his own self.” _ The flfadhufl Achcirya sect number many adherents, es- pecially in the Telugu country. They believe in Vishnu as the great invisible First Spirit, the Prime Cause, the Origi- nator of the Universal, the primeval Sole and Supreme, per- fectly good, omnipotent, and of nature totally indescribable. This sect brand themselves with Vaishnava symbolic em- blems as a preventive against schism. As a part of their worship they demand that virtue shall be invariably prac- ticed, alms freely offered, truth always told, and that kind- ness and protection and courtesy be shown to all men, espe- cially strangers. They deny the doctrine of absorption, and so differ in a vital point of doctrine from a large number of their co-religionists. Brahma, they believe, grew out of a lotus, which itself grew out of Vishnu’s navel. Their idea of heaven is that of final liberation from future births, and sharing with Vishnu in every respect the glories and felici- ties of his heaven. The true believer, after ascending thither, will not only be perfectly happy, but will be endued with omnipotence. The sacred color of this sect is a deep saffron. Their supreme authority is the Veda. Their priests pretend to strict asceticism. The Kabir Panthis are a very numerous sect in Northern and Central India. They are strict Unitarians. believing in one sole Creator of the universe, perfect in holiness, omnip- otence, irresistible. yet with corporeal form. All that is good in earth resembles him. The perfect man after death shares equally with Vishnu his perfection of character, bliss- fulness, and power. Indeed, God and man are identical. The whole visible creation is also God, begot by the female form, 1lIcZ_z/ar, created by God, to relieve his loneliness and give birth to nature. They are very careful to teach that pure morality is the highest good and the way to God. Of all Vaishnavas they are certainly regarded as being most liberal. Revised by R. LILLEY. Vaish’naViSn1: the doctrines and practices of the VAISH- NAVAS (g. 1).). Vaisya: See Casrn. Valais vaa'1a' (Ger. WaZZ»is) : canton of Switzerland; bounded N. by the cantons of Vaud and Berne. E. by Uri, Ticino, and Italy, S. by Italy, and \V. by France. It con- sists of one valley inelosed by the Bernese and Pennine Alps, which are the highest mountains of Europe, and trav- ersed by the Rhone, which at the western extremity of the valley enters the Lake of Geneva. Area, 2,027 sq. miles. Cattle-rearing and dairy husbandry are the chief occupa- tions: at the bottom of the valley, where the summer heat is intense and the ground along the river level and fertile, wheat, wine, fine fruits, and excellent vegetables are culti- vated with success. Capital, Sion or Sitten. Pop. of can- ton (1893) 108,236, of whom about 75,000 speak French, 15,000 German, and the rest Italian. They are nearly all Roman Catholics. Evised by M. \V. HARRINGTON. Vala'tie: village; Kinderhook town, Columbia co., N. Y.; on the Kinder. and Hudson Railway: 16 miles S. by E. of Albany (for location, see map of New York, ref. 5—J). It is at the junction of Kinderhook creek and the outlet of Kinderhook Lake: is principally engaged in the manufacture of paper and cotton, woolen, and tin goods; does its banking in Kinderhook. and has a weekly newspa- per. Pop. (1880) 1,775 ; (1890) 1,437. 424 VALCKENAER Valckenaer, vaal’ke-na”ar. Lonnwmx Kxsrxaz Greek scholar; b. at Leeuwarden, Holland, June 7, 1715; studied in Franeker and Leyden; Professor of Greek at Franeker 1741. In 1776 he was called to Leyden as the successor of his teacher, Hemsterhusius. D. at Leyden, Holland, Mar. 14, 1785. Valckenaer was one of the greatest classical scholars of modern times, and many of his contributions have a permanent value. His editions of the Phoenissce (4th ed. 1824, 2 vols.) and the .Hippolytns of Euripides, containing the famous Diatribe in Earipidis perditariwn fabula2'2/nn fragmenta (1768 : 1823, 2 vols.), and of Theocr1- tus, Bion, and Moschus (1781), mark an epoch in the critical and literary study of these poets. He also edited Homer’s Iliad with the scholia (1747), and the fragments of Callim- achus (published by Luzac, 1799). But his masterpiece is probably the Diatrihe de Aristobulo (pubhshed_ posthu- mously by Luzac, 1806), in which the hterary forgeries perpe- trated by Alexandrian scholars are exposed. H1s Opaseula oritica was published in 2 vols., 1809, and Seleota ea; scho- liis Valehenarii (2 vols.) in 1817. See Wyttenbach, Vita D. Rnhnhenii, pp. 175-181 ; Bergman, Memoria Valchenarii (Utrecht, 1874). ALFRED GUDEMAN. Valdegalnas, MARQUES DE! See Donoso Conrris. Val del Bove: See ETNA. Valde eiias, va“al-dd-pan’yaas: town; in the province of Ciudad heal, Spain; 140 miles by rail S. by E. of Madrid (see map of Spain, ref. 16-F). It is celebrated for its red wine, which is one of the best produced in Spain. Pop. (1887) 15,404. Valdés, va*al-das’, ALFoNso and J UAN, de: twin brothers ; reformers; b. at Cuenca, Spain, about 1500, of a noble and wealthy family. ALFONSO became private secretary to Charles V. and was present at the Diet of Worms 1521, at which Luther appeared, and also at the Diet of Augsburg 1530. He took the same stand as Erasmus toward the Reformation—ap- plauding it so far as it was an attack upon the corruptions of the Church and having friendly relations with its lead- ers, but having no appreciation of it as a spiritual move- ment. He lived at the court of Brussels, but died in Vienna, Oct., 1532. In 1527 he wrote a dialogue called Lactantias, descriptive of the sacking of Rome by the Con- stable de Bourbon, and in it he exposed the ecclesiastical evils of the times. This was reprinted at Madrid in 1850.- JUAN entered the imperial service in Spain, later was in that of the pope in Rome, Bologna, Naples, and other places. But he imbibed Reformation principles, produced a Spanish translation of Paul’s Epistles, with a commentary, and nu- merous minor writings, all giving expression to his new views. He died in Naples in 1541, where he had lived a few years and where he gathered a little band which numbered Peter Martyr, Bernardino Ochino, Vittoria Colonna, and Giulia Gonzaga. They were accused by the Inquisition of having formed a sect called Valdesians, and some of his fol- lowers were put to death and others had to take refuge in foreign countries. The books of Valdés and his influence upon religious thought had fallen into almost complete ob- livion, when his memory was revived by an English Quaker, Benjamin B. Wiffen (see Bibliotheoa I/Vifleniana, Spanish Reformers, by E. Biihmer, London, 1874; Eng. trans. of his Christian Alphabet, 1860; Considerations, 1865; Spir- itual Jlfilh, 1882; Commentary on Matthew, 1882), who be- gan in 1848 the publication of a series of Reformistas An- tiguos Espaholes, which extended to 20 vols., and included, besides works of Tomas Carrasco and Dr. Juan Perez, sev- eral by Valdés, viz., Dos Didlogos (1850); Zineto y Diez Con- sideraeiones (1550; reprinted 1855) ; Alfabeto Cristiano, from the Italian edition of 1546, with two modern transla- tions in Spanish and English (1861) ; Didlogo de la Lengna (1546; reprinted 1860); and La Epistola de San Pablo d los Romanos 3/ la I d los Corintios, ambas trad/aoidas 3/ oo- mentadas (1556; reprinted 1856). The second of these works had been translated into French and Dutch, and had appeared in an English version by Nicholas Ferrar, with the title Considerations on a Religious Life (Oxford, 1638). Wiifen also published The Life and lVr/itings of Juan de Valdés, otherwise Valdesso, Spanish Reformer in the Sid‘- teenth Centarny (1865), with a translation from the Italian of his Ifandred and Ten Considerations by John T. Betts. Valdés was not a Lutheran, nor did he question any doc- trine of the Church, his title to the name of reformer rest- ing upon his comprehensive spiritual fellowship with all genuine Christians. See an elaborate article on the Valdés brothers by E. Btihmer in I-Ierzog’s Real-Enoyhlopddie filr VALDIVIESO protestantisohe Theologie and Kirehe, and the same writer’s Cenni Biografioi sai Fratelli Giovanni e Alfonso di Val- desso (1861). Revised by S. M. J AGKSON. Valdez, MELENDEZ : See MELENDEZ VALDEZ. Valdiv’ia: a province of Chili, in the southern part, between Cautin and Llanquihue; extending from the Pa- cific to the crest of the Andes. Area, 8,315 sq. miles. The greater part consists of plains and rolling or hilly lands be- tween the Andes and the lower Coast Range ; portions near the mountains are well wooded. Until recently this region- was held by the Araucanian Indians, the Government main- taining only a few posts. It is now rapidly develo ing as a grazing district. Pop. (1892) estimated, 62,020. aldivia, the capital, is on the Calla-Calla river, near its mouth; its port is known as the Corral (see map of South America, ref. 9-C). It was founded as a frontier fort by Pedro de Val- divia in 1551 ; passed through many vicissitudes in the wars with the Araucanians, and was taken and destroyed by them in 1599, but was rebuilt in 1644. Later it was strong- ly fortified. During the latter part of the war for inde- pendence it was the last stronghold of the Spaniards; the patriots under Cochrane captured it by a brilliant assault lasting three days, Feb. 2-4, 1820. The harbor is well shel- tered ; the exports are cattle, hides, lumber, etc. Pop. about 9,000, including many Germans. H. H. S. Valdivia, PEDRO, de: conqueror of Chili; b. near La Serena, Estremadura, Spain, about 1498. He served as a. soldier in Flanders, and under Charles V. in Italy. In 1534 he went to Venezuela, where he distinguished himself in various expeditions; later, it would appear, he was in Mex- ico, whence, in 1536, he passed to Peru in response to Pizar- ro’s urgent call for re-enforcements against the Indians. He fought for Pizarro against Almagro, and took a prominent part in the defeat of the latter at Las Salinas. Chili had been granted to Almagro, who had made a fruitless expedi- tion into it. After Almagro’s death Charles V. intrusted the conquest of that country to an incompetent favorite, Pedro Sanchez de Hoz. On his arrival in Peru, Pizarro associated Valdivia with him, and by a subsequent arrangement Valdivia assumed the entire command. The force collected comprised 150 Spanish soldiers and several thousand Indians. It left. Cuzco in Mar., 1540, and marched southward by the Ata- cama desert; in the valley of Mapocho a large force of Ind- ians was defeated, and on Feb. 12, 1541, Valdivia founded Santiago. The Spaniards were repeatedly attacked by Ind- ians, and were re uced to great straits, being cut ofi from Peru and almost starving. By the enterprise and bravery of a soldier, Gabriel Monroy, tidings of the situation were sent to Cuzco, and strong re-enforcements arrived in Dec., 1543. Thereafter the colony prospered. Valparaiso was founded in Sept., 1544, the coast was explored southward, and iii 1546 Valdivia pushed into the Araucanian country to the Biobio river, defeating the Indians in a great battle. Vi/‘hen tidings reached Chili of the rebellion of Gonzalo Pi- zarro in Peru, Valdivia left the command with Villagra and went to the aid of the royalist leader, Gasca, 1547-49. He took a leading part in the defeat of Pizarro, and was re- warded by a commission as governor of Chili. On his re- turn he made several expeditions against the Araucanians,. and to keep them in check founded Concepcion, Oct., 1550, and Valdivia and other posts in 1551-52. In Dec., 1553, there was a great uprising of the Indians, who laid siege to one of the new forts, Tucapel. Valdivia hurried to its relief with fifty horsemen, was attacked and defeated by the Araucanians, captured, and killed soon after, probably on Jan. 1, 1554. I-I.ERBERT H. SMITH. Valdivieso, va“al-de“e-ve”e-5.’s5, or Valdivielso, Josh, de: Spanish dramatist who flourished during the first half of‘ the seventeenth century; was a cleric attached to the cathe- dral of Toledo, and seems to have stood in close relations to Cervantes and Lope de Vega. His dramas, which are all religious, were published as Dooe autos sacramentales y dos oomedias dioinas (Toledo, 1622). They were performed, and apparently enjoyed some popularity, which Ticknor would ascribe to the social position of the author rather than to any great merit in the plays themselves. Among their themes are such as The Prodigal Son; Psyche and Cupid, treated from the Christian standpoint ; the Tree of Life and the Angel Guardian, both allegorical. Besides the dramas he composed a number of religious poems. Two are of considerable extent, the one devoted to St. J oseph,, and the other written in honor of the Blessed Virgin. J. D. M. Fonn. VALDOSTA Va1dos' ta : town (founded in 1860) ; capital of Lowndes co., Ga.; on the Ga. So. and Fla. and the Sav., Fla. and West. railways ; 155 miles S. by E. of Macon, 157 miles S. W. of Savannah (for location, see map of Georgia, ref. 7-H). It is in an agricultural region, and has 6 churches, a collegiate institute for white pupils, 3 schools for col- ored children, a national bank with capital of $50,000, 2 State banks with combined capital of $250,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. The principal products of the region are cotton, sugar-cane, rice, corn, fruit, and sweet potatoes, and the town has important factories. The assessed valua- tion of property is $2,200,000. Pop. (1880) 1,515 ; (1890) 2,854; (1895) estimated, 5,500. EDIToR or “ '1‘IMEs.” Vale, vaa’le?e, or Ale: in Scandinavian mythology, a son of Odin and Rind. He was brave in war; a most skillful wielder of the bow. In the Scandinavian mythology there is also a son of Loke and Sigyn called Vale. Loke’s son Vale is a brother of N are. R. B. A. Valeggio sul Mincio, va“a-led'j5-sool-min’chy5 : town ; in the province of Verona. Italy; about 5% miles E. of Vil- lafranca; on the Mincio, affluent of the Po (see map of Italy, ref. 3-D). Within the town there are some noteworthy public and private buildings, and also some valuable works of art. Near Valeggio sul Mincio may be seen the ruins of the famous bridge of Borghetto (rather a causeway), erected (1393) by Gian Galeazzo to divert the Mincio from Mantua and thus reduce the place by famine. It was here also that on June 24, 1866, the Austrians defeated the Italians in the disastrous battle of Custozza. Pop. 2,110. Valence (in chemistry) : See CHEMISTRY. Valence, va“a’la‘aI'1s’ (anc. Vented, later Valentina): cap- ital of the department of Dr6me, France; on the left bank of the Rhone; 65 miles S. of Lyons (see map of France, ref. 7-H). It is an old town, with narrow, crooked streets, but not unattractive. Its manufactures of silks, cotton goods, glassware, leather, gloves, etc., are flourishing, and its trade in wine and of the produce of the vicinity is brisk. It has - a cathedral, founded in 212, containing the monument, with bust, by Canova, of Pius VI., who died here, and it has a museum of natural history and a collection of antiquities. Pop. (1891) 22,947. Valen'eia, or Valentia: a small island on the south- western coast of Ireland, belonging to the county of Kerry ; noted as the station of the two transatlantic submarine ca- bles connecting Great Britain and Newfoundland. It is 5 miles long and 2 miles broad. Valencia : a former kingdom of Spain, bordering on the Mediterranean and between Catalonia in the N. and Murcia in the S.; is divided into the three provinces of Valencia, Alicante, and Castellon de la Plana. From the eighth to the thirteenth century it was occupied by the Moors, and from the eleventh century to 1238 it was an independent Moorish kingdom. It is the best cultivated and most productive part of Spain. Nowhere in Europe are manuring and irri- gation carried to such perfection as on the terraces of Va- lencia, where in some places the soil yields several harvests a year. Besides the common Spanish roducts, rice is grown here in sufficient quantity to supply al Spain ; sugar also is cultivated. The country is watered by the J ucar, Requena, and Guadalaviar, and contains iron, lead, copper, cinnabar, cobalt, and coal. The lagoons 011 the coast, especially that of Albufera, are rich in sea-fowl and fish. The inhabitants, in whom a strong mixture of Moorish blood is apparent, are industrious, and, next to Catalonia, Valencia is the chief manufacturing part of Spain. Valencia: capital of the province of Valencia, Spain; on the Guadalaviar, near its mouth in the Mediterranean; 200 miles by rail S. W. of Barcelona (see map of Spain, ref. 16-I). Until 1871 it was surrounded by picturesque walls, the gateways of which remain. The houses are neat and substantially built ; the squares, though small, are elegant; the streets, though crooked and narrow, are clean. well paved, and well lighted; while in the modern quarters there are broad and handsome thoroughfares. The whole city is a pleasant and enterprising place, the center of a fertile dis- trict, and the seat of an extensive trade and Inaniifactures. Its cathedral, begun in 1262, is a vast edifice containing many excellent pictures. Its university is a well-endowed and well- attended institution, and has a good library. Its manu- factures of silk, tobacco, sackcloth, and pottery are cele- brated, and its export trade in grain, rice, oil, wine, almonds, figs, and oranges is very considerable. The huerta or garden VALENTINE 4,25 surrounding the city comprises an area of about 40 sq. miles, and resembles an immense orchard, in which the citron, orange, palm, and mulberry grow luxuriantly. Pop. (1887) 170,763. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Valencia: capital and largest city of the state of Cara- bobo, Venezuela ; beautifully situated in the Aragua valley, 2 miles W. of the Lake of Valencia or Tacarigua, and 24 S. of its port, Puerto Cabello (45 miles by railway); 1,824 feet above the sea (see map of South America, ref. 1-C). It is the third city of Venezuela in size and importance, and is the commercial center of a large region, exporting cacao, coffee, sugar, hides, etc.; the surrounding plantations are noted for their richness. The town is regularly laid out, has handsome parks and squares, and is lighted by electric- ity; it is a bishop’s see, has a cathedral, national college, etc. The climate is warm (mean 77° F.). Near the city are celebrated springs in which the temperature approaches the boiling-point. Valencia was founded in 1555, or before Caracas. During the war for independence it was alternate- ly held by the royalists and patriots. On the lain of Cara- bobo, S. of it. Bolivar gained the victories of May 28, 1814, and June 24, 1821, the latter deciding the independence of Venezuela. The first Venezuelan congress met here after the separation from Colombia. Pop. (1888) 38,654. Lake Valencia is 30 miles long and navigable, but is little used for commerce. It has several inhabited islands. HERBERT H. SMITH. Valencia, DUKE OF : See NARvAEz, RAMON MARIA. Valenciennes, va"a’la"ari'si-en’ : town; in the department of Nord, France; on the Scheldt; 155 miles N. E. of Paris (see map of France, ref. 2-G). It is fortified and defended by a citadel on an island in the river, and contains a modern Gothic church, and a town-hall surmounted by a square campanile. It was a residence of the Merovingian kings. It carries on a brisk trade in its own manufactures, which are varied and extensive. Sugar-refineries, dye-houses, bleaching establishments, and spinning and weaving fac- tories are in operation. Laces and fine woven fabrics are made, and, being in the center of a rich coal-field, it has nu- merous foundries, rolling-mills, and machine-shops. Pop. (1894) 24,520. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Valenciennes. ACHILLE: anatomist and surgeon; b. in Paris, Aug. 9, 1794; studied natural science; became Pro- fessor of Anatomy at the Normal School in 1830; was the collaborator of Cuvier in his ichthyological studies; suc- ceeded Geofiroy Saint-Hilaire in the Academy of Sciences. Besides a number of monographs and minor essays in va- rious scientific journals. he wrote ffistoire natuirelle des flfollusgues, des An-néZz'd'es ez‘ des Z00ph_2/tee (1833). His most celebrated work, however, is ffisfoire iVazfureZZe des Poissons (1829-49). This was begun in conjunction with Cuvier, after whose death it was carried on by Valenciennes, who left it incomplete, although he had extended it to twen- ty-two volumes. D. in Paris, Apr. 14, 1865. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Valens : Roman Emperor of the East, 364-37 8 A. D., ap- pointed by his brother VALENTINIAN I. (g. v.). A consider- able part of the reign of Va-lens was devoted to the question of the Eastern boundary, but resulted in no definite settle- ment of it. In 376 the Goths were allowed to cross the Danube with a view to settling there peaceably, but they were treated with such perfidy and negligence of conditions by the representatives of the emperor that they sought res- titution by force. After some reverses they defeated the Roman army, led by Valens, in the battle of Adrianople, in which the emperor lost his life. The Goths were thus per- manently established S. of the Danube. G. L. H. Valentia: See VALENCIA. "alentine, MILTON, D.D., LL.D.: theologian; b. near Uniontown, Md., J an. 1, 1825 ; graduated at Pennsylvania College (Gettysburg) 1850, and at the Lutlieran Theological Seminary (Gettysburg)1852; ordained to the ministry of the Lutheran Church Oct. 4, 1852; preached in Winches- ter, Va., 1853-54, and in Greensburg and Adamsburg. Pa., 1854-55; principal of Emaus Institute, Middletown, Pa.. 1855-59; pastor of St. Matthew‘s church. Reading, Pa. 1859-66: became Professor of Ecclesiastical History and Church Polity in the Lutheran Theological Seminar_v 1866 : president of Pennsylvania College 1868-84: since Sept. 24, 1884. Professor of Didactic Theology and chairman of the faculty in the Lutheran Theological Seminary; author of The ReZabz'on of the Fa~m£Z;z/ to the Church ; Jzzszh'fi'caz‘z'on by 426 VALENTINE’S DAY, SAINT Faith; The Dynamics of Success; Knowledge by Service; Truth’s Testimony to its Servants; Is the Lord’s Day only a Human Institution .9 Absolute Christianitq ; lvam/ml Theology, or Rational Theism (Chicago) ; and of numerous articles in the Evangelical Review, Lutheran Quarterly, Homiletic Review, Jlfagazine of Christian _L/1;tg7'a,t/u,/re, Qua’,-_ terly Review of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, of which he was co-ordinate editor 1871-76. J . W, R1¢HAR,D_ Valentine's Day, Saint: Feb. 14, observed in com- memoration of St. Valentinus, a Christian martyr, who was decapitated in 270 A. D., during the Claudian perse- cution at Rome. The custom of sending valentines (sen- timental or comic love-messages, often in rhyme, and adorned with ornamental or grotesque devices) is a very ancient one. Some tell us that on this day the birds select their mates; others trace the custom to the Roman Luper- calia (Feb. 15), when similar practices were observed. Traces of the custom have been detected among the observances of the northern pagans of ancient Europe. Hence it is not probable that the tradition ascribing its origin to a com- memoration of the loving and charitable disposition of St. Valentine is the true origin of the observation. Valentin’ian : the name of three Roman emperors. VALENTINIAN I. (364-375) was an officer under Julian and J O- vian, and had risen to a prominent position when, on the sudden death of Jovian, he was raised to the imperial dig- nity by the officers of the army, at Nicaea. He made his brother VALENS (g. v.) Emperor of the East, and proceeded to Italy. He was a man of military talent, and a laborious and prudent administrator. His reign was chiefly occupied with campaigns in defense of the borders, and for a time he checked the inroads of the barbarians by successful opera- tions in various parts of the empire—Britain, Africa, and the Germanic frontier. His favorite residence was Treves. He was succeeded by his sons Gratian and VALENTINIAN II., an infant of four at the time of his father’s death. During the brief life of this emperor the imperial power rested in the hands of Gratian, until his death (383 A. D.), and after- ward virtually in the hands of TI-IEODOSIUS (g. v.), Emperor of the East. He died in 392 A. D.—VALENTINIAN III. (425-455), a son of Constantius and Placidia, the sister of Honorius, was only six years old when his uncle, Theodosius II., Em- peror of the East, established him as Emperor of the West. His mother, who governed in his name, was entirely under the control of the clergy, and the empire suffered severely from the rivalry between Bonifacius and Aétius. I11 spite of the great military ability of the latter, who defeated At- tila at Chalons-sur-l\/Iarne in 451, the VV est Roman empire now began to crumble. Most of Africa fell into the hands of the Vandals; Britain was entirely given up; Merida in Spain was taken by the Suevi; and along the Rhine and the Danube one strong outpost after another was lost. In 450 Placidia died, and in 454 the emperor killed A'e'tius with his own hand. jealous of his merits and afraid of his power. In the following year, however, Valentinian himself was murdered by Petfonius Maximus on the Campus Mar- tius in the midst of a great crowd which looked on with in- difference. Revised by G. L. HENDRIcxsoN. Valentinians: a Gnostic sect founded by Valentinus, supposed to have been an Egyptian by birth. He lived in Alexandria and Cyprus, and taught in Rome from 140 to 160. Of all the Gnostic systems, that of Valentinus was the most elaborate and the most interesting, and it was still further developed by his pupils, among whom were Ptole- maeus, Secundus, Heracleon, Axionicus, and others. In this system the great mythological apparatus which the Gnostics employed is spiritualized, transformed into speculative ele- ments, personifications of ideas. etc., and permeated with Christian ideas in regard to the love of the Father and the desire for communion with the Father. With this char- acter of the system it was natural that the Valentinians should enter into a much closer connection with the pagan religions than any of the other Gnostic sects, as they con- sidered paganism not as an aberration of the human mind, but as a divinely ordained preparative to Christianity. The principal source of knowledge of this sect is Irenaeus, Ad- versus Hcereses. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Valentinois, Duchess of : See DIANE DE Porrrnns. Valen’za (ano. Forum Fulvii Valentinum): town; in the province of Alessandria, Northern Italy; on the right bank of the Po; 9 miles by rail N. of the city of Alessan- dria (see map of Italy, ref. 3-B). It was formerly a place of VALERIAN great strength, but its walls and fortifications were de- stroyed in 1805 by Bonaparte. The inhabitants are engaged in agricultural and Inanufacturing industries, and popular education receives considerable attention. Pop. 6,500. Valera y Alcalai.-Galiano, va“a-la’raia-ee-tail-liava-laa’ga‘R- li-aa’n5, JUAN: statesman, novelist, and critic; b. at Cabra, near Cordova, Spain. Oct. 18. 1824. Of distinguished family, he was destined at first for jurisprudence; but he turned to diplomacy, and went as secretary of legation to Naples, Lis- bon, Rio de J aneiro, Dresden, and St. Petersburg. Finding himself out of sympathy with the government of O’Donnell, he returned to Spain and became collaborator on the journal El Contempordneo, the organ of the leader of the opposition, at that time Alvareda. In 1859 he was elected deputy, and soon after, Alvareda having succeeded O’Donnell, he became Minister of Commerce and Agriculture. When Narvaez came to power he lost his oflice, but a little later, O’Don- nell having once more prevailed by the aid of a liberal pro- gramme, he was sent as ambassador to Frankfort. Here he remained till 1866. Returning to Spain, he took a promi- nent part in the revolution of 1868. He was twice Minister of Education under the new régime, and was one of the deputation that offered the throne to Amadeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta, in 1870. Though a liberal, he did not sympa- thize with the efiort to establish a republic which succeeded Amadeo’s short reign. Upon the re-establishment of the monarchy in the person of Alfonso XII., he was again em- ployed in the diplomatic service of Spain, going as ambas- sador to Lisbon, Washington, and Brussels. Returning once more to Spain, he was made senator and member of the Council of State. He is also a member of the Spanish Acad- emy, and of many other literary and scientific bodies. Though thus eminent in public affairs, the lasting fame of Valera will be mainly due to his work as a man of letters. His wide knowledge of the world, his acquaintance with the best thought of many countries, his cosmopolitan sympathies, make him notable; but, above all, his style—t-he most delicate, subtle, gay, and delightful to be found in any modern Spanish writer—insures him a high place in the literary history of his country. His literary début, apart from some scattered con- tributions to periodicals, was made in the volume Poesias (1858). Some of these poems show great felicity of expres- sion ; but prose was to be the true medium of his utterance. He began in the latter with criticism, and there appeared a succession of critical articles from his pen, which in 1864 he collected in the volume Estudios criticos sobre literatura, politica, y costumbres de nuestros dias. An ampler collec- tion was Disertaciones y juicios literarios (1882), and this has been followed by Nuevos estudios criticos (1888) ; Cartas amcricanas (1889); and Nuevas cartas americanas (1890). Valera has obtained still greater success, however, as a novel- ist, and his Pepita Jiménez (1874); Las ilusiones del doctor Faustino (1876); El comendador Jllendoza (1877); Pasarse dc listo (1878); and Doha Luz (1878) are perhaps the most widely known and most frequently translated of all recent Spanish novels. In the short tale he has been no less fortu- nate, and several of the pieces in his collected Cuentos, did- logos, y fantasias (1882; new ed. 1887) are already, and de- servedly, classics. There is also much that is extremely felicitous in his Tentativas dramaticas (1878; 3d ed. 1880). He is also the author of a translation into Spanish of Count von Schack’s Poesie und K’/unst der Arabcr in Spanien und Sicilicn. The best collected edition of Valera’s works is to be found in the Coleccicin de Escritores Castetlanos (7 vols., Madrid, 1886-90). A. R. MARSH. Vale'rian [via O. Fr., from Late Lat. valeria'na, valerian, appar. from some person named Vale’rius] : a plant of the genus Valcriana (family Valerianaccce). The most impor- tant s ecies is V. oflicinalis, the root of which is used in medicme. This plant, called also the “great wild valerian,” is a native of Europe, but is cultivated also in the U. S., in Vermont, New Hampshire, and New York. It is an her- baceous perennial plant, the stem being erect and round, rising from 2 to 4 feet, and bearing small white flowers in terminal paniclcs. The fruit is a capsule containing a sin- gle oblong seed. The root consists of an upright root-stock about as thick as the little finger, from which spring numer- ous slender cylindrical rootlets about 3 or 4 inches in length. This root, though nearly odorless when fresh, develops a strong and peculiar smell upon drying. The taste is some- what bitter, acrid; and disagreeable. The important in- gredient of the drug is a pale-greenish volatile oil (oil of valerian), which is present in the proportion of from 1% to 2 VALERIAN per cent. This oil, when fresh, has but little smell, but on exposure it slowly acidifies, becomes yellow and thick, and acquires a strong valerian smell. There is developed a pecul- iar acid. (See VALERIC ACID.) This acid combines with bases to form soluble salts, which retain to a certain degree the odor of the acid. The active principle of valerian root is the volatile oil. This, in experiments upon animals, is found to deaden feebly the reflex excitability of the spinal cord. Upon man, preparations of valerian sometimes reduce undue nervous irritability, and are therefore resorted to in affections characterized by this condition, such as hysteria, ehorea, and milder forms of so-called nervousness. The va- lerianates of ammonium, quinine, and zinc are official medi- cines, but their effect is inferior to that of the oil or prepara- tions of the root. A curious property of valerian is the at- traction of its smell for cats. These animals seem to snuff the plant from a long distance, and are said to be excited to a kind of frenzy by it, during which they display strong sexual excitement. Revised by H. A. HARE. Valerian: Roman emperor from 253 to 260 A. D. _His reign was unimportant, and he did little to check the d1_sso- lution of the empire. In an expedition against the Persians he was captured, and died several years afterward lI1 cap- tivity. G. L. H Valerianos, APOSTOLOS : See Fucx, J UAN, de. Val’erie or Valerian’ ic Acid [valeric (or valerianic) is deriv. of valerian, from the root of which inactive valeric acid is obtained]: a compound first obtained in 1817 by Chevreul from the fat of a dolphin, Delphinwm phoccena, and by Grote in 1830 from the essential oil of VALERIAN (q. v.). It is also called clelphinic acicl, pbocenic acicl, and batglcarbonic acid. Its formula is C6H10O2. In the vegetable kingdom it occurs in the berries of Viburnum opnlns, in the angelica-root, in the root of Atharnanta oreoselinum, and in the bark of the elder-tree; in the animal kingdom it is found in numerous animal oils and in the products of the oxidation of oleic acid and other fats. It is likewise contained in de- cayed cheese. The acid can be obtained by passing the vapor of amylic alcohol through a tube filled with a mixture of lime and soda, and heated to 400° F., and decomposing the sodium valerate produced by the distillation with sulphuric ‘ acid : but the best method for its preparation consists in the oxidation of amylic alcohol, which is accomplished by grad- ually adding a mixture of the alcohol and concentrated sul- phuric acid to a solution of potassium dichromate, and heat- ing the liquid in a flask provided with an inverted con- denser, after which the liquid is distilled, and the distillate neutralized with sodium carbonate. The amylic valerate contained in the distillate is next removed by distillation, and the residue of sodium valerate is dissolved in water and dis- tilled with sulphuric acid, when a fluid passes over consisting of an aqueous solution of valeric acid mixed with a hydrated acid containing 1 equivalent of water, from which it can be separated by redistillation. Valerie acid forms a limpid, col- orless oil, possessing a sour, burning taste and a powerful odor, resembling that of valerian-root, also like that of rancid cheese and butyric acid. It has a sp. gr. of 0955 at 32° F., remains liquid at 0° F., and boils at 347° F., the density of its vapor being 366. If the active modification of amylic alco- hol is used for its preparation, the resulting acid exerts a rotatory power on polarized light. Valerie acid is sparingly soluble in water, but dissolves in all proportions in alcohol and in ether; also in concentrated acetic acid. It unites with water, forming a definite hydrate, C5I-I1°O2.H¢_.,O,wl1ich is also produced upon decomposing a valerate with strong sulphuric acid. This hydrate is also oily, but it possesses a lower boil- ing-point than the anhydrous acid. When a mixture of cal- cium formate and valerate is submitted to dry distillation, valeral or valeralcleh\z/rte (CBHWO) is formed, this compound being also produced by the partial oxidation of amylic alco- hol. Valerie acid is related to amylic alcohol in the same way as acetic acid is to ethylic or common alcohol, valeral being the compound corresponding to ordinary aldehyde. It is a monobasie acid, and forms neutral (also a few acid and basic) salts, which are obtained by direct saturation. The valer-ates are odorless when dry, but if moistened or treated with dilute sulphuric acid, they emit the characteristic and unpleasant odor of valeric acid; with the exception of silver anc mercury valerates, they are soluble in water. Besides the form of valeric acid described, two other modifications have been obtained-—-one by the oxidation of normal amylic alcohol, the other from tertiary bntylic alcohol. Revised by IRA Rnnsnn. VALHAL 4,27 Vale'rius An’tias: a Roman historian of the first cen- tury B. c. who was one of the chief sources of Livy. His voluminous history in at least seventy-five books, covering the period from the founding of the city down to Sulla, was characterized by great exaggeration. For the fragments, see H. Peter, Historicorv//n Romanorwm Fragmenta (Leip- zig, 1883). M. W Valerius Flaccus, G./nus: See Frxccus, Gxms VALERIUS. Valerius Max’imus: a compiler of a large collection of historical anecdotes, Factorwrn et Dictornm rnemorabilinm I/ibri IX., dedicated to the Emperor Tiberius, which is still extant, as well as two epitomes of it made about the fifth century by Julius Paris and J anuarius Nepotianus. Dur- ing the Middle Ages the book, which is not without value to the student of history and antiquities, was much read and highly esteemed; there were fourteen distinct editions of it before 1490. Critical editions have been given by Hase (Paris, 1822), Kempf (Berlin, 1854, and Leipzig, 1888). and Halm (Leipzig, 1865). There is an English translation by W. Speed (London, 1678). Revised by M. WARREN. Valerius Probus: See PRoEUs, Maneus VALERIUS. Valet’ta: capital of the island of Malta; on a rocky promontory of the northeastern coast which forms two large, deep, and safe harbors (see map of Italy, ref. 11—F). These harbors, as well as the whole city, are strongly fortified by lines of works, mostly hewn into the rock, and defended by forts, of which St. Elmo, on the extremity of the promon- tory, is the most important. On account of its harbors and fortifications, Valetta has been made the station of the Brit- ish fleet in the Mediterranean, and it is regularly visited by all steamers crossing this sea. Thus it became a point of great military and commercial importance, and although it has no manufactures and no natural resources, it is still in- creasing. It was named after its founder, Valette, Grand- master of the Knights of St. John, who defended it against the Turks in 1565. In the cathedral and palace are manv interesting monuments from the times of the Knights of St. John. Valetta also has a university and a public library, both of which were founded by the knights. Pop. (1891), with the suburbs, 62,152. Revised by l\I.,'\V. HARRINGTON. Valette. va‘a’let', J EAN PARISOT, de la: soldier ; b. in 1494 in Toulouse, France ; entered very early the order of St. John, and distinguished himself so much that in 1557 he was chosen grand-master of the order. In this rank he fought the Turks with great effect, and finally roused the wrath of the Sultan Suleiman to such a pitch that he determined to annihilate the order. Accordingly, a magnificent Turkish armament, consisting of over 150 vessels of war and 30,000 select troops, a peared off the coast of Malta before the fortifications of V alette on May 18, 1565, and a most memorable siege began. La Valette had between 8,000 and 9,000 men, but of these only 700 were knights ; the rest were militia, the inhabitants of the island. With this force he resisted the furious at- tacks of the Turks until Sept. 8, when the number of his men had dwindled down to 600, and when the Viceroy of Naples arrived with re—enforcements. The Turks embarked; once more, however, they returned, but were completely routed and driven off. La Valette died in Valetta, Aug. 21, 1568. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Val'gius Rufus: a Roman poet, friend of Horace, who was consul 12 B. c. He wrote not only elegies and epigrams, but also rhetorical, grammatical, and botanical treatises. For the scanty poetical fragments, see Baehrens, Fragmen-ta Poet. Rorn. (Leipzig, 1886). M. W. Valhal [from the Icelandic T/'al7z6ll, which means the hall of the slain : written also VALHALLA and WALRALLA (g. v.)] : in Scandinavian mythology, the most important and the most magnificent hall in Asgard, where Odin receives and welcomes the gods and all the einlzerjes, that is to say, the brave warriors, who fall on the field of battle. Valhal is large and resplendent with gold ; spears support its ceiling; it is roofed with shields, and coats-of-mail adorn its benches. Swords serve the purpose of fire, and, according to the Elder Edda. it has 640 doors, each of which is so wide that 960 ez'nlzer7'es may enter side by side. Outside of Valhal stands the shining grove Glaser. the leaves of which are of red gold. The heroes in Valhal eat fiesh from the boar Saehrimner. This bear is cooked every morning and becomes whole again every night. The she-goat H eidrun stands above Valhal and feeds on the leaves of the famous tree Lerad, and from the teats of the she-goat flows mead in such abundance that every day a bowl, large enough to hold more than would 428 VALKYRIES suffice for all the heroes, is filled with it. And still more wonderful is what is told of the stag Eikthyrner, which also stands over Valhal and feeds upon the leaves of the same tree. While he is feeding so many drops fall from his ant- lers down into Hvergelmer that they furnish sufficient water for the thirty-six rivers that issuing thence flow twelve to the abodes of the gods, twelve to the abodes of men, and twelve to Nifiheim. See The Prose Edda, under EDDA, and SCANDINAVIAN MYTHOLOGY. RASMUS B. ANDERSON. Valkyries, va”al-ke”er'ydz [from the Icelandic Valhyrjur, i. e. choosers of the slain] : maidens sent out by the god of war Odin to every battle-field to make choice of those who are to be slain and to turn the tide of battle. They are also called VALMAIDS (ualmeyar). The youngest of the norns, Skuld, also rides forth to choose the slain and turn the com- bat. The Valkyries serve in Valhal, where they bear the drink, take care of the drinking-horns, and wait upon the table. More than a dozen Valkyries are named in the Elder Edda. In the old sagas there are accounts of loves between Valkyries and earthly heroes, but such connections were not happy, being always followed by the premature death of the hero. See The Prose Edda, under EDDA. R. B. A Valla, LAURENTIUS (Lorenzo delta Valle): humanist; b. in Italy in 1407, probably in Piacenza (though he delighted to call himself Romanus); educated in Rome by Lionardo Bruni and Aurispa; itinerant Professor of Rhetoric, Phi- losophy, and Classical Languages in Pavia, Milan, Genoa, Ferrara, and Mantua; was called to Naples by Alfonso V. in 1442. Owing to his denial of the apostolic authorship of the Symbolum Apostolicum and other equally heterodox demonstrations, he was accused of heresy and saved from death at the hands of the Inquisition only by the interven- tion of his patron, the king. Thereafter he was in Rome holding various important offices under Nicholas V. and Calixtus III., having also been appointed Professor of Rhet- oric in Rome in 1450, where he died Al%§. 1, 1457. In intel- lectual ability and lasting influence alla is perhaps the greatest among his great humanist contemporaries. His audacity in combating long-cherished traditions in literary criticism no less than in religion made his life one of con- tinual warfare and bitter controversy. His very first essay, a comparison between Cicero and Quintilian, to the great disparagement of the former, brought down upon him all the Cicero idolaters of the time, with Poggio at their head. Among the classical and theological writings of Valla only a few can be mentioned here. His Latin translations of Herodotus and Thucydides were justly celebrated, but his masterpiece is the Elegantioe Latince (1444; 59th ed. 1536). It was for centuries the standard work on Latin style, a kind of court of appeals of correct usage. With its appearance the Latin language may be said to have ceased to be a liv- ing tongue. His Adnotationes to the New Testament, in which the Vulgate was for the first time subjected to a com- parison with the Greek original, was re-edited by Erasmus, and the famous treatise De falso credita et ementita Con- stantini Donatione (1440) was republished by Ulrich von Hutten and dedicated to the pope. Cf. J oh. Vahlen, Lorenzo Valla (1870, 2d ed.) and Laurentii Vallce opuscula tria (1870) ; G. Voigt, Wiederbclebung des classischen Alterthums (vol. i.); J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy; Ch. Nisard, Les gladiateurs de la Républigue des lettrcs aurv X W, X VI°, X VIIe sie‘cles (1860) ; Mancini, Laurentius Valla; and M. Wolff, Laurentius Valla, sein Leben und seine lVerhc (Leip- zig, 1893). ALFRED GUDEMAN. Valladolid’ : capital of the province of Valladolid, Spain; on the Pisuerga ; 150 miles by rail N. W. of Madrid (see map of Spain, ref. 14—E). It communicates by the Duero and a vast system of canals with the Atlantic and the interior. It is on a plateau, 2,100 feet above the level of the sea, and no- ticeable on account of its healthful and genial climate. The surrounding district is very fertile and has abundant water for purposes of irrigation. The city was from the beginning of the fifteenth century till 1560 the capital of the Spanish empire, and had at that time over 100,000 inhabitants. It was adorned by Charles V. and Philip II. with many mag- nificent buildings. After the removal of the royal residence to Madrid, it fell into decay, and many of its buildings were much damaged by the French soldiery under the occupation in 1810. Its manufactures of silk, yarn, perfumery, pottery, paper, and leather have been enlarged and its trade has in- creased. Its university was founded in 1346, and in 1894 had 900 students. It is celebrated as a school of jurisprudence. Pop. (1887) 62,018. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. VALLEN TIN E Valladolid : See OOMAYAGUA and MORELIA. Vallanc'ey, CHARLES, LL. D. (originally VaZZence): anti- quarian writer; b. in England in 1722; entered the Royal Engineers and attained the rank of general in 1803; was stationed several years in Gibraltar, but for the most of his life in Ireland. D. in Dublin in Aug., 1812. He was an earnest but over-ardent student of the Irish language and Irish antiquities, and aimed ever at results which in the present advanced knowledge of philological principles ap- pear most fantastic. Besides translations of two engineer- ing treatises from the French. he produced the Collectanea dc Relms Ifibernicis (6 vols., 1770-1804), consisting of anti- quarian researches, etc. ; an Essay on the Antiquity of the Irish Language, etc. (1772) ; a Grammar of the Iberno-Celtic or Irish Language, with an Essay on the Celtic Language (1773) ; an Essay towards illustrating the Ancient History of the Britannia Isles (1786) ; the Ancient IIistory of Ire- land proved from the Sanscrit Books of the Bramins of India (1797). He also reprinted an excerpt from the Col- lectanea, the Vindication of the Ancient Kingdom of Ire- land. and issued a Prospectus of a Dictionary of the Lan- guage of the Aire Coti or Ancient Irish, compared with the Language of the Cuti, or Ancient Persians, etc. Revised by J . D. M. FORD. Vallan’digha1n, CLEMENT LAIRD2 politician; b. at New Lisbon, O., July 29, 1820: received an academic education and taught school; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1842; was member of the Ohio Legislature 1845-46; edited the Dayton Empire 1847-49, after which he devoted himself especially to politics. He was elected a representa- tive in Congress in 1857, and re-elected for two subsequent terms. He was especially active in opposing the measures of the national Government in carrying on the civil war. Failing of re-election in 1863, he returned to Ohio, where at public gatherings he denounced the Government with great vehemence; was arrested by order of Gen. Burnside, who commanded the department of the Ohio; tried by court martial in Cincinnati and sentenced to close confinement during the war—a sentence which President Lincoln com- muted to banishment beyond the lines. Dissatisfied with his reception by the Confederates, he made his way to Ber- muda, thence to Canada, and while there was nominated by the Democratic party as Governor of Ohio, but was defeated by more than 100,000 votes. IIe soon returned to Ohio, was not molested, and in 1864 was an active member of the na- tional Democratic convention at Chicago. D. at Lebanon, O., by the accidental discharge of a pistol in his own hands, June 17, 1871. Vallauri, va"al-low’re“’e, Tommaso: classical scholar; b. at Chiusa di Cuneo, Italy, J an. 23, 1805; studied in Turin and was appointed professor at the university there in 1843; a very prolific author and one of the foremost of modern Ital- ian philologians, and distinguished for his elegant Latin style. Among his works are editions of Horace, Cicero’s orations. Sallust, Curtius, and several plays of Plautus; His- toria critica litterarum Latinarum (13th ed. 1888); Epitome historice Grcecoe (10th ed.1887) ; Epitome historice Romance (5th ed. 1876); Storia della pocsia in Piemonte (2 vols., 1841); Storia delta universitd degli studi del Piemonte (3 vols., 2d ed. 1875) ; Opuscula oaria (1875 and 1876). See his Autobiography (Turin, 1879). . G. Vallejo, vaa-1?/ho: city; Solano co., Cal.; on an arm of San Pablo Bay, opposite Mare island navy-yard, and on the S. Pac. Railroad; 26 miles N. E. of San Francisco (for location, see map of California, ref. 7-C). It is in an ‘agri- cultural region ; has a spacious harbor; and contains water, gas and electric-light plants, a State bank with capital of $95,000, 2 daily and 2 weekly newspapers, public library, orphan asylum, shipyards, terra-cotta works, iron-foundries, and machine-shops. Large quantities of grain are shipped from this point. Pop. (1880) 5,987; (1890) 6,343 ; (1895) es- timated, 7,500. Enrron or “EVENING CIIRoNIcLE.” Vallentine, BENJAMIN BENNATON: journalist and au- thor; b. in London, England. Sept. 7, 1843; educated in Birmingham ; studied for the English bar ; traveled exten- sively; was one of the founders of Pack and its editor 1877- 84; has been connected editorially with various New York newspapers ; is a dramatic critic of The New York I~Ierald; author of The Fitznoodlc Papers (1882) ; Eitznoodle in America (1885) ; The Lost Train (1894) : and other stories, besides several dramas, of which Lord Eitznoodle met with considerable success. I VALLERIA Valle’ ria, ALWINA (full name Alwina Valler/ia L0h- mcmn): opera-singer; b. in Baltimore, Md., Oct. 12, 1848; studied at the Royal Academy of Music, London. where she made her first appearance June 2, 1871. She sang in Italian opera in St. Petersburg, Milan, various German cities, Lon- don, and New York. From 1882 till 1886 she was with the Carl Rosa English Opera Company, creating the parts of N adeschda in Goring Thomas’s opera of that name and Mar- garida in Mackenzie’s Troubadour. In 1877 she was mar-’ ried to R. H. P. Hutchinson, of Husband’s Bosworth, near Rugby, England. D. E. HERVEY. Valle y Gaviedes, vaal’yd-ee-ka“a-ve“e-a’dais, J UAN, del: sa- tirical poet ; b. at Lima, Peru, in 1652. He inherited a con- siderable fortune, and was in Spain 1672-75; subsequent- ly he led a very dissipated life, and at one time was forced to keep a small shop for a living. Grief caused by the loss of his wife plunged him into fresh excesses, and he died in Lima in 1692. He is known only for his Diente de Parnaso, first published in 1874. It is a biting satire direct- ed against physicians, and is regarded as one of the most notable poems of its kind in Spanish. H. H. S. Valley City: village; capital of Barnes eo., N. D.; on the Cheyenne river, and the Minn., St. P. and Slt. Ste. M. and the U. Pac. railways; 14 miles E. of Sanborn, and 58 miles \V. of Fargo (for location, see map of North Dakota, ref. 3-E). It is in an agricultural, dairying, and stock-rais- ing region, and contains the State Normal School, a national bank with capital of $50,000, and a monthly and four weekly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 302; (1890) 1,089. Valley Falls: city; Jefferson eo., Kan.; on the Dela- ware river, and the Atch., Top. and S. Fé., the Kan. City, N. W., and the Union Pac. railways ; 25 miles N. E. of To- peka, and 35 miles W. of Leavenworth (for location, see map of Kansas, ref. 4-1). It is in an agricultural region ; has ex- cellent water-power, which is utilized by several mills and factories ; and contains a large grain elevator, a State bank with capital of $10,900, 2 private banks, and 2 weekly news- papers. Pop. (1880) 1,016; (1890) 1,180. Valleyfield: a town in Beauharnois County, Quebec, Canada; near the head of the Beauharnois Canal, built to avoid the rapids on the St. Lawrence; 6 miles from Coteau Landing, which is on the northern side of the river, and 38 miles from Montreal (see map of Quebec. ref. 5—B). The Grand Trunk Railway connects Valleyfield with Montreal by the Victoria Bridge route, the Canada Atlantic crosses the river here by a magnificent bridge, and the N. Y. Cent. and Hud. Riv. Railroad has a branch ending at Valleyfield. The water-power is extensive and profitably utilized by a cotton-mill, that employs 1,500 people. The place is the residence of a Roman Catholic bishop. Besides the cathe- dral there are several fine public buildings, including a hand- some school-house. Pop. (1891) 5,516. J . M. HARPER. Valley Forge: village; Schuylkill township, Chester eo., Pa. ; on the Schuylkill river, and the Phila. and Read. Rail- road; 4 miles S. E. of Phoenixville, .2-1 miles W. of Philadel- phia (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6-I). It was here that the American army under VVashington en- camped from the middle of Dec., 1777, till June 18, 177 . when it started in pursuit of the British across New Jersey. Washington selected the place for winter quarters in order to protect the Congress which, on the occupation of Phila- delphia by the British, had adjourned from that city to York. It was here also that Baron Steuben assumed the office of inspector-general of the army, and that \Vashington announced, May 6, 1778, the treaty of alliance with France. The American troops numbered about 11,000. of whom only about half were fit for active service, and all sufi°ered severely from cold and hunger during the winter. Steps have been taken to secure the site of the encampment for a national reservation. Valleys: lowlands partly or wholly surrounded by up- lands. The term is sometimes used (1) in a broad sense so as to include all depressions of the land surface, not except- ing the narrow gorges of streams, but is more commonly re- stricted to (2) depressions of considerable size with bottoms of gentle slope as compared to the sides. It is also applied to (3) the catchment areas of streams, and in this sense is synonymous with basins. Under the first meaning, gorge, canon, glen, dale, crater, etc.. are subordinate varieties, and the term /valley pr0_per is ordinarily used to designate the type covered by the second meaning. In this article the second definition is assumed. Valleys exhibit great variety VALLEYS 429 in configuration, climate, vegetation, structure, and physical history. They rival plains in adaptation to the needs of man, and as they abound in all parts of the earth they hold a large share of the human population. The student of physical geography, watching the gradual washing down of slopes by rains and rivers, observes that the whole surface of the land would be reduced to a mo- notonous plain if there were no compensatory agencies whose work tended toward diversity of surface. The agen- cies which initiate diversity are of two types, both operating beneath the surface. By diastrophic forces the earth’s crust is wrinkled or fractured and thus thrown into ridges; by volcanic forces molten rock is made to issue at the surface and build up mountains and tables. The depressions be- tween mountains thus constructed are valleys, and yet other valleys are hollowed out of uplifted plateaus by the action of streams of water or streams of ice. Valleys may thus be classified according to mode of origin as diastrophic, vol- canic, aqueous, and glacial. The physiographic processes to which they owe their origin are described in GEOLOGY and PHYSIOGRAPHY (gg. 21.). D1.'astr0]9hz'c VaZZeys.—VVhen a portion of the earth’s crust having a plain surface is subjected to powerful forces act- ing from one side, its compression results in the production of a series of wrinkles on the surface, and the plain is re- laced by a parallel system of ridges and valleys. The val- eys may sometimes be depressed below the original level of the plain, but ordinarily their depression is only relative as compared to the adjacent ridges, and they are actually some- what lifted. If the deformation were rapidly produced the valley sides would be smooth and even; but in all known instances the change of form has been so gradual that the bounding ridges have been deeply carved by streams during the period of their uplifting, and the valley walls are con- sequently irregular, with many salients and re-entrants. The origin of the valley is therefore not fully revealed by its configuration, but requires for its determination a study of the rock structures. Valleys of this simple type exist in the Jura Mountains of Europe, but are unknown in North America. Often the compressive forces, instead of merely flexing the rocks, break them into huge blocks, which are so displaced as to produce ridges and valleys at the surface. Sometimes the fractures are vertical, and the blocks are un- evenly lifted; sometimes the fractures are somewhat ob- lique, and each block is tilted so as to have one edge lower than the other ; sometimes the fractures are highly inclined, and one block is made to slide over another. Thus the greatest diversity of configuration is produced, and the re- sulting valleys may be long narrow troughs or comparative- ly short and broad. As a rule. one or more of the valley walls is cliff-like, but such original character may be de- stroyed by contemporary erosion. The U. S. afiords many examples. The great valley of California, caused by the uplift of the Sierra Nevada at the E. and the Coast Ranges at the IV, is 400 miles in length and 50 or 60 in width. Its bottom is a great plain leveled by the spreading of detritus washed down from the adjacent mountains, especially from the Sierra. which is lofty and broad. In the region of the Desert Ranges, which occupy the greater part of Nevada. Arizona, and New Mexico, parallel narrow mountain ridges stand 20 or 30 miles apart and divide the land into a great number of valleys. The detritus eroded from the moun- tains is received by the valleys and has been accumulated to great depth, so that all the down-thrown blocks, as well as the lower margins of the tilted blocks, are buried from sight. Rainfall in that region is small, and comparatively little of the drainage finds its way to the ocean. During periods of storm many of the valleys hold temporary lakes by which the detritus is spread in level plains. and from these valley fioors alluvial slopes rise. at first gently and then more steeply. to the mountain bases. Other valleys, lying somewhat higher and discharging their storm waters to lower neighbors, are traversed midway by water chan- nels. usually dry, from which long alluvial slopes rise to the bordering mountains. In the Rocky Mountains of Colora- do. and to a certain extent in the mountains of Montana and Northern Idaho. the valley troughs lie so high that their bottoms are still more thoroughly drained, and from these most of the alluvium is carried away, so that the valley floors are narrow. Volcanic I'aZZeys.—IVhere eruption takes place from many vents in the same district, the accumulation of the ejected material is apt to be irregular. and among its heaps valleys are sometimes inclosed. The San José valley of Costa Rica 430 VALLEYS is of this type. Large craters, due either to explosion or subsidence, occasionally assume the character of valleys. The Val del Bove, on the flank of Mt. Etna, is believed to be an explosion crater, and the Asosan valley of Japan, de- scribed by Milne, is probably a crater of subsidence. Aqaeoas Valleys.--As soon as any mountain ridge or plateau is lifted above the surrounding plain, its erosion is begun by the streams which flow from it or across 1t. Those streams whose original directions coincide with the slopes produced by the uplift have their grades increased, and are thus stimulated to erosive activity ; they cut their channels deeper, and their courses are soon so far below the general level that they can not easily be diverted. Streams flowing in such directions that the newly created slopes diminish their grades have their erosive power impaired. They are diverted to new courses unless they have great volume, in which case they may hold their places. sawing deep cuts through the upland as it rises. The diverted streams also begin the work of trenching along their new courses; and thus the whole drainage system of the rising tract comes to flow in gorges. When uplift ceases the streams continue to deepen the gorges, but after a time the work of other agents acquires greater relative importance. The walls ‘of the gorges are attacked by frost and various other agencies that break up rocks, the fragments are washed into the streams and carried away, and thus the walls recede and assume gentler slopes. The slopes become gentlest near the streams, so that the V representing the cross profile of the gorge is converted into a shallow U. The reduction of the slopes lowers the crests of the ridges between the streams and es- pecially between the minor tributaries. At the same time the main streams, losing the power to cut downward as they approach BASE LEVEL (q. 1).), work laterally and develop flood-plains. Thus the gorges are converted into valleys. The position of each valley is determined by the position of its stream, and the valley is coextensive with that part of the stream basin which lies within the uplifted tract. Its perfect development depends on uniformity of rock texture, and as such uniformity rarely characterizes a great uplifted mass, the type is not readily illustrated by large examples. The processes of disintegration are resisted so much more stubbornly by some rocks than by others that in most cases the widening of a gorge proceeds at very different rates in different parts, and the valley phase is not reached every- where at once. Most long streams traversing uplifted tracts pass from gorge to valley and from valley to gorge in alter- nation, each valley having its position determined in part by the stream, but chiefly by the presence of yielding rocks. The rivers of the Appalachian region have this general character, crossing sandstone and crystalline formations in narrow gorges and being bordered by valleys where the for- mations are of shale or limestone. The influence of rock texture is felt in yet another way. The divide between two streams is attacked by the storm rills tributary to both, and the rills having the steeper grade work the faster, enlarging the catchment basin of their stream. Thus all streams strive for territory. If contesting streams are equal in vol- ume, length, etc., and traverse rocks of the same sort, their common boundary is stable ; but if one of them encounters rocks of exceptional resistance its downcutting is retarded, its head-water grades become low, and its rival encroaches on its territory. (Sec lllz'gralz'on of Divides under RIVERS.) The general result of such encroachments is that small streams cease to cross hard rocks, resistant ledges come to be occupied by divides, and the outcrops of yielding rocks come to be occupied by streams and their valleys. Where an extensive tract of yielding rock is surrounded by more resistant formations, the readjustment of drainage may leave more than one stream valley within the tract, but , in such case the divides between the stream valleys are low, and they constitute collectively a great valley coextensive with the yielding rock. The great Appalachian valley, ex- tending from New York to Alabama, is of this type, the de- termining rock being a limestone which is rapidly degraded by solution. Glacial Valley/s.—Streams of ice also have power to make valleys by eroding soft rocks and leaving hard, but it is not easy to discover one which they have initiated. The valleys in which ice-work is recognized were temporarily occupied by glaciers in the Pleistocene period, but most or all of them had been previously occupied by rivers. Neverthe- less the mountain glaciers were important valley-makers, for they broadened the bottoms of their channels and thus converted gorges into valleys. Yosemite, the mountain val- VALMY leys of Tuolumne, Kern, and King rivers of California, and the Scottish glens were thus transformed by glacial erosion. See GLACIERS and PLElS'I‘OCENE P1111101). G. K. GILBERT. Vallisne’ria [named in honor of Antonio Vallisneri (1661-1730), an Italian botanist]: a genus of plants of the family Hyclroeham'eleaa. V. sim."ralis, a water or marsh plant common in the U. and in the south of Europe, is re- markable for its curious process of fecundation. The fertile or pistillate plants put up long, spi- rally twisted flower- stalks, which allow the flowers to float upon the surface; but the male flowers are held to the bottom by their short stems. Accordingly, when the proper time for fertilization comes, the sterile or staminate flowers break their stems, rise, float upon the surface, and shed their pollen around the fertile flowers. The spiral stems of the latter (which are from 1 to 4 feet long) then contract and draw the fertilized germ under water, where it is perfected. The plant is abundant in Chesa- peake Bay, where it is called wild celery, and upon its roots the canvas-back duck feeds. Other species are found in Australia, etc. Revised by CHARLES E. Bsssnv. Vallomhro’sa [Ital.; oalle, valley + ombrosa, fem. of cm- broso, shady]: a former Benedictine monastery in a valley of the Apennines, 15 miles E. from Florence. It was founded by St. John Gualbert in 1039. The present noble buildings were erected in 1638. This ancient and celebrated establishment acquired great wealth, but in 1869 it was sup- pressed by the ltalian Government, which converted the buildings into a royal school of forestry. The order was the first to introduce lay brothers. Valmore, vaTal’m51*’,l\’IAacEL1NE F1?1L1c1'r1t JOSEPHE DES- BORDESI actress and author; b. at Douai, department of Nord, France, June 20, 1785; was educated in Guadeloupe; made her first appearance on the stage as a singer after her return to France; married the tragedian Valmore in 1817 ; left the stage subsequently, and devoted herself to literature. She published several volumes of poems, IJ'légies et Romances (1818); Elégies (1824); Les Plears (1833); Paaores Flears (1839) ; also several novels, including L’Atelz'er d’an Pez'ntre (2 vols., 1833); Le Salon ale Lady Betty (2 vols., 1836). See Sainte-Beuve, Jlladam-e Desbordes- Valmore (1870 ; translated into English by Harriet W. Preston, Boston, 1872). D. in Paris, July 23, 1859. Revised by B. B. VALLENTINE. Valmy, va‘al’mee’, FRANQOIS OHRISTOPHE KELLERMANN, Duke of: general; b. near Rothenburg, in Bavaria, May 28, 1735; served in the Seven Years’ war, and was maréehal-cle- camp when the French Revolution broke out in 1789. In 1791 he became general of the army of Alsace, and in the following year commanded the army of the Moselle. After joining Dumouriez he gave battle to the allies at Valmy (Sept. 20), where he gained one of the most important vic- tories of this period. It secured France from invasion. and enabled the Convention to go on with its radical meas- ures. Kellermann, being a moderate republican, was ar- rested in 1793 on suspicion of being lukewarm in the service of the Convention. and not taking vigorous measures against the city of Lyons. which he had been ordered to reduce. He remained in prison until the Thermidor reactionary rev- olution in 1794. After the first Italian campaign was well under way (1795), the Directory purposed to send Keller- mann to share with Napoleon the responsibilities of the command. but the latter refused to go, saying that one bad general was better than two good ones. Kellermann com- manded the army of the Alps, but found little opportu- nit)»r to distinguish himself. In 1804 Napoleon made him Duke of Valmy, but in 1814 Kellcrmann voted for his depo- sition, and supported the restored Bourbons, who confirmed his title of duke, and made him a peer of France. D. Se t. 12, 1820. His son, FRANQOIS ETIENNE KELL111i1\1ANN, Dure {I I If ~ Vallisnei-ia spiralis-staminate and pistillate. VALOIS of Valmy (1770-1835), is noted especially for his brilliant cavalry charge at the battle of Marengo in 1800. He also distinguished himself at Austerlitz and in the Waterloo cam- paign. Valois, va"a'lwaa’ : the name of a dynasty of France (1328- 1589), so called from the ancient county of Valois, constitut- ing a part of the present departments of Oise and Aisne. In 1285 Philip III. gave the county of Valois to his younger son, Charles (b. 1270; d. 1325), and when the direct line of the Capetian dynasty died out in 1328 with Charles IV., the eldest son of this Charles of Valois ascended the French throne under the name of Philip VI., and founded the dy- nasty of Valois. In direct succession from father to son the crown was borne by John the Good (1350-64). Charles V. (1364-80), Charles VI. (1380-1422), Charles VII. (1422-61), Louis XI. (1461-83), and Charles VIII. (1483-98). Charles VIII. having no male heirs, the crown fell to Louis XII. (1498-1515), the representative of the nearest collateral line, a grandson of Duke Louis of Orleans, the younger brother of Charles VI. As Louis XII. also died without male issue, the succession devolved once more upon a collateral line, and Francis I., a great-grandson of Duke Louis of Orleans, through his younger son, Charles of Angouléme, ascended the throne (1515-47). He was succeeded by his son, Henry II. (1547-59), who was married to Catherine de’ Medici, and he again by his three sons—Francis II. (1559-60), Charles IX. (1560-74), and Henry III. (1574-89), with whom all the male lines of the house of Valois died out, and the French crown fell to the house of Bourbon, descending from Robert, the younger brother of Philip III., and represented by Henry IV., King of Navarre. The most prominent events during the reign of the house of Valois were the HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR (Q. o.) with England, the wars of conquest in Italy, and finally the civil or religious wars. Philip VI. ascended the throne, according to Salic law. as the nearest male heir of the Capet family, but his right was disputed by the English king, Edward III., who claimed the French throne for him- self as a son of Isabel, daughter of Philip IV., arguing that the Salic law, although it excluded females from the succes- sion, did not prevent them from transmitting a legitimate claim to their male heirs. Charles VII. finally succeeded in driving the English out of the country, but the English kings continued to bear the title of Kings of France up to George III. The Italian wars began under Charles VIII. with his conquest of Naples in 1495. Charles of Valois, the founder of the family, was first married to lllargaret of Anjou-Sicily, by whom he obtained the counties of Anjou and Maine, and some very slender claims on the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. As his second wife he married Cathe- rine of Courtenay, by whom he obtained some still thinner claims on the Byzantine empire, and he actually assumed the title of Emperor of Constantinople. On the basis of these claims, Charles VIII., two centuries later, invaded Naples, and meditated an attack upon the Turks from there. It was the idea of a world-empire, the ghost of the Roman empire, which haunted him. The last three kings of the house of Valois, the sons of Catherine de’ Medici, were ruled by their mother, who in this way retained the supreme power in her control. The civil and religious wars were not the work of the Valois; they originated in Rome and the Escurial. See HUGUENOTS; also the biographical articles on the various kings. Revised by I4 . M. COLBY. Valois, CHARLES, de: See ANGOULEME, CHARLES DE VA- LOIS, DUKE d’. Valparaiso, val-pa”a-ri'z5 (Span. pron. v:*al-pzfii.-rah-ee’s5): a city and port of Chili, and the most important seaport of the Pacific coast of South America; on a bay in lat. 33° 1' S. : 68 miles (116 miles by rail) \V. N. vW. of Santiago (see map of South America, ref. 8-C). The harbor is commodious, but it is open to northerly storms; a breakwater and other improvements have been projected, and are completed in part. Originally, the town was on a strip of flat land front- mg the water, and now occupied by the business portions; beyond this it has spread up the hillsides in many charming suburbs, the residences of the richer class; and Vifia del Mar, a little to the E., is a noted seaside resort. Valparaiso is substantially built. clean, and pleasant, but it has few notable buildings. It is almost exclusively a commercial city, greatly surpassing Santiago in this respect. In 1890 1,270 vessels entered the port, representing a tonnage of over 1,200,000. There is a large foreign population, and much of the trade is in the hands of British merchants. Most of the imports and a large part of the exports of Chili VALVE 431 pass through Valparaiso. The Government maintains here a naval arsenal, a naval school, etc., and the port is strongly fortified. There is cable communication with the northern coast and the U. S. Valparaiso was founded in Sept., 1544, was several times sacked by English and Dutch corsairs in the sixteenth century, and has suffered greatly from earth- uakes and fires. On Mar. 31, 1866, it was bombarded by a Spanish fleet. The concluding battles of the civil war of 1891 were fought in its vicinity, and it was taken and partly sacked by the congressional troops Aug. 28. Pop. (1890) about 150,000. It is the capital of the province of Valpa- raiso, which has an area of 1,637 sq. miles and a population (1891) of 218,990. HERBERT H. SMITH. Valparaiso: city; capital of Porter co., Ind.; on the Chi. and Gr. Trunk, the N. Y., Chi. and St. L., and the Penn. railways; 22 miles S. W. of La Porte, and 44 miles E. of Chicago (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 2-C). It is in an agricultural region; contains the Northern Indiana Normal School, 6 churches, 2 large public-school buildings, 2 national banks with combined capital of $150,000. a State bank with capital of $35,000, and 2 daily and 3 weekly news- papers; and has an iron-foundry, machine-shops, and Ice- land moss and self-winding clock factories. Pop. (1880) 4,461; (1890) 5,090; (1895) estimated, 7,000. EDITOR OF “MEssENeER.” Valpy, ABRAHAM JOHN: classical scholar; b. at Reading, England, about 1787; educated at Pembroke College, OX- ford; began business in London as a publisher and book- seller about 1808; was the publisher of several of the works of his uncle Edward and of his brother Frederick; origi- nated The Classical Journal (1810) and The 1lI/useum(1822- 25): brought out Barker’s edition of Stephens‘s Thesaurus (8 vols., 1815-25); The Family Classical LiZ21'c¢r3/, a Series of English Translations. etc. (52 vols., 1830-34); and a mag- nificently illustrated Shalcsjaeare (15 vols., 1832-34); but the most valuable of his literary enterprises is his Variorum. edition of the Latin Classics (141 vols., 1819-30). D. in London, Nov. 19. 1854. Revised by ALFRED GUDEMAN. VHIHO2 See POLITICAL ECONOMY. Valued Policy Laws: See FIRE-r:\'sIiR.i_NcE (Insurance Legislation). Valve [= Fr. < Lat. zral'ea, leaf of a double door, plur. vaZ'rce. folding-doors] : a cover to an aperture in a fiuid-con- taining vessel, or a movable piece, like a door or gate, in a tube. so fitted as to permit when open. or to prevent when shut, the passage of a liquid, vapor, or gas into, from, or through the vessel or pipe. Valves may be classified according to the method by which they are operated, as (1) by hand; (2) by independent mechan- ism: (3) by the motion of the machine which they regulate, such as a steam-engine; (4) by the action of the fluid, as safetv-valves. They may also be classified with regard to the relative motion of the valve and its seat, as flap-valves, which rotate in opening; lift or puppet valves, which rise perpendicularly to the seat: and sliding-valves,_which _open parallel to the seat. They are also sometnnes distinguished by the form of the moving part of the valve, as piston-valves, disk-valves, ball-valves, etc. Probably the most ancient form of valve is the leather flap-valve, commonly used in small pumps, as shown at A, Fig. 1. The leather may be stiffened by a piece of wood or metal, as shown in the cut, one edge being left unstiifened to form the hinge. The rim of the aperture on which the valve rests when shut is called the valve-seat, and the portion of the valve which rests on the seat is called the face. Another form of valve. shown at B, Fig. 1, is called the disk-valve; this is a simple disk, frequently an annular disk, of metal, leather, or some other substance, which opens by a slight vertical lift. Both of these valves are automatic in their action—that is. they are moved by the motion of the liquid or gas in the pump. The piston or bucket being raised, the pres- sure of the fluid in the chamber above B keeps it closed. while the suction or partial vacuum formed in the chamber beneath B causes the flap-valve. A, to open. When the bucket is lowered the flap-valve shuts and, the pressure be- neath B then becoming greater than the pressure above it, B opens. allowing the fluid to pass through the bucket. A flap-valve made entirely of metal is frequently used. as in the check-valve (Fig. 2). This is used to allow water to FIG. 1. /132 . VALVE flow from A to B, when the pressure at A is greater than rotating in asimilarly tapered casing, placed transversely to that at B, and to prevent the flow in the reverse direction the pipe, a hole being cut through opposite sides of the eas- when the pressure at B is the greater. ' ‘ ing in the direction of the flow of Fig. 3 is a steam stop- the liquid, and a hole of the same valve. This is a disk- size being cut in the plug. When valve placed upon a spin- the plug is so turned that its hole is in line with the holes in the eas- ing the cock is open, and when it is placed so as to be at right angles to them the cock is shut. Fig. 9 shows a variety of this cock known as a three-way cock, which allows Fm. 2. FIG. 3. dle, which is operated by a screw and hand-wheel. The smooth portion of the spindle to the left of the screwed portion passes through a packed stuifing-box, which pre- vents the leakage of steam around the spindle. A common form of valve for water-pipes, called a gate-valve, is shown // / I I I II ll u l I \ L‘ ‘ 1| _'~ ,/,/////m/ u ;;,"' '\"" -‘J ' slllllllllll _ ' / 1: I ‘ .. / ‘._-‘ 4 _ I fir}! ; . I I r ' ; / / é in Fig. 4. The gate is a fiat plate which slides in a grooved casing placed transversely to the axis of the pipe. A special ' ' form of gate-valve is shown the liquid to flow in any one of three diflferent directions, in Fig. 5. In this there are according to the position of the plug. Fig. 10 is a cross- two plates which are tightly section of a three-way cock. The six shaded portions in the casing are plugs of asbestos packing which prevent leak- age. This cock will open and close as follows: From port 1 to port 2, closing port 3; or port 1 to port 3, closing port 2; or port 2 to port 3, closing port 1. It will also close all three ports, and close any port before open- _ ing the other. All FIG, 4, FIG_ 5. three ports can never _ be opened at one wedged agamst the circular valve-seats by the action of the time, screw after it has been rotated far enough to bring the The form of valve plates into position opposite the seats. Fig. 6 is an air- commonly used in valve for water-pipes, intended to be placed on a line of st,ea,m- engine cvlin- pipe to allow air to enter when the water is being drawn ders is known as~ the off, and to permit air to escape when the pipe is being re- plain s1ide_va,1ve, or filled with water. VVhen the pressure is on the pipe and D-valve, shown in Fig. 11. A is the Valve Which is moved the water enters and fills the chamber, A, it causes the float, to and fro on its seat by the valve-rod, B, which passes C, to rise and close the disk above it against the valve-seat Ste;Lm_t.ight tluough the stuffing-box, C. D is the Ste&I11- chest, E and QM ‘- F the steam- ports, and G —— §§ the exhaust- /- port. These mp If ports are cast V... .. A “ with the body of the engine cylinder. In , its central FIG_ 12, position, as shown, the valve covers both steam-ports. If the valve be moved to the left, so that the edge at A uncovers the open- ing to the port F, the inside edge of the other end of the valve will uncover E and establish a passage through the hollow portion of the valve, from E to G. The steam from the main steam- pipe then enter- ing the steam- chest, D, will pass through the port F into the at E. One of the most common forms of valve for pipes of cylinder, driv- all kinds is the globe-valve. Fig. '7, so called from the glob- ing the piston ular form of its casing. The valve shown in the cut is pro- to the left, while . I I I vided with a renewable disk of soft metal, asbestos, or pack- the exhaust FIG ,3 ing of some kind, shown in dark shading, which makes a steam from the ' " tight joint upon the valve-seat. Fig. 8 is known as an other side of the piston will pass through the ports E and G angle-valve. It is like the globe-valve, but the entrance to the exhaust-pipe, not shown, with which G connects. and discharge are at right angles. In order that the opening of the steam-port may be in- A common form of valve for pipes is called a cock; this creased without increasing the travel of the valve, the D- consists of a slightly tapered plug, fitting accurately, and valve is sometimes cast hollow, with an open passage through vanmtav its back, as shown in Fig. 12. This is known in the U. S. as the Allen valve, and in Great Britain as the Trick-ported valve. It will be ob- served that while in the position shown in the cut, the valve being sup- posed to be moving to the right, there is as yet no opening for steam into the left-hand port from the left edge of the valve, but there is already an opening into this port from the other end of the valve through the back passage. The valve shown in Fig. 12 is also a balanced valve —that is, the pressure in the steam-chest, which in the ordinary D-valve holds the valve down on its seat with great pressure, and in large valves is the cause of considerable loss of power by reason of the friction it occasions, is in this valve to a large ex- tent relieved by means of the device shown on the back of the valve, which excludes the steam from the space between the back of the valve and the cover of the steam-chest. Another form of valve which is frequently used for steam- engines, and which is perfectly bal- anced, is the piston-valve, shown in Fig. 13. It is essentially a slide-valve, but the valve faces and seats being cylindrical, and the ports extending entirely around the casing, the pressure of steam is equalized on all sides. Fig. 14 is a partially balanced d1sk-valve. The water or steam enters between the two valves, and the upper one having a greater area than the lower, the pressure of the infiowing fluid will tend to cause the valve to rise. If the two disks were of the same area the valve would be perfectly balanced. In the cut the disks are shown as pistons, which slide past their seats. In steam-engine valves of this general form the valves rest upon their seats. and the valve is then called a “ dou- ble-beat " valve. Fig. 15 is an external view of the common lever safety-valve. The valve is a disk with a conical edge, resting on a conical seat. The disk is held to its seat by the pressure of a weight acting on a lever, as shown. In the spring-loaded safety-valve. Fig. 16, the pressure of a spring is substituted for the weight and lever. In the particular form of valve shown in the cut, known as the “ Pop” safe- ty-valve, the valve has two seats, one of larger area than the other. Wlien the pressure of steam has become suflicient- ly great to raise the valve when acting only on the smaller area, the valve opens, but immediately the pressure acts on the larger area and keeps the valve open until the pressure is reduced to such a point that acting on the larger area it will no longer overcome the pressure of the spring. For other forms of valve, see PNEUMATICS, PUMP, STEAM—HAMMER, and STEAM-ENGINE. For the valves of the circulation. see HEART and Vnnvs. WM, KENT, M l H. .lllllillllllllllllllllllllll dlllllll Iv In I INLET T .. IQ L/ I " , H 'l.l’||' I I FIG. 15. . - \ I‘ '<'\.<:?,.:.”./../ /\ s l \ Vambéry, vaa1n’ba-re.“e, ARMINIUS (or HERMAN): traveler and Oriental scholar; b. at Szerdahély, near Pressburg, Hun- gary, Mar. 19,1832; spent his youth in poverty, but while serv- mg an apprenticeship studied European and Asiatic lan- guages in Pressburg and Vienna; later was private tutor in Slavonia and in Pesth. Linguistically well equipped. he went to Constantinople, where he acquired the Turkish lan- guage, and became so thoroughly imbued with the Turk- 1sh mode of thought that he was able, with the assistance of the Academy of Pesth, to undertake a journey of explora- VANADIUM 433 tion into Turkestan, disguised as an Oriental dervish, in 1862. He arrived in Khiva in June, 1863, visited Bokhara and Sarmakand, and returned to Persia by way of Herat. After his return to Europe, Vambéry published an account of his journey, which was the first of the kind ever undertaken by a European, in English and German (Leipzig, 1865; 2d ed. 1873), and was at once called to the chair of Oriental Lan- guages in the University of Pesth. His Cagatatsehe Spraeh- staclten (Leipzig, 1867) is the standard work on the Eastern Turkish language. He edited Kudatlca-Btlth, the Uigurian work, in which the oldest linguistic monument of the Turks is preserved, and wrote .Hnngarta.n-Tarhtsh W'orcl-Cora partsons and an Etymologteal Dictionary of the Turco- Tartar Languages (Leipzig, 1878). His fame rests chiefly upon his geographical, historical, and political works on the Orient: Travels in Persia (Leipzig, 1867); Sketches of Central Asia (Leipzig, 1868) ; H tstory of Bohhara and Transoaanta (Stuttgart, 1872) ; Central Asia anal the Anglo- Rasstan Frontier Question (Leipzig, 1873); Islam in the lVtneteenth Century (Leipzig, 1875); Sittenbtlcler aus dem dforgenlande (Berlin, 1876); .Pr2'm2Itz"ue Cz'vz'ltzatton of the Tareo- Tartar Peoples (Leipzig, 1878) ; Origin of the Magyars (Leipzig, 1882); The Turkish iVatz'on (Leipzig, 1885); The Sche’tbantaele (an Usbek epos in 10,000 verses, Budapest, 1885) ; Der Zukanftshampfam Imlten (Vienna, 1886) ; The Story of H ungary (in the Story of the Nations Series, New York, 1886). HER~3LANN Scnonnrmn. Vampire [: Fr., from Servian eamptr : Russ. vampz'rzt] : according to a superstition still existing among the lower classes in Hungary, Servia, Roumania, and the Christian population of the Balkan peninsula, a kind of ghost which during the night leaves the grave and maintains a sem- blance of life by sucking the warm blood of living men and women. It is probable that this superstition originated from the ancient myth of the Za7m'a2, but it was much strengthened by the belief, common in the Middle Ages all through the Greek Church, that the bodies of those who died under the ban of the Church were kept alive by the devil, and by him sent out to ruin their friends and rela- tives. Early in the eighteenth century a vampire panic spread over Servia and Hungary_. and thence into Germany. Thousands of graves were opened, and corpses which looked suspicious were fastened with nails and bolts to the ground, that they should not wander any more. Among the \Val- lachs it is still customary to drive a nail through the head of the corpse into the bottom of the cofiin. Vampire Bat: See Bar. Van (anc. Semtramoeerta) : town; in the vilayet of Van, Asiatic Turkey (see map of Turkey. ref. 5-3). It is 5.200 feet above the level of the sea. on Lake Van, a salt-water lake with an area of 1,550 sq. miles. Above the city rises a vast rock on which are extensive ruins and many cuneiform in- scriptions. Carpets and coarse cotton fabrics are manufac- tured. Pop. 30,000. E. A. G. Vana'dium [Mod. Lat., from Icel. Va'n.adq‘.s, a surname of the Scandinavian goddess Freya]: a chemical element. a metal discovered in 1801 by the chemist Del Rio in a Mexican lead ore, now called ranadlnite, and named by him erg/tlrront'um : but erythronium was for twenty-nine years a doubtful element. being imagined by many chemists, including its discoverer, to be identical with chromium. In 1830 Sefstrdm, however. found it again in some commercial bar iron, and called it nanacl 2121/m—a name which still stands. YV'o'hler first pointed out that Sefstr6m's supposed new ele- ment was the erythronium of Del Rio. In 1831 Berzelius de- scribed a number of vanadium compounds, and concluded that the metal yielded an acid-forming trioxide like chromi- um and molybdenum. I11 1867 Roscoe discovered that the supposed vanadium of Berzelius was either an oxide or a ni- tride—a discovery which changed the whole aspect of this element and of its chemical relations. developing the fact that vanadium is closely related to phosphorus and arsenic. Vana- dium occurs as an essential constituent of several mineral spe- cies. clechentte and (lesclotztte being vanad-ates of lead. "cana- cl2,'n2Ite being lead vanadate, 'voZb0rz‘hz'I‘e being a copper vana- date, psz'ttact"mTte. a lead and copper vanadate. etc. At Granite Creek, Eldorado co., Cal., in a gold mine. Dr. James Blake. of San Francisco, found a dark-green mica which he sup- posed to contain chromium largely, but Dr. Genth showed it to contain vanadium, and this interesting vanadium mica was named roscoeltte, by Dr. Blake, after the chemist Ros- coe. Metallic vanadium was obtained by Roscoe by long- continued ignition of the dichloride VCIQ, in hydrogen gas. 425 434 VAN BEMMEL as a metallic powder of a grayish-white color. Its equiva- lent weight is 513. Its density at 15° C. is 5‘5. Vanadium forms five oxides, in exact parallelism with those of nitrogen -—V2O, VQOQ, V208, VQO4, V206, of which the last is the most important. This. the pentoxide, VQOB, forms salts, known as vanadates, which are analogous to the phosphates. Cer- tain vanadium salts yield an intensely permanent black color, hence their application in the manufacture of inks and for dyeing. Revised by IRA REMsEN. Van Bennnel, EUGENE: author; b. at Ghent, Belgium, Apr. 16, 1824 ; studied at Brussels; attracted much attention by his Jlfémoire sur la Langue et la Poésie prooencales (1846); in 1849 was made Professor of French Literature in the University of Brussels. Among his works were Voyage d tracers champs (1847); L’Harmonie des Passions hu- maines (1855); Histoire de Saint Josse-ten-Noode (1869); and the novel Don Placide : Mémoires du dernier Moine de l’Abbaye dc Villers (1876). D. in Brussels, Aug. 19, 1880. Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. Van Beneden, PIERRE J osnraz zotilogist; b. at Malines, Belgium, Dec. 19, 1801 ; studied medicine and natural sci- ence; was appointed keeper at the museum of natural his- tory at Louvain. and afterward also Professor of Zotilogy in the university. He published llfanuel d’Anatomie com_yoare'e (3 vols., 1852); Jllémoire sur les Vers intestinaua; (1858); Re- cherches sur les ]—Iirudine'es et les Trématodes marins (1863); Recherehes sur la Faune littorale de Belgique (1869) ; Oste'o- graphie des Cétaeés Vioants et Fossiles (1868-77), and nu- merous smaller papers. D. at Louvain, Jan. 8, 1894.— EDOUARD VAN BENEDEN, son of the foregoing, was born at Louvain, Mar. 5, 1846. He became Professor of Zo6logy in the University of Liege and has published numerous papers upon the fertilization of the egg and the development of Tunicates ; founded and is editor of Archives de Biologie. Revised by J. S. KINGSLEY. Vanbrllgll, van-broo’, Sir J OHN: architect and dramatist; b. probably at Chester, England, in 1666; was of Flemish descent ; received a liberal education, partly in France ; en- tered the French army as ensign, and rose to the rank of captain; became in 1695 secretary to the commission for completing Greenwich Hospital ; devoted himself to litera- ture and to the profession of an architect; brought out with great success the comedies The Relapse (1697), written as a sequel to Cibber’s L0 ve’s Last Shift, and the Prooohed Wife (1698), which exposed him to the charge of indecency and profanity strongly pressed by Jeremy Collier ; wrote, in con- sequence, his highly moral comedy Jfilsop (1699), partly from the French of Boursault, afterward recast by Garrick; pro- duced an adaptation of Fletcher’s Pilgrim (1700) ; made in 1702 the architectural designs for Castle Howard, Yorkshire, the seat of the Earl of Carlisle ; became Clarencieux king- at-arms 1703; undertook, in connection with Congreve and the actor Betterton, the construction of a large theater in the Haymarket (1705). which proved a failure from defec- tive acoustic properties; was for a short time manager of the Haymarket; produced there his Confederacy (1705), a witty but highly immoral comedy, and three adaptations from Moliere ; was the architect of the Palace of Blenheim, built by order of Parliament for the Duke of Marlborough- a task which occupied him for several years (1706-15) and involved him in a quarrel with the duchess; built several edifices of minor importance; was knighted and made comptroller of the royal works 1714, and surveyor of the works at Greenwich Hospital 1716. D. in London, Mar. 26, 1726. His last play, left unfinished, The Journey to Lon- don, was completed by Colley Cibber under the title The Prooohed Husband. His comedies, ten in number, are ad- mitted to be well written and to contain life-like pictures of the times. They lack the brilliancy of Congreve’s dialogue, but excel in mastery of situation and realistic handling of character and manners; and, except for their coarseness, resemble Moliere’s plays more closely than do the works of Vanbrugh’s English contemporaries. His comedies were edited with a biographical notice by Leigh Hunt, in con- nection with the plays of Congreve, Wycherley, and Far- quhar (London, 1840), a volume which gave occasion to Macaulay’s characteristic essay on The Comic Dramatists of the Restoration. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Van Buren : city; capital of Crawford co., Ark. ; on the Arkansas river, and the St. L. and San Fran. and the St. L., Iron Mt. and S. railways ; 9 miles N. E. of Fort Smith, 145 miles W. of Little Rock (for location, see map of Ar- kansas, ref. 2-A). It has 2 public schools, several saw and VAN BUREN planing mills and cotton-gins, wagon, cigar, and ice fac- tories, foundry, and fr.uit-canneries, 2 State banks with com- bined capital of $200,000, and a daily and 4 weekly news- papers. Pop. (1880) 1,029; (1890) 2,291; (1895) estimated, 4,650. EDITOR or “VENTURE.” Van Buren: town (incorporated in 1881); Aroostook co., Me. ; on the St. John river, and the Canadian Pac. Railway; 75 miles N. of I-Ioulton, the county-seat (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 2-F). It is connected by stage lines with Fort Fairfield and Fort Kent, and contains a Roman Cath- olic Church, St. Mary’s College, and the Convent of the Good Shepherd. Pop. (1880) 1,110; (1890) 1,168. Van Buren, MARTIN: the eighth President of the U. S. ; b. at Kinderhook, N. Y., Dec. 5, 1782. He began the study of law at the age of fourteen, and took an active part in politics before he had reached the age of twenty; in 1812 was elected to the State Senate; was attorney-general 1815- 19, and in 1816 a State Senator for a second time. In 1818 he reorganized the State Democracy, and became a mem- ber of a small clique of politicians known as the “Albany regency,” which held control of the State for a score of years. In 1821 he was chosen a member of the convention for revising the State constitution, in which he advocated an extension of the franchise, but opposed universal suffrage, and also favored the proposal that colored persons in order to vote should have freehold property to the amount of $250. In this year he was also elected U. S. Senator, and at the conclusion of his term, in 1827, was re-elected, but resigned in the following year, having been chosen Governor of the State. In Man, 1829, he was appointed by President Jack- son Secretary of State, but resigned in Apr., 1831, and dur- ing the recess of Congress was appointed minister to Eng- land, whither he proceeded in September. The Senate, when convened in December, refused to ratify the appointment, mainly on the ground that Mr. Van Buren, while Secretary of State, had foisted domestic party questions into his foreign diplomacy. In May, 1832, he was nominated as the Demo- cratic candidate for Vice-President, and elected in the fol- lowing November. In 1836 he was elected President, re- ceiving a majority of the opular vote and 170 electoral votes out of 294, Gen. Wil iam. Henry Harrison receiving 73. The opening of his administration was at a time of severe financial difliculty, which resulted in the suspen- sion of specie payments by the banks and in the crisis of 1837-39, and the President urged the adoption of the inde- endent treasury system, which was twice passed in the Senate and defeated in the House, but finally became a law near the close of his administration. Another important measure was the passage of a pre-emption law, giving actual settlers the preference in the purchase of public lands. Early in the administration occurred the insurrectionary move- ment in Canada, which was encouraged and aided by U. S. citizens on the borders. The President issued two procla- mations against this violation of treaties, and sent a military force to the frontier to maintain order. The question of slavery began to assume great prominence in national poli- tics, and after an elaborate anti-slavery speech by William Slade, of Vermont, in the House of Representatives, the Southern members withdrew for a separate consultation, at which Robert B. Rhett, of South Carolina, proposed to de- clare it expedient that the Union should be dissolved; but the matter was tided over by the passage of a resolution that no petitions or papers relating to slavery should be in any way considered or acted upon. In the presidential election of 1840 Mr. Van Buren was nominated without op- position as the Demoeratic candidate, William H. Harrison being the candidate of the Whig party. The Democrats carried only seven States, and out of 294 electoral votes only 60 were for Mr. Van Buren. The Whig popular majority, however, was not large. the elections in many of the States being very close. In 1844 Mr. Van Buren was proposed as the Democratic candidate for the presidency, and a majority of the delegates to the nominating convention were in his favor, but owing to his opposition to the proposed annexa- tion of Texas he could not secure the requisite vote of two- thirds; his name was at length withdrawn by his friends, and Polk received the nomination, and was elected. In 1848 Lewis Cass was the regular Democratic candidate; a schism, however, sprang up in the party upon the question of the permission of slavery in the newly acquired territory, and a portion of the party, taking the name of “ Free-soilers,” nominated Van Buren; they drew away sufficient votes to secure the election of Gen. Taylor, the Whig candidate. In VAN BUREN accepting the nomination Van Buren declared his full assent to the anti-slavery principles of the platform. The conven- tion declared that Congress “had no more power to make a slave than to make a king,” and that it was the duty of the national Government to relieve itself “ of all responsibility for the existence or continuance of slavery wherever the Govern- ment possessed constitutional authority to legislate on that subject.” After this, Van Buren retired to his estate at Kinderhook, where the remainder of his life was passed, with the exception of a European tour in 1853-54. D. at Kinderhook, July 24, 1862. He left a MS., which was edited and published by his sons, entitled An Inquiry into the Origin and Course of Political Pr/mfies in the United States (1867). See Von Holst, Constitutional History of the Unit- ecl States; the Life, by Edward M. Shepard, in the Amer- ican Statesmen Series (1888); and George Bancroft, llfartiu Van Buren to the eucl of his Public Career (1889). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Van Buren, WILLIAM HOLME, M. D., LL. D.: surgeon; b. in New York, Apr. 5, 1819, of a family of famous physicians; educated at Yale College; graduated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1840; was assistant surgeon U. S. army 1840-44; settled in New York in 1845. On the organization of Bellevue Hospital, in New York, in 1847, he was made one of its surgical staff, in 1849 he became sur- geon of St. Vincent’s Hospital, and in 1852 he succeeded Granville S. Pattison in the chair of Anatomy in the medi- cal department of the University of the City of New York, which he resigned in 1866 to accept the chair of Surgery in Bellevue Hospital Medical College. His reputation as a surgeon was won in a great measure during his occupancy of these positions. His success in operative surgery gave him a national reputation, which was subsequently enhanced by his contributions to medical literature. Besides his Con- tributions to Practical Surgem , published in 1865. he trans- lated Bernard and Huette’s Operative Surgery and Morel‘s Histology, and was a fre uent contributor to the current medical literature. D. in Tew York, Mar. 25, 1883. Revised by S. T. ARMSTRONG. Vance, ZEBULON BAIRD: U. S. Senator; b. in Buncombe co., N. C., May 13, 1830; educated in ‘Washington College, Tennessee, and in the University of North Carolina; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1853: established him- self at Asheville, N. C. ; and in 1854 was elected to the State Legislature; in 1858 was elected a Representative in Con- gress, to fill a vacancy occasioned by the resignation of Thomas L. Clingman, and was re-elected in 1859. He was originally opposed to secession, but when the civil war broke out took the side of his State, raised a company of soldiers, and soon after was chosen colonel of the Twent_v-sixth North Carolina Regiment. In 1862, while serving in the field, he was elected Governor, and was re-elected in 1864; in 1870 was elected to the U. S. Senate, but was not allowed to take his seat, and resigned in 1872: returned to the practice of law at Charlotte; in 1876 was elected Governor; was elected U. S. Senator i11 1879, and re-elected in 1884 and 1890. D. in Washington, D. C., Apr. 14, 1894. Vanceburg: town ; capital of Lewis co., Ky.; on the Ohio river, and the Ches. and Ohio Railway; 20 miles \V. of Portsmouth, O. (for location, see map of Kentucky, ref. 2-J). It is in an agricultural, fruit-growing, and lumbering region ; contains the Riverside Seminary, a State bank with capital of $25,000, and a weekly newspaper; and is principally en- gaged in quarrying and the manufacture of flour, feed, l1ubs, spokes, staves, and leather. Pop. (1880) 1,095: (1890) 1,110. EDITOR or “ SUN.” Van Cort’landt, PHILIP: soldier: a descendant of Oloff or Oliver Stevense van Cortlandt (1600-84), one of the most prominent of the early settlers of New Netherlands: b. at Cortlandt manor, Westchester co., N. Y., Sept. 1, 1749; be- came aland surveyor, and at the opening of the war of the Revolution was made lieutenant-colonel, and in 1776 colonel. He served in the battle of Stillwater, and against the Indians on the frontier in 1778; commanded a regiment under La Fayette, and was made brigadier-general for gallant conduct at the siege of Yorktown. He was a member of the court that tried Gen. Arnold for improper conduct at Philadelphia, and was in favor of cashiering him. Van Cortlandt was a member of the New York Assembly in 1788-90, of the State convention of 1788 by which the Constitution of the U. S. was adopted, State Senator 1791-94, and Representative in Congress 1793-1809. He was appointed to accompany La Fayette in his tour through the U. S. in 1824. The latter VANCOUVER ISLAND 435 part of his life was spent at his manor in Westchester co., N. Y., where he died Nov. 5, 1831. Revised. by F. M. COLBY. VancOu’ver: city; New Westminster district, British CO- lumbia, Canada; on Burrard Inlet, and the Canadian Pa- cific Railway; 12 miles N. of New \/Vestminster, and about 85 miles N. by E. of Victoria, the capital of the province (for location, see map of Canada, ref. 8-D). It is the largest city on the mainland of British Columbia, is a seaport of the province, and is connected with New Westminster by electric railway and with Victoria by mail-steamers. The city is laid out on the U. S. block system, with wide streets lighted by electricity and paved with bituminous rock. Stanley Park, at the entrance to the harbor, has a beautiful location on a promontory, with an excellent 8-mile drive- way along the water’s edge. There are 4 Church of Eng- land, 4 Presbyterian, 3 Methodist, 2 Baptist, 2 Congrega- tional, and Roman Catholic churches, Salvation Army bar- racks, and a branch of the Y. M. C. A.; 4 public schools, City Hospital, Roman Catholic Hospital, St. Luke’s Home, several orphanages, 4 chartered banks, and a semi-monthly, a monthly, 2 daily and 2 weekly periodicals. In 1894 the city had a ratable property valuation of $18,301,184; rev- enue, $484,781 ; expenditure. $406,008; and debt, $1,926,451. Of the principal buildings, the post-oflfice, the Bank of Mont- real, and the Bank of British North America are built of stone from a quarry a few miles distant. The city is the west terminus of the railway, and has regular mail-steamer communication with China, Japan, and Australia. It has large and varied lumber interests, railway construction and repair shops, foundry and iron-works, sugar-refinery, and pork-packing works. Vancouver was laid out, totally de- stroyed by fire, and rebuilt in 1886, and has an area of more than 15 sq. miles. Pop. (1891) 13,685; (1895) estimated, 18,000. ARTHUR P. J UDeE. Vancouver: city; capital of Clarke co., Wash.; on the Columbia river; 6 miles above the mouth of the Willamette river, and 6 miles N. of Portland, Ore. (for location, see map of Wasliingtoli, ref. 7—C). It is one of the oldest cities in the Northwest, having been founded by the Hudson Bav Company in 1828. Fort Vancouver, the headquarters of the department of the Columbia, and one of the finest mili- tary stations IV. of the Mississippi. is located here. The city contains St. James’s College (Roman Catholic, opened in 1856, chartered in 1887), a national bank with capital of $100,000, a State bank with capital of $50,000. and four weekly newspapers, and is principally engaged in lumbering. da-irying, and fruit-growing. Pop. (1880) 1.7 22; (1890) 3,545 ; (1895) estimated, 4,500. EDITOR OF " COLUMBIAN." Vancouver Island: an island in the Pacific Ocean, named after the navigator George Vancouver (1758-98). It forms part of the province of British Columbia, being separated from the mainland by Queen Charlotte Sound, J ohnstone Sound, and the Strait of Georgia, and lies between lat. 48° 20’ and 50° 53' N., and lon. 123° 17' and 128° 28’ W. Area between 15,000 and 16,000 sq. miles. Throughout the length of the island there extends a ridge of bare and rocky mountains averaging 3,000 feet in height, rising in its highest peak, Mt. Arrowsmith, to 5,900 feet. The coasts of the isl- and. especially the west, are much indented with narrow fiords, marked by steep rocky cliffs and promontories inter- spersed with strips of pebbly beaches and sheltered nooks with fine harbors, notably those of Esquimalt, San Juan. Alberni Canal, I-Iesquiot, Pachena, and Quatsino. The north- ern and southern extremities of the island are comparatively flat, and the most settled portions are in the south, where Victoria is, and around the coal regions of Nanaimo on the east coast. There are no navigable rivers, and the streams, which are mountain torrents in winter and nearly dry in summer, run very short and rapid courses. ' The climate in many respects resembles that of Great Britain, being modified by the arctic currents that flow down along the coasts. The winter is generally open, mild, and wet; the spring is later, and the summer hotter and drier than in England. The average maximum temperature is about 83° and the minimum 22° F. The larger portion of the island is unsuited for agriculture, being little better than bare rock. The most general crops are wheat, oats, barley. and all sorts of vegetables. Fruit-culture is also being de- veloped successfully. The principal mountain range has been found to contain in many places gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, and other metals. In the vicinity of Alberni gold-bearing quartz-ledges contain gold in paying quanti- ties. Marble of a very fine quality has been discovered. Coal 436 VANDALIA is abundant, especially around the town of Nanaimo and to the N. of it. The panther, bear, and wolf are found in the forests ; two kinds of deer, grouse, quail, pheasants, and other wild fowl abound, and the many lakes are full of fish. Extensive banks lie off the southwest coast well stocked with cod, halibut, whiting, sturgeon, and herring, and deep- sea fishing is becoming one of the main industries of the island, together with the lumber industries, ship-building, and coal-mining. The population in 1891 was 37,000. The capital is VICTORIA (q. 12.). The island was discovered in 1592 by Juan de Fuca, was visited in 1792 by Capt. Vancou- ver, and was ceded to Great Britain by treaty with the U. S. in 1846. In 1848 it was leased to the Hudson Bay Company by the crown for ten years, and was an independent crown colony till 1866, when it was united with the mainland of British Columbia as the colony of British Columbia. It sends fourteen members to the Provincial Legislature. J . STUART YATES. Vanda’ lia : city; capital of Fayette co., Ill. ; on the Kas- kaskia river, and the Ill. Cent. and the Vandalia Line rail- ways ; 62 miles S. by W. of Decatur, 68 miles E. N. E. of St. Louis, M0. (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 8—E). It is in a hard-wood timber region ; was formerly the capital of the State, and has 6 churches, 2 public-school buildings, a State bank with capital of $100,000, a private bank, three weekly newspapers, and manufactories of brick-making ma- chines, paper, flour, woolen goods, lows, carriages and wagons, and chairs. Pop. (1880) 2,056; (1890) 2,144. EDITOR or “ LEADER.” Vandals: an ancient pure Germanic race belonging to the large group of Gothic tribes. The theory of their Sar- matian origin and Safaiik’s opinion that they were a Slave- German-Celtic race have been conclusively refuted. They were divided into the Asdingian and Silingian sections, and occupied in the second century the upper Oder, the Riesen- gebirge (llfontes Vaitdctltei), and the Sudeten, approximately the present province of Silesia (which derived its name from the Silingi). During the Marcomannic wars with Marcus Aurelius (161—180 A. D.) the Asdingi were allies of the Quadi and Marcomanni in Dacia, while the Silingi migrated west- ward about 280, and located on the Middle Main. The former were partly destroyed by the Gothic king Geberic(h) in a battle on the Maros river, where their king, Wisumar, was slain ; the remnants were permitted by Constantine ‘-the Great to settle in Pannonia about 334. Allied with the -Suevi and Alani, and reunited with the Silingi, they suddenly invaded Gaul in 406, under their king, Godigisel (I‘o8vy£’i0gra.phid-bibZiographia (Oporto, 1870) ; Lniza Todi (1873); Ensdio sobre 0 catalogo dd Zilnarid de Im/asica de eZ-rei D. Jodo I V. (1873); Cowtas cnriosas do abbade Antonio da Costa (1879). To the second group of works belong Reforma do ensino de bellas cwtes (3 vols., 1877-79); Albrecht Ditrer e d sna inflnencia nci peninsula (1879); Francisco de I-IoZ- Zandd (1879); Goesiana (4 vols., 1879-81). Besides these contributions to science, Vasconcellos has done much to spread a knowledge of German literature in Portugal. Here may be mentioned two works occasioned by the free and inaccurate translation of Goethe’s Faust by Castilho: OFa/est de Goethe e d t‘2'adn,(/do de Castilho (1872), and O consnmmado g67"77?.Cb’II/I/'8IfCl (1879).-His wife, KAROLINA WIL- HELMA M101-IAELIs DE VASOONCELLOS, was born in Berlin, Mar. 15, 1851, and married him in 1876. The daughter of Prof. Gustav M ichaelis, a well-known authority O11 stenography and the physiology of sound. she received an extensive lin- guistic and literary education at the Luisenschule at Berlin, under Mtttzner and Goldbeck. She was early attracted by the languages and literatures of the Spanish Peninsula, and her investigations in this field have placed her among the first Romance philologists of the present day. Her first publication was a collection of the Spanish ballads dealing with the Cid, Romancero del Cid (Leipzig, 1870). Of her later works may be cited Stndien Z71/2‘ romanischen lV0rt- sch(')'pf'um.g (Leipzig, 1876); .Ein portngiesrisches VVei/z.nachts- Auto : P/ratica de tres jaastores (Brunswick, 1879); Versnch ilber den .PaZmeirim dd Intr/Zaterro. (Halle, 1883) ; Poesias dc Francisco de Sd de Illiranda (Halle, 1885); Stndien ear VASCONCELLOS hispanischen Wortdeutung (Florence, 1886); and the admi- rable survey of Portuguese literature in Gr6ber’s Grundriss der rmnanisehen Philologie, vol. ii. To the list should be added numerous contributions in the Reoista lusitana, Zeitsc/vrift fitr romanische Philologie, Romanische For- sehungen, and other learned journals. A. R. MARSH. Vasconcellos, SIMKO, de: missionary and historian; b. at Coimbra, Portugal, in 1599. He entered the Jesuit order, was sent, about 1630, to Brazil, and passed the remainder of his life teaching in the colleges or laboring among the Indi- ans. Vasconcellos published Cronica da companhia de Jesus no Brazil (1663; 2d ed. 1864); Lives of Anchieta and Al- meid a, etc. These books are well written, a11d are considered among the most important of the early works on Brazil, both for secular and for ecclesiastical history. D. in Sao Paulo about 1670. H. H. S. Vascular Tissue: in plants, the fibro-vascular system, composed of vessels and ducts. See HIsToLoGY, VEGETABLE. Vasey, GEORGE, A. M., M. D.: botanist: b. near Scar- borough, England, Feb. 28, 1822. His family removed to the U. S. when he was an infant; he was educated in the schools of Oneida co., N. Y., the Oneida Institute, and the Berkshire Medical Institute in Pittsfield, Mass.; practiced medicine in Elgin, and Ringwood, Ill., from 1848 to 1866; botanist of Maj. John \V. Powell’s Colorado expedition 1868; editor, with Charles V. Riley, of The American Ento- mologist and Botanist (1869—70); botanist of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1872 to 1893. D. in Washington, D. C., Mar. 4, 1893. His publications relate largely to the grasses, to the study of which he devoted him- self almost exclusively during the last fifteen years of his life. The more important are A Catalogue of the Forest Trees of the United States (1876); Graminece in Lieut. George M. Wl1eeler’s Report (1877); A Synopsis of the Tribes and Genera of the Grasses of the United States (1883); Agricultural Grasses of the United States (1884; revised in 1889): A Desc1'i,'oti"ue Catalogue of the Grasses of the United States (1885); Grasses of the Southwest (part i. 1890, part ii. 1891); Grasses of the Pacific Slope (part i. 1892, part ii. 1893); llfonograph of the Grasses of the United States and British America (1892, unfinished). CHARLES E. BESSEY. Vasquez de Coronado, va”as'kdth-dd-k5-r5-naa'd5, FRAN- CISCO: explorer of New Mexico; b. at Salamanca, Spain, about 1500. He went to Mexico, probably with Viceroy Mendoza in 1535, and in 1539 was appointed governor of Nueva Galicia, then embracing all of Northwestern Mexico, with an indefinite extension northward. At this time ex- travagant ideas were current about the “seven cities " of Cibola (the Indian pueblos of Arizona) reported by Cabeza de Vaca and seen by NIZA (Q. 1).). Coronado organized an expedition for their conquest. He left Culiacan in Apr., 1540, with 300 soldiers and 800 Indians, taking Niza as a guide. Crossing the deserts he reached the Cibola pueblos, but found none of the riches reported by Niza. He tl1en turned eastward, exploring the region now called New Mex- ico, and possibly penetrating to Kansas; but he was every- where disappointed in his search for gold, and a large part of his force perished in the desert. He returned in hlar., 1542, and was employed in quelling the Culiacan revolt, but died not long after. See The Gilded ilfan, by Adolphe F. Bandelier (New York, 1893). HERBERT H. SMITH. Vasquez de Coronado, JUAN: administrator; b. at Sala- manca, Spain, about 1525. He was of an illustrious family, and married a relative of Pedrarias, the governor of Panama. After studying law in the University of Salamanca, he went to Guatemala in 1550, and the audiencia of the Contines employed him in various important posts. He was alcalde mayor of San Salvador and Honduras, and later of Nicara- gua; alcalde orclina/rio of the city of Guatemala; and in Apr., 1562, was named alcalde mayor of the provinces of Cartago and Costa Rica. He carried a large amount of sup- plies to the impoverished settlers of those regions ; quickly reduced his territory to order. conciliating the Indians by his kindness and justice; and after thoroughly exploring Costa Rica and founding Cartago and other towns, he re- turned to Spain in 1564. It was adjudged that he had effected the pacification of Costa Rica, and he was appointed captain-general of that country for life and in heredity, as well as governor of Nicaragua for three years. He set out for his domain with a large retinue, but was shipwrecked and drowned in Oct., 1565. HERBERT H. SMITH. VASSAR COLLEGE 447 Vas'salboro : town ; Kennebec co., Me.; on the Kennebec river, and the Maine Cent. Railroad; 12 miles N. by E. of Augusta (for location, see map of Maine, ref. -8—C). It was settled in 1760, incorporated in 1771, and had part of its territory taken to form the town of Sidney in 1792. It con- tains the villages of Vassalboro, East Vassalboro, South V as- salboro, North Vassalboro, Riverside, and Cross Hill; and has nine churches, Oak Grove Seminary, and a commercial college. Pop. (1880) 2,621; (1890) 2,052. Vassar: village; Tuscola co., Mich.: on the Cass river. and the Flint and Pere Marq. and the Mich. Cent. railways : 23 miles S. E. of Bay City, and 27 miles N. W. of Lapeer (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 6—K). It is in an agricultural and lumbering region, and has a national bank with capital of $50,000, a private bank, a public high school, a weekly newspaper, several flour and lumber mills, foundries and machine-shops, woolen-mill, and other manufactories. Pop. (1880) 670; (1890) 1,682. Vassar, MATTHEW: founder of Vxssaa COLLEGE (q. o.).; b. at East Dereham, Norfolk. England, Apr. 29,1792; was taken to the U. S. in 1796 with his father, who settled on a farm near Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and carried on an extensive brewery, acquiring a fortune in that business. D. at Pough- keepsie, June 23, 1868. He was a Baptist, and contributed much to the erection of a Baptist church in Poughkeepsie. Vassar, MATTHEW, Jr.: philanthropist; nephew of the founder of Vassar College; b. at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., May 11,1809; educated in the common schools; treasurer and trustee of Vassar College from its beginning to his death. He, with his brother John Guy, erected the Vassar brothers" laboratory, for Vassar College, at a cost of $20,000. also the Vassar old men’s home in Poughkeepsie. He held many local and important oifices in his native city, and was a man of great shrewdness and activity. He left nearly $400,000 to be distributed among various institutions. corporations, and societies. of which $85,000 was for a hospital in Pough- keepsie, to be called Vassar Brothers’ Hospital. I). at Poughkeepsie, Aug. 10, 1881.—His brother, JOHN GUY Vas- SAR (b. at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., June 13. 1811; d. there Oct. 27, 1888) gave to the college a fine building for literary and scientific purposes. Ill health prevented steady application to business, and he traveled extensively. .He published Twenty Years around the lVorld (New York, 1861: 2d ed. 1862). Revised by S. M. J acxsox. Vassar College : an institution at Poughkeepsie, N. Y. ; founded by Matthew Vassar in 1861, and opened to students in 1865. It was the first amply endowed and adequately organized college for women. The original gift was $428,- 000, expended for buildings and other equipments. This was supplemented by a bequest of $360,000. Matthew Vas- sar, J r., subsequently left to the college $130,000, and from the estate of John Guy Vassar it received $444,000. By other gifts the endowment fund has reached the sum of $1,020,000 (1894). The buildings.collections, and apparatus are valued at $1,000,000 more. The buildings include three for residence. library, laboratories, museum and art gallery, gymnasium. conservatory, professors’ residences, etc. The main building, which is 500 feet in length, is modeled after the Tuileries. The buildings are located in the midst of 210 acres of land, much of which is laid out as a park. It is 3 miles from the Hudson, and is connected with the river by an electric railway. There are nineteen professorships, about equally divided between men and women, and twenty-six other oflicers and instructors. The course of study is similar to that of the best colleges in the U. S., and the requirements for admis- sion are equal to theirs. No one is admitted. even for a special course, unless on the full requirements in force for the regular course. Lectures by specialists from other in- stitutions supplement the work of the departments. The degree of A. B. is given on the completion of a four years‘ course, of which the first year and part of the second are prescribed, and the remainder, excepting a course in phi- losophy, is elective. The A. M. degree has never been given save on examination. One year of resident work, or two of non-resident, is requisite. There are several fellowships for graduate work. Music and painting are provided for. but the practice of these arts is not included in the work counted for a degree. The science and history of the arts are included in the curriculum. The college is non-seeta- rian. Its services of worship are conducted by the presi- dent and preachers of various denominations. The number of students in 1894 was 482. J AMES M. TAYLOR. 4,48 VASSILKOV VaSSi1kov': a town in the government of Kiev, Little Russia ; on the Stugna, near its junction with the Dnieper; has tobacco and soap factories. Pop. 18,000, mostly engaged in agricultural pursuits. Vasto (ancient Histonium): fortified town; in the prov- ince of Chieti, Italy; about a mile from the Adriatic, in the plain known as the Piano d’Aragona, connected by rail with Brindisi and Bologna (see map of Italy, ref. 5-F). The principal industries are olive-culture and the manufacture of earthenware, woolen cloth, and silk. Pop. 9,800. Vater, faa’ter, J OHANN SEVERIN: theologian and philolo- gist; b. at Altenburg, duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, Germany, May 27, 1771 ; studied theology and languages at Jena and Halle: was ap ointed Professor of Theology and Oriental Languages at ena in 1796, at Halle in 1800, at K5nigsberg in 1809, and returned in 1820 to Halle. He published Syn- chronistische Tafeln der Kirchengeschichte (Halle, 1809; 6th ed. 1833; Eng. trans. by F. Cunningham, Tables of Ecclesiatical Histom, Boston, 1831). In his day he was widely known by his grammars of the Hebrew (1797), P0- lish (1807), and Russian languages (1809); his Handbuch der hebrttischen, syrischen, chalddischen und arabischen Cram- matih (1801); his continuation of Adelung’s llIithridates (1806-17); his Literatur der Grammati/sen, Le.viha und W/Idrtersammlungen aller Sprachen der Erde (1815); and by his commentary on the Pentateuch (2 vols., 1802-05). D. at Halle, Mar. 16, 1826. Revised by S. M. J AGKSON. Vatican Codex: See Connx VATIcANUs. Vatican Council [Vatican is from Lat. Vatica/nus (sc. mons or collis, hill), the Vatican Hill on the west bank of the Tiber, at Rome]: the twentieth oecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, deriving its name from the Vatican Basilica (St. Peter’s), in Rome, where it was held. It was called by Pope Pius IX., through the encyclical .r0PMceae g-Peat -degrada- t1on,asmthecase of the hystero- \ phytes, where we I must pass from eifi l Dmotyledoneae Monocoiyl doneae ANTHOPHYTA --Lycopodmae Filicmae -"Equisetinae PTERIDOPHYTA l\/lusci He ancae / P BRYOPHYTA T‘ "Charophyceae --- Rhodophyceae CARPOPHYTA -" Phaeophyceae PHYCOPHYTA the structurally more complex plants to the sim- pler ones. In the fungi, for ex- ample, the RUSTS (g. c.) are structurally simpler than the Cup Fungi; but the latter are much nearer to the primitive type from which both they and the Rusts were derived, and hence must be described first in a natural system of classification. So, too, in the flowering plants, we find many cases of a progressive simplification as we follow genetic lmes; thus the grasses and sedges, although bear- ing much simpler flowers than the lilies, are to be regarded as modified from the lily type. The grasses are thus fur- ther removed from the primitive monocotyledons, and are therefore in this sense higher than the lilies. Among the PRO- ' - " Sch izophyceae FIG. 2.—Genealogical tree of the branches and classes. * The reader is reminded that in this article, as elsewhere in this cyclopaedm. the SLIME MOULDS (q. 1).) are regarded as falling outside of the limits of the vegetable kingdom. VEGETABLE KINGDOM dicotyledons there are numerous cases of simplification, many of which have been quite puzzling to systematists. The Apetalae of the older botanists are very largely, if not entirely, modified from choripetalous and gamopetalous types. They constitute, in fact, many smaller divergent genetic lines, which pass out from points upon the larger stems of the C/l0?'i]96t(tZ(6 and Gamopczfalcc. Branch I. PROTOPHYTA. Protophytes; Water-slimes. Single cells, or chains of cells, reproducing by fission and endospores. Plants minute, aquatic, and normally blue- green, brownish-green, or fuliginous. See PROTOPHYTES. Glass 1. SCI-IIZOPHYOEZE (Oyanophyceae). Fission Algze. Characters those of the branch. About 1,000 species are known. Order CYSTIPI-IORZE (Ohroococcaceze). single or associated in families. Family Chroococcacece. Species of Chroococcus, Glaze- capsa, and ]l[€')"l;8’/v)Z0}96CZ%'Cb are common in ponds and pools. Order NEMATOGENE/‘E (Nostoehineze). Plants multicellu- lar, forming simple threads, which float on or in water, often forming large greenish or blackish masses. Family Nostocaceze. Threads mostly moniliform, with intercalated or terminal heterocysts. iVosz‘oc is the princi-- pal genus. Family Osm'llarz'acecc. Threads cylindrical, cells uniform (no heterocysts) ; often motile. 0scz'ZZam'a and Lyngbya are- common genera. Family Rt'vuZarz'acea2. Threads mostly attenuated from a large basal heterocyst. R't'vuZarz'a is the typical genus. Family Sag/tonemaceae. Threads cylindrical, with inter- calated heterocysts, pseudo-ramose. Family Bactem'acew. The bacteria are robably degener- ated iVostocacece and 0scz'ZZarz'acew. See ACTERIA. Branch II. PHYOOPHYTA. Phycophytes; Spore-tangles. Single cells, chains, or masses, the latter sometimes form- ing a branching plant with rhizoids. Sexual reproduction by the union of two protoplasts to form a single resting- spore. See PI-IYCOPHYTES. Class 2. OHLOROPI-IYOEZE. Green Algae. Chlorophyll- green, one-celled or filamentous plants, rarely composed of a plate of cells. (A few hysterophytes are chlorophyll-less).. Nearly ‘7,000 species are known. Order PROTOCOCCOIDE./E. Plants unicellular, single or asso- ciated in families; sexual reproduction mostly by the union of zoo'spores. Species from 550 to 600. Family Palmellacece. The Green Slimes. Vegetative cells without cilia, not motile, mostly solitary or in loose families. Protococcus, Palmella, and Tezfras_pora are examples of the- single-celled forms, while Pedz'asZrum., Scenedesmus, and Ifyclrodicty/on are in families. See Pnoroooccus. Family Volvocacece. Vegetative cells with cilia, motile, solitary or united into motile families. C/1/lamyrlomonas and HCB97ZCLiOOOCCUS (H. lac/z¢stm's, the red snow-plant of the Arctic regions) are unicellular; Pcmdorma forms isogamic colo- nies, while E/adom'na and Volvow form oiigamic colonies. The last three are doubtfully vegetable in nature. Family S_'1/nchytm'acecc. Vegetative cells, at first naked, spherical or ellipsoidal, parasitic in the cells of (mostly lower) plants and animals, without chlorophyll, at length forming a wall and becoming a zo6sporangium, or forming a single thick—walled resting-spore. Nearly 100 species are known, inhabiting Diatoms, Pond Scums, etc. Species of Sg/no/tyt rium are parasitic in the epidermal cells of flowering plants. Family C/tyt1“?Td'1I(1.cccc. Vegetative cells with a wall, usually elongated or filiform, parasitic in the cells of (mostly lower)- plants and animals, without chlorophyll, forming zoosporan- gia or one or more thick-walled resting spores. About 100‘ species (of La-gem'dt'um. Anc_q/Zqistes, R72.t'z0p7t'zIdt'm22., 0/24/- tv-idium, etc.) are known, inhabiting diatoms, desmids, and other aquatic plants. It is quite probable that some of the forms here brought together are degraded »S'zI,/ohonece and Confervoqlclece. Order CONJUGA'1‘./E. Plants unicellular, or cylindrical un- branched chains of cells (rarely branching tubes), reprodu- Plants unicellular, cing sexually by the direct union of the contents of two- cells. Species about 5,250. Family Desmtrlmcece. The Desmids. Plants unicellular, bilobed, or fusiform, free, rarely united in chains, walls of cellulose only. See Dnsnrns. Family Dia/tomaceae. The Diatoms. Plants unicellular, free or less commonly united in chains; walls siliceous. See Dmrons. VEGETABLE KINGDOM Family Zygnemacece. The Pond-scums. Plants consisting of chains of cylindrical cells. S[n'7'o,(/ylra, Zygnema, and Moog/eoZz'a are typical genera. Family ./Ilueomeuc. The Black Moulds. Mostly sapro- phytic plants (rarely parasitic upon one another), filiforrn, branching, sparsely septated, without chlorophyll; conidia formed internally (in a “sporangium ”) or by abstriction. See Mueonxcnzn. Family Enlomophlhoraoae. The Insect Fungi. Parasites inhabiting the bodies of insects; filaments very short, branching, septated (or the cells separate), without chloro- phyll; conidia formed singly by abstriction. See FLY Fuuous. Order SIPHONEZE. Plants tubular (or lobed), branching, partitions rarely formed; sexual reproduction by the union of zotispores, or the fertilization of otispheres by anthero- zoids. About 250 species are known. Family I-I3/cl1*0gct.s'tmcece. Plants terrestrial, minute, glo- bose, with branching rhizoids; sexual reproduction iso- gamic. But one genus, Botrydt"z//m, is known. Family Phyllosiphonacete. Minute, green, branching plants, parasitic in the tissues of aquatic plants, evidently related to the preceding family. Family Ucloteaoete. Plant compound, consisting of di- or trichotomous tubes, always incrusted with lime; sexual re- production isogamic. Marine. Family Spongocllaeece. Plant compound, spongy, spherical or cylindrical, simple or dichotomously branched, consisting of many branching intertwined tubes; sexual reproduction isogamic. Marine. Family Oaulerpaoece. Plant a horizontal tube with rhi- zoids, and bearing erect lobulated or pinnatifid branches; sexual reproduction isogamic. Marine. Family .B‘)'_?/0]987/tlCl06C8. Plant pinnately branched ; sexual reproduction isogamic. Marine. Family Derbesz'acece. Plant filiform, simple. or irregularly branched; sexual reproduction isogamic. hlarine. Family Dasyoladlaoece. Plant filiform, with short verti- cillate branches; sexual reproduction isogamic. Harine. Family Vauchemoeete. The Green Felts. Plant filiform, irregularly branched; sexual reproduction oiigamic. The thirty to forty species belong to the genus Va'uche7'lct; they occur in fresh or marine waters, and even on moist soil. Family Scllprolegmacece. The WVater-moulds. Aquatic lants parasitic or saprophytic in the tissues of animals, fili- orm, irregularly branched, and without chlorophyll; sexual reproduction otigamic. See WATER-MOULDS. Family Peronosporacere. The Downy Mildews. Plants parasitic in the tissues of higher lants, filiform, irregularly branched, and without chlorop yll; sexual reproduction oiigamic. See MILDEWS. Order CONFERVOIDE./E. Plantacylindrical chain or a plate of cells; sexual reproduction by the union of zotispores or the fertilization of otispheres by antherozoids. Species from 850 to 1,000. Family Uloaeece. Sea-lettuces. Plant a plate of a single layer of cells, or a tube of cells, or by collapsing a plate of two layers; sexual reproduction isogamic. Mostly marine. Family Ulolriehiaeere. The Confervas. Plant filiform, mostly simple, with lateral rhizoids ; cell-walls thin; sexual reproduction isogamic. Mostly in fresh water. See CoN- FERVA. Family Olw'oolep2Tclt'aoe(e. Plant minute, epiphytic or aerial, filiform, branching; from yellow to red in color; sexual reproduction isogamic. ‘ Family Cladop/zlomoete. The \Vater-flannels. Plant fili- form, mostly branching, with lateral rhizoids, cell-walls thickened and lamellated; sexual reproduction isogamic. Mostly in fresh water. Family Pz'thoplz.ora,ce(e. Plant filiform, branching, ending below in simple or branching colorless rhizoids; sexual re- production isogamic. In fresh water. Family Splweropleacmo. Plant filiform, simple, free-swim- ming; sexual reproduction ofigamic, gametes biciliated, oiispheres several in each otigone. In fresh waters. Family Cylinal/1'ooa,psaceaz. Plant filiform, simple, at first attached, then free-swimming; sexual reproduction oligamic, gametes biciliated, oiispheres one in each otigone. In fresh waters. Family (E'dogom'aoeoe. Plant filiform, simple or branched, attached below by rhizoids; oiispheres large, not ciliated, one in each oiigone; antherozoids with a crown of cilia. In fresh waters. The principal genus is (ELl()g0)l'l:l67II. Class 3. PlLEOPl~IYCEZE. Brown Algae. Olive-green 455 filamentous or more commonly massive plants with rhizoids, having in their cells, in addition to chlorophyll, a brown coloring-matter (phycophaein). About 1,100 species are known, marine (with a very few exceptions). Order Pnmosroanm. Plant from a minute filament to a large flat or much-branched thallus, producing zotispores in two kinds of zotisporangia: (1) simple, containing one zoiisporez (2) compound, containing many zoiispores; sexual reproduction by the union of zotispores; asexual reproduc- tion by the direct growth of zotispores. Family Eetoco/rpaoem. Plant filamentous, monosiphonous or polysiphonous; zoiisporangia in or on the filaments. the simple globose or cuboidal, the compound muriform. Most- ly small or even microscopic plants, resembling the Confer- ooirleoe. In at least one genus there are fresh-water species. Family flfesogloeaceoe. Plant mostly gelatinous, globose, irregular or cylindrical, composed of a basal or axial mass of cylindrical cells, covered by a cortex of closely packed vertical rows of cells ; both kinds of zotisporangia produced among the cortical cells. Mostly small plants, forming gelatinous masses on larger seaweeds. Family Pztnetarictcece. Plant simple or branched, mem- branaceous, cylindrical or filamentous ; zoiisporangia in su- perficial sori, the simple spherical. the compound (where known) ellipsoidal and few-celled. Plants often of consid- erable size, 10 to 20 cm. or more. Family A.7'l]l’7‘06lClCZ?/.Cl»C6CZ2. Plant filiform, branching, com- posed of an axial row of large cells covered with several layers of polygonal cortical cells: compound zotisporangia moniliform, on slender branches, the simple unknown. Plants often of considerable size, 20 to 30 cm. or more. Family Sporoohnocece. Plant upright, cylindrical or com- pressed, solid or hollow, consisting of several layers of po- lygonal cells; both kinds of zotisporangia in external, scat- tered sori, intermixed with jointed paraphyses. Plants often of considerable size, 10 to 100 cm. or more. Family SC}/l08l[Jll07Z(lC€(E. Plant unbranched, membrana- ceous or tubular ; compound zotisporangia densely covering the whole surface, intermixed with club-shaped paraphyses, the simple unknown. Plants 10 to 30 cm. or more in length. Family Laam'nam'acere. Plant large, flat or cylindrical, composed of many layers of cells; simple zoiisporangia in large sori, bands, or over the whole surface, intermixed with club-shaped paraphyses. the compound unknown. These are the KELPS (Q. 22). which include common species several meters in length, and a Pacific Ocean species 100 or more meters long. Family Ralfsiacete. Plant parenchymatous, horizontally expanded, sometimes crustaceous : both kinds of zo5sporan- gia spheroidal, in wart-like sori, the simple intermixed with jointed paraphyses, the compound without paraphyses. Small plants attached to stones and shells. Family Lt'tlzodermace(e. Plant parenchymatous. horizon- tally expanded, crustaceous; both kinds of zo6sporangia in superficial sori, the compound with intermixed, jointed paraphyses. Small plants attached to stones and shells, all marine. with the exception of two species. Family Cuz‘lerz'acae. Plant parenchymatous (not crusta- ceous), fiat, erect or prostrate; zoiisporangia in superficial sori, the simple without and the compound with jointed paraphyses. In this family a differentiation into otispheres and antherozoids is attained, the simple zoosporangia pro- ducing the former and the compound the latter. The plants are from 1 cm. or so to 30 or 40 in height, and are mostly natives of the warmer seas. Order DICTYOTE53. Plant fiat. parenchymatous; sexual (‘?) reproduction by the fertilization of motionless oiispheres by motionless antherozoids ; asexual reproduction by means of motionless tetraspores. Family Diotyotacece. Plants of considerable size, from a few centimeters to a meter or more in length, often beauti- fully marked with colored zones, and remarkable in showing aflinities to the Plueoplzg/cote and Rhodophycece. Order Fucornna-3. The Fucoids. Plant a more or less branching massive thallus ; sexual reproduction by the fer- tilization of a motionless olisphere by motile antherozoids; asexual reproduction wanting. Family Fzloacetr. Plant of considerable size, from a few centimeters to a meter in length, common on rocks be- tween tide-marks, hence called R-ockweeds. See FUooIDs. Branch III. CARPOPHYTA. Carpophytes; Fruit-tangles. Chains, plates, or masses of cells. the latter often forming a branclnng plant with rhizoids. Sexual reproduction 456 (where known) by the union of two dissimilar protoplasts to form a spore-fruit. See CARPOPIIYTES. Class 4. COLEOCHIETEIE. Simple Fruit-tangles. Chlorophyll-green plants, consisting of jointed, irregularly branched, radiating filaments, sometimes compacted into a fiat plate; spore-fruit simple, consisting of a large spore (carpospore) inclosed in a subsequently formed layer of cells. About a dozen species are known. Order COLEOOI-I1ETAeEjE. Minute plants, 6 mm. or less, with the characters of the class. Family (loleochcetacece. Aquatic, attached to the surfaces of water-plants, some of the cells with colorless. bristle-like protuberances growing from narrow sheaths. Family flfycoideacece. Parasitic in the leaf tissues of high- er plants; bristle-like protuberances wanting. Doubtfully referred to this class. Class 5. ASCOMYCETEZE. Sac Fungi. Chlorophyll- less plants (hysterophytes) consisting of jointed, branching filaments, sometimes compacted into parenchymatous mass- es; spore-fruit spherical, cup-shaped, or irregular, simple or compound, always including one or more spore-sacs (asci) containing spores (ascospores). Nearly 20,000 species are now known, to which may be added about 12,000 more of the “imperfect fungi,” here included in this class. See FUNGI. Order PERISPORIACE./E. Simple Sac Fungi. Plant filamen- tous (the mycelium), producing minute, simple, mostly spher- ical closed spore-fruits, consisting of one to many asci in- closed in a hard cellular shell (perithecium). Species about 500. Family Erysiphece. Superficial parasites upon higher plants, with abundant simple vertical conidiophores, the blackish fruits with radiating, usually forked appendages. These are the Powdery Mildews. See MILDEWS. Family Perisporiece. Mostly saprophytes, with the yellow or black fruits, usually without appendages. N ot well de- fined from the Erysiphere by structural characters. Order TUBEROIDE/E. Subterranean Sac Fungi. Plant fila- mentous (mostly subterranean), producing spheroidal, com- pound (usually large) spore-fruits, containing internally many spherical cavities in which are the asci; species about 130. Family Onygenacece. Parasitic or saprophytic on horns, bones, etc.; fruit waxy, at length pulverulent. Family Elaphomg/cetacece. Fruit subterranean, woody or crustaceous. Family Tnberaceze. Fruit subterranean, fieshy. The most important genus is Tuber with about fifty species, including the truffles (T. wstionm). See FUNGI and TRUFFLE. Order PYRENOMYCETE./‘E. Black Fungi. Plant filamentous (in many “lichens” compacted into a thallus), producing spheroidal simple or mostly compound spore-fruits, consist- ing of a hard cellular mass (stroma) in whose surface the perithecia are partially imbedded. Species about 9,000. Family Sphceriaceae. Simple or compound; perithecia black, membranaceous, coriaceous or carbonaceous, differing in substance from the stroma; ostiole round. Family I~I_z/poo/reacece. Simple or compound; perithecia mostly reddish, sub-carnose or waxy membranaceous, dif- fering in substance from the stroma ; ostiole round. Family Verrncdriacece. Lichen-forming fungi, with glob- ular fruits; ostiole round. See LIOHENS. Family Dot/iid/iacece. Compound; perithecia black, cori- aceous or carbonaceous, confiuent with the stroma; ostiole round. See PLUM KNOT. Family 1lIicroth,r/riacece. Simple; perithecia black, sub- superficial, membranaceous or carbonaceous ; no ostiole. Family Lophiostomacece. Simple; perithecia black, ad- nate at base or sub-superficial, mostly carbonaceous ; ostiole elongated. ' Family II_r/steriacece. Simple; perithecia mostly blackish, erumpent superficial, horizontally oblong or linear; ostiole a long iissure. Family Labonlbeniacece. Minute and greatly reduced sac fungi, with simple fruits, parasitic externally upon the bod- ies of insects. Order DISCOMYOETEZE. Cup Fungi. Plant filamentous (in many “ lichens ” compacted into a thallus), producing mostly cup-shaped or disk-shaped fruits, the asci and intermixed araphyses closely pressed together, and constituting the iymenium. Species about 7.000. Family Oyttariacece. Fruit globose or ovoid, hollow or solid, sub-sessile. fleshy, plurilocular externally. Family Ifelceltacece. Fruit vertical, stipitate ; mitrate, clavate, capitate or lacunose-gyrose ; fleshy or waxy. VEGETABLE KINGDOM Family Pezizacece. Fruit cup or disk shaped, fleshy or waxy, stipitate or sessile; a’sci not readily escaping; grow- ing on decaying vegetable matter. Family Ascobolacem. Fruit cup or disk shaped, fleshy or waxy, sessile: asci readily escaping; growing on dung. Family Dermateacece. Fruit cup or urn shaped, sub-ses- sile or stipitate, czespitose, corky, coriaceous or horny, usu- ally scurfy externally. Family Bniga/rmcere. Fruit top, cup, or disk shaped, ses- sile or sub-stipitate, gelatinous, at length horny or carti- laginous. Family Stictidacece. Fruit minute, immersed; peridium reduced or evanescent ; mostly saprophytic. Family Graphidaceaz. Lichen-forming fungi with im- mersed, rounded or mostly elongated blackish fruits; perid- ium (exciple) often evanescent. See LICHENS. Family Phacidiacece. Fruit minute, immersed, black, more or less coriaceous ; mostly parasitic. Family Pawiieliacece. Lichen-forming fungi with shield- shaped fruits, bordered by a thalline exciple. See LIOHENS. Family Lecidiacece. Lichen-forming fungi with disk- shaped fruits, bordered with a proper exciple. See LIOHENS. Family Patellaricwece. Fruit minute, superficial, shield or cup shaped, mostly sessile, generally black, coriaceous or horny, glabrous. Family Cal/icidcece. Lichen-forming fungi with top or pear shaped mostly stipitate fruits, the spores free by the breaking of the spore-sacs. See LIOHENS. Family Oordieritacece. Fruit minute, branching-stipitate, corky or horny carbonaceous. Family G3/vnnodscaceaa. Extremely degraded parasites, producing single asci upon very short filaments. See PLUM POCKETS. Family Scicc/mromycetacece. Yeast-plants. Extremely de- graded saprophytes, few-celled or unicellular, eventually producing few-spored asci. See FERMENTATION and FUNGI. Order UREDINE/E. Rusts. Plant filamentous, parasitic in the tissues of higher plants, producing reduced, persistent asci (“ teleutospores ”) in poorly defined fruits; conidia (azcidiospores) and stylospores (uredospores) usually present. Species about 1,500. Family Uredinacew. With the characters of the order. See Rosrs. Order USTILAGINE./‘E. Smuts. Plant filamentous, parasitic in the tissues of higher plants, producing reduced, deliques- cent asci, in vaguely defined fruits; conidia and stylospores mostly wanting. Species about 300. See SMUTS. Family Ustilaginaceaz. Promycelium septate, bearing lateral sporidia. Family Tilletiacece. Promycelium non-septate, bearing terminal sporidia. “Imperfect Fungi,” doubtfully referred to this class: Order SP1-UEROPSIDE/E. Plant filamentous, producing “ perithecia ” (but no spore-sacs) in which are eonidiophores bearing conidia. Family S]9'/werioidacece. Perithecia membranaceous, car- bonaceous, or coriaceous, black, globose to disk shaped, im- mersed or superficial. Family ZVect/rioiddoece. Perithecia fleshy or waxy, whitish to yellow, red or orange, globular to horizontally elongated. erumpent or superficial. Probably imperfect forms of I-If:/pocreacece. Family Leptostromdcece. Perithecia membranaceous or carbonaceous, black, shield-‘shaped, erumpent or superficial. Family Ezcipnlacece. Perithecia membranaceous or car- bonaceous, black, cup or disk shaped, or horizontally elon- gated, erumpent or superficial. Order MELANCONIE/"F.. Plant filamentous, producing sub- cutaneous sori (not “ perithecia”) of eonidiophores bearing conidia. Family Jlfeldnconiaeece. With the characters of the order. Order I'IYPI-IOMYCETEZE. Plant filamentous, producing iso- latcd, sometimes clustered, superficial eonidiophores bearing conidia; “ perithecia ” and sori wanting. Family Jllncedinacece. Filaments white or slightly col- ored, weak, separate ; conidia of the color of the filaments. Family Denwtiaeece. Filaments blackish or black (rarely subhyaline), separate ; conidia blackish. Family Stilbaceoe. Filaments white or blackish, cohering in dense, elongated, stalk-like fascicles. Family Tnbercnlariacere. Filaments white or blackish, cohering in dense, wart-like masses. -—-_ VEGETABLE KINGDOM Class 6. BASIDIOMYCETEAE. Higher Fungi. Chlo- rophyll-less plants (hysterophytes) consisting of jointed, br-ancln'ng filaments, sometimes compacted into parenchym- atous masses; spore-fruit spherical, pileate, or irregular, always including enlarged end-cells (basidia) bearing exter- nal spores. About 10,000 species are known. See FUNGI. Order (JiAS’l‘ltlt0MYClt"l‘E/E. fiasidia internal, lining the walls of tortuous cavities. See PUFF-BALLS. Family Hy/inenogastracete. Spore-fruit subterranean, spheroidal, fleshy, not becoming pulverulcnt. Family Lycoperdaeere. Puff-balls. Spore-fruit above ground, spheroidal, sessile, or stipitatc, at first fleshy, later pulverulcnt. Family Nidulariacece. Bird’s-nest Fungi. Spore-fruit top-shaped, coriaceous, partially deliquescing to form “ spo- rangioles.” Family Phallacece. Stink-horns. Spore-fruit at first sphe- roidal, fleshy, at maturity partly deliquescing, rupturing and elongating. See STINKHGRN FUNGI. Order HYMENOMYCETEZE. Basidia developed upon surfaces (hymenia) which eventually or from the first are external. See Mosuaoons. Family Agaricacece. Toadstools. Hymenium on radiating lamellee (gills). Family Polyporacece. Pore Fungi. Hymenium lining tubes or pores. Family 1-It/dnacece. Prickly Fungi. Hymenium superficial on priekles or protuberances. Family Thelephoracece. Hymenium on the smooth ex- panded surface of the lower side of the spore-fruit. Family Claoariacece. Hymenium on all sides of the fleshy, usually erect, branching spore-fruit. Family Tremellacece. Hymenium on all sides of the gelatinous, irregular-shaped spore-fruit. Class 7. RHODOPHYCE./E. Red Seaweeds. Red or pur- ple plants, whose cells contain, besides chlorophyll, a red or purple coloring-matter (phyeoerythrin), filamentous. cylin- drical or membranaceous, simple or branched; spore-fruit s herical or flattened, with or without a cellular covering, a ways including certain end-cells which separate as spores by abstriction. About 2,000 species are known. See RED SEAWEEDS. Order FLORIDEAE. But one order is known, having the character of the class. By Agardh it is divided into six series as follows: Series I. GONGLYOSPERMEPE. Spore-fruits external or im- mersed in the substance of the thallus, surrounded by a gelatinous envelope; spores irregularly arranged; plant mostly filamentous, sometimes solid or compressed. Family Ceramiaeem Spore-fruits external. Family C’rg/jotoneiniacece. Spore-fruits immersed in the substance of the thallus. Series II. OOCCIOSPERME./E. Spore-fruits immersed in the swollen thallus, forming rounded conceptacles; spores ir- regularly arranged ; plant terete or flattened, fleshy or hard- ened. Family Gigartinacece. Spore-fruits immersed in ordinary branches of the thallus. Family Furcellariaceaz. Spore-fruits immersed i11 pod-like “ receptacles” at the ends of the branches. Series III. N EMATOSPER-AIEFE. Spore-fruits external, with a cellular pericarp, or sometimes immersed in the thallus: spores in chains radiating from a central cell; plant filamen- tous, solid, or membranaceous. Family Duclresnag/acere. Spore-fruit sub-external upon the articulated, branching thallus. Family Dumontiacea’. Spore-fruit immersed in the tubu- lar or solid, branching thallus. Family Spiz/ridiateere. Spore-fruit sub-terminal on the branches of the more or less articulated and always corti- cated thallus. Family Areschougiacece. Spore-fruit sub-external on the tubular or solid thallus. Family Cha'mqoiaee(r. Spore-fruit external on the tubular- cellular nodulose-diapliragmed thallus. Family Rhodymeniacete. Spore-fruit external on the fili- form, tubular or solid thallus. Series IV. I—lon.uosrnann/E. Spore-fruits external or im- mersed, mostly with a pericarp; spores in short chains or single; plant 1nembranaceous, cylindrical, or flattened. Family Squa/mari(1oe(e. Plants forming horizontally ex- panded crusts, composed of short vertical filaments, some- tifines calcareous ; spore-fruit containing few spores in short c ams. 457 Family Corallinaeece. Plants encrusted with lime, horizon- tally expanded or slender branching, sometimes articulated ; spore-fruits external or immersed, containing pear-shaped spores on short filaments. Family S])h.ce’/ecoccoidete. Plants without lime; external cells round; spore-fruits external, hemispherical, or flask- shaped, containing many spores in moniliform filaments. Family Delesseriaeere. Plants without lime; external cells angled; spore-fruits external, hemispherical, or flask- shaped. Series V. DESMIOSPERMEZE. Spore-fruits external or im- mersed, mostly with a pericarp ; spores borne on central or parietal, simple or branching placentae; plant filamentous, cylindrical or compressed. Family TTBZ’/)Zt7Zt/ZOCZQ/dlQC6CE. Plant filamentous; spore- fruits immersed; spores in chains radiating from a central cell. Family Chcetangiacece. Plant tubular, or solid and cylin- drical or compressed; spore-fruits external or partly im- mersed: spores parietal. . Family Gelzfliacece. Plant filiform or compressed, of dense cartilaginous structure ; spore-fruits immersed in spe- cial branches. spores on axile or parietal placentae. Family Ifypneaeeoe. Plant filiform or sub-compressed; spore-fruits external or partly immersed ; spores in tufts on branching placentae. Family Solieraeece. Plant filiform or compressed; spore- fruits immersed ; spores in short filaments on a central cell or placenta. Series VI. CoRY:\'osPER)iE.as. Spore-fruits external, with a pericarp; spores borne on a cellular, basal placenta; plant filamentous. or solid and cylindrical. Family ll’rongeZiaeece. Plant jointed, naked or corti- cated ; spore-fruit external, consisting of one or more naked spores. Family Spongiocarpece. Plant solid. cylindrical, branch- ing; spore-fruit in wart-like protuberances; spores axile. Family Lomentariacece. Plant filamentous, tubular-cellu- lar, branching, hollow, with constricted nodes ; spore-fruits external ; spores axile. Family C'ho72driace(e. Plant tubular or solid; spore-fruits external or partly immersed spores from a basal placenta. Family Rhode/meliaeeoe. Plant filiform-branching, or membranaceous: spore-fruits external, with a distinct ovate or urn-shaped pericarp: spores pyriform, stalked, upon a basal placenta. Class 8. CHAROPHYCEEE. Stoneworts. Chlorophyll- green plants, consisting of single rows of elongated cells (often corticated) bearing whorled branches; spore-fruit ovoid, consisting of a large spore (carpospore) inclosed in a previously formed layer of elongated cells. Species about 150. Order CHARACEE. With the characters of the class. See SToxEwoRTs. ‘ Family _Vz'teZlece. Plant not corticated; crown of spore- fruit of ten cells. Family Chareoe. Plant often corticated; crown of spore- fruit of five cells. Branch IV. BRYOPHYTA. Bryophytes. Mossworts. Masses of cells, forming a flat branching plant with rhi- zoids, or a leafy stem (the oiiphore); sexual reproduction by the union of two protoplasts and the formation of a leafless, spore-bearing stem (the sporophore). See MosswoRTs. Class 9. HEPATIC/H3. Liverworts. Plant body mostly bilateral, a thallus, or leafy axis with mostly two-ranked, veinless leaves; root hairs one-celled; spore-fruit indehis- cent or two- to four-valved, mostly containing elaters. Species about 3,500. Order l\IARCHANTl'ACEEE. Spore-fruits indehiscent, with or without elaters ; plant thallose. Family Riceiem Crystalworts. Small, mostly radiate-thal- lose plants; spore-fruits sessile in the upper surface of the thallus ; no elaters. Family .’Z‘ar_(]o/niete. Branching thallose plants; spore- fruits single, short-stalked ; elaters present. Family 1U arch a/ntietr. Liverworts proper. Branching thal- lose lants; spore-fruits clustered on the under side of a pc- dunc ed “ receptacle”; elaters present. Order ANTPIOCERATACEEE. Horned Liverworts. Spore-fruits with a columella, two-valved, with elaters : plant a thallus. Family A'nt/zocerotew. Small thallose plants, with slender club-shaped spore-fruits growing from the upper surface. Order J UNGERMANNIACE.~‘E. Scale-mosses. Spore-fruits 458 stalked, four-valved, containing elaters; plants mostly leafy- stemmed. A. Thallose Scale 1lIosses.-—Plant a thallus. Family Jlfetzgeriere. Archegonium (and spore-fruits) on the under side of the midrib; involucre single. Family Aneurieae. Plant without midrib; archegonium marginal ; involucre single. Family Haplolcenece. Archegonium sunken in the upper side of the thallus; involucre single. Family Diplomitriece. Archegonium on the upper side of the thallus; involucre double. Family Codoniece. Pseudo-foliaceous, with leaf-like lobes; archegonium terminal or dorsal. B. Eoliose Scale flIosses.—Plant usually with two-ranked leaves ,' archegonium mostly terminal; involucre mostly double. Family .Haplomitriece. Plant upright, with three-ranked leaves. Family Jubulece. Leaves overlapping upward (incubous) ; spore-fruit splitting half way down. Family Platyphyllere. Plant without runners; leaves en- tire, overlapping upward ; spore-fruit splitting to the base. Family Ptilidiete. Plant without runners ; leaves three to four dentate or divided, overlapping upward ; spore-fruit splitting to the base. Family Lepidozieaa. Plant with leafless runners; leaves overlapping upward ; spore-fruit splitting to the base. Family Geocalycece. Leaves overlapping upward or down- ward ; spore-fruit growing from a pendent sac at the side of the stem. Family Jungermanniece. Leaves overlapping downward (succubous) ; involucre double. Family Gymnomitriere. Leaves overlapping downward; involucre single. Class 10. M USCI. Mosses. Plant body a leafy axis, rare- ly bilateral, with mostly three to many ranked leaves, usu- ally with a midrib; root-hairs arow of cells; spore-fruit mostly opening by a circular lid ; no elaters. Species about 4,500. Order .ANDRE./EACEZE. Black Mosses. Small plants with thickish leaves of similar cells; spore-fruit on a pseudopo- dium, dehiscing by four (or six) longitudinal slits. Family Andrecere. With the characters of the order. A small group of rock-loving mosses, confined to the single genus Andrecea. Order SPHAGNACE./E. Peat-mosses. Large plants with thick leaves, containing two kinds of cells ; spore-fruit on a pseu- dopodium, dehiscing by a circular lid ; no peristome. Family Sphagnaceoe. With the characters of the order. A small group of bog-mosses, confined to the single genus Sphagnum. Order ARCIIIDIACE./E. Small plants with thin leaves of sim- ilar cells ; spore-fruit sessile, rupturing irregularly. Family Archidiece. With the characters of the order. A small group of earth-loving mosses, confined to the single genus Archidium. Order BRYAOEZE. True Mosses. Small to large plants, with mostly thin leaves of similar cells ; spore-fruit mostly long- stalked, generally opening by a circular lid ; peristome usu- ally present. Series I. GLEISTOCARPZE. Spore-fruit indehiscent, not open- ing by a lid. Family Phascere. Plants minute ; leaves soft, loosely are- olate; spore-fruit globular, immersed, sessile to short-stalked. Series II. STEGOCARPAE. Spore-fruit opening by a circu- lar lid. A. Acrocmpce.—Spore-fruit terminal. Family Weisiacecri. Leaves costate, areolation quadrate above, oblong-hexagonal below; spore-fruit small, ovate to cylindrical pedicellate, erect or pendent; peristome single (of sixteen or thirty-two teeth) or none ; calyptra cucullate. Family Pottiacete. Leaf areolation quadrate-hexagonal; spore-fruit erect, narrow or cylindrical; peristome single (of sixteen or thirty-two teeth) or none ; calyptra mitriform. Family Grimmiaeece. Leaves opaque, areolation minutely round-quadrate ; spore-fruit regular, on a straight or curved pedicel ; peristome single (of sixteen teeth); calyptra mitri- form. Family Orthotrichacece. Leaves costate, areolation minute- ly round-quadrate; spore-fruit erect, symmetrical; peristome single or double (of eight or sixteen teeth in each row); calyptra mitriform. Family Tetraphidaceaa Lower leaves small, upper larger, tufted, areolation equal ; spore-fruit cylindrical or oval ; peristome single (of four teeth) ; calyptra conical, mitrate. VEGETABLE KINGDOM Family Disceliaceoe. Leaves ecostate, areolation loose, of long hexagonal-rhomboidal cells ; spore-fruit oval, stalked; peristome single (of sixteen teeth) ; calyptra split down one side and attached below to the pedicel. Family Schistotegacere. Plants annual from a persistent protonema; leaves with loose areolation; spore-fruit sub- globose, soft; peristome none ; calyptra minute, mitriform. Family Splachnacece. Leaves costate, areolation of large cells; spore-fruit with an enlarged base (apophysis); peri- stome single (of sixteen teeth) ; calyptra cucullate or mitri- form. Family Physcomitriaceaa Leaves costate, areolation of large hexagonal or rhomboidal cells; spore-fruit oval or spherical, erect ; peristome none, or single‘ (of sixteen teeth) or double (of sixteen outer teeth and an inner divided mem- brane) ; calyptra cucullate or mitriform. Family Bartramiacece. Leaves costate, areolation minute and quadrate above, loose hexagonal-rectangular below ; spore-fruit spheroidal, nodding or erect; peristome single (of sixteen teeth) or double (of sixteen outer and sixteen or thirty-two inner teeth); calyptra small, cucullate, fugacious. Family Jlleesiacece. Leaves lanceolate or linear-oblong; spore-fruit long-stalked and long-necked, nodding; peri- stome double (of sixteen outer and sixteen inner teeth) ; calyp- tra fugacious. Family Bryacece. Leaves costate, areolation uniform, par- enchymatose ; spore-fruit globose to ear-shaped, mostly nodding; peristome usually double (o' sixteen outer, and sixteen or thirty-two inner teeth); calyptra cucullate. Family Polytrichacece. Leaves thick, costate; spore-fruit long-stalked, erect or nodding, cylindrical or angular; peri- stome single (of thirty-two or sixty-four teeth) ; calyptra cu- cullate. Family Bu.vbaumiace(e. Leaves thick, costate; spore-fruit large, oblique, sessile or short-stalked; peristome double (the outer rudimentary, the inner of sixteen or thirty-two teeth) ; calyptra very small, conical. B. Pleurocarpce. Spore-fruits lateral, in leaf aails. Family Eontinallacece. Aquatic plants, with thin ecos- tate leaves; spore-fruit sessile, emersed; peristome double (of sixteen outer and sixteen inner teeth) ; calyptra conical or cucullate. Family lVecheracece. Leaves mostly costate, areolation mi- nute, rhomboidal or short-linear; spore-fruit erect, symmet- rical (or curved), generally emersed ; peristome single or double (or none). Family Leucodontacece. Leaves sub-scarious, usually cos- tate, areolation narrowly linear or vermicular; spore-fruit soft, oval-oblong, erect, more or less long-stalked; peristome single or double; calyptra cucullate. Family Hooheriacece. Plants small and soft, with narrow or broad leaves, having a large areolation; spore-fruit long- stalked, sub-erect, nodding or horizontal; peristome large, double ; calyptra conical or mitrate. Family Eabroniacece. Plants very small, with crowded leaves, having a loose rhomboidal areolation; spore-fruit ovate, erect, short-stalked ; calyptra cucullate. Family Lesheaceaz. Leaves costate, areolation minute, hex- agonal ; spore-fruit symmetrical, erect or curved ; peristome double (of sixteen outer and sixteen inner teeth); calyptra cucullate. Family Orthotheciacece. Leaves costate, bicostate, or ecos- tate, areolation narrowly rhomboidal or linear; spore-fruit erect or sub-inclined; peristome double; calyptra from small to large. Family Hypnacere. Leaves costate or ecostate, areolation narrowly rhomboidal or linear; spore-fruit long-stalked, nodding or horizontal; peristome double (of sixteen outer and sixteen inner teeth); calyptra cucullate. Branch V. PTERIDOPHYTA. Pteridophytes. Fernworts. Masses of cells, forming a fiat plant usually with rhizoids (otiphore); sexual reproduction by the union of two proto- plasts and the formation of a stem with roots and spore-bear- ing leaves (sporophore . See FERNWORTS. Class 11. FILICIN The Ferns. Stems of the spore- phore solid, leaves usually large, with broadly expanded blade, and elongated petioles. Species about 3,500. ‘ Order OP1-1IoeLossAeE2E. Adder’s-tongues. Spores developed from cells in the tissue of the leaf ; leaves erect in the bud (not circinate). Family Ophioglosseoe. With the characters of the order. Order ll/IARATTIACEZE. Ringless Ferns. Spores developed in external sporangia, originating by the division of internal VEGETABLE KINGDOM cells of the lower side of the leaf; leaves circinate in the bud. Family A.n;/t'opZericlece. Sporangia five to twenty, sepa- rate. sessile in an elongated sorus, splitting longitudinally on the inner side. Family Jlfaralte'ere. Sporangia four to fifteen, sessile or short-stalked, united into elongated or circular sori, split- ting longitudinally on the inner side. Family Dameaeere. Sporangia sessile, many, united in elongated sori, opening by an apical pore. Order FILIQES. True Ferns. Spores developed from cells in specially modified hairs (sporangia), usually on the under side of the leaf, and collected into sori ; leaves circinate. Family Osmanclacece. Sporangia globose, mostly stalked with but a trace of a ring, splitting vertically. Family Glez'chem'acece. Sporangia globose, sessile, with a horizontal ring, splitting vertically. Family Selmlaeacece. Sporangia ovate or sub-globose, ses- sile, with an apical horizontal ring, splitting vertically. Family ]‘[_I/77Z@7t0]9ll'L7/Zlfl/06Cl3. Sporangia compressed, sessile upon an elongated involucrate marginal receptacle; ring horizontal or oblique ; splitting vertically. Family Cyatheacece. Tree-ferns. Sporangia compressed, sessile on a low involucrate receptacle on the leaf surface; ring vertical or oblique ; splitting transversely. Family Polypoclz'aeece. Sporangia compressed, mostly stalked, collected in sori which are often covered or sur- rounded by an involucre (indusium); ring vertical; split- ting transversely. Order HYDROPTERIDE/E. Water-ferns. Spores of two kinds (macrospores and microspores), developed from cells in spo- rangia inclosed in modified leaves (“ conceptacles ”). Family Sal'vt'm'aceaa. Each conceptacle containing but one kind of spore. Small, floating aquatics. Family Jl[arsz'l/t'ace(e. Each conceptacle containing both kinds of spores. Semi-aquatic plants rooting in the mud. Class 12. EQUISETINHE. The H orsetails or Joint Rushes. Stems of the‘ sporophore hollow, jointed, the joints solid: leaves rudimentary, whorled. Species, 20. Order EQUISETACEZE. Spores developed in sporangia on the under surface of modified (peltate) leaves at the summit of the stem. Family Eqmsetacete. With the characters of the order. Class 13. LYCOPODINZE. The Lycopods. Stems of the sporophore solid, dichotomously branched, leaves small, nar- row, and scattered or crowded. Species, 482. Order LYCOPODIACEA3. Club-mosses. Leafy, branching plants; sporangia single in the axils of the small upper leaves ; spores all alike. Family Lyeopodiaoece. With the characters of the order. Order SELAGINELLEJE. Little Club-mosses. Leafy, branch- ing plants ; sporangia single in the axils of the small upper leaves; spores of two kinds, viz., macrospores and micro- spores. Family Selaginellaeere. \Vith the characters of the order. Order ISOETACE./‘E. Quillworts. Very short-stemmed plants ; sporangia in the axils of the narrow, rush-like leaves ; spores of two kinds, viz., macrospores and microspores. Family Isoetaeece. Witli the characters of the order. Branch VI. ANTHOPHYTA. Plants. Otiphore small, permanently inclosed within the spore- wall; sexual reproduction 'by the union of two protoplasts and the formation of a sporophore consisting of roots. stem, and leaves, some of the latter spore-bearing (forming the “ flowers ”) ; mierospores (pollen-cells) free, macrospores per- manently inclosed in the sporangium. See ANTIIOPHYTES. Class 14. GYMNOSPERMHE. The Gymnosperms. Spore- bearing leaves (carpels) of the sporophores open ; seeds naked. Species, 420. Order GYCADEAS. The Cycads. Stem simple or rarely branched, not resinous; pith large: leaves large, pinnately compound, crowded upon the upper part of the stem. See Cvcxns. Family Oyoaclaceze. Carpellary leaves developed on the mam axis. Family Za/nm'acece. Carpellary leaves developed on axil- lary, deciduous axes. Order Courrnam. The Conifers. Stem branched, usually resinous ; pith slender; leaves small, simple, mostly crowded upon the stem. sometimes scattered. See CONIFERS. Family Ta./vacere. Carpellary leaves solitary; seeds with a fleshy aril. ' Anthophytes. Flowering 459 Family Pinacece. Carpellary leaves clustered on an axis. forming a cone ; seeds without an aril. Order GNETACEZE. The Joint Firs. Stem usually branched, not resinous; pith slender; leaves (mostly) small, opposite, upon elongated internodes, or large, and only two on a short thick stem. See J OINT Fms. Family Gnelacece. With the characters of the order. Class 15. ANGIOSPERMEI. The Angiosperms. Spore- bearing leaves (carpels) of the sporophore folded so as to in- close the ovules in a cavity, thus constituting the pistil; seeds inclosed. Species about 100,000. The relationship of the orders of this class may be indi- cated by the accompanying diagram (Fig. 3). The orders LU <( D: ASTER. Lu LAM. LL CAME: PERS- LU Z T5 RU8. < LI-I ~ 3.: < UM BEL. _‘J 2 Lu‘ QC Lu sAP- Q_ GENT.‘- Lu 0. < 5 m m 0 O _ or O m 0 PO L. g ‘J GEL‘ CAC-I-l EBEN ERIC. LL / \ PRIIM. // Lu PASS. HETEROMERA5 MA/L <1: _ E MAT. GU-FT’ 9 0 0. >_ HYDF“ £06) _I GLUMACEAE O4/4/‘P ROSALES v CALYCINAE /4}, < ,3, NUDIFLORAE 6\<1,° ’‘ 004 L) 9,04 S/RAN. FIG. 3.-Diagram showing the relationship of the orders of the Angiosperms. , on the left constitute the Monocotyledons. those in the cen- ter and to the right the Dicotyledons. There are thus sev- eral diverging genetic lines from a common point of origin. Sub-class MONOCOTYLEDONEHE. The Monocotyledons. Leaves of young sporophore alternate ; leaves of mature spo- rophore usually parallel-veined ; fibrovascular bundles of the stems scattered, not arranged in rings. See MONOCOTYLEDONS. Order APOCARPE. Pistils separate, superior to all other parts of the flower. Family Alismaceaz. Aquatic or paludose herbs, with mostly radical. often large, leaves; flowers small to large; perianth in two whorls of three leaves each (calyx and co- rolla). See WATER-PLAi\*TAIN FAMILY. Family Trziuridete. Very small. pale, leafless plants grow- ing in wet places in tropical countries. Family Na/iadaceae. Aquatic or paludose herbs, with most- ly alternate stem-leaves; flowers mostly small and incon- spicuous ; perianth none, or of one to six leaves in one or two whorls. See PONDWEED FAMILY. Order CORONARIEJE. Pistils united (usually three). forming a compound pistil, superior; flower-leaves (usually six in two whorls) delicate and corolla-like. Family Ro;tbu~rglz.2Iace(e. Pistil one-celled; stamens four; perianth of two similar whorls, each of two similar leaves. Family Liiliacea’. Pistil mostly three-celled: stamens six; perianth of two similar whorls, each of three similar leaves. See LILY FAMILY. Family P071/l€(l€?'t0C€H’. Aquatic herbs. with a three or one celled pistil; stamens six or three: perianth of two similar whorls. each of three similar or dissimilar leaves. Family Plzilydracere. Pistil three-celled ; stamen one; perianth of two similar whorls, each of two dissimilar leaves. Family Xywidacere. Rush-like plants. with a one-celled or incompletely three-celled pistil : stamens three : perianth of two dissimilar whorls. each of three similar leaves. Family flfayaoew. Slender. creeping. mom-like plants, with one-celled pistil; stamens three; perianth of two dis- similar whorls, each of three similar leaves. Family Coinnzelinacea’. Succulent herbs, with a three or 460 two celled pistil; stamens six; perianth of two dissimilar whorls of three similar leaves. Family Rapateacece. Tall, sedge-like marsh-herbs, with a three-celled pistil; stamens six, in pairs; perianth of two dissimilar whorls, each of three similar leaves. Order NUDIFLOR./E. Compound pistil, tricarpella-ry, supe- rior ; flower-leaves reduced to scales or entirely wanting. Family Pandanacece. Shrubs or trees with spirally crowded, narrow, stiff leaves on the ends of the branches; pistil one-celled; ovules one or three. Family Uyclanthacece. Mostly herbaceous plants, with broad, petioled leaves having parallel venation; pistil one- celled ; ovules many, on four parietal placentze. Family Typhacece. Aquatic or padulose herbs, with linear, sheathing leaves ; pistil one-celled ; ovule one. See CAT-TAIL. Family Aroidete. Mostly herbaceous plants, with broad, petioled leaves, having reticulate venation; pistil one to four celled ; ovules one or more. Family Lemnaceaz. Very small, floating, aquatic herbs; pistil one-celled ; ovules one or more. Order OALYCIN./E. Compound pistil tricarpellary, supe- rior ; flower-leaves reduced to rigid or herbaceous scales. Family Flagellariece. Erect or climbing herbs, with long, narrow leaves; pistil three-celled; ovules solitary; fruit a one or two seeded berry. Family Juncacece. The Rushes. Herbs with narrow leaves ; pistil one to three celled ; ovules solitary or many ; fruit a dry three-valved pod. See RUSH. Family Palmaceoe. The Palms. Trees or shrubs with com- pound leaves ; pistil one to three celled ; fruit a one-seeded berry or drupe (rarely two to three seeded). See PALM FAMILY. Order GLUMACEZE. Compound pistil reduced to one or two carpels (rarely tricarpellary); ovules solitary; flower- leaves reduced to small scales, or entirely wanting. Family Eriocaulece. Rush-like herbs, with flowers in close heads; perianth segments six or less, small; pistil three or two celled; ovules orthotropous, pendulous. Family Centrolipedece. Small rush-like herbs, with flowers in spikes or heads; perianth none; pistil one to three celled; ovules orthotropous, endulous. Family Restiacece. Rush-li e herbs or undershrubs, with spiked, racemed, or panicled flowers ; perianth segments six or less, chafly; pistil one to three celled; ovules orthotro- pous, pendulous. Family Cyperacece. The Sedges. Grass-like herbs, with three-ranked leaves; perianth segments bristly, or none; istil one-celled; ovules anatropous, erect. See SEDGE AMILY. Family Graminece. The Grasses. Mostly erect herbs, with hollow, jointed stems, and two-ranked leaves ; perianth seg- ments of two to six thin scales, or none; pistil one-celled; ovules anatropous, ascending. See GRASSES. Order HYDRALES. Compound tricarpellary pistil inferior to all other parts of the flower; flower-leaves in each whorl alike in shape (flower regular) ; seeds without endosperm. Family H'ydrocharidece. Small aquatic herbs, mostly in- habiting the fresh waters of temperate climates. Order EPIGYN./E. Compound tricarpellary pistil inferior; flower-leaves in each whorl mostly alike in shape (flower regular) ; seeds with endosperm. Family Dioscoreacece. Mostly twining herbs, with broad, petioled, longitudinally veined leaves; pistil three-celled; ovules two in each cell ; stamens six. I Family Taccaceaz. Stemless herbs, with broad. pinnately parallel-veined leaves; pistil one-celled; ovules many; stamens six. Family Amaryllidacece. Leaves narrow, or the blades broad with longitudinal veins; pistil three-celled; ovules many; stamens six (or three). See AMARYLLIS FAMILY. ' Family Iridacece. Leaves sword-shaped; pistil three- celled; ovules many; stamens three. See IRIS FAMILY. Family ]Taamodoraceaa. Leaves sword-shaped; pistil three-celled; ovules one to many ; stamens six. Family Bromeliacere. Leaves mostly rosulate; external perianth-whorl calycine; pistil three-celled; ovules many; stamens six. See BROMELIA FAMILY. Family Scitaminere. Leaves mostly ample, pinnately parallel veined; external perianth-whorl calycine; pistil three-celled or becoming one-celled; stamens mostly one (rarely five). See BANANA. Order ll’[ICROSPERM]E. Compound tricarpellary pistil in- ferior; flower-leaves in each whorl mostly unlike in shape (flower irregular) ; seeds without endosperm. VEGETAB LE KINGDOM Family Burmanniacece. Flowers regular; stamens three or six. Family Orchidacece. The‘ Orchids. Flowers irregular; stamens one or two. See ORCIIIDS. Sub -class DICOTYLEDONEJE. The Dicotylcdons. Leaves of young sporophore opposite; leaves of mature sporophore usually reticulate-veined; fibrovascular bun- dles of the stems in one or more rings. A. CI~1ORIPE'l‘AL1"E. Inner perianth-whorl (corolla) of sepa- rate leaves (petals), frequently rudimentary or wanting; ovules usually with two coats. Order THALAIIIIELOR.-E. Outer perianth-whorl (calyx) usu- ally of separate leaves (sepals), and with the other parts of the flower inserted on the flower axis (torus). Sub-order RANALES. Pistils one to many, monoearpellary (or rarely united); stamens generally indefinite; embryo mostly small in copious endos erm. Family Ranunculacue. l\' ostly herbs with alternate leaves; petals present in one whorl or absent; sepals de- ciduous. See CRowFoo'r. Family Dilleniacere. Mostly shrubs and trees, with alter- nate leaves; petals present, in one whorl ; sepals persistent. Family Oalycanthaccce. Shrubs with opposite leaves; petals present in many whorls; seeds without endosperm. ee CALYCANTHUS. Family Jlfagnoliacece. Shrubs and trees with alternate leaves, and usually large flowers; petals present in one to many whorls; receptacle usually elongated. See MAGNOLIA FAMILY. Family Anonacece. Shrubs and trees with alternate leaves; petals present in two whorls of three each; endosperm ruminated. See PAPAW. Family ]VIy'risticace(e. Trees or shrubs with alternate leaves, and small and inconspicuous dicecious flowers ; petals absent; pistil one (or a second rudiment), one-seeded; endo- sperm ruminated. See NUTMEG. Family Jlfonimiacece. Trees and shrubs with opposite or whorled leaves and diclinous flowers; petals absent ; pistils many, one-ovuled, imbedded in the receptacle. Family Chloranthacece. Mostly trees and shrubs with op- posite leaves and small flowers. No perianth whatever; pistil one, with one ovule. Family Menispermacece. Twining shrubs with alternate leaves and small diclinous flowers; petals present in two whorls. Family Berberidacece. Mostly shrubs with alternate leaves and perfect flowers. Petals usually present in one to three whorls: pistil one (rarely more) with many ovules. See BAR- BERRY FAMILY. Family Nymphaeacece. Aquatic herbs with floating leaves ; petals present in one to many whorls; pistils several or united. See WATER-LILY FAMILY. Sub-order PARIETALES. Pistil of two or more united car- pels, mostly one-celled, with parietal placentas; stamens indefinite or definite; endosperm none or copious. Family Sarraceniacece. Herbs with pitcher-shaped leaves, sepals four to five, petals five or none; stamens indefinite; pistil three to five earpellary. See PITCI-IER-PLANTS. Family Papaveracece. Mostly milky-juiced plants, with alternate leaves: sepals two to three, petals four or more (or none); stamens indefinite; pistil two to many earpellary. See POPPY FAMILY. Family Oruciferee. Herbs, rarely shrubs, with alternate (or opposite) leaves; sepals four, petals four; stamens six or four; pistil two-earpellary. See MUSTARD FAMILY. Family Oawaaridacece. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with alternate (or opposite) leaves; sepals four, petals four (or none) ; stamens four (or many); pistil two to six earpellary. Family Resedaeem. Herbs and shrubs with scattered leaves ; sepals four to eight, petals four to eight (or two, or none); stamens three to forty; pistil two to six earpellary. See MIGNONNETTE and WELD. Family Cistacece. Herbs and shrubs with opposite (or alternate) leaves; sepals three to five; petals five; stamens many; pistil three to five earpellary. Family Violacae. Herbs and shrubs with alternate (or opposite) leaves; sepals and petals five, irregular; stamens five; pistil three-earpellary. See VIOLET FAMILY. Family Canellacece. Aromatic trees with alternate leaves: sepals four to five; petals four to five (or none); stamens twenty to thirty; pistil two to five earpellary. Family Biasaceoa Shrubs and trees with alternate leaves ; sepals three to seven; petals various (or none); stamens in" definite; pistil two to many earpellary. VEGETABLE KINGDOM Family Samyclaeece. Trees and shrubs with alternate leaves; sepals three to seven; petals three to seven (or none); stamens definite or indefinite; pistils three to five carpellary. Family Laeisternaeece. Shrubs and trees with alternate leaves ; perianth none; stamen one; pistil three or two car- pellary. _ ' Family Nepenthaeece. Undershrubs with pitcher-shaped leaves; sepals four or three; petals none; stamens four to sixteen; pistil four to three carpellary. See PITCHER.— PLANTS. . Sub-order POLYGALALES. Pistil mostly of two united car- pels, two-celled ; stamens as many or twice as many as the petals; seeds endospcrmous. Family Pilfosporaeece. Trees and shrubs with alternate leaves; sepals, petals, and stamens five each. See Prrros- PORUM FAMILY. Family Trernanclraeere. Small shrubs with alternate, op- posite, or whorled leaves; sepals and petals three, four, or five each; stamens twice as many. Family Polygalaeece. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with alter- nate leaves; sepals five; petals three to five; stamens usu- ally eight. Family Voehysiacece. Shrubs and trees with opposite or whorled leaves; sepals five; petals one, three, or five; sta- mens several, usually but one fertile. Sub-order CARYOPHYLLALES. Pistil usually of three or more united earpels, mostly one-celled, with a free central placenta and many ovules (sometimes with parietal placentze, or re- duced to a one-celled, one-ovuled ovary); stamens as many or twice as many as the petals; seeds endospermous, usu- ally with a curved embryo. Family Franleeniaeere. Herbs and undershrubs with op- posite leaves ; petals four to five, long-stalked ; ovules many on two to four parietal placentae. Family Caryophg/llaeere. Herbs (and shrubs) with opposite or whorled leaves; petals three to five, stalked or not; ovules many on a central placenta. See PINK FAMILY. Family Portalaeacece. Mostly succulent herbs, with alter- nate leaves; petals four to five; ovules many on a central placenta. See PURSLANE FAMILY. Family Tamariseaeere. Shrubs and herbs with minute alternate leaves; petals five; ovules many on central or parie- tal placentee. See TAMARISK FAMILY. Family Salicaeere. Shrubs and trees with alternate leaves; periant-h none; ovules many on two to four parietal pla- centae. See WILLOW FAMILY. Family Fieoidere. Herbs and undershrubs with alternate. opposite, or whorled leaves ; petals indefinite or none; seeds many on parietal placentae, or one, and erect. Family Nyetagiinaeere. Herbs and shrubs with opposite leaves; petals none; sepals petaloid; ovule one, erect. Family Illieebraeece. Herbs (and shrubs) with opposite leaves; petals scale-like or none; ovule one, erect or pen- dulous. Family Amaranthacece. Herbs (and shrubs) with mostly alternate leaves; sepals three to five. dry and scarious: petals none; ovules one or more, basal, campylotropous. See AM- ARANTH FAMILY. Family Chenopodiaeere. Herbs, shrubs (and trees) with mostly alternate leaves; sepals five or less or none, greenish or succulent; petals none; ovule one, basal, campylotropous. See Cnnnorons. Family Phg/tolaecaeere. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with usually alternate leaves; petals none (or four to five) ; earpels several, distinct or nearly so; one-ovuled. See POKEWEED FAMILY. Family Batioleaz. Shrubs with opposite leaves; petals none; ovary four-celled; ovules solitary. erect. Family Poly;/onacere. Herbs, shrubs (and trees) with alter- nate leaves; petals none; ovule one, erect, orthotropous. See BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. Sub-order GERANIALES. Pistil of several carpels, on the more or less enlarged, annular or glandular base (disk) of the receptacle; ovules one to two (or many), mostly pendu- lous. Family Linaeeze. Herbs and shrubs with alternate, simple leaves; pistil three to five celled : endosperm fleshy or none. See FLAx FAMILY. Family Hz/.-niir'iaee(I>. Trees with alternate, simple leaves; pistil five to seven celled; endosperm copious. Family ]lIal;oighia.ee(e. Trees and shrubs with usually op- posite, simple or lobed leaves; pistil tricarpellary; endo- sperm none. 461 Family Zygophg/llaeece. Herbs and shrubs with usually opposite, compound leaves; pistil lobed, four to five celled; endosperm copious or none. Family Geraniaeece. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with op- posite or alternate compound (or simple) leaves; torus elongated; pistil lobed, three to five celled; endosperm sparse or none. See GERANIUM FAMILY. Family Rnlaeece. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with glandular- dotted, opposite, simple or compound leaves; pistil lobed, four to five celled ; endosperm fleshy or none. See RUE. Family Sirnarabaeece. Trees and shrubs with generally alternate, non-glandular, simple or compound leaves; pistil lobed, one to five celled; endosperm fleshy or none. Family Oehnacece. Shrubs and trees with alternate, co- riaceous, simple leaves; pistil lobed, one to ten celled; en- dosperm fleshy or none. Family Barseraeem. Balsamic trees and shrubs with alternate, compound leaves; pistil two to five celled; en- dosperm none. Family llleliacece. Trees and shrubs with alternate, com- pound leaves; pistil three to five celled; endosperm present or none. Family Chailletiaeece. Trees and shrubs with alternate, simple leaves; pistil two to three celled; endosperm none. Sub-order GUTTIFERALES. Pistil mostly of two or more carpels, two-celled, with axile placentae ; stamens usually in- definite ; endosperm usually wanting. Family Elatinere. Small marsh-herbs or undershrubs, with small, opposite or whorled leaves; inflorescence axil- lary; petals imbricated; stamens four to ten. Family Hyperieacece. Herbs, shrubs (and trees) with op- posite or whorled, glandular dotted leaves; inflorescence dichotomous or paniculate ; petals contorted or imbricated ; stamens in three to five clusters. See ST. JOHN’S-wonr FAMILY. Family Gattiferce. Trees and shrubs with opposite or whorled leaves; inflorescence often trichotomous; petals imbricated or contorted. Family Ternstroemiacece. Trees and shrubs usually with alternate leaves; inflorescence various; petals imbricated. See TEA FAMILY. Family Dipterocarpeue. Trees and shrubs with alternate leaves; inflorescence panicled; petals contorted, fruiting calyx enlarged in fruit. Family Chlrenacece. Trees and shrubs with alternate leaves; inflorescence dichotomous: petals contorted. Sub-order MALVALES. Pistil usually of three to many car- pels with as many cells (sometimes greatly reduced) ; ovules few; stamens indefinite, monadelphous, branched, or by re- duction separate and few; endosperm present or absent. Family lfalvaeece. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with alternate leaves ; flowers perfect, with petals; stamens monadelphous, one-celled: pistil five to many celled; endosperm little or none. See MALLOW FAMILY. . Family Stereuliacere. Trees and shrubs with alternate leaves; flowers perfect, or diclinous, with or without petals; stamens monadelphous or polyadelphous, two-celled; pistils four to many celled: endosperm present or none. Family Tiliacere. Trees, shrubs (and herbs) with mostly alternate leaves; flowers mostly perfect, with petals; sta- mens polyadelphous or free two-celled; pistil two to ten celled; endosperm present or none. See LINDEN. Family E'u.phorbz'a.ce(e. Herbs, shrubs, and trees, mostly with a milky juice, and alternate or opposite leaves; flowers diclinous, with a perianth of one or two whorls, or none; sta- mens two-celled, free or united; pistil usually three-celled; endosperm copious. See SPURGEWOR-TS. Family Balanopsece. Trees and shrubs with alternate leaves; flowers dioecious, apetalous, the staminate in cat- kins, the pistillate solitary. producing acorn-like, two-celled, two-seeded fruits; seeds endospcrmous. Family Empeiracece. Heath-like shrubs with small leaves; flowers small, mostly dioecious, solitary or in heads; petals present; stamens two or three, two-celled; pistil two to many celled; seeds solitary, endospcrmous. Family Urtieaeete. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with alternate (or opposite) leaves: flowers mostly diclinous, without petals; stamens few, two-celled; pistil monocarpellary, one-celled, mostly one-seeded: endosperm none. See Nnrrrmxvonrs. Family Plaz‘a/nafoere. Trees with alternate leaves and monoecious flowers in globose heads; perianth none; pistil one-celled,one-ovuled; endosperm minute. See PLANE-TREE FAMILY. Family Leilneriacea). Shrubs with alternate leaves and 4:62 dioecious flowers in catkins; perianth minute or none; pistil one-celled, one-ovuled; endosperm minute. . I Family Ccmzf0plz.g/Zlacew. Aquatic herbs with Ve1‘fG1C.1lla.t6, divided leaves; flowers dioecious; perianth none; p1st1l one- celled, one-ovuled; endosperm none. Family Pipcraceaz. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with alternate (or opposite) leaves; flowers perfect or dic-lmous, mostly spicate; perianth none; p1st1l one-celled, one-ovuled; endo- sperm present. See PIPERACE./E. _ Family Podoszfcmaceaz. Small, aquatic, sometimes thallose plants; flowers perfect or diclinous; perianth none; pistil one to three celled; ovules many; endosperm none. Order OALYCIFLOR./‘E. Calyx usually of united sepals; pet- als and stamens inserted on the calyx or the adherent disk; ovary mostly inferior. Sub-order ROSALES. Flowers usually perfect, regular or irregular; pistils separate or more or less united, sometimes united with the calyx tube; styles usually distinct. Family Connaracecc. Trees and shrubs with alternate, compound leaves; stamens definite ; pistils one to five, free; ovules two, ascending orthotropous. Family Rosaceaa. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with mostly alternate leaves; stamens usually indefinite; pistils one to many, free (or coalesced and inferior) ; ovules usually two, anatropous. See Ross. Family Jlfimosaceaz. Trees, shrubs (and herbs) with alter- nate, pinnately compound leaves, often reduced to phyl- lodes; flowers regular; petals valvate; stamens mostly indefinite, usually free ; pistils monocarpellary, usually one (rarely five to fifteen) ; ovules anatropous. Family Cccsalpiniacece. Trees, shrubs, and herbs with mostly alternate, pinnately compound leaves ; flowers mostly irregular; petals imbricate; stamens ten or less, usually free; pistil one, monocarpellary; ovules anatropous. Family Pa]n‘Zt'0nacc(c. Trees, shrubs. and herbs with mostly alternate, simple or compound, often tendril-bearing leaves; flowers irregular (papilionaceous); petals imbri- cate: stamens usually ten, commonly monadelphous or dia- delphous; pistil one, monocarpellary; ovules amphitropous. No'rE.—The three foregoing families are usually consid- ered to be sub-families of the LEGUMINOS./E (q.-1).). Family Saa;t'f1'agacc(c. Herbs. shrubs, and trees with al- ternate or opposite leaves; stamens mostly definite ; pistil usu- ally compound; ovules indefinite. See SAXIFRAGE FAMILY. Family Cmssalacecc. Mostly fleshy herbs, with opposite or alternate leaves; stamens definite; pistils several, free or little united; ovules indefinite. Family Droseraccaa. Gland-bearing marsh-herbs; sta- mens mostly definite; pistil syncarpous, one to three celled, superior; ovules many, on basal, axile or parietal placentze. See DROSERA and Insuonvoaous PLANTS. Family IIa,mameZ't'dacea2. Shrubs and trees with mostly alternate leaves; stamens few or many: pistil bicarpellary, its ovary inferior; ovules solitary or many. Family Brmm'acece. Heath-like shrubs with small leaves; stamens definite; pistil mostly three-celled, inferior to su- perior; ovules one to many, pendulous. Family Halomgecc. Aquatic or terrestrial herbs with mostly alternate leaves; pistil one to four celled, inferior; ovules solitary, pendulous. Sub-order l\’IYRTALES. Flowers regular or nearly so, usu- ally perfect; pistil of united carpels, usually inferior; pla- centae axile or apical (rarely basal); style one (rarely sev- eral); leaves simple, usually entire. Family Rltizojaitoracece. Trees and shrubs with mostly opposite leaves; stamens two to four times the number of petals ; pistil two to six celled, usually inferior; ovules two, pendulous. See MANGROVE. Family Combrelaccac. Trees and shrubs with opposite or alternate leaves ; stamens usually definite; pistil one-celled, inferior; ovules two to six, or solitary, pendulous. Family ilfyrtaccw. Trees and shrubs with opposite or al- ternate leaves; stamens indefinite; pistil two to many celled, inferior; ovules two to many, placentm basal or axile. See l\'IYR'l‘ACE]E. Family Jlfelastomacece. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with mostly opposite leaves; stamens usually double the number of petals; pistil two to many celled, free or adherent to the calyx tube; ovules minute, numerous, on axile or parietal placentae. Family Lyihmcecc. Herbs, shrubs, and trees usually with opposite leaves, and four-angled branches; stamens definite or indefinite; pistil two to six celled, free; ovules numerous, on axile placentae. VEGETABLE KINGDOM Family Onagraceaz. Herbs (shrubs and trees) with oppo- site or alternate leaves: stamens one to eight, rarely more; pistil usually four-celled, inferior; ovules one to many, on axile placentae. Family Am'stoloche'accm. Herbaceous or shrubby plants with alternate leaves: petals absent; stamens six, rarely more; pistil four or six celled, inferior: ovules numerous, on axile (or protruding parietal) placentzn. ‘ See BIRTH- woars. Family Cg/tinacecc. Fleshy, parasitic herbs, leafless or nearly so; petals four or none; stamens eight to many; pis- til one-celled, or imperfectly many-celled, inferior; ovules minute, very numerous, on parietal or pendulous-folded placentae. See VINE RAPES. Sub-order PASSIFLORALES. Flowers usually regular, per- fect or diclinous; pistil syncarpous, one-celled, its ovary usually inferior; placentaa parietal; styles free or connate; leaves ample, entire, lobed. Family Loasaccaa. Herbs with opposite or alternate leaves; flowers perfect; sepals and petals dissimilar; stamens in- definite; endosperm fleshy or none. Family T’Ll/I’7Z87’C606£8. Herbs and shrubs with alternate leaves; flowers perfect; sepals and petals dissimilar; sta- mens definite; ovary free; endosperm copious. Family Passifioracecc. Climbing herbs, shrubs (and trees) with alternate leaves; flowers perfect; sepals and petals similar; stamens definite; ovary free; endosperm fleshy. See PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY. Family Ctzcm-b/itacete. Mostly climbing or prostrate herbs and undershrubs, with alternate leaves; flowers diclinous: stamens definite (usually three); ovary inferior; endosperm none. See OUCUMBER FAMILY. Family Begoniaceaa. Mostly herbs with alternate leaves; flowers diclinous; stamens indefinite; ovary inferior, usu- ally triangular ; endosperm little or none. See BEGONIACEJE. Family Daz‘e'scacecc. Herbs or trees with alternate leaves; flowers mostly diclinous; stamens four to many; ovary in- ferior, usually gaping at the top ; endosperm scanty. Sub-order OACTALES. Flowers regular or nearly so, and perfect; pistil syncarpous, one-celled, with parietal placentae, its ovary inferior; style divided at the apex; endosperm present or none; embryo curved. Fleshy-stemmed, mostly leafless plants. Family Cactacere. With the characters of the sub-order. See CAO-TUS FAMILY. Sub-order CELASTRALES. Flowers usually regular; disk of the receptacle from glandular to annular or tumid, some- times adnate to the calyx tube or the pistil, or rudimentary or entirely wanting; pistil one to many celled (rarely apo- carpous) ; ovules one to three, pendulous or erect; endosperm present or none. Family Olacaccaa Trees and shrubs with usually alter- nate simple leaves; disk free or adnate to the calyx; petals present; pistil one to three celled, ovules two or three, pen- dulous; endosperm fleshy. Family I Zicmeze. Trees and shrubs with alternate or op- posite, simple leaves; disk obsolete; petals present; pistil three to many celled; ovule one, pendulous; endosperm fleshy. See HOLLY FAMILY. Family Oelastracem. Shrubs and trees with usually alter- nate, sim le leaves; disk fleshy; petals present; pistil two to five ce led; ovules usually two, erect or pendulous; en- dosperm fleshy. See SPINDLE-TREE FAMILY. Family Szf(tc7ch0'ust'cce. Herbs with simple, alternate leaves; disk thin, on the base of the calyx; petals present; ovary two to five celled; ovule one, erect; endosperm fleshy. Family Rhcmmacew. Trees and shrubs with usually al- ternate simple leaves; disk adnate to the calyx; petals present; pistil two to four celled; ovules one or two, erect; endosperm fleshy. See BUGKTHORN. Family Ampehdece. Shrubs and trees with alternate, sim- ple or compound leaves; disk adnate to the calyx; petals coherent; valvate; pistil two-celled, two-ovuled (or three to six celled, one-ovuled); endosperm often ruminate. See V INE FAMILY. Family LC!/Ll/IYLGGOB. Aromatic trees and shrubs, with al- ternate, simple leaves; disk none; petals none; pistil one- eelled; ovule one, pendulous; endosperm none. See LAUREL FAMILY. Family Proteacmc. Shrubs, trees (and herbs) with scat- tered, simple, usually coriaceous leaves; disk none; petals none; pistil one-celled; ovules one, erect or pendulous; en- dosperm little or none. Family flhymelazaccaz. Shrubs, small trees (and herbs) VEGETABLE KINGDOM with scattered or opposite, usually coriaceous, simple leaves; disk none; petals none; pistil one-celled; ovule one, pendu- lous. See DAPHNE. Family Pcnccacece. Evergreen, heath-like shrubs, with small, opposite leaves; disk none; petals none; pistil four- celled; ovules two, erect; endosperm none. Family Elceagnacew. White- or brown-scurfy trees and shrubs, with alternate or opposite simple leaves ; disk lining the perianth tube; petals none; pistilone-celled; ovule one, ascending; endosperm none or scanty. See EL./"EAGNACEZE. Family Sa/mfalacecc. Parasitic herbs, shrubs, and trees, with alternate or opposite simple leaves; disk epigynous; etals none; pistil one-celled; ovules two to five, pendu- ous ; endosperm present. Family Lomnthacece. Parasitic herbs or shrubs, with op- posite or alternate simple leaves, often reduced to bracts; disk epigynous; petals none; pistilone-celled, inferior; ovule one. erect; endosperm present. See MISTLETOE. Family Balanophomcece. Parasitic, leafless herbs, monoe- cious or dioecious; disk none; petals none; pistil one-celled, inferior; ovule one, erect; endosperm present. Sub-order SAPINDALES. Flowers usually regular, often much reduced; disk of the receptacle tumid, adnate to the calyx, lining its tube, or rudimentary, or entirely wanting; pistils one to several celled; ovules one or two, erect, ascend- ing or pendulous; endosperm mostly none. Family Sapindacece. Trees and shrubs with alternate (or opposite), mostly compound leaves; disk present or none; petals three to five, or none; pistil one to four celled; ovules one or two, ascending; endosperm usually none. See SOAP- wonr. Family Sabiacecc. Trees and shrubs with alternate, sim- ple, or compound leaves; disk small; petals present; pistil two or three celled: ovules one or two, horizontal or pen- dulous; endosperm none. Family Ana.ccm'cZt'acece. Trees and shrubs with alternate, usually compound leaves; disk usually annular; petals three to seven, or none; pistil one to five celled; ovules soli- tary, pendulous (or erect); endosperm scanty or none. See SUMACH FAMILY. Family Juglrmdaceaa. Trees and shrubs with alternate, compound leaves; disk forminga cupule; petals none; pistil one-celled, inferior; ovule one, erect, orthotropous; endo- sperm none. See WALNUT FAMILY. Family rk/3/m'cacere. Shrubs and trees with alternate, sim- ple leaves; disk none; petals none; pistil free, one-celled; ovule one, erect, orthotropous; endosperm none. Family Ou_7mZz'fcm2. Trees and shrubs with alternate. simple leaves; disk none; petals none; pistil two to six celled, inferior; ovules two, erect or pendulous; endosperm none. See OAK. Family Casuam'nacece. Shrubs and trees with striate stems. bearing whorls of reduced scale-like leaves; disk none: petals none; pistil one-celled ; ovules two, lateral, half anatropous; endosperm none. (Treub’s studies seem to indicate a nearer relationship of this family with the Gymnosperms.) See Bnurwoons and CASUARINA. Sub-order UMBELLALES. Flowers regular, usually perfect; stamens usually definite; pistil syncarpous, one to many celled, its ovary inferior, ovule solitary, pendulous; styles free or united at the base; endosperm copious; embryo usu- ally minute. Family Cor-naceaz. Shrubs and trees (rarely herbs) with usually opposite leaves; flowers umbcllate. capitate, or corymbose; ovary two to four celled; fruit drupaceous. See OORNEL and Doewoons. Family Arahacccc. Trees, shrubs (and herbs) with alter- nate leaves; flowers in umbels, heads, or panicles: ovary two to fifteen celled; fruit a berry with a fleshy or dry exocarp. See (hnsnne FAMILY. Family Umbellifcraa. Herbs (shrubs and trees) with alter- nate leaves; flowers small, mostly umbellate; ovary two- celled; fruit splitting into two dry indehiscent mericarps. See UMBELLIFERS. B. GAMOPE'l‘ELA3. Lcares of M7267‘ ])e'r2'a»m‘72-'u~72.0rZ (corolla) grozvn togcf/zler zlmio om-piece, sometimes 'wa'm‘2'n-g ; ovules usu- ally welt/2, bat one coat. Order HETEROMERrE. Pistil of three or more united car- pels, its ovary generally superior; stamens as many or twice as many as the corolla lobes. Sub-order PRJMULALES. Flowers regular, mostly perfect: stamens mostly opposite to the corolla lobes; ovary pluri- carpellary, one-celled; with a free central placenta. Family Plzunbagmacccc. Herbs with alternate or clus- ‘ 4:63 tered leaves; stamens opposite to the petals; ovule one, basal, anatropous; fruit capsular; dehiscence valvate, or irregular. Family Plantaginacece. Herbs with alternate or clustered leaves; stamens alternate with the petals; ovary mostly two-celled; ovules many; placentae axile; fruit a circum- scissile capsule. See PLANTAIN FAMILY. Family Pm'muZaceae. Herbs with alternate or opposite, sometimes clustered, leaves; stamens opposite to the petals; ovules many; fruit a capsule dehiscing longitudinally from the apex, or circumscissile. See PRIMROSE FAMILY. Family Myrsina.cece. Trees and shrubs with alternate (or opposite) leaves; stamens opposite to the petals; ovules usu- ally few; fruit a drupe or berry. Sub-order ERICALES. Flowers regular, perfect; stamens alternate with the corolla lobes; cells of the ovary or pla- centae two to many; seeds minute. Family Vaccz'm'acece. Shrubs and trees with mostly alter- nate. evergreen leaves; ovary inferior, two to ten celled; fruit fleshy or succulent; anthers dehiscing by an apical pore. Family Ericacew. Shrubs and trees (a few herbs) with al- ternate, opposite or whorled, mostly evergreen leaves ; ovary superior, two to twelve celled; fruit usually a capsule; anthers dehiscing by an apical pore. See HEATH FAMILY. Family lllonotrqaece. Pale. leafless, parasitic herbs; ovary superior; one to several celled; fruit a capsule; anthers dehiscing by a slit. Family Epac¢z'cZae. Shrubs and small trees with mostly alternate, evergreen leaves; ovary superior, mostly two to ten celled ; fruit capsular or drupaceous; anthers dehiscing by a slit. Family D‘iapensz'acece. Low undershrubs with alternate, evergreen leaves; ovary superior, three-celled; fruit a cap- sule ; anthers dehiscing by a slit. See DIAPENSIA. Family Lennoaceaa Parasitic leafless herbs; ovary supe- rior, ten to fourteen carpellary. twenty to twenty-eight celled ; ovules solitary; anthers dehiscing by a slit. Sub-order EBENALES. Flowers regular, perfect, or dicli- nous; stamens opposite to the corolla lobes; ovary two to many celled ; seeds mostly solitary or few, usually large. Family Sapotaceae. Trees and shrubs with mostly alter- nate leaves; flowers mostly perfect; stamens attached to the corolla: ovary superior. See STAR-APPLE FAMILY. Family Ebenacecc. Trees and shrubs with mostly alter- nate leaves: flowers mostly dioecious ; stamens usually free from the corolla; ovary superior. See EBONY. Family Styracacece. Trees and shrubs with alternate leaves: flowers mostly perfect; stamens attached to the corolla; ovary usually inferior. See STYRACACE.E. Order BICAR-PELLATE. Pistil of two united carpels, its ovary generally superior; stamens as many as the corolla lobes or less. SL1b—O1‘Cl€1‘POLEMONIALES. Corolla regular; stamens alter- nate with the corolla lobes and of the same number ; leaves mostly alternate. Family Polemom'acerc. Herbs (and shrubs) with alternate or opposite leaves; corolla lobes c_ontorted; ovary tricar- pellary, three-celled; ovules two or more. See PHLOX FAIIILY. Family I1T_z/a7'ro])7z_z/Zlacctr. Herbs with radical or alternate (rarely opposite) leaves: corolla lobes imbricated (or con- torted); ovary one or incompletely two celled; ovules two or more. Family B0/ragz'naceaa Herbs, shrubs. and trees with al- ternate leaves; corolla lobes imbricated (or contorted); ovary bicarpellary. four-celled, four-lobed; ovules solitary. See BORAGE FAMILY. _ Family O0'n-rolrulacere. Herbs, shrubs (and trees) with al- ternate leaves; corolla limb more or less plieate (rarely im- bricated); ovary two (or three to five) celled; ovules few. See l\’lORNING-GLORY FAMILY. Family Solcmaceae. Herbs. shrubs (and trees) with alter- nate leaves; corolla limb more or less plicate (rarely imbri- cated); ovary mostly two-celled; ovules many. See NIGHT- SHADE FAMILY. Sub-order GENTIALALES. Corolla regular; stamens alter- nate with the corolla lobes and usually of the same num- ber; leaves opposite (rarely alternate). Family Oleacmr. Shrubs and trees (rarely herbs) with mostly opposite leaves: corolla lobes valvate or wa-ntinv: stamens two (or four); ovary two-celled; ovules one to three. See OLIVE FAMILY. Family Salradomceaa Shrubs and trees with opposite, 464 VEGETABLE KINGDOM undivided leaves; corolla lobes imbricated; stamens four; ovary two-celled; ovules two. Family Apocynacece. Milky-juiced trees, shrubs, and herbs, with opposite, simple leaves; corolla lobes contorted or valvate; stamens five, with granular pollen; ovary two- celled or the carpels separating; ovules many. See APocY- NACEZE and DOGBANE. Family Asclepiaclacece. Milky-juiced herbs and shrubs, with opposite (or alternate) leaves; corolla lobes contorted ; stamens five, with agglutinated pollen; ovary of two sepa- rated carpels; ovules many. See MILKWEED FAMILY. Family Loyaniacece. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with mostly opposite, simple leaves: corolla lobes imbricated or con- torted; stamens four or five (or indefinite); ovary two to four celled; ovules one to many. Family Genticmacere. Mostly herbs, with usually opposite undivided leaves ; corolla lobes contorted, valvate, or indu- plicate; stamens four or five (or indefinite); ovary usually one-celled; ovules many. See GENTIAN. Sub-order PERSONALES. Oorolla mostly irregular or ob- lique; stamens fewer than the corolla lobes, usually four or two; ovules numerous; fruit mostly capsular. Family Scrophnlariacece. Herbs (shrubs and small trees) with alternate, opposite, or whorled leaves; ovary two- celled with an axile placenta; seeds with endosperm. See FIGWORTS. Family Orobanchacere. Leafless, parasitic herbs; ovary one-celled; placentae parietal; ovules minute, numerous. Family Lentilmlariacece. Aquatic or marsh herbs with radical or alternate leaves ; ovary one-celled with a globose basilar placenta. See BLADDERWORT. Family Colnmelliacece. Trees and shrubs with opposite, evergreen leaves; ovary two-celled, with an axile placenta. Family Gesneracece. Herbs, shrubs (and trees) with usu- ally opposite leaves; ovary one-celled, with two parietal placentm; seeds numerous; endosperm scanty or none. Family Bignoniacem. Trees, shrubs (and herbs) with op- posite or whorled leaves; ovary one or two celled, with parie- tal or axile placentre; seeds numerous, without endosperm. See BIGNONIA FAMILY. Family Peclaliacete. Herbs with mostly opposite leaves; ovary one, two, or four celled, with parietal or axile pla- centae; seeds one to many, without endosperm. Family Acanthacece. Herbs (shrubs and trees) with op- posite leaves; ovary two-celled; placentae axile; seeds two to many, without endosperm. See Acsnrnus FAMILY. Sub-order LAMIALES. Oorolla mostly irregular or oblique: stamens fewer than the corolla lobes, usually four or two; ovules mostly solitary; fruit indehiscent. Family 1l[yoporinece. Shrubs and trees with mostly alter- nate leaves; flowers axillary. Family Selaginew. Heath-like shrubs, or perennial or an- nual low herbs, with mostly alternate leaves; flowers small, in terminal spikes or heads. Family Verlrermcew. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with usu- ally opposite leaves; stigma usually undivided. See VER- BENA FAMILY. Family Labiatce. Mostly aromatic herbs, shrubs (and trees), with opposite or whorled leaves ; stigma usually bifid. See Mn\"r FAMILY. Order INFEREE. Pistil of two or more united carpels, its ovary inferior; stamens usually as many as the corolla lobes, mostly attached to the corolla. Sub-order RUBIALES. Flowers regular or irregular; sta- mens attached to the corolla; ovary two to eight celled; ovules two to many. Family Caprifoliacece. Herbs (shrubs and small trees) with mostly opposite leaves ; flowers usually irregular, with imbricated corolla lobes; style usually with a capitate, un- divided stigma: fruit a berry. See HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY. Family Rnhiacece. Trees, shrubs, and herbs with opposite or whorled leaves; flowers usually regular, with valvate, contorted, or imbricated corolla lobes; style simple, bifid, or multifid; fruit a capsule, berry, or drupe. See l\’IADDER. FAMILY. Sub-order OAMPANALES. Flowers mostly irregular; sta- mens usually free from the corolla; ovary one to many celled; ovules one to eight. Family Stylidacere. Herbs with tufted, radical, and scat- tered stem-leaves; flowers usually irregular; stamens (two) connate with the style. Family Gooclenoeiece. Herbs (and shrubs) with alternate (or opposite) leaves; flowers usually irregular; stamens five, free from the style. VEGETABLE I/VAX Family Cctmpannlacem. Mostly milky-juiced herbs, shrubs (and small trees), with alternate (or opposite) leaves; flowers regular or irregular; stamens usually five, free from the style. See BELLwoE'rs. Sub-order ASTEEALES. Flowers regular or irregular; sta- mens attached to the corolla, their anthers usually connate ;, ovary one-celled, one-ovuled. Family I/‘(l/l6’I"llCt7I/CZ(JCCL’. Herbs (and shrubs) with opposite leaves; flowers cymose, corymbose, or solitary; anthers free; ovule pendulous. Family Dipsacete. Herbs (and shrubs) with opposite or whorled leaves; flowers in involucrate heads; anthers free ; ovule pendulous. See TEASEL FAMILY. Family Calyceracere. Herbs with alternate leaves; flow- ers in involucrate heads: anthers connate; ovule pendulous. Family Compositce. Herbs, shrubs (and trees) with oppo- site or alternate leaves; flowers in involucrate heads; anthers connate; ovules erect. See Oonrosrrns. LI'l‘ERA’l‘URE.—D6 Candolle’s Proctromns Systematis N catn- ralis Rey/ni Veyetabilis (1824-73); Endlicher’s Genera Plantarnm (1836-40); Brueh, Schimper, and Gumbel’s Bryoloyia Eu/roptea (1836-55) ; Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America (1838-43), continued as Gray’s Synoptical Flora of lVorth America (1878-84) ; Walpers’s Repertorinm Botanices Systematicoe (1842-47); Gottsche, Lindenberg, and Nees ab Esenbeck’s Synopsis Hepaticarnm (1844); Harvey’s Phycologia Britannica (1846-51); Walpe1's’s An- nales Botanices Systematicte (1848-68); Agardh’s Species, Genera et Orclines Algarum (1848-80); Nylander’s Synop- sis Jl18Zfll0Cli6Ct Lichennm (1858); Harvey’s Nereis Boreali- Americana (1858) and Phycologia Australica (1858-63); Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum (1862-83); Sul- livant’s Icones Jtlnscornm (1864-74); Baillon’s Histoire des Plantes (1866- ); Tuckerman’s Genera Lichennm (1872); Du Mortier’s H epaticce Europa; (1874) ; Schimper’s Synopsis 1l.’[nscorum Enropazornm (1876) ; De Oandolle’s 11/onoyrapliire Phctneroyamarmn(1878- ); Eaton’s Ferns of lVorz‘h Amer- ica (1879-80); Schenk’s Hancllmeh cler Botanilc (1879-90); Van Heurck’s Synopsis cles Diatomées cle Belyique (1880- 85) ; Braun’s Fragmente einer Monographie der Uharaceen (1882); Tuckerman’s Synopsis of the 1Vorth American Lichens (1882-88) ; Saccardo’s Sylloye Fnngornm (1882-95) ; Hooker and Baker’s Synopsis Filicnm (1883); Lesquereux and James’s 1‘/[annal of the Jllosses of North America (1884); Underwood‘s Descriptive Catalogue of the North American Ifepaticcc lVorth of Mexico (1884); Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen-Flora eon Dentschland, Oesterreich nncl der Schweiz (1884- ): vol. i.,Pilze (Winter, Fischer, and Rehm); vol. ii., _7l:[eeres-alyen (Hauck); vol. iii., Farnpflanzen (Luers- sen); vol. iv., Lanbmoose (Limpricht); vol. v., Characeen (Migula); Goebel’s Outlines of the Classification and Spe- cial Jklorphology of Plants (trans. by Garnsey and Balfour, 1887 ; German ed. 1882); Wolle’s Fresh-water Alg(e of the Uniteal States (1887) ; Baker’s flanclbooh of the Fern Allies (1887); Engler and Prantl’s Die Natilrlichen P_flanzenfa- milien (1887- ); Durand’s Inclesc Generum Phaner0gamo- rnm (1888); Allen’s Oharacece of America (1888- ); De Toni’s Sylloge Algarum (1889- ); Wolle’s Diatomacew of North America (1890); Wolle's Desmicls of the Unitccl States (2d ed. 1892); Ellis and Everhart’s North American Pyrenomycetes (1892); Massee’s British Fungus Flora (1892-95); Underwood’s Onr Native Ferns and their Allies (4th ed. 1893); Hooker and Jackson’s Inclea; Kewensis (1893- 95). CHARLES E. BEssEY. Vegetable Physiology : See PHYSIOLOGY, VEGETABLE. Vegetable Silk : See PULU and FIBER. Vegetable Tissue: See BOTANY and HISTOLOGY, VEGE- TABLE. Vegetable Wa.X : theproduct of various plants, used as a substitute for beeswax. (1) Myrtle wax. produced from the bayberry or wax-myrtle, Myrica eerifera of the U. S. It is of a greenish hue, and is used in pharmacy as a ve- hicle. Oandles made of it emit a pleasant odor, but do not give a good light. (2) The wax of the Oarnahuba palm, Copcrnicia cerifera of Brazil. It is used in Europe in candle-making and for waxing floors and furniture. (3) The abundant and rather resinous product of Ceromylon anclicola, a flne palm-tree of the Andes, is used for candles when mixed with tallow. (4) The Japan wax, produced by boiling the seeds of Rhns snececlanecl. a sumach-tree. It closely resembles beeswax, and is used in candle-making. It should not be confounded with China wax, which is an insect product. VEGETARIANISM Vegeta'rianism [deriv. of vegetarian; vegetable + -a_rian, a suffix denoting one addicted to or believing in anythmg] : a view according to which vegetable substances ought to form the sole food of man, while the use of all animal sub- stances, or at least of meat proper, ought to be avoided in the diet as something wrong, both physiologically and mor- ally. Many of the ancient philosophers—as, for instance, Plato—encouraged a vegetable diet as the most suitable for the well-being of man, physically and-morally ; and some of them—as, for instance, Pythagoras—-absolutely forbade the use of animal food. In modern times the view found elo- quent advocates in Rousseau, Shelley, and others, and in 1847 a society for the propagation of vegetarianism was formed at Manchester, England. A similar society was formed In the U. S. in 1850. Since then the movement has attained considerable proportions. Veg;e’tius, Fnxvrus RENATUSI author; b. probably in Rome in the latter part of the fourth century A. D. ; wrote an Epitome (Institationam) Rei Militaris, dedicated to an emperor whose name is not given, possibly Theodosius II. (408-450). The work is in four books, and is chiefly a com- pilation from previous writers. The first book treats of the levying and training of soldiers; the second of the early discipline and of the formation of the Roman army; the third of strategy; the fourth of the art of defending and of assaulting fortified laces and of naval warfare. From some expressions of egetius it is believed that he was a Christian. Best editions by Schwebel, with the notes of Oudendorp and Bessel (Strassburg, 1806), and with re- vised text by C. Lang (Leipzig, 1885). A veterinary treatise under the title Ilfalo medicina is probably by the same Vegetius. It is printed in Schneider’s Soriptores rei rasticoe (Leipzig, 1794-97). Revised by M. WARREN. Veglia, val‘ya"a: an island of Austria, belonging to the government of Triest, in the Gulf of Quarnero, an inlet of the Adriatic. It is 23 miles long, 12 miles broad, moun- tainous, and produces timber, wine, silk, marble, and salt. Pop. about 18,000, including four towns of between 1,600 and 2,200 inhabitants. Vehicle: See EXCIPIENT. Vehmic Court, or Vehmgerieht: See Fnnmo Oouar. Vehse, v5/ze, KARL EDUARD: historian; b. at Freiberg, Saxony, Dec. 18, 1802; studied jurisprudence in Leipzig and Gtittingen ; was appointed assistant keeper of the royal archives in Dresden in 1825 ; published his Geschich2‘e Kaiser Ottos eles Grossen in 1828, and became chief of the archives in 1833. In 1838 he resigned his office and went to America, but returned in 1839 ; settled in 1843 in Berlin, but was arraigned for some passages in his Geschichte der cleatschen Hdfe (48 vols., 1851—58), condemned to six months’ imprisonment, and banished from Prussia. Settled in 1856 in Switzerland; lived in Italy 1857-62. D. near Dresden, Saxony, June 18, 1870. He also wrote Shahspeare als Pro- testant, Politiher, Psycholoy and Dichter (2 vols., 1851). Veins [from O. Fr. seine < Lat. i'e’na, artery, vein, for *-vea;’na, deriv. of oe’here, rec'tam, carry : Eng. wagon, way]: the companion vessels to the arteries, distributed through- out the body for the purpose of returning the venous or im- pure blue blood from the extremities, surfaces, and viscera to the right auricle of the heart, and the purified blood from the lungs to the left auricle. They are membranous canals, essentially devoid of elas- ticity and without pulsa- tion. They arise from venous capillaries which collect from the tissues the blood recentlybrought to them by the arterial capillaries, richly freight- ed with oxygen and nu- tritive matter. These venous capillaries unite to form ultimate veins, which still again unite, and form successively larger branches and trunks as they approach the center of the circulation. The motion of venous blood 1S secured in part by the ois a teryo, or power of the capilla- ry chemico-vital nutritive processes, in part by the pressure of the moving muscles and viscera between which the veins are l1Hb6diiGé1, the veins being provided with valves which 2 Valves of veins. VEI-A 465 permit of blood-currents toward the heart, but not the re- verse. Veins have three coats—internal, middle, and ex- ternal. The veins are not uniform, symmetrical cylinders, like the arteries, but have pouches or sinuses adjacent to the valves, so that a vein distended resembles a bamboo stick with bulbous or knotted joints. The veins, like the arteries, have nutrient vessels, or vasa oasoram, in their walls. The vems of bones are termed sinuses, their outer coat being re- placed by the endosteum or fibrous lining of the bone, as in the great sinuses of the skull. The venous blood returned by the veins from above the region of the heart is united In one great vein, the oena caoa superior, all from below en- termg by the oena cava inferior. The oena azygos collects the blood from the chest-walls and other structures which does not flow into either of the oence came. The portal vein receives the venous blood from the intestines, and conveys It to the liver. The pulmonary vein and branches go from the lungs to the left auricle of the heart, carrying the blood that has been revivified by the oxygen of inspired air. See CIRCULATION or THE BLooD. Revised by WILLIAM PEPPER. Veintemilla, va-even-ta-meel'ya‘a, Iexxcro: general and politician; b. at Cuenca, Ecuador, in 1830. He was the leader of the extreme liberals who revolted against Borrero 1876-77. Borrero was deposed after a civil war, and in 187 8 Veintemilla was made president with extraordinary powers by a convention that met at Ambato; at the same time a new constitution was adopted. Some reforms were insti- tuted, the revenues were increased, and an attempt was made to secularize education. Disorders continued; the president assumed dictatorial powers Mar. 2, 1882, but con- servatives and liberals united against him, and he was de- posed in July, 1883, fleeing from the country. H. H. S. Veit. fit, PHILIPP: painter; b. in Berlin. Prussia, Feb. 13, 1793 ; was educated by Friedrich Schlegel, who became his stepfather, and exercised a decisive influence on the pe- culiar cast of his mind; made his first art-studies in Dres- den; joined afterward Cornelius and Overbeck in Rome, and became one of the most vehement champions of the Catholic romantic school in painting. In 1830 he was ap- pointed director of the Stéidel institute of art in Frank- fort-on-the-Main, but resigned this place in 1843 because the institute bought Lessing's picture of Huss before the Council of Constance, and removed his studio to Sachsen- hausen, opposite Frankfort. He painted in both fresco and oil. Among his most remarkable pictures are the Seven Years of Plenty. in the Villa Bartholdy in Rome; Chris- tianity bringing the Fine Arts into Germany, in the St:'a'del institute of Frankfort; the Assumption of the Virgin, in the Cathedral of Frankfort: and the Egyptian Darkness, for the King of Prussia. D. at Mentz, Germany. Dec. 18, 1877. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Veitch, veech, JOHN: philosopher; b. at Peebles, Scot- land, Oct. 24, 1829 : educated in the grammar school of that place and in the University of Edinburgh : was assistant in logic and metaphysics in that university 1855-60; became Professor of Logic, Metaphysics, and Rhetoric in the Uni- versity of St. Andrews 1860, and Professor of Logic and Rhetoric in the University of Glasgow 1864. He trans- lated Descartes's Discourse on Itlethocl (Edinburgh, 1850), and the sa1ne author’s III €(lil(l/f'l071-8 and Selections from the P2-incz'ples of Philosophy (1853) ; prepared a It[emoir of Du- yald Stewart for the revised edition of the Complete ‘Works of that philosopher (vol x., 1858); was joint editor with Dean Henry L. Mansell of Sir Willia1n Hamilton's Lectures on Ilfetaphysics and Logic (Edinburgh and Boston, 4 vols., 1859-60), and wrote a flfemoir of Sir WWII/z'a/m Hamilton (Edinburgh, 1869); History and Poetry of the Scottish Bor- der (1877 ; new ed. 1892) ; and 1I[erlin and other Poems (1889). D. Sept. 3. 1894. Revised by J . M. BALDWIN. Vela, Bmsco Ntnvnz : See NUNEZ VELA. Vela, VINGENZO: sculptor; b. at Ligurnetto, canton of Ticino, Switzerland. in 1822; was trained as a stone-cutter in the quarries of Viggio ; went to Milan in 1836, where he studied drawing: worked in the studio of Cacciatori, and made models for jewelers; removed in 1847 to Rome ; won a prize in 1848 at Venice by his bas-relief, Christ raz'sz'n_o the Daughter of Jairas; volunteered in the Italian war against Austria in 1848 : settled permanently in Turin. and attracted general attention by his statues A Prayer and Spartacus. Among his later works are H'arm.o/n y in Tears (1855), for the monument of Donizetti. at Bergamo ; France‘ and Italy, a group (1863), presented by the ladies of Milan 466 vELARs to the Empress Eugénie; Columbus and America and The Last Dag/s of Napoleon, in the Corcoran Gallery, Wash- ington, D. C. The two last-named works and Spring at the Paris Exhibition of 1867 won for their author the rank of oflicer of the Legion of Honor. D. at Bellinzona, Ticino, Oct. 3, 1891. Revised by RUSSELL STUReIs. Velars [Lat. celum, veil, the soft palate]: a technical term of phonetics, applied to denote the series of back-gut- tural sounds, c[, clh. g, qh, etc., produced between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, as c in cat, g in got, etc., and distinguished from the palatals or front gutturals, such as is in hin, g in gear, etc. I. W. Velas’co: town (laid out in 1891); Brazoria co., Tex.; on the Brazos river, 5 miles from its mouth, and on the Velasco Terminal Railway; 20 miles S. of Columbia (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 6-J). It is the outgrowth of a successful attempt to secure a deep-water shipping-point on that part of the Texas coast by jetty-work at the mouth of the river. A private corporation expended over $1,500,- 000 on this work, and vessels of the deepest draught now lead and unload at the wharves of the town. Velasco has thus become an important point for the shipment of cotton, cottonseed oil, cake, and meal, coal, and other productions of Texas. The town has 5 churches, several public and private schools, a national bank with capital of $50,000, 2 weekly newspapers, ice-factory and refrigerator plant, plan- ing-mill, brick-yards, electric-light and power plant, and large coal elevator. Pop. (1895) estimated, 1,500. EDITOR OF “ WORLD.” Velazquez, yd-la"ath’kcZth, DIEGO, de : conqueror of Cuba; b. at Cuéllar, Segovia, Spain, in 1465 (according to others, in 1458). He served in the conquest of Granada, and in 1493 went to Espafiola with Columbus. There he was prominent in the wars against the Indians, received large encomiendas, and became wealthy. In 1511 he was com- missioned by Diego Columbus to conquer Cuba. Leaving Espafiola at the end of the year with 300 soldiers, he landed near the eastern extremity of Cuba and speedily defeated the cacique Hatuey, who was cruelly put to death. There- after Velazquez intrusted much of the active campaign work to his lieutenant, Panfilo de Narvaez. The unarmed natives were easily conquered, and, as usual, reduced to the slavery of the encomiendas, in which most of them soon per- ished. Velazquez founded Trinidad, Matanzas, and other places, and made his first capital Santiago. Though nomi- nally a deputy of Diego Columbus, he practically assumed independent command. In 1517 he was a partner in the slave-seeking expedition of Cordova, which resulted in the discovery of Yucatan. Elated with the hope of new con- quests, he fitted out Grijalva’s expedition in 1518; and on receiving certain information of the rich Aztec empire, he prepared a strong fieet for its conquest, giving the command to CORTES (q. u). The latter, on his arrival at Vera Cruz, assumed independent command, and Velazquez sent Panfilo de Narvaez (1520) with orders to bring Cortés back a pris- oner. Narvaez was defeated by Cortés, and all efforts of Velazquez to secure the Mexican conquests for himself failed. Vexation for his loss was the reputed cause of his death in Havana, 1522 or 1523. HERBERT H. SMITH. Velaizquez, DIEGO RODRIGUEZ DE SILVA: painter; b. of Portuguese parents, at Seville. Spain, June 5, 1599. Herrera el Viejo was his first master in art. He left the latter for the studio of Francisco Pacheco, who recognized the great genius of Velazquez. and whose daughter he married (1618). Velazquez visited Madrid in 1622, but after some months returned to Seville. The next year he was called there to be introduced to King Philip IV., who appointed him court painter and showed him marks of the greatest favor. It was at this time (1623) that Velazquez painted a portrait- sketch of Charles I. as Prince of Wales. Velazquez first went to Italy in 1629, and spent a year in Rome and also some time in Naples, where he met the Spanish painter Ri- bera, whose work influenced his own considerably. He was again in Italy in 1648. sent by the king to purchase works of art. During this visit Velazquez painted the famous portrait of Pope Innocent X., now in the Doria Gallery. at Rome. The olliee of aqrosentador mayor was conferred upon him on his return, as well as the Cross of St. Iago. The duty attached to this office was the providing for the king’s lodgment during his absence from the capital, and his death is attributed to his exertions in providing the royal quarters at the conference in Turin. Velazquez died Aug. 6, 1660, on his return to Madrid, and was buried with VELEZ MALAGA great pomp in the Church of St. Juan. His wife died of grief a week after him. He was an unrivaled portrait- painter; unlike his brother artists, he rarely touched re- ligious subjects. and his mythological compositions were treated in a realistic spirit, the figures being dressed in the costume of his time. The technique of Velazquez is so marvelous that Mengs said of him: “Velazquez seems to have painted with his will only, without the aid of his hand.” His work can be best judged of in Madrid, although splendid examples have found their way to the Louvre, the London National Gallery, the Capitol and Palazzo I)oria in Rome, and many European collections. For details of his life and works, see Curtis, Velazquez and Jlfurillo (Lon- don, 1883); Stirling Maxwell, Velazquez and his Wor/cs; L. Viardot, Notices sur les princiyaauzv peintres de l’Espagne ; C. Blane, Velazquez d ltladrid ; Gazette des Beaua;-Arts, vol. xv., p. 65 ; R. Lefort, Velazquez, in Gazette des Beaurv-Arts, second period, vols. xix., xx., xxi., and following (years 1879-82). W. J . STILLMAN. Velde,vel’de, ADRIAN,van de: painter; b.in Amsterdam, Holland, in 1635. He studied first under his father, then with Wynants and Wouverman. He became one of Hol- land’s most accomplished “little masters.” He painted landscapes with cattle, frost and snow scenes, human fig- ures, with equal skill, realism, and poetry. Ruisdael, van der Heyde, and Hobbema often employed him to paint figures in their landscapes. D. in Amsterdam, Jan. 21, 1672. He is well represented in the National Gallery, London, in the Dresden Gallery, in the Louvre, and in the Six Collection and the museum in Amsterdam. Van de Velde was also a most skilled engraver; twenty-nine of his plates are well known. W. J . S. Velde, WILLEM, van de: See VANDERWELDE. Veldeke, vel’de-ke, HEINRICH, von: poet; b. at Veldeke. near Maestricht, Netherlands ; lived in the latter half of the twelfth century. and was present at the great gathering of princes and knights under Frederic I. at Mentz in 1184. He was familiar with Latin and French, wrote /Servatius, the story of a saint, following a Latin original, and trans- lated the French Roman d’ll'ne'as of Benoit de Sainte-More in his famous Eneide. The last-named work was finished revious to 1190. Veldeke is praised by Gottfried von Strassburg as the first who introduced the court epic in Ger- many, and Rudolf von Ems lauds him as a reformer of the metrical form who first among German poets used perfect rhymes. These 0 inions exactly describe Veldeke’s position in the history of erman literature. While he was mediocre as a poet he had the good fortune to appeal to the tastes and demands of his contemporaries, who saw in him the be- ginning of a new literary era. As a writer of minnesongs Veldeke was less influential, though he was here also among the first to introduce French models. See Behaghe], Heinr. o. Veldehes Eneide (1882): R. von Muth, II. o. Veldeke (Vienna, 1870); Scherer, Deutsche Studien. J . GOEBEL. Veley, VIOTOR HERBERT, M. A., F. R. S.: chemist; b. at Chelmsford, England, Feb. 10, 1856; educated at Rugby and at University College, Oxford; public examiner in the Honour School of Natural Science 1887-90; became dem- onstrator and lecturer at the University Museum, Oxford, 1887; lecturer of Q,ucen’s College 1891; and tutor to the delegacy of the non-collegiate students 1890. Author of numerous papers on theoretical, physical, and applied chem- istry, contributed to the Proceedings of the Royal Society and to various periodicals. Vélez. va'lath : town of Santander, Colombia; in the southern part of the department, on a mountain-side, 7,185 feet above the sea (see map of South America, ref. 2-B). It is surrounded by precipices and can be reached only over dizzy mountain roads. It was founded in 1539, its singular situation being then an advantage for defensive and stra- tegic purposes. During the colonial period it was impor- tant, and it is still one of the first towns of the department. The vicinity is noted for many natural curiosities and mag- nificent, scenery. Pop. about 11,000. H. H. S. Vélez Malaga: town; province of Malaga, Spain; on the river Velez, near its mouth in the Mediterranean (see map of Spain, ref. 19-E), in a plain of the highest fertility, producing sugar, cotton, and rice, besides wine and fruits. rl‘he town itself is old and somewhat decadent, but it is rich and carries on an important trade. It contains the ruins of a Moorish castle and two fine old churches. Pop. (1887) 23,425. VELIA Velia, or Elea: an ancient Greek city. See ELEA. Veliger [Mod. Lat., veil-bearing; Lat. velum, veil + gerere, to bear]: an embryonic stage in the development of many molluscs, succeeding the trochophore stage. Velius L0nguS: a Latin grammarian of the time of Tra- jan, author of a commentary on Vergil’s Eneid, and a trea- tise De Orthog/ra;vhz'a, which is still preserved. See Kell, Gmmmatici Latini, vol. vii. Velleius Paterculus: See PATERCULUS, GAIUS VELLEIUS. Vel1e'tri (anc. Ve'Zitrce) : town; province of Rome, Italy; on a spur of Monte Artemisio, about 26 miles S. E. of Rome (see map of Italy, ref. 6-D). Velletri was one of the most conspicuous of the Volscian cities and one of the most rest- less and rebellious under the Roman yoke. The Octavian family is said to have transferred itself from Velletri to Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, and to have been immediately admitted, as one of the chief heads of the Volsci, to the full rights of Roman citizenship. The mod- ern town, though near the Pontine Marshes, is healthful. The cathedral and other churches contain ancient marbles, pictures, and other mediaeval objects worthy of notice. The town is supplied with water by a subterranean aqueduct about 8 miles in length, constructed by Fontana. Pop. about 13,500. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Vellore’ : town ; in the Arcot district of Southern India; on the banks of the P-alar; 80 miles by rail W. of Madras (see map of S. India, ref. 6-E). It has a strong fort sur- rounded by a deep moat excavated out of the solid rock. The European quarters of the town are spacious and pleas- ant. Vellore contains a fine temple to Vishnu, and has considerable trade. Tippu Sahib used to live a great part of each year at this salubrious station. In 1780—82 the for- tress was held by the British against Hyder Ali. (1891), including cantonment, 44,925. Vellum : See PARCHMENTS. Vel0cim'eter [Lat. ve’lox, velo’cz's, swift + Gr. pérpov, measure]: an instrument for measuring with extreme ac- curacy the velocity of projectiles by means of electricity. It was invented by Wheatstone in 1840, and received inge- nious improvements from Col. J. G. Benton of the U. S. ordnance department. A simpler form, called a chrono- graph, has been devised by Capt. Le Boulengé of Belgium, and is extensively used in the U. S. and in Europe. Sev- eral others of greater complexity have also been invented and used. See Cnaonocaarn and Cnaonoscors. James IIERCUR. Velocipede [Lat. ve'loa;, 2-elo'cis + pes, pe'dz's, foot] : originally a vehicle invented in 1816 by Baron Drais de Sauerbrunn, of Mannheim, consisting of a seat resting upon two wheels, one before the other. The rider sat astride the seat, and propelled the vehicle by striking the ground with his toes. Later velocipedes were propelled by the action of the feet upon a crank attached to the axle of the forward wheel. Velocipedes are now called unicycles, bicycles, tri- cycles, or quadrieycles, according to the number of wheels. (See CYCLING.) Few things are more puzzling to an ordinary observer than the self-balancing or self-sustenance of the bicycle. If he makes the experiment. he finds his fore- bodings, founded upon the absence of base for stable equi- librium in the two wheels in the same fore-and-aft plane, but too well verified. The principle by which the skilled rider sustains himself is perhaps best illustrated b_v reference to the familiar experiment of balancing a long pole in a ver- tical position on the chin or end of the finger. The equi- librium of a pole thus balanced (supposing it to be perfectly so, which it never is) is unstable; but in its almost vertical (or balanced) position the motion of fall is extremely slow; the holder is easily able to detect it-, and to move his finger (or chin) so as to counteract it. The process for the bicycle is not identical, but analogous; the experienced rider feels such incipient tendency of the vehicle to fall either way. and by an acquired habit, which becomes instinctive, checks it through the guiding-wheel, slightly varying his direction. The centrifugal force due to the deflection of his moving velocity thus brought into action counteracts each incipi- ent falling tende-ncy. Perhaps it would be more proper to say that what is, in statics (without motion), a position of unstable equilibrium is made kinetically (i. e. through mo- tion) stable. Revised by R-. H. 'l‘nuas'ro.\*. Velocity: See MOTION, Acousmcs, FALLING Bonms, GUN- NERY, LIGHT, etc. Pop. VENATION 4.67 Velvet: See TEXTILE Fxnmos. Venable, CHARLES Scorr, LL. D. : educator; b. in Prince Edward co., Va., Apr. 19, 1827; educated at Hampden-Sidney College, the University of Virginia, and Berlin and Bonn, Germany. He became Professor of Mathematics at Ham p- den-Sidney College in 1847, of Physics and Chemistry, Uni- versity of Georgia, 1859, and of Mathematics and Astronomy, University of South Carolina, 1860. At the outbreak of the civil war he became captain of engineers and served at New Orleans and Vicksburg; in June, 1862, was appointed to the staff of Gen. R. E. Lee (major A. D. C.); and in 1864 was promoted lieutenant-colonel and assistant adjutant-general. Since Oct., 1865. he has been Professor of Mathematics in the University of Virginia. He is the author of a series of mathematical text-books. Vena Contra/cta: the contraction of a stream of water issuing from an orifice in a thin plate. Newton first made measurements of the contracted vein. Its area is about 62 per cent. of the area of the orifice. See, further, the article HYDRAULICS. M. M. Venantius: See FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS Hosomus CLEMEN'l‘IAl\'US. Vena’ti0n [from Lat. vena, a vein]: in botany, the man- ner in which the fibrovascular bundles (veins) are arranged in leaves. The veins are more properly parts of a frame- work, and not of a circulatory system, as the name might imply. In the growth of the young leaf of the higher plants one or more columns of meristem cells develop into fibro- vascular tissues, the so-called veins. These are connected below with the fibrovascular system of the stem. As the leaf enlarges, its veins develop accordingly. 'Where the leaf-growth is mainly longitudinal, as in the grasses and sedges, the veins are necessarily longitudinal and more or less parallel; but where the growth is in all directions, the veins have a net-like arrangement, as in pumpkin-leaves and grape-leaves. Descriptive botanists distinguish two princi- pal kinds of venation, viz., parallel and reticulated or netted. each having a number of varieties. Thus in parallel vena- tion we distinguish the longitudinal (from base to apex, Fig. 1, A), transverse (from midrib to margin, Fig. 1, B), FIG. 1.-Parallel venation : A. longitudinal; B, transverse; Q fla- bellate. flabellate (radiating from the summit of the petiole, Fig. 1. C). In the reticulated venation we may distinguish the pinnate (from midrib to margin, Fig. 2, A), radiate or pal- / FIG. 3.-—Forked venation : A, free; B. reticulated. FIG. 2.-Retieulated venation : A, pinnate ; B, radiate. mate (from the base. to the margin. Fig. 2, B). The veins of many ferns are forked, dividing once ~or more and running free to the margin without uniting again (Fig. 3, A), or uniting and forming the reticulated venation (Fig. 3, B). Cnaanns E. Bsssnr. 468 VENDAGE Vendaee: the Ooregonus eaadesz'us, a trout-like fish of the family Coregomdaa, found in the lakes of Scotland and __..-; ‘. '\ __-‘ < \ j _ _ I r;-‘~:<,'@_-'-‘-&:'~¢'.5’-L-‘_;=_*-,‘-§.£5*-i-"’ii‘@“r‘l1,$ 5 -- - 1 -‘ ,. ;. -\- §; G _ . 2 . The vendaee. Sweden. Its introduction into Scotland is ascribed to Mary Queen of Scots. It is a fine table-fish, and is caught in nets, since it never takes the hook. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Vendée, La, lava-va‘ar'1’da': department of France; bor- dering W. on the Bay of Biscay. Area, 2,588 sq. miles. The coast is either sandy or occupied by salt-marshes, from which it has received the name of ]t[a/rm's. The northern part, the Bocage, is more elevated, but the ground is cov- ered either with heath or with pine forest. The rest of the department, the PZaz'ne, is fertile land, emmently well suited to agriculture. In spite of all disadvantages, both the Marais and the Bocage are well peopled and carefully cultivated; flax, hemp, and vegetables are produced in the former, honey, fruit, and hops in the latter, and wine in both districts. In the Plaine much wine, wheat, and fruit are produced, and many cattle are fattened for the Paris market. Iron and coal are found. La Vendée is noted for the vigorous resistance ofiered by its inhabitants to the Revolution. Devoted to the Church and the Bourbon mon- archy, the peasantry broke out in revolt on Mar. 10, 1793, and headed by GATHELINEAU and LA RocHEJAQUELEIN (qq. v.) defeated the forces of the Government at every point, till Kléber and Marceau took the field against them with a large army. At Le Mans they were defeated with great loss, and after Dec., 1793, ceased to be formidable. A sec- ond revolt broke out in 1795, but was put down by Hoche. During the Hundred Days they supported the restored Bourbon monarchy, but were held in check by Napoleon’s general Lamarque. Pop. (1891) 442,355. Capital, La Roche sur Yon. See Beauchamp, Ifistoire de la Guerra de la Ven- dée et des Chouans (1807), and Bonnemere, Les Guerres de la Vendée (1884). Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Vendémiaire [Fr., from Lat. m'nrle’mz'a, vintage; vinum + de’mere, remove] : in the French revolutionary calendar the period from Sept. 28 to Oct. 21. It was the first month in the revolutionary year. Vendet’ ta [Ital.] : a feud or condition of private war in which the nearest kinsman assumes the duty of avenging an injury to a member of the family. The term originated in Corsica, where it has played a most important part in social life. Wl1en a murder has been committed, the mur- derer is pursued not only by the oflicers of justice whose duty it is to punish offenses against society, but also by the rela- tives of the slain, upon whom the received views of social duty impose the obligation of personally revenging his death. In such a case the relatives of the murdered man take up arms and hasten to pursue the murderer. If he succeed in elud- ing their pursuit, the murder may be revenged upon his rela- tives; and, as the vengeance may be taken whenever an opportunity occurs, the relatives of a murderer whose crime is unavenged have to live in a state of incessant precaution. Similar customs have marked a certain stage in the history of every civilized nation in its progress toward the estab- lishment of the administration of justice on its modern basis, and are still to be found among the less advanced peoples, such as the Montenegrins, Albanians, Druses, Bed- ouins, etc. F. M. COLBY. Vendfime, VJttfi'tl6n1' [Lat. Vindociozum, originally a Gallic oppz'dum]z capital of an arrondissement in the French de- partment of Loir-et-Cher; on the Loir, 20 miles N. W. of Blois, and on the Orleans Railway and the State Railway (see map of France, ref. 4—E). It has a lyceum and a library of 15,000 volumes, and is an industrial center, its manufac- tures including leather. gloves, cotton goods, and paper. Pop. (1891) 9,538. Parts of the castle of the Dukes of Vend6me date from the eleventh century. Several battles were fought VENDOR’S LIEN in the vicinity in 1870 between the army of the Loire and the Tenth Prussian Corps.‘ Vendfime : an ancient countship of France, founded about the end of the tenth century, corresponding nearly to the present department of Loir-et-Cher ; raised to a peerage duchy in 1515 by Francis I. and given to Charles of Bour- bon. It reverted to the crown on the accession of Henry IV ., the grandson of Charles, in 1589, but in 1598 he be- stowed it on his eldest son by Gabrielle d’Estrées, César (b. in 1594; d. in 1665), from whom descended the house of Vendéme. During the minority of his half-brother Louis XIII., César played a conspicuous part in the intrigues and conspiracies against Richelieu, later against Mazarin and in the entanglements of the Fronde, but having become recon- ciled to the court, he defeated, as great-admiral of France, the Spanish fleet off Barcelona in 1655. César left two sons, LoUIs, Due de Vend6me (b. in 1612; d. Aug. 6, 1669), and FEANeoIs DE VENDOME, Due de BEAUFORT (see BEAUFORT), nicknamed Rod ales I-Iallcs on account of his sympathy with the people during the disturbances of the Fronde. Louis, Due de Vendéme, had the title of Due de Mercoeur during his father’s lifetime. He served with distinction in the wars of Louis XIII., and was made viceroy of conquered Catalonia in 1649 by Hazarin. He married Laura Mancini, one of Cardinal Mazarin’s nieces, but became a priest after her death in 1656, and was made a cardinal in 1667.- He left two sons, LOUIS JOSEPH, called till his father’s death the Due de Penthievre (b. in Paris, July 1, 1654; d. at Tifiaroz, in Valencia, June 11, 1712). and PHILIPPE DE VEN- D6tIE, great prior of the Knight Templars in France (b. Aug. 23, 1655; d. J an. 24, 1727), with whom the family became extinct. Louis Joseph began his military career in 1672 under Turenne, in the Netherlands, Germany, and Alsace, and under Créqui in Flanders before the peace of Nymwegen (1688). He won great renown in the war of the Palatinate (concluded by the Peace of Ryswick in 1697), serving under Luxembourg in the Netherlands, participating in the sieges of Mons and Namur, and in the battles of Leuze and Steen- kerk, then serving under Catinat in Italy, where he com- manded the left wing in the battle of Marsaglia (Oct. 4, 1693). Owing to the duke’s careless and sensual nature, Louis XIV. hesitated long before intrusting him with an in- dependent command. In 1696, however, he was given com- mand of the army in Spain, began the siege of Barcelona, defeated an approaching Spanish army, and forced the for- tress to surrender Aug. 10, 1697, which glorious event enabled Louis XIV. to negotiate the favorable Peace of Ryswick (1697). He was sent to Italy in 1702, during the Spanish war of succession, to supersede Villeroi, who had been captured at Cremona; he reorganized the demoralized army, fought Prince Eugene of Savoy at Luzzara (Aug. 15, 1702) without being defeated; tried to pass through the Tyrol into Ger- many in the spring of 1703, but was prevented by the brav- ery of the T yrolians and the revolt of the Duke of Savoy in his rear. At Trent he turned round, defeated the Pied- montese completely, took several fortresses, and began the siege of Turin. In the spring of 1706 he defeated the Aus- trians under Reventlow at Caleinato, and drove them be- yond the Adige, taking advantage of Eugene’s absence in Vienna. From this brilliant campaign he was called to the Netherlands to make amends for Villeroi’s defeat at Ramillies, but he was himself completely defeated by Marl- borough and Eugene at Oudenarde (July 11, 1708), and lost his command owing to the intrigues of Mme. de Mainte- non, who bitterly hated him. In 1710 the situation of the French party in Spain became so desperate that Philip V. thought he could be saved only by Vend6me, who was ac- cordingly sent to Spain by Louis XIV. He created an army, defeated the English at Brihuega, the Austrians under Stahremberg at Villavieiosa (Dec. 10, 1710), carried the king back to Madrid, and finished the war. Shortly after- ward he died, and the duchy of Vendéme reverted to the crown of France. Philip V. had his body interred in the Escorial. I'IERMANN SCHOENFELD. Vend0r’s Lien: (1) the lieu of the vendor on lands for purchase-money which is unpaid and unsecured save by the purchaser’s verbal or written promise. It is available against any one but a purchaser for value without notice. (See LIEN, Equitable Liens.) (2) The term is also applied to the lien of the seller of personal property. This, however, is a common-law or possessing lien, and entitles the seller to retain possession of the property until payment or tender VENEDEY of the price, where the sale is for cash, or where it was on credit but the term of credit has expired, or when the buyer has become insolvent. While possession of the goods by the seller is essential to this lien, it does not matter that he has possession as agent, bailee, or custodian of the buyer. It is available against any part of the goods remainmg 1n the seller’s possession, unless the portion delivered was in- tended to represent the whole, in which case the lien Wlll have been waived. See Srorraen IN Tnxusrru. FRANCIS M. Buamcx. Venede , va/ne-di, J AKOB: author ; b. at Cologne, May 24, 1805; stu ied law in Bonn and Heidelberg, and began to ractice as an advocate in his native city, but fled to France in 1832 on account of an injunction against his Ueber Geseh/wornengerlehte and other conflicts with the Prussian police ; settled in Paris, and began in 1835 to issue a monthly paper, Der Geéiehtete; was twice banished from Paris, but finally allowed to live there by the intervention of Arago, Mignet, and others whose interest he had gained by his work, Rfhnerth/am, Chmlstentlvam, Germanentharn (1840) ; returned to Germany in 1848, and sat iii the nation- al assembly in Frankfort, where he voted with the radicals ; was banished from Berlin and Breslau ; went to Zurich, but settled finally in Oberweiler, Baden. After a visit to Eng- land (1843-44), he wrote Irland (2 vols., 1844) and England (3 vols., 1845) ; he also wrote Geselvlchte ales clemfschen Vollcs (4 vols., 1854-62). D. at Oberweiler, Feb. 8, 1871. Veneering [from Germ. f'u/rne'eren, veneer, from Fr. foarnir, furnish]: in cabinet-work, the art of laying thin leaves (usually) of some valuable wood or other material upon a foundation of inferior material. It was known to the Romans, and is referred to by Pliny as a novelty. The plates were formerly sawn by hand, but in 1806 Brunel in- troduced a method of splitting them from straight-grained wood, and employed circular saws for carved and knotted wood. Veneers of ivory and bone are now largely used for some purposes. The finer processes are called l\‘IARQUETRY and BUHL-WORK (qq. o.) Venegas, yd-na’ga"as, FRANCISCO JAVIER, de : general and administrator; b. at Ecija, Spain, about 1760. He attained the rank of lieutenant-general in the wars with France, and was Viceroy of Mexico Aug., 1810 to Mar., 1813. This pe- riod embraced the first revolutionary struggles. (See HI- DALGO Y UOSTILLA and DTORELOS Y Pxvox.) The viceroy did not take the field personally. but he was responsible for many of the cruelties which characterized the war; he was constantly hampered by the intrigues of his principal gen- eral, Calleja, who finally supplanted him. On his return to Spain he acknowledged the rule of Joseph Bonaparte and was created Marquis of La Reunion in honor of his sup- posed pacification of Mexico. D. about 1820. HERBERT H. SMITH. Venereal Ulcer, or Chaneroid [Fr. cha-ncre : Ital. can- ero < Lat. cancer, crab, ulcer; of. Eng. doublet oanlwr]: a certain acute, contagious ulceration that results from vene- real contact. It is a purely local disease, possessing symp- toms that entitle it to be considered the highest type of acute ulcerative action. In the ma'ority of cases it is the result of inoculation of the purulent secretion of an al- ready existing ulcer of a similar character. It is commonly established upon an abrasion of the skin or mucous mem- brane produced z'n eoita. On application of the purulent secretion of the venereal ulcer to an abrasion. either on the erson already affected or on one previously free from the disease, congestion, inflammation, suppuration. and rapid de- struc'tion of tissue follow in quick succession. Chiefly char- acterized by its contagious property, the venereal ulcer is seldom single, several distinct lesions usually presenting at the same time. Occurring under circumstances of good general health, cleanliness, and temperate living, its prog- ress is usually self-limited. It gradually increases from two to five weeks, and the loss of tissue is then slowly restored. When acquired under unfavorable conditions, such as a de- praved constitution, irregular life. filth, and alcoholic ex- cess, the chancroid assunies its most vicious type. The venereal ulcer or chaneroid. in its early stages. is promptly amenable to judicious remedial measures. The application of any caustic, of suiiicient power to destroy completely all the tissue which has been implicated in the diseased action, suffices to change the contagious venereal ulcer to a simple sore, when it goes on to recovery without other treatment than such simple sores require. It is also found that the particular lesion which may be present par- VENEREAL ULCER 469 takes in great degree of the activity which characterized the lesion from which it was derived, so that every grade from the simple excoriation to the sharply defined and most active ulcer may be met. In the milder varieties the judi- cious application of antiseptic, sedative, and astringent agents may suflice to bring about an arrest and cure. In regard to its history, the venereal ulcer or chancroid is conceded to be of ancient origin, even to antedate the advent of syphilis. It has various synonyms—viz., pseudo- syphilis, soft chancre, non-infecting chancre, chancroid, etc. It is known almost universally at the present day by the last term. It was distinctly recognized and described by the ancients as a disease known from the earliest times. Notwithstanding this, shortly after the recognized appear- ance of syphilis in Europe in 1494, it became confounded with that disease. Its purely local character was lost sight of, and it was subjected to constitutional treatment as a form of syphilis. Its chief characteristics, however, al- ways most marked, were never quite lost sight of. Evincing its destructive property at once on inoculation of its secre- tion upon healthy tissue, and commonly associated with in- flamma-tory enlargement and suppuration of contiguous lym- phatic glands, it was thus directly opposed to the sluggish course of the syphilitic local affection and its non-suppurat- ing glandular concomitants. Yet it was so often found as- sociated with and followed by the constitutional manifes- tations of syphilis that its distinctive significance was doubted; and when, after a time, the well-known acute venereal ulcer was occasionally observed to exchange its soft edge and base for the indurated tissue known to character- ize the early syphilitic lesion, the fallacious theory of post hoc ergo propier hoe prevailed, and thus the confusion of the two distinct diseases became complete. From this time all the contagious venereal diseases, gonorrhoea, chaneroid. and syphilis. were accepted as practically identical, requiring the same constitutional treatment. John Hunter in 1786 was the first to recognize publicly the value of the indura- tion characteristic of the venereal sore which was followed by constitutional syphilis, thus making the first positive step toward identifying and restoring to the different vene- real disorders their distinctive individuality. In 1798 Ben- jamin Bell. of London, claimed a simple origin of gonor- rhoea, and in 1830 Ricord. of Paris, after a series of observa- tions and elaborate experiments in inoculating the purulent fluid of gonorrhoeas and of the soft and hard venereal le- sions, demonstrated the purely simple. non-specific nature of gonorrhoea. thus completely and forever eliminating it from among the manifestations of syphilis. Finally Bas- sereau. of Paris (a pupil of Ricord), in 1852 demonstrated the fact that in the disease then known as syphilis, com- prising the soft local venereal ulcer and the indurated in- fecting venereal sore with its consequences, two separate diseases existed. Observations have shown that the muco- purulent secretion from non-specific nasal catarrh will some- times produce excoriations of sound cuticle, and that con- tact with secretions from non-specific leucorrhoeas will sometimes promptly cause pustular eruptions (herpes) of the preputial mucous membrane of the male: and these more or less rapid in development and progress according to the degree of activity of the inoculating secretion——in some instances so simple that they are scarcely more than sero-purulent vesicles. and in other cases observed so vicious that in appearance they do not differ at all from the typical chancroid, the secretion being also am‘o-inoculable, as proven by the occasional occurrence of similar lesions upon oppos- ing surfaces. The venereal ulcer or chancroid acquires its chief im- portance from its liability to be mistaken for and treated as the initial lesion of syphilis: and the more so as it is often through the lesion established by the destructive agency of the chancroid that the syphilitic principle or dis- ease-germ is permitted entrance into the system. The dis- tinction between the two lesions at the outset is often im- possible. The active characteristic of the chancroid is recognized as a necrosis—that of the syphilitic lesion one of growth or proliferation. The surface of a sore. then, may be the field of chancroidal action, while the living tissue be- neath may be at the same time a center of proliferation of syphilitic disease-germs. which are constantly gaining ac- cess to the general circulation through the contiguous lym- phatic vessels. These germs may be originally deposited upon a simple abrasion or one already the seat of chan- croidal action, or may be subsequently inoculated through the breach of tissue made by the chaneroid. If the former, 470 VENESEOTION the imposition of the secretion of a chancroid upon_ the same point, if the disease-germs have been freshly deposited, might cause their destruction, and thus leave only the chan- croidal element; but once the syphilitic principle has ex- tended below the surface and has entered a lymphatic ves- sel (see SYPHILIS), it has gone beyond the sphere of action of the chancroid. The frequent association of chancroid with syphilis will never lead to mistaken identity if it is constantly borne in mind that syphilis is always, in all its manifestations. a proc- ess of growth, of proliferation, of exaggerated life. The most scientific and critical examination of the products of syphilis, from the initial lesion to the gummy tumor, has never been able to detect any abnormal material——not-hing but excessive accumulations of tissue-building cells. Chan- croid, on the other hand, from its inception to its cicatriza- tion, is a process of necrosis—literally, death of tissue. So that syphilis is always and only in relation to chancroid as life to death—each the highest type of its own peculiar ac- tion. Revised by RoswELL PARK. Venesectien : See BLEEDING. Venetian Carpet: See OARPETS. Venetian Chalk : the same as French chalk, a soft white talc used by tailors instead of chalk; also used in making pastels and cosmetics. "eneziano, SEBASTIANO: See PIoMBo,'FRA SEBASTIANO DEL. Venezuela, Span. pron. vd-natli-wei’la“a (officially, Estados Unidos de Venezuela): a republic in the northern part of South America ; bounded N. by the Caribbean Sea, N. E. by the Atlantic. E. by British Guiana, S. by Brazil, and W. by Colombia. Area, officially claimed, 597,960 sq. miles; but this includes a tract extending eastward to the river Esse- quibo, now held by Great Britain as a part of British Guiana, and a vast unsettled tract in the south which is claimed by Brazil. The area of the undisputed territory probably does not exceed 400,000 sq. miles. Regional Divisions.—Venezuela is naturally divided into four very distinct regions : 1. The mountainous belt of the north and northwest, including. as a sub-region, the lowlands around Lake Maracaibo; this is the agricultural zone and contains at least five-sixths of the civilized population. 2. The llanos, a broad belt, hardly above sea-level, between the mountains and the Orinoco ; this is the pastoral zone, thin- ly settled, but supporting vast herds of cattle. 3. The forest- covered plains of the southwest, almost without civilized in- habitants, but rich in rubber and other natural products. 4. The highlands of Venezuelan Guiana, settled only near the Orinoco, but known to contain valuable deposits of gold. 1. The lllountain Zone.-—The Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, entering Venezuela from Colombia, divides into two branches, between which is the low basin occupied by Lake Maracaibo and the surrounding swamps. The western branch runs northward, forming the boundary between the two countries, and terminating near the coast. The other, which trends northeastward, covers a wide extent of coun- try, and contains the highest mountains in Venezuela, with extensive high valleys and arid plateaus (pdramos): five of the peaks rise above the limit of perpetual snow, and one, the Sierra Nevada de Merida, attains 15,400 feet. On ap- proaching the coast this branch ties iII with another moun- tain system which skirts the northern coast from near Lake Maracaibo to Cape Paria, but has an important break near lon. 65° W. This coast mountain region is not very wide. and it generally shows two parallel chains inclosing a fertile valley. The highest peaks are Naiguata, 9,127 feet, and the Silla of Caracas, a little lower. The name Andes is re- stricted in Venezuela to the branches of the Cordillera, though geographers have sometimes extended it to the coast system. Neither here nor elsewhere in the country are there any active or quiescent volcanoes ; but the whole mountain region appears to be peculiarly subject to earth- quakes, and these have occasionally been very destructive. Hot sprmgs are numerous. The mountain lands reach to the coast itself, often rising precipitously from the sea, or broken into deep bays and gulfs which follow the east and west direction of the chains ; such are the Gulfs of Cariaco (Cumana) and Paria, the latter converted into an inland sea by the island of Trinidad to the E. of it. In the N. W. the peninsulas of Goajira and Paraguana—-the latter almost an island—-stand out boldly from the coast-line, inclosing the Gulf of Maracaibo. Lake MARACAIBO (q. v.) communicates VENEZUELA with this gulf and occupies, as we have seen, a depression between two branches of the Cordillera; it is the largest lake in the northern part of South America, and is an in- terior waterway, its outlet forming an important harbor. Other excellent harbors are those of Puerto Cabello and Cumana. The most important commercially is La Guaira, which, unfortunately, has few natural advantages, but has been improved by art. Several islands adjoin the northern coast, but the only important one belonging to Venezuela is MARGARITA (q. v.). The numerous streams of the mountain zone are short, and, with few exceptions, unnavigable; a large number flow into Lake Maracaibo. Much of the land was originally covered with forest, which remains on the higher slopes. The climate varies greatly with elevation, exposure, and the nature of the soil, but in general the higher lands are temperate and salubrious, while the coasts and the whole basin of Lake Maracaibo are among the hot- test regions in South America; in the hot months they are often visited by swamp fevers and dysentery, but severe epi- demics of yellow fever are not common. The rainy and warmest months are generally from April to October. vary- ing somewhat with locality. The dry season is well marked. 2. The Llanos.—These open pasture-lands are described in a separate article. (See LLANOS.) Though portions might be used for agriculture, they are now exclusively de- voted to cattle-raising, and the hardy race of half-breed herdsmen (llaneros) inhabiting them has played an impor- tant part in the history of Venezuela. Many portions of the plain are even hotter than the Maracaibo basin. Dur- ing the rains immense areas are flooded, and swamp fever and dysentery are then very common. The principal towns are near the mountain belt. The great delta of the Orinoco is a labyrinth of channels and swampy islands, mainly cov- ered with forest, swarming with mosquitoes, and inhabited only by a few Indians. 3. The Upper Orinoco Region-—This region, occupying the southwestern part of Venezuela, is unexplored except near the Orinoco and a few of its branches. The known por- tion, above the junction of the Meta, is a plain, somewhat higher than the llanos, with some isolated hills or low mountains, and generally covered with forest. A few ca- noes ascend the river every year to gather rubber and trade with the Indians. Much of this territory is claimed by Bra- zil or Colombia. 4. Venezuelan Guiana.—The southeastern part of the re- public, within the great curve of the Orinoco, is physically a part of GUIANA (g. v.). It is a region of plateaus and low mountains or mountain-like ridges, some parts, it is said, ex- ceeding 7,000 feet in altitude. So far as known, it contains much open land, interspersed with scrubby growth and for- est. The climate, except near the rivers, is temperate and salubrious. The only town is Angostura, on the Orinoco. Some districts near the Orinoco are occupied for cattle- breeding, and rich gold mines have been found near the frontier of British Guiana. Rivers.-—The great river system is that of the ORINoco (q. v.). The main stream and its eastern branches lie entire- ly in Venezuela, but the western aflluents are partly in Co- lombia. Steamboats ascend to the Atures rapids, and by the Apure and other branches penetrate the interior nearly to the mountains. The remarkable channel connecting the upper Orinoco with the Rio Negro and Amazon is above the rapids and beyond the reach of regular commerce ; eventu- ally this and the Colombian affluents must become very im- portant. As it is, the Orinoco is the outlet of the whole re- public, excepting the northern mountain region and those portions of the llanos adjoining it. Natural Productions.-—The plants and animals are those of the neot-ropical region (see AMERICA, SoU'rI-1), closely re- sembling or identical with the forms found in Brazil. Jag- uars, tapirs, various species of deer, etc., are common, except in the more thickly settled regions. The fisheries of the coast and the Orinoco furnish an important food-supply for the poorer classes. Formerly the pearl-fisheries of Marga- rita, Cumanzi, etc., were celebrated, and the name Pearl Coast survives in many maps, but the industry has lost its pres- tige. The forest products, but little utilized, include rub- ber, vanilla, tonka-beans, various drugs, and many beauti- ful cabinet woods. The minerals are important. Gold is widely distributed in the highland districts, and mines were opened soon after the conquest: at present the principal workings are near Carupano, and especially in Venezue an Guiana, where the famous mine called El Callao has yielded over $3,000,000 a year. The Area copper mines, 70 miles W. VENEZUELA of Puerto Cabello, are regularly worked by a British com- pany, and other deposits are reported. Coal of inferior qual- ity is mined near Barcelona. T‘he salt-beds of the Araya peninsula have been worked since the sixteenth century; from these and other salines over 100,000 tons are extracted in favorable years. Asphalt is obtained near the Orinoco delta and around Lake Maracaibo. Guano, phosphate rock, jet, kaolin, lead, tin, etc., are reported. The salt mines are a monopoly of the federal Government, which controls con- cessions for all other mining enterprises. Indus-tm'e.s.—Agriculture is the leading industry, but is almost confined to the northern mountainous belt; the prin- cipal products are coffee, cacao, and tobacco for exporta- tion, and maize, yucca, sugar, beans, etc., for home consump- tion. Wheat is cultivated on some of the higher plateaus. With few exceptions the agricultural methods are crude and wasteful. Sheep and goats are largely bred, especially in the northwestern districts, where goat-skins (known as Curacoa kid-skins) are an important article of export. The great herds of cattle on the llanos have nearly disappeared twice —during the war for independence and in the civil wars of 1858—63—but they are now rapidly increasing, and the stock has been improved. In 1888 it was estimated that the coun- try had over 8,000,000 head of horned cattle, 5,700,000 sheep and goats, 2,000,000 swine, 400,000 horses, 300,000 mules, and 860,000 asses. Manufactures on a large scale are almost un- known. People, Government, etc.—The population (partly estimated, 1891) is 2,2-323.520; the civilized, originally of Spanish ori- gin, has become more or less mixed with Indian blood, and this mixture exists even in the most prominent families. The Negro element is comparatively small, and is nearly con- fined to the coast cities. Civilized or semi-civilized Indians, originally gathered in mission villages, still maintain sepa- rate communities in some districts; those of the Goajira peninsula are practically independent. The wild tribes, now reduced in numbers, are chiefly confined to the upper Ori- noco basin. Immigration heretofore has been scanty. As elsewhere in Spanish America, the cultivated and wealthy class is comparatively small. Slavery was abolished peace- ably in 1854. Venezuela is composed of eight states, a federal district, and several territories dependent on the federal Gov- ernment; formerly there were twenty states. Capital, Ca- racas. The government is a federative republic, closely mod- eled after that of the U. S.; but practically the central or state power preponderates according to the party which is in power, and frequently the presidency degenerates into a dictatorship. By the constitution promulgated July 20, 1893, the president is elected for four years. Congress consists of two houses. The Roman Catholic is the common and, to a certain extent, the state religion, but all other cults are pro- tected, and liberty of speech and of the press is guaranteed by the constitution. Primary instruction is free and nom- inally obligatory; in 1891 there were 1,415 Government, 151 state, and many private schools. The Government main- tains a university at Caracas and a smaller one at Merida, several normal and soldiers’ schools, academy of fine arts, nautical school, lyceums (colegios), seminaries for girls, etc. Caracas has a college of engineers, national library, mu- seum, and observatory. Many Venezuelans finish their edu- cation in Europe. Finances.-—The monetary unit is the bolivar, or pesefa, equal to 1912036 cents U. S. currency (gold). Silver and gold are coined, and there are two banks of issue, now practically controlled by the Government. The federal revenue is de- rived chiefly from import duties. The entire foreign and domestic debt in 1894 was 134,787,750 bolivares or about $26,000,000, and as the revenue has frequently exceeded the expenditures (including the service of the debts), this amount could be easily borne. Owing, however, to several defaults and the lack of stability of the Government, Vene- zuelan bonds are generally far below par in the market. Commerce, Roads, etc.—-The exports amount to about $20,000,000 annually, and the imports are several million dollars less. Coffee is by far the largest item of export, ex- ceeding $14,000,000; others, in the order of their importance, are cacao, gold, hides and skins, copper ore, tonka-beans, dye-woods. and rubber. The countries holding most of the trade are England, the U. S., Germany, and France. Much of the coasting and river trade, partly on vessels flying the Venezuelan flag, centers in the British colony of Trinidad. A railway runs from La Guaira to Caracas, and another from Puerto Cabello to Valencia, with branches; an ex- tended railway system is projected. The common roads are VENICE 471 generally had. Steamboats regularly ascend the Orinoco and some of its tributaries: and there is steam and tele- graphic communication with Europe and the U. S. The metric system of weights and measures is adopted for all Government and legal transactions, and is coming into general use. H'z'story.—The Venezuelan coast was discovered by Co- lumbus in July, 1498, and soon after was frequented by Spanish traders and pearl-fishers. Ojeda, observing Indian houses built on piles near Lake Maracaibo, fancifully com- pared that region to Venice, and called it Venezuela (Little Venice), a name subsequently adopted for the whole coun- try. Las Casas was granted the right to settle Cumanei, but his missionary colony was destroyed by the Indians in 1522. Soon after Charles V. farmed out the country to a German commercial house, the \Velsers: expeditions sent by them founded Core (1527), which became the center of explora- tion and settlement. The Indian tribes were destroyed or reduced to slavery during the succeeding forty years; Ca- racas was founded in 1567. Subsequently Venezuela was much neglected; it was ruled by captains-general who, in the eighteenth century, were partly controlled by the vice- roys of New Granada. Venezuela was one of the first colo- nies to revolt from Spain in 1810. and independence was de- clared in 1811. The movement, of which Miranda became the leader, failed, partly owing to the great earthquake of Mar. 26, 1812, which destroyed Caracas and other cities; the patriots were impoverished and many, supposing that the disaster was a token of divine wrath against rebellion, joined the royalists. The war broke out afresh, the colony uniting with New Granada in the republic of Colombia; the princi- pal patriot leader and first president was the Venezuelan Bomvxa (q. 2).). After many vicissitudes Bolivar’s victory at Carabobo, June 25, 1821, broke the Spanish power. In 1830 Venezuela seceded from Colombia, and she has since remained independent. Except for transient revolts and a more serious one in 1848-49, the country enjoyed peace until 1859 ; a civil war then broke out which, after four years, re- sulted in the overthrow of the Government and the accession to power of Falcon and his successor. Guzman Blanco. Since then there have been frequent disturbances, and in 1892 President Andueza Palacio was overturned by Gen. Joaquin Crespo, who was regularly elected president under the new constitution in 1894. The question of the‘ boundary with British Guiana has long been a cause of dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain. For the literature of Vene- zuela, see SPANISH-A.1lIERICAN LITERATURE. AUTHoRITIEs.—Baralt, Hist01'ia de Venezuela (2d ed. 1894) ; Restrepo. Hisforz'a de la '2'er0Z'uc2'on dc Colombia (1858); Ver- gara y Velasco. Jmtroduecziozt al eszfudio ole Io geografia de Venezuela; Humboldt’s 1\"a'2'2'a|z‘2T2*e; Paez, Wild Scenes in South Amerz'ca (1862) ; Bureau of the American Republics, Handbook of Venezuela (1892). HERBERT H. Snnrn. Venezuela, Gulf of : See MARACAIBO, GULF or. Venial Sin [/venial is via O. Fr. from Lat. oem'a’Z/is, par- donable, deriv. of oe’-nz'a, pardon, remission] : a term used in Roman Catholic theology, in contradistinction to mortal sin, to denote those lesser transgressions of the laws of God or the Church, which, though blamable, are not suificient to destroy the union of friendship existing between God and the soul. J. J. KEANE. Venice [Ital. Venezia; cf. Lat. V ene’tz'a, country of the Ven’ez‘i]: a city and fortress of Italy, once the capital of a rich and powerful republic, now the chief town of the prov- ince which bears its name (see map of Italy, ref. 3—D). It lies in the Adriatic on 118 small islands and shoals in the Gulf of Venice, between the mouth of the Piave on the N. and the Adige on the S. These islets in the lagoons, made on piles petrified by time and by the deposits of the Brenta and other affluents of the Adriatic, are connected by 378 bridges, suiliciently elevated to allow boats to pass freely un- der them. By means of the small strips of land artificially built on piles around the edifices, and about 200 smaller or greater open spaces called ca/mpos, as well as the bridges. a slender land communication is kept up through the city. but most of the business and amusement is carried on through the 157 canals which not only form the highways, but also penetrate every alley of the city. The Grand Canal divides the city into two unequal portions and is spanned by the magnificent Ponte-R-ialto, a marble arch built by Antonio da Ponte in 1588-91, and two iron bridges built in 1854 and 1858. Since 1845 Venice has been connected with the mam- land by a railway bridge 2% miles long, and is thus brought 472 within an hour’s ride from Padua. This bridge is built on some 80,000 piles and consists of 222 circular arches of about 33 feet sipan each. The supply of drinking-water is now brought Tom the mainland. IasIf't't'az,‘t'ons, Industm'es, and Commerce.-—The population of Venice had dwindled from 190,000 in the fifteenth cen- tury to half that number at the beginning of the nineteenth century, but has risen again to 150,900 (Dec. 31, 1893). Venice is the seat of a prefect, supreme court, a Catholic patriarch, and an Armenian archbishop, and has an academy of sciences, one of the richest libraries in Europe, a conserv- atory of music, the Academy of Beaux-Arts with extremely valuable collections of painting, an archaeological museum, a permanent art exposition, and several schools, besides five theaters. Since Venice has been connected by the railway bridge with the railway system on the mainland and since the opening of the Suez Canal, commerce has greatly in- creased; in 1885 2,732 ships with a tonnage of 824,291 en- tered the harbor. This, however, can not be compared with the trade of the city in 1421, when it gave employment to 3,345 ships with 36,000 sailors and 16,000 dock-laborers. The trade is principally in grain, oil, hemp, cotton, raw silk, wine, and petroleum. The chief articles of manufacture are glass and mosaic wares, artificial pearls, silk, velvet, lace (this famous industry having been revived), wax, soap, artistic furniture, jewelry, and artificial flowers. Venice is connect- ed with Trieste and the Orient by steamship lines. Coal and iron have to be imported, chiefly from Great Britain, as Italy produces but little of these articles. Ship-building is car- ried on at six wharfs. Churches and other Public B'wt'ZcZz'9?.g.s.——Tl1ere are few squares and gardens of any extent in Venice; chief among them are the Giardino Publico at the eastern end of the city and the grounds adjoining the royal palace. The Piazza San Marco on the Rivo Alto (Rialto), surrounded by palaces and archways and paved with trachyte and marble blocks, is the great square of Venice and the center of its life. At the eastern end of the Piazza stands that wonderful monument of Oriental Greek architecture and Roman style combined, the Basilica of San Marco, begun in 828 and built during 976—1071 to receive the bones of the evangelist St. Mark, which are believed to have been brought there by the Doge Giustiniano Partecipazio (827-830) from Alexandria, Egypt. The facade of this church, dating from the fourteenth cen- tury, is composed of two tiers of round arches, five in each tier, the center arch of both rows being larger than the others. These arches are supported by innumerable columns of great beauty; the spaces over the doorways, ete., are cov- ered with rich mosaics and other most elaborate ornamenta- tion; and above the central portal stand four bronze horses, brought from Constantinople in 1204, and undoubtedly of Hellenic workmanship. The whole edifice is surmounted with pinnacles and domes so perfect in form and arrange- ment as to produce a finish of the most exquisite symmetry and fitness. The vestibule is entered by five bronze doors of superb workmanship, is vaulted with mosaics from de- signs by Titian, and contains very interesting sepulchral monuments, splendid columns, and other architectural fea- tures, and countless objects of veneration collected in the various chapels, in the saeristy, and elsewhere. On the right of the Basilica of San Marco, to the rear, rises the Torre dell’ Orologio, or Clock Tower (1494), with its gorgeous dial-plate of blue and gold, above which stand the famous bronze Moors with iron hammers. Besides San Marco there are ninety-eight other Roman Catholic churches, several Protestant and Armenian churches, and seven synagogues. Noteworthy among the first-named is the Chiesa dei Frari (1250), which contains, besides exquisite pictures by G. Bellini, Titian, ete., several very remarkable tombs of great artistic merit and two modern monuments, one iI1 honor of Titian, the other in memory of Canova. In the conventual build- ings connected with this church are kept the archives of Venice, said to contain at least 140,000 documents of all dates from the ninth to the nineteenth century. Among the architectural features of Venice the Palazzo Ducale, or doge’s palace, is conspicuous. Begun in 1350 by Filippo Calendario, it was completed in 1442, and holds a high rank with its superb works of art and impressive beauty. In its court is the famous giant stairway with its colossal statues of Neptune and Mars. It has on the east the famous Bridge of Sighs (ponte dei s0.sjn'm') leading to the ancient state pris- ons, known as the ptombi (lead-roofs). The magnificent hall of the Great Council, with the adjoining rooms, has held since 1812 the famous Library of St. Mark, with its MS. VENICE treasures and its many pictures, including Tintoretto’s Para- dise, the largest oil-painting in the world. In the eastern wing of the palace is the ,Archaeological Museum, with Greek works of sculpture. Opposite the Palazzo Ducale is the an- cient library building, now a royal palace, the masterwork of Sansovino, to the right the magnificent mint (la Zecca), built by Sansovino. There are many other magnificent pal- aces in Moorish, Gothic, and early Renaissance styles. The two granite columns (brought from the East in 1127) at the southern end of the Piazzetta, the one surmounted by a statue of St. Theodore and the other by the Lion of St. Mark, were considered as especially symbolic of the republic, and were copied in many of her subject cities. .H£sto/ry.—Tl1is began when the Veneti, probably of Illy- rian stock, lived on the northeastern bay of the Adriatic. In 452 Attila, King of the Huns, destroyed Aquileja and con- quered all the country as far as the Po. At that time fugi- tives from all parts of the ravaged countries concealed themselves in the lagoons, and gradually founded island- towns like Grado, Heraclea, Malamocco, and Chioggia, gov- erned by tribunes. After the downfall of the Westerii Ro- man empire in 476 the Venetian islands were subjected to Odoacer, then to the Ostrogoths, and finally to the Byzan- tine empire. Even after the invasion of the Lombards in 568 they remained under Byzantine dominion, but repeated wars with the Lombards made a closer union and a uniform government a necessity. Therefore all the classes of the island communities elected in 697 A. D. Paoluccio Anafesto as their supreme chief for life under the title of duke or doge. The ducal residence was at first Heraclea, after 742 Malamocco, but was removed in 810 to the heretofore de- serted island of Rialto, which became the central island of the city of Venice, connected by the Doge Agnello Parteci- pazio with all the neighboring islets by means of many bridges. In 827 the body of St. Mark was surreptitiously taken from Alexandria in Egypt and transported to Venice. The apostle became the patron saint of the republic, and the Cathedral of St. Mark was immediately designed and begun. A period of peaceful development followed for the republic, which skillfully used its advantageous position between the Vi/estern and Eastern empires to become the richest and most powerful commercial city of Europe, and to expand its mercantile relations so far as the Crimea and Tartary. Its fleets fought successfully against the Normans and Saracens of Southern Italy, as well as against the Slavonic pirates of the Adriatic Sea; Istria was conquered, and the towns of the Dalmatian seacoast subjected themselves voluntarily to the protection of Venice in 997. Though actually inde- pendent, the republic still maintained the appearance of a political union with the Byzantine empire for commercial reasons. During the crusades Venice spread its influence over the entire Levant in spite of the competition of Pisa and Genoa. Meanwhile internal dissensions between the aristocratic and democratic factions brought about an in- surrection ; the Doge Vitale Micheli was killed and the so- called Great Council, consisting of elected NoZn'Ze', was estab- lished in 1172 to limit the well-nigh absolute power of the doges and the signoria (of six councilors). Under this con- stitutional aristocracy legislation and administration devel- oped a more liberal spirit. In 1204 the Doge Enrico Dandolo, with the aid of French crusaders, conquered Constantinople and acquired the lion’s share of the Graeco-Latin empire and the island of Candia (Crete). The art--treasures of the East were carried to Venice, and a noble school of artists sprang up to cele- brate the royal grandeur of the doges. The republic, how- ever, was unable to prevent the overthrow of the Latin em- pire at Constantinople in 1261, and the Genoese, with whom Venice had been at war since 1256, then gained the favor of the Byzantine emperors. In the meanwhile the oligarchic constitution at home was becoming more firmly fixed, and at the end of the century Venice had really ceased to be a democracy. The Doge Marino Falieri, having conspired against the aristocracy, was executed in 1355. The changed relations to the Orient induced the republic to replace the losses sustained in the Levant by gains in Italy, especially after the final defeat of Genoa in 1381. Its possessions on the mainland became more -and more considerable. Vicenza, Verona, Bassano, Feltre, Belluno, and Padua with their ter- ritories, were gained in 1404 and 1405, Friuli in 1421, Breseia and Bergamo in 1428, Crema in 1448, the Ionian islands in 1483, and Cyprus was ceded to the republic by Catarina Cornaro, the widow of the last king, i11 1489. Thus the republic flourished at the end of the fifteenth VENICE WHITE century in material wealth and power, as well as in art and science ; its people were the most educated in Christendom ; its commerce and industry spread all over the then known world. Butafter da Gama’s discovery of the maritime route to Eastern India in 1498, Venice gradually lost its impor- tant Indian trade. The westward advance of the Turks, especially after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, ruined Venetian commerce in the enormous sphere of Turkish in- fiuence in Europe, Asia, and Africa; the republic lost its possessions in the Archipelago and Morea, also the Albanian territory and Negropont. The League of Cambrai, necessi- tating a wavering policy between Charles V. and Francis I., and incessant collisions at home and abroad, reduced the re- public for a time to the verge of destruction, and ruined its commerce and industry. In spite of the greatest heroism in the wars of the republic against the Turks, Cyprus was lost in 1571, and after a twenty-four years’ war in which Candia was most heroically defended, this island was sur- rendered in 1669, although several fortresses were held by the Venetians till 1715. Morea, which had been reconquered by Venice in 1687, was lost forever in 1718 by the treaty of Passarowitz. Here ended the international importance of the republic, which endeavored from this time on to preserve its old constitution and its home possessions in perfect neutrality, i. e. Venetia, Istria, Dalmatia, and the Ionian islands, with about 2,500,000 inhabitants ; but when the re- public in 1796 sought an alliance with Austria against Na- poleon, a fierce war began, which ended with the resi na- tion of the last doge, Ludovico Manin, the dissolution o the Great Council May 12, 1797, and the occupation of the city by the French. By the treaty of Campo Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, the Vene- tian territory on the left of the Athesis, with Istria and Dalmatia, was ceded to Austria, and there began the most unfortunate period in Venetian history, a succession of secret conspiracies and revolutions against Austrian domination. After the heroic revolution of 1848, which was suppressed by the famous Austrian general Radetzky, Venice once more fell into the hands of the exasperated Austrians, who held it in a state of siege till 1854. Even the combined forces of Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia in 1859 did not relieve Venice from the Austrian dominion. With the mainland up to the Mincio river it remained Austrian until the unnatural relation was dissolved in 1866, owing to Austria’s war with Prussia. Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria was successful against the Italians when they crossed the Mincio, yet, owing to the defeat of the Austrian arms on the battle-fields of Bohemia, ceded Venice to Napoleon III., who turn0d it over to Victor Emmanuel, King of United Italy. On Nov. 7 the king entered the city in sol- emn procession. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—D23.I‘l1, Hc'stoe're de la 1'épu.bZzI<_7ue dc Venise (9 vols., 4th ed. Paris, 1853) ; Romanino, S101-zIa clocu/menta,z‘a di Veneze'a (10 vols., Venice, 1853-61); Cicogna, I Dogi dz? Venezia (3d ed. 2 vols., Venice, 1867) ; Reuchlin, Geschichfe Izfaliens (4 vols., Leipzig, 1859-73); Romanino, Lezioni dc s1.‘om'a Veneta (2 vols., Florence, 1875); Zwiedineck-Si'1den- horst, Die Pol itile der Rel/imblils Venedig 1066/1 rend des Dreis- s?jgjc'M/rigen lfriegcs (2 vols., 1882-85); Ruskin, Stones of Venice (reprint, 1886); Horatio Brown, H zisfory of I"emIce (1887); Vacani, Della Lczgzma di Venezia (Florence, 1867): Gsell-Fells, Venedig (Munich. 1876) ; C. Yriarte. Venise (Paris, 1878); Adalb. Miiller, Venedzfg, seine Kunsfsclzcifze u. lrist. E'rmneru/ngeln (Venice, 1887); A. J . C. Hare, Venice (1884); Mrs. Oliphant, Makers of I/Ieoz/ice (1887) ; E. Molinier, I/'em'se: ses Arts décomtzifs, ses J11 usées, et ses Collections (Paris, 1891); )/V. D. Howells, Veaetmn Life (London and New York, 1866; new ed. 1885). HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Venice White: See BAR-YTA. Veni Creator Spiritus [Lat., Come Creator Spirit, the opening words of the hymn] : a hymn of the Roman Brevi- ary; probably composed by Pope Gregory I. (540-604), though it was once ascribed to Charlemagne. It is written in correct meter, according to the quantity of the syllables, and its Latinity is good. It is used in the ordinals of Angli- can and American churches. Dryden’s translation of it is one of the best. The shorter of the two forms of this hymn, found in the office for “ the Ordering of Priests " and “the Consecration of Bishops ” is more generally used; the longer form being rather a paraphrase than a translation. VVhen used it is sung or said line by line alternately by the bishop, and the clergy and congregation. It is not infrequently used in the American Church at the administration of con- VENN 47 3 firmation as indicating the quasi setting apart and ordina- tion of the laity to a spiritual kingship and priesthood. There are several other English translations. The two most commonly found in hymnals begin “ Come, O Creator Spirit, blest,” translated by Rev. Edward Caswall in 1849, and “ Come, Holy Ghost, all-quickening fire,” translated by Bishop John Cosin in 1627. This and the Creator Sancti Spiritus are of the “seven great hymns of the mediaeval Church.” See STABAT MATER. Revised by W. S. PERRY. Venire facias, ve-ni're”e-fa’shi-as, or (more commonly) simply Venire: an ancient common-law judicial writ di- rected to the sheriff, commanding him to select and cause to come (venire facias is Lat. for “cause to come”) from the body of the county before the court on a day named a specified number of qualified citizens to act as the jurors at such court. At the common law the selection of the jury is left entirely in the hands of the sheriff, who upon receiving the writ selects and summons the proper number from among the citizens of the county, and returns their names with the writ. This method has been abolished or modified by statute in Great Britain and in most, if not in all, of the States of the U. S., but it still prevails wherever not abro- gated by statute, and in case of emergency may still be used where it is so supplanted. The statutes generally pro- vide that from the lists of qualifiéd persons, prepared at stated intervals (usually once a year) and kept by certain ofiicials in each county, the panel-—that is. the requisite num- ber of jurors for a court——shall be drawn by lot. The list thus drawn is certified to the sheriff, who summons the persons named therein without a regular venire being issued to him. though the venire may still be necessary when, the original panel having been exhausted, additional jurors must be summoned in special cases. The common-law mode of ob- taining additional jurors, in case of failure to secure a suf- ficient number from those summoned. was by selecting from such bystanders as were competent enough persons to fill up the number of the jury, and this method is still general- ly used. unless expressly prohibited by statute. The term venire facias de novo, or ten ire de novo, is the old technical expression for a venire issued when a verdict has been set aside and a new trial ordered because it is so imperfect or ambiguous that no judgment can be given on it, or issued when there has been some fatal irregularity or impropriety in returning the jury under the first venire. The term rvenire facias is also applied to a writ issued as the first step in outlawry proceedings for a misdemeanor in England. See Stephen's C0'mmem‘ar'z'es on the Laws of England ; Forsyth’s .Hz's2‘01';z/ of Trzial by J ury; Bigelow’s H£st07'y of Procedure in England. F. STURGES ALLEN. Veni Sanete Spiritus [Lat., Come Holy Spirit, the open- ing words of the hymn]: a hymn of the Roman Missal; ascribed to King Robert H. of France (d. 1031 A. D.). It is in the medizeval Latin, is rhymed, and its meter is not ac- cording to quantity. It is a sequence in the Mass for VVhit- Sunday and its octave, and is one of the loveliest and most tender of the Latin hymns. Venloo. ven-16’, or Venlo: town; province of Limburg, Netherlands; on the Meuse; 60 miles N. W. of Cologne (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 8-H). It is narrow and irregularly built, is an important railway center. and con- tains an arsenal, powder-mills, magazines, and hospitals. Its manufactures include cigars, needles, and gin. Pop. (1890) 11.397. Venn, HENRY: clergyman and author; b. at Barnes. Sur- rey, England, Mar. 2, 17 24; educated at Bristol and at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated 1745; took orders in the Church of England; became fellow of Queen’s College 1749, curate of Clapham 1754, vicar of Huddersfield, Yorkshire, 17 59. and rector of Yelling. Huntingdonshire, 1771. He was a leader among the Evangelicals. D. at Clap- ham, June 2-1, 17 97. He was the author, among other works, of The Co'm_7)Ze1‘.e Duty of Jlfan, or a Sysz‘em of D0cl‘rz'*na.Z and P/ra,cz‘z'caZ Chrz'sz‘e'anziz‘y (1763), a Calvinistic work which obtained great popularity and was often republished (9th ed. 1807). His Life and Lez‘ters were published in 1834 by his grandson, Rev. Henry Venn. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Venn, Jenn, Sc.D., F. R. S.. F. S. A.: logician: b. at Kingston-on-Hull, Yorkshire, England, Aug. 4. 1834; edu- cated at schools in London, and in Caius College, Cam- bridge. He has been lecturer in Moral Science in Caius College since 1862; was Hulsean lecturer 1867-7 0, etc. His principal works are Logic of C720-nee (1866: 3d ed. 1887); A74 VENOM Characteristics of Belief (Hulsean Lectures, 1870) ; Empir- ical Logic (London, 1889); Symbolic Logic (1881; 2d ed. 1894). J. M. B. Venom [M. Eng. cenim, from O. Fr. venim, oenin > Fr. oenin < Lat. -vene’nnm, poison] : the poison elaborated as a normal secretion by certain glands of animals, as distin- guished from oiriis, the virulent liquid excrementitious or abnormal product of animals or man, usually a product of disease. Some insect stings are virulent, though as a rule they are mild and relieved by simple measures. A bee or wasp usually leaves its sting in the wound it inflicts; this should be extracted, and the wound protected from the air and bathed in cooling and stimulating evaporating lotions; weak ammonia is a useful application. The scorpion is dan- gerously venomous in the tropical regions of the Indies and Africa, but in the milder climates it inhabits it does little harm. The tarantula’s venom, contrary to the fabulous ac- counts, rarely causes death, and seldom occasions even alarm- ing symptoms. In nearly all countries there are venomous serpents, their number diminishing with an increase of popu- lation and a high cultivation of the soil. Islands are com- aratively free. Ireland is said to be quite free, and Eng- and has but one, the viper. The chief venomous serpents of the U. S. are the rattlesnake, moccasin, copper-head, har- lequin, and adder. The phoora of India and the cobra are exceedingly virulent. The venom of serpents is elaborated in special glandular apparatus adjacent to the mouth, stored in a sac or canal, and reserved for sudden voluntary ejection as a part of the reptile’s means of defense and offense. See Po1soN or SERPENTS. Revised by E. T. REIGHERT. Venosa, vd-no’sa"a (anc. Vennsinm): commune and city of the province of Basilicata, in Southern Italy; about 20 miles N. of Potenza (see map of Italy, ref. 7—G). It is cele- brated as the birthplace of the poet Horace and as the scene of the defeat and death of the Roman consul Metellus in a battle with the Carthaginian troops under Hannibal. Ve- nosa is mentioned by Diodorus and Dionysius as a town of great antiquity and importance, but we know nothing of the details of its early history, except that it belonged to the Samnites before its incorporation into the Roman state. It lies in a salubrious, fertile, and pictures ue region. Pop. about 8,000. Revised by M. . HARRINGTON. Venous Blood [oenons is from Lat. oeno'sns, veiny, full of veins, deriv. of oe’nci, vein. See VEINS]: the dark-col- ored fluid collected from every part of the system by the veins. It subsequently becomes mixed with the chyte, or nutritious portion of the food, and is ultimately exposed to the modifying influences of the air as it passes through the lungs, whereby it is converted into bright-red arterial blood. (See BLOOD.) Besides the difference between venous and arterial blood in color, several distinctions in physical and chemical properties are presented. The specific gravity of venous blood is greater than that of arterial blood; it does not coagulate so rapidly, and contains more corpuscles, but less fibrin. Its serum contains less water and extractive matter, but more fat, than that of arterial blood. Corpus- cles from venous blood contain 3'57 per cent. of fat; those from arterial blood contain but 184 per cent. The differ- ences in color presented by the blood-corpuscles appear to be dependent, to a certain extent, upon their shape and upon the amount of heematin present. The florid color of arterial blood is due to oxidation of the haemoglobin. Venous blood contains more carbonic acid, but less oxygen, than arterial. In 100 volumes there exist—nitrogen, 13; carbonic acid, 71'6; oxygen, 15'3; arterial blood contain- ing nitrogen, 14'5; carbonic acid, 623; oxygen, 23'2. Ve- nous blood does not evolve oxygen when placed in an atmos- phere of nitrogen, as is the case with arterial blood. Revised by W. PEPPER. Ventilation: See WARMING AND VENTILATION. Ventricles: See HEART. Vel1tril’oql1iS1n [deriv. of /ventriloqm , from Mediaev. Lat. oentriloqnns, one who (apparently) speaks from the belly; Lat. center, belly + togni, speak]: the art of so managing the voice as to cause the illusion that its origin is from some other source than the vocal organs of the speaker. It was undoubtedly known to the ancients. The etymology of the word indicates the idea formerly entertained in relation to the nature of the performance, but it is now well known that the sound does not come from the abdomen. Again, it was conceived that the ventriloquist spoke during inspira- tion instead of expiration, and that thus illusions in regard VENUE to locality and distance were produced. It is undoubtedly true that modulated voice may be formed by inspiring air through the vocal organs, (but it is equally certain that the sounds which result have little or no analogy with those of the ventriloquist, and are not calculated to cause the decep- tions which the accomplished performer so readily produces. In reality, the words uttered by the ventriloquist are formed in precisely the same manner as in ordinary articulation, the difference consisting mainly in the mode of respiration. A very full inspiration is taken, and then the air is expired slowly through a narrowed glottis. the diaphragm being kept in its depressed condition and the thoracic muscles alone being used to empty the lungs. At the same time the lips are scarcely moved, and the deception is still further facili- tated by the attention of the auditors being directed to the object which the performer wishes to be regarded as the source of the voice. Ventura, Cal. : See SAN BUENA VENTURA. Ventura de Raulica, -row’le”e-ka“a, G1oAceH1No: preach- er; b. in Palermo, Sicily, Dec. 8, 1792; was educated by the Jesuits, but entered the order of the Theatines; be- came general of the order in 1824, and settled in Rome, where he enjoyed the confidence of Popes Leo XII., Pius VIII., and Gregory XVI., and exercised considerable influ- ence even on the diplomatic business of the papal govern- ment. He was a disciple of Lamennais. “The pope and the people ” was his device; the establishment of free insti- tutions under the tutelage of the Roman Catholic Church was his ideal; but his work De Jlfethodo Phitosophandi (1828) in defense of the scholastic philosophy provoked an attack by Lamennais, who afterward openly rebelled against the Church. Ventura attempted to bring about a reconcilia- tion, but failed, and retired from the papal court in 1836. For about ten years he devoted himself to literary work and to preaching. His eloquence as an orator earned for him the title of the “Italian Bossuet.” With the accession of Pius IX. he returned to the court, and his influence, as well as his popularity, grew rapidly. In 1847 he delivered a funeral oration over O’Connell, which gave him great influ- ence with the people, and when, in 1848, the revolution against the Bourbons broke out in Sicily, he openly espoused the cause of his countrymen with great fervor, and wrote On the Independence of Sicih , On the Legitimacy of the Acts of the Sicilian Parlianient, and Mensongcs diplonza- tiqncs. But the revolution in Rome and the flight of Pius IX. to Gaeta destroyed his hopes. On May 4, 1849, he fled from Rome; settled in Montpellier, and removed in 1851 to Paris, where he preached in French to,,large audiences in the imperial chapel in the Tuileries and in the Madeleine, and published many voluminous works,,including Histoirc dc Virginie Brnni, Les Femmes dc Z’l/Jcangile, LciRaison pliilosopiiigne ct Zd Raison catholiqne, Sit?‘ Z’O1-igine des Idées, and La; Femme catholigne. D. at Versailles, Aug. 2, 1861. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Ventu'ri, LUIGI2 author; b. at Pavia, Italy, 1812; was educated in the scuole pic of Florence; took service at the ducal court, and, during the troubles of 1859, held an im- portant position under the Archduke Leopold II.; after- ward engaged in literary pursuits. I). in 1890. Some of his publications are L’uomo,i canti biblici (Pisa, 1866), in verse; Similitndini danteschc (Florence, 1874), a collation of parallel passages from Dante and other poets; Michael Angelo Biiondrotti, Ricardo at popolo italiano, biographical and other remarks upon the artist and poet, furnished for the Michelangelo celebration of 1875; Ales-sandlro ]lIa.n- zoni, gZ’inni sacri ed il cinqnc Jlfaggio (Florence, 1876), a commentary; GZ’inni dellci Chiesct (Florence, 1877), with translations and explanations. Nearly all his works have gone through several editions; an early collection is Versi e prose di Luigi Vcntnri (Florence, 1871). J . D. M. FORD. Venue [from 0. Fr. venue, a coming, deriv. of oenir (past partic. cenn) < Lat. ccni’re, come] : originally the neighbor- hood or place where the facts are alleged to have occurred, and from which, therefore, the jury was to come that should try the issue. In the later meaning of the term, and the one which it now has, it denotes the county or jurisdiction in which a cause is to be tried. In indictments the venue is given in a marginal notation; and in common-law practice the declaration designates the place in which the cause is to be tried, the term venue being applied also to the designa- tingpart of the indictment or declaration. In criminal actions the venue must be the county where the act was committed, except in the case’ of continuing VENUS offenses, those done partly in two or more counties, etc., in which cases the venue may be chosen from among the coun- ties in which any part of the offense was committed. By the common law a grand jury could not indict or present any offense which did not arise within the county or precincts for which they were returned, but the powers of the jury have been extended in some cases by statute. In civil cases the venue was, at common law, either local or transitory, according as the action itself was local or transitory. Local actions were those which necessarily re- ferred to some particular locality, as in the case of trespass upon land, and in these the venue had to be laid in the county in which the cause of action arose. Transitory ac- tions were those which might take place anywhere, such as trespass to goods, batteries, etc., and in these cases the venue could be laid in any county at the plaintitf’s option, and no venue could be changed except by order of a court or judge, or by the consent of the parties. These rules still prevail except where abolished by statute. In England it is pro- vided that, except in specified cases, there shall be no venue for any civil action, and that when the plaintiff proposes to have the action tried in any other county than Middlesex he shall name the proposed county or place in his statement of claim or complaint. In the U. S. most of the States have statutes regulating the subject, and in general providing that the venue, especially in the lower courts, must be laid in either the county where one of the parties resides, or where the cause of action arose. The venue may be changed in civil causes to prevent great inconvenience to witnesses. and in both civil and criminal causes to promote the ends of justice. The causes, occasions, and modes of change are regulated by statute. See Stephen’s Commenmmlcs on the Laws of England ; the treatises of Gould, Chitty, and Stephen on Pleading; and the statutes of the various States. F. Srunens ALLEN. Venus: in Roman mythology, the goddess of spring, gen- eration, sensual love, etc. She seems to have played no very prominent part in the oldest epoch of Roman civiliza- tion, but became afterward completely identified with Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, and appropriated to herself all the myths belonging to the Greek deity, without adding a single one of Roman origin—-her birth from the foam of the sea, her coming from Cyprus or Cythera, her marriage with Hephaestus (Vulcan), her amours with Ares (Mars), Hermes (Mercury), Adonis, Anchises, and others. Of special Roman interest was her ad venture with Anchises, to whom she bore £Eneas, the founder of Rome. Origi- nally, however, Aphrodite was not a Greek creation either, but was introduced to Greece from Asia, where she was wor- shiped under a variety of names. The myth of Adonis is also of Asiatic origin. Revised by J . R. S. STER-RETT. Venus [: Lat., named from the Roman goddess Ve'au-s] : the second planet in order of distance from the sun, and the next neighbor of the earth within its orbit. Venus travels at a mean distance from the sun of about 67,000,000 miles, and the eccentricity of the orbit being only 0‘006845, its greatest distance exceeds its least distance by only 917,000 miles. Venus when nearest to the earth, at a distance of about 25,000,000 miles, is invisible, being lost in the sun’s rays, and it is most favorably placed for observation when near its elongations, when it appears like a half moon, or slightly gibbous or slightly horned. It lies then much larther from the sun’s place in the heavens than Mercury when that planet is at its elongations, for the elongations of Venus range from about 45° to about 47% °. Venus com- pletes a sidereal revolution in 224'7008 days on a path in- clined 3° 234;’ to the ecliptic, but its synodical revolution is much greater, amounting to 583920 days, which is the mean interval between successive inferior conjunctions or between successive superior conjunctions. Half this period, or 291960 days, is the interval between successive conjunctions, which are of course alternately inferior and superior. Between in- ferior conjunction and the next superior conjunction Venus is a morning star, while between superior conjunction and the next inferior conjunction it is an evening star. Venus has a diameter estimated at about 7,650 miles. Its density is slightly less than the earth’s. The telescopic study of this beautiful planet has not been attended by results so interest- ing as might have been expected from its proximity. Some astronomers, indeed, claim to have seen spots and markings upon the surface of V enus; but the best observers, using the most powerful telescopes, have uniformly failed to see what inferior observers have imagined they have discerned VERA CRUZ 47 5 with relatively imperfect instruments. Sir John Herschel remarks that “the surface of Venus is not mottled over with permanent spots like the moon; we perceive in it neither mountains nor shadows, but a uniform brightness, in which we may indeed fancy obscurer portions, but can seldom or never rest fully satisfied of the fact.” Still, obser- vations have led to results tolerably accordant inter sc. Thus the elder Cassini deduced a period of 23 hours. Bian- chini indeed inferred from his observations the monstrous rotation-period of 24 days 8 hours, but the younger Cassini showed that all Bianchini’s observations could be reconciled with the elder Cassini’s by taking for the rotation-period 23 hours 21 or 22 minutes; and as Bianchini’s observations were not continued during several consecutive hours at each sit- ting, owing to the want of sky-room at his place of observa- tion, this interpretation must be accepted as the more prob- able. Later, the industrious Schrtiter attacked the problem, and reduced the supposed rotation-period to 2311. 21m. 198., while de Vico, by combining his own observations with those of Bianchini and Cassini, deduced the rotation-period 23h. 21m. 15s. Later, Schiaparelli, of Milan, published a series of papers in which he claims that Venus always presents the same face to the sun, just as the moon does to the earth. This conclusion is not yet established by other observers, and the above-quoted view of Sir John Herschel still ex- presses the best opinion on the subject. Venus, like Mercury, transits the face of the sun, but at longer intervals. Its transits are more important than those of Mercury, because, being nearer to us when in transit, its position on the sun is different for observers differently placed on the earth. Transits of Venus occur only when the planet is in inferior conjunction near one of its nodes. These lie in longitudes 75" 19’ and 255° 19’, and the earth passes these longitudes respectively on or about Dec. 7 and June 6, so that transits can occur only near these dates. If a conjunction has occurred near the place for December transits, another will occur there 243 years later under very nearly the same conditions; but usually a pair of transits will occur near this date, separated by eight years, so that, for instance, we have a December transit in 1631 and an- other in 1639, followed by a transit like the first of the pair in 1874 (1631 + 243), and a transit like the second of the pair in 1882 (1639 + 243). The following are the dates of these transits during seven centuries: 1631, Dec. 7. l 1639, Dec. 4. , 1761, June 5. 3 1769, June 3. ' 1874, Dec. 9. 2247. June 11. 1882. Dec. 6. 2255, June 9. See SOLAR PARALLAX and Tnxixsirs or VENUS xxn MER- euxv. Revised by SIMON Nnwcone. Venus’s Flower-basket: the Ewzplcctclla speciosal, a siliceous sponge found near the Philippine islands, consist- ing of a delicate lace-like skeleton or framework, which, when the enveloping animal tissue is removed, forms a cornucopia 12 or 15 in. high and 2 in. wide. J. S. K. "enus’s Fly-trap : See DIONEA. "enus’s Girdle: See CTENOP1-IORA and GIRDLE or V Exus. Vera: town; in the province of Almeria, Spain; on the Almanzora, near its entrance into the l\1editerranean (see map of Spain, ref. 19—G). It has a small harbor, through which it carries on some export and import trade. Its manufactures of niter are important and its fisheries con- siderable, and there are many mines iii the vicinity. Pop. (1887) 8,610. Vera Cruz. Span. pron. va'raVa-krootl1’ : an eastern mari- time state of Mexico, surrounded by the Gulf of Mexico, Tabasco, Chi apas, Oajaea, Puebla, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, and Tamaulipas. Area, 27 .454 sq. miles. It forms a long strip, extending southeastwardly along the Gulf. with an average width of about 50 miles. Near the coast the sur- face is generally low, fiat, or rolling, with occasional hills and extensive swamps and lagoons. Northwardly this coast strip includes nearly the whole width of the state. but else- where it is narrowed. rising to high mountains on the west- ern and southwestern frontier. Orizaba, on the Puebla bound- ary, is the highest peak in Mexico and possibly in North America. Spurs and isolated peaks break the lowlands 1n the southeastern part, and one mass, the volcano of Tuxtla, near a headland on the coast, rises to a height of almost 5,000 feet. The extreme southeastern end of the state 2004, June 8. 2012, June 6. 2117, Dec. 11. 2125. Dec. 8. 476 VERA cRUz includes the eastern part of the Isthmus of TEHUANTEPEC (g. cm). Numerous short rivers flow down from the moun- tains, the most important being the navigable Panuco on the northern frontier; the lagoon of Tamiahua is also naviga- ble and forms a means of interior communication. The climate of the coast belt is warm and in the summer months often insalubrious, yellow and swamp fevers prevailing. The higher lands are temperate and healthful. I-leavy for- ests cover the mountain-sides, extending in some places to the coast. Much of the land is very fertile. Vera Cruz is an agricultural state, and is especially noted for the excel- lence of its tobacco and coffee. These, with sugar, cotton, and vanilla and cabinet-woods from the forest districts, are largely exported. There are considerable manufactures, es- pecially of coarse cotton cloths and cigars. The mines at present are unimportant. Pop. (1893) estimated, 641,824. The oflicial capital is Jalapa, but the legislature often meets at Orizaba. HERBERT H. SMITH. Vera Cruz: the most important port of the state of Vera Cruz and of Mexico: on an indentation of the Gulf coast; about 180 miles (26311: miles by railway) E. of Mexico city (see map of Mexico, ref. 7—I). Here a small and badly sheltered harbor is formed by a narrow channel between the beach and a line of low reefs. It is open to the N., and during the “northers” or winter storms, common on this coast, vessels have frequently been wrecked before the city. At such times it is impossible to land freight or pas- sengers, and steamers commonly put out to sea until the storm has passed. Vessels drawing 26 feet can pass behind the reef, but large ones often anchor in the open roadstead. A breakwater now (1895) in course of construction will make the harbor safer, but it can never be a commodious one. The city is built on flat and barren land, and it has no notable buildings. The chief attraction is a shaded square near the water front. The climate is unpleasantly warm, and Vera Cruz is one of the most unhealthful places in Mexico. Epidemics of yellow fever occur regularly every summer, and there are occasional cases even in the winter. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, Vera Cruz has always been the chief commercial gate of Mexico, a great part of its import and ex ort trade centering here. The railway to Mexico, complete in 1873, gave it a great impetus. An in- teroceanic line to Acapulco, passing through J alapa and Pu- ebla, is (1895) nearly finished, and others are rejected. The city has important manufactures of cigars. era Cruz is the oldest Spanish settlement in Mexico, having been the land- ing-place of Cortés when he began the conquest. The first town, called Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, was moved soon after to the harbor of Bernal, and in 1525 to another point now called Old Vera Cruz. The present town dates from 1599. It was sacked by corsairs in 1653 and 1712; was taken by the French in 1838; bombarded and taken by the U. S. fleet and forces Mar., 1847, and became Gen. Scott’s base of sup- plies during his march to Mexico; and was again taken by the French in Dec., 1861. It has repeatedly figured in the war for independence and the civil struggles. During the “reform war,” 1859-60, it was the headquarters of Juarez. On one of the reefs fronting the city is the celebrated fort or castle of San Juan de Uhia, built in the seventeenth cen- tury as a protection against pirates. It was the last post held by the Spaniards in continental North America, sur- rendering Nov. 18, 1825. It has long been a place of con- finement for political prisoners. Pop. of Vera Cruz (1895) about 30,000. HERBER'1‘ H. SMITH. Veragua, vd-raa’gwa"a: originally a part of the Carib- bean coast of Central America, including Southeastern Costa Rica and part of the Isthmus of Panama; so called by its discoverer, Columbus, probably from an Indian vil- lage. Later the dukedom of Veragua was created for the heirs of Columbus (see COLUMEUS, Luis), and they still hold the title. At first they had a grant of land in this region, and some attempts were made to found settlements. The grant was eventually given up. During the colonial period Veragua or Veraguas corresponded to the western part of the isthmus, and was attached to New Granada. H. H. S. Verandrye, PIERRE GAUTIER DE VARENNES, de la: ex- plorer; b. at Three Rivers, Lower Canada, Nov. 17, 1685; entered the French army and served in the war against Great Britain. He subsequently returned to Canada; in 1731, with an escort of fifty men, crossed Lac de la Pluie, W. of Lake Superior, and built Fort St. Peter; in 1782 built Fort St. Charles on the west shore of the Lake of the Woods ; in 1733 passed down the Winnipeg river to Winni- VERAZZANO peg Lake, and built Fort de la Reine upon the site of Port- age la Prairie. Subsequently he and his sons continued their explorations W. until they reached the Rocky Moun- tains. In 1736 one of his sons, a Jesuit priest, and twenty others were massacred by Sioux on an island in the Lake of the Woods. I-Ie ascended the Saskatchewan river to the Forks in 1749 and erected Fort Dauphin there. D. in Que- bec, Dec.6,1749. The King of France conferred on him the Cross of St. Louis. NEIL MACDONALD. Vera Paz: See Conxn. Vera’ trine: a mixture of alkaloids used in medicine. It is obtained from cevadilla-seeds (fruit of Asagrcea ofiicz'nale's and Vemt/1"u-m sabadqilla). Pure veratrine occurs in com- merce as a white powder, but can also be obtained in rhom- bic crystals. It has no smell, but has a bitter, acrid taste, and is very irritating to both tongue and nostrils. It is scarcely soluble in water, but dissolves in alcohol and ether. Upon the animal system veratrine acts as an intense local irritant, and if taken internally produces also the same pe- culiar constitutional efiects as Veratrum m'm'cZe. Veratrine is too irritating to warrant its use as an internal medicine, but is considerably employed externally as a local applica- tion for the relief of neuralgias. For such use it is made into an ointment with a convenient vehicle. See ASAGRZEA and VERATRUM. Revised by H. A. HARE. Vera’ trum [Mod. Lat., from Lat. vcra’trum, hellebore] : a genus of plants of the family Lihacew. Veratrwn m'm'de, or American hellebore, called also Indian poke, poke-root, swamp-hellebore, is indigenous in the U. S., growing in damp soil from Canada to the Carolinas. It is an herbaceous per- ennial, with a thick fieshy root-stock, from which rises a round, solid stem, from 3 to 6 feet high, bearing bright, green leaves, larger below than above, and surmounted by a panicle of greenish-yellow flowers. The root-stock is used in medicine, its activity residing in two alkaloids, jcrv/me and e'erat9*0z'de'nc. It is a powerful drug, lowering the force and frequency of the heart-beats and respirations, and hav- ing a strong tendency to produce severe nausea and vomit- ing, with great muscular weakness and relaxation. In over- dose it produces alarming prostration and feebleness of the heart, but from the prompt vomiting which large doses oc- casion, cases of fatal poisoning are exceedingly rare. There is no antidote to the poison, and after evacuation of the dose from the stomach, perfect rest on the back and the use of restorative means, such as alcoholics, ammonia, artificial respiration, etc., constitute the treatment. As a medicine, Veratrum m're'dc is used to reduce the force and frequency of the pulse where the same is much above the normal stand- ard, but like all remedies of its class its use requires caution. Vemtram album, white hellebore, is a native of Europe and Asia. and is closely allied to the foregoing in botanical char- acters. The root-stock contains the alkaloid jervine, like Veratram m'm'de, and has been commonly supposed to yield also the alkaloid eeratre'nc, found in cevadilla-seeds, but re- cent analyses make this doubtful. White hellebore affects the animal system much in the same manner as Veraltram /m'7'z'cZc, but is more violent and locally irritating, producing in overdose, in addition to the symptoms already described, severe pain in the abdomen, and even gastro-intestinal in- fiammation. On account of these properties, white-hellebore root is now almost wholly obsolete as a medicine with Amer- ican physicians. Veraimzlm sabadzllal is a native of Mexico, and is said to be a source of cebadilla-seeds. Revised by H. A. HARE. Verazzano, or VeI'1'aZa110,var-rzfitt-saa’n5, GIOVANNI, da: navigator; b. near Florence about 1480, of a noble family settled in Val di Greve. It is said that he traveled in Egypt and Syria, engaged in trafiic in spices, silks, and other Ori- ental productions, and entered the French maritime service about 1505 ; made a voyage to the East Indies in 1517 in a Portuguese vessel; became an expert navigator; was em- ployed as a corsair or privateer by the French Government in 1521 and the following years; took many prizes of Spanish vessels returning from the West Indies, and captured in 1523 the treasure-ship in which Cortés had sent from Mexico to Charles V. a large portion of the personal spoils of Men- tezuma. valued at $1,500,000. He sailed from the Madeira islands J an. 17, 1524, on a voyage of exploration to North America; discovered land at a point near Cape Fear; coasted thence northward, discovering a bay, either that of New York or Narragansett Bay; proceeded thence 150 leagues N. E. to lat. 50° N .; returned thence to France, and addressed a letter to King Francis I. from Dieppe July 8 VERB (o. s.), 1524, claiming to have discovered 700 leagues of coast, of which he gave a confused description. Of his later history it is only known that he communicated to persons in England a map of his alleged discoveries, and signed In 1526, with Admiral Philippe Chabot, Jean Ango, merchant of Dieppe, and other partners, an agreement to undertake a voyage to the Indies for spices, with which was cornbmed the purpose of capturing Spanish merchantmen. _Th1s voy- age seems, however, to have been interrupted by his capture on the southern coast of Spain, and he was executed as a pirate at the village of Pico, near Colmenar de Arenas, New Castile, in Nov., 1527. His exploits as a corsair, his capture and execution are narrated by Pietro Martire d’Anghiera, Bernal Diaz, and other Spanish chroniclers, who call him Juan Florin or Florentin, and it was not till the eighteenth century that this corsair was identified with the navigator by Barcia. No evidence concerning his discoveries has . been found in the French archives, and they rest entirely upon the letter mentioned above, which was published at Venice, in an Italian version, by Ramusio, in 1556, no French original being known. In 1835 George W. Greene discovered in the Strozzi Library, at Florence, a MS. copy of this letter, varying somewhat in text from the Ramusio version, and containing some additional paragraphs. This was published, with a translation, in the Collections of the New York Historical Society in 1841. In 1864 the genuine- ness of this letter was attacked in a paper read before that society, and subsequently in other monographs. The letter, however, found an able defender in J. Carson Brevoort, who published an elaborate memoir entitled Verrazuno the Nov- igator (1874), giving an account of a planisphere of _the sup- posed date of 1529, found at Rome, signed by Hieronimo Verrazano, and containing a map of the coast discovered by Giovanni. Henry C. Murphy, in his Voyage of Vermzzomo (1875), has impugned the authority of this map, which he considers based upon the discoveries of Estevan Gomez in 1525. A document discovered at Rouen in 1876 proves that the navigator had a brother Hieronimo (J erasme de Vara- senne), to whom he executed a power of attorney May 11, 1526. The account of the voyage published by Ramusio, whether true or fictitious, may probably be traced to the efforts of this Hieronimo to popularize in Italy his brother‘s fame as a discoverer; and to him may be ascribed the state- ment given by Ramusio, that Verazzano was killed by sav- ages during another voyage to America. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Verb [via Fr. from Lat. oerbum, word, verb, used to translate the Greek technical term for verb, ;5i§,u.a] : that part of speech which commonly serves to denote the nucleus of what is stated about the subject. Distinction between lVoun and Verb.—The verb names a phenomenon temporarily exhibited in the subject. The noun is the substratum or substantial framework on which the phenomenon expressed by the verb is exhibited. Thus in the tree grows, the phenomenon of growth is displayed in the case of the tree. Other nouns set about the verb help to make more precise the exhibition of the phenomenon or temporary attribute. Thus in John strikes the clog with a stielc, the phenomenon of striking, which for the time makes John a striloing John, is more definitely set forth by the naming of other objects concerned in enacting it. Both nouns and verbs are names, and both may be names of ac- tions, but nouns are names of things III and through which the state expressed in the verb is set forth or exhibited. Impersonal Verbs.—The impersonal verb offers an ap- parent exception; it rains, pluit, 56:, etc. These are cases where the verb contains in itself a suflicient suggestion of the thing in which the action is exhibited, so that the name thereof is suppressed. It is not “ understood." It is latent in the verb. The verb, e. g. pluit, embodies the undifferen- tiated noun and verb. fllrn.-nsitive and Intra,nsiti'z'e Verbs.—-A transitive verb is one which commonly requires the addition of an object- noun as complement in order to fully set forth the action it expresses; thus in he falls a tree, fells is transitive; in the tree falls, falls is intransitive. A verb commonly transi- tive may often be used in a sense which makes the verb complete .in itself ; thus in she wrzites (L letter, writes is transitive, but in she writes for a living the object is im- plicit in the verb just as much as the subject is implicit in an impersonal verb. An object which is naturally eft im- plicit in a verb may for purposes of emphasis or special effect be formally expressed, III which case it is called a cognate 477 accusative ; thus in to dream a clrea//n, to swear an oath, to fight a battle. Connective Verbs.—Some verbs merely serve formally to introduce the real predication, and are only in that sense the nucleus of what is stated about the subject. Such a verb is the copula am, is, which is little more than a con- nective; cf. John is lame, he is eating, he is mayor, he be- comes may/or, he turns traitor, he grows tall, he grows olrl. In each of these cases the two last words together express a verbal idea. The expression father grows olcl is, e. g., in Latin, pater seneseit. The copula or other “ link-verb ” serves merely the purpose‘ of throwing the substance of the verb into relief by isolation; of. Gr. e’o"rl1/ éxwu : Zxei. Compound Verbs.-—It is often necessary to add to a verb a defining word in order to express the exact sense in which it admits a complimenting object. These are called com- pound verbs; cf. Lat. eonsiliis obstare, Caesar omnem agrum Pieenurn pereurrit. In the latter example agrum is ad- justed to its oflice as complement of currere only by aid of per-; pereurrit is rendered in English by the transitive verb trewerserl. In he laughecl at it, what are you laughing at .9 the verb laugh-at is a compound verb in the same sense as pereurrit, and may be inflected in the passive voice, it was laughed at. In he laughed at it the thing which is predi- cated of he is at-laughing. Adverbial elements thus used are called, in deference to their appearance as prefixes in, e. g., the classical languages, preverbs. Through continual use with difierent verbs a preverb tends to detach itself from the verb and develop a closer connection with the nouns it introduces. It is then called a preposition. It is not always easy to draw the line absolutely between pre- verbs and prepositions. I/’oiee.—Most languages possess devices for expressing with some added precision the relation which the action set forth through the subject bears to that subject. This differentiation in the aspect of the verb is called roice (Gr. 6wi9ems, Lat. genus). The assertion of a nza.n-washing—i. e. of the act of washing displayed in the case of a man—may mean (1) that the man does the washing, either without further information concerning the object, leaving that to inference or passing it as not involved in the matter to be stated, as in the man washes—i. e. is at washer—or with statement of the object, as in the man washes the door; this is called the active voice. (2) That the man is himself the object or beneficiary of the washing—i. e. that the act com- pletes itself upon the subject or within the sphere of the subject, as in the man washes in the sense of takes a bath. Thus Gr. Aoziw robs 1|-o'8as (active). I wash the feet (of some one else). but 7\o6o,uau robs m58as (middle), I wash my feet, Am5o,uaz, I take a bath; this is called the middle voice. (3) That the man is the object upon which the action of washing com- pletes or satisfies itself. as in the man is washed, the sub- ject being left unstated. If it is necessary to state it, a phrase is added, as the man is washed by somebody. This is called the passive voice, and is a linguistic device for avoiding the necessity of stating the subject or for throw- ing the object of the action into prominence by making it the subject of the sentence. JL[ooal.—The mood of a verb concerns the attitude or tone of the assertion. The predicate may be asserted of the sub- ject in various attitudes or moods; thus it may be asserted as a reality or as a conception of the mind—that is, as an idea. As a conception of the mind, it may be surmised, believed (as an opinion), willed. promised, wished, demand- ed. The indicative is the mood which presents the asser- tion in the guise of reality; it introduces the assertion as a reality. The term subjunctive is variously applied. In the strictest sense and as used in comparative syntax the sub- junctive is the mood of the willed idea—-i. c. it involves as- surance, promise, and a consciousness of personal control, which is not present in the mere desire of the optative mood. The term subjunctive is used in a much wider sense in Latin grammar. Here it designates a class of grammatical forms in which the subjunctive and optative uses have nearly blended. It is therefore in Latin the mood of the non-real. It introduces the assertion as a conception of the mind. The optative mood represents the predicate as a desire. The imperative asserts a demand. It demands that the predicate be true of the subject. Tense.—'1‘he tense of a verb concerns the relation of the verbal action to the matter of time. Tense may express (1) the date of action—i. e. its location in time ; hence tenses are either past, present. or future. (2) The duration of the ac- tion; thus tenses may indicate an action as having continu- 478 vEREEeK ance either in past, present, or future, as being completed in past, present, or future, or as simply occurring in past, present, or future without reference either to contmuance or completion. The inflectional languages have generally an insutlicient supply of forms to serve for all these cate- gories: hence two or more are frequently quartered upon a single form. Thus the Latm perfect may express either completion in the present or occurrence in the past. BENJ. IDE WIIEELER. Verbeek, Gumo FRIDOLIN, D. D.: missionary, and one of the organizers of the national system of education now in use in Japan; b. at Zeist, Holland, Feb. 1,1830; educated in the Moravian Academy at Zeist, and the Theological Seminary in Auburn, N. Y. (1859); followed mechanical engineering in Wisconsin and Arkansas 1852-56; mission- ary in Japan of the Reformed Church in America from 1859. In 1863 he entered upon educational work for the Japanese Government, and from 1869 to 1873 was superin- tendent of teachers and instruction in the foreign depart- ment of the Imperial University at Tokio. Thereafter, and almost until he resumed his missionary work in 1879, he was engaged in translation work and organizing work for the Government. In 1891 he became a teacher of theology in the llleejri Galcwln, but still carried on his other missionary labors and his work as one of the translators of the Old Testament and as a member of the New Testament revision commit- tee. Between 1873 and 1878 he made, in connection with Japanese scholars, many translations for the Government. Among these The Code Napoleon; Bluntschli’s Staatsreoht; Two T/wusancl Legal Maxims. with comments; with forest laws, and constitutions of various European countries. In the line of original work, in addition to many memorials and pamphlets, he published a H1§st01'_2/ of .Proteszfanzf Mis- sions in Japan (1883). In 1877 he received the third-class decoration of the Rising Sun. WILLIS J . BEECHER. Verbeek, REINIER DIRK M.: mining engineer; b. at Maarsen, Holland, Sept. 5, 1841 ; educated at the University of Liege, Belgium, and at the mining academies of Claus- thal, Hanover, and Freiberg, Saxony; took his degree at Freiherg 1864; has lived for many years in the Dutch East Indies; became superintendent of the Geological Survey of Sumatra 1875; has published papers on the mining laws of the Netherlands, on the mineral resources of the East Ind- ian Archipelago, on the eruption of Krakatoa, and on vari- ous geological subjects. Verbe’na Family [verbena is Mod. Lat. (with meaning from Eng. ueruarln and Fr. 'uerve/lne), from Lat. eerbe'na, foliage, herbage, sacred boughs, (also) a class of plants used in medicine as cooling remedies]: the Verbenacece, or Ver- vain family; a group of 740 species of gamopetalous, di- cotyledonous herbs, shrubs, and trees mainly of the tropics and south temperate zone. The corolla is more or less two- lipped or irregular ; the stamens four or two; the ovary su- perior, four-carpellary, not lobed, and few-ovuled; style terminal. The plants of this family are nearly related to the mints (Lablatece), with which they agree in their oppo- site leaves and in most of their floral characters, but they usually lack an aromatic foliage. About forty species are natives of North America, nearly one-half of which belong to Verbena. South American species of verbena are well- known ornamental plants. as are also the lemon verbena (Lippla cl/roz'clora) from Chili, Lantana, Cleroclendron, and others. The teak-tree of India is the Teotona grandzls. Species of Vltezv in New Zealand are large and valuable timber trees. Some of the wild species of verbena are somewhat used as domestic medicines under the name of Ve2'va'ln. CHARLES E. BESSEY. Verboeckhoven, ver-book’h5-ven, EUGENE JosEPn: ani- mal-painter; b. at Warneton, \Vest Flanders, June 9, 1799; pupil of his father, Barthelemi Verboeckhoven; member of Brussels, St. Petersburg, Antwerp, Amsterdam. and Ghent Academies, the Legion of Honor, and Order of the Iron Cross, and commander in the Orders of Leopold of Belgium and Francis Joseph of Austria. D. in Brussels, Jan. 19, 1881. His pictures of sheep are widely known, and he enjoyed a great reputation in his lifetime. Pictures by him are in the Na- tional Gallery, Berlin, the Stiidel Gallery, Frankfort, and in the museums at Brussels, Leipzig, Ghent, Kiinigsberg, Am- sterdam, New York, and Hamburg. W. A. C. Vercelli, var-chel’le“e (anc. Veroellce): capital of a dis- trict in the Piedmontese province of Novara, Italy: near the right bank of the Sesia; in a marshy, unhealthful plain (see VERDICT, map of Italy, ref. 3-B). Its manufacturing industries, espe- cially silk-spinning, and its commerce are thriving; the district produces rice, heinp, flax, silk. The town is the center of an extensive railway system, and has a large mar- ket-place with a statue of C-avour (erected 1864). fourteen churches, several of which, as well as the Galleria dell’ In- stituto di Belle Arti, contain fine frescoes by Gaudcntio Fer- rari, one of the foremost painters of the Vercelli school (fifteenth and sixteenth centuries). The magnificent ca- thedral, dating from the sixteenth century, contains an ex- cellent library with ancient and valuable MSS., including the Codex Vereellens/ls, one of the most important MSS. of the old Latin version of the Gospels, written by Eusebius, Bishop of Vercelli in the fourth century A. D., and the Vercelli B0070, an invaluable collection of the remains of Anglo-Saxon literature. There are in Vercelli a lyceum, a gymnasium, a technical school, a theological seminary, two hospitals, an orphan asylum, and a theater. Pop. 29,244 (commune). The town was the capital of the Libici in Gallia Transpadana; later a fortified m'um'ee'1zn'um of the Romans. A little S. E. from it, on the Raudian fields (Carnpl Raudli), Hannibal won his first victory on Italian soil in 218 B. 0., and Marius routed the terrible Cimbri in 101 B. e. The city became a possession of the house of Savoy in 1429. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Verd Antique, or Verde Antico [verd antique is from Fr. cert antique, liter., antique green; uert, green + antique, ancient] : a fine green stone mottled with white and brown; greatly esteemed for decorative work. It is a kind of ser- pentine. Five specimens of it have been found among the ruins of Roman buildings, or have been taken from their walls to be used in modern structures. Green marbles and other stones of good green color and taking a polish have been called by this name. A stone quarried at Roxbury, Vt., and a marble at Milford, Pa., are both sold as verd antique. / R. S. Verde, Cape: See CAPE VERDE. Verden, fa'r’den . ancient fortified place, now a town; province of Hanover, Prussia; on the Aller, near its influx in the Weser (see map of German Empire, ref. 3-E). It has a fine cathedral, large breweries, tobacco manufactures, and valuable fisheries. Pop. (1890) 8,719. Verdi, GIUSEPPE: composer;,b. at Roncole, in the duchy of Parma, Italy, Oct. 9, 1813; received his first lessons in music from the organist of the village church ; attracted the attention of an amateur musician, who sent him to Milan, where, from 1833 to 1836, he studied under Lavigna, head of the Scala theater. Verdi’s first opera was Oberto, conic all San Bonlfaeio, produced in Milan Nov. 17, 1839. Since then he has composed about twenty-six operas, the best known of which are ]l Trorafore, La Traez'at‘a, Rrigoletto, Ballo in I/lfasehera, Adela, Ofello, and Falstaff (1893). One large work for the Church should also be mentioned—namely, a Grand Requiem Jlfass. A large number of his works have been received with enthusiasm in all civilized lands. An additional proof of his talent is the fact that the quality of his work has not fallen off during the long period of his professional activity, but has kept pace with the great changes which have affected the dramatic stage since his youth. DUDLEY BUCK. Verdict [(with e restored from Lat.) from O. Fr. rerdzl < Late Lat. verd/lc'tum, oerede'e’furn; were, truly + clrlcium, said, neut. perf. partic. of dzI'cere, clz'e'tum, say] : in law, the decision rendered by a jury according to law, as to the mat- ters in issue submitted to them, in respect of which they have been sworn to find and declare the truth. The jury, after the proofs are summed up, may render their verdict, and if they desire may withdraw from the court to consider it. The jury while considering the verdict are laid under severe restrictions as to secrecy, communica- tion with third parties, ete., and a certain amount of pres- sure may be brought to bear upon them by keeping them confined in order to make them agree upon a verdict. These restrictions are now less severe than they were formerly. the law having been that they should be kept confined by them- selves, and should not eat or drink except by the consent of the court till they had rendered a verdict, and that if they had not agreed upon a verdict at the time when the judge was about to leave for another place on his circuit he could carry them about with him in a cart. At present it is the custom to keep the jury together a reasonable length of time, and then, upon their failure to agree, either to VERDIGRIS discharge them with or without the consent of the parties, or to allow a juror to be withdrawn by the consent of the par- ties, so that no verdict can be rendered. When the jury have agreed upon a verdict they must, in general, deliver it in open court in the presence of the plain- tiff or his representative. In common-law procedure, if the plaintiff is not present in person or by attorney no verdict is rendered, but he is non-suited ; but this matter is now fre- quently regulated by statute. If the plaintiff appears, the jury by their foreman deliver their verdict, declaring that they find “ for the plaintiff ” or “for the defendant,” as the case may be. and if for the plaintiff in certain actions at the same time assessing the amount of damages sustained by him by reason of the injury alleged in his complaint. In a criminal case the verdict is generally either “guilty” or “ not guilty.” A verdict is general when by it the jury render a complete decision on the facts presented in connection with the law applicable to them, as laid down by the court in the charge. In some cases. as when the application of the law to the facts is so dilficult that it is advisable to leave this to the court, the jury may be instructed to bring in a special ver- dict, which is one in which the jury simply find the facts, setting them forth in a detailed manner and form, but do not apply the law to them so as to render a final decision in favor of either party. In Scotland a form of special ver- dict in criminal cases is that of “ not proven,” which does not acquit the prisoner, but does protect him from a second trial for the same offense. A verdict to be valid must be unanimous, and as a gen- eral rule must be received by at least one of the judges be- fore whom the action Was tried, and be returned before the end of the trial term at which the action was tried. The weight of modern authority is that the verdict may be re- turned and received by the court on Sunday. If the jury agree upon their verdict after the adjourn- ment of the court for the day, they are permitted to reduce it to writing, sign, and seal it up, and then separate; or they may be directed by the court to render a sealed verdict. In such case they must be present at the reassembling of the court, when their sealed verdict will be opened and an- nounced. After a verdict of guilty in criminal prosecu- tions, the jury may be " polled” by the prisoner—-that is, each juryman may be asked by name if the verdict thus an- nounced is his verdict; and this privilege is given by statute in civil actions in many instances to the losing party. See Stephen‘s Commentaries on the Law of England ; the treatises of Stephen, Gould, and Archbold on Pleading and Practice; Macdonald’s Treatise on th.e Criminal Law of Scotland. F. STURGES ALLEN. Ver'digris: See ACETATE. Verden, Sir GEORGE FREDERIG, K. C. M. G., C. B., F. R. S.: b. in Lancashire, England, J an. 21, 1834; educated at Rossall College, Lancashire; went to Melbourne, Australia, 1851; engaged in business; was called to the bar of Melbourne 1853; became chairman of the municipal council of \Vill- iamstown; led a volunteer company in the suppression of the outbreak of convicts 1857; elected member for Williams- town 1859; minister of the crown 1860-68; went to Great Britain in 1866 as a representative of the Government and Legislature of Victoria to urge upon the home Government the defense of the colony; soon after was appointed perma- nent agent-general of Victoria in Great Britain, but resigned in 1872; represented the British Royal Commission of the International Centennial Commission held at Melbourne 1888-89: aided in establishing and equipping the observa- tory at Helbourne. Verdun. var'dtu'i’ (anc. Verodunnm): town: department of Meuse, France; on the Meuse; 35 miles by rail W. of Metz (see map of France, ref. 3—H). It is one of the nu- merous minor fortresses of the old s_vstem, the see of a bishop, the seat of a court of first resort, and of an eccle- siastical seminary. There are manufactures of iron, leather. beer, liquors, and sweetmeats. Pop. (1891) 18,195. In 843 an important treaty was made here between the Emperor Lothaire and his brother Ludwig the German. (See TREA- TIES.) During the Franco-Germa.n war Verdun resisted a coup-de-main (Aug. 24, 1870) and an investment and bom- bardment, surrendering Nov. 8, 1870. Subsequently it was the last place held by the Germans and was given up in Sept., 1873. Vere, Sir AUBREY HUNT, de: b. at Curragh Chase, County Limerick, Ireland, Aug. 20, 1788; son and heir of Sir Vere VERE 479 Hunt, first baronet, to whose title he succeeded 1818, and subsequently took the name De Vere. He was an enthusi- astic disciple of Coleridge. He was the author of two dra- matic poems, Julian the Apostate (1822) and The Duke of fllercia (1823), and A Song of Faith, Deuout Exercises, and Sonnets (1842). D. July 5, 1846. His works have frequently been ascribed to his son, AUBREY THOMAS DE VERE (g. 11.), and rice oersa. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Vere, AUBREY THOMAS, de: author; son of Sir Aubrey Hunt de Vere; b. at Curragh Chase, Ireland, Jan. 10, 1814; educated in Trinity College, Dublin. He became a Roman Catholic in 1851 and much of his poetry is religious in char- acter. He was an intimate friend and connection by mar- riage of Sir Henry Taylor; has published The IValdenses (1842); The Search after Proserpine, and other Poems (1843) ; English Misrule and Irish IL/isdeeds (1848); Picturesque Sketches of Greece and Turkey (2 vols., 1850) ; Poems, Illis- oellaneous and Sacred (1856) ; Ilfay Carols (1857) ; The Sis- ters, etc. (1861) ; The Infant Bridal, etc. (1864) ; The Church Settlement of Ireland, or Ililaernia Pacanda (1866); Irish Church Property, and the Right Use of it (1867) ; Pleas for Secularization (1867); Irish Odes. and other Poems (1869); The Legends of St. Patrick (1872); Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem (1874); a poem on the centenary of Daniel O’Connell (1875); Saint Thomas of Canterbury (1876); Antar and Zara (1877); Legends of the Sazron Saints (187 9) ; The Foray of Queen Illeane (1882); Poetical lVorlcs (1884); Ireland and Prqrortional Representation (1885); Essays chiefly on Poetry (1887); Essays chiefly Lit- erary and Ethical (1889); Religious Poems of the IVine- teenth Century (1893). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Vere, EDWARD, de: seventeenth Earl of Oxford; b. in England about 1540; educated in St. J ohn‘s College, Cam- bridge ; was in high repute as a wit and a poet at the court of Queen Elizabeth, and was famous for the prodigality of his living; had an encounter, not much to his credit, with Sir Philip Sydney; married Anne, the eldest daughter of lVilliam Cecil, Lord Burleigh; is alleged to have treated her inhumanly to revenge himself upon Burleigh for not interfering to save the life of his relative, Thomas Howard. Duke of Norfolk (beheaded for treason 1572); was made lord high chamberlain, and in that capacity sat on the trials of Mary Queen of Scots (1586) and the Earls of Arun- del (1589), Essex, and Southampton (1601), and held a com- mand in the fleet sent against the Spanish Armada (1588). He wrote a number of comedies, not extant, and contributed poems to Richard Edwards‘s Paradise of Daynty Derises (1576) and other collections of that period. D. in London in July, 1604. His wife (d. June 6, 1588) also wrote verses, some of which are in John Southern’s Pandora (1584). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Vere, Sir FRANCIS: soldier; b. in England about 1560 (some authorities say 1554) : grandson of John de Vere, fif- teenth Earl of Oxford; served in the army in the Nether- lands under the Earl of Leicester 1585, and subsequently under Lord lVilloughby ; was knighted for gallantry at the defense of Bergen-op-Zoom 1588; relieved the garrison at Berg on the Rhine 1589 : contributed to the capture of Zut- phen : was instrumental in the retaking of Deventer and in the defeat of the Prince of Parma near Nymwegen 1591; was lord-marshal in the expedition against Cadiz 1596 ; dis- tinguished himself at Turnhout, and became governor of Brill 1597; was recalled to England during the threatened Spanish invasion 1599: was severely wounded at N ieuport, where he determined the victory for Prince Maurice, July 5, 1600, and successfully defended Ostend against great odds 1601-02. D. in London, England. Aug. 28,1608, and was buried in \Vestminster Abbey. His Commentaries, narrat- ing his services in the Netherlands, were published in 1657. —l-Iis younger brother, HORATIO, b. at Kirby Hall, Essex, in 1565, distinguished himself under his brother's command in the Netherlands, and commanded the English auxiliaries in Germany 1620—23 ; was created Baron Vere of Tilbury July 25, 1625, and became master of the ordnance 1619. D. in London, May 2, 1635. See Markham, The F iglztin g Teres (1888). Revised by F. M. CQLBY. Vere, l\/IAXIMILIAN,F1‘e1l1e1‘I‘ von SCHELE de: scholar; b. near \Vexi<‘i, Sweden, Nov. 1, 1820; was educated in Ger- many and served in the Prussian military and diplomatic service ; removed to the U. S. in 1842; Professor of Modern Languages in the University of Virginia 1844-61 : entered the Coul'ederate service as a captain : subsequently was ap- pointed commissioner to Germany to further the cause of 480 VERESTCHAGIN the Confederate States: lived in Europe for several years studying literature and social questions; resumed his pro- fessorship after the war; has translated works from the French and German, and has written a number of books, including Outlines of Comparative Philology (New York, 1853); G1'a'2nma'r of the Spanish Language (1854); Stray Leaves from the Book of Nature (1856) ; Romance of American fifistory (1872) ; Amerieanisms (1873) ; and ill od- ern fllagic (1874). Verestcha’ gin, VASILII: genre and military painter; b. at Tcherepovets, Russia, Oct. 26 (N. s.), 1842; studied at St. Petersburg Academy and under Géréme in Paris; has tra_v- eled much in the East, and painted pictures and studies in India and Turkestan. He served with the Russian army in Turkestan and during the Russo-Turkish war, and was _se- verely wounded; painted a series of pictures representmg battles and episodes of that campaign. His works, many of which are of immense size, have been called realistic by some critics, and by the exhibition of his pictures in a complete collection in the principal cities of Europe and in the U. S. his name has become widely known. WILLIAM A. COFFIN. Verga, va1"ga’a, GIOVANNI: novelist; b. at Catania, Sicily, in 1840. Much of his life has been spent at Florence and Milan. He began his literary career with two stories, which he has since repudiated, calling them the “two sins of his youth,” I Z Carbonari della Mbniagna (1865) and Sto7'ia di ana peeeatrioe (1865). He first showed real power 111 the Storia di ana capinera (1869), a romance in epistolary form, containing much delicate psychologic observation. He did not, however, at once follow the vein he had struck in this book, but in a series of romances of Italian high life allowed himself to be influenced by the French sensational novel. To this period belong Eva (5th ed. 1880); Nedda (1874): Eros (1875); Tigre reale (1875); Primcwwa (with other stories, 1877). Gradually, however, the influence of the naturalistic movement in fiction, as well as his own proper aptitudes, led him to seek artistic success less from ingenious plots and sensational situations than from a rendering in exact and adequate terms of such life as he had actually seen and known. The volume of short tales, La oiia dei cam_pi (1880), takes the reader among the peasants of Sicily, and gives him glimpses of their narrow yet passionate ex- istence, their fierce loves and yet fiercer hates; in short, the humble but often terrible tragedy of their lives. Among these tales is that entitled (7avaZZeria 1'/aszfieana, used by the composer Mascagni as the basis of his now famous opera. Since the appearance of this collection, Verga has published a long series of romances and collections of tales: I Malavoglia (1881); Il marito di Elena (1882); Il come, il qaando ed il perehe‘ (1882); Pane nero (1882); iVo/uelle rastieane (1883); Per Ze vie (1883); Vagabondag/_qio (1887); fllaeszfro Don G-esaaldo (1889) ; I ricordi del eapitano d’./lrce (1892); Cayalleria rasticana ed altre nooelle (Vita dei campi, 6th ed. 1892); Don Oandeloro e C. (1893). A. R. MARSH. Vergennes, ver-genz’: city; Addison co., Vt. ; on the Otter creek, and the Cent. Vt. Railroad ; 7 miles from Lake Cham- plain, and 33 miles S. VV. of Montpelier (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 5—A). It has regular steamboat communi- cation with the lake ports during the summer; has good water-power from a creek which here falls over 30 feet: and contains the State Reform School, graded public school, parochial school, public library, 5 churches, 2 national banks with combined capital of $225,000, and a weekly aper. It is noted as the building-place of the fleet with w iich Capt. MacDonough captured a British squadron ofi Plattsburg Sept. 11, 1814. Pop. (1880) 1,782; (1890) 1,773. Vergennes, var'zhen’, CHARLES GRAVIER, Comte de: states- man ; b. at Dijon, department of C6te-d’Or, France, Dec. 28, 1717 ; entered very early on a diplomatic career; was minis- ter at Treves 1750-55, at Constantinople till 1768, at Stock- holm 1771, and became Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1774. He concluded the treaty of alliance with the Swiss cantons in 1777, and with the American colonies in 1778, to which he was very friendly, and negotiated the Peace of Teschen (May 13, 1779), which ended the war of the Bavarian suc- cession, and the Peace of Versailles (Sept. 3, 1783). He was an adroit negotiator, but a mediocre statesman, and his meddling with the finances became fatal to France ; he drove N ecker out and brought Calonne in. D. at Versailles, Feb. 13, 1787. Vergier de Hauranne: See DUVERGIER DE I-IAURANNE. VERGIL Vergil (full Latin name, Pablias Vergilins Jlfaro; the spelling Virgil, Lat. Virgi'Zins, arose in the Middle Ages by popular etymological ‘connection with Lat. oir’ga, rod, ma ician’s wand Ver ‘il bein re arded as a ma ician :. , g the 1nost celebrated Latin poet; b. at Andes, near Man- tua, Oct. 15, B. C. 70. His parents lived in humble circum- stances, but he received a careful education. His paternal estate was assigned (B. 0. 41 and 40) to the veterans of Ce- tavianus, but his application to the emperor effected a restoration of his lands or an indemnification for them. From this time Vergil lived partly in Rome, partly at Naples, always suffering from delicate health, but in the possession of suflicient means. He was himself a gentle and amiable character. and as a poet most successful in subjects which admit of genial treatment, as inanimate nature, one’s native country, family ties, and love, but he allowed himself to be led on to subjects too grand for him ; for, though pleasing in his episodes, he was hardly equal to majestic occasions. He collected his materials with great diligence, and polished his verse with extreme care; and this faithful labor won for him that elegance in style and correctness in meter which made him the standard of clas- sicality in Roman poetry for a long period. Before the lapse of a century Vergil’s works were used, as they are to this day, as text-books in schools for learning Latin, and in subsequent times his writings were drawn upon for eentos, superstition consulted them as an oracle, and upon his name the nations of the West accumulated their fictions and leg- ends in the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance his works exercised a great influence on Italian literature, and partly through that literature, but more by direct study, also on French and on English poets. He died at Brundisium, Sept. 21, B. o. 19, and was buried near Naples, where his tomb is still shown. Vergil’s extant poems are (1) Eclogce, ten bucolics, writ- ten B. 0. 41-39, imitations, and to some extent translations, of Theocritus, but with an admixture of persons and events of his own time and country. Though Vergil can hardly be said to have improved on his original, yet these have always been regarded as very graceful and pleasing com- positions, and themselves inspired one of the most brilliant and charming works of Pope, his Paslforals. (2) Geo/rgiea, in four books, composed B. 0. 37-30, the first on agriculture, the second on the culture of trees, the third on domestic animals, and the fourth on bees. The prostrate condition of husbandry at the end of the civil wars induced Maece- nas, the influential favorite of Augustus, to propose hus- bandry to Vergil as the subject of a didactic poem. The task suited the taste of the poet, and he devoted himself to it with earnestness and enthusiasm. So successful was this attempt that in the Georgics we have confessedly the most perfect production of Roman art in this kind. In han- dling this theme Vergil could avail himself of his own per- sonal experience in youth, but his studious bent would incline him also to consult and appropriate the works of others on this subject, which abounded in Greek and Latin, as of Hesiod, Aratus, Nicander, and Xenophon, of Cato, Mago, and Varro. (3) fldneis, in twelve books, begun about B. 0. 29, but not finished when the oet died (B. 0. 19), yet made public by his executors, L. arius and Tucca, con- trary to the express desire of the author. The .zZE'neid turns on the fate of ]Eneas, the founder of a second Ilium and indirectly of Rome, and the ancestor of the Julian fam- ily. In this work Vergil in part had recourse to Greek sources and models, and in part relied on his own extensive study of Italian legends, history, and localities, thus blend- ing I-Iellenic and Latin elements. According to Donatus (Vii. 46), Vergil read to Augustus books ii., iv., and vi., which, in the judgment of posterity, are, the first two the most real, and the last the most curious and interesting of all. The style of the /Eneid in general is rather somber and unnatural, but always dignified; and we can not but feel the fascination of its graceful and sonorous lines. Indeed, whatever faults criticism may have pointed out in this work, it has secured to its author an undisputed place among the few great epic poets the world has yet seen. Vergil derived from the Homeric poems the plan and style of the _.1£'neid, as well as numerous details. Book vi. is quite in the manner of Odyssey xi., and the first half of the .../Eneid may be said to be in imitation of the Odyssey, as the rest is of the Iliad ; the subject of book ii. is drawn from the Cyclic poets, and book iv. is imitated from Apol- lonius Rhodius. Of the Roman poets, Vergil has chiefly imitated Ennius (see, e. g., vi., 846), as Servius and Macro- VERGIL bius remark. Aulus Gellius (i., 21) says: Non oerba sola, sed versus props totos et locos qaoqae Lucrett plnrtmos sec- tatam esse Vergt'lt'u/In ; and Vergil himself in turn has been copied more or less by all the Latin eipic and didactic poets, as Persius, Silius Italicus, Valerius laccus, Statius, Ausc- nius, and Prudentius. Besides these great and genuine works of Vergil, certain minor poems have come down to us under his name; (1) Galezv, a description of Hades. It is certain that Vergil 1n his youth wrote a brief epic of this name, but the general character of the poem which we have, especially its fre- quent imitations of the writings of Vergil, chiefly of the vi. Eel. and the vi. 5%., renders it probable that a new work, composed, however, soon after Vergil’s death, occu- pies the place of the original. The extant poem, though puerile in composition, is masterly in metrical treatment. (2) Girls, an account of the treacherous conduct of the Megarian princess Scylla against her father N1sus, and her transformation into the bird Ciris. This poem seems to have arisen in the circles of Messala, being dedicated to his son, who was consul A. U. C. 751. The author draws largely on Vergil, but also imitates Catullus, and reminds us here and there of Lucretius, Tibullus, and some of the Augustan poets. Metrically, this piece is less correct than Vergil, but in style it is more lively. (3) Moretam, a pleas- ing idyl. believed by Lachmann to belong to the time of Vergil, and perhaps translated by him from a Greek poem of Parthenius. It is vivid in description, amiable in spirit, and elaborate in form. (4) Copa, a short elegy of the best period, Vergilian in style, but more sprightly in tone. (5) Catalepton, fourteen poems in elegiac and iambic meter on various subjects. Only two are well attested as coming from Vergil, two alone can be proved not to be by him, and they all certainly belong to his period. Of Vergil’s prose, we know only of his correspondence with Augustus, which was probably published by the em- peror’s order. Seneca the Elder (Ewe. C'ontrov., iii., 8) says of it: Vergillinm villa fel/deltas elngenti in 0ratc'one solata relz'qm't. Specimens of it are given in Donati, Vita Ver- giliana, and in Macrobius, i., 24. As to the form of his name, the inscriptions of the time of the republic and of the first centuries after Christ are in favor of Ve1'gt'lt"as, and so the older MSS., as the Medi- cean. The Greeks also generally wrote Bepw/(Ares or Oi°)ep'yi7uo$. The earliest dated instances of the form Vt‘;-gilias are of the fifth century. In the Middle Ages, about the ninth cen- tury, this form began to be common, and in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it prevailed, though the Italian scholar, Angelo Poliziano, proved it to be wrong. Editions by O. Ribbeck (3 vols., Leipzig, 1859-68 ; new ed. begun in 1895) ; Conington and Nettleship, with commentary (3 vols., London, 1881-83) ; text alone, Thilo (Leipzig, 1886). See also Sellar, The Roman Poets of the Ang/astan Age : Virgil (Ox- ford, 1877) ; D. Comparetti, Ve'rgz'lz'o nel meclio evo (Livorno, 1872); J. S. Tunison, ltlaster Virgil, the Author of the flheid, as he seemed in the Jlltcldle Ages (Cincinnati, 1888). CHARLES Snoar. Revised by M. WARREN. Vergil, POLYDORE: author; b. at Urbino, Italy, about 1470; became a priest and acquired a considerable literary reputation by his Pr0ve'rln'oram Libell/as (1498), several times reprinted in the sixteenth century, and by a treatise on the discovery of arts and sciences, De Rerum Invenz‘orz'- bus (1499) ; was sent by Pope Alexander VI. to England to collect the papal tribute called “ Peter’s pence” 1501, being the last to hold that office; remained in England for the most of his life; was made rector of Church Langton, Leicestershire, archdeacon of Wells, prebendary of Here- ford and of Lincoln, all in 1507; exchanged the latter pre- bend for one in St. Paul’s, London, 1513; was an intimate friend of Erasmus and the great scholars of the time; wrote, besides many miscellaneous treatises, a voluminous Latin history of E11g‘land,I:lzIstom'ce Anglicae Lib/rzi XXX VI (Basel, folio, 1533; best ed. Leyden, 1651), and edited Gildas’s Dc Oalamitate, Exczfdzfo et Conqaewfa B'2'2IL‘a'22.m'ce (1525). He re- turned to Italy in 1550, and died probably at Urbino about 1555. Two volumes of an old English translation of his Iflstowlce were edited by Sir Henry Ellis for the Camden Society (1844-46), and a translation by John Langley of his De Reram I';tverz,f0m'bns was edited for the Agathynian Club by Dr. \Villiam A. Hammond, who prefixed an Account of the Author and his lVorhs (New York, 1868). Revised by A. R. Maasn. Verginia: a Roman maiden. See VIRGINIA. VERKOLIE 4,81 Vergniaud, var’nyi-6’, PIERRE VICTURNIEN : revolution- ist; b. at Limoges, France, May 31, 1753; studied law in his native city and in Paris, and settled in 1781 as an ad- vocate in Bordeaux. Elected a deputy to the Legislative Assembly of 1791 from the department of Gironde, he be- came the leader of a great majority, the so-called Girondist party, and on Oct. 31 president of the Assembly. On Mar. 24, 1792, the king dismissed the Girondist ministry, and the negotiations which were carried on between the king and Vergniaud by de Boze and Thierry having failed, on Aug. 10 Vergniaud himself proposed the suspension of the royal power. In the National Convention, which opened on Sept. 21, the Girondists still had the majority, but not the real power. In the trial of the king, Vergniaud supported by a brilliant speech the proposition of an appeal to the people; but when the proposition fell, he voted for the execution without delay (Jan. 30, 1793). In the contest which now took place between the Girondists and the J acobins, Ver- gniaud time after time swayed the whole assembly by the force of his eloquence, but he finally broke down before the argument which Marat used—the introduction of a howling, maddened mob into the very hall of the Convention. The J acobins finally succeeded (June 1) in carrying a decree for the arrest and trial of the Girondists. On Oct. 24 the trial began, and Vergniaud, who for some time had fallen into a kind of mental insensibility, rose once more to the full height of his genius, and terrified the J acobins by his speeches of defense. The trial was stopped, the sentence pronounced without scrutiny, and Vergniaud was guillotined Oct. 31, 1793. Several of his speeches are found in Barthe’s Les Orateurs f7'Cl7l§Cl'hS‘ (4 vols., Paris. 1820). and in Choia: de Rapporis, 0pc'nz'ons ct Discours (Paris, 1818-25). See also Touchard-Lafosse, Hisfoire ]Ja7'lemenfat'ze ez‘ Vie in- time cle Vergnc'ancl (Paris, 1848) ; V atel, Vergniantl: ll;[ana- scrits. Letfres et Papiers (1875) ; and Stephens, The Princi- pal Speeches of the Sz‘az‘esmen and Oraio/rs of the French Revolution (1892). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Verhas, JAN: genre-painter; b. at Termonde, Belgium, Jan. 9, 1834; pupil of his father, head of the School of De- sign at Termonde, and of Nicaise de Keyser in Antwerp; studied also in Italy; received a second-class medal at the Paris Salon 1881, and a first-class medal at the Paris Expo- sition 1889 ; became member of the Legion of Honor in 1881. A large picture, Procession of School Chz'ldren at Brussels, is in the British Museum. W. A. C. Veria, or Kara Feria : town of European Turkey; in the vilayet of Salonica; the Berea of Acts xvii. 10; has many antiquities. The inhabitants manufacture a mixed woolen and linen stuff for bathing-clothes and quarry red marble from Mt. Bermios. Pop. (1889) 5,800. E. A. C. Verification : (1) in common-law pleading, the statement with which a party alleging new matter is obliged to con- clude his averments, to the effect that he stands ready to establish the truth of the matters thus set forth-the ordi- nary form of this statement is " and this he is ready to verify” ; (2) in equity and code pleading. the affidavit which a party is required to annex to a pleading, as an answer, complaint, petition, etc., swearing that the matters alleged are true to the knowledge of the deponent, except where stated to be alleged upon information and belief. Under the code procedures a defendant served with a sworn com- plaint must serve a sworn answer or suffer judgment to be taken in default of so doing. The verification must gener- ally state the sources of the deponent's information and the grounds of his belief. See Stephen’s Prz'ncz'pZes of Pleazlzhzgs in CzI'v/ll 1»'1ct'ions; Daniell’s Clzancery Pracz‘z'cez and the va- rious codes. F. Sruncns ALLEN. 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' $0?’ E Land ,i . r 1..~:,:: PW“ Q ' “'95 every. I ' 7 U“ N fit‘, 5 ‘o. _. "5 > Cf. I Q , , B stol .. Poul " j 80' A i . . '...Y ' ading?__-. ~ snbu / eonla I ' l\'Ilddleto,\vu° p _ 3 5 'P' 9* _ Vv'.\"ind on-° 7. ~' DTm u "'-"T" " -, ZA t M ‘ E.Ti . i ,“ en3- - E-" f dvllle 8,: SA,‘ - L _ F 8 _~ S.\V*_Bllln Io - j : -' W ,' ~ " _ ‘nlyvme . I /D ' .\‘ R W O ~ L ~ K ‘ ’ ' _ " ;~ - ville PU’ g;. . " i . m _ rs - ; Pawhh ' ‘I as . ' ‘Yeah ell - . j :' __ : I 934" ~ ~ -14-. t ‘-~ ” - . Rupert : ‘ <$qfé .€11doyer s 1} Sprln eld - . _‘ rm? ,-s i 0321 ' -f“ chasm as‘. 3 Z V , .§aQn$ll:‘ Y-Q\Y ad tonsvlll 2! Q i N’ atggy.-, we " klonllerry mic gmfio Psi g g Conboc CONCOR ; ‘T ‘*0 Q B 2 ‘ Oanibrzddmn rt ban ~ Hen” ' ~ 9 I .Eq lnoxw‘-" \ . P° Mgr ~< H ,,,_"i {*5 ‘ "‘ * w 1N’ Saxtons River 9 ~ mt __ ~ , _ ; M _ _Athens°B°u W ‘R'?",_ E “'"\ A " J‘m‘i°‘ Wes ing s 1tafi;S’“° \ ,5 A ‘W1 ownaherid QQU LL] S ‘J: ‘ I//Q“ a rough ° BN0 1! e 0 431 ,,§ -vii lg N k 0 H A M g’ 1’ ./ shai hi‘ y . . lib ,' I ~ , Nmvfzm k, _PuLne _ s ?~ L , ' Putn f-6 Mane \ B _ _ , ‘ ‘ \Po\ er K % . . ~ .‘ 4 ‘ z r 7 Q ' _ u Bang,“ _ l‘, W. vcr Dum too / | "" 6 .7. w.-' . 1 0 Ba; gton -W . " . . attlebor-ough v: “.5 2 n: "'. 1 Blur bolough \,_ Scale of Miles -_ ' ' { ;\‘-‘ - V _ , ‘is. T“ ,_‘E——————’ 1 1 , 3%, 1,. ,:_e 1 Q Gullfordo 0 5 10 15 20 as so as . Q - R W ltjngham P0\ ua ‘ $l'i;§m-a ~' 8 0 Verno ¢ County Towns @ Railroads-——-~... N‘-ah ~‘T“‘ H M Q Ham“ Q "em ' This t 6 indicate a. n1 ti / ~,_, ,_ ' ._:_'___.° i W I WP 3- on of 3,000 or over. , M S S ’ ' 99-.-'-"—-._. \ . ' _ Hr‘ . . _ W AI '80 - - 1 mi‘ S E‘ 1 Z T __—,“_‘__g"' 7 B Longitude \\ set C from Greenwich 7-2° E F VERMONT St. Lawrence during its early history, the land between W/hitehall and Troy having been raised in the later Quater- nary. The drift, sands, gravel, bowlders, clays, and terraces of the Quaternary are everywhere abundant. Soil a/nd Prod/uctz'ons.—Although much of the soil is stony and sterile there is considerable that is productive, and the average yield of many crops to the acre is greater than the average for the U. S. The State is an agricultural one, and the most important agricultural interest is that. of dairying. Besides private dairies there were in operation in 1894 204 creameries, capable of using the milk of 81,388 cows, and the annual production of butter is 23,314,063 lb. and of cheese 609,586 lb. Along the shores and on the larger islands of Lake Champlain there are large and pro- ductive apple and pear orchards. The sugar-maple grows in most parts of the State, and the production of sugar and sirup from the sap is one of the great industries. In 1889 there were made 14,123,921 lb. of sugar and 218,252 gal. of sirup, the whole valued at $1,248,856. . The following summary from the census reports of 1880 and 1890 shows the extent of farm operations in the State : FARMS, ETC. 1880. 1890. Per cent?‘ Total number of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,522 32,573 83 Total a.-reage of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,882,588 4,395,646 100 Total value of farms, including - buildings and fences . . . . . . . . . . . . $109,346,110 880,427,490 264 * Decrease. The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of the principal -crops in the calendar year 1894: 483 which black or dark veinings are increasingly abundant, to that which is very dark or almost black. These marbles appear to be metamorphic Chazy limestone. _From the un- altered limestone fine jet-black marble is obtained in several localities, and there are quarries of serpentme, verd an- tique, and other varieties, but these are worked only to_a limited extent. Granite of excellent quality is found 1n many localities, and the quarries are becoming more and more numerous and important. The principal quarries in operation are at Barre, Ryegate, Hardwick, and Brunswick. The annual output is valued at about $1,000,000. Roofing- slate is found in three areas or belts; the chief quarries are at Castleton. Fair Haven, and Northfield; and the annual output is valued at about $800,000. Soapstone is quarried at Athens, Perkinsville, Cambridgeport, and elsewhere, the annual product being worth about $20,000. Vermont is not rich in mines. The largest ones are in Corinth and Ver- shire, where for many years chalcopyrite has been mined for copper. Gold, silver, lead, iron, and manganese are found in limited quantities. Many minerals of interest to the scien- tist, though of little commercial value, are found, such as talc, calcite, rutile, actinolite, chrysoprase, tourmaline, epi- dote, cyanite, garnet, etc. Climate.-—'I‘he climate is variable and liable to sudden changes. The northern and eastern portions of the State are colder than the western. At Burlington the mean annual temperature is 45° F. The highest temperature is seldom above 80° F., the lowest not often below —15° F., though there are days in which the thermometer exceeds these limits._ Lake Champlain usually freezes over, the average date of closing being Jan. 29, that of opening Apr. 15. The average monthly temperature and rainfall at Bur- CROPS, Acreage, YMd_ v,,1,,e_ lington in 1873-93 were as follows: i%%i§§t.‘??‘.T‘::: I I 3 3 1 1 : 3 ; .11: 3:363 1’iZ’i*3§i buff $1‘i‘i3'%§3 MO~\'THS- “Z;';f§“' RM11- MONTHS- l Te;‘3.€:,"“ 1 R-we Oats ..................... . . 113,060 3,7i9,6'é‘¢é “ 1,897,024 , E ‘ Rye ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " J44 L1 303 6 January. 19‘”5° F. 1'82 in Julv . . . . . . ..’ "O'62° F.‘ 3'60 in. Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505,688 “ 303,39? February I I . _ 21 -él 1 -20 August _ . . _ _ éry-91 3.49 %::.".“.‘.;'.§‘:‘“ ------------- -- 13%? 3 2531184 “ 1 13235 Mevih ----- -- ea 5;; §;%mber-- ggeg 3-gg ' ' - ' ' - ' ' ' ' ' ' ' - - - - " i i i » \ _ A 4'1 ‘ co er..... '- " Hay ..................... .. 908,126 1,089,751 tons 10,832,120 Mg, _______ M 06-35 2-80 L-O.,.,,,,,,,,, __ 36-30 2.67 Totals 1 136 701 $16 219 599 June . . . . . . . .. 6'80 3'47 December .. 4750 1'94 On J an. 1, 1895, the farm animals comprised 93,877 horses, value $4,304,596 ; 253,403 milch cows, value $6,925,- 504; 146,574 oxen and other cattle, value $3,039,814; 226,- 938 sheep, value $363,464; and 77,031 swine, value 8730,- 007—total head, 797,823 ; total value, $15,363,385. Flora and Faana.—-The forests, which cover vast areas on the mountain slopes, are largely of spruce and fir, with hemlock and pine on the lower slopes. The hillsides bear groves of maple, beech, and birch (white, black, and yellow), and on the lowlands are walnut, ash, several species of oak, butternut, poplar, and elm. In all there are some fifty species of native trees and twice as many of large shrubs, with about 1,300 species of herbaceous plants. On the higher mountains near their summits are found arctic plants, such as Sa:m'fraga cmlzoon, while on the sandy shores of Lake Champlain are sundry plant reminders of ancient days when the water was salt. The general flora shows a mingling of Canadian, Southern, and I/Vestern species. The larger wild animals formerly common in the State have either disap- peared or become very rare. The panther, black bear, and deer are still occasionally found, and the raccoon, otter, mink, muskrat, porcupine, skunk, woodchuck, squirrels, etc., are more or less common. Among birds there are the golden and the white-headed eagle, the former very rare. the latter common in the lake region, numerous hawks, owls, ducks, and other water-birds, besides many species of song- birds. The waters of the larger lakes and streams supply many varieties of fisl1, such as trout, muskelonge, pike, bass, piekerel, whitefish, sturgeon, etc. 111 L"neraZ Pr0ductz'012s.—'l‘lie rocks of Vermont constitute an important part of its wealth. There are about 170 quarries, some of them very large, from which great quanti- ties of marble, granite, slate, and soapstone are obtained. More than two-thirds of all the marble quarried in the U. S. is taken from these quarries. The capital invested in the marble quarries and mills of the State is over $19,000,000, and the annual production is valued at nearly $4,000,000. Most of this is found in Rutland and Addison Counties, the principal uarries being at Dorset, West Rutland, Proctor, Pittsford,Clliiddlebury, and Brandon. The marble from these quarries varies from the purest statuary, through that in The average temperature in most other parts of the State is three or four degrees lower and the rainfall rather greater. -Dz'rz'sz'ons.-—For administrative purposes Vermont is divided into fourteen counties as follows: COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TO\V.\’S. \VITH POPULATION. couxrrns. * Ref. 122%: 122%: COUNTY-TOWNS. Addison . . . . . . . . . . . 5—A 24.173 22,277 Middlebury . . . . . . 2,793 Bennington ..... .. 9-B 21,950 20,448 fi§%%§§i%§:: : : :_- Caledonia . . . . . . . .. 4-D 23,607 23,436 St. J phnsbury. . . . . 6.567 Chittenden . . . . . . . . 4-B 3° 792 35,389 Burlmgton . . . . . . . . 14,590 Essex . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-E 7,931 9.511 Guildhall . . . . . . . . . . 511 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . 2-B 30,225 29,755 St. Albans . . . . . . . . 7,771 Grand Isle. . . . . . .. 3—A 4,124 3,843 North Hero . . . . . .. 550 Lamoille . . . . . . . . .. 3-0 12,684 12,83 Hyde Park . . . . . . .. 1,633 Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-C 23,525 19.57 5 Chelsea . . . . . . . . . . 1.230 Orleans . . . . . . . . . . . 2-D 22,083 22,101 Newport . . . . . . . . . . 3,047 Rutland . . . . . . . . . . . 7- 41,829 45,397 Rutland . . . . . . . . . . . 11,760 Washington . . . . . . . 4-0 25,404 29,606 Montpelier . . . . . . . . 4,160 Windham . . . . . . . . . 9-0 26,763 26,547 Newfane . . . . . . . . . . 952 Windsor . . . . . . . . . . . 7-C 35,196 31,706 Woodstock . . . . . . . . 2,545 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 332,286 332,422 * Reference for location of counties, see map of Vermont. 1' Including township. Prz'/neipal Czfies and Towns, u~i1‘72 P0]JuZaz"z'0n in 1890.— Burlington, 14.590 ; Rutland, 11,760; St. Albans. 7,771; Brattleboro, 6,862; Barre, 6.812: St. J ohnsbury, 6,567; Ben- nington. 6,391; Montpelier, 4.160; Brandon, 3,310; Swan- ton, 3.231. P0puZa.z‘2'0a and Races.-—In 1860, 315,098; 1870, 330,551 ; 1880, 332.286; 1890, 332,422 (native, 288,334; foreign, 44,- 088; males, 169,327 ; females, 163,095 : whites, 331.418 ; colored, 1,00-1, including 937 persons of African descent, 33 Chinese, 34 civilized Indians). lncZ'z1.s1fr2‘es and Bzlszfness III/I‘€)'€8l‘8.——IIl 1890 there were in operation 3,031 manufacturing establishments, with a capital of $32,763,291, employing 24.894 persons, paying $10,096,- 549 for wages and $20,433.17 4 for materials, and producing goods of the value of 338,340,066. Some of these. as the scale- works in St. Johnsbury, the organ-works in Brattleboro, the scale-works in Rutland, and the agricultural-implement 484 works in Bellows Falls, are very extensive. Aside from the quarry and dairy products, as well as those of the establish- ments already mentioned, the principal articles manufac- tured are woolens, cotton, leather, paper, furniture, lumber, and drugs. C’ommerce.—-A commerce of considerable importance is carried on through Lake Champlain, and there is also a large traffic with Canada. Burlington is the only port of entry on the lake, but there are custom-houses at fourteen other places on the Canadian border. In the calendar year 1894 the imports aggregated in value $4,392,555, and the exports $7,004,401. Fe'ncmce.—In 1893 the, assessed valuation of all property, real and personal, was $171,283,543, and the estimated true valuation $265,567,323. The receipts of the treasury for 1894 were $1,913,718; disbursements, $1,569,707. The only liability is the Agricultural College fund, represented by bonds for $135,500, bearing 6 per cent. interest. Banlcing and Insurance.—In 1895 there were 49 national banks with combined capital of $7,010,000, 40 savings and trust companies, with accumulated funds amounting to $1,583,382, and deposits in 1895 of $27,966,855, and 3 home fire-insurance companies with combined gross assets of $364,- 493. Post-ofiices and Pem'od'icals.—ln Jan., 1895, there were 561 post-offices, of which 36 were presidential (1 first-class, 8 second-class, 27 third-class) and 525 fourth-class; of the total, 255 were money-order offices and 3 were limited money-order offices. Of newspapers and periodicals in 1895, there were 4 daily, 1 semi-weekly, 61 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, and 13 monthly publications—total, 80. Means of Uommum'caz.‘e'on.—The railways are under the supervision of three commissioners appointed by the Gov- ernor and Senate. Most of the lines are operated by the Cen- tral Vermont and the Boston and Maine railway companies. In 1890 there were in use 1,217 miles of road, including sidings. Churches.—The U. S. census of 1890 gives the following statistics of the principal religious bodies: D , Organiza- Churches , value 0‘ ENOMINATIONS. tions and balls Members. church ' property. Roman Catholic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 7 42,810 $866,400 Congregational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 220 20,465 1,318,100 Methodist Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 212 17,268 758,800 Baptist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 105 8,933 584,500 Protestant Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 65 4,335 472.050 Universalist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 62 2,409 285,000 Free-will Baptist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 40 2,325 94,375 Spiritualist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 10 1,966 23,250 Advent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 26 1,079 26,000 Unitarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 10 968 112,500 Schools.-—As early as 1761 land was set apart for educa- tional purposes, and this was increased from year to year as the State grew. The district system of common schools prevailed until 1870, when the town system was adopted. I‘he public schools are under the direction of a superintend- ent, elected by the Legislature, and one supervisor in each county, elected by the people. In 1894 there were 80,152 children of school age, of whom 65,548 attended the public schools, 1,865 the academies and seminaries, and 3,118 the parochial schools. There were 3,728 public-school teachers and 2,292 public schools. The expenditures of the year were $783,805, of which $561,809 was for teachers’ salaries. The higher educational institutions include the State Uni- versity (see VERMONT, UNIVERSITY or); Middlebury College, chartered in 1800, with collegiate and scientific courses, and 8 instructors and 88 students in 1894; and Norwich Univer- sity, a military institution with a corps of 13 instructors and 58 students. There are 3 normal schools supported by the State and 27 academies not under State control. Lvibmm'es.—Public libraries are found in ninety-two towns, and all the larger schools have their own libraries. O/ta/m'tabZe, Re,formatory, and Penal Insm'tat?§0ns.—TlIe greater number of charitable institutions are near Burling- ton. Here are the Mary Fletcher Hospital (endowment, $470,- 000); a Home for Destitute Children (endowment, $230,- 000); the Providence Orphan Asylum (value of property, $50,000) ; the Howard Mission House (endowment $60,000) ; the Adams Mission Home (property, $15,000); the Cancer Relief Association; the Home for Aged Women ; the Home for Friendless Women (property, $20,000); a Young Men’s Christian Association (building valued at $105,000), besides several private retreats and hospitals. At Bennington is a VERMONT Soldiers’ Home supported by the State; at Westminster is Kurn Hattim, a home for friendless boys; at St. Albans is a hospital and the Warner Home for Destitute Children; at Brattleboro is an insane asylum, partly supported by the State, though the institution is not under State control; and at Waterbury is a State asylum. There is in Vergennes a Reform School for wayward boys and girls, and at Rutland a House of Correction for adults convicted of minor offenses. The State prison is at Windsor. The State provides for the small number of blind, deaf, and dumb in its care by send- ing them to institutions in adjoining States. Polqltieal 0rgam'zate'0n.—Since 1870 the State officers and Legislature have been elected biennially. The Senate is composed of thirty members, apportioned among the differ- ent counties according to population, and the House of one representative from each town without regard to population, there being in all 244. State elections are held in Septem- ber in even years. The judiciary is elective throughout, the chief justice and six assistant justices of the Supreme Court being elected by the Legislature in joint session ; the assistant judges of the county courts by popular vote in the several counties ; and justices of the peace by popular vote in the towns. Hz's1f01'y.—Tl1e French explorer Champlain discovered the lake which bears his name in 1609. At that time, and for many years after, the territory of Vermont was not occupied by permanent villages, but was a battle-field and hunting- ground traversed by wandering parties, at one time by Iroquois, at another by Algonkins, and later by armed bands of French or English. As all the Indian names of lakes, streams, etc., which have been retained are Algonkin, it seems probable that these people held original possession of the territory. Fort St. Anne, on Isle la Motte, was built by the French in 1665, and was the first white settlement, though not a permanent one. Fort Dummer, built near what is now Brattleboro in 1724, was probably the first English settlement. Bennington was settled in 1761 on land granted in 1749 by Gov. Wentworth of New I-lam shire, and in 1762 a few families settled in Newbury. Gov. entworth claimed the whole territory as a part of New Hampshire, and in time 138 townships were deeded by him in the “ New Hampshire Grants.” Trouble arose when the Governor of New York also claimed jurisdiction over the same territory under letters from Charles II. Proclamations and counter-proc- lamations were issued, but the settlers, most of whom had paid the Governor of New Hampshire for their titles, sided with Gov. Wentworth and resisted the claims of New York, and the quarrel which followed continued many years. In 1776 the people of the New Hampshire Grants applied to the Federal Congress for admission to the confederation, but through the influence of New York they were refused. They then formed an independent republic, at first called New Connecticut, but later Vermont. As an independent State Vermont continued thirteen years. Finally, after again being refused a place with the other States in 1789, Vermont was received as the fourteenth State and the first under the Federal Constitution in 1791. Notwithstanding the exclusive policy of the other States, Vermonters bore their full share of hardships, losses, and expenses of the war of the Revolution. The State also took active part in the war of 1812. In the war of 1861-65 Vermont did more than its share. In proportion to the population its loss in hospi- tal and on battle-field was larger than that of any other Northern State; it furnished 1,500 more men than were called for under all demands; its money contribution to the expenses of the war amounted to over 12 per cent. of the total property valuation ; and out of a population of 315,098, having less than the average number of men liable to mili- tary duty, it sent 33,288, or more than one-tenth of the en- tire population. Since the civil war the population and in- dustries of many portions of the State have decreased, but efforts have been made to revive the former activity in farming and manufactures, and with considerable success. GOVERNORS OF VERMONT. Moses Robinson . . . . . . . . .. 1789-90 William A. Palmer . . . . . .. 1831-35 Thomas Chittenden . . . . .. 1790-97 Silas A. Jenison . . . . . . . . .. 1835-41 Isaac Tichenor . . . . . . . .. 1797-1807 Charles Paine . . . . . . . . . .. 1841-43 Israel Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1807-08 John Mattocks . . . . . . . . . . . 1843-44 Isaac Tichenor . . . . . . . . . .. 1808-09 William Slade . . . . . . . . . .. 1844-46 Jonas Galusha . . . . . . . . . .. 1809-13 Horace Eaton . . . . . . . . . . .. 1846-49 Martin Chittenden . . . . . . .. 1813-15 Carlos Coolidge . . . . . . . . .. 1849-50 Jonas Galusha . . . . . . . . . .. 1815-20 Charles K. Williams . . . . .. 1850-52 Richard Skinner . . . . . . . . .. 1820-23 Erastus Fairbanks . . . . .. 1852-53 Cornelius P. Van Ness. . .. 1823-26 John S. Robinson . . . . . . . .. 1853-54 Ezra Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1826-28 Stephen Royce . . . . . . . . . .. 1854-56 Samuel C. Crafts . . . . . . . .. 1828-31 Ryland Fletcher . . . . . . . . .. 1856-58 VERMONT GOVERNORS OF VERMONT-CONTINUED- Hiland Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1858-60 John L. Barstow . . . . . . . .. 1882-84 Erastus Fairbanks . . . . . .. 1860-61 Samuel E. Pingree . . . . . .. 1884-86 Frederick Holbrook . . . . .. 1861-63 E. J . Ormsbee . . . . . . . . . . .. 1886-88 John G. Smith . . . . . . . . . . .. 1863-65 W. P. Dillingham . . . . . . . .. 1888-90 Paul Dillingham . . . . . . . . .. 1865-67 Calvin S. Page . . . . . . . . . . .. 1890-92 John B. Page . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1867-69 Levi K. Fuller . . . . . . . . . . .. 1892-94 Peter T. Washburn . . . . . .. 1869-70 Urban A. Woodbury . . . .. 1894- John W. Stewart . . . . . . . .. 1870-72 Julius Converse . . . . . . . . .. 1872-74 Asahel Peck . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1874-76 Horace Fairbanks . . . . . . .. 1876-78 Redfield Proctor . . . . .. . 1878-80 Roswell Farnham . . . . . . .. 1880-82 AUTHoRrr1Es.-—Allen, History of the State of Vermont (London, 1798); Williams, Natural and Civil History of Vermont (Burlington, 1809); Thompson, History of Ver- mont (Burlington, 1842; Appendix, 1853); Hall, History of Eastern Vermont (New York, 1858) ; Hall, Early History of Vermont (Albany, 1868); Hemenway, Vermont Historical Gazetteer (vols. i.-iv., 1868-82); Benedict, Vermont in the Civil War (vol. i., 1886; vol. ii., 1888) ; Vermont Historical Society’s Collections (Mont elier, 1870); Conant, Vermont (Rutland, 1890); Robinson, ermont New York, 1892, Amer- ican Commonwealth Series). GEORGE H. PERKINS. Vermont: village; Fulton co., Ill. ; on the Chi., Burl. and Quincy Railroad; 15 miles N. E. of Rushville, 24 miles N. of Beardstown (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 5-C). It is in an agricultural region, and has a private bank, a weekly newspaper, and manufactories of carriages, spokes, brick, and tile. Pop. (1880) 1,133; (1890) 1,158. Vermont, University Of : an institution of learning situated at Burlington, Vt. ; chartered in 1791 and endowed by Gen. Ira Allen with £4,000; faculty organized in 1800; graduated its first class in 1804. Medical instruction was given 1823-34; after a suspension of twenty years this de- partment was reorganized in 1854, and has now (1894-95) 22 instructors and 160 students; students are admitted to lec- tures only by diploma or upon examination. The academic staff numbers 26 professors, with 228 students in academic courses; the total attendance in all departments is 438. The State Agricultural College was incorporated with the uni- versity in 1865, and with this is connected the State experi- ment station. The university oifers the usual courses in arts, in civil, electrical, and mechanical engineering, in chemistry, and agriculture. After the first year the student’s work may be specialized, if desired, by means of elective courses. Women are admitted to all departments except the medical. The buildings are mainly new or recently re- constructed. The Billings Library is not surpassed in beauty by any college library structure in the U. S. An elegant dor- mitory of marble and a fire-proof science building were added in 1895. The library contains 47,500 volumes, including the choice collection made by the Hon. George P. Marsh. This is supplemented by the free library of the city (25,000 volumes). President since 1871, Matthew H. Buckham, D. D. Since 1880 there has been a doubling both of the teaching staff and of the attendance. The income in 1894 was $61,- 000. J OHN E. Goonmcn. Vermuyden, var-mi’den, Sir CORNELIUS : engineer ; b. in Zealand, Holland, about 1590; was employed in his native country in raising embankments against the sea; was in- vited to England in 1621 to repair a breach in the embank- ment of the Thames ; conducted many drainage operations in England up to 1653 ; published A Disco/arse touolu'ng the Drayning of the great Fennes (London, 1842). He died on the Continent about 1660. M. M. Vernal Grass: See ANTHOXANTHUM. Verna’ tion [Lat. i'erna’tio, deriv. of i'erna're. be like spring, bloom, renew itself, (of a snake) shed the skin, f-XA AB /\C slough, deriv. of .067.’ spring] : i@@@ the arrangement of leaves Q2 <\,/Q~D ~§ in the bud, sometimes called przefoliation. VVhen applied to the arrangement of the floral leaves it is usually called restivation or pree- fioration. In general, leaves in the bud may be alter- nate (Fig. 1. A), opposite (Fig. 1, B). or whorlecl (Fig. FIG_1. 1. C) upon the axis. \Vith respect to one another they may be imbrioated, with their edges lapping (Fig. 1, D), or valvate, with their edges touching, but not lapping (Fig. 1, E). VERNER’S LAW 485 The individual leaves may be plane, where the leaves are not folded at all (Fig. 2, A) ; oonclaplicate, folded lengthwise along the middle so that the upper surfaces of the two halves are together (Fig. 2, B); plicate or plaitecl, folded length- wise along several ribs (Fig. 2, C); involate, rolled inward s-iillla Wes @@ .6 t FIG. 2. on both margins (Fig. 2, D); rerolate, rolled outward on both margins (Fig. 2, E) ; oonoolute, rolled inward from one margin (Fig. 2, F); reolinate, replicate, or inflexed, folded transversely so that the upper portion lies upon the lower, or upon the petiole (Fig. 2, G); cireinate, rolled from the apex downward (Fig. 2, H). CHARLES E. Bnsssv. Verne, JULES : author ; b. at Nantes, France, Feb. 8, 1828 ; studied law in Paris, and made his débnt in literature in 1850 with a comedy in verse, Les Pailles rompaes; wrote subsequently several other plays, and began in 1863, with his Ctnq Semaines en Ballon, the vein of surprising adventures based more or less plausibly upon facts of science, which he has since pursued with great success. His most popular work is the Tour da Morzde en 80 Jours (Around the World in Eighty Days), which was dramatized in 1874, and produced in the Porte St.-Martin theater in Paris. He also wrote Voyage au Centre de la Terre; Vingt .Zl[ille Lieaes sons les zllers; De la Terre cl la Lane; Le Docteur Ox: an illustrated geography of France, with Théophile Lavallée (1867-68); 11[ichel Stroyofi ; Le Rayon V ert (1882); Christophe Colomb (1883); L'Etoile du Sud (1884); Le Chciteaa des Carpathes (1892). and many other books. Most of his works have been translated into English and other languages. He is a mem- ber of the Legion of Honor. Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. Verner, KARL ADOLPH : comparative philologist ; b. at Aarhus, in Jutland. Denmark, Mar. 7, 1846 ; studied in the University of Copenhagen; assistant in the university library in Halle 1876-83; since 1883 Professor of Slavonic Languages in the University of Copenhagen. In 1875 he published in Ifnhns Zeitschrift an article entitled Eine Aasnalzme der ersten Lautrersclzz'ebang (see VERI: Skr. pafiea : Gr. 1re'z/‘re ; Skr. rift : Gr. 311 ; Skr. alz/(im:Gr.é'ya’>; Skr.joZnas:G1'. ye’:/os; Skr.noZea-s:Gr. véos; Skr. svcidit-s:Gr.1‘78ts: Skr. y'u.go'.-m:Gr. §zry6v; Skr. ptid, pddam, padris : Gr. vrozis, 1r68a, 1ro8<5s, etc. (cf. Wheeler, Griech. Nominal-Accent). Verner’s law is this: I.-E. medial ls, t, p, s become Teutonic h. P (th), f, s, which then. if asso- ciated with voiced sounds, become voiced (3, rt, 25, 2). when the I.-E. accent rested upon any other than the preceding syllable; or, to state it in another form, I.-E. ls, t, p. s ap- pear as It, th. f, 8, when the I.-E. accent immediately prece - ed, otherwise (except before s or t) as g, d, b, 2. Examples: 486 VERNET Skr. cvdcura-s : Germ. schwd-her, “ father-in-law,” on the other hand, Skr. geacru: Germ. schwieger (-mutter), “ mother-in- law”; Gr. Sends : Goth. tigus. Eng. -tg in thirty; Skr. bhrdtar-, brother:Gr. ¢pawp= Goth. br<3]>ar: Germ. bruder, but Gr. 1ra'r'/)p:GrOtl1. fadar:Germ. rater; Gr. €rcar61/:GOtl1. hund: Eng. hund-red; Skr. ease-8 : Goth. hdidus : Eng. -hood; Skr. damitd-s:Eng. tamed. Causative verbs in I.-E. were ac- cented on the syllable following the root. Hence from the I.-E. root wert-, “turn,” of Lat. uerzfo, Sl{1‘.’UCl7‘lalé, Goth. wair]oan, Germ. werden, is derived the causative verb wor1.‘e'- yeti, “make turn,” of. Skr. oaridyati, Goth. fra-'wardjan, spoil; from the root leit-, go, toil, of Goth. lei]>an, Germ. leiden, is derived the causative loitéyeti, “ cause to go,” cf. Eng. lead, Germ. leizfen. The Teutonic z which results from s before the accent be- comes in German and Eng. r ; hence from root nes-, return, in Gr. véo/ecu, I/6o"ros, Goth. ganisan, Germ. genesen, we have the causative I.-E. noség/eli of Germ. ndhren; from the root leis-, follow a path, experience, in Lat. lira, “ furrow,” Germ. geleise, the eausat. loiséyezfi, cause to experience or to know, of. Goth. laisjan, Germ. lehren, Eng. lore. The interchange of s :r in Eng. was : were is due to the I.-E. usage of accenting the perf. (pret.) on the root in the singular and on the ending in the plur. ; cf. Skr. oéda : oidmd. To a similar variation of accent are due the phenomena of grammatical interchange (grammatisch er Wechsel) in, e. g., ziehenzgezogen (I.-E. duhonrfis); schneiden: geschitten; lei- den : gelillen; Eng. lose : forlorn; seethe : sodden, etc. REFERENGES.—K. A. Verner, Kuhns Zeitschrifi (1875); K. Brugmann, Comparative Grammar of the Indo-Ger- manic Languages; W. Wilmanns, Deuzfsche Grammatih (7th ed. Berlin, 1887) ; W. W. Skeat, Principles of English Ethnology, first series (1887); King and Cookson, Sounds and Infleazions; H. C. G. Brandt, German Grammar. BENJ. IDE WHEELER. Vernet, va’r’na’, ANTOINE CHARLES HoRAcE, called CARLE VERNET: painter; b. in Bordeaux, France, Aug. 14, 1758; son and pupil of Claude J . Vernet, studied also with Lépicié. He painted pictures concerning the republic and the empire of Napoleon, and under the restoration he was still in favor and was made Chevalier of the Order of St. Michael. Under Louis Philippe he became a member and then an officer of the Legion of Honor. D. in Paris, Nov. 17,1836. In the Louvre, Paris, is the large and interesting picture Charles X. hunting at Ville d’Aorar , including portraits of the king and members of the royal family. R. S. Vernet, CLAUDE JOSEPH, called J OSEPH VERNET: painter and engraver; b. at Avignon, Aug. 14, 1714. He was the son of a decorative painter who taught him and sent him to Rome, during which journey he seems to have been impressed by the artistic possibilities of sea-painting, and accordingly, after painting under the instruction of his Roman masters, he devoted himself almost exclusively to marine subjects. D. in Paris, Dec. 3, 1789. In the London National Gallery is the Castle of Sant’ Angelo and A River Scene. In the Louvre, Paris, there are forty-one pictures, including a series of the Seal/oorts of France, which were ordered especially by Louis XV. R. S. Vernet, EMILE J EA.N HORACE, generally called HoRAeE VERNET: painter; b. in Paris, June 30,1789. He was the son of Carle Vernet and grandson of the celebrated Claude Joseph Vernet. It was intended that Horace should study paint- ing, but he failed to obtain the prize and traveling stipend of the Academy and became a conscript; served in the army as a soldier; married, and began to paint battle-pictures entirely according to his own ideas. In 1810 he exhibited The Capture of a Redoubt; in 1811, The Dog of the Regi- ment and The Hall of French Soldiers; in 1812, The Tah- ing of an lnlrenched Camp, for which the Academy gave him a medal. The impression that these pictures produced was most extraordinary. Instead of the conventional man- ner in which the members of the school of David used to imagine a battle, Vernet painted war-scenes and soldiers ex- actly as he had seen them himself, and through engravings and the newly invented art of lithography his enthusiastic representations of the grand army and its exploits, The Death of Poniatowshi, The Bridge of Arcola, The Soldier of Waterloo, ete., passed into the hands of the humblest Frenchmen, and produced their effect. In 1822 his pic- tures were refused admittance to the exhibition of the Acad- emy on account of their Bonapartist tendency, but Vernet opened a private exhibition. Charles X. sent him in 1827 to Rome as director of the French school there. In 1831 VERNON he returned to Paris. His relations with Louis Philippe soon became very friendly, and the king succeeded in alluring the artist’s imagination to the conquest of Algeria. Vernet resided in Algeria 1833-35, and visited it again in 1837, 1845, 1853, and oftener. He continued to paint N apoleon— the battles of Jena, Friedland, Wagram, etc.——but from 1836 to his death he chiefly treated subjects of the Algerian cam- paigns—The Capture of the Smala, The Battle of Islg/, The Siege of Constantineh, etc. Besides battle-pieces, he painted a number of pictures, half genre and half historical, such as Rebecca at the Well, The School of Raphael, The Lion-hunt, etc. ; several portraits, among which were those of Napoleon I., of Louis Philippe, and of Napoleon III. ; and gave a great number of illustrations. D. in Paris, Jan. 17. 1863. See Durande, Joseph, Carle et Horace Vernet (Paris, 1845). Revised by R. STUReIs. Ver'nier [named for the inventor, Pierre Vernier]: an instrument for measuring a fractional part of one of the equal divisions of a graduated scale or are. It consists of an auxiliary graduated scale, the divisions of which differ from those of the primary scale. The vernier scale is formed by taking a space equal to an exact number of parts of the primary scale, and dividing it into a number of equal parts, either greater by 1 or less by 1 than the number that it covers on the primary scale. The former is the method of division usually adopted, and the venier as thus divided is the one here explained: 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 96 26 97 28 ALI I til I I I I I I I I UK ()I_L I I I I I I J I ID 0 1 2 8 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Let A K be a scale of equal parts, and let each part repre- sent 1 foot; let C D be a parallel scale, such that it is ex- actly equal to 9 parts of the primary scale; suppose C D to be divided into 10 equal parts; then each part will repre- sent '9 of 1 foot. By means of these scales one can measure distances to within '1 of 1 foot. Suppose the 0 of the ver- nier in the first instance to coincide with the division 17 of the primary scale ; then the distance from the 0 of the scale to the 0 of the vernier is exactly 17 feet. If we suppose the vernier to slide along the primary scale till the division 1 coincides with 18, the distance from the 0 of the scale to the 0 of the vernier will obviously be equal to 171; if it slides along till the division 2 coincides with 19, the dis- tance between the 0 of the scale and the 0 of the vernier is 172, and so on. In the present position of the vernier the reading is 173. This is obvious, for the distance from the 0 to the divisions which coincide is 20, and the distance from the 0 of the vernier to the same division is three times '9, or 2'7 ; hence the difference is 173. The difference between one space on the limb and one space on the vernier is called the least count; this is always equal to one space on the limb divided by the number of spaces on the vernier. To read an instrument by means of a vernier, we have the following rule: Read the principal scale up to the last division preceding the 0 of the vernier, and call the result the reading on the limb; then look along the vernier for the division that coincides most nearly with a space on the limb, and multiply the number of that di- vision by the least count; this result is called the reading on the vernier; the sum of the two readings will be the true reading of the instrument. Vernon: town (taken from Bolton and incorporated in 1808) ; Tolland co., Conn. ; on the N. Y. and New Eng. Rail- road (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 7-1). It con- tains the city of RocxvILLE (q. o.) and the villages of Ver- non, Vernon Center, and Talcottville ; had an assessed valuation in 1894 of $2,907,813 ; and is principally engaged in agriculture and the manufacture of woolen, silk, and cot- ton goods. Pop. (1880) 6,915; (1890) 8,808. Vernon: town (founded in 1881); capital of Wilbarger co., Tex.; on the Pease river and the Ft. Worth and Den- ver City Railway ; 167 miles N. W. of Fort Worth (for loca- tion, see map of Texas, ref. 1—G). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and has 5 churches, high school, 4 grain elevators, 2 flour-mills, cotton-gin, 2 ice-factories, a private bank, and 4 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1890) 2,857 ; (1895) estimated, 3,500. EDITOR or “GUARD.” Vernon, EDWARD: naval officer; b. at Westminster, Eng- land, Nov. 12, 1684. His father, James Vernon, was Secre- tary of State 1697-1700. Young Vernon was educated at Westminster and Oxford, but in accordance with his earnest VERNON desire his father secured him a commission in the navy in 1702. During the sameyear he was present in the action off Vigo, and in 1704 he served under Sir George Rooke in the sea-fight olf Malaga. He became rear-admiral in 1708, and remained in active service until 1727, when he was elected to Parliament. As a member of the opposition he became prominent. In 1739, when the question of reprisals against Spain was agitated, he declared that Porto Bello (on the Isthmus of Panama) could be captured with six ships. The Government took him at his word, giving him command of a s uadron, with the rank of rear-admiral of the blue. On Nlov. 20, 1739, he appeared off Porto Bello with six ships, entered the harbor on the 21st, and laying his vessels close alongside the strongest fort, bombarded it so severely that the Spaniards were driven from their guns and a party of marines carried it under cover of the fire. The other forts surrendered next day, but Vernon, who had no land force, blew them up and abandoned them. He then bombarded Cartagena, New Granada, but was unable to carry the fortifications. He captured the castle of San Lo- renzo at the mouth of the Chagres river. These exploits gave Vernon unbounded popularity, and he was commis- sioned to assemble a powerful force at Jamaica. In J an., 1741, he sailed from that island with 29 ships of the line and 80 other vessels, carrying 15,000 sailors and 12,000 sol- diers, including a contingent from the North American colonies. The land forces were under the separate com- mand of Gen. Wentworth. It was believed that this expe- dition, in conjunction with that of Anson in the Pacific, would break the Spanish power in America. Vernon ap- peared ofl Cartagena Mar. 4, but the harbor was strongly fortified and ably defended, and the divided command of the British foredoomed them to failure. After perform- ing prodigies of valor, the forces were attacked by pesti- lence : over 5,000 soldiers were lost, and at the end of April the attack was abandoned. Smollett and Lawrence Wash- ington (elder brother of George) took part in this expedi- tion. The former has described it in his novel, Roderick Random, and the latter, who conceived a strong admira- tion for the admiral, named in his honor the estate of Mt. Vernon. Vernon made an unsuccessful attempt against Panama in 1742, and soon after he was recalled to Eng- land, where he was charged to guard the southern coast against an expected attack of the Pretender. His popu- larity continued to be great; but in Apr., 1746, owing to a quarrel with the admiralty, he was dismissed from the serv- ice. He continued to sit in Parliament, however. In 1740 he published a History of Jamaica. D. at Nacton, Suffolk, Oct. 29, 1757. HERBERT H. SMITH. Vernon, GEORGE Jomv WARREN, Fifth Baron: scholar and philanthropist; b. at Stapleford Hall, England, June 22, 1803. One of the richest men in England, his life was spent in public services, philanthropy, and devotion to letters. From 1830 to 1835 he was a Member of Parliament, being one of the ardent supporters of the Reform Bill. In 1835, on the death of his father, he became a peer and member of the House of Lords. This interfered with the activity of his political life, but to his death he preserved an eager in- terest in the liberal progress of his country. As a philan- thropist he was deeply beloved, and the memory of his gen- erosity and personal sacrifices at the time of the cotton famine in Lancashire in 1862-63, caused by the civil war in the U. S., still survives. He will be longest remembered, however, for his studies upon Dante and for his generous patronage of important but costly publications concerning that poet. He began his labors in this field with the publi- cation in 1842 of I primi sette canti dell’ Inferno di Dante Alighicri disposti in ordine grarnmaticale, a work later on- larged to include the entire Inferno, and provided with a volume of notes and dissertations and another of plates, with suitable comments (3 vols. fol., 1858-65). In 1845 he published Petri Allegheri super Dantis ipsins gen itoris Cornoediam Comrnentarium (ed. by V. Nannucci). This was followed by Chiose sopra Dante: Testo inedito (1846); Chiose alla cantica dell’ Inferno di Dante Alighieri attri- buite a Jacopo suo figlio (1848); Comento alla cantica di Dante Alighieri di antore anonirno (1848); and Le prtmi qnattro edizioni della Diuina Com-media litteralmente ris- tampate (supervised by Antonio Panizzi, London, 1858). Besides these scholarly publications Lord Vernon wrote in Italian Ottaca rima a romance of chivalry, Feb/z‘1.s e .BI‘€'ll/8, which was acce .ted by the Accademia della Crusca as a testo di lingua. D. Iay 31, 1866. A. R. MARSH. VERONA 4.87 Vernon, ROBERT, F. S. A.: art-collector; b. in England in 1774; was at one time a dealer in horses; acquired in commercial pursuits a large fortune, which he expended in the purchase of pictures, chiefly by British artists, being a generous patron of artists and literary men of genius, and formed a vast collection of works of art at his country-seat of Ardington House, Berkshire. The best portion of this, comprising 162 pictures and several pieces of statuary (val- ued at £150,000), he presented to the nation Dec. 22, 1847, to be known as the Vernon Gallery, which new forms the nucleus of the National Gallery of British Art at South Kensington Museum. D. in London, May 22, 1849. A por- trait of Vernon by Pickersgill and a bust by Behnes, the latter presented by the Queen, are in the National Gallery. Vernon-Harcourt, LEv1soN FRANCIS; civil engineer; b. in London in 1839 ; educated at Harrow School and Baliol College, Oxford, taking first class in mathematics and nat- ural science; a pupil of Sir John Hawkshaw from 1862 to 1865, and afterward his assistant. In 1875 he established himself in London, his practice being chiefly hydraulic and maritime work; was expert before committees of the House of Lords on canals, rivers, and water-supply, notably on the Manchester ship-canal in the interest of the Mersey dock board and Northwestern Railway, but supported the revised plans; is Professor of Civil Engineering in University Col- lege, London. He has published Rivers and Canals (1882); Harbors and Docks (1885); Achierements in Engineering (1891); River Engineering and ‘Water Supply, in Encyclo- pwdia Britannica; Canals, in Chambers’s Emyclopcedia; and papers in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil En- gineers. He has received one Telford medal, three Telford premiums, and the Manly premium. Two papers on his In- cestigations on the Effects of Training Walls, made on models of the Seine and the Mersey estuaries, which have attracted much attention, were read before the Royal Society 1889-91. He became associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1865. member in 1871; vice-president perma- nent committee of the International Maritime Congress of Paris. W. R. HUTTON. Veron, ve-ron', LoUIs DESIRE: journalist; b. in Paris, Apr. 5, 1798 : studied medicine; served in various hospitals, and published Obserrations snr les Illaladies des Enfants (1825); wrote absolutist-ultramontane articles in dilferent papers, and was appointed physician at the Royal Museum in 1824; purchased an interest in a medicine, “Pate Re- gnauld,” which, by his connections with the press, resulted in large sale with corresponding profit, and founded the Revue de Paris in 1829, which was devoted to the creation of new celebrities; became director of the grand opera in 1831, as a privileged manager ;‘ brought out the opera Robert le Di- able and the ballet La Sylph icle, and retired in 1835 with a fortune; bought in 1839 a controlling share of the Consti- tutionnel, the organ of Thiers; became its sole proprietor in 1844 : brought it into a flourishing condition by publish- ing in its columns Le J u if Errant, by Eugene Sue, and was introduced in the highest circles of French society by Thiers; became the enthusiastic eulogizer of the coup d‘état of Dec. 2, 1851 ; was elected to the Legislative Assembly as a candidate of the Government, and sold the Constitution- -nel at an enormous profit; endowed anonymously several second-rate literary associations in Paris; published 1116- nzoires d’un Bourgeois de Paris (6 vols., 1854); the novel Ci-ng cent mille Francs de Rente (2 vols., 1855) ; the political history, Quatre ans de Regne (1854); and Les The'az‘res de Paris de 1806 d 1860 (1860). D. in Paris, Sept. 27, 1867. Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. Vero'na : the capital of the province of Verona, Italy. It is situated at the base of the spurs of the Southern Alps, on the Upper Italian Railway, 72 miles VV. of Venice (see map of Italy, ref. 2-D), in a fertile plain, and is divided by the Adige (Lat. Athesis) into two parts, which are connected by six bridges (three of iron, one, medieeval, of stone). As a fortress Verona constitutes with Peschiera, Mant-ua, and Le- gna-no the historically famous Quadrilateral. and is the key to the Tyrol from the south. It is surrounded by a circle of forts. Considerable trade in grain, hides, flax, hemp, marble, silk, velvet, linen, and woolen goods is carried on. There are flourishing institutions for science and art, a public library with a remarkable MSS. collection, a picture gallery (mostly of old V eronese masters), an agricultural academy (1768). a botanical garden, various good colleges. including a theolog- ical seminary and lyceum, and a private institute for poor girls, founded by Nicole Mazza, where admirable embroidery 488 VERONA in silk and gold is done and artificial flowers manufactured. Of the many interesting buildings the chief is the old Ro- man amphitheater (Arena) built between 81 and 117 A. D. and wonderfully preserved, with a seating capacity of 60,000 people. The Porta de’ Borsari and the Arco de’ Leoni are fine Roman gateways, both of the Roman imperial time; the Porta Nuova and the Porta Pallio were built by San- mieheli. The Piazza delle Erbe, originally the Forum, now a market-square, and the Piazza dei Signori, surrounded by many fine mediaaval buildings, with the city-hall (Palazzo del Consiglio) and a monument of Dante (erected 1865), are the most remarkable among the many great squares. There are forty-eight churches, some of them with beautiful works of art, besides a cathedral. The latter was consecrated in 1187 by Pope Urban III., and is decorated with Lom- bardic sculpture. The ancient basilica of S. Zeno and the Dominican church of S. Anastasia in semi-Gothic style contain early examples of painting and sculpture. Near the old Friar monastery the so-called tomb of Shakspeare’s Juliet is shown. Among recent structures the Municipio, the theater opened in 1846, the Teatro Filarmonico, and the railway station (built in 1850) are conspicuous. Verona be- came a Roman colony with the title Augusta in 89 B. C., was the birthplace of Catullus, and probably of Cornelius Nepos; was of greatest importance during the Gothic-Lon- gobardian times, especially as the residence of the Ostrogoth Theodoric, the celebrated Dietrich von Bern (i. e. Verona) of the Germanic saga. It passed from Milanese into Vene- tian hands, and became Austrian in 1814 and Italian in 1866. Pop. (1893) 69,900. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Verona: borough; Allegheny co., Pa.; on the Alle- gheny river, and the Allegheny Val. Railway; 12 miles E. N. E. of Pittsburg (for location, see map of Pennsyl- vania, ref. 5—B). It has a national bank with capital of $50,000, a weekly paper, and manufactories of railway-cars, glass, springs, dynamite, powder, and tools. Pop. (1880) 1,599 ; (1890) 1,477. Verona, Congress of: a meeting of the European pow- ers in 1822 with the especial design of taking action in re- gard to the revolution in Spain, where the Bourbon king, Ferdinand VII., had been forced to sign the constitution of 1812 and was at the mercy of the radicals. As at Laibach, the spirit of the congress was reactionary, and, true to the principles of the HOLY ALLIANCE (g. v.), its members favored intervention on behalf of the Spanish sovereign. The czar hoped to be the agent to carry out the decree of the con- gress, but abandoned the project upon learning that France would not permit the passage of Russian troops through her territory. The protest of Great Britain through her envoy, Wellington, prevented the congress from taking for- mal action against the Spanish revolutionists like that taken against the Neapolitans at the congress of Laibach, but it could not prevent the consent of the powers to the interven- tion of France as the power chiefly endangered by the revo- lution. As a result of the congress the Due d’Angouléme invaded Spain at the head of a large army in 1823, and the despotism of the Bourbons was fully restored. Veronese, va-r6-n5/se, PAUL, properly PAoLo CALIARI [called Veronese because a native of Verona]: painter; b. in 1528. He was the son and nephew of artists, and grew up in practice of engraving, modeling, and painting. When at the age of twenty-six he settled in Venice, he had already done independent work in Mantua and in Vicenza. In Ven- ice he was employed upon important work, and he seems to have been recognized from the first as great, even among the great painters of the Venetian school. Titian was then seventy-eight years old, but full of power and at the height of his fame ; Tintoretto, sixteen years older than Veronese, was in great favor and producing wonderful pictures ; and it must have seemed to their contemporaries that all the power in art not still held by the aged Titian had passed to his energetic, tireless, most original, and most aggressive young rival. (See ROBUSTI.) That Veronese should have been at all recognized as a rival to these two men is a re- markable proof of the power he had already shown and was ready to show at a comparatively early age. His first Vene- tian work was in the Church of San Sebastiano, the Corona- tion of the Virgin, on the ceiling of the sacristy ; soon after came the altarpiece of the high altar, The Virgin in Glory, with Four Saints, and the pictures on the side walls of the sanctuary, the Martyrdom of St. Sebastian and the ]lIartyr- dom of St. Maria. The same year he painted the altar- piece Christ on the Cross, with the Three Marys. These VERONICA three last-named pictures may be called the masterpieces of his early time. About 1562 he painted The Adoration of the Magi, for the ceiling‘of the old library in the ducal palace, and in that year he began and finished the Marriage of Cana, for the monastery of San Giorgio Maggiore, on the island, but this is now in the Salon Carré of the Louvre. This famous picture was a part of the tribute that Bonaparte levied on Venice in 1797; it is about 32 feet long by 20 feet high. In 1565 Veronese was in Rome. In 1570 he painted the picture now in the Academy at Venice, the Feast in the House of Levi. This was painted for the convent of SS. Giovanni e Paolo ; it is 46 feet long by about 20 feet high ; the canvas is filled with an immense architec- tural composition with three arcades, and the supper-table is beneath this and at the head of a stately flight of -steps. The Saviour, with Peter and J ohn, is in the very center of the picture, and this single group is almost as famous a composition as the whole huge picture. A noble figure in a rich green dress, standing in front of one of the great piers of the architecture, is popularly taken for a portrait of Paolo himself, and is known in Venice as The Green Man. Immediately after this he painted its rival, Christ in the House of Levi, which Venice gave to Louis XIV. in 1665. This is now in the Louvre; it is as long though not as high as the Jlfarriage of Cana. In 1573 he painted for a church in Murano the picture in the Venice Academy, The Virgin in Glory, with Saint Dominic. In 1577 there was a fire in the ducal palace, in which priceless pictures were destroyed, among them some of Veronese’s ; but immediately afterward he was employed on the ceiling of the largest hall, the Sala del Maggior Consilio. The oval central compartment, which in itself is an immense picture, is Venice Triumphant. In this way his life is to be written, as a mere series of artistic undertakings and the production of splendid pictures. He devoted himself to painting, and there has never been a painter whose work is more uniform in excellence. The museums of Europe are full of his works, many of them enormously large, and yet very many remain in the build- ings for which they were painted. Of the great Venetian colorists, the greatest colorists in the world, he was one. Loving daylight more than twilight, he does not give the glow and depth of Titian, but he gives something as fine, a system of daylight color never surpassed for beauty. His painting has stood the test of time and exposure exceeding- ly well. His composition, in line and mass, and also in color, is perfectly easy, natural, and spontaneous. His design is also peculiarly attractive, his men and women are splendid beings, almost more than human in their health and power and stately grace, his costumes are superb, his architectural backgrounds unequaled in painting. He could draw any- thing with equal ease, and knew as well as any painter who ever lived how to make one touch or one tint do the work of many. In fact, he was one of the five or six greatest painters known to us, and his work must always be a source of delight to those who care for painting for its own sake, as a fine art, having its own special charm, not needing to borrow the means and methods of other arts. He died sud- denly in Venice, in the full maturity of his talents, Apr. 19, 1588, and was buried in the Church of S. Sebastiano among his own numerous and splendid works. RUSSELL STURGIS. Veron'ica: the name given in Christian legend to the woman whose issue of blood was cured by Jesus (Matt. ix. 20), and who afterward, being in Jerusalem, saw him pass to his crucifixion, and gave him her handkerchief that he might wipe his sweaty and bloody brow. He accepted the kindness, and returned the cloth with the impress of his face upon it. The cloth was endowed with curative prop- erties, and wrought many miracles. By order of the Emperor Tiberius Veronica went to Rome, to cure him of leprosy, and prevailed upon him, out of gratitude, and because he was by the miracle convinced of the divinity of Christ, to exile Pilate. She gave the cloth in her will to Clement, the successor of Peter, and it is now preserved in St. Pcter’s and exhibited at intervals. In the Middle Ages it became the fashion to call the cloth “Veronica.” In other forms of the legend she is the niece of Herod, is known as Bere- nice, and again is an Ant-iochene martyr. Perhaps the gene- sis of the legend is to be sought in the story that Jesus sent Abgarus of Edessa his vera icon, his true likeness. See K. Pearson, Die Fronica, ein Beitrag ear Geschichte des Christasbildes im Jllittelalter (Strassburg, 1887). Eusebius (Church History, viii., 18) says that he saw at Paneas statues of the woman and Christ. SAMUEL MAcAULEY J AoKsoN. VERPLANK Ver lank', GULIAN CROMMELIN2 author and statesman; b. in ew York, Aug. 6, 1786; graduated at Columbia Col- lege 1801 ; studied law, and after being admitted to the bar spent several years in Europe; was in 1804 a candidate of the so-called Malcontents for the New York Legislature, to which he was elected many years later, in 1820, when he was chairman of the committee on education; was Profes- sor of the Evidences of Christianity in the General Protes- tant Episcopal Seminary, New York, in 1821-25; was a member of Congress 1825-33; of the New York Senate (1838-41), in the judicial duties of which he took a prin- cipal part; was one of the governors of the New York Hos- pital. vice-chancellor of the State University, president of the New York board of emigration commissioners 1846-61, of which body he prepared nearly all the Annual Reports. D. in New York, Mar. 18, 1870. He was the author of The Bachtail Bards and The Epistles of Brevet llfajor Pindar Pafl’, political satires; Evidences of Revealed Religion (1824) ; An Essay on the Doctrine of Contracts (1825) ; Dis- courses and Addresses (1833) ; of nearly half the Talisman (1819), an annual; of several college addresses, reports, speeches, and papers, and of numerous contributions to magazines. He edited Shalcspeare’s Plays, with his Life (3 vols., 1844-47). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Verrazano, GIOVANNI, da: See VERAZZANO. Ver’ res: Roman governor of Sicily (73-71 B. c.). He was at first a member of the Marian party, but afterward went over to the side of Sulla, who rewarded him with a share of the confiscated estates of the proscribed party. He was elected praetor in 74 B. c., and in the following year he was sent to Sicily, where he remained three years, amassing an enormous fortune by plundering the inhabitants. The Si- cilians succeeded in bringing him to trial, in spite of his wealth and powerful connections. Cicero was his accuser, Hortensius his defender. Before the trial came to a close, Verres fled from Rome. He settled in Gaul, near Marseilles, and brought along with him enough of his wealth to live in luxury and opulence for the rest of his life, and even to ex- cite the greed of Antony, by whose prescription he was put to death in 43 B. 0. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Verrius Flaccus: a Roman grammarian. See FLAccUs, MARCUS VERRIUS. I Verroccllio, var-r5k’ke“e-5, ANDREA, del : sculptor and painter; b. in Florence in 1435. His first training in art was as a goldsmith. Baldinucci affirms that he was a pupil of Donatello’s, together with Pollainolo. The marble basin still existing in the sacristy of S. Lorenzo was made at that time, and was his first important work. He is said to have cast the bronze doors modeled by Luca della Robbia for S. Lorenzo. He also cast the bronze ball that Brunelleschi designed for the dome of the Cathedral of Florence. Verrocchio was commissioned by the Medici to make the tomb of Piero and Giovanni de’ Medici in the sacristy of S. Lorenzo, which he completed in 1482. Later he was employed in the decora- tion of their villa at Careggi, and for them also he made the bronze David now in the Bargello in Florence. The tomb of Francesca Tornabuoni, executed in Rome in 1477, was Verrocchio’s first great work in marble. The reliefs for this are now in the museum in Florence. From this date till 1484 Verrocchio divided his time between Rome and Florence. He executed some large silver statues of the apostles for the Sistine chapel, of which no trace remains. About 1480 he made the silver bas—relief of the Beheading of St. John for the altar of the baptistery in Florence, now the only remaining example of his goldsmith’s work. In 1483 he completed the group of the IncrednliI‘3/ of St. Thomas for Orsanmichele. From 1484 to 1488 he worked chiefly on the equestrian statue of Colleoni in Venice. He caught a cold during its casting, and died from its effects in 1488. Verrocchio, although chiefly a sculptor, had more to do with forming the art of painting for his successors than any artist of his time. He was evidently much influ- enced in his method by Fra Filippo. Of Verrocchio’s pic- tures therc is authentic evidence only as to The Baptism of Clb7"iSi, in the Accademia in Florence, of which Vasari says it was in part painted by Leonardo. It is known that many Madonnas were sent out of his studio, and there are several attributed to him by various critics. Verrocchio takes rank among the greatest of the artists of the Renaissance. He was the master of Leonardo da Vinci, of Perugino, and of Lorenzo di Credi, and was a musician and mathematician as well as a sculptor and painter. See Crowe and Caval- caselle, and Vasari. W. J . S. VERTEBRATA 489 Versailles, var’sa"al’: capital of the department of Seine- et-Oise, France; 11 miles S. \V. of Paris (see map of France, ref. 3-F). It is regularly built, with broad and straight streets, and intersected by elegant avenues planted with trees. It has few manufactures and little trade. The chief attractions of the place are the palace and the park. The palace, an enormous pile, 1,400 feet long, was erected by Louis XIV., and was the residence of the French kings till 1792. In 1837 Louis Philippe transformed it into a national museum, to commemorate the glories of France. The park, with its terraces, alleys, and fountains, was long considered a model of landscape-gardening. Versailles has a national college, a normal school, numerous literary and scientific societies, and a public library of 75,000 volumes. It was here that the German empire was founded in 1871. During 1871-79 it was the seat of the National Assembly and Gov- ernment of France. Pop. (1891) 51,354. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Versailles, ver-sa‘.lz’: town (laid out in 1794); capital of Woodford co., Ky. ; on the Rich., Nicholas, Irv. and Beattyv. and the Southern railways; 15 miles S. E. of Franldort (for location, see map of Kentucky, ref. 3-H). It is in an ag- ricultural and stock-raisin g region ; contains Rose Hill Semi- nary (Christian, opened in 1875), 3 State banks with combined capital of $210,000, and several factories; and has a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 2,126; (1890) 2,575. Versailles: town; capital of Morgan co., Mo.; on the Mo. Pac. Railway; 30 miles S. E. of Sedalia, 40 miles S. W. of Jefferson City (for location, see map of Missouri, ref. 5-G). It is in an agricultural, grazing, and mining region; yields coal, iron, lead, copper, and kaolin; and has a male and fe- male institute, 2 State banks with combined capital of $45,- 000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 578; (1890) 1,211. Versailles: village (founded in 1851); Darke co., 0.: on the Cin., Day. and Chi. and the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L. rail- ways; 41 miles N. W. of Dayton (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 5-C). It is in an agricultural region, and has five churches, a public and a parochial school, a private bank, and a weekly paper. Pop. (1880) 1,163; (1890) 1,385; (1895) esti- mated, 1,450. EDITOR or “ Pomcv.” Verse [Lat. /versus, a turning]: a line of poetry usually forming a well-rounded rhythmic period. The maximum length assigned by the ancients was thirty or thirty-two moree or short syllables (a long being counted as twice a short). In lyric poetry and in systems a period often exceeds this length, and the cola, or groups of cola, are written as verses. Each verse is theoretically marked by one chief stress, and regularly has a slight pause at the end not in- cluded in the rhythm. (See Paosoov and METRES.) “Verse ” is often used for “stanza,” and also is used collectively in the sense of “poetry,” but usually in reference to the mere form. MILTON W. HUMPHREYS. Versecz, or Wershetz, ver-shets' : town ; in the county of Temes, Hungary; on the Temesvar-Bazias Railway (see map of Austria—Hungary, ref. 9—I). It has a Greek theological seminary, a real-school, is the seat of a Greek bishopric, and the center of an extensive trade in silk and wine. The town was taken by the Austrians in 1849. Pop. (1890) 22,122 (57'5 per cent. Germans). H_ S_ Vertebra: See OsTEoLoeY and SPINAL COLUMN. Vertebra’ta [Mod Lat. ; in form, liter., neut. plur. of Lat. 'uertebra'z‘~us, jointed (deriv. of rer’tebra. joint, joint of the spine), in meaning deriv. of Mod. Lat. re/r'z‘eZ2ra, vertebra]: the highest and most important branch of the animal king- dom. In common with the other CHORDATA (q. r.) the ver- tebrates are segmented animals which possess a primary axial skeleton (notochord) between the digestive and nervous systems, a nervous system which is not traversed by the ali- mentary tract, and gill-slits, at least in the embryo, leading outward from the throat. Indeed, the term Vertebra2‘a is often used as synonymous with Chordaz‘a. A strict limita- tion, however, excludes the Tnnicaia, Enieropneusti, and Lepzfocardii. The vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical. The body is covered with an epidermis several cells in thickness, from which or from the subjacent dermis may be developed protective structures—-scales, feathers. or hair. The central nervous system consists of an anterior enlargement, the brain, and a posterior prolongation, the spinal cord. The latter is markedly segmented, and from each segment arises a pair of spinal nerves, which are distributed to the parts of the corresponding body segment. Each of these nerves 490 arises by two roots, which differ in character. The dorsal root has an enlargement or ganglion, and is sensory in function, while the ventral root lacks a ganglion, and is motor in nature, influencing the action of the parts to which it is supplied. In the brain corresponding segments are not easily recognized, and the nerves which arise from this region are not easily brought into harmony with the spinal nerves. In the brain five regions may be distinguished: in front, a pair of cerebral hemispheres, next an unpaired optic thalamus, third the optic lobes, fourth the cerebellum, and lastly the medulla oblongata, an expansion of the spinal cord. Both brain and cord are traversed by a canal, and in certain regions of the brain this expands into “ ventricles.” Of these there are four, one in each cerebral hemisphere, one in the thalamus, and one in the cerebellum and medulla. There are three sensory outgrowths which arise from the brain, the paired eyes and the pineal or PARIETAL EYE (q. 1).), which is probably functional in no existing vertebrate. From the cerebral lobes arise the olfactory nerves, which go to the nose; from the thalamus arise the optic and pineal nerves; from the optic lobe region, the oculomotor nerves; while the remaining nerves-—eight pairs in the higher vertebrates —start from the medulla. From the floor of the thalamus a curious downgrowth—the infundibulum—occurs. Its na- ture is problematical. The special sense-organs are three-— the nose, eyes, and cars. In the lampreys the nose is median; in the other forms it is paired. I11 only the higher vertebrates is there a passage through the nose to the throat. For the details of EYE and EAR, see those articles. In the aquatic vertebrates another set of sense-organs-those of the lateral line—need mention. They are tubular structures distributed over the head and extending along the side of the body and opening to the exterior by pores. They are supplied by branches of the tenth (vagus) and fifth (trigem- inal) nerves. The vertebrate skeleton may be divided into axial and appendicular portions. The axial consists of the vertebrae, skull, and ribs; the appendicular——lacking only in the lam- preys and some snakes—-supports the appendages. Each vertebra consists of a centrum, which arises in the tissue around the notochord, and a neural arch which arises from the centrum and incloses the‘spinal cord. The vertebrae are intersegmental in position, alternating with the spinal nerves. Besides the neural arch there may be a similar arch arising from each centrum below (haemal arch), and forming the ribs in fishes, or there may be transverse out- growths from the sides, the distal portions of which may become jointed, giving rise to the ribs of the higher verte- brates. By a fusion of the lower ends of the ribs a breast- bone or sternum may be formed. The vertebrae, ribs, and sternum are at first cartilage, and in many forms (e. g. sharks, lampreys) are never converted into bone. The SKULL (q. o.) is laid down in cartilage. In it may be recognized a capsule for the protection of the brain and sense-organs (cranium) and the face, including the jaws. These may all persist as cartilage, or they may be ossified and re-enforced by other bones developed in the skin, and later united with the skull. In the more primitive forms the number of sepa- rate bones is large; ascent in the scale is usually accom- panied by a fusion of separate elements. Thus the single sphenoid bone of man is represented by about twenty dis- tinct bones in lower forms. In the facial region the jaws are the center about which the most modification arises, and in connection with them are to be mentioned the skeletal supports of the gills (gill-arches). Usually the mouth is armed with teeth, and these may occur in other parts than the jaws proper. It is of interest to note here that the teeth are probably to be regarded as modified scales, for in their structure and development they are closely similar to the scales of the sharks. The appendicular skeleton con- sists of the supports to the fore and hind limbs. There is a girdle of bones (pectoral or pelvic) surrounding the body, and consisting, in its extreme development, of three bones on either side. These are the scapula (or shoulder-blade) above, and the coracoid and clavicle, in the pectoral girdle ;. and the dorsal ileum, and the ventral pubis and ischihm in the pelvic girdle. At the junction of these elements arises the skeleton of the limb proper, which in the swim- ming forms has a low development, but which in all others can be more or less closely compared to that of man. For details of the skeleton. see OsTEoLoeY and SKELETON. The digestive system begins with the mouth, after which come in order pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines, the last frequently showing differentiation into several por- VERTEBRATA tions. These either open directly to the exterior or termi- nate in a cloaca which also receives the urinary and gen- ital ducts. From the intestinal region are developed as outgrowths two special digestive glands, the pancreas and liver. In the water-breathing forms the sides of the pharynx are perforated by gill-slits, the walls of which are covered by delicate plates or fringes in which the blood circulates, while water coming in through the mouth passes to the ex- terior through the slits, and is thus brought into close con- nection with the blood, so that an exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is readily effected. In the higher forms these gill-slits persist for but a short time, and in the mam- mal or bird one only can be found in the adult—the Eu- stachian tube—which, closed at the outer end, connects the middle ear with the throat. In the air-breathing verte- brates the gills are replaced by lungs, a pair of organs de- veloped from the floor of the throat, just behind the gill-slits and extending back into the body. The connection of these with the air-bladder of fishes is very uncertain. The heart, the central organ of circulation, is primitively placed below the alimentary tract, just behind the gill-slits. It receives blood from behind, and in its simplest form consists of two chambers, an auricle which receives the blood and a ven- tricle which propels it forward. Passing from the heart, the blood in all gill-bearing forms passes into a ventral aorta, which gives off arteries passing up through the solid walls between the gill-slits. These arteries give off smaller vessels, which, after passing through the gills, unite above the pharynx in the dorsal aorta, which runs backward through the body. From this simple system are developed by modi- fication and suppression of parts the circulatory organs of all vertebrates. In the highest air-breathing forms a parti- tion forms, dividing the auricle and ventricle, thus giving rise to the four-chambered heart. From the posterior artery through the gills is developed the artery leading to the lungs, while the other gill-arteries are variously modified or suppressed. There is, besides, a so-called lymph system, consisting of vessels and spaces ramifying all parts of the body, and communicating, here and there, with the blood- circulatory system. In certain forms, portions of this lymph system become specialized into contractile organs, the lymph hearts. A portion of the lymph system, the chyle ducts, play an important part in transferring the products of digestion into the general circulation. The body cavity (C(ELOM, q. /0.) is well developed. It arises as a series of small paired cavities, the u per parts of which become obliterated while the lower parts I ow together, giving rise to the pleuro-peritoneal cavity of the adult. A portion of this is always cut off to form the pericardial cavity surrounding the heart, and in the higher vertebrates the remainder is divided by a muscular partition—the dia- phragm—into pleural and peritoneal chambers. These cavities surround the digestive canal. The excretory system in the lower forms consists of a aired series of funnels connecting the body cavity with a ongitudinal tube leading back to open near the vent. Cou- nected with the funnel tubes are capillary networks (glom- eruli), through which nitrogenous waste is passed from the blood into the excretory canals, the whole being strikingly similar to the nephridia of the Annelids. In the higher vertebrates this system undergoes complex modifications, the duct becoming divided into two tubes, the Wolflian and Miillerian ducts, which are variously related to repro- duction and excretion in the two sexes. The sexual organs are paired, and in only rare instances are the two sexes united in the same individual. The sexual products are carried to the exterior by the modified excretory ducts, and in certain forms-—some sharks, skates, fishes, Batrachia, and mammals--a portion of the duct is specialized into a uterus, where a part of the development of the egg takes place. The branch of vertebrates is divided into the Cyclostom- ata, including the lampreys and hag-fishes (see MAasII>o- BRANCHIA),1I1 which no true jaws are developed, and the Gnathostomata, with jaws, including all other forms. For the divisions of the latter, see the articles FISI-IEs, AMPIIIBIA, SAUEoPsInA, and M AMMALS. LITERA'l‘URE.—OW6I1, Anatomy of Vertebrates (3 vols., London, 1866-68); Huxley, Anatomy of Vertebrated Ant- mals (London, 1871); Wiedersheim, Lehrbuoh der 'uerglct'- chenden Anatomic (J ena, 1894); Hertwig, Te./z;t-booh of Embryology of Jtlan and Jllammals, translated by Mark (London, 1892); Minot, I-Iuman Embryology (New York, 1893); Jordan, lllanual of Vertebrates (Chicago, 1888). J . S. KINesLEY. . 5 . FOSSIL VERlTEBRATES. 9.—RHAMPHORHYNCHU$ PHVLLURUS, Marsh. 1’; Jnra‘ss1Co , ,,,_.a,;". 1 ' 7’ I ~. \\\ ' ‘-.'.l:"‘\¥ ¢.b'i7 A ' . J,_. -..-.F._ >1» an - _‘ _\v *4!‘ . ’._:.\ H . i i I 1 'r*“'’‘)\ ‘ ‘ 4' " ‘- R ‘H .’i/'.'~{/; .' ' _, . _ .5‘.‘'/_.:,‘_:-! //ii eQ‘\\ _. _____ '7 , ‘. ../,/ , \\\_i' _ V} V _l -.-A/._- " :1 am _ ""’ . ' "“.'.t.-....I :1/‘"1’ " ‘ 78' yjjn ~ . 1‘ ‘/_f r. 'i'*‘§". tit \\ l \ "'7'-PT‘: _ - . e ‘c r I I \ =' 4*“ ~~ - _ . ;-;"~‘- "1-.1’ “ -ii‘ -ma-q===-G.-_ ‘ " 4 ‘ as. ...... .. ~—~'=¢1'-'-<='-.~;-A-"-$5.1‘?-"V"' ' A % -‘"~-==—-—¢'‘~- . ,- ‘**“'“_"-1-->*:':'_,.'—'-‘-' 'f:-__...-:~*"»~"- x.-ANCHISAURUS COLURUS. Marsh. ,1; fr.-imic. xo.—I-IESPBRORNIS REGAI-15, mm 136 c’°“°°°“$'i 2.—BRONTOSAURUS 1:‘.XCELSUS, Marsh. 1-by Jurassic. in-,_1¢1-1'[3'70RN1$ VICTOR, M % Crehueoufi 3.--LAOSAURUS CONSORS, Marsh. Q: Jurassic. -21 "1 ' .-“‘ .. gnw H-i~ ’ """FM's.- '1 ' '.=u~,- - ' . =2 ’ s; '—\ o_''' R‘, 5.-4TBGOSAURUS UNGULATUS, Marsh. ‘11, Jnnssia, RIQ ' “ 7i‘;§'~,;- !’\ ‘up 8 I / ' d- F. I 8 Q... "2' . ‘ ._ 1“ __--,_-¢&“- :2.--C,0RYPi-IODON HAMATUS, M /‘ ‘lb. R i_ '~ v_.-O‘-* ~ A -at ._ . . _.-._.--,-‘v,-.vra1u,"P“') .”"/1 rut ‘r.~.'-2-.~°é ii \ I 4 !5.—ENTELODON CRASSUS.Mm-sh. 1‘; Miocene. RCSIOY 21110118 Of EXIIIICI AI1lII12llS; DY 0. C. lM2lI'Sl1. -.- Original Specimens in Museum of Yale Q; hlioc-cue. University. l Copyright, I895,lbY O. C. Marsh. I i VERTEBRATES, FOSSIL Vertebrates, Fossil: the remains of vertebrate animals found in the geological formations of the earth. The geological succession of vertebrate life, especially in America, deserves an important place, for without it as a foundation no clear idea can be obtained of ancient life itself. The recent discoveries in this department of biology in North America alone have been so extensive, and include so many new and interesting forms of animal life, that these will be mainly used as types to illustrate the subject, rather than those longer known from other parts of the world. 491 Another point of much importance, which can only be mentioned in the present statement, is the genetic relations of the various extinct vertebrates that have left their re- mains so abundantly in the successive strata of the earth. That the older forms are the ancestors of the later ones can be accepted as established, but in most series the exact lines of descent remain unknown. The progressive development of each group follows a certain law. The older forms are, as a rule, less specialized than their successors, and it is possible to determine with much certainty the approximate j Recent-. Tapir, Peccary, Bison. ua ern 1'v. 08, was, ap rue, 3/ , ega erzum, Zodon. t a, BEq Ti Dic0tZes1[th'_ My E . Equus, Tapirus, Elephas. Pliocene. quu?’ Beds gPliohippue. Tapiracus, Jfiutodon, Procamelus, Pliohlppus Beds, Aceratherz'um, 1508, l[O7"0Z]l6’I'Lll7/I., Plat;/genus. Miohippus Beds. Miohippus, Diceratherium, Thinohg/us, Protoceras. . $ Oreodon, Eporeodon, Hz/cenodon, Moropus, Ictops, 5 Miocene. Oreodon Beds. (H;/racodon, Agriochcerus, Colodon. Leptochcerus. 2 _ - Brontothermm, Brontops, Allops, Titanops, Tiz!an0- t B1OntOther1umBeds i Uzerium. I/ilesohzppus, Ancodus, I/’ntel0d0n. cn 9' Diplacodon Beds, Diplacoclon, Epihippus, Am;/nodon, Eomeryx. . Dinoceras, Tinoceras Uintatheflztm, Palceosg/ops, Eocene_ Dmoceras Beds‘ { 070/liPpu8, Hg/rac/L3/uh, Coloazoceras, Homucodmz. Heliobatis Beds. H@l¢'0bati8, Amia, Lepid08teus,Asz'ne0ps, Clupea. C01‘!/Phodon .E0hz'pp2/,s,E0hz/us.Hyracops,Po rah;/us Coryphodon BedS- i Lemurs, U rgulates, Tillodonts, Rodents, Serpents. L ' Series or Ceratops Triceratops Claosaumzs Ornithomimws. C:;aa,:(-ifs Beds ’ Mammsils. CzmoZom’g/s, 1)iprz‘0do’n, Selenacodon, - Nanomg/ops, Szagodon. Bu-us. Ctmolopteryx. Fox Hills Group. I Cretaceous‘ Colorado Series, or ifiirdsswith T%edth.tHesper07‘7};i8,1chthg/ornis, Apatornis. osa aurs, es osa ., z Z ' . 2 Pteranodon Beds. Pterodactyls, Pteranzéhlggz. Ie)'SlE30S8l((z),g2Z‘121‘1:S.S,,7']7.€/i.1I‘)lS.l(le28L? W 0 N ' 0 ~:~~ I ‘’ .022 ~'¢'- Dakota Group. 0 ',.‘v°°,°cO°.l_\\_&_ I \ \::lf:%_’—““ ' __ \ \ __ ' W FIG. 39.—Skull of Dinocerae mirabile (Marsh, one-tenth natural size). eral species have been found, all about the size of a rabbit. Like most of the early mammals, these Ungulates had forty- four teeth, the molars with short crowns, and quite distinct in form from the premolars. The ulna and the fibula were entire and separate, and there were four well-developed toes and a rudiment of another on the fore feet, and three toes behind. In the structure of the feet, and in the teeth, the Eohtppus indicates unmistakably that the direct ancestral line to the modern horse has already separated from the other Perissodactyles. In the next higher division of the Eocene, another genus, Orolmjapus, about as large as a fox, makes its appearance, replacing Eolvlppus, and showing a greater resemblance to the equine type. The rudimentary FIG. 40.—Left fore foot of Eohippus permlr (Marsh). FIG. 41.—Left hind foot of same. FIG. 42.—Left fore foot of Orohippus agilis (Marsh). FIG. 43.-Left hind foot of same. (All two-thirds natural size). first digit of the fore foot has disappeared, and the last pre- molar has gone over to the molar series. Orohtppus was little larger than Eohtppus, and in most respects very simi- lar. Several species have been found in the same horizon with Dinoceras. In the upper Eocene, with Dtplacodon, an- other equine genus, 1Y1’,/1)'t7te',/z)_7ous, has been found, nearly re- lated to Orohzjapus, but more specialized. . Near the base of the Miocene, in the Brontotherium beds, is a third genus, Jl'lesolm.'ppus, about as large as a sheep, and onestage nearer the horse. There are only three toes and a rudimentary splint bone in the fore feet, and three toes be- h1nd. Two of the premolar teeth are quite like the molars. The ulna is no longer distinct, or the fibula entire, and other characters show clearly that the transition is advanc- mg. In the upper Miocene a fourth form, llftohtppus, con- tmues the line. This genus is near the Ancht'tlz,em"um of Europe, but presents several differences. The three toes in each foot are more nearly of a size, and a rudiment of the fifth metacarpal bone is retained. All the species of this genus are larger than those of Mesohtppus, and none passed above the Miocene. The genus Protohtppus, of the lower Phocene, is yet more equine, and some of its species equaled the ass in size. There are still three toes on each foot, but 497 only the middle one, corresponding to the single toe of the horse, comes to the ground. This genus resembles most nearly the 1'-Iipparton of Europe. In the Pliocene is the last stage of the series before reaching the horse—the genus Pltolvlnpus, which has lost the small hooflets, and in other respects is very equine. Only in the upper Pliocene does the true Equus appear, and complete the genealogy of the horse, which in the Post-Tertiary roamed over the whole of North and South America, and soon after became extinct. Besides the horse and his congeners, the only existing Pe- rissodactyles are the rhinoceros and tapir. The latter is the older type, but the rhinoceros had near allies throughout the Tertiary. 44. FIG. 44.—~Skul1 of Brontotherium ingens (Marsh. one-twelfth natural size . ~ FIG. 45.-The same skull ; top view. At the bottom of the Eocene, in the Western lake-basins of the U. S., the tapiroid genus Helaletes is found, repre- sented by numerous small mammals hardly larger than the diminutive horses of that day. In the following epoch of the Eocene the closely allied H'yrachyus was one of the abundant animals. This genus was nearly related to the Lophiodon of Europe, and in its teeth and skeleton strong- ly resembled the living tapir, whose ancestry, to this point, seems to coincide with that of the rhinoceros. Strangely enough, the rhinoceros line, before it becomes distinct, sepa- rates into two branches. In the upper part of the Dino- ‘ . \<._‘._:;. .: . ’ - 1 -~ _.;..- ' e */5.‘;-‘., -@113‘ FIG. 46.-—Skull of Eporeodon major (Leidy, one-fourth natural size). (After Marsh.) ceras beds occurs the genus Colonoceras, which is really a Hyrachyus with a transverse pair of very rudimentary horn- cores on the nasal bones. In the lower Miocene W. of the Rocky l\i[ountains, this line seems to pass on through the genus Dtcera-tlzem'u'm, and in the higher Miocene this genus is well represented. Some of the species nearly equaled in size the existing rhinoceros, which Dt'oerathem'um strongly resembled. The main difference between them is a most interesting one. The rudimentary horn-cores on the nasals, seen in Colonoeeras, are in Dt'cerathem'um developed into strong bony supports for horns, which were placed trans- versely, as in the ruminants, and not 011 the median line, as in all existing forms of rhinoceros. 429 498 Among the large mammals in the lower Eocene is Lim- nohyus, a true Perissodactyle. In the next higher beds this genus is well represented, and with it is found a nearly allied form, Palteosyops. In the upper Eocene both have left the field, and the genus Dziplacoclon, a very near rela- tive, holds the supremacy. The line seems clear through these three genera, but on crossing the break into the Miocene, there are apparently, as next of kin, the huge Brontothemdce. These strange beasts show in their dentition and other char- acters the same transition steps beyond the Diplacodon which that genus had made beyond Palaaosyops. The Bron- tothewldce were nearly as large as the elephant, but had shorter limbs. The skull was elongated, and had a transverse pair of large horn-cores on the maxillaries, in front of the orbits, like the middle pair in Dinoceras. There were four toes in front and three behind, and the feet were similar to those of the rhinoceros. There are several genera in this group, Brontothem'um, Brontops, Allops, Tz'tcmotherc'um, and ilfegacerops, which have been found only in the lowest Miocene, E. of the Rocky Mountains. A restoration of Brontqas is given in the plate, Fig. 14. In the other branch of the rhinoceros group, which left their remains mainly E. of the Rocky Mountains, all the known forms are hornless. The upper Eocene genus, Amy/nodon, is the oldest known rhinoceros, and by far the most generalized of the family. The premolars are all unlike the molars; the four canines are of large size, but the inner incisor in each jaw is lost in the fully adult animal. The nasals were without horns. There were four toes in front and three behind. The genus Hg/racodon, of the Miocene, which is essentially a rhinoc- eros, has a full set of incisor and canine teeth. In the higher Miocene beds occurs a larger rhinoceros, which has been referred to the genus Aceratheewmn. This form has lost the canine and one incisor above, and two incisors be- low. In the Pliocene are several species closely related, and of large size. Above the Pliocene in America no ves- tiges of the rhinoceros have been found. ""7 ' .1 \_- _ - .', ~. ..~ 2 .-. , \ ., 2 \\ \ fr 4 . . ' -:'--- ' V. . ' ,.-,,,~ / , ,'.'./H ‘ , ' ‘I - ’ " /'3 I ,- /, \/ 1 ' ' 1» \ " “ " ~./ , x /"I ’ .-'. : .- ' n’ J. ‘ ‘ 1 F _'___ ,~. It’ ’ / I ' /' .I,);""~"‘f:l1 if ~ ‘ '~i ‘“./""’/’//"f7//// ' Y» ""’" A" _, FIG. 47.—Sku1l of Entelodon crassus (Marsh, one-eighth natural size). The Artiodactyles, or even-toed Ungulates, are the most abundant of the larger mammals now living; and the group dates back at least to the lowest Eocene. Of the two well-marked divisions of this order, the Bunodonts and the Selenodonts, the former is the older type. In the Coryph- odon beds of New Mexico occurs the oldest Artiodactyle yet found, but it is known only from fragmentary specimens. These remains are Suilline in character, and belong to the genus Eohyus. In the beds above, the genus Ilelohyus is not uncommon, and several species are known. Homacoclon is an allied genus from the middle Eocene. In the upper Eocene the true Selenodonts appear in the genera Eomcryaz, Hyoviterg/.r. Oromeryn;, and Pwramerysc. In the Miocene, Oreodon, Eporcoclon, Entelodon, and Tlm'nolz.yus are impor- tant genera. The skeleton of one species of Entelodon is shown on the accompanying plate, Fig. 15. The Proboscidians make their appearance in North Amer- ica in the lower Pliocene, where several species of Jlfastodon have been found. A restoration of one species of this genus is shown on the same plate, Fig. 16. (See also the article MASTODON.) This genus occurs also in the upper Pliocene and in the Post-Tertiary; although some of the remains at- tributed to the latter are undoubtedly older. The Pliocene species have a band of enamel on the tusks, and other pe- culiarities observed in the oldest mastodons of Europe, which are from essentially the same horizon. Two species of this genus have been found in South America, in connec- VERTEBRATES, FOSSIL tion with the remains of extinct llamas and horses. The genus Elephas is"a later form, and has not yet been identified in North America below the upper Pliocene, where one gi- gantic species was abundant. In the Post-Pliocene re- mains of this genus are numerous. The hairy mammoth of the Old World (EZephasp7'zhm'gem'us) was once abundant in Alaska. ' Perhaps the most remarkable mammals as yet found in America are the Tz'llodontz'a, which are comparatively abundant in the lower and middle Eocene. These animals seem to combine the characters of several different groups, viz., the Carnivores, Ungulates, and Rodents. In the genus T£Zlothem'mn, the type of the order and of the family Tille- theridce, the skull resembles that of the, bears; the molar teeth are of the ungulate type, while the large incisors are similar to those of Rodents. The skeleton resembles that of the Carnivores, but the scaphoid and lunar bones are dis- tinct, and there is a third trochanter on the femur. The feet are plantigrade, and each had five digits, all with long, pointed claws. In the allied genus Sty/Zinodon, which be- longs to a distinct family, the IS't3/Ze'nod0nt'idce, all the teeth were rootless. Some of these animals were as large as a tapir. The genus Dryptodon has been found only in the Coryphodon beds of New Mexico, while Tillotlaervh/.m and Sig/hlnodon occur in the middle Eocene of Wyoming. The order Toxodontia includes two genera, Toasodon and Ncso- don, which have been found in the Post-Tertiary deposits of South America. These animals were huge, and possessed such mixed characters that their affinities are a matter of considerable doubt. They are believed to be related to the Ungulates, Rodents, and Edentates. FIG. 48.—Sku1l of Tillotherium _f0d£ens (Ma sh, one-sixth natural‘. size). In the lower Eocene of New Mexico are representatives of the earliest known Primates, and among them are the genera. Lemurcwus and Le'mn0them'um, each the type of a distinct family. These genera became abundant in the middle Eo- cene of the West, and with them are found others--all in- cluded in the two families Lemuravidce and Le'mn0them'd(e. Lemurcwus appears to have been nearly allied to the le- murs, and is the most generalized form of the Primates yet discovered. It had forty-four teeth, forming a continuous series above and below. The brain was nearly smooth, and of moderate size. The skeleton most resembles that of the lemurs. An allied genus, belonging to the same family, is Hg/opsodus. Lc'mnotherc'um also is nearly related to the lemurs, but shows some afiinities with the South American marmosets. This genus had forty teeth. The brain was nearly smooth, and the cerebellum large, and placed mainly behind the cerebrum. The orbits are open behind, and the lachrymal foramen is outside the orbit. Other genera be- longing to the Lz'mnoz‘hem'daa are Notharctos, Hzjyoosg/us, Jlfzicrosg/ops, Palreacodon, T/2/Mzolestcs, and Telmatolestes. Besides these, Amfz'acodon, Bathrodon, and Jlfesacodon should be placed in the same group. All the Eocene Pri- mates known from American strata are low generalized forms, with characters in the teeth, skeleton, and feet that suggest relationships with the Carnivores, and even with the Ungulates. In the Post-Pliocene deposits of the Bra- zilian caves, remains of monkeys are numerous, and belong to extinct species of Callvitlzmiw. Oebus, and Jacchus, all liv- ing South American genera. Only one extinct genus, Pro- topc'zf7i.ccus, which embraced animals of large size, has been found in this peculiar fauna. It is a noteworth fact that no traces of any Anthropoid apes, or .of any ld World monkeys, have yet been found in America. O. C. MARSH. VERTIGO Vertigo [Mod. Lat., from Lat. verti’go, whirling, dizzi- ness, giddiness, deriv. of ver’tere, turn, whirl] : a subjective or apparent impairment of the equilibrium of the body. It assumes two principal forms: in one it appears to the sub- 'ect as if the objects in his vicinity were whirling about im; in the other, he fancies that he is forced to fall in some definite direction, forward, backward, or to either side. Vertigo is rarely if ever continuous, but occurs in parox- ysms provoked by some appreciable cause, as changing pos- ture, eating, using the eyes, etc. The subjects of vertigo often stagger or fall in consequence of the sensation of mo- tion. Vertigo is sometimes the expression of disease of the brain, or of interference with the circulation of blood in that organ, but more usually it is a sympathetic disorder, caused by indigestion, anaemia, sudden impairment of paral- lelism between the two eyes, disease of the internal organs of hearing, etc. Vertigo may be artificially produced by the administration of stimulants (alcohol) and by the appli- cation of galvanism to the head in a transverse direction or to the superior ganglion of the cervical sympathetic nerve. A variety of subjective unsteadiness, without definite direc- tion to the apparent movement, is better designated as diz- ziness. Vertigo is not a disease, but a condition common to a number of diseases. Revised by WILLIAM PEPPER. Vertot d’Aub0euf, var’t6’do’bo'f’, RENE’ AUBERT, de: his- torian; b. at the chateau of Benetot, department of Eure, France, Nov. 25, 1655 ; became first a Capuchin, then a Pre- monstratensian monk, and was appointed secretary to the general of the latter order, but resigned this position after- ward and became a secular priest in the neighborhood of Rouen ; published in 1689 H istoire des Révolutions dc Por- tugal, which attracted much attention, and in 1696 H isfoire des Révolutions de Suede (2 vols.), which also proved a suc- cess ; was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1701 ; removed to Paris ; published in 1719 Histoire des Réuolutions dans le Gouvernement de la République ro- maine (3 vols.); became historiographer of the Knights of St. John, and received access to their archives; ublished in 1726 .Histoire des Chevaliers de St. Jean de érusalem (4 vols.). D. in Paris, June 15, 1735. His first work is dis- tinguished by a fluent and elegant style, the last rests on actual study of sources, but none of his works combines these qualities. F. M. COLBY. Vertue, GEORGE: engraver and antiquary; b. in West- minster, England, in 1684; enjoyed the favor of Sir God- frey Kneller and the patronage of Lord Somers and other wealthy nobles; was an original member of the Academy of Painting 1711 ; became engraver to the Society of Anti- quaries 1717; made many journeys through England dur- ing forty years, taking drawings of churches, monuments, and ruins as materials for an intended history of the fine arts in England, for which he accumulated 13 folio vols. of MSS.; was a strict Roman Catholic and a man of singular piety, modesty, and artistic conscientiousness. D. in Lon- don, July 24, 1756, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Among his best-known works are sets of twelve Portraits of Poets (1730), ten Portraits of Charles I. and his Friends, and the series of Kings of England in Rapin’s H istory. His extensive materials fell into the hands of Horace Wal ole, and a portion of them were published by him as Anec otes of Painting in England, etc. (Strawberry Hill, 5 vols. 4to, 1762-71), to which was appended his Catalogue of Engravers who have been Born or Resided in England. The latter work was separately published, with all Account of V ertue’s life and works (Strawberry Hill, 1763), by Walpole. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Vertmn’ nus, or Vortumnus [Lat., deriv. of ver’tere, turn, change]: in Roman mythology, the god of the seasons, and, as the husband of Pomona, more especially the god of fruit. He was of genume _Itahan origin. A feast, Vertumnalia, was celebrated 1n l11s honor on Aug. 23. By artists he was generally represented as resembling Saturn. Verulam, BARON: See BAeoN, FRANe1s. Verus, Looms : See ANTONINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS. Vervain : See VERBENA FAMILY. Verviers, var’vi-a’: town; province of Liege, Belgium; on the Vesdre; 15 miles by rail E. S. E. of Liege (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 11—H). It is the center of a cloth-m.anufacturing industry which employs most of the people 111 the city and adjacent district; there are also some machme-shops. The town has a public library and a picture- gallery. Pop. (1891) 48,907. VESPERS 499 Very, JONES: poet; b. at Salem, Mass., Aug. 28, 1813; made several voyages to Europe with his father, who was a sea-captain; graduated at Harvard 1836; was Greek tutor there 1836-38; published a volume of Essays and Poems (1839) ; was licensed as a preacher by the Cambridge (Um- tarian) association 1843, but never held a pastoral charge, and lived a retired life at Salem, occasionally contributing to the Salem Gazette and to the religious organs of his de- nomination. D. at Salem, May 8, 1880. Posthumous edi- tions of his Poems were published in 1883 and 1886, with memoirs of the author. His religious sonnets are marked by great spiritual refinement and depth of feeling. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Vesa/lius, ANDREAS: anatomist; b. in Brussels, Belgium, Dec. 31, 1514; studied medicine at Louvain, Cologne, Mont- pellier, and Paris ; lectured on anatomy at Basel, Pavia, Bo- logna, and Pisa; was surgeon to the imperial army in Nether- lands; was appointed physician to Charles V. in 1544, and afterward to Philip II. ; was accused of heresy by the Span- ish Inquisition and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to a pilgrimage, and in 1563 he went to the Holy Land, returning from which he suffered shipwreck at Zante, and died from starvation Oct. 15, 1564. His De Corporis Huniani Fabrica first appeared at Basel in 1543, and formed the foundation of the modern science of anato- my. It rests on actual observations made by dissection of the human body, and was received with the fiercest opposi- tion by the Galenian school, who derived all their knowl- edge from dissections of the lower animals. His complete works appeared in two folio volumes at Leyden in 1725. See the monograph by Roth (Basel, 1886). Ve’sicants [from Lat. vesi’ca, blister]: in medicine, agents that produce blistering. Very many local irritants are capable of raising a blister, but many of these are too harsh and violent for medicinal use. For the ordinary ur- poses of blistering a preparation of eantharides (see AN- THARIS) is commonly used; but where haste is urgent, cot- ton soaked in ammonia water may be employed or a hot iron momentarily applied to the skin. Both these means produce a blister, but they are painful and may cause severe inflammation, and are used only where a small blister is desired. Blistering, as a remedy, is seldom employed, being at best a painful and debilitating procedure.‘ It is capable of doing great good, however, in well-selected cases. For the management of the ordinary cantharidal blister, see BLISTERS. Revised by H. A. HA_RE. Vespa’sian (full name Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasia- nus) : emperor ; b. at Reate, Italy, Nov. 17 , 9 A. D., of a family in ordinary circumstances; entered the army; held superior commands under Claudius in Germany and Britain; gov- erned Africa as proconsul under Nero, and was sent by him in 66, at the head of a large army, to suppress the rebellion in J udsea. \Vhen, after the murder of Galba, the civil war broke out between Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian was pro- claimed emperor (July 1, 69), by his own army, and shortly after was recognized by the whole eastern part of the em- pire. He left the final reduction of J udzea to his son Titus, and proceeded to Rome, where, after the murder of Vitellius, he was immediately recognized by the senate. A great change now took place in the government of the state. The new emperor was frugal and unostentatious in his per- sonal habits, honest and open in his dealings with all per- sons. The character of the senate was restored and the worst elements in it expelled. A firm discipline was estab- lished in the army. In his external policy he was also suc- cessful. Jerusalem, and with it the whole of J udaea, were taken in 70 ; an insurrection in Gaul was speedily sup- pressed ; new conquests were made in Britain and Ger- many. For the city of Rome he did much. He rebuilt the capitol, which had been burned by the adherents of Vitel- lius; he erected a temple of peace. began the Colosseum, and encouraged the restoration and rebuilding of those parts of the city which had remained in ruins since the great con- flagration under Nero. D. at Reate, June 24. 79. Revised by G. L. HENnRIcKsoN. Vespers [from Late Lat. ves’percc, vespers. liter., plur. of Lat. ves’pera, evening 2 Gr. émrépa] : in the Roman Breviary, the last. but one of the canonical hours, the one preceding compline and following the nones. It is celebrated in pub- lic in the churches, often with brilliant music. The serv- ice oceurs about the time of the lighting of the lamps, being theoretically proper to sunset, and varies with the day of the week. 500 VESPERTILIONIDE VeSpertili0n'idae [Mod. Lat., named from Lat. vesper- ti’lio, bat, so named from its flying in the evening, deriv. of ves'per, evening] : a family of bats devoid of a nose leaf and having the nostrils opening by simple crescentic or round apertures at the end of the muzzle. The ears are moderate or large, mostly free, sometimes united, and each provided with a well-developed tragus; the teeth are normally de- veloped, the molars with W-shaped ridges, the canines mod- erate, the incisors of the upper jaw in two groups separated by a median hiatus, in the lower jaw present all round; the wings are large ; the middle finger generally provided with two phalanges, and with the first halanx extended, in re- pose, in a line with the metacarpa bone; the stomach is sacciform, and the two extremities approximated ; the pre- maxillary bones are small, and separated by a wide median interspace. The family is cosmopolitan in its range, and embraces most of the species flourishing in the northern temperate countries. About twenty genera have been de- scribed, but almost, if not quite, the most comprehensive is Vespertilio. Most of the species found in the U. S. belong to Vespertilio, Scotophilus, Nycticejas, Atalapha, Gwyne- rhinas, and Antrozous. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Vespucci, ves-poot’chee, AMERIGO (Latinized Americas Vespucius): navigator; b. in Florence, Italy, Mar. 9, 1451. He was educated by his uncle, a Dominican, was employed in the commercial house of the Medici at Florence, and about 1491 went to Cadiz, Spain, where he engaged in trade. Later he was connected with J uonato Berandi, a Florentine merchant, who had settled at Seville, and who fitted out the second expedition of Columbus in 1493, and in 1495 made a contract with the Spanish Government to prepare another fleet for western exploration; by his death the execution of this contract fell to Vespucci, and it is known that he was employed on it in 1496. Subsequently he was engaged in some or all of the voyages mentioned below; he was for several years in the employ of Portugal, and on Mar. 22, 1508, he was appointed chief pilot of Spain. As America was named in honor of Vespucci, and as he was supposed by many to have been the first discoverer of the continent, his voyages have beena subject of endless disputes; the ques- tion of their authenticity never has been settled satisfac- torily. The only direct authorities for them are letters attributed to Vespucci himself, and probably never in- tended for publication. These letters were addressed to different persons, one series to a friend of Vespucci, Pietro Soderini, gonfaloniere of Florence. The originals are un- known, and even the language in which they were written is a matter of conjecture. Translations were published at different times and in different languages from 1504 to 1507; but these diifer considerably from each other, and all are very obscure, especially in their descriptions of the first two voyages. In these letters Vespucci states that he made four voyages, two by order of the King of Spain, beginning May 10 (or 20), 1497, and May, 1499; and two for Portugal, beginning May, 1501, and May, 1503. In all he appears to have held a subordinate position, perhaps that of pilot or factor. The first expedition consisted of four ships, and Vespucci says they reached land “upon a coast which we thought to be that of a continent.” This land is conjec- tured by some to have been the northern coast of South America, by others Central America and Mexico. In either case the date given—twenty-seven days from the Canaries— would make the landfall several weeks earlier than the dis- covery of the North American continent by Cabot, and fourteen months earlier than the discovery of South Amer- ica by Columbus. But there are no contemporary notices of this expedition. Mufioz proved, or thought he proved, that Vespucci was in Spain from May, 1497, to Oct., 1498; and there are many other reasons for supposing that this voyage was never made, or has been ante-dated in the ex- tant accounts. I-Iumboldt supposed that it was the same as the so-called second voyage of 1499 ; but this is contradicted by Vespucci’s repeated statements that there were four voy- ages. As for the second voyage, the description of it agrees fairly well with the exploration made by Pinzon about this time; but there is independent testimony that in 1499 Ves- pucci was with Ojeda on the coast of Venezuela. The third voyage, or the first for Portugal, agrees with what is known of the expedition sent from Lisbon in 1501 to follow up Ca- bral’s discovery of Brazil. Vespucci says that after explor- ing the Brazilian coast the ships sailed S. to lat. 52°, and that he discovered land, which may have been South Georgia. The fourth voyage was, pretty clearly, that of VESTALS Gonzalo Coelho, who went to Brazil in 1503. Vespucci states that he became separated with two ships, one of which was wrecked, and that the crew of this wrecked ship was left in a fort (near Cape Frio *2). In one of his letters he mentions his intention to write “ a little book ” on the voy- ages; but if this was ever published it is now unknown. Latin translations of the letters were added as an appendix to the treatise Cosmographite introductio, published by Martin Waldseemiillcr(“Hylacomylus”), at St.-Dié, in 1507. In this work, now extremely rare, Waldseemiiller says: “And the fourth part .of the world having been discovered by Americus, it may be called Amerige; that is, the land of Americus, or America.” This idea, originating in an ob- scure work, was generally adopted within a few years, the name being first applied to South America and subse- quently extended to the whole continent. It should be no- ticed that Vespucci never claimed the honor of the discovery for himself, nor as a subordinate could he properly do so. It is known, also, that he was on friendly terms with Co- lumbus. On the other hand, Vespucci’s letters, obscure as they were, were the first published notices of a western con- tinental region; he can not be accused of originating the name, which did not come into general use until after his death. Conservative critics are inclined to relieve him from any charge of deliberate falsification, and to attribute much of the confusion to careless translations and editing of the letters. Vespucci died in Seville, Spain, Feb. 22, 1512. See Humboldt, Easamen Critique, vols. iv. and v.; Viscount of Santarem, Recherches sur Z’Améric Vespuce et ses Voyages (1842; English translation 1850); Major, Prince Henry the Nai'igato¢', pp. 367-380 (1868); Varnhagen (Viscount of Porto Seguro), various opuscules on Vespucci; S. H. Gay, Amerigo Vespucci (in lVarratiue and Critical History of America, vol. ii.). HERBERT H. SMITH. Vest, GEORGE GRAHAM: U. S. Senator; b. at Frankfort, Ky., Dec. 6, 1830; graduated at Centre College, Kentucky, in 1848; studied law, and removed to Missouri to practice; was elected to the Missouri House of Representatives in 1860; favored secession, and was a member of the Confed- erate Senate. In 1879 he was elected as a Democrat to the U. S. Senate, where he has been prominent in many im- portant debates. He was re-elected in 1885 and in 1891. Vesta [= Lat. : Gr. ‘Emrla, Vesta, liter., personification of éaq-ia, hearth] : in Roman mythology, the goddess of the home or hearth, corresponding to the Greek Hestia. Very few and unimportant myths were formed on the idea of this deity, but the grave and sublime rites which her worshi developed show that of the whole religious feeling whic underlay the Roman mythology she formed the center. She was not represented by any statue or image in her temples, but a perpetual fire burned on her altars, and each Italian city or community had raised an altar to her. The Vesta of the Roman empire had her temple at Lavinium, on the Via Appia, 20 miles from Rome, and hither the consuls and other high oflicials of the republic went to offer up their sacrifice before entering on their duties. The Vesta of the city of Rome had her temple in the Forum, near that of the Penates, and here she was served by her own priestesses, the vestal virgins, and a festival, the Vestalia, was celebrated in her honor on June 9. The number of the vestal virgins was originally four, but afterward six. _They were chosen by the pontifex maximus when between six and ten years old, and they served the goddess for thirty years, spending ten years in learning their duties, ten in the actual performance of them, and ten in teaching them to the novices. Their prin- cipal duty consisted simply in keeping alive the sacred fire on the altar of the goddess, but thereby the guardianship of the holiest which Roman life contained was intrusted to them; and although it has become impossible to us to dis- cern clearly the whole bearing of this institution on the life of the community, numerous well-ascertained facts indicate the great importance ascribed to it. I/Vhen a consul met one of the vestal virgins in the streets, he bowed with rever- ence, and the lictors lowered the fasces while she passed by. When a convict was seen by one of the virgins, he was im- mediately released if she demanded it. If the sacred fire went out from neglect, the priestess during whose watch it happened was stripped and scourged by the pontifex. If one of them committed adultery, she was buried alive and her seducer was flogged to death in the Forum. The tem- ple of Vesta was purified on June 1, and the fire was re- newed on Mar. 1. Revised by J . R. S. STERRETT. Vestals, or Vestal Virgins: See Vnsrx. VESTMEN TS, ECCLESIASTICAL vestments, Ecclesiastical [vestments is from 0. Fr. ves- tement, vestiment < Lat. mste'men’tum, clothing, deriv. of oestdre, clothe] : the dress appropriated to those who minis- ter in the divine oflices—viz., bishops, priests, deacons, sub- deacons, acolytes, servers, and choristers. The employment of vested choristers is a peculiarity of the English Church. In the papal chapels, and generally on the continent of Europe, men are em loyed as singers, and in some of the French churches, an in the Roman Catholic churches in the U. S., the singers are of both sexes, but they are not considered among the ministers of -the altar. In English cathedrals, and in many parish churches, the singers, men and boys, are vested in cassock and surplice, and sit in a part of the church appropriated to their use, called the choir, between the presbytery, the place of the clergy, and the nave, the place of the people. The cassock (Fr. soutane) is a long coat reaching from the shoulders to the heels, with a low-standing collar, and fastened through its entire length by a row of small buttons. The English cassock, however, is more properly made double-breasted and secured with hooks and eyes. A band around the waist, tied at the left side, called the cincture, serves to keep it in its place. The sur lice is a linen garment hanging loose about the person an having large sleeves. The Anglo-Saxon surplice is large and full; it reaches nearly to the feet, and when it is prop- erly made, without any opening in front, falls into ample and graceful folds. These surplices are still in use in the English Church, at least by the clergy. Choristers’ surplices are generally made shorter and less full, approaching more nearly the form called cotta on the Continent. The Roman cottas are usually very small, reaching but little below the waist, and are sometimes made entirely of lace. The rochet and the alb are modifications of the surplice. The former is a short and the latter a long surplice, with close sleeves. The rochet is commonly considered as the episcopal form of the surplice, but it is sometimes worn by acolytes. The alb is a eucharistic vestment. The surplice is worn by the clergy in the choir offices or daily services, and in the ministration of all rites and sacraments except the holy communion. On solemn occasions the principal minister wears also a cope and biretta. The cope is a cloak cut in such a way that when it is s read out the lower line forms half a circle, of which the rent is the diameter. An opening, half an el- lipse, is cut in the straight side for the head, and the gar- ment is fastened in front by a large buckle called a morse. The cope is usually made of some valuable material, and is richly embroidered. One given by Queen Philippa (1328-69) to Durham Cathedral is kept there in excellent preserva- tion. The biretta is a four-sided cap with a flat top, and ridges on it extending from the corners to the middle—four for doctors of divinity, and three for ordinary clergymen. A ridgeless biretta appears to have been formerly common in England, and is often seen in old sculpture and in paint- ings. A stole is also worn at baptisms, marriages, and simi- lar functions, but not, according to the old English rule, at the daily service. In the churches of the Roman obedience the public recital of the daily ofiices has so long been obso- lete that the tradition seems to have been lost. The old rule, however, is probably the same as the English. This stole is 24; inches wide and about 2% feet long. It is usu- ally made of silk, and is frequently embroidered. The eucharistic vestments are the amice, the alb, the girdle, the maniple, the eucharistic stole, and the chasuble. The amice is a square piece of linen, embroidered on one side, which the priest rests for a moment on his head, and then spreads over his shoulders. It is seen as an embroi- dered collar above the alb. The alb is a long garment with close sleeves, secured about the waist with a girdle. It is commonly made of linen, but occasionally of lace, and it may have embroideries on the sleeves and lower part, called ap arels. The Greek alb (chitom'on) is sometimes made of ric er materials, and is colored. The girdle is also of linen. and is made of strands of twisted cord. In the East a broad band (Gr. zone) is sometimes worn instead. The maniple (sudaflum; Gr. epimam'7n'a) was originally of linen. but is now made of the same materials and in the same form as the stole. It is worn upon the left wrist. The eucha_ristic stole (Gr. orwre'on) is 3 yards long and nearly 3 inches wide, sometimes widened at the ends to make room for embroid- ered crosses. It is crossed over the breast and secured by the girdle. The chasuble (Lat. casala; Gr. pheZ0m'0n; in old English, the vestment) is worn over all. It was origi- nally, and is still sometimes in the Greek Church, cut in the form of a complete circle, in which form its ample folds are 501 extremely graceful. It was at a later time made like an ellipse, or rather like the vesiea piscds, which was a favorite shape in England. The modern Roman chasuble is very much cut away in front. In England, France, and Belgium a cross is commonly affixed to the back; in Italy and other Roman Catholic countries in the West, to the front of the chasuble. This is properly of the shape known as the Y- cross. The deacon (in England, the “ gospeller ”) wears over his alb a dalmatic (Gr. stoichamion), and the sub-deacon (in England, the “ epistoler ”) wears a tunicle, but no chasuble, which is reserved exclusively to the celebrant. The dal- matic is a coat partly open at the sides, with wide sleeves. The tunicle is a garment very similar to the last, but less highly ornamented. The deacon wears his stole over his left shoulder; the ends are brought together and fastened under his right arm. The sub-deacon wears no stole. In the West- ern Churches acolytes at a high mass (in England, solemn service) wear albs and amices. At a low mass (plain service), where there are neither ministers nor choir, but only a single priest with a server, the latter wears a cotta or rochet over his cassock, which last is usually crimson. In the Greek Church servers and low masses are unknown. The priest is always attended by a deacon vested in alb and dalmatic. When a bishop is the celebrant, he wears a dalmatic in ad- dition to the priestly vestments, to signify, it is said, that all the offices of the ministry are united in his person. The Western bishops also wear, instead of the biretta, a mitre, either plain or decorated; the former is of white linen, the latter of gold and precious stones. The pall, pectoral cross, ring, gloves, sandals, and staff also appertain to the bishop. In the churches now or formerly of the Roman obedience the color of the cassock is, for choristers, servers, or acolytes, crimson; for the principal acolyte, sometimes purple. Sub- deacons, deacons, and priests wear black, bishops purple, and cardinals crimson. The pope alone wears white. The sur- plice, cotta, rochet, alb, and amice are properly made of white linen, though in the ¥Vest all except the last are some- times made of lace. The maniple, stole, tunicle, dalmatic, and chasuble vary in their colors, following what is called the sequence of the seasons. The Roman sequence is now generally adopted in the West. This gives white for Christ- mas, Easter, and saints’ days, purple for Advent and Lent, red for Pentecost and feasts of martyrs, black for Good Friday, and green for ordinary days. The color for ferice or week-days usually follows that of the preceding Sunday. The English or Salisbury (Sarum) sequence differs from the Roman not only in the use of more colors-—brown or gray being allowed instead of purple, blue instead of green, and yellow instead of white on the feasts of confessors—but also in the order in which the colors are used. According to this sequence, all Sundays at the festal seasons are white, and all other Sundays are red. White Sundays are followed by white feriee, but at the seasons of Advent and Lent the feriae are purple; at those of Epiphany, after the octave, and Trinity, they are blue or green. The old Sarum tradition, however, has been lost, and it has probably been only par- tially recovered. The Eastern calendars do not appear to recognize any uniform sequence of colors. This account includes all the vestments which are received by Catholic tradition, both in the Eastern and Western Churches. There are, however, local variations, and there are other vestments which have been worn only at particular times and places. The Western mitre is unknown in the East, except among the Armenians; the Oriental bishops wear a peculiar cap. The Patriarch of Alexandria wears a cap resembling a crown, which he never removes during the whole liturgy. The Eastern bishops wear attached to the stole a square ornament called the e,m'g0nate'o'n. This was originally merely a handkerchief, but it is now made of some stiff material like brocade, and richly decorated. The stole itself is joined together for nearly its entire length, and an opening is left at the top through which the head is put. Two maniples are worn instead of one. The Greek priest’s cap is not square, but round. There are also local peculiari- ties in the VVest. The rochet and chimere worn by the Eng- lish bishops are a modification of the daily dress, or perha s the parliamentary robes, of their predecessors. The simp e linen sleeves of the rochet have been superseded by lawn, and the chimere of scarlet silk by one of black satin or vel- vet. A black gown was formerly worn by some English preachers. The rival derivations of it from the gown worn by Calvin at Geneva or from the dresses of the medizeval monks may be dismissed as witty inventions. It is prob- ably merely the academic gown which English clergymen 502 VESTRIS were formerly accustomed to wear when they went about their parishes. The square cap and the hood, much worn by the English clergy, are academic vestments. Hoods also form parts of several monastic dresses, which, however, are for the most part modifications of the cassock. The amyss (which is not to be confounded with the amice) was at one time a favorite choir-vestment in northern countries. It was i11 form not unlike a small chasuble, and was usually made of gray fur. It was only worn at the daily service. Of the origin of the vestments little is certainly known. The linen ones have probably been inherited by Christians from the Hebrew Church. The others Dr. Rock believes to have been adopted from garments worn in daily life, retained by the Church after others had laid them aside, adorned and beautified and consecrated to sacred uses. Mr. l\/larriott states more specifically that they were dresses worn by per- sons of condition on state occasions, which were gradually adopted by the Church. This view is strengthened by the fact, alluded to by Mr. Planché, in his Cyclopceolia of Cos- tume, that emperors and kings were long allowed to wear the chasuble, and afterward the dalmatic and tunicle, at their coronations and when assisting at high mass. Accord- ing to the view of Mr. Marriott, most of the vestments were introduced into the Church in the interval between the ninth and the twelfth centuries. Others, he thinks, can be traced back to the fourth, and some to the first century. He is also of the opinion that the color of all ecclesiastical vestments was originally white. As Mr. Marriott has made a careful study of the subject, the present writer thinks it fair to state his views, without, however, in all respects adopting them. The chief value of his work lies in the illustrations and in the elaborate quotations from ancient authors. The litera- ture of the subject is extensive. Marriott’s Vestiarium Christianum, Rock’s Hierurgia, N eale’s Holy Eastern Church, and Blunt’s Annotated Boole of Common Prayer are perhaps the best modern authorities. They contain full references to the older writers. To sum up the whole mat- ter, it is only necessary to add that the same vestments have been in use from time immemorial in both the Eastern and Western Churches, and that, though they may have been, and doubtless were, introduced gradually in the way already mentioned, they varied from each other only in matters of detail or in bearing different names in difierent times and places. The idea of a dress peculiar to the ministers of re- ligion at their ministrations is older than Christianity itself, and is recognized not only by Roman Catholics, but by sev- eral denominations of Protestants. The vestments of the altar include a cere-cloth of waxed linen, which is spread over the stone slab (mensa), fitting it closely to protect it from the damp. Over this is placed the superfrontal, hanging down about 10 inches in front. Be- fore the altar hangs the frontal, reaching nearly to the ground, and embroidered with two broad stripes called or- hreys. Both superfrontal and frontal may have a rich ringe, and both are usually of the color of the season. The former, however, may with propriety be always red. Over all are placed three linen cloths. Two of these are of the exact size of the mensa, but the third is much longer, and hangs nearly to the ground at both ends. It is embroidered in a particular manner, and is usually adorned at the edges with lace. When the altar is not in use, a green covering of silk or baize or some similar material is laid upon it. BEVERLEY R. BETTS. Ves’tris: a famous family of dancers, originating in Flor- ence, Italy, but settled in Paris. The two most celebrated members of the family were—(1) GAETANO APOLLINO BAL- DASSARE VESTRIS (b. Apr. 18, 1729, (1. Sept. 27, 1808), ballet- master and first dancer at the opera in Paris from 1749 to 1781; and (2) MARIE AUGUSTE VESTRIS-ALLARD, or VEsTRIs II. (b. Mar. 27, 1760, d. Dec. 6, 1842), a natural son of Gae- tano by the celebrated Madame Allard (first dancer at the opera from 1780 to 1816), and professor at the Conservatory till The ballet compositions of the Vestris family were insignificant, but their style of ballet-dancing became predominant on all stages of Europe, and reigned for more than a century, largely influencing also the social dances of the higher classes. Vesunna: See PERIGUEUX. .Vesu’vian, or Id'ocrase [vesuvian is deriv. of Vesu- mus; ulocrase from Gr. 6609, form + /cpiims, mixture, deriv. of uepavmiz/at, mix]: a hard calcium aluminium silicate, with 1I'0Il and manganese, sometimes used as a gem but not much esteemed. It is of various colors. ’ VETCH Vesu'vius: a volcano standing on the southwestern shore of Italy overlooking the Bay of Naples. In the midst of a densely populated district, and in full view from routes of commerce on the Mediterranean, it has been more fully studied and its history is better known than that of any other volcano. There are two mountain-masses. That which is at present the higher is conical in form, with a crater at the top, and has an altitude above the sea of about 4,000 feet, the height varying with the progress of eruption. The other mass is a crescent-shaped ridge partly surrounding the cone, and has an extreme altitude of 3,730 feet. It is called Monte Somma, and it is part of the rim of an an- cient crater about 3 miles in diameter. During the period of early Roman history Vesuvius is not mentioned as a volcano, and its fires had been dormant for so many centuries that its volcanic character was not gener- ally understood, although suspected by a few scientific trav- elers. On its outer slopes were vineyards and gardens, and the interior of its crater was a plain several miles in width, partly covered by wild vines. It is related that Spartacus and his followers took refuge in this crater, where they were besieged by a Roman army. In the year 63 and after- ward there were earthquakes in the vicinity, and in 79 an explosion, followed by expulsive eruption, covered the sur- rounding country with volcanic ashes and volcanic mud. The cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were destroyed and so deeply buried that even their sites were unknown for sev- eral centuries. There ensued a period of quiet, followed by an explosion in the year 203, and other explosions or violent eruptions are historically recorded in the years 472. 512, 685, 993, 1036, 1138, 1306, 1500, and 1631. There were probably other eruptions during this time of which no record has been discovered, but it is nevertheless true that there were a number of periods a century or more in length during which the volcano was not active. From the year 1666 to the present time the activity has been nearly continuous, the longest intervals of rest covering not more than four or five years. The activity of the last 1,800 years has been confined to the conical mountain, which bears specifically the name Vesuvius, and the mountain has been built up during that period by ejections of ashes and lava. Its sum- mit has been repeatedly blown off by great explosions, after which new cones have been built within the crater. Monte Somma is part of the rim of the crater existing before the catastrophe of 79, and has had no share in the later activity. The fullest account of the mountain in the English lan- guage is contained in Lobley’s .Mount Vesuvius (London, 1889). G. K. GILBERT. Vesz’ prim (Germ. lVeissbrunn): capital of the county of Veszprim, Hungary; on the Stuhlweissenburg-Kisczell Railway, about 65 miles S. W. of Budapest (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 6—G). The town is the seat of a Re- man Catholic bishopric (founded about 1000 A. 1).). and has a magnificent cathedral and other memorable buildings, a theological seminary, a gymnasium, many churches, and monasteries. The ancient town, known to the Romans by the name of Cimbria, became Hungarian in 1683 after the defeat of the Turks before Vienna. Pop. (1886) 14,800, mostly agriculturists and agricultural traders. H. S. Vetan’curt, or Vetancour, Aeusrm, de: missionary and author; b. at Mexico city in 1620. He joined the Franciscan order at Puebla, became a noted linguist and teacher, and was a member of the provincial chapter and commissary-general of the Indies. His most important work is the Teatro Mesvicano (4 parts, 2 vols., Mexico, 1697- 98; reprint, 1870-71), a collection of treatises on Mexican geography and history and on the history of his order. Some of it is compiled from Torquemada, but there is much valuable original matter. Other works are Arte de Lengua Jlfericana (1673), various biographies, theological essays, etc. D. in Mexico, 1700. HERBERT H. Smrrn. Vetch, Fitch, or Tare [fitch is M. Eng. ficche, feche, for ueche, from O. Fr. reche, cesce > Fr. vesce < Lat. ci’cia; tare, cf. M. Eng. tare-fitch, wild vetch] : any one of several le- guminous climbing herbs of the genus Vicia. North Amer- ica and Europe have each several species, some common to both co'ntinents. One of the most important is Vicia sativa, extensively cultivated in Europe as a forage-plant, and also occasionally grown in the U. S. The bitter vetches (Orobus tuberosus, etc.) are also leguminous forage-plants of Europe. The tubers of some sorts are used as food. Other so-called vetches are the genus Lathyrus, often called vetchlings. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. VETCH Vetch, JAMES, F. R. S.: engineer; b. at Haddington, Scotland, May 13, 1789; educated in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; was engaged upon trigonometrical surveys 1806-24; was manager of silver mines in Mexico 1824-35; constructed in Mexico many roads and other pub- lic works; became consulting engineer to the admiralty, conservator of harbors, metropolitan commissioner of sewers, and royal commissioner of harbors of refuge. He was the author of An Inquiry into the Means of Establishing a Ship-navigation between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea (1843). D. Dec. 7, 1869. Veterinary Medicine [veterinary is from Lat. veterina- rius, a physician for animals, deriv. of veteri’nus, for carry- ing or drawing burdens (used with bestia, peeus), veteri’nce, beasts of burden or draught, probably deriv. of vetus, old, i. e. suited only for carrying burdens] : medicine as applied to animals. The term veterinarius was at first applied to all who had to do with animals, but was later applied only to those who treated their diseases and conducted the veteri- naria, or places in which diseased and injured animals were cared for. Early History of the Science.-—The beginning of veteri- nary medicine may be traced to the earliest time of which we have a record. The chief wealth of the ancient nomadic tribes was in the possession of their flocks and herds, and when these were diseased or wounded, efforts were made for their restoration. Some of the oldest carvings of Egypt and India depict men in the act of administering medicine to cattle, dogs, and fowls. At first, all medicine, including the treatment of human beings and animals, was in the hands of one class; but with increased knowledge and experience the most famous physicians confined themselves to the treat- ment of people, and the diseases of animals were relegated to those less com etent. On account of religious prejudices the human bo y was not dissected by the ancients; hence, for many centuries, all accurate anatomical knowledge was based on the dissection of animals, and this branch of veterinary science was developed very early. In India, great attention was devoted to the diseases of animals as early as 1000 B. 0., and many veterinary hospi- tals were established, of which the most famous was that of Surate. The Medes and Persians were much interested in animals, and it is known that there was a class of men in the oldest times who devoted themselves to curing their diseases. The Jews for a period of several centuries from the time of Abraham lived a nomadic life and were chiefly herdsmen and shepherds. The laws of Moses show that these people possessed some knowledge of the diseases of animals, and realized the importance of subjecting all food flesh to a most careful examination. Veterinary medicine received many additions and much advancement from the Greeks, and the most authentic rec- ords of early veterinary progress are from this source. Vergil relates that Melampus, a Greek shepherd who was widely known for his great success in curing the diseases of animals, was called by King Proteus to treat his insane daughter. Having observed that hellebore was of value in similar conditions in sheep, Melampus administered it to the girl and effected a cure. Chiron, who lived between 1400 and 1300 B. G. and was renowned as the teacher of Jdlsculapius, was both a physi- cian and a veterinarian; he was called the Centaur, because he devoted so much attention to animals. on horses and their treatment in disease was, according to Kircher, translated into Arabic. Chiron is credited with having domesticated the horse and trained him to useful wor c. For several centuries medical thought in Greece was gov- erned by the flisclepiadze, but there is nothing to indicate that they applied their skill to animals, although it is prob- able that there were veterinarians then, for, according to G. Teugler, the medals of that time that bear a figure of a horse, the fore part of which is human and holds a staff about which a snake is coiled, are the insignia of veterinary medicine. Hippocrates, the father of medicine, born in 460 B. 0., was the first to break away from the superstitions and mysticisms of the disciples of 2Esculapius and to place medicine upon a new footing, the basis of which was experience. Of the nu- merous books that havc been ascribed to Hippocrates many are spurious, and among these is the work on equine pathol- ogy (hip iatrica). Since Hippocrates was unable, on account of his re igious belief, to dissect human cadavers he derived One of his books VETERINARY MEDICINE 503 his knowledge of anatomy from the dissection of animals, and thus incidentally learned much comparative pathology. Among the diseases he studied and described are hydatid cysts in the lungs, dislocations of the joints of oxen, ascites of the ox and dog, epilepsy of goats and sheep, and fever of all of the domesticated animals. One of Hippocrates’s contemporaries was Xenophon, who was famous both as a general and as a horseman. Xeno- phon was a breeder of horses, and wrote a large work on the art of horsemanship, a part of which is devoted to the dis- eases and injuries most commonly met with. The descrip- tions of the exterior of the horse and the advice as to vet- erinary hygiene are most excellent, and can be observed with profit at the present time. Of the diseases of horses, a few are described in a very clear way, and the treatment advocated consists chiefly in the application of hygienic measures. Aristotle, born 384 B. 0., was not only the father of zo6l- ogy and comparative anatomy, but was also a productive worker in the field of veterinary science. He described a number of diseases of the pig, dog, ox, ass. and horse. He said that the principal diseases of the horse were asthma, colic, tetanus, and founder; of the ass, glanders; and of the ox, pneumonia and foot and mouth disease. He knew that mules were sterile and described several operations on animals. The Romans devoted considerable attention to veterinary medicine, a fact which is explained by the great love of the people for agriculture, cattle-breeding, and war. It is evi- dent, also, that the old Romans appreciated the financial value of having their valuable animals well treated, and every large estate had buildings for the accommodation of sick animals and slaves, and the diseases of both of these classes of creatures were treated of in the works on agri- culture. Cato the elder described some of the diseases of the domesticated animals in De re rustica; but his work is valueless, since he was a very poor observer of symptoms and was guided by the prevalent Roman superstitions; for example, for all diseases of cattle his advice was to order the administration of a raw egg by a servant who must be fasting at the time. Columella, who wrote about the middle of the first cen- tury, was one of the most learned and practical agricul- tural and veterinary authors of ancient times. Of. his thirteen books on agriculture and allied subjects, the sixth and seventh are devoted to veterinary subjects. The prin- ciples of hygiene are dwelt upon at great lengt-h, and espe- cial attention is called to the need of proper buildings, good air and food, and care of the skin. The fact that some dis- eases of animals are contagious is recognized, and directions are given to separate diseased from healthy cattle. In de- scribing symptoms he was especially clear, and his treatments were rational and free from the superstitions then so preva- lent. In this last respect he was more advanced than the physicians of his time, for they still clung to charms and incantations as an important (part of their therapeutics. The work of Columella elevate veterinary medicine by a longer step than that of any other Roman author. Absyrtus, who lived some 250 years later, was the greatest veterinarian of his time. He was attached to the army of the Emperor Constantine, and his writings are in the form of letters to veterinarians. Absyrtus was more free from superstition than the contemporary physicians and more than their equal as a scientist. He was a veterinarian sole- ly, and the first, of whom we have an authentic record, who devoted himself exclusively to this work. His predecessors had combined agriculture, natural history, breeding, ete., with veterinary medicine. The letters of Absyrtus are very numerous and cover a great variety of diseases. They show him to have been a popular teacher and a man of great ex- perience. His greatest service to his profession was that he separated it from the medicine of physicians, which was then sinking into the depression of the Middle Ages. Other veterinarians of this time whose writings still exist were Hierocles, Theomnestus, and Vegetius. The last was the most prolific author, and left the most extensive and comprehensive work of the ancients. In the flliddle Ages.—During this period veterinary medi- cine made but little progress in respect to scientific growth, but the standing and social position of the veterinarian ad- vanced materially. Every nobleman or wealthy person maintained a large estate, among the chief features of which was a stud and collection of a large variety of ani- mals. Everything that pertained to the animals of sport-— 504; the horse, dog, and falcon—received the greatest considera- tion, and it thus happened that the masters of the horse, who were the veterinarians of the period, belonged to one of the most honored callings. The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (911-959) or- dered the compilation of a large work on the diseases of animals, and in this we find that ancient sources are used almost exclusively. This work, known as the He'ppz'atriea, was translated into French, Spanish, German, and later into Italian. It was the standard veterinary work for sev- eral hundred years. During the scholastic epoch that followed the founding of the University of Bologna, a number of famous scholars studied veterinary science a11d produced veterinary works. Of these, Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), Bishop of Regens- burg, was one of the best known. J ordanus Rufus, the master of the horse of Frederick II., wrote a book entitled De Medicine Equorum, which appeared about 1250. Rufus was skilled in surgery and in horseshoeing, and his book contains much that was original and valuable. Theodore (1205—98), Bishop of Cervia, was also a writer on veterinary medicine. Veterinary medicine first received legal recognition as a profession in Spain in the fourteenth century. It was then classed with medicine and pharmacy, and those who wished to engage in the practice of veterinary medicine were obliged to undergo an examination before a government board, and unless properly qualified the right to practice was denied. This custom was continued until 1835, when this function was transferred to the veterinary schools. In lllodern Tc'mes.—The first important advance in vet- erinary science in modern times may be traced to the pro- duction of a work by Carlo Ruini in 1590 on the anatomy and diseases of the horse. This work was most excellent, and marks an epoch in the history of veterinary medicine. It is illustrated with wonderfully good plates, showing all of the muscles of the horse, and the descriptions are remark- able for their accuracy. From the publication of this work until the founding of the first veterinary school in 1762 but little that was original was produced. Most of the writings of this period were plagiarisms from the ancients or from Ruini. A number of short books or monographs which were of some value had, however, been published, and these, with the accumulated traditional experience of the centuries, con- stituted the growth of the period preceding the establishment of the first veterinary school. The annual plagues were at this time (the eighteenth cen- tury) very prevalent in Europe, and had occasioned enor- mous losses. Rinderpest, lung plague, anthrax, sheep-pox, foot and mouth disease, glanders, and numerous other affec- tions had extended into nearly every agricultural district, and the stock-raisers found their occupation threatened and in many cases ruined. The armies, also, were in great need of competent men to direct the care of the horses and to treat those that were diseased. Hence the time was ripe for the founding of an institution where systematic instruction in veterinary medicine could be given. Veterinary Sc/wols.—-Claude Bourgelat (1713-79) was orig- inally a lawyer, but, becoming dissatisfied with his profes- sion, he entered a cavalry regiment as an officer and after- ward became director of a riding-academy in Lyons. His passion for anatomy and pathology was cultivated by a study of the old books on hippiatry, and by the famous surgeon Ponteau. He published books in 1747 and in 1753 which showed him to be a great reformer in veterinary medicine. In 1762 the French Government decided to open a veteri- nary school in Lyons, and Bourgelat was selected to conduct it. The fame of this school and its director were so great that students came from allover Europe, and the first year there attended it Danes, Swedes, Prussians, Austrians, and Swiss. Many of these were sent by their respective govern- ments, and afterward entered government service. Indeed, it was the custom for a great many years for all veterinary teachers to make a pilgrimage to Lyons or to Alfort and to study veterinary medicine at the fountain-head. In this way French views and French methods have become inti- mately incorporated with almost every veterinary school in existence. The success of this venture was so great that the king, Louis XV., ordered the establishment of another school in the north of France, and for this object the Castle of Alfort was bought and converted into a veterinary school. Bourgelat was transferred to Alfort and the Lyons school was placed in other hands. The example of France was quickly followed by other coun- VETERINARY MEDICINE tries, and before the close of the eighteenth century nearly every European country had established a veterinary school. The system of instruction has been changed from time to time, and the course of study has been lengthened, from one year to three and a half in Germany, to four years in France and England, and to five years in Russia. One of the best of the existing schools is that of Berlin. The Imperial Veterinary High School of Berlin was estab- lished in 1790 by men who had studied at- Alfort. At present it has ten professors, eighteen demonstrators, and about 400 students. The school is situated in a park of about 5 acres near the heart of the city. It is equipped with four com me- dious buildings besides two large hospitals, one for dogs, which can accommodate about fifty patients, and one for horses, with about eighty stalls. The students are divided into two classes, civil and military; the former are subject to no special restrictions, while the latter, who are educated at the expense of the Government for service in the army, are quartered together in a large dormitory and are subject to military discipline. The instruction is very thorough in all of its departments, and comprises, in addition to the branches usually taught in medical schools, such subjects as horse- shoeing, meat inspection, zotitechnics, etc., and every step is illustrated in a practical way. The large clinics are used freely in giving practical instruction. This plan, more or less modified by local conditions, is followed in a general way by all European veterinary schools. The first veterinary school in the U. S. was established in Boston in 1835, but its career was not prosperous and it soon assed out _of existence. Since 1857 eighteen veterinary schoo s have been established in the U. S. and three in Canada. Some few of these are unfortunately operated on a purely commercial basis, they require no entrance exam- ination, and attendance upon instruction for but a few months; while others require a strict entrance examination and a thorough course of three years. Four of the large universities have departments of veterinary medicine, i. e. Magill University, Harvard University, the University of Pennsylvania, and Cornell University. In each of these the course of study covers three years. Veterinary medicine as a real science dates only from the establishment of the schools. Since this time (1762), if the work of Carlo Ruini and Bourgelat be excepted, all of the permanently valuable advances have been made. The lit- erature that has sprung up during this period is quite vol- uminous and comprises special works on every branch of veterinary science. Most of these have been written in Germany and France and by professors in the veterinary schools. This is no doubt due to the fact that in these coun- tries the schools are more generously supported by the Gov- ernment than is the case in Great Britain and America, and the facilities and conditions for original work are therefore better. The first veterinary books of the new era were founded upon the old empiricism and the works of physi- cians. They had many deficiencies and errors, and it was not until the mistaken parallels from human medicine and sur- gery had been eradicted that veterinary literature was erected upon an independent basis. It is natural that comparative pathology and bacteriology should have received much attention from veterinarians, and it results that many of the best-known investigators in these subjects belong to the veterinary profession. Among them are Chauveau, Nocard, Ercolani, Perroncito, Schuetz, Rabbe, J ohne, Kitt, McFadyean, Salmon, and Law. Results:-One of the chief results of the growth of veteri- nary science has been the progressive decline of animal plagues. From a distribution so great that almost every part of every civilized country _suffered and from losses that amounted to millions of dollars each year, these diseases have been so restricted and, in some cases, exterminated, that present losses from diseases then prevalent bear but a small ratio to those then incurred. Rinderpest is stamped out everywhere but on the steppes of Russia, lung plague has been exterminated in the U. S., and in Europe it is a rare disease, foot and mouth disease has been greatly restricted, glanders is all but extinct in the U. S., and the districts formerly infested with anthrax are much restricted. But the veterinarian has not yet fulfilled his function, for many new problems have arisen during the past few years, some of which are already partly settled, but others are still await- ing a solution. These are in reference to such diseases as Texas fever, hog cholera, swine plague, tuberculosis of cattle, actinomycosis, etc., diseases that are comparatively new or which have become prominent recently. VETILLART All of the European countries have regularly appointed district veterinarians whose duty it is to stamp out conta- gious diseases, to look after the general hygienic conditions of the live stock, to supervise the markets and fairs, and see that no animals suffering from contagious diseases are of- fered for sale, and to make a periodical report upon the health of the district. It is through the efforts of these officers that such great success has been achieved in combat- ing contagious diseases. All countries have veterinarians attached to the armies to look after the health of the horses. In Great Britain the army veterinarians rank as officers; the chief of the veteri- nary service of each regiment has the rank of captain, and the head of the veterinary department of the army ranks as colonel. In Russia the chief of the army veterinary depart- ment has the rank of general. In the U. S. army the veter- inary department is not thoroughly organized, and a civilian veterinarian is employed by each cavalry regiment. In the U. S. measures directed against the diseases of ani- mals are originated and carried out by the bureau of animal industry of the Department of Agriculture. Nearly every State has an official State veterinarian who is appointed by the Governor, and who maintains a general oversight over the health of the domesticated animals and enforces State measures for the eradiction or restriction of disease. Several States, as Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, have enacted laws requiring all prospective practitioners of veterinary medicine to be examined by a State board of vet- erinary examiners. Every large city employs one or more oflicial veterinarians, and the U. S. Government employs many for the inspection of meat that is exported to foreign countries. There are many local veterinary societies in va- rious parts of the country, and the U. S. Veterinary Medical Association, which has members in all parts of North Amer- ica, is a flourishing and influential organization. The rincipal works on the history of veterinary medicine are J . Kreut-zer’s Grundriss der gesammten Veterinar- medicin (Munich, 1853); Tisseraut, Histoire abrégée de la médecine vétérinaire (Paris, 1855); Eichbaum, Grundriss der Geschichte der Thierheilhunde (Berlin, 1885); Baranski, Geschichte der Thierseuchen und Thiermedicin im Alter- thum (Vienna, 1886); Postolka, Geschichte der Thierheil- hunde (Vienna, 1887). LEONARD PEARSON. Vétillart, va’te"e’laar’, MARIE MIOHEL HENRI : civil engi- neer; b. in Le Mans, France, Sept. 5, 1848; educated at the cole Polytechnique and cole de Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, leaving the latter in 1874 at the head of his class; resident engineer of the port and canals of Calais 1875-86; engineer- in-chief of the ports of Boulogne and Calais 1886-92 ; French delegate to the International Maritime Congress of Washing- ton 1889; engineer-in-chief of Havre and the other orts of the lower Seine since 1892. His principal constructed works are the new port of Calais, the widening and deepening of the canal of Calais, and the completion of the Boulogne breakwater. His published works are Foncage des pieu./2: par injection d’eau (1877) ; Le port de Calais (1889) ; Fonda- tions en terrains de sable des guais et écluses d-u port de Calais (1889); Les dragages(at the Congress of Manchester, 1891); La navigation aua; Etats- Unis (1892) ; Notice sur le port du Havre (Congress of London, 1883). His most re- markable work was the sinking the foundations of large piers and lock walls by means of the water-jet, which had previously been applied only to the sinking of piles. W. R. HUTTON. Veto [from Lat. ve’to, I forbid]: the constitutional ower of an oflicer or assembly to deny validity to a legis- ative or administrative act, or to prevent its execution. The magistrates of the Roman republic, and particularly the tribunes, possessed this power, although its limits and the mode of its exercise were quite different from those sanctioned by modern public law. Under the British Constitution the crown has an absolute yeto on the acts of Parliament and on those of colonial leg- islatures. The latest exercise of this right to deny validity to an act of Parliament occurred in 1707, and this royal rerogative is deemed practically obsolete. Over colonial egislation the veto is exercised in one of two ways-by the governor, who represents the crown, or by the crown in council. The president of France does not possess either an absolute or a qualified veto upon the legislature. He is empowered, however, to demand a reconsideration of any measure by the legislative chambers; but if it is duly passed VEVAY 505 again, he is bound to promulgate it as a valid law. While he is denied a veto over the acts of the national legislature, he has authority to use it upon various resolutions passed by the general councils of departments. By the imperial constitution of Germany no right of veto upon legislation is given to the emperor directly. There is provision, however, for an absolute veto by him, as King of Prussia through his representatives in the Federal Council, upon measures relating to the military and naval system and to the imperial taxes. In the U. S. a qualified veto is given to the President by the Federal Constitution, and quite generally by State con- stitutions to the Governor, as well as to the mayors of cities by statute. The Federal Constitution (Art. I., § 7) requires every bill passed by Congress, and every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of both houses is neces- sary, except on a question of adjournment, to be presented to the President, who is authorized to return it with his ob- jections to the house in which it originated. When so re- turned it must be reconsidered and passed by a two-thirds vote of each house in order to become a law. The framers of the Constitution appear to have conferred this power upon the President for the supreme purpose of enabling the executive department to protect itself against encroach- ments by the Legislature; but they intended also that it should be used to revent the enactment of improper laws. (The Federalist, I o. 73.) Its frequent employment by a President has aroused criticism at times, and called out strenuous arguments for the limitation of its exercise. (See VVebster’s Works, vol. i., p. 267; 17 Congressional Record, p. 8435, et seq.) It seems to be conceded generally, however, that the President, in vetoing a bill which has been pre- sented to him, is acting in a legislative capacity. Any con- siderations, therefore, which ought to influence him, if he were a Senator or a Representative, may properly control his exercise of the veto. He is at liberty even to return a bill which he believes to be unconstitutional, although the question of constitutionality may have been decided by the Supreme Court of the U. S. in opposition to his view. See Cooley, Principles of Constitutional Law (Boston, 1880); Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution (part i., Ox- ford, 1886); Dicey, The Laws of the Constitution (London, 1885); Burgess, Political Science and Constitutional Law (Boston, 1890); Goodnow, Corhparative Administrative Law (New York, 1893). FRANOIS M. BURDICK. Vettori: See VICTORIUS, PE'rRUs. Veuillot, vO’yO', LOUIS: author; b. at Boynes, Loiret, France, Oct. 11, 1813, in humble circumstances; grew up in Berey, a Parisian suburb; obtained in 1832, through a public labor bureau, employment on one of the ministerial provincial papers; gained notoriety by his polemical apti- tude and his readiness to fight duels; was advanced by the Government from one paper to another, from one position to another, and became in 1843 editor of L'Univers Reli- gieua;. During a visit to Rome in 1838 he was so impressed by the religious ceremonies of Holy \Veek that he turned to serious things, and began to write religious romances- Pierre Saintine (1840), L’Honnéte Femme (1844), etc.—and books of education-Les Pélerinages de Suisse (1838), etc. His polemical talent, however, suffered nothing from his conversion, and many of his articles, collected in several volumes under the title lllélanges religieuo;, historiques ez‘ littéraires, and of his books, Les Libres penseurs (1848), L’Esclave Vindea; (1849), Le Parfum de Rome (1861), Les Odeurs de Paris (1866), etc., in which he championed the ideas of the Ultramontanes, and advocated a social order based on the monk and the soldier as its main supports, are conspicuous by their acridity. D. in Paris, Apr. 7,1883. (See Jules Lemaitre, in the Revue Bleue, J an., 1894.)-His brother, LOUIS EUGENE VEUILLOT, b. at Bo-ynes, Oct. 7, 1818, was his collaborator in the Univers, and published Ifistoire des Guerres de la V endée et de la Bretagne (1847) and other works. Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. Vevay, or Vevey, ve’va’ : town ; canton of Vaud, Switzer- land; on the north shore of the Lake of Geneva, at the mouth of the Veveyse (see map of Switzerland, ref. 6-C). It has manufactures of watches, jewelry, leather, and woolens, and a trade in wine. It is a favorite residence for foreign- ers, is a health resort, and has many schools. Pop. (1888) 8,144. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Vevay: city; capital of Switzerland co., IIid.: on the Ohio river; about midway between Cincinnati and Louis- ville (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 9-G). It was 506 VEYTIA settled by Swiss colonists in 1805, laid out in 1813, and given a city charter in 1877. It has 7 churches, several graded schools, water-works, electric-light plant, a national bank with capital of $50,000, and a semi-weekly and 3 weekly newspapers. Large quantities of fruit, tobacco, hay, wheat, and Indian corn are shipped here, and there are saw. plan- ing, and flour mills, tobacco warehouses, furniture-factory, and brick-works. Pop. (1880) 1,884; (1890) 1,663; (1895) 1,874. EDITOR or “ TwIcE-A-WEEK.” Veytia, vi-tee’a“a, MAR-IANO : historian; b. at Puebla, Mex- ico, in 1718. He studied law at Mexico, and by special li- cense was admitted to the bar at the early age of nineteen. Subsequently he traveled for several years in Europe, and at Madrid became intimate with the celebrated Boturini. Mainly through his influence Veytia devoted the remainder of his life to the study of Mexican Indian history, in which he is said to have been greatly aided by the manuscripts col- lected by Boturini and left in Mexico. His principal work (interrupted by his death) is the Historia antigaa de .Me'rvico. The completed portion, first published in 1836, covers the period from the Nahuatl invasion of Mexico to the middle of the fifteenth century, and treats principally of Texcucan history. D. in Puebla in 1779. HERBERT H. SMITH. Vezin, HERMANN: actor; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Mar. 29, 1829; son of a merchant; graduated at the University of Pennsylvania 1847; went to England to study for the stage. and after filling an engagement at York appeared at the Princess’s theater, London, 1852; with the exception of a year (1857—58) in the U. S., has remained in Great Britain, laying chiefiy in London. In 1863 he married Mrs. Charles dloung, the actress. Amon the parts played by him are Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, Shylock, Marc Antony, Dan’l Druce in Gilbert’s drama of that name, De Taldé in The Danichefis, and Dr. Primrose in Wills’s drama of Olivia. Viaduct [Lat. via, way, road + duc’tas, a leading, deriv. of dv/cere, lead] : a structure by which a road is carried over a valley, the word being usually restricted to the case of a deep valley where the piers are a more prominent feature than the bridge proper. In such cases the bridge spans are short in order that they may be erected without other false works than the piers themselves afford. On account of the height of the piers they were formerly built of timber, but iron or steel is now employed. Until the construction of the Pecos river viaduct in 1892, the Kinzua viaduct on the New York, Lake Erie and Western Railway, in the northern art of Pennsylvania, built in 1882, was the highest in the U. S. The roadway is 302 feet above the water of the creek, while the tallest pier is 297 feet high, and the total length is 2,052 feet. divided into 21 spans. The Kentucky river bridge on the Cincinnati Southern Railway is 275 feet high, and has only three spans, although the total length is 1,238 feet ; it was erected without false works in 1875. The Pecos river viaduct on the Southern Pacific Railway, completed in 1892, is 2,180 feet long, and has 48 spans ; the roadway is 328 feet above the surface of the stream, 26 feet higher than the Kinzua viaduct; most of the spans are plate girders, but the channel span is a cantilever structure 185 feet in length. Other large iron viaducts are those at Malleco, in Chili, 1,140 feet long and 250 feet high ; at Loa, in Bolivia, 800 feet long and 336 feet high ; and at Garabit, in France, 1,852 feet long and 406 feet high. The last has an arch for its principal span. (See BRIDGES.) At Souleuvre, in France, is a stone viaduct 1,200 feet long and 247 feet high. MANSFIELD MERRIMAN. Viardot, ve"e’a"ar’d5’, LOUIS : journalist and art critic ; b. at Dijon, France, July 31, 1800; studied law in Paris; en- aged in journalism ; was manager of the grand opera from 1838 to 1841; founded in 1841 the Revue IncZé;penda/m‘e in connection with-George Sand and Pierre Leroux; visited most of the European capitals in company with his wife, the celebrated singer, Michelle Pauline Garcia. (See VIARDoT- GARCIA, MIGHELLE PAULINE.) Besides numerous transla- tions from the Spanish and Russian, he published Etiides sur Z’Hisioii'e des Inst/itutions et de la Lizftérazfiwe en Espagne (1835); Lfistoire des Arabes et des llfaares a"Espagne (2 vols., 1851); Les Jlfevveilles de la Peintvwe (1868, seg.), of which a part, Wonders of Italian Art, was translated into English in 1870. D. in Paris, May 5, 1883. Revised by A. G. CANEIELD. Viardot-Garcia, MICHELLE PAULINE: opera-singer; b. in Paris, July 18, 1821; daughter of MANUEL GARCIA (q. v.); became proficient in modern languages and the practice of VTAZEMSKII the fine arts, especially music, which she began to study when very young. She visited England, the U S., and Mexico with her parents, returning to Europe in 1828. Having studied pianoforte-playing under Meysenberg and later under Liszt, she appeared at the concerts of her sister, Madame Malibran. After her father’s death she lived in Brussels with her mother, continuing her studies, and in 1839 made her débmf in London in Otello and La C’eneren- iola. Her appearances in subsequent years at Paris, Vienna, St. Petersburg, and other European cities were occasions of triumph. She created the part of Valentine in Les Hague- nots and that of Fides in Le Prophete. Her voice was a mezzo-soprano, having a compass of three octaves. She re- tired in 1862. She has written some important composi- tions, including L’Ogre, produced at Baden, 1868, and Le Demier Jlfagieien (1869). In 1840 she married LoUIs VIAR- DoT (q. v.). Viareggio, ve”e-a"a-red'j5 (anc. Viaregiiim): town; prov- ince of Lucca, Italy; on the seashore, 13 miles by rail N. N. W. of Pisa (see map of Italy, ref. 4—C). A century ago Viareg- gio was a small, unhealthful hamlet, containing about 300 inhabitants; now it is one of the most salubrious and fre- quented bathing-places of the Peninsula. This change is due to the hydraulic operations of the engineer Zendrini, who drained the stagnant pools which had poisoned the air of the neighborhood, and thereafter its advantages as a place for sea-bathing attracted attention. The accommo- dations for visitors are excellent, and the constant agitation of the water at this point on the coast is believed to add to the efficacy of the baths. The Ospizio Marine is a charita- ble establishment intended for poor children of scrofulous constitutions, and it receives from 400 to 500 every season. There is considerable activity in the docks of Viareggio, but the land here is said to advance on the sea at the rate of 6 feet a year from the deposits of the Arno, Serchio, and Magra. Pop. 9,570. The baths are annually visited by about 10,000 strangers. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Viat'icum [: Lat., traveling-money, provision for a jour- ney, liter., neut. of via’ticus, pertaining to a journey, deriv. of via, way, journey] : in the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharist as administered to a dying person. If life be pro- longed, the viaticum may be repeated from time to time, if so desired by the sick person, provided the mental faculties are preserved. In the early hurch the term was applied both to baptism and the Lord’s Supper, and sometimes even to absolution and reconciliation. J . J . KEANE. Viat'ka, or Vyatka: a northeastern government of Eu- ropean Russia; bounded by Vologda, Perm, Ufa, Kazan, Nijni-Novgorod, and Kostroma. Area, 59,117 sq. miles. The Kama and Viatka are navigable streams. The eastern part is occupied by spurs of the Ural Mountains, the other parts are level or undulating. Lakes and marshes are nu- merous ; three-quarters of the area are covered with forests of fir, pine, and birch. The soil is fertile, especially in the southern valleys, producing rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, and potatoes. Cattle-breeding and horse-raising are largely car- ried on. The manufactures include iron, chemicals, glass, soap, cotton. and paper; timber and other raw produce are exported. Pop. (1890) 3,020,700, more than 80 per cent. Great Russians. the rest aborigines, Tartars, and about 100,- 000 Mohammedans. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Viatka: capital of the government of Viatka; on the Viatka, a tributary, through the Kama, of the Volga, 280 miles N. E. of Nijni-Novgorod (see map of Russia, ref. 6—G). It has several educational institutions, insignificant manu- factures, but carries 011 an active trade in grain, leather, tallow, soap, wax, timber, iron, and furs. There are eigh- teen churches (among them a cathedral with an altar of solid silver), a gymnasium, and a seminary. Pop. (1888) 25,702. H. S. Viaud, LoUIs MARIE J ULIEN: See LoTI, PIERRE. Viazem'ski1', PETR ANDREEVICH, Prince: writer; b. in Mos- cow, Russia, July 24 (N. s.), 1792. Shortly after graduating at the University of Moscow he served in the defense of his country against Napoleon. and was present at the battle of Borodino, where he had two horses killed under him. In 1824 he became an editor of the Moscow Telegraph, and in the following years he was intimate with the brilliant circle of which Pushkin was the center. In 1846 he entered the Government service; in 1855 was made assistant of the Min- ister of Public Education. D. Nov. 10, 1878. While still a child he wrote verses and began an active literary career that VIBERT lasted nearly seventy years. As a poet he showed graceful fancy, with fine command of language; as a satirist he at- tacked with great skill and success the prevailing absurdi- ties of his time. He also wrote critical essays on literature. His complete works (10 vols.) were published in Moscow in 1889. A. C. Coomnen. Vibert, ve‘e’b5.r’, JEHAN GEORGES: genre-painter; b. in Paris, Sept. 30,1840; pupil of Picot and Barrias; received medals at the Salons of 1864, 1867, and 1868, and a third- class medal at the Paris Exposition of 1878; became oflicer of the Legion of Honor 1882. He is fond of painting priests and Spanish scenes, and his pictures are often satirical. He is an excellent technician, and his drawing is correct and exact in detail, but his color is sometimes crude. The Grass- hopper and the Ant (1875); Committee on illoral Books (collection of Mrs. W. H. Vanderbilt, New York) ; Spanish Diligence Station and The Jkle'sstonary’s Story (1883) are among his best-known works. He paints cleverly in water- colors. His studio is in Paris. WILLIAM A. COFFIN. Vi'b01‘g‘ : one of the oldest towns of Denmark, on a small lake nearly in the center of Jutland. It has a cathedral, carries on some manufacturing industry on a small scale, and has a general trade. Pop. (1890) 8,352. Vibration: the rapid reciprocating movement conse- quent upon the tendency of a body, or parts of a body, dis- turbed from a position of equilibrium, to recover that posi- tion again; such are the rapid motions of a tuning-fork or tightened string. Sound is due to the vibrations of air, ete., while light is due to vibrations of ether. See Acousmcs, LIGHT, and WAVES. Vi’brosc0pe [Lat. 'zn'bra're, vibrate + Gr. o'rco1reTz/, view, observe] : an instrument, invented in 1840 by Duhamel, for registering the vibrations of a sounding body graphically on smoked paper. See also Sraonoscorn. Vil)u1"nu1n [: Lat., wayfaring-tree, which belongs to this genus] : a genus of shrubs and trees of the family Capri- foltaceoe. It includes about eighty species, mostly natives of the north temperate zone, some occurring in the Andes of South America, and a few in the VVest Indies and Mada- gascar. They have opposite, sim le leaves, corymbose or thyrsoid inflorescence, rotate or s ort-tubular corolla, five stamens, one to three celled ovary, and solitary ovules. About a dozen species are natives of the U. S., including V. prane'foh'am (black haw) and V. Zentago (sheep-berry), both with sweetish edible berries, and V. op/alas (the cranberry- tree), with sour edible berries. A cultivated form of the last named is the well-known SNOWBALL (q. 12.). Several species are in common cultivation as ornamental shrubs. CHARLES E. Bnsssr. Vicar: See Panson. Vicar-apostolic: a person generally in episcopal orders, of some see tn parttbas tnfideltztm, who holds from the pope episcopal authority over a district known as a vicari- ate-apostolic, usually an inchoate, new, and temporary, or a disordered and suppressed diocese. Missionary dioceses are usually vicariates-apostolic, and as such must re ort to the College of the Propaganda. In 1838 the ditfipculties between the King of Portugal and the pope with regard to the East Indian bishoprics led to the abolition of nearly all of them, and the substitution of vicariates-apostolic. Vicar-capitular: the administrator of a diocese, chosen by the chapter in case of a vacancy. He can perform acts for the government of the diocese, but has no episcopal au- thority. Vicar-forane [Lat. m'ea’rz'ns, vicar + Late Lat. _fora’nens, situated outside, rural, liter., situated out of doors] : the delegate of a bishop who exercises certain episcopal rights in a part only of the diocese. (See VICAR-GENERAL.) Not all dioceses possess such officers. They do not exist in the Roman Catholic dioceses of the U. S. J . J . K. Vicar-general: an officer under a bishop, who as the representative of his superior exercises authority in all parts of the diocese. Every Roman Catholic bishop is ex- pected to appoint a vicar-general, and some dioceses have two or more. Sometimes the jurisdiction is divided. and one vicar-general is appointed for spiritual, another for temporal matters. J . J . K. Vicars, J OHN : preacher and author; b. in London, Eng- land, in 1582; educated at Christ’s Hospital, London, and Queen’s College, Oxford; was for many years an usher of Christ’s Hospital, a Presbyterian preacher, and a violent VICE-PRESIDENT 507 writer on religious and political subjects. He was the author of Jehooa Jtreh, God in the Jtlount; or, EngZand’s Remembraneer (1641); GocZ’s Arke overtopptng the World’s Waves (1646); and The Burntng Bush not Consumed (1646), which were published together under the title of Jklagnalta Det AngZe'cant, or EngZancZ’s Parliamentary Chronicle (1646) ; a curious book on Prodtgies and Appari- %'ons (1643); EngZancZ’s Wort/n'es (1647); and other works. . in 1652. Vice-admiral: formerly the second in rank of the line officers in the U. S. navy. This rank, as well as that of ad- miral, was created in 1864 as a reward for war service, and was held by David D. Porter and Stephen C. Rowan. The vice-admiral’s pay at sea was $9,000 a year, on shore duty $8,000, and while awaiting orders $6,000. The oifices of vice-admiral and admiral in the U. S. navy were abolished by the operation of law when the places became vacant by death. The distinction that prevailed in the British navy of vice-admirals of the red, the white, and the blue, has been abolished. See ADMIRAL. Vicente, ve‘.'e-sen’ta, GIL: the found er and most noted rep- resentative of the Portuguese drama; b. in 1470. He was in the service of Queen Leonora, widow of John II., first as a goldsmith highly esteemed for his fine artistic work, then from 1493 also as poet of the court. In the latter capacity he composed, between the years 1502 and 1536, a consid- erable number of dramatical plays, of which only forty-two have been preserved, consisting of religious pastoral plays, comedies, and festival plays. Though they plainly show the influence of Juan de la Encina, the father of the Spanish drama. they are far superior to the latter’s works. both for originality of invention and for artistic merit. Inasmuch as Vicente wrote more than half of his plays in Spanish, which was the favorite language of the Portuguese court, he deserves a prominent place in the history of the earlier Spanish drama, upon which he no doubt exercised consider- able influence, his works being known and performed in Spain as well as in Portugal. Gil Vicente's plays are thor- oughly national in character, embodying the poetical forms, the ideas, and traditions of the Portuguese people, and pre- serving, in the lyric poems introduced into them, valuable specimens of the oldest popular lyric poetry of the north- western part of the Spanish Peninsula. With Camoens and Almeida-Garrett, Vicente stands foremost among the na- tional poets of eminence that Portugal has produced. The best edition of his works is still that of Barreto Feijo and Monteiro (3 vols., Hamburg, 1834). Some valuable contri- butions to his biography were made by Th. Braga in the journal 0 Postttvtsmo. D. probably at Evora between 1536 and 1540. HENRY R. LANG. Vicenza, ve“e-ch ent'za"a: capital of the province of Vicenza; in Northern Italy ; on the river Bacchiglione and near Monte Berico; 42 miles by rail W. of Venice (see map of Italy, ref. 3-D). Vicenza is known for its palaces constructed by Palla- dio, a native of the town (1518-80), which, though condemned by critics and somewhat fallen into decay, are justly admired for their proportions and decorations. The cathedral has pictures and terra-cottas, and is of fifteenth century Gothic. San Lorenzo is a fine Gothic edifice with modern restora- tions. La Santa Corona, also Gothic, has remarkable sepul- chral monuments. There is a good collection of pictures in the magnificent Pinacoteca Civica. The sanctuary on Monte Berico is approached by an arcade of 168 arches, contains some goo pictures. and is visited for the sake of its beautiful view, which embraces a wide range of Alpine peak and fertile plain. At the foot of Monte Berico is the stripped and mutilated villa of Palladio, once one of the most splendid monuments of modern architectural art, and still retaining its fine roportions and most important fea- tures. Vicenza is wellJ provided with educational institu- tions, and has manufactures of silk, linen, earthenware, and paper. Pop. 27,700. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Vicenza, DUKE or: See CAULAINCOURT, Aanaxn Aueusrm Louis, de. Vice-President: an ofiicer of the U. S. Government, chosen at the same time and in the same manner as the President. (See the article CONSTITUTION, Twelfth Amend- ment.) His only oflicial duty is to preside over the Senate. In case of a failure of the electors to choose a Vice-Presi- dent, a majority of the votes of the Senators (a quorum of two-thirds being present) will elect him ; or if there be no majority, he is chosen from the two candidates who have 508 VICH received the highest number of Senatorial votes. In case of a vacancy in the presidency he becomes President of the U. S. As president of the Senate he has a casting vote in case of a tie. His salary is $8,000 a year. Vich, or Vique, veek: town ; province of Barcelona, Spain ; at the foot of the Pyrenees, 40 miles N. of Barcelona (see map of Spain, ref. 13-K). It has cotton and flax-weav- ing factories, tanneries, potteries, and other manufactures; its sausages are well-known. The cathedral, begun in 1040, with alterations made in the eighteenth century, has fine Gothic cloisters. Pop. (1887) 11,640. Vichy, ve‘e’shee’ : town; department of Allier, France; on the Allier, nine hours by rail from Paris (see map of France, ref. 6-G). It is beautifully situated, and is celebrated for its mineral springs and bathing establishments. The mineral waters are both hot and cold, and are alkaline, containing chiefly sodium carbonate. They are charged with carbon dioxide. The waters are valued for diseases of digestion, and about 2,250,000 bottles are shipped annually. The celebrity of the place dates from the times of the Romans, but its modern reputation resulted from the visits made to it by Napoleon III. Pop. (1.891) 10,605, which is increased to 40,000 during the season. Vicksburg: city (founded in 1826); capital of Warren co., Miss.; on the Mississippi river near its junction with the Yazoo, and on the Queen and Cresc. Route and the Ya- zoo and Miss. Val. Railroad; 45 miles W. of Jackson, the State capital, and 235 N. W. of New Orleans (for location, see map of Mississippi, ref. 7—E). The city forms an irregu- lar parallelogram of 1-.) sq. miles, and occupies the summit and slopes of a lofty range of hills. The site is highly pic- turesque, and the city has many fine drives, including one to the National Cemetery, where 17,000 Union dead are buried. Among the public buildings the U. S. Government building and the county court-house are imposing edifices. There are 7 churches for white people—2 Protestant Epis- copal, 2 Methodist Episcopal, a Roman Catholic, a Baptist, and a Presbyterian—and several for Negroes. The public- school system comprises a high school and 3 grammar school buildings, property valued at over $35,000, an enrollment of over 2,000 pupils, and an annual revenue of over $25,- 000. There are 2 Roman Catholic parochial schools, liber- ally endowed and with fine buildings, St. Francis Xavier’s Academy, and St. Aloysius’s commercial college. The prin- cipal benevolent institution is the Charity Hospital, main- tained at an annual cost of $12,000. The city is lighted with gas and electricity, and has an improved system of water-works, affording an abundant supply under high pressure. The annual revenue is about $150,000; expenditure, $145,000; total debt (1895), $517,- 000; and assessed valuation (one-half actual value), about $5,000,000. There are 2 national banks and 3 State banks with combined resources of $2,525,000. The city has a board of trade and a cotton exchange, both influential bodies. About 60,000 bales of cotton are here shipped annually, be- sides large quantities of lumber, cottonseed oil and cake, and general produce. There are extensive railway-shops, 3 cot- ton-oil mills, and many smaller industries. Vicksburg suffered severely during the civil war. In 1876 the river cut through a neck of land, leaving the city on an inland lake. Since then the U. S. Government has been carrying on operations to divert the Yazoo river past the city and to restore the harbor, at an estimated cost of $1,250,000. Pop. (1880) 11,814; (1890) 13,353; (1895) esti- mated, with suburbs, 20,000. J . F. BATTAILE. Vicksburg, Campaign and Siege of: military opera- tions which took place during the civil war in the U. S. After the capture of New Orleans (Apr., 1862) Vicksburg was the only strong point on the Mississippi held by the Confederates. It was well provided with batteries on the river front and along the Yazoo up to Haines’s Bluff. Sub- sequently a continuous line of works was constructed in rear of and surrounding the city. On May 18, 1862, Flag- Officer Farragut, coming up the river, demanded the sur- render of Vicksburg, which was refused. He returned on June 26 with Flag-Oilicer Porter’s mortar flotilla, where- upon the bombardment of the city began and was contin- ued until about July 22. On June 28 Farragut ran past the batteries with two ships and five gunboats, and on July 1 was joined above the city by Capt. Charles H. Davis with his fleet, which had come down from Memphis. A land force under Gen. Thomas Williams, of about 3,000 men and 1,200 Negro laborers, was meanwhile trying to cut a canal, VICO for the passage of gunboats and transports, across the pen- insula opposite Vicksburg ; but before its completion a rise in the river destroyed all that had been done. On the night of July 15 Farragut’s fleet ran down past the batteries, en- gaging them and the ram Arkansas on the way, and on July 27, having taken \Villiams's troops on board, withdrew to Baton Rouge and New Orleans. On the same day Davis’s fleet went up the river to Helena, and the first attack was ended. The Confederate reports state that comparatively little damage was done by the bombardment. On N ov. 26, 1862, Gen. Grant started from Grand Junction, intending to advance along the Yazoo and attack Vicksburg from the rear; but on Dec. 20 Gen. Earl Van Dorn captured his dép6t at Holly Springs and compelled his withdrawal. Gen. Will- iam T. Sherman, however, starting from Memphis on Dec. 20, moved down the river and on the 29th assaulted Chicka- saw Bluffs, but was repulsed with much loss by Gen. John C. Pemberton, who was in command at Vicksburg. Sher- man withdrew to Millikin’s Bend, and was relieved by Gen. McClernand, Grant subsequently taking command in person. Grant, wishing to get a footing on the high ground in the rear of Vicksburg which touches the river below the city, made an attempt to cut a canal near the one previously be- gun by Williams, and afterward tried to find a water-route through the bayous, lakes, etc., on both the right and left banks of the river, by which he could move his army, on transports, below or in rear of the city. He failed in all these, but as the river fell enough to make the roads pass- able, he marched his army by land on the right bank to De Schroons, where on Apr. 30 it embarked on the fleet which under Porter had run down past the batteries of Vicksburg on Apr. 16, and bombarded Grand Gulf Apr. 29. Grant moved down the river, landed at Bruinsburg, and marched toward Jackson, severing his connection with the river on June 11. The battle of Raymond was fought and won on the 12th. Jackson was captured on the 14th, and the battles of Champion Hill and Big Black River were won on the 16th and 17th respectively. On the 18th Grant was in front of Vicksburg with his communications re- established. On the 19th he made an assault which gave him a better position, and on the 22d a general assault was made which was repulsed with great loss. The regular siege then began and continued until the city surrendered on July 4,1863. The total force surrendered by the Con- federates was over 31,000 men and 172 guns; their previous losses during the campaign and siege exceeded 10,000 men and 90 guns. Grant‘s total losses in this campaign and siege were about 10,000 men ; his total force near Vicksburg was between 60,000 and 70,000 men. The fall of Vicksburg was followed on July 9th by that of Port Hudson. This opened up the Mississip i, and on July 16th the steamer Imperial arrived at New rleans from St. Louis. Although the banks of the river were at times occupied by guerrillas and cavalry raiders, no serious interruptions to its commerce were caused by the Confederates after this date, and the Confederate States on the west were separated from those on the east up to the close of the war. JAMES MERCUR. Vice, vee’k5, FEANcEseo, di: astronomer; b. at Macerata, Naples, May 19, 1805; was director in 1839 of the observa- tory of Rome; discovered several comets, and acquired celebrity by his observations of the spots of Venus; was ex- pelled with the other Jesuits from Rome in 1848; died in London, Nov. 15, 1848. Revised by S. N EWCOMB. Vico, GIovANNI BATTISTA: jurist, philosopher, and critic; b. in Naples, June 23, 1668; was educated by the Jesuits; studied law; lived for several years in the house of the Bishop of Ischia as tutor to one of his nephews; was ap- pointed Professor of Rhetoric at Naples 1697, and in 1735 royal historiographer. D. in Naples, Jan. 20, 1744. His great work, Prz'ncc'pe' di una Scdenza Nuooa d’e'nlorno alla Uomune lVatu/ra delle N azc'om', appeared at Naples in 1725, and in enlarged editions in 1730 and 1745. It represents Divine Providence as the governing power in the history of mankind, and demonstrates the formation, development, and decay of nations as realizations of ideas pre-existing in the Divine Mind. It is often obscure, but it is as often bold and striking, anticipating the results of later researches; and it exercised great influence when, in the beginning of the nineteenth century, it became thoroughly known in Eu- rope, introduced in Germany by Weber, in France by Miche- let. Complete editions of his works were published by Villa Rosa (1818) and Ferrari (1834). See Flint’s Vice (Edin- burgh and London, 1884). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. VICO EQUENSE Vico Equense, -at-kwen’scZ (anc. Vicus Eguensis): town; rovince of Castellamare, Southern Italy; about 4 miles .‘. W. of the town of Castellamare; on a rocky cliff that overlooks the Bay of Naples and commands magnificent views of Vesuvius, Naples. and the neighboring islands. It was built by Charles of Anjou about 1300, and was after- ward a favorite resort of the Aragonese princes, but the numerous remains of ancient constructions found near it prove that it once had a dense population. Vico Equense is noted for its wines and rich fruits. Pop., with commune, 10,940. Revised by M. W. IIARRINGTON. Victor [: Lat., liter., conqueror, victor, deriv. of cin- cere, m'c'tum, conquer]: the name of three popes. VICTOR I. reigned, according to some, 185-197 ; according to others, 187-200, or 190-202. He was an African by birth, and showed something of the temper of his native climate in the paschal controversy, threatening to excommunicate all bishops who would not accept the Roman computation of Easter. The harshness of such a measure was condemned by many Western bishops, and he was finally induced by Irenasus to refrain from carrying it out. The epistle of the latter concerning the case has been preserved by Eusebius. Pope Victor was also involved in the Monarehian con- troversy and excommunicated Theodotus, the leader of the i\Ionarchians.—VIc'roR II., a German whose real name was Gebhard, reigned 1055-57, was a relative and intimate friend of Henry III., and Bishop of Eichstiidt before his election to the papal see, but accepted nevertheless the ideas of Hil- debrand concerning simony and the marriage of priests, holding several councils against these practices.—V1c'roR III. (1086-87) was abbot of Monte Cassino when the dying Gregory VII. recommended him to the cardinals as his suc- cessor. A year elapsed, however, before he consented to accept the election. During the half year of his pontificate he was faithful to the spirit of Gregory’s policy.—Two anti- popes have borne the name of VICTOR IV., but neither was of much importance. Revised by F. M. CoLBY. Victor, AURELIUS: See AURELIUS Vwroa. Victor, CLAUDE PERRIN, Duke of Belluno : general; b. at Lamarche, department of Vosges, France, Dec. 7, 1764; en- tered the army in 1781; was created a brigadier-general in 1793 for bravery at the siege of Toulon, general of division in 1797, marshal and duke after the battle of Friedland, and after the Treaty of Tilsit, governor of Berlin; commanded in Spain from 1809 to 1812, where he gained the victories of Ucles and Medellin, but was defeated at Talavera: fought with distinction in the Russian and German campaigns 1812-14; adhered to the Bourbons during the Hundred Days, and became afterward conspicuous on account of his harshness toward those generals who returned to Napoleon; was Minister of War from 1821 to 1823 ; accompanied in the latter year the French army to Spain as commander under the Duke of Angouléme, but was recalled on account of sus- pected connivance at the fraudulent contracts obtained by Ouvrard for supplying the army. He was major-general of the Royal Guard at the time of the Revolution of 1830, but afterward lived in retirement. D. in Paris, Mar. 1, 1841. Victor, CLAUDIUS l\IARIUSZ Christian poet of the fifth century; b. in Marseilles. His poem entitled A7ez‘7zz'a, in three books. is a rendering into verse of the first nineteen chapters of Genesis, interspersed with various reflections and digressions, showing considerable power of imagination and expression. The best edition is by C. Schenkl (V ienna, 1888). M. \V. Victor Amade'us. the name of three sovereigns of the house of Savoy, of whom the first bore the title of Duke of Savoy, the last two that of King of Sardinia. V IOTOR AMADEUS I., b. May 8, 1587, succeeded his father, Charles Emmanuel the Great, as Duke of Savoy in 1630; was forced by Richelieu into an alliance with France against Austria and Spain; gained the victories of Fornavent-0 and Monte- baldone, but died at Vercelli, Oct. 7, 1637.—-VICTOR AMADEUS II., b. May 14, 1666. a grandson of the preceding. succeeded his father, Charles Emmanuel II., in 1675. and married in 1684 Anne Marie of Orleans, a niece of Louis XIV. Never- theless when Louis sought to reduce Savoy to the position of a vassal state, Victor Amadeus joined the Augsburg League against him, and although Catinat overran both Savoy and Piedmont after the battle of Marsaglia (Oct. 4, 1693). in which the duke lost 10,000 men, he still kept up the contest, and compelled Louis XIV. to buy him oflf by returning to him nnportant territories and paying a handsome sum of VICTOR EMMANUEL II. 509 money. After the peace his eldest daughter was married to the Duke of Burgundy, by whom she became mother of Louis XV., and the younger to Philip of Anjou, afterward King of Spain. In the Spanish war of succession, however, the duke allied himself agam with Austria. His country was the scene alternately of the exploits of Eugene and Ven- d6me, but by the Peace of Utrecht (1713) he recovered all his possessions, and in addition received Sicily and the title of king. In 1720 he exchanged Sicily for Sardinia, and on Sept. 2, 1730, abdicated. Next year he made an attempt to regain the royal power, but was imprisoned at the chateau of Uoncalieri, where he died Oct. 31, 1732.—VIcToR AMADEUS III., b. June 26, 1727, a grandson of the preceding, succeeded his father, Charles Emmanuel III., in 1773; declared war against the French republic, but was compelled by Scherer and Bonaparte to accept the Peace of Paris (1796), by which he lost Savoy and Nice. D. Oct. 16, 1796. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Victor Emmanuel I.: King of Sardinia (1802-21): b. July 24, 1759, the second son of Victor Amadeus III.; ascended the throne on the abdication of his brother, Charles Emmanuel IV., June 4,1802, and resided at Cagliari till 1814, his possessions on the mainland being occupied by the French. By the Congress of Vienna his hereditary lands were restored to him, and the duchy of Genoa was added to his dominions; but the reactionary measures he intro- duced caused a violent revolution, and he abdicated Mar. 13. 1821, in favor of his brother Charles Felix. D. at Mon- calieri, Jan. 10, 1824. Victor Emmanuel II.: King of Sardinia from 1849 to 1861, and thereafter King of Italy: b. at Turin, Mar.14, 1820, the eldest son of Charles Albert; received an excellent education. both scientific and military; married (Apr. 12, 1842) Archduchess Adelheid of Austria: commanded the Savoy brigade in the campaigns against Austria in 1848-49, and distinguished himself by his brilliant personal valor in the battles of Goito and Nova-ra. On the very evening of the disastrous battle of Novara (Mar. 23, 1849) Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, and Victor Emmanuel ascended the throne under very critical circumstances. Peace had to be bought of Austria with great pecuniary sacrifices, and in the interior the state was divided into many contending political factions. The young king him- self was as yet by no means popular. As the husband of an Austrian princess and a pupil of the Jesuits he had to earn the confidence of his subjects. Nevertheless, from the very first day of his reign the policy which he adopted. and which he invariably pursued. though at times it led him into very strange combinations, tended toward the establishment of the national unity of Italy and the elevation of the Italian people through free institutions. Supported by his cele- brated minister C.-worn (Q. 21.), he succeeded in restoring the finances to order. reorganized the army. concluded commer- cial treaties with foreign powers. limited the privileges of the clergy. secularized the Church property. and established a system of popular education independent of the control of the Church. The pope excommumcated him, but all in- telligent men in Italy began to look on him as the coming liberator, the more so that he with great boldness gave all political refugees from the other Italian states an asylum in his dominions. By his participation in the Crimean war he secured for the kingdom of Sardinia a recognition as part of the political system of Europe, and finally, in 1859. he was able to renew the contest with Austria by the aid of France. By the Treaty of Villafranca (July 11) and the Peace of Zurich (Nov. 10. 1859) Lombardy was added to his domin- ions. The aid of France was secured at the cost of Savoy and Nice. and in spite of Napoleon’s promises Venetia still remained an Austrian province: but at the same time Parm a, Modena. Tuscany, and parts of the Papal States annexed themselves to Sardinia; and soon afterward the campaign of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples produced the same result with respect to the whole southern part of Italy. On Mar. 17, 1861, Victor Emmanuel assumed the title of King of Italy, and early in 1865 the royal residence was re- moved from Turin to Florence. Meanwhile the situation continued to be very difficult. Venetia and Rome were still wanting, and great success had at once made the Italian people very impatient and the relation to other powers, even to France, very delicate. As France was not likely further to support the Italian movement. Victor Em- manuel sought and found an ally in Prussia; and although the Italians lost the battle of Custozza (June 24,1866), by 510 the Peace of Vienna (in October) Austria ceded Venetia. When, during the Franco-German war, the French garrison was withdrawn from Rome, the city annexed itself by a popular vote to Italy, and on July 2, 1871, Victor Emmanuel entered the city and took up his residence in the Quirinal Palace. By his first wife (d. Jan. 20, 1855) he had two sons ——Humbert, his successor, and Amadeus, for a time King of Spain; and two daughters—Clotilde, married to Prince N a- poleon, and Pia, married to the King of Portugal. He mar- ried, morganatically, Rosa Vercellana, Countess of Mirafiore. D. in Rome, J an. 9, 1878. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Victoria: a British colony occupying the southeastern part of Australia; the first of the seven Australasian col- onies in density of population, the fourth in order of estab- lishment, and the sixth in area; triangular in form, with the apex at Cape Howe, and the base on the meridian of 141° E.; separated from New South Wales by the Murray river. Area, 87,884 sq. miles. It resembles California in many re- spects, but is only about half as large, with nearly double the density of population. Coasts.—-The coast-line is about 800 miles long, and there are few islands. I/Vilson’s Promontory, the southernmost point of Australia, separates the waters of the Pacific from those of the Southern or Indian Ocean, and divides the coast-line of Victoria into two nearly equal but dissimilar parts. To the E. is along, gentle sweep of low sandy shores, backed by low sandhills, behind which is a series of lakes and coastal lagoons, accessible to commerce only with diffi- culty and danger. The coast \V. of Wilson’s Promontory is divided by Cape Otway, the terminus of a bold mountain range, whose heavily timbered capes rise directly from the water. Nearly midway between the two capes is the narrow entrance of Port Phillip Bay, giving admission to Melbourne on the Yarra Yarra river, 4 miles from the head of the bay. The bay is about 40 miles long by 30 broad, and has abun- dantly deep water and several ports on its shores. Mel- bourne, the capital of the colony, is accessible to vessels drawing 19 feet of water. E. of Port Phillip Bay is West- ern Port, a large shallow bay, half filled by Phillip and French islands, and of little use for navigation. \/V. of Cape Otway the coast is generally bold. Sur_facc.—The eastern part is mountainous, with plains along the coast, and the western part is an extended plain. The Australian Alps enter the colony near the head of the Murray river, coming from New South Wales, where they culminate. The highest point in Victoria is Mt. Bugong, 6,508 feet, and there are nearly a score of peaks with eleva- tions of more than 5,000 feet. It is a wild complex of ranges, generally covered with dense vegetation, including the enormous tree-growths for which Victoria is famous, for the most part nearly impassable, and to a great extent still unexplored. These mountains produce a series of plateaus whose elevation gives them a more temperate cli- mate than belongs to the latitude, and which form attrac- tive agricultural lands where not too wild for settlement. Westward from the Alps extends the Dividing Range, 1,500 to 3,000 feet high, passing in the western part of the colony into the Australian Pyrenees, and terminating in several cross-ranges, of which the Grampians are the last and high- est (Mt. William, 3,600 feet). To the S. of the Pyrenees are the mountains of Cape Otway, wild and picturesque, re- served by the state because of their forests. The western plains are slightly undulating. with open, grassy timber- lands in the S., but in the N. flat, dry, often sandy, in some places bare, in others covered with a dense scrub. Rivers.—The mountains just described form the water- shed between the Murray basin and the direct coast drain- age. The MURRAY RIVER (q. ’U.) is the principal stream of Australia. On the Pacific versant the most important stream is the Snowy river (300 miles long, 180 in Victoria). Farther W. a series of smaller streams drain the fertile Gippsland and terminate in the littoral lakes and lagoons already mentioned. The next largest coast river is the Glenelg (280 miles long). in the extreme west of the colony. The Victorian streams generally vary much with the season, and are subject to heavy annual overflows. CZimate.—In temperature and rainfall Victoria much re- sembles Central California. The worst season is the sum- mer, when the heat is sometimes excessive, due to hot north- erly winds, lasting only a day or two. The most agreeable season is the autumn. The mean temperature of Melbourne is 57° F.; the highest observed in the shade 111°, and the lowest 27°. The rainfall is greater in the E., and decreases VICTORIA to the N. W.; it is greatest on the table-lands (40 inches), and falls to 10 inches or less on the lower Murray. Snow is common in the mountains, but very rare at sea-level, and has been observed only twice at Melbourne. The average annual rainfall at Melbourne is 25 inches. Flora and Fauna.-—The dominating forest forms are the gum-trees of the genus Eucalyptus, and the E. amyydaliua in the mountains attains an enormous size, surpassing the big trees of California. In some districts the trees are said to average 300 feet in height. The largest recorded is one found prostrate, which measured 470 feet in length, and 81 feet in girth near the roots. These trees have a white, slender, smooth trunk, running up 60 or 70 feet to the first branch, and a forest of them has a singular and beau- tiful appearance. There are many species of Eucalyptus, and they vary greatly in size and in qualities. The dense “ mallee ” scrub, which covers many thousand acres in the N. \V., is formed by the E. dumosa. The blue-gum is the species now generally introduced into warmer America and Europe. The red-gum, or “hardwood,” makes a highly prized lumber, because it is almost unaffected by atmos- pheric humidity or fresh or salt water. The myrtle family has many other species, and other characteristic plants are acacias, casuarinas, and tree-ferns. The native mammals are of the Australian marsupial type—the kangaroo, wallaby, wombat, bandicoot, and opos- sum. The birds and reptiles are numerous, and some spe- cies of the latter are venomous. Many European species have been introduced, and have promptly become perfectly ac- climated. The rabbit has found itself so much at home and multiplied in such prodigious numbers as to have become a serious pest. The camel has been found well adapted to the interior plains, the African ostrich seems to prosper, and the Asiatic elephant has been imported. The trout has been’ acclimated, and has taken possession of some of the streams. ]l[iuiny.—This colony leads the seven in the reduction of gold, of which it has furnished nearly two-thirds of the entire Australian output, but of late years the Queensland annual production of this metal has nearly equaled the Victorian. The Victorian product in 1893 was 671,126 oz., valued at £2,684,504. The total production to the end of 1893 was 58,741,341 oz., valued at £235,000,000. The num- ber of gold-miners in 1893 was 25,519, of whom 2,413 were Chinese. The mining was at first in surface placers, but for alluvial mining it is found necessary to sink shafts to the beds of ancient rivers. Quartz-mining is gradually tak- ing the place of alluvial, but with increase of depth the profit is steadily diminishing. The auriferous fields of Vic- toria occur over the area bounded on the W. by the Avoca river and on the S. by the parallel of Melbourne. Over the area thus defined the fields are thickly distributed, and fully one-third of the colony is believed to be capable of gold pro- duction. Great discoveries of coal were announced in 1894, and it is hoped that the colony can soon furnish what is needed for her own consumption. The deposits of iron have attracted some attention, and small quantities of other minerals are found. Agriculture.-—About 20 per cent. of the colony is consid- ered suitable for tillage, and 28 percent. for grazing. Only about 5 per cent. of the entire acreage has been alienated. The number of cultivated holdings in 1893-94 was 34,547. The chief crops, in the order of their importance and with the yield to the acre, for 1894 were: Wheat, 10'4 bush.; hay, 12 tons; oats, 22'6 bush.; barley, 20'5 bush.; potatoes, 3'5 tons. Tobacco is cultivated to a considerable extent. In 1894 the vine covered 32,327 acres, and, though the phyl- loxera has been introduced, the wine product was in consid- erable quantity and fine quality. The fruits of Europe have been introduced, and most of them are productive. On Mar. 31, 1894, the colony was estimated to possess 463,903 horses, 1,817,291 horned cattle, 13,098,725 sheep, and 328,162 swine. Victoria is the most closely stocked of the seven colonies. Its wool brings a higher price than that of the others, and it devotes more attention to dairy products than any other except New Zealand. Extensive districts of the colony do not receive sufficient rainfall for agriculture, and irrigation has been extensively tried by private enterprise, especially in the basins of the Goulburn, Loddon, Wimmera, and Avoca rivers. The most successful irrigation settlement is that of Mildura, in the Swan Hill district, on the Murray river, just below the Lod- don. This was a desert and valueless tract until water was brought on it (from the Murray), When it was found to be VICTORIA of extraordinary fertility. The settlement has (1894) about 3,500 inhabitants, devoted especially to the raising of grapes and manufacture of raisins. Its success has been note- worthy, but the expenditure required was very great. Populatvlon.-—The estimated population on Mar. 31, 1894, was 1,172,144. At the census of Apr. 5, 1891, there were found 598,414 males and 541,991 females. In 1893 there were 36,552 births (of which 1,997 were illegitimate), 16,508 deaths, and 7,004 marriages. Of the population in 1891 63 per cent. were born in Victoria, 7 per cent. in other Austral- asian colonies, and 26 per cent. in the United Kingdom. The Chinese numbered 9,377, materially less than at the preced- ing census. The aborigines are of the Australian race. On the arrival of the first colonists they were variously esti- mated at from 6,000 to 15,000. In 1851 they numbered 2,693; in 1871, 1,330; in 1881, 780; in 1891, 565. About five-ninths of the population are in the towns, and in 1893 about two-fifths were in Melbourne. From 1838 to 1874 167,000 immigrants received aid from the public funds, but state-aided immigration ceased in the latter year. In 1893 there were 74,007 immigrants and 80,460 emigrants, a surplus of 6,453 of the latter. There is no state church, and no assistance from public funds is given to religious institutions. The Anglican Church embraces 37 per cent. of the population, other Protestant sects 38 per cent., Roman Catholic 22 per cent. Education is entirely secular. and primary education compulsory. There is a full complement of schools of all grades, and the percentage of illiteracy for all over 14 years of age is 23. Melbourne University is both an educational and examining body, with power to grant all degrees except in divinity. It was opened in 1855, and receives annually £13,750 from the public funds. It had 639 students in 1893. The public library at Melbourne has about 367,000 volumes and pamphlets, and at the beginning of 1893 there were in the colony 419 other ublic libraries, with an aggregate of about 560,000 volumes. In 1893 Melbourne had a population of 444,832; Ballarat, 44,766 ; Sandhurst, 40,936 ; Geelong, 24,315. No other town had 10,000 inhabitants. O'0'mme'rce.—-Imports are subject to a heavy tariff. averag- ing in 1893 about 13 per cent. of their value. The total imports for that year amounted to £13,283,814—20 per cent. less than for the preceding year, and only two-thirds of the average for the five years 1889—93. The reduction was due to commercial and financial distress. The chief arti- cles of import are wool and woolen goods, cottons, sugar, coal, tea, live stock, timber, iron, and steel (in the order of importance). Nine-tenths came from the United Kingdom and the other colonies, about one-half from each. Less than 3 per cent. came from the U. S. The value of the ex- ports was £13,308,551, a little less than the average for the five years 1889-93. About half the exports go to Great Britain. The staple exports are wool (about £5,000,000 an- nually, but a part is from New South VVales) and gold (nearly £3,000,000 annually). Next in importance are wheat and its products, tallow, leather, and preserved and ‘frozen meats. The value of the last has fallen olf largely. The registered shipping in 1894 consisted of 439 craft (157 steamers), aggregating 93,193 tons burden. In 1893 1,889 vessels entered and 1,887 cleared from the ports of the colony —-about 20 per cent. less than for the year before. About 1,600 of these vessels entered and cleared at Melbourne. The railways belong to the colony, and the network is the most complete of the seven colonies, besides connecting Melbourne with Sydney and Adelaide. On June 30, 1893, 2,975 miles of railway had been completed at a total cost of £37,451,487, nearly all borrowed money. The net profit for the year ending at that date was £1,075,657, or enough to pay 314 per cent. on the borrowed capital, drawing an aver- age of nearly 4 per cent. There were 7,105 miles of tele- graph line with 14,220 miles of wire; also 9,926 miles of telephone wire with 4,226 telephones. A branch of the royal mint was established at Melbou1‘ne in 1872, and from this up to the end of 1893 £58,592,966 worth of coin and bullion had been issued. Silver and bronze money are not issued here. During the first quarter of 1894 there were twelve banks of issue in the colony, with note circulations aggregating £1,107,664. Adm£mJsI‘1'a,tton.——'I‘l1e constitution dates from 1854. The legislative power rests in a parliament of two chambers— the legislative council, of 48 members, from whom a prop- erty qualification is required, elected for six years by special electors with either property or educational qualification: and a legislative assembly, of 95 members (1893), elected for .date the largest Pacific steamers. 511 three years without special qualification by general suffrage of adult males. Clergymen are ineligible to either house. The executive power is vested in a governor appointed by the crown, and assisted by a cabinet of ten responsible min- isters. Local government is representative, and ratepayers have a number of votes gauged by the rates paid. _ The public revenue for the year ending June 30. 1894, was £6,719,623 and the expenditure £7,384,961, in both cases less than for the preceding year. The revenues are derived from the railways, the post, the telegraphs, from crown lands, and from taxation. The taxes include customs. ex- cise, inheritance fees, stamp-duty, land-tax, etc., named in the order of their capacity for producing revenue. The chief expenditure (22 per cent. of the whole) is in payment of interest and other expenses due to the public debt. This on June 30, 1894, was £46,547,708, bearing an average inter- est of nearly 4 per cent. It was nearly all incurred for rail- ways and other public works. The land force at the end of 1892 consisted of 5,388 men, part militia, part volunteers. The navy consisted of 1 ironclad, 2 steel and 3 iron gun- boats, and a few torpedo-boats. Histom/.—Colonization began in 1826 ; Melbourne was founded in 1836; and the colony was erected at the ex- pense of New South Wales in 1850. The discovery of gold in paying quantities in 1851 led to an enormous influx of population. Except for a somewhat painful recovery from the attack of “gold fever,” the colony progressed steadily for the next forty years without especially noteworthy inci- dents, becoming eventually the leading colony in density of population and in wealth. The financial and commer- cial distress following 1891, which was more keenly felt in Australia than most other parts of the world, especially dis- tressed Victoria. and most of all Melbourne, where there had been a systematic course of booming of real estate. As a result, increased attention has been directed to the colony's natural resources. REFEREi\'cEs.—-Hayter, Report on the Census of 18.91 (1893) and Vz'ctorz'an Handbook (occasional); Jenks, Gor- ernmem‘ of Vzfctoria (1891); Langtrel, Gold-fields of Victo- ria (1889) ; Smith, Abortgivzes of Vz'ctorz'a (2 vols., 1878). MARK W. HARRINGTON. Victoria: capital of the British colony of HONGKONG (Q. 22.). ' Victoria: capital and principal port of the state of Espi- rito Santo, Brazil; on a bay in lat. 20° 19’ S. (see map of South America. ref. 6-H). The harbor, surrounded by pre- cipitous hills, is safe and good. admitting vessels of 20 feet draught. The town is beautifully situated, but is hot and somewhat unhealthful. The principal exports are coffee and sugar. Victoria was founded in 1535. Pop. about 7,000. H. H. S. Victoria: a town of the state of Pernambuco, Brazil; about 30 miles ‘V. S. VV. of the city of Pernambuco, with which it is connected by rail (see map of South America, ref. 4-H). It was named in honor of a victory gained there over the Dutch in 1645, and is the center of one of the rich- est sugar districts in the state. Pop. about 9,000. H. H. S. Victoria: capital of Tamaulipas, Mexico. See CIUDAD VICTORIA. Victoria: the capital of the province of British Colum- bia, Dominion of Canada; at the southeast extremity of Vancouver island. on the Strait of Fuca, in lat. 48° 27' N., lon. 123° 25' XV. (see map of Canada, ref. 8-D). It is the southern terminus of the Esquimalt and N anaimo and the Victoria and Sidney railways, and is only 3 miles from Esquimalt. Victoria has an inner and an outer harbor, the former being shallow, while the outer can accommo- The climate resembles that of the southern part of England. but is more rainy in winter and drier in summer. Winters are not severe, and snow seldom lasts more than three or four days. The city, like most English towns. is built without reference to any plan, but possesses many wide streets, the business por- tion being well built and the suburbs being intersected with picturesque drives lined with handsome residences. Among the finest buildings are the Provincial Legislative Assembly (built at a cost of $500,000), post-office, custom-house. su- preme court-house, Government House, the official resi- dence of the lieutenant-governor,the city-hall, the Roman Catholic Cathedral. the Protestant Orphans‘ Home (with ex- tensive grounds), and the public schools. There are 5 Epis- eopal, 3 Presbyterian, 2 Methodist, 2 Roman Catholic, and 2 512 Baptist Churches. Free educational requirements are pro- vided for by 1 high school and 8 ward schools, at which the average number of pupils attending during 1894 was 2,044. These schools are maintained out of the pro- vincial and city funds jointly at an annual cost of $50,- 000. Besides the above, there are 2 private colleges for boys and 3 private schools for girls. Among the charitable institutions are the Protestant Orphans’ Home, the Home for the Aged and Infirm (maintained by the city), the Samaritan Home, the Refuge Home, the Provincial Royal Jubilee Hospital, erected in commemoration of Queen V ic- toria’s “Jubilee,” and now consolidated with the French Hospital and the St. Joseph’s Hospital. The penal institu- tions consist of the city and provincial jails and a juvenile reformatory. The financial position of Victoria on Dec. 31, 1894, was as follows: Receipts for 1894, $342,935; expenditures, $338400; net debt due for loans raised under authority of all the various bylaws, $1,874,000, bearing average interest of about 4-.} per cent., while the property assessed for pay- ment of taxes was valued at $20,914,385, consisting of land valued at $13,774,365 and improvements $7,140,020. The city owns its own water-works and electric-light works, and its own isolation hospital for infectious diseases. There are 3 chartered banks, 1 savings-bank, and several incorporated loan and investment associations. Among the business enterprises in the city are 4 lumber- yards, 4 sash and door factories, 2 tanneries, 4 breweries, 3 iron-foundries, 2 shipyards, 1 pottery, 4 book-binding estab- lishments, 1 trunk-factory, 1 biscuit-factory, 2 electric-light works, 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, an electric tram- way company operating 12 miles of road, gas-works, rice- mill, 2 flour-mills, chemical works, and 2 cold-storage ware- houses. Lines of steamers ply fortnightly between Victoria and China and Japan, another line runs to Australia, a third plies bi-weekly to San Francisco, a fourth to Alaska, while there is a daily service between Victoria and New West- minster and Vancouver on the mainland of British Colum- bia (connecting with the Canadian Pacific Railway at Van- couver), and Seattle and Tacoma in the State of Washington. On the confederation in 1871 Victoria ceased to be a free ort, and annually contributes to the Dominion treasury $1,800,000 for import duties. Hist0ry.—Victoria was originally simply a trading-post of the Hudson’s Bay Company, established in 1843. Van- couver’s island was leased by the crown to the company from 1848 to 1859; at the expiration of the lease the island became a crown colony with Victoria as its capital, and when the island united with the mainland in the formation of the colony of British Columbia in 1866 Victoria became the capital of the colony and was declared the capital of the Province of British Columbia on confederation with the Dominion of Canada in 1871. It first grew into importance on the discovery of gold in Cariboo. It was the headquar- ters of the Pacific sealing-fieet, wherein several thousand men were employed until the industry was crippled by the promulgation of the Bering Sea regulations. The popula- tion, according to the Dominion census taken in 1891, was 16,800, while according to a city census taken later the same year, it was 23,000. J . STUART YATES. Victoria: city; capital of Victoria co., Tex.; on the Guadalupe river, and the Southern Pac. Railroad; 30 miles N. W. of Port Lavaca, 100 miles E. S. E. of San Antonio (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 6-I). It is in an agri- cultural (sugar-cane and cotton-growing) region, and con- tains a high school, Nazareth Academy, St. Joseph’s Col- lege and Diocesan Seminary (Roman Catholic), a national bank with capital of $150,000, a private bank, and a daily, a semi-weekly, a monthly, and three weekly periodicals. Pop. (1890) 3,046. Victoria (or as baptized, Alexandrina Victoria): Queen of Great Britain and Ireland and Empress of India; b. at Kensington Palace, London, May 24, 1819; only child of Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III., and of his wife, Victoria Mary Louisa, daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and sister of Leopold, King of the Belgians. Her father having died Jan. 23, 1820, she was educated under the care of her mother and of the Duchess of Northumberland; became heiress-presumptive to the crown on the accession of William IV. in 1830, and on his death without issue (June 20, 1837) assumed the throne of Great Britain and Ireland, that of Hanover falling by the law excluding females to her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland. VICTORIA She was crowned in Westminster Abbey June 28, 1838; was directed in politics by Lord Melbourne, the head of a Whig administration, a statesman to whom she was personally and politically much attached; was married at St. J ames’s Palace to her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Feb. 10, 1840; has enjoyed a reign of peace and prosperity unexampled in the annals of England under the successive administrations of Lord Melbourne (1835-41), Sir Robert Peel (1841-46), Lord John Russell (1846-52, and as Earl Rus- sell 1865-66), Earl Derby (1852, 1858-59, and 1866-68), Earl Aberdeen (1852-55), Lord Palmerston (1855-58 and 1859-65), Benjamin Disraeli (1868, and as Earl of Beaconsfield 1874- 80), W. E. Gladstone (1868-74, 1880-85, 1886, and 1892-93), Marquis of Salisbury (1885-86, 1886-92, and 1895- ), Earl of Rosebery (1893-95). Among the events of her reign have been the repeal of the corn-laws (1845), the Irish famine and emigration to the U. S. (1847), the Chartist agitation (1848), the Crimean war (1853-55), the Indian mutiny (1857-58), the assumption of the direct government of India (1859), the “cotton famine ” and the delicate relations with the Ameri- can belligerents (1861-65), the Mexican intervention and its rupture (1861-62), the Reform Bill of 1866, the confedera- tion of British North America, the disestablishment of the Irish Church, the abolition of religious tests at the univer- sities and of the system of purchase in the army, the Ala- bama Claims Treaty (1871), the introduction of the ballot, the wars in Abyssinia, Ashantee, Egypt, and Sudan, the as- sumption of the title of Empress of India (1876), the crea- tion, rapid growth, and organization of the Australasian colo- nies, the remarkable development of public education as shown in laws of 1870 and 1872, and the prolonged agitation of the subject of home rule in Ireland. In 1876 the agi- tation upon the massacres in Bulgaria presaged important action upon the “ Eastern uestion.” The loss of her mother (Mar. 10) and of her usband, Prince Albert (Dec. 14, 1861), within a few months, affected her with such profound grief that, although performing all the duties of sovereignty, she did not appear in public, as before, for nearly fifteen years, having spent much of the interven- ing time at her favorite residence, Balmoral Castle, in the Highlands of Scotland. She has had nine children. Queen Victoria is beloved for her admirable personal qualities, and beyond any other monarch has given evidence that she regards her royal authority as held in trust for the people. She has also been a pattern of every domestic virtue. The progress made by the nation during more than half a cen- tury has been due in no small measure to the wisdom, the tact, and the devotion of the monarch. She has also given evidence of literary culture by the publication of Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Ifighlands (1868), Jlfore Leaves from the Journal, etc. (1884), and by supervising two biographical sketches of Prince Albert, The Early Days of his Royal Highness, the Prince-Consort (1867), by Gen. C. Grey, and the Life of the Prince-Consort (1874), by Theodore Martin. The “Victorian eriod ” bids fair to be chiefly remarkable for the materiadJ prosperity of the British people, and for the magnificent scientific discover- ies which have changed the face of modern civilization. The fiftieth year of her reign was celebrated by a jubilee in June, 1887. AUTHORITIES.-Martili, Life of the Prince-Consort (5 vols., 1873-80; M’Carthy, Ifistory of Our Own Times (4 vols., 1879-80); Ward, Reign of Victoria (2 vols., 1887) ; also Lives of the Queen by Mrs. Greenwood (1883); G. Barnett Smith (1886); Dr. Macaulay (1887); R. Wilson (2 vols., 1888); J . C. J eaffreson (2 vols., 1893). Revised by C. K. ADAMS. Victoria, GUADALUPE: general, and first president of Mexico; b. in Durango, 1789. His real name was Manuel Felix Fernandez, but he changed it during the war for in- dependence in honor of the patron saint of Mexico and of a victory over the Spaniards. He was one of the first to join the patriots in 1810, rose to be general, and, after the de- feats of 1816-19, was a fugitive in the mountains of Vera Cruz during thirty months, enduring the greatest hardships, but refusing to ask for royal clemency. Subsequently he was prominent in the events which led to independence, but, as a republican, he refused to acknowledge Iturbide as emperor; was one of the chiefs of the army which over- threw him in 1823, and a member of the provisional gov- ernment then formed. In politics he adhered to the feder- alists, and that party preponderating, he was elected president for the term of four years beginning Apr. 1, 1825, entering VICTORIA CROSS upon his duties by special act Oct. 10, 1824. As an execu- tive, he was upright and able, and for several years the country was very prosperous. In 1828-29 it was disturbed by revolts, the results of a contested. election, and these Were the prelude to a long series of civil wars. At the end of his term Victoria retired to private life in comparative poverty. D. at Perote, Mar. 21, 1843. HERBERT H. SMITH. Victoria Cross: a British decoration instituted at the close of the Crimean campaign in 1856, and given only to those who have performed in ‘the enemy’s presence some signal act of bravery or patriotic devotion. It may be granted to a soldier or sailor of any rank, or to a volunteer in service against an enemy. It is in the form of a Maltese cross, and is made of bronze, having the royal crown in the center, surmounted by the lion, and on. a scroll below the words, “ For valour.” The ribbon worn is blue for the navy and red for the army. On the clasp are two branches of laurel, from which hangs the cross. A pension of £10 a year accompanies the decoration. C. H. Tnunnna. 'ictoria Falls : falls formed by the Zambesi in the mid- dld of its course; in lat. 17° 55’ S. and lon. 26° 32' E. _At that point the river—a powerful but somewhat sluggish stream nearly a mile wide—rushes down into a chasm 400 feet deep surrounded with perpendicular walls of basalt. The native name is Mossi-ca-tunia, or Roarmg Smoke. See ZAMBESI. Victoria Land: an extensive unexplored region in_the Antarctic Ocean, discovered in 1842 by Ross, who sailed along its eastern coast as far S. as lat. 78° 9’ 30", where the twin volcanoes of Erebus (12,000 feet) and Terror (11,000 feet) send forth their smoke and fire. Other peaks are Sa- brina, 11,000 feet, and Melbourne, over 13,000 feet in height. Victoria Nyan'za: the largest lake in Africa, the second fresh-water lake in size in the world, and the principal source of the Nile ; known to the inhabitants on its shores as U/eerewe Nyanza (Ukerewe Lake), from the name of its largest island. The equator passes through its northern portion; area about 27,000 sq. miles; altitude above the sea (Ravenstein, 1889), 3,880 feet. Considerable evidence, perhaps best summarized by Dr. Conrad Ganzenmilller (Zez t- schrift fur wissensehaftliehe Geographw), shows that the lake 'is identical with the eastern Nile sources of Ptolemy, with the “Crocodile Lake” of an unknown Greek writer, and with the “ Kura Kavar” of the Arabs, and that fairly accurate knowledge of the territory of the Nile sources was formerly possessed, but subsequently was lost. The lake was discovered in 1858 by Capt. Speke, and in his second journey (1862) he practically solved the question as _to the sources of the Nile, identifying the outflow of Victoria Ny- anza as the upper course of the river. Speke saw_ the lake only at one point on its southern coast and along its north- western and north central shores, and his map showing its ap- proximate shape and extent is a remarkable production, con- sidering that it was based almost wholly upon native infor- mation. Henry M. Stanley’s map, the result of l11S‘ boat survey (1875), is still the basis of mapping, though it has been changed in important respects. It has been found, for instance, that his map extended the lake too far to the N. E., covering with water a large part of the country of Kavirondo. He also missed the southwestern prolongation of the lake, first mapped (1891) by Father Schynse. Every fresh exploration shows that the present surveys are by no means adequate. Dr. Baumann discovered on the south- west coast a gulf which required five days to walk around. It first appeared on the maps in 1894 as Baumann Gulf. The lake is imbedded, for the most part, in gneissic for- mations and schists. Porpliyritic granite is particularly prominent on the south coast, and also forms a remarkable island——the Makoko, or White Rocks. On the north shore there are great outcrops of honeycombed ironstone. and lava blocks, and the rich tropical vegetation there is in marked contrast with the sterile, arid wastes characteristic of most of the south coast. Along much of the west coast cliffs come down sheer to the water’s edge, with deep water close to the shore. On the northwest and east shores there are long stretches of comparatively low land, and water so shallow that only light-draught vessels can approach within some miles of the shore. _ The lake is very deep in places. _The water is fresh and pure, though insipid to the taste. Fish are plentiful, and are caught mostly with hook and line, though natives iii the N. E. use grass mats as a sort of net, and the islanders of the great Sesse Archipelago use basket-t-raps. The lake is in- VIOUNA MACKENNA 513 fested with alligators, making it dangerous forany one to enter the water. Hippopotami are not plentiful except along the coast and rivers, but those found in the open water are extremely vicious, and are much feared by canoe- men. It is doubtless due to the presence of these danger- ous animals that most of the natives, even the islanders, are unable to swim. Another large animal is the silurus, which has been mistaken for the porpoise, owing to its shiny black body and its habit of playing at the surface in calm weather. Violent storms sweep across the lake at times, raising tremendous seas, which often engulf small craft that are caught away from the land. A curious feature, also observable in Lakes Tanganyika and Nyassa, is the periodical rise and fall of the waters, which, according to the natives, takes place about once in twenty-five years. These changes in level are distinctly shown by water-marks on the stones. Mr. E. Gedge reported (1891) that the lake was then between 8 and 9 feet below high-water mark. “ The people told me that certain lands, then under cultiva- tion, would again be flooded in due season, and that the peninsula on which my camp was pitched would again be- come an island.” Another peculiarity of the lake is the very limited area included in its drainage-basin. The entire north coast to the Nzoia, in the northwest, receives no river worthy of the name, the drainage, except along a narrow coast margin, flowing N. and joining the Nile. The main visible sources for the water-supply of the great reservoir are the Kagera, Nzoia, and Ngure Darash rivers. The Kagera is by far the most important feeder, and recent research indicates that its volume is only about a third less than that of the outlet —the deep, broad Somerset Nile—which flows away toward Egypt, a giant at its birth. The Kagera, with considerable improvement, it is thought, may be made a valuable com- mercial highway to within five days’ march of Lake Tan- ganyika; but it seems probable that all the other streams, together with the rain that falls into the lake, supply hardly sufficient water to counterbalance the evaporation. It is suggested (Gedge, Lugard, and others) that, as the visible, inflowing streams seem totally inadequate to keep up the supply of water in the lake, there are probably large springs at its bottom that make up the deficiency. The lake and all its shores are in the. hands of Great Britain and Germany, the boundary between their posses- sions crossing the Nyanza on the parallel of 1° S. lat. A few sailing vessels of European construction have been intro- duced, but the waters are navigated chiefly by fleets of na- tive canoes, many of which hold forty or fifty men. C. C. Anmus. Victoria Regia: See WATER-LILY FAMILY. Victo’rius (Vettori), PETRUS: classical scholar; b. at Florence, Italy, July 11, 1499; studied in Pisa and Rome. After a somewhat checkered career as a soldier, diplomat, and tutor in a ducal family, he returned to his native city as a teacher of Greek and Latin. D. Dec. 18, 1584. Victo- rius was the greatest philologist and critic of the Italian Renaissance. His text editions and cominentaries on Cicero and some of the works of Aristotle, of which he made ele- gant translations. are epoch-making. Other editions by him are those of flflscliylus, Sophocles (the Electra being the editio prineeps), Xenophon’s Jllenzorabz'lia, Terence, Sallust, V arro’s De re rustica, Demetrius‘s De elocutione, Dionysius, Isaeus, Dinarchus, Hipparchus, commentary to Eudoxus and Aratus, and Clemens Alexandrinus. But the greatest testi- mony to his critical genius and to the encyclopedic reach of his reading is furnished by his Varire Lectiones, 38 books (Florence, 1582; Strassburg. 1609). See Baiidini,Petri Vie- torii vita (Florence, 1758); H. Kaininel, John's Jalzrbflc/ier, xcv. (1865), pp. 545 ff, xcvi. (1866). pp. 133 fi., 325 H., 421 fi.; Fr. Creuzer, Opuscala, ii., pp. 21-36. ALFRED GUDEMAN. Victor Viten’ sis: Latin historian of the end of the fifth century. He wrote an account of the persecution of the Church in Africa by the Arian Vandals in three books. The best edition is by M. Petschenig (Vienna, 1881). DL W. Vicllfia, or Viciigila-, vee-l~:o“oii'ya"a: the Auehen ta vieuglm; (family Camelzfclrr), an extremely wild and active animal of the Andes, somewhat smaller than the alpaca. It is of a uniform brown color, and great numbers are annually killed for the sake of the hair, which is even more valuable than that of the alpaca. F. A. L. Vioufia Mackenna. BBNJ.iiiiN: Chilian liistorian and politician; b. at Santiago, Chili, Aug. 25, 1831. Descended 430 514 VIDA from a rich and influential family, he studied at the Na- tional Institute and the University of Chili, and early became known as a writer on national history. He took an active part in the liberal revolt of 1851-52; was at one time imprisoned and condemned to death, and finally fled from the country, traveling extensively in North Amer- ica and Europe. He was allowed to return in 1856, and shortly after was admitted to the bar, but was exiled for political reasons during 1859-63. Subsequently he was elected deputy, and in 1865-66 was special envoy to Peru and the U. S., editing a Spanish paper for a short time i11 New York. In 1870-71 he traveled in Europe, and made an important collection of documents relating to Chili. He was senator 1871-76, and intendenie of Santiago 1872-74; in the latter capacity he did much to beautify the city, and the greatly admired pleasure-grounds of Santa Lucia are due to his private munificence. In 1875 he was the liberal can- didate for the presidency, but was defeated. Mackenna is best known as the author of numerous works on the history of Chili; while exhibiting less profundity of research than those of Barres Arana, they are generally accurate, and always readable, and they have had a wide circulation. Among the most important are El O.szfraeismo de los Uarreras (1857) ; El Ostraeismo del General O’Higgins (1860); flisioria de la ad- minisiraeion Ilfonii (1862); .Hisl0ria de Chile (1868); and Oampafias de Ariea y Taena (1881). He also published vari- ous books of travel, works on Chilian mines, etc., edited or collaborated in several prominent journals. and contributed an article on Chili to the Eneyelopcedia Britannica. D. near Santiago, J an. 25, 1886. HERBERT H. SMITH. Vida, vee'da"a, Mxnoo Gmonxnoz Latin poet of the Re- naissance; b. at Cremona about 1480; studied philosophy, political science, and theology at Padua and Bologna; be- came canon of St. John Lateran in Rome, and was apos- tolic secretary under Clement VII., who in 1532 made him bishop of Alba, where he died Sept. 27, 1566. His smooth versification and lucidity of style, though worthy of admi- ration, scarcely atone for the lack of originality in thought and diction which characterizes all his poetry. Cicero, Quin- tilian, and above all, Vergil, are the fountains of his inspira- tion. He wrote a theological epic, Christias, in six books; Bomb;/as, a didactic poem on silkworms, in the manner of Vergil’s Georgies; and a versified description of the game of chess, entitled Seaeehire Ladas. The work upon which his fame is chiefly dependent is De arzfe poetiea, in three books, containing 1,698 hexameters, eulogized by Pope in his Essay on Criticism (vss. 697-708), and pronounced by Warton to be perhaps the very first piece of literary criti- cism of the Renaissance. For an analysis of the poem, easily accessible in Cook’s The Art of Poetry (with Pitt’s translation, Boston, 1892), see A. Baldi, Die Ars Poetiea des ill. Ifierong/mus Vida (VViirzburg, 1881) ; and in general, Lancetti, Della vita ct degli seriiti di Vida (Milan, 1840); Roscoe, Life of Leo X., vol. ii. ; J . A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, vol. ii. A complete collection of Vida’s writings was published in London (2 vols., 1732). A. GUDEMAN. Vidal, ve"e-daal’, PEIRE: Provencal troubadour; flourished about 1175 to 1215. He was a native of Toulouse, the son of a furrier. He was one of the most prolific of the trou- badours, though he seems all his life to have been 011 the verge of insanity. The famous Blacatz, patron of the trou- badours, expressed wonder in one of his own poems that Vidal should have sense and talents in poetry, but madness in everything else. The contemporary accounts of his life are so full of fantastic episodes that we should incline to regard them as pure inventions were not many of the details confirmed by the poet himself. He led an extremely va- grant life, appearing at the courts of Alfonso II. of Aragon, Barral, Viscount of Marseilles, Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, Boniface II., Marquis of Montferrat, Emmerich, King of Hungary, and perhaps Richard I., Count of Poitiers (later King of England). The most indulgent of these patrons seems to have been Barral of Marseilles, though finally the poet was obliged to leave his court, owing to the over ardor of his devotion to the Countess Adalasia, into whose apartment he penetrated early one morning and awoke her with a kiss. The number of his love adventures was very great, and in many of them he conducted himself most fantastically. The climax of his folly was reached, however, during the crusade of King Richard (1190), which he had joined. Arriving in Cyprus. the poet did not con- tinue to the Holy Land, but married a Greek lady, and turned back to Europe. In some way he became persuaded VIEIRA that his wife was the daughter of the Greek emperor at Con- stantinople, and that he had therefore rights to the Greek throne. He determined to assert these, and, assuming the imperial arms, he made 'those about him call him emperor, sat upon a throne, and fitted out a fleet in order to win his kingdom. The end of his career is veiled in obscurity. De- spite his vagaries, Peire Vidal was one of the most original of the Provencal poets of his time, and many of his verses are remarkable for vigor of feeling and beauty of diction. See Die Lieder Peire Vidals, ed. by Karl Bartsch (Berlin, 1857); Sigmund Schopf, Beilrdge zur Biographie and ear Chronologie der Lieder des Troubadonrs Peire Vidal (Bres- lau, 1887). A. R. MARSH. Vidar: in Norse mythology, the god of silence, son of Odin and the giantess Grid. Vidaurri, ve“e-dow’re“e, SANTIAGO: b. in the present state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico, about 1803; received a good edu- cation; became a lawyer; filled many minor offices; took part in several civil wars, in which he rose to the rank of general; became about 1853 governor of Nuevo Leon, to which he forcibly annexed (1856) the state of Coahuila; ex- ercised for some years a species of dictatorship over the northern states of Mexico, where he was more than once suspected of intending to found the independent “ republic of Sierra Madre”; aided in the campaign for the over- throw of Santa Anna 1854-55, though without political combination with Alvarez and Comonfort, his “plan ” being distinct from that of Ayutla; was a candidate for the presi- dency at the junta of Cuernavaca Oct., 1855. He did not recognize the government of Comonfort until Nov., 1856; held the northern states against Zuloaga and Miramon dur- ing the “ war of reform ” 1857-60, and took part in the war against French intervention 1862-64, but was induced to recognize the empire of Maximilian, of whom he ultimately became a cabinet minister ; was captured at the fall of the city of Mexico, and shot there as a traitor Aug. 8, 1867. Vidocq, ve”e’d5k’, EUGENE FRANQOIS: detective; b. at Ar- ras, department of Pas de Calais, France, July 23, 1775; while a boy robbed his father’s shop and ran away from home. He soon spent his money, and after a eriod of vaga- bondage and misery entered the army, but eserted to the Austrians; left them too, and served again in the French army. After many adventures of a discreditable sort he was sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment; escaped before his time was up, and was employed in 1809 by the secret police of Paris; was made chief of the brigade de surez.‘e', consisting of convicts and other notorious characters as spies, and fully pardoned in 1818; left the service of the police in 1827, and settled at St. Mandé, near Paris, as a paper manu- facturer; failed in business, and opened a bureau de ren- seignemeni in Paris for the recovery of stolen goods, but came into conflict with the police, and was compelled to close his office; lived afterward in obscurity and poverty, and died in Paris, Apr. 28, 1857. His Jlfémoires (4 vols., 1828 ; translated into English in the same year) are not with- out interest, but their contents are considered unreliable, and even their authorship is doubted. His name is asso- ciated with many fictitious adventures, and occurs continu- ally in detective literature. Revised by F. M. CoLBY. Vieira, ve”e-a’e‘e-ra“a, ANTONIO: author, orator, and states- man; b. in Lisbon, Portugal, Feb. 6, 1608. In 1615 his family moved to Bahia, Brazil, where he attended the Jesuit schools, entered the order in 1627, and at the age of nineteen taught rhetoric and philosophy. He was ordained presbyter in 1635, and preached at Bahia and in the neighboring vil- lages. His eloquence attracted the attention of the gov- ernor, Mascarenhas, who, on his return to Europe in 1641, took him to Lisbon. There Vieira quickly attracted crowds to his sermons, and took rank among the foremost pulpit orators of the world. He was nominated royal preacher in 1644, entered the royal council in 1646, and was for a time practically prime minister, exercising great influence over the affairs of Europe. In 1647-49 he was ambassador to Paris and The Hague, also visiting London. In 1650 he was sent to Rome on an important secret mission connected with the relations of Portugal and Spain. For reasons now unknown, he fell into disgrace with his order, was threatened with expulsion, and in 1652 was thrown into com arative obscurity by beingmade director of the missions in orthern Brazil. There he showed great zeal in protecting the Indians, and made a voyage to Portugal to secure royal aid for them (1654), but in 1661 was seized by the colonists, and sent a prisoner to Lisbon. He was quickly released, but lost, his A B G H ‘ Scale of Kilometers INDEX. 0 59 E I_1} WI 2 LE?.:iJ°H'1‘i:A|i’En 1 Public Buildings, ng 1s 1 I 1 es 1‘ Parks, Etc. 0 *2 Pf d b h 1 Palace of Justice (Justiz). 4 C 1 er e a n (Tramway) r Arsenal, 6 E INDEX. j Academy of Fine Arts (Air. (1 ! 1 Inner il(Inner;tSt::.iclt‘), 4 D Uzigersity Building (Univers.), P:1{;1::;!§,);i:u1;, (];:v01yt_)1 5 D way _a ons. ' Nord Bahnhof, 3 E Court or Hofburg Theater (Hot. IrrBp::g")3J4P1§lace (Hdburg or Nordwest Bahnhof, 2 E C Th‘ia6)' 4 D H 4 1. Archduke Albrecht Palace B:hphpf2i5DB 3“; Pen ouse (opem HS-)» ii and Albertina Art Coll. u a n 10 , t ' ' ' ‘ - Staats Bahnhot, 6 E Imperial Museums, 4 D i Prdld:eaI;1l§(P11i::(ti1II";et;1al P-‘?alC Wien_ASp,mge,. Bahnhof‘ 5 E Austrian Industrial Museum (Mu- Belvedere Palace and.(‘3a1-- Franz Josef Bahnhof, 2 D .se‘m_‘)* 4 E _ den, 5 E S teamboat Landing. H;Si(§;)l‘1C&l Museum (m Rathhs), j Schijnbrunn. an Imperial 2 Lgng Pl‘ det Don‘ D amp‘ Ges" Bourse and Commercial Museum ' E PI‘(;}:::e:l;.“and Garclenl 6 A (B5139), 3 D \ \ Volks grater includin 9 Public Buildings, Et0- Arm)’ Museum (in Arsenal), 6 E . ., \Nu - W pt 1 P’ t 3 F g -1 Parliament Building(Reichsrath§Post Ofilce (Post), 4 E Ow ‘ urs e - m er, I . . Stadt Park, 4 E Gem. 4 O )O11St0H1 House (Zoll Amt), 4 E - \ 2 volks men 4 D Municipal Hall (Rathhs.), 4 C Rotunda of World‘s Fair, 1873 / R . g ’ Rathhaus (old) 4 D (Rotunda) 4 F , E ii 3. Hofgarten. 4 D , . H6‘ - ,, Augarten, 2 D \(_k_rW,“/D Botanical Garden (Botan. V lI.!t‘cl?(l‘i:::nA'!e4r1 G8.1't.), 5 E I I I ‘ St. Stephen’s Cathedral (St. I I v_ ‘“ Steph.), 4 D \ F. 4. Augustine Church. 4 D 5. Capuchin Church. 4 D 6. Maria Stiegen Church. 4 D Votive Church (Votiv K.), 3 3 C (I Q . \‘ \$ At] G \ K . ‘ Q, ARTEHO r “*ric acid is indicated by a white recipitate with silver nitrate; nitric acid can be detected lliy a yellow color when the vinegar is boiled with indigo, or by the deflagration of the residue obtained by evaporating with a little sodium carbonate. Such acrid substances as red pepper, mustard, etc., are recognized by evaporating the vinegar to an extract, which if they are present will possess a biting taste. Copper is detected by the formation of a brown precipitate upon addition of potassium ferrocyanide; lead, by the black precipitate produced by hydrogen sul- phide, and the yellow one given by potassium iodide. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Vinegar Eels: Sec ANGUILLULA. Vinegar-plant: See Vnvnexa. . Vineland: borough; Landis township, Cumberland co., N. J.; on the Cent. of N. J. and the W. Jersey railways; 12 miles E. of Bridgton, 34 miles S. E. of Philadelphia (for lo- cation, see map of New Jersey, ref. 7-B). The borough comprises only the central part of the township, which is 1 mile square, and was founded in 1861 by Charles K. Lan- dis. It is laid out with principal avenues 100 feet wide, and others 66 feet; has 15 churches, a central high school (building cost over $35,000), several public and private schools, and a kindergarten, a public library, a national VINER bank with capital of $50,000, a State bank with capital of $28,900, and 2 daily, 3 weekly, and 2 monthly periodicals; and is principally engaged in the cultivation of small fruits, and the manufacture of machinery, flour, lumber, shoes, gloves, buttons, carriages, clothing, paper boxes, plows, li- noleum, Smyrna rugs, and chenille curtains. Pop, (1880) 2,519; (1890) 3,822; (1895) township and borough estimated, , 0. EDITOR or “EVENING J OURNAL.” Viner, CHARLES : law-book writer; b. about 1680. He was the author of A General Abridgment of Law and Equity, Alphabetically Digested under Proper Titles, upon which he labored for more than fifty years, having it printed in his own house on aper manufactured for the purpose. The work was based) upon Rolle’s Abridyment. It contains al- most everything of value in the previous abridgments of the law of England, or in the printed reports, besides consider- able from MS. reports. The work is chiefly valuable by rea- son of its fullness, being of little weight in itself, as it is in- accurate in its citations and cumbersome and irregular in its execution. The work was first published in twenty-four volumes (1741-51), and later a reprint was issued (1792-94), followed by a supplement of six volumes by various authors (1799-1806). He bequeathed £12,000 to endow fellowships and scholarships, and to establish a professorship of common law at Oxford University, The first incumbent of the pro- fessorship was Sir Williain Blackstone (1758), who was fol- lowed by others much less prominent, including Robert Chambers (1760), Richard Woodesson (1777), and James Blackstone (1793). D. at Aldershot, Hampshire, June 5, 1756. F. Sruness ALLEN. Ville-rapes: the Cytinaeece; a small family (twenty- seven species) of herbaceous, parasitic dicotyledons, proba- bly related to the myrtles (Myrtacete) and evening primroses (Onagraeece), but so much degraded and modified that their true relationship is greatly obscured. They have an infe- rior, one-celled, pluricarpellary ovary containing innumer- able, minute ovules; stamens eight to many; perianth sim- ‘N \ y I . . ’\<\ 0/ '0, \ \\ \ ‘ .~//}/////' '7,’ / \>i~Y.iir;:,-ai./“,;¢.;¢’;’}.a/ a-/eg-_ 1 " ‘ “"- ,_-:-2/-7 _=‘”-:-*- 3 =s—_ Y ' 1\‘l\\,l‘ 1% -~ \‘~' V \\\' Giant vine-rape afitesia arnoldi). ple and fleshy. The stems and_leaves are usually much reduced, the flowers often appearing to be sessile upon the host. The vine-rapes are natives of the warm regions of both hemispheres. The most remarkable is the giant vine- rape (Rafliesia arnoldi, see figure) of Sumatra, whose ex- panded flower is nearly 40 inches in diameter. with five red- mottled petals.‘ It_is parasitic upon a woody elnnbing plant ((7issus (t7t_(]'lt8IfZf0ZQ/Lt7)I,), a near relatiyée of the grape. See RAFFLESIA. HARLES E. Bnssnv. Vines, RICHARD : colonist ; b. near Bideford, Devonshire, England, about 1585; received a medical education; was sent by Sir Ferdinando Gorges in 1614 or 1616 to act as his agent in planting a settlement on Saco Bay. Me: spent there the winter of 1616-17, during the great pestilence which decimated the New England Indians; gave them medical assistance; ascended the Saco river in a canoe to Crawford’s Notch 1617 ; was the first white man who visited and described the White Mountains: received from the council of the Plymouth Company in 1630 a grant of land on the Saco river, where, with John Oldham, he founded the_towns of Biddeford and Saco. He was the principal su- perintendent of the plantation uiitil1645; was then made deputy-governor, but resigned the same year; returned to England, but soon settled in Barbados as a planter and physician. D. in Barbados, Apr. 19, 1651. Vines, SYDNEY I‘IOWARD, F. R. S.; botanist; b. in Lon- don, England, Dec. 31, 1849; educated privately: began the study of medicine at Guy’s Hospital 1869; graduated at Cambridge 1876, and became a fellow of and lecturer at Christ’s College; took the degree of D. So. at Cambridge VINLAN1) 527 1884, having been elected reader in botany in the same year; became a fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, and Sherar- dian Professor of Botany 1888; aided in founding the l/innals of Botany, of which he is an editor, and has pub- Lectures on the Physiology of Plants (Cambridge, Vinet, ve”e’na’. ALEXANDRE RoDoLPHE: theologian : b. at Ouchy, canton of Vaud, Switzerland, June 17, 1797; studied at Lausanne; was appointed Professor of the French Lan- guage and Literature in the Gymnasium of Basel 1817, whence he went in the same capacity to the University of Basel 1835; was made Professor of Practical Theology at Lausanne in 1837. In 1819 he had been ordained, and he took an increasing interest in ecclesiastical politics. His opposition to state interference at last led him to the deci- sive step of leaving the clergy of the national church in the _Vaud canton (1840) and becoming a layman. In 1845 he JOlI16d the Free _ Church of Vaud, which had just been formed, and resigned his theological professorship. He was, however, immediately appointed Professor of French Literature in the Lausanne Academy. The next year (1846) the radical party compelled his resignation. He is known to theological students by his excellent works on homiletics (Eng. trans. 1853) and pastoral theology (Eng. trans. 1852), but to a much wider circle as a brilliant, learned, and judi- cious critic of French literature. There are translations of his History of F7'€TLCh Literatzere in the Eig7iteent7i Cen- tury (1854) and Studies in Pascal (1859). D. at Clarens, on the Lake of Geneva, May 4, 1847. See his Life by Laura M. Lane (Edinburgh, 1890). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. ‘Vineur, JEAN BAPTISTE DONATIEN: See ROCHAMBEAU. Vineyard Sound: the passage between Martha's Vine- yard and the Elizabeth islands, on the south coast of Massa- chusetts. It is 20 miles long and 6 broad, and is a great thoroughfare for coasting vessels. "inland [Icel. i-in, wine + land, land]: that part of the coast of North America which was visited by the Norsemen in the year 1000. Bjarne Herjulfson saw ‘this country in 986, when he was on his way to Greenland, but did not land. Fourteen years later LEIF ERIKSON (q. i.) made an expedition thither, and on account of the abundance of grapes growing there he named the country Vinland. The oldest evidence of the discovery of Vinland is that given by ADAM or BREMEN (g. e.) in his book On the History of the Bremen Church and on the (r‘e0gra_ph y of the Countries of the A'orth. He enumerates the islands of the sea N. and W. of Norway. and among them he mentions Greenland and Vinland. Iceland‘s oldest historian, Are or Ari (see ARI THE WISE), who wrote about 1120-30, speaks of the discovery of Vinland, and he got his information from his uncle. Thorkel Gelleson, at I-lelgafell. who in his youth, 1060-70, had lived in Greenland, and had there gathered knowledge of the discoveries. partly from an old man who had himself accompanied Erik the Red from Iceland in 986. and thus had witnessed Leif Erikson‘s return from Vinland. From Are the Wise. directly or indirectly. are derived all the later accounts of the discovery of Vinland, found in manuscripts of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and iii- teenth centuries. The principal sources of information in regard to the discovery and settlement of Vinland are found in two noted collections of manuscripts, viz., the FZatey- arbélc and the Ha.z(71'sbéZ.¢. The Flateyarbé/s was secured by Bishop Brynjulf Sveinson from a peasant on Flatev. an island on the west coast of Iceland. It was put in writing in the latter part of the fourteenth century by the priests Jon Thordson and Magn. Thorhallson. A photographic facsimile of this interesting work has recently been pub- lished in Copenhagen. In the Han/csbéh there is an account of the discovery of Vinland under the heading L7’7z0rfi2z Karlsefzz/zI’s Saga, but the correct old name of this is the Saga of Erik the Red. rThis story of the Vinland voyages dates from the second half of the thirteenth centiii~y—u.liat is to say, from the golden period of the saga age. The countries visited by Leif Erikson were chlled by him Ilelluland, Markland, and Vinland. The (‘lQS01‘lpi'ldO11 of llellulaiid applies to Newfoundland, that of Markland to Nova Scotia, and that of Vinland to New England. Leif Erikson came to V inland by sailing on in a soiitliwestei'ii direction from Markland. Prof. G. Storm has attempted to show that I-lelluland, Markland, and Vinland are to be iden- tified as Labrador, Newfoundland. and Nova Scotia; but this is impossible, since Nova Scotia has never been known to produce wild grapes. Taking all things into considera- 528 VINNITZA tion—the circumstances of the voyages, the course of the winds, the direction of the currents, the time spent between each sight of land, the description of the different lands and their products-—all point to New England as the site of V111- land. And if some spot on the New England coast should be given a preference, the basin of the Charles river should be selected as the most probable scene of the visits of Leif Erikson, Thorvald Erikson, and Thorfin Karlsefni in the tenth and eleventh centuries. (See N ORUMBEGA.) The ac- counts given Of the natives, of the corn, grapes, and fish, all apply to this locality. BIBLIOGRAPI-IY.—C. C. Rafn, Ant/iqu/ltales Arnericance (Co- penhagen, 1837); A. M. Reeves, The Finding of Wineland the Good (London, 1890); G. Storm, Studier Over Vinlands- reiserne (Copenhagen, 1888) ; Fiske, The Discovery o_fAmcr- ica (Boston, 1892); R. B. Anderson, America not Discovered by Columbus (Chicago, 1874). RASMUS B. ANDERsoN. Vinnit’za: a district-town of the Russian government of Podolia; on the Bug; 120 miles S. \/V. of Kiev (see map of Russia, ref. 9—C). It has a gymnasium, distilleries, and a large trade in grain. Pop. (1888) 23,441. Vinton: city; capital of Benton co., Ia.; on the Red Cedar river. and the Burl., Ced. Rapids and N. Railway ; 25 miles N. of Cedar Rapids, 31 miles S. S. E. of Waterloo (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 5—I). It is in an agricultural region, is the site of the Iowa College for the Blind, and the Tilford Collegiate Academy, and has 3 churches, 2 large public-school buildings, a State bank with capital of $65,000, a loan and trust company with capital of $65,000, a private bank, and a semi-weekly, a semi-monthly, and 3 weekly pe- riodicals. There are several flour-mills, mineral paint- works, corrugated steel-works, and a creamery. Pop. (1880) 2,906 ; (1890) 2,865 ; (1895) State census, 3,500. EDITOR OF “ EAGLE.” Vinton, ALEXANDER HAMILTON. M. D., S. T. D.: clergy- man; b. at Providence, R. I., May 2, 1807; studied at Brown University; graduated at the Yale Medical School 1828 ; practiced as a physician in Pomfret 1828-32 ; pursued atheological course in the Protestant Episcopal Seminary at New York ; was ordained priest 1836 ; became prominent as a leader of the Low Church party ; was pastor of church- es at Portland, Me., 1835-36, Providence, R. I., 1836-42, Boston, Mass., 1842-58, Philadelphia, Pa., 1858-61, New York 1861-70, Boston 1869-77. He published a volume of Sermons (1855). D. in Philadelphia, Apr. 26, 1881. Vinton, DAVID HAMMOND: soldier; b. at Providence- R. I., May 4, 1803; graduated at the U. S. Military Acad- emy in 1822, and entered the Fourth Artillery ; transferred to the infantry in 1823. After a term of garrison and spe- cial duty, he was sent to Florida in 1836, where employed on quartermaster duty, and in 1837 made quartermaster- general of Florida. He remained in the same service until 1846, when he was made chief quartermaster on the staff of Gen. \Vool, with rank of major, serving with him in Mexico ; was chief quartermaster of the department of the West 1852-56, of the department of Texas 1857-61, and was taken prisoner upon the surrender of Twiggs. Exchanged soon after, he was in Aug., 1861, made deputy quarter- master-general, and as chief quartermaster at New York during the civil war rendered valuable service. Promoted to be colonel of volunteers in 1864, in 1866 he became assist- ant quartermaster-general and colonel on the staff, and the same year was placed on the retired list. For faithful and meritorious services he was breveted colonel, brigadier-gen- eral, and major-general. D. at Stamford, Conn., Feb. 21, 1873, Revised by J AMEs MEROUR. Vinton, FRANCIS, S. T. D., D. C. L. : clergyman ; brother of Gen. David H. Vinton; b. at Providence, R. I., Aug. 29, 1809; graduated at VV est Point 1830; became second lieu- tenant of artillery ; was stationed at Fort Snelling, Minn. : at Fort Independence, Boston harbor, during which time he studied law at Harvard Law School ; acted as civil engineer to several railroads; was admitted to the bar at Ports- mouth, N. H., 1834; served in the war with the Creek Ind- ians in Alabama and Georgia 1836; left the army in that year; studied in the General Theological Seminary, New York; was ordained priest 1839 ; was successively rector of churches at Providence and Newport, R. I. (1840-44), and Brooklyn, N. Y. (1844-56): declined the bishopric of Ind- iana 1847; became assistant minister of Trinity church, New York, 1855, and Professor of Ecclesiastical Law and Polity at the General Theological Seminary 1869. D. in fiddle. ‘ VIOLLE Brooklyn, Sept. 29, 1872. He was the author of Arthur .’/.'rernaine, or Annals of Cadet Life (New York, 1830); Leo- tures on the Evidences of Christianity (New York,1865); and a Jl1[C(/)2/Ll6ll Commentary on the General Canon Law of the I)roz‘estant lfpiscopal Church in the United Slates (New York, 1870), and various pamphlets. Vinton, FREDERIo PORTER : portrait-painter ; b. in Ban- gor, Me., Jan. 29, 1846; pupil of Bonnat and Jean Paul Laurens, Paris; became member of the Society of American Artists 1880; National Academician 1891; received honor- able mention at the Paris Salon of 1890. His portraits are notable for their life-like aspect and vigorous drawing and modeling. His studio is in Boston. W. A. C. Vio, THOMAS, de: See CAJETAN. Vi’ola, or Tenor Violin: a very large violin, having four strings, two of catgut alone and two wound with wire; it stands an octave above the violoncello, and is employed almost exclusively for playing the middle part in orchestral music. The earlier composers about the time of Gluck made but little use of this instrument, except to strengthen the basses by doubling it in unison or the octave. Modern composers demand fro1n it an independent agility equal to that of the violins. Its tone has a distinct character of mel- ancholy as compared with that of other stringed instru- ments. Revised by DUDLEY Bccx. Violet: any species of Viola, a genus of dicotyledonous herbs, having irregular flowers, consisting of five sepals, five petals (the lower one spurred), five stamens, and a single tri- carpellary pistil, having three parietal placentm. About a hundred species are known, of which sixty are natives of north temperate countries, thirty of the mountainous regions of South America, two of Africa, and eight of Australia and New Zealand. There are from thirty to forty species in the U. S. The pansy (V. tricolor) and sweet violet (V. odorata), both from Europe, are common in cultivation. CHARLES E. BESSEY. Violet Family [violet is from O. Fr. violette, dimin. of viole < Lat. viola, violet; cf. Gr. 101/, for *Fi01/, violet]: the Violacece; a small group (270 species) of choripetalous, di- cotyledonous herbs and shrubs, which are widely distrib- uted in all climates. The flowers are usually hermaphro- dite and irregular, with pentamerous calyx, corolla, and androecium, the last with connivent or connate anthers; ovary superior, tricarpellary, with parietal placentae and many ovules. The best-known representatives of the fam- ily are the species of Viola, the VIOLET (Q. v.), of which thirty-three are natives of North America. An emetic and laxative principle in these plants has given some value to the root of a Brazilian shrub (Ionidium ipecacuanha), known in pharmacy as white ipecacuanha. C. E. B. Violin [from Ital. violino, deriv. of viola, violin : O. Fr. viele > Fr. viole. The word is of Teutonic origin ; of. M. H. Germ. videle > Mod. Germ. fiedel : O. Eng. ji5ele > Eng. Other authorities derive the Romance words from a Lat. *vitula, deriv. of vituld’ri, celebrate a festival]: a musical instrument with four strings, played with a bow. It consists of three parts-—the neck, the table, and the sounding-board; has at its side two S-shaped apertures of unequal size. Above these is a bridge, over which pass the strings from the lower extremity or tail- piece to the neck, where they are tightened or loosened by means of turning- ins. The violin is tuned in fifths, E-A-D- , the low- est string (wound with wire) giving this tone: It is considered the most perfect of musical instruments, on account of its capabilities of fine tone and expression, and forms with its cognates, the viola, violoncello, and double- bass or bass-viol, the main element of all orchestras. It is of considerable antiquity, being traced in England to the twelfth century. The most prized instruments are those made in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Italy by the Amatis at Brescia, Stradivari and the Guarneris at Cremona, and Stainer in the Tyrol. Revised by D. BUOK. Violle, ve“e’5l', JULES: physicist; b. at Langres, France, in 1841. He was educated in the Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris; received the degree D. So. in 1870; was,appointed Professor of Physics at Lyons in 1883, at the Ecole Nor- male in 1890, and in the Conservatory of Arts and Trades in Paris in 1891. Violle is chiefly known through his ex- tended researches upon the laws of radiation and upon the measurement of high temperatures, including that of the — ._—_:1A__——' -1- sun; upon which subjects, as well as in other departments. VIOLLET-LE-DUC of physics, he has published numerous papers. He is the inventor of the absolute standard of light adopted by the second Paris congress of electricians. The first volume of Oours de Physique was published in 1881, and later parts have appeared at intervals since then. E. L. NICHOLS. Viollet-le-Due, ve"e’5’la’le-diik’, EUGENE EMMANUEL: ar- chitect and writer on art; b. in Paris, Jan. 27, 1814. He became early a remarkable draughtsman of architecture and ornament. From 1836 to 1840 he traveled a great deal in France, Italy, and Sicily. In 1840, when the Sainte Cha- elle in Paris was being restored under the direction of Fe- lix Duban, he was made an inspector of the work, and as at this time the medieeval buildings of France were exciting a great deal of attention, he was employed for the care and restoration of the abbey church of Vézelay, the Cathedral of Carcassone, N otre Dame of Paris, and the abbey church of St. Denis, and later the ancient walls of Carcassone, the synodal hall at Sens, the Cathedral of Chalon, and the castle at Pierrefonds. Besides these important buildings he re- stored wholly or in part a number of smaller structures. He built a few buildings of his own design, but they have had no great reputation. About 1850 he began the ex- traordinary series of books and minor writings on archi- tecture and decorative art which are so widely known. He had become extremely well versed in the theory of build- ing and scientific construction, and his responsible task of restoring ancient buildings had taught him how even in minute details the builders had proceeded. He had a ready and fluent style, and his writings often suffer from ex- cessive length; nevertheless his descriptions and explana- tions are models of clearness. His extraordinary gift as a draughtsman added much to the value of his books. No artist has ever been known who was his equal in making intelligible drawings explanatory of construction and de- sign, and it is known that he made these with extraordinary rapidity. At the breaking out of the war of 1870 he became lieutenant-colonel of a volunteer regiment of engineers, serving in the defense of Paris. He was actively employed to the end of his life, and died at Lausanne, Switzerland, Sept. 17, 1879. His most important books are Dietionnaire raisonné de l’arohiteeture franeaise du X1e au X V1e sieele (Paris, 1854-69, 10 vols.); Dictionnaire du mobilier franeais de l’épogue earlovingienne d la Renaissance (1855) ; Entretiens sur l’arohitecture (1858—68, 2 vols.): Zfistoire d’une maison (1873); Histoire d’une forteresse (1874) ; His- toire d’un Hotel-de-ville et d’une oathédral; Histoire d’un Dessinateur. RUSSELL STURGIS. Vi0l0ncel’l0: a bass violin with four strings tuned in fifths, A, D, G, and C, the two last strings being wound with wire. Vioménil, ve"e’5'md’neel’, ANTOINE CHARLES DU Houx, Baron de: soldier; b. at Fauconcourt, Vosges, France, Nov. 30, 1728; entered the army and served in Holland, Han- over, and Corsica, gaining the rank of field-marshal; was sent to Poland, where he aided the confederation of Bar against Russia 1770, and captured the castle of Cracow; went to the U. S. in 1780 as second in command to Count Rochambeau; distinguished himself at the siege and cap- ture of Yorktown 1781, where he led his troops in the storming of the redoubt; was promoted to a lieutenant- generalship; returned to France and became governor of La Rochelle 1782; was so severely wounded while defend- ing the king during the assault upon the Tuileries. Aug. 10, that he died a few weeks later in Paris, Nov. 9, 17 92.— His brother, C1-IARLES JOSEPE I-Imcnvrnn DU Houx, Mar- quis de Vioménil, b. at Ruppes, Vosges, France, Aug. 22, 1734, served in Germany during the Seven Years‘ war; was a major-general under Rochambeau in the U. S. 1780-82, bearing the title of baron; was at Yorktown; was gov- ernor of Martinique 1789-90: emigrated from France as a royalist 1791; served under the Prince of Condé 1792-97; afterward held military commands in Russia and Portugal; became a peer 1814, a marshal of France July 3, 1816, and a marquis 1817. D. in Paris, Mar. 5, 1827. Vionville : See MARS LA TOUR. Viper: See VIPERIDE. Viper’ idre [hlod. Lat., named from Vipera, the typical genus, from Lat. vi’_pera, viper]: a family of poisonous snakes embracing the viper of Europe and related species. The form is typified by the common viper; the scales on the back and sides are oblong and imbrieated, those on the abdomen transverse scutellae; the eyes have, mostly, ellip- VIRGINIA 529 tieal pupils; no lachrymal fossm are developed; the poi- son-fangs are destitute of external grooves. The family in- cludes a number of poisonous serpents peculiar to the Old World, and is at first sight distinguishable from the Cro- talidce (rattlesnakes, etc.) by the want of the deep pits be- tween the eyes and nostrils which so much enhance the vi- cious look of the latter. The most notable species are the viper of Europe (Vipera berus), the cobra de capello (lVaja tripudians), and the Egyptian lVaja haje and Cerastes has- selquistii, or cegyptiea, each of which has been supposed by different writers to have been the asp fatal to Cleopatra. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Vique: See VIcH. Virchow, ve“er'ch5, RUDOLF, M. D. : pathologist ; b. at Schivelbein, Pomerania, Oct. 13, 1821 ; graduated M. D., University of Berlin, in 1843 ; in 1844 was Froriep’s assist- ant at Charité Hospital, in 1846 was prosector, and in 1847 a lecturer at the university. In 1847 he established the Ar- chiv fur pathologisehe Anatomie und Physiologic, of which he is still editor (1895); was sent in 1848 by the Prussian Government to Silesia to investigate a typhoid fever raging there; was dismissed from Berlin University in 1849 for political reasons; was Professor of Pathological Anatomy at the University of Wiirzburg 1849-56 ; in 1852 was sent by the Bavarian Government to the Spessart to investigate a famine fever which had broken out there ; returned to the University of Berlin in 1856, and acted as director of the hospitals during the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71, taking part all the while with great energy in the political move- ments as a representative of the city of Berlin in the Prus- sian house of representatives. He is the creator of the cel- lular theory in pathology, which he has developed in Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begritndung aufgohysiologische und pathologische Ge/webelehre (1858). This is a biological principle establishing the fact that the laws working in dis- ease are not different from those in operation in health. but that they are subject to different conditions. He also wrote .Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie und Therapie (3 vols., 1854-62) and Vorlesungen ether Pathologie (4 vols., 1862-67’), besides a great number of minor essays on various subjects, among which are Goethe als I/Vaturforsclzer (1861); Ueber Pfahlbauten und Hiuzelzgrdbev‘ (1866); Ueber Erziehung des Wez'bes fit?‘ seinen Beruf (1865) ; and Die altnordischen Sohddel zu Kopenhagen (1871). He has been one of the most earnest advocates in Germany of sanitary reform and has done an immense amount of work to attain it. For more than twenty years he has been one of the aldermen of Ber- lin, and his liberalism in politics has exercised a potent in- fluence in practical municipal work. Revised by S. T. ARMSTRONG. Virden : city ; Macoupin co.. Ill.; on the Chi. and Alton and the J ack., Louisv. and St. L. railways; 21 miles S. W. of Springfield, 31 miles E. S. E. of Jacksonville (for loca- tion, see map of Illinois, ref. 8-D). It is in a coal-mining region, and contains a high school, 2 private banks, 2 week- ly newspapers, brick. and tile works, and poultry-packing house. Large quantities of grain are here shipped. Pop. (1880) 1,608; (1890) 1,610. Vireon’id-re [Mod. Lat., named from Lat. vireo, a kind of bird, perhaps the greenfinch; cf. vz're'/re, be green]: a family of Passeres related to the shrikes. The bill is much compressed. decurved at the end and notched. The nostrils are lateral and overhung by membrane ; the frontal feathers are bristly and erect, or bent slightly forward; the wings have mostly ten primaries, but the spurious one is wanting in certain Vireos; the tarsi have the lateral plates undi- vided, except at the extreme lower ends, and they are longer than the middle toes with the claws; the three anterior toes are extensively attached to one another. The family is peculiar to America, and comprises about fifty species of small singing birds. For the nest of the solitary vireo, see NESTS or BIRDS. F. A. LUcAS. "irgil : another spelling of VERGIL (g. 22). Virgil’ ia : a genus of South African leguminous trees. to which the American yellow-wood (V. lutea) was referred by Michaux, but Rafinesque named it Cladrastis tinctorz‘a, the name by which it is usually known. It is a beautiful tree. about 40 feet in height, with flowers in loose pendent ra- cemcs 20 inches long; is much prized for lawn-planting, and is hardy and easily grown from the seed. L. H. B. Virgin’ia [for Lat. I'irgi’nea (sc. ci'vitas, state). liter., fem. of virgi’neus, of or belonging to a virgin, deriv. of 431 530 oir’go, oir’ginis, maiden, virgin. Named in honor of Eliz- abeth, the virgin queen]: one of the U. S. of North America (South Atlantic group); the tenth of the thirteen original States that ratified the Federal Constitution; popularly known as the Old Dominion State and as the Mother of Presidents. Location and Area.—Virginia lies between 36° 31’ and 39° 27’ N. lat-., and between 75° 13' and 83° 37’ \V. lon. On The seal of Virginia. the S. it adjoins North Carolina for 326 miles and Tennessee for 114 miles; on the W. and N. '\/V. it adjoins Kentucky for 115 and West Virginia (by a very irregular line) for 450 miles; on the N. VV. and N. it is separated from Maryland by the Potomac river and Chesapeake Bay for 205 miles and by a line of 25 miles across the eastern shore; and E. and S. E. it is bordered by the Atlantic for 125 miles. The boundary- line of the State measures about 1,400 miles. The longest line in the State from the Atlantic S. W. to Kentucky is 476 miles; the longest from N. to S., 192 miles; area, 42,450 sq. miles (27,168,000 acres), of which 2,325 sq. miles are water surface. Physical Features.-There are six natural divisions of Virginia, extending across the State from N. E. to S. W., nearly parallel to each other, and corresponding to the trend of the Atlantic coast on the E. and the Appalachian system of mountains on the N. WV., known in the order of succession from the ocean as (1) the Tidewater country, (2) Middle Virginia, (3) the Piedmont section, (4) the Blue Ridge country, (5) the Great Valley of Virginia, (6) the Ap- palachian country. These divisions occupy dilferent leve s above the sea, rising to the W. in terraces, and differ in climate, soil, productions, etc. In the Tidewater country every portion is penetrated by the tidal waters of the'Chesa- peake Bay and its tributary rivers, creeks, bays, and inlets. The united waters of nearly all this section, with those that drain 50,000 sq. miles of country, flow out through the channel, 12 miles wide, between Capes Charles and Henry. The Middle Virginia region is a great, moderately undulat- ing plain from 25 to 100 miles wide, rising to the N. W. from an elevation of 150-200 feet above tide at the rocky rim of its eastern border to 300-500 feet along its north- western. The Piedmont section is one in which the moun- tains present themselves in their grand as well as their diminutive forms—gradually sinking into the plains, giving great diversity and picturesqueness to the landscape. The Blue Ridge country, for two-thirds of its length (310 miles), is embraced in the Valley and Piedmont counties that have their common lines upon its watershed; it is only the south- western portion, where it expands into a plateau, with an area of some 1,230 sq. miles, that forms a separate political division. This division contains the counties of Floyd, Carroll, and Grayson, all watered by the Kanawha or New river, a tributary of the Ohio, and its branches, except a little valley in the southwest corner of Grayson County, which sends its waters to the Tennessee. The Great Valley is a continuous one, clearly defined by the surrounding mountains, but it is really the valley of five rivers. These, with their lengths are, from the N. E.: The Shenandoah, 136 miles; the James River, 50 miles; the Roanoke River, 38 miles; the Kanawha or New River, 54 miles; and the Holston, or Tennessee, 52 miles—total, 330 miles. As a whole, the valley rises to the S. W, being 242 feet above the tide where the Shenandoah enters the Potomac and the united rivers break through the Blue Ridge at Harper’s Ferry, and VIRGINIA 1,687 feet where the waters of the Holston enter Tennessee. The Appalachian country succeeds the Great Valley on the \V., and is traversed its whole length by the Appalachian system of mountains. It is a series of long, narrow, parallel valleys, extending N. E. and S. W., separated from each other by mountain ranges that are generally equally nar- row. long, and parallel, and quite elevated. The only lake in the State is Lake Drummond, in the southeastern part (Dismal Swamp). The waters belonging to the Atlantic system drain six-sevenths of the State. The principal stream is the Potomac, with its large branches, the Shenan- doah and the South Branch, and its prominent smaller ones, Potomac creek, Occoquan river, Broad Run, Goose, Catoctin, and Opequon creeks; the Rappahannock, with the Rapidan and numerous other branches, flows from -the Blue Ridge across the Pied- mont, Middle, and Tidewater divi- sions; the Plankatank drains a portion of Tidewater; and Mobjack Bay and its rivers furnish deep entrances to the Gloucester peninsula. The York, with its Pamunkey and Mattapony branches, and many tributaries, flows through a considerable area of Middle and Tidewater country. The James, with the Chickahominy, Elizabeth, Nansemond, Appomat- tox, Rivanna, Willis, Slate, Rockfish, Tye, Pedlar, North, Cowpasture, Jackson, and other streams drains more of the State than any other river. The Elizabeth is a broad arm of the Hampton Roads estuary of the James, extending for 12 miles. All these flow into Chesapeake Bay. The Cho- wan, through its Blackwater, Nottoway, and Meherrin branches and their affluents, waters portions of Middle and Tidewater Virginia. The Roanoke, called the Staunton from the mouth of the Dan to the Blue Ridge, receives the Dan, Otter, Pig, and many other streams from the Valley and Piedmont and Middle Virginia, and then flows through North Carolina to Albemarle Sound, joining the Chowan. The waters of the Ohio system drain the remaining seventh of the State. The princi al streams are the Kanawha or New river, which rises in orth Carolina, flows through the plateau of the Blue Ridge, from which it receives Chestnut, oplar Camp, Reed Island, and other creeks, and Little river; across the Valley, where Cripple, Reed, and Peak’s creeks join it; across Appalachia, from which Walker, Sink- ing, Big and Little Stony, and Wolf creeks, and East and Bluestone rivers flow into it; and then through West Vir- ginia into the Ohio. The Holston, through its South, Mid- dle, and North Forks, Moccasin creek, ete., drains the south- western portions of the Valley and Appalachia; and the Clinch, by its North and South Forks, Copper creek, Guest and Powell rivers, and other tributaries, waters the ex- treme southwest of the Appalachian country. These flow into the Tennessee. A portion of the mountain country gives rise to the Louisa and Russell’s Forks of the Big Sandy river, and to some branches of the Tug Fork of the same river. Mountains extend W. from the foot of the low broken ranges that, under the names of Catocton, Bull Run, Yew, Clark’s, Southwest, Carter’s, Green, Findlay’s, Buffalo, Chandler's, Smit-h’s, ete., cross the State S. W. from the Po- tomac, near the northern corner of Fairfax County, to the North Carolina line, forming the eastern outliers of the Ap- palachian system. The Blue Ridge, where the Potomac breaks through, attains an elevation of 1,450 feet; Mt. Marshall, near the S. of Front Royal, is 3,369 feet high; Rockfish Gap is 1,996 feet; and James river, where it passes through the Ridge, is 706 feet above tide. The Peaks of Otter, in Bedford County, are 3,993 feet, and the Balsam Mountain, in Grayson, is 5,700 feet high. The distant ranges W. of the Great Valley are called the Appalachian, Kit-tany, or Alleghany Mountains. Many are bold, but only one peak, Elliott’s Knob, in Augusta County, vies with the high peaks of the Blue Ridge. Few States have more wonderful and in- teresting natural curiosities than Virginia. Its caves, natural bridges, and waterfalls alone repay the tourist for an ex- tended trip. Geoloyy and Jltinerul Resources.-The geolo y of the State was determined by Prof. William Barton Tlogers in 1835-40. The formations, like the geographical divisions, A B H hi’ I I I N If I IN I V I Y I I I I ‘W_*UVI_W Fl 75” I - liliillfiillldl‘ —2"‘;4 I1; F, 4 IL :lI"_'_' _' ”'_ ’*''“I_'_‘ 'U‘ ‘ ‘I I /.'/fl/II7’I'/'/l./ / ‘ V , ~\__,/ A N D ~\ *1 '" L- " _ w ' . ' WEST VEREUNEA. I)rawn"z?id I".ngr_aved on C0T)l_>e\1--Plate ' EXPRESSLY ‘_" F O R 2 J eeaasea’s CYCw;P&..DIA Sralu of Miles -. 40 u r I if 1\)’__‘4 flj ‘ ‘Q A“ 3" g _ 4 20 N ’-’_//v - ~ llllflfl /‘ .' £9” lwfis. "limo I’ ‘H 67'',‘ “ ‘ .- v , - -\(\-’ \ l.~/fill]/Ir/n JUN? ‘"'"/‘P ooommse "ma \ RlTCR{lL C. . / /L K .1 K | . _ HIE \ < outco ERY , Y‘: . R0cdvlLL; Q ' I ! _ , $1176 I ";,_',‘-' ' /.-=9 .\/FAIE.FAX\ \ Alfifil ,/ \ \ I . \ . . )-~/\‘ \-\., i x’ / IBRAX ON I .[ -- ‘ ‘.71’ ';n‘ ~';w\auu>7Lon ‘ - ,1}-H ANMLICW/$ f 0- '_ )/'7"\, -4- .=/,s;-!‘ 0'; ‘£4 ’E _ /fvll/\D|§Q~"->9 jifl '1 I _._, ,1 . j/W ‘*7 J,/-r“’j5u'r - ' . ICLDYI lk ./I . ' \/L I. 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'.'—-‘——L——.—q'~-» ‘ v“ ' —*"‘"_;'%';;—' ' v ' 1 . r-.—1 |.—-111.11!-_;¥_*-'i.';A,*,l,—~;=.'{1;:' : ;;i_L._ -,,:5,‘;;: .;:::.“:; ,::1 _ _‘‘'4‘' I .- ’ r ‘ ' i 5 f5: “gili-1 M M ’D 3 E F 3 ’_ L0ng§,ilndcG West I frum \\':\Rlfii§lum 0 J‘ j’ ' “' _, __ . . _ . . _ _ _ _ _-____-_-- ~—-~--V _ ’ _.. .-i" _.‘.. .1 _ .. i;_ .___._._.’----A ,s P 3° _".:. \ E-_’;r; ; _-___._-_-—_ Q_ —-_l_.__. __ _ VIRGINIA succeed each other in belts, either complete or broken, nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast. The formations in their order, from the Atlantic at the Virginia capes to the N. W. across the State, are as follows: Tidewater: 1, Quaternary; 2, Upper Tertiary; 3, Middle Tertiary; 4, Lower Tertiary. Middle: 5, Triassic and Jurassic; 6, Azoic and granitic. Piedmont: 7, Azoic, Epidotic, etc. Blue Ridge: 8, Azoic and Cambrian. The Great Valley: 9, Cambrian and Silu- rian. Appalachia: 10, Subcarboniferous and Devonian; 11, Silurian; 12, Devonian and Subcarbonife'rous; 13, Great Carboniferous. The mineral resources are, in Tidewater Virginia, several kinds of marls, greensand, etc., highly esteemed as fertil- izers, and choice clays, sand, and shell-limestone for building purposes; in the Middle section, granites, gneiss, brown- stone, sandstone, brick and fire clay, soapstone, marble, slate, epidote in various forms, limestone, gold, silver, copper, red and brown hematite, magnetic and other ores, and bi- tuminous coal; in Piedmont Virginia, granite, marble, sand- stone, brick and fire clays, epidotic rocks and limestone, hematite, magnetic and other iron ores, barytes, lead, and manganese ores; in the Blue Ridge district, copper ores, red and brown hematite, and other iron ores, greenstone. sand- stone, freestone, glass sand, manganese ores, and brick and fire clays; in the Great Valley, limestone for building and agricultural uses, marble, slates, freestones, sandstones, brick and fire clays, kaolin, hematite, lead and zinc ores, tin ore, semi-anthracite coal, and travertine marls; in the Appa- lachian country, limestones, marbles, freestones, slates, cal- careous marls, brick clay, red, brown, and other iron ores, salt, and bituminous coal. In the Middle Virginia, Pied- mont, and Great Valley divisions are choice mineral waters. Soil and Prociucfions.-—In the Tidewater division the soil of the low, flat, sandy shores is naturally thin, light, and soft; at the same time it is warm and under the influence of a mild climate. The second bottoms (a second terrace above the water) are the rich lands of the country; they are composed of loams of various qualities, all highly valuable, the subsoil being a dark-red or yellow clay. Along the streams of the Middle country transported materials of de- composed rocks have been deposited, giving everywhere rich soils in the bottom-lands. The soils of the Piedmont divi- sion are much more epidotic and therefore more fertile than those farther E. The red and chocolate soils of this section, formed from the decomposed dark greenish-blue sandstone, are generally considered the most fertile. The other soils of this region are grayish or yellowish, and less fertile. The Blue Ridge is composed of much the same material as the Piedmont, but it is richer in the abundance of greenstone rocks, which impart to the soil a wonderful fertility and adapt it to the growth of rich grasses, vines, and orchards. The soils of the Great Valley, generally limestone, are well adapted to the growth of grass and grain. The forests of Virginia are large in extent and the timber is greatly varied, including several species of pine, oak, hickory, elm, poplar, willow, beech, birch, walnut, maple, cedar, mulberry, locust, sycamore, and other timber-trees, besides the juniper, chestnut, cypress, mulberry, linden, catalpa, persimmon, cottonwood, dogwood, sassafras, numer- ous nut-trees, and a considerable range of fruit-trees. The following summary from the census reports of 1880 and 1890 shows the extent of farm operations in the State : FARMS, ETC. 1880. 1890. Per cent. Total number of farms . . . . . . . . . . 118,517 127.600 7'7 Total acreage of farms . . . . . . . . 19,835,785 19,104,951 ‘r 37 Value of farms, including mgs and fences . . . . . . . . . . build- $216,028,107' $254,490,600 *17'8 1' Decrease. * Increase. The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of the principal crops in the calendar year 1894: CROPS. Acreage. Yield. Value. Indian corn . , . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 1,685,647 32,195,858 bush. $15,132,053 Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736,342 6,995,249 “ 3,917,339 Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450,042 5,400,504 “ 1,998,186 Bye . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . 44,694 393,307’ “ 212,386 Buckwheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,856 71,383 “ 38,547 TOb&CCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54,592 35.593,984 lb. 2,135,639 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,928 2,355,752 bush. 1,319,221 Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692,412 498,537 tons. 5,927,605 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,708,513 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $30,680,976 The cotton crop in 1894 was 11,625 bales. 1 531 On J an. 1, 1895, the farm animals comprised 253,656 horses, value $11,327,410; 38,634 mules, value 82,244,254; 273,851 milch cows, value 85,014,212 ; 394,566 oxen and other cattle, value 85,731,856 ; 449,357 sheep, value $974,027; and 957,037 swine, value $4,041,567—total head, 2,367,101 ; total value, $29,333,326. In 1893 the production of coal was 820,339 short tons, valued at $692,748, an increase of 145,134 tons over the out- put of the previous year. The largest production since 1880 was in 1888, 1,073,000 short tons. Virginia and West Vir- ginia together in 1893 produced 41,665 long tons of red hematite iron ore, 568,800 tons of brown hematite, and 6,500 tons of magnetite—total production, 616,965 tons; value, $1,050,977. Of the total, Virginia produced 612,465 tons, ranking first of the States in yield of brown hematite. Vir- ginia also ranked first in production of manganese ore, 4,092 long tons, value $30,802; its highest production was in 1886, 20,567 tons. Other productions were: Granite, output valued at $103,703, a large decrease caused by the business depres- sion; slate, $117,347, principally for roofing, also a decrease; limestone, $82,685; sandstone, 83,830; and gypsum, 7,014 short tons, valued at $24,359. Tin-mining, carried on at the head-waters of Irish creek, in the northeastern part of Rock- bridge County, was hindered by litigation. There were 42 mineral-spring resorts, and 29 mineral springs whose waters were bottled and sold, the principal ones being scattered over fifteen counties. CZz'mate.—The climate ranges from the temperate of the plains in the S. E., fronting the Atlantic, to the cold of the northwestern mountain plateaus. is generally dry and mild, and is healthful the year round. The mean annual temperature for twenty years is 57°. For 1893, annual, 54'6°; monthly, January, 25'6°, July, 76'7°. Annual aver- age mean for Tidewater division, 56°; Middle Virginia, 55°; Piedmont and Blue Ridge, 54°; the Valley, 52; Ap- palachia, 51°. From tabulated returns of observations made at thirteen stations, representing nearly all the sections of the State, the mean annual average of rainfall for twenty- one years (1872-92) was found to be 4299 inches. Dz'vz'sz'ons.—l3‘or administrative purposes Virginia is di- vided into 101 counties, as follows: COUNTIES AND COUNTY—TO\VNS, WITH POPULATION. conurnzs. * Ref. 22%: Egg: 1 COUNTY-TOWNS. $556 Accomac . . . . . . 6-J 24,408 27,277 Accomac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Albemarle . . . .. 5-G 32,618 32,379 Charlottesville. . . . 5,591 Alexandria . . . . 4-1 17,546 18,597 Alexandria . . . . . . . 14,339 Alleghany . . . . . 5-E 5,586 9,283 Covington . . . . . . . . . 704 Amelia . . . . . . . 6-G 10,377 9.068 Amelia C.-H . . . . . . . . . .. Amherst . . . . . . . 6—F 18,709 17,551 Amherst . . . . . . . . . 590 Appomattox. . . 6-F 10,080 9,589 West Appomattox . . . . . Au usta . . . . . . . 5-F 35.710 37,005 Staunton . . . . . . . . . . 6,975 Bat . . . . . . . . . . . 5-E 4,482 4,587 Warm Springs. . . . 1,058 Bedford . . . . . .. 6-E 31,205 31,213 Bedford City . . . . . . 2.897 Hland . . . . . . . . . . 7-D 5,004 5,129 Bland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Botetourt . . . . . . 6-12 14,809 14,854 Fincastle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brunswick. . . . . 7- 16,707 17,245 Lawrenceville. . . . . 305 Buchanan . . . . .. 7- 5,694 5,867 Grund§7 ll . . . . . . . . . . 2,114 Buckingham. . . 6—G 15,540 14,383 Buckingham . . . . . . . . . . . Campbell . . . . . . 7-F 36,250 41,087 Rustburg . . . . . . . . . . 352 Caroline . . . . . .. 5-H 17,243 16,681 Bowlin _ Green. . .. 511 Carroll . . . . . . . .. 7-D 13,323 15,497 Hillsvil e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charles City . .. 6-H 5,512 5,066 Charles City . . . . _ . . . . . . Charlotte . . . . . . 7-]? 16,653 15,077 Smithville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chesterfield. . . . 6-H 1 23,77 26,211 Chesterfield . . . . . . . . . . . . Clarke . . . . . . . . . 3-G 7,682 8,071 Berryville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Craig . . . . . . . . . . 6-E 3,794 3,835 Newcastle . . . . . . . . . 214 Culpeper . . . . . .. 5-61 13,408 13,233 Culpeper . . . . . . . . . . 1,620 Cumberland . . . 6-G 10,540 9,482 Cumberland . . . . . . . . . . . Dickenson ‘r... . 7-B 5, 77 Clintwood II . . . . . . .. 2,058 Dinwiddie . . . . .. 7-H 113,719 13,515 Dinwiddie C.-H ... . . . . . Elizabeth City. 7-1 10,689 16,168 Hampton . . . . . . . .. 2,513 Essex . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 11,032 10,047 Tappahannock. . . . 452 Fairfax . . . . . . . . 4-H 16,025 16,655 Fairfax . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ Fauquier . . . . . . 4-61 22,993 22,590 Warrenton . . . . . . . . 1,346 Floyd . . . . . . . . . . 7-D 13.255 14.405 Floyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluvanna . . . . . . 5-G 10,802 9,508 Palmyra [I . . . . . . . . . 1,788 Franklin . . . . . .. 7-13 25,084 24,985 Rocky Mount . . . . . 628 Frederick . . . . . . 3-G 17,553 17,880 Winchester . . . . . . . 5,196 Giles . , . . . . . . . . . 6-D ,794 9,090 Pearisburg . . . . . . . . 341 Gloucester. . . . . 6-1 11,876 11,653 Gloucester . . . . . . . . . . . . . Goochland. . . . . 6-G 10,292 9,958 Goochland . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grayson . . . . _ . . 7-C 13,068 14,394 Independence . . . . . . . . .. Greene . . . . . . . . . 5-G 5.830 5,622 Stanardsville . . . . . . 330 Greenesville . . . 7-H 8,407 8,230 Emporia . . . . . . . . 595 Halifax . . . . . . . . 7-F 33,588 34,424 Houston . . . . . . . . . . . 1,285 Hanover . . . . . . . 6-H 18,588 17,402 Hanover . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . Hennco . . . . . . . . 6-H 2,703 103,394 Richmond . . . . . . . - . 81,388 * Reference for location of counties, see map of Virginia. 1' Formed since census of 1880. 1 Exclusive of part of Petersburg city. I] District. 532 VIRGINIA P0 ). Po . Pop. Estab- COUNTIES' *Ref' 1885. 189% COUNTY‘TOWNs' 1890 MA‘1\'UFAC'l‘URES. li8li- Wngeapald. C°t*‘()‘r,‘:lf1:n“' 1! _ __._.—____ mcnts. ' ' ' Henry . . . . . . . .. 7-13 16,009 18,208 Martinsville.... . 3,768 _ __‘ Highland . . . . . . 5-F 5,164 5,352 Monterey . . . . . . . . . 1,571 Tobacco, chewing, Isle of WVight .. 7-1 10,572 11,313 Isle of Wight . . . . . . . . . .. smoking, and snul_l. 93 10,085 $2,142,385 $4,825,432 $11,804,813 James Oity.... 6-I 5,422 5,643 W_illlamsburg..... 1,831 Flour and grist null KingandQueen 6-I 10,502 9,669 Kmg and Queen Tpgoducts...t . . . . 1,179 2,200 657,591 9,849,144 11,716,356 .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0 acco, s emnnng King George... 5-H 6,397 6,641 King George . . . . . . . . . .. and rehandling. 101 1,821 433,685 5,420,492 6,487,643 King William. . 5-I 8,751 9,605 Kmg 1/V1lhan1 . . . . . . . . .. Lumber-mlll products Lancaster . . . . .. 6-I 6,160 7,191 Lancaster . . . . . . . . . . . . .. from logs and bolts. 638 5,980 1,361,638 2,905,958 5,541,825 Lee . . . . . . . . . . .. 7-A 15,116 18,216 Jonesville 1! . . . . . .. 4,731 Iron and steel . . . . . . . .. 17 1,483 633,444 2,043,216 4,104,850 Loudoun . . . . .. 4-H 23,634 23,274 Leesburg . . . . . . . . .. 1,650 Tobacco, cigars, and Louisa . . . . . . . .. 5-G 18,942 16,997 Louisa ll . . . . . . . . . .. 4,745 cigarettes . . . . . . 102 2,428 785,187 1,463,878 3,727,842 Lunenburg. . . . . 7-G 11,535 11,372 Lunenburg . . . . . . . . . . . Foundry and machme- I Madison . . . . . .. 5-61 10,562 10,225 Madison. . . . . . . . .. 353 shop products . . . . .. 59 2,082 1,034,024 1206,227 2,739,695 Mathews . . . . .. 6-I 7,501 7,584 Mathews . . . . . . . . . . . . ..’.“ FeI‘l}ll1Z81‘S: . . . . . . . , , ,, 28 687 280,939 1‘739,1,-38 2,475‘638 Meck1enburg___ 7_G 24,610 25,359 Boydtonll . . . . . . . .. 5,467 Pla.n1ng-nnll_products 60 1,272 567,071 1,252,291 2,350,281 Middlesex . . . . .. 6-I 6,252 7,458 Saluda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Nails and spikes. 4 1,504 578,716 1,343,466 2,068,734 Montgomery... 7-D 16,693 17,742 Ohrlstlansburg ll... 5,215 Cotton goods . . . . 9 2,019 406,824 1,199,57 1,732,648 Nansemond.... 7-1 15,903 19,692 Suifolk . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,354 Printing and publish- Nelson . . . . . . . .. 6-F 16,536 15,336 Lovmgston . . . . . . .. 300 In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205 1,373 674,553 397,307 1,626,938 New Kent . . . . .. 6-I 5,515 5,511 New Kent . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Br1c and tile . . . . . . . .. 88 2,441 607,211 214,553 1,343,598 Norfolk _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 7_J 58,657 77,038 Portsmouth . . . . . .. 13,268 Boots and shoes . . . . .. 7 272 139,888 874,564 1,279,069 Northampton.. 6-J 9,152 10,313 Eastvillell . . . . . . . .. 3,812 Leather, tanned and Northurnberl‘d. 5-I 7,929 7,885 Heathsvdle ll . . . . . . 1,990 curried . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 459 159,026 805,487 1,224,800 N ottoway . . . . . . 6-G 11,156 11,582 Nottaway . . . . . . . . . . . .'.~. Orange . . . . . . .. 5-61 13,052 12,814 Orange . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘ 311 . ' Page/_ - - ~ - - - - - - -' 4—G 9,96? 13,092 Lures; - - - - - - - - - - ~ In 1893 there were 32 blast furnaces, 10 rolhng-m1lls and ,1Zg,m°k--. ' ' ' ' " 7_D 12’8§5 M147 Stuar ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " steel-works, 146 cut-nall machmes, and a large wire-nail crsbulgi... 7-H 21,606 22,680 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..;_. f t ‘ . 1 . Th 1 . . . Pittsy1vania.... 7-F 52,589 59,941 Chatllam ........ .. 757 a0 01 y 1n opeiatlon. _ e pioduction of pig iron was 302,- Powhatan . . . . .. 6-G 7,817 6.791 Polvllatall - - - - - - - - - 5 - -- 806 long tons. Two cokmg plants had 594 ovens in opera- Prlnce EdW_a'1'd- 7-9’ 14888 14»(’94 F2.m,‘V11,le -~_ - - - ' - -' "404 tion and 206 other ovens were being built. During the year Pr1nceGeolge. 6-H $8,861 7,872 Punce Oeo1ge . . . . . . . . .. 194 059 t f 1 V ‘ d f, h. h ‘ ~ d Princess Anne. 7-J 9,394 9,510 Princess Anne 125,092 lonstot (302 fvielle U561, (30111? $1758/‘12C898VVe1I6 I310 506% .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 slor onso core, va ue a , . n e sea Prince William. 4-H 9,180 9,805 Manassas ....... .. 530 ’. 1_ - , - Pulaski ...... .. 7-D 8,755 12,790 Newbernll ....... .. 2,932 gal 1f89€ 94 th?U1nte};n3’1$r;Y‘:1g%%1C°1%?l{1°nst°n‘;?’?“i”bie Rappahannock 4-G 9,291 8,678 Washington . . . . . .. 252 anu ac mes agemga e 10 7 - 1C eW_3J 91' llglnla Richmond . . . .. 5-I 5,135 33,136 gvafrsaw . . . . . . . . . .. Bééé hag large mterests 1n the oyster, clam, terrapln, and turtle Roanoke . . . . . .. 1 ,1 5 ,1 1 aem . . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘, I ustries an th h 1' S n I I . Roekbridge.... 6-F 20,003 23,062 Lexington ...... .. 3,059 The rocegdsclf the‘1’,1S,;3eI1:i(§1sg>aC}23£(l)‘3a‘i” dgrletléladen fish?/P188 Rockingham... 5-F 29,567 31,299 Harrisonburg..... 2,792 P _ 1 ng O 9 census; were Russell ....... .. 7-B 13,906 16,126 Lebanon ........ .. 310 valued at $4,816,425 in 1890. . Scott . . . . . . - - . -- 7—A 17.333 23694 §3;Vated(31tby - - - - - -- (]0mmc7'ce.—Dur1ng the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, ghn§’>I,1§,,n_‘1.‘?"f‘ln_::: £1183 1,I;,?iO,S,.F"°__:::::::'_ 11651 the unports of foreign merchandise at the ports of Alex- Southampton.. 7-H 18,012 20,07 Courtland.._. . . . . . . _ _ _ _, andrla, Newport News (changed_from Yorktown in 1888), Sl>0l1l1SylV&11i8»-- 5-H 14,828 14,233 Spobtsylva-I114 - - - - - - ~ . -- Norfolk and Portsmouth, and Richmond aggregated in St ff ~11 5 H 7211 "362 St fford - 2 - - a O‘ - ' ' ' ' - " ‘ * ‘~ ~ 2 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " value $484,257, and the exports of domestic commodities Surry . . . . . . . . .. 7-I 7,391 8,256 Surry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ,, 8 6 1 V.‘ . . 1 h 1 . _ Sussex ....... .. 7-H 10,082 11,100 Sussex O.-H. n..... 2,468 992 J35 26 - 11g1n_1a& 80 as 4 &I_‘ge1I1t@IStat8 traffic by '%azewell . . . . . .. 2-8 12,383) 13,233 '%“azeI_’v%ll...1 . . . . . .. H868 rail and water,rece1v1ng and shipping raw materials and arren . . . . . . .. - , , 1ron oya . . . . . .. C - . .- - - .. -- Warwick ..... .. 7-I 2,258 6,650 Newport News.... 4,449 {nq’n,;lf‘fwtu1,e(t1,§"11t1C1eS;1 afid slllpglng. huge quamtltles of Washington.. .. 7-B 25,203 29,020 Abingdon . . . . . . . .. 1,674 um _e1, V689 '9' 95> an 0 let P10 _uCt1QnS- . Westmoreland. 5-I 9,246 8,329 %ontross|| . . . . . . . .. 2,032 F'mcmce8.—The assessed valuations 111 1893 were: Wlnte ise' ' - - ' - - - - - -- 7-B 1 7 I 5 ise - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- taxpayers real property $296 371 055 personal $90 373 044 . _ _ yr - , . . ' . . - H ‘ ,, , 1 Q 3 9 9 a s 9 lX4i§‘.?:::::;;:: '4? $3313 $3253 ‘s?Oy.~llt%‘£$,‘l? ...... .. ‘$52’ tOw1$886,744,099= colomd wxpeyea1'e21properiy 89.829,- 583, personal $3,465,370, total $13,294,953 ; total real prop- TOWS - - - - - - -- 11512590 1i5-15980 erty $306,200,638, total personal $93,838,414; grand total * Reference for location of counties, see map of Virginia. t Formerly in Ohesterfield, Dinwiddie, and Prince George Coun- ties; now independent. I Exclusive of part of Petersburg city. I! District. _ Principal Cities and Towns, with .P0,miZa2fi07i in 1890.— Richmond, 81,388; Norfolk, 34,871; Petersburg, 22,680; Lynchburg, 19,709; Roanoke, 16,159; Alexandria, 14,339; Portsmouth, 13,268; Danville, 10,305; Manchester, 9,246; Staunton, 6,975; Charlottesville, 5,591; \/Vinchester, 5,196; Fredericksburg, 4,528 ; and Newport News, 4,449. Populaz‘ion and Races-—In 1860, 1,219,630; 1870, 1,225,- 163; 1880, 1,512,565; 1890, 1,655,980 (native, 1,637,606; foreign, 18,374; males, 824,278; females, 831,702; white, 1,014,680; colored, 641,300, of whom 640,867 were persons of: African descent, 50 Chinese, 13 Japanese, and 370 civilized Indians). I7id7i8i7'/ies and Business Inz‘erests.—ln 1890 the census returns showed that 5,915 manufacturing establishments re- ported. These had a combined capital of $63,456,799; in- vestment in plants, $34,962,393, including value of machin- ery, tools, and implements, $18.348,110; employed 59,591 persons; paid for wages $19,644,850, for materials used $50,- 148,285, and for miscellaneous expenses $7,421,()87; and had an output of goods valued at $88,363,824. These totals show an increase over those for 188() as follows: Number of establishments, 205; capital employed, $36,487,809; persons employed, 9,407; amount of wages paid, $12,219,589; and value of manufactured output, $36,583.132. In 1880 the principal manufactures were of tobacco, flour and grist, iron and steel, lumber, cotton goods, machine-shop products, leather, and agricultural implements. The followin table shows the manufactures of which the output was va ued at $1,000,000 and upward each in 1890: $400,039,052. In 1894 the totals were: Real property $310,- 201,514, personal $86,590,188; grand total $396,791,702. The total public debt on Oct. 1, 1894, was $23,704,029, which in- cluded $16,359,860 in bonds issued under the debt-settlement legislation, and the net debt was $23,367,029. Banl¢ing.—In 1893 there were 36 national banks with com- bined capital of $4,796,300, individual deposits of $12,463,- 724, and surplus and profits of $3,279,783, and 90 State banks with combined capital of $6,388,588, deposits of $13,746,018, and surplus of $2,427,167. Post-oflices and Periodicals.—ln Jan., 1895, there were 3,139 post-oflices, of which 57 were presidential (3 first-class, 9 second-class, 45 third-class) and 3,082 fourth-class, and of the total 432 were money-order offices, 5 money-order sta- tions, and 6 limited money-orderoflices. Of newspapers and periodicals reported in 1895, there were 34 daily, 2 tri-week- ly, 4 semi-weekly, 181 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, 44 monthly, 2 bi-monthly, and 4 quarterly publieations—total, 272. Jllccms of C0m7n/u7iicati07i.--In 1893 there were 3,863 miles of railway track. The main systems having large connec- tions outside the State were the Ohesapeake and Ohio, the Norfolk and Western, the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, and the Baltimore and Ohio. Two of the trunk lines ex- tended through the great coal-fields and terminated at H amp- ton Roads, taking numerous coal-trains to Newport News on the north shore and Lambert’s Point and Norfolk on the south, and connecting with regular lines of ocean steamers. There are steamboat lines running regularly between Nor- folk and Philadelphia, Baltimore, VVashington, Richmond, Petersburg, North Carolina ports, and Fredericksburg; also between Richmond and New York, and Frcdericksburg and Baltimore. Uhurches.—The census of 1890 gave the following statis- tics of the principal religious bodies : VIRGINIA Value of DENOMINATIONS. O““‘“iZ“' Church“ Members. church tion: and halls. PmP‘:rty_ Baptist, Regular, Colored . . . . . . .. 1,046 1,052 203,048 $1-257-Q6-§ Methodist Episcopal South . . . . . . . 1,172 1,155 105,892 2,183,565 Baptist, Regular, South . . . . . . . . .. 787 800 92,693 1,859,292 Presbyterian in the U. S . . . . . . . . .. 290 363 26,515 1,180,576 Protestant Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 3; 20.371 1.697.531 9 Methodist Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 316 16,764 329,144 Disciples of Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 148 14,100 240,929 Roman Catholic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 69 12,356 458,800 African Methodist Episcopal. . . . . 67 102 12,314 187,245 African Meth. Episcopal Zion . . .. 72 72 11,765 68,449 Lutheran, United Synod in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 140 11,196 314,200 Baptist, Primitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 222 9,608 90,005 Dunkards, Conservative . . . . . . . . .. 42 94 6,659 73,523 United Brethren in Christ . . . . . . . . 71 68 5,306 65,940 Methodist Protestant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 57 4,154 94,000 Reformed Church in the U. S. . . . . 20 22 1,819 44,800 Christian Connection . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23 21 1,390 8.875 Colored Methodist Episcopal. . . . . 18 18 1,351 33,150 The whole State constitutes the Protestant Episcopal dio- cese of Virginia (organized in 1785). The eastern part com- prises the Roman Catholic diocese of Richmond (established in 1821), and the remainder of the State is in the diocese of Wheeling (established in 1850). Schools.-—The public-school system is administered by a State board of education, consisting of the Governor, the attorney-general, and the superintendent of public instruc- tion. This board controls the State school fund, and ap- points and removes county and city superintendents, subject to confirmation by the Senate. The schools are free to all children between five and twenty-one years of age. Equal educational privileges are secured by law to white and col- ored children, with the provision, however, that they shall be taught in separate schools. In 1893 there was a school population of 377,595 white children and 275,831 colored (653,426), of whom 227,696 white and 120,775 colored (348,- 471) were enrolled in the public schools, and 130,398 white and 63,745 colored (194,143) were in average daily attend- ance. There were 5,679 schools for white pupils and 2,064 for colored (7,743), and 5,868 white teachers and 2,064 col- ored (7,932). The appropriation for public-school purposes was $932,367, and the value of school property was esti- mated at $2,763,584. Of institutions for higher instruction there were 4 normal schools; 59 endowed academies, semi- naries, and private secondary schools; 15 colleges for women; 8 universities and colleges of liberal arts; and numerous pro- fessional and other special schools. The universities and colleges of liberal arts were the State University (see VIR- GINIA, UNIVERSITY or) ; HAMPDEN-SIDNEY COLLEGE (q. ea), at Hampden-Sidney; WAsHINeToN AND LEE UNIVERSITY (q. 21.), at Lexington; RANDOLPH-M.-Icon CoLLEeE (q. 11.), at Ashland; RICHMOND CoLLEcE (q. 1).), at Richmond ; Roxxoxa CoLLEeE (g. 2).), at Salem; Emery and Henry College (Methodist Epis- copal South, chartered 1837), at Emery; and the Polytech- nic Institute, at New Market. State aid is given to the State University, the Virginia Military Institute, the Virginia Ag- ricultural and Mechanical College, the State Female Normal School, the College of William and Mary (State Male Normal School, see VVILLIAM AND MARY, COLLEGE or), the Medical College of Virginia, the Virginia Normal and Collegiate In- stitute, and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. The Miller Manual Labor School, at Crozet. is a notable in- stitution, and has an endowment of $1,300,000. Ltbrartes.——According to a U. S. Government report on ublic libraries of 1,000 volumes and upward each in 1891, irginia had 50 libraries, containing 340,110 bound volumes and 30,800 pamphlets. The libraries were classified as fol- lows: General, 6; school, 13; college, 13; college society, 5; law, 2; theology, 3 ; Y. M. C. A., 3; scientific. 2: historical, 1 ; garrison, 1 ; and society, 1. The State Library was com- pleted in 1894, at a cost of $174,200. Chctre'ta.ble, Reformatory, and Penal I)2'8Zlt'l‘2l'l‘L'0/7t8.——AlI1 ong these are the Virginia Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind. at Staunton; four State asy- lums for the insane, the Western, at Staunton, the Eastern, at Williamsburg, the Southwestern, at Marion, and the Cen- tral, near Petersburg; an Industrial Reform School for white boys, at Laurel; a penitentiary, at Richmond; and county and city jails and almshouses. P0le'tt'cal ()r_q(tm'zo.t"zIon..—Tl1e executive power is vested in a Governor, elected for four years and ineligible for a second consecutive term, who must be a citizen of the U. S., thirty years old, and a resident of the State for three years prior 533 to his election. If foreign born, he must have been a resi- dent of the U. S. for ten years. A Lieutenant-Governor is elected at the same time, for the same term, and under the same qualifications as the Governor, and succeeds the Gov- ernor on his death or removal from office. Other State of- ficers are a secretary of the commonwealth, treasurer, first and second auditors, register of the land office, superintend- ent of the penitentiary. railway commissioner, and public printer, each elected for two years by the General Assembly, and a commissioner of agriculture appointed by the Gov- ernor. The legislative authority is vested in a General As- sembly, consisting of a Senate of 40 members and a House of Delegates of 100 members. each elected for two years. The judicial authority is vested in a supreme court of appeals of five judges, elected by the General Assembly for a term of twelve years; circuit courts, of which there are sixteen judges, elected by the General Assembly for a term of eight years ; and county courts of one judge each, similarly elected for six years. The elective franchise is given to all males twen- ty-one years old and upward who are citizens of the U. S. and residents of the State one year, of the county three months, of the town three months. and of the precinct thirty days prior to the election, excepting idiots, lunatics, persons convicted of bribery in any election, embezzlement of public funds, treason, felony, or petty larceny, and persons engaged in dueling as principals or abettors. A modification of the Australian ballot law is in force. Elia-tory.—Virginia was the earliest settled of the English colonies. On May 13, 1607, a party of 105 persons, sent out by the London Virginia Company, landed at what is now known as Old Jamestown. It was mostly composed of needy adventurers, and the whole company would have per- ished but for the enterprise of Capt. John Smith. Smith took command of the colonists, and held it until the ofiicers appointed by the London Virginia Company should make their appearance. Nine vessels had been sent out by the company with 500 colonists. but the one bearing the oflicers was wrecked on the Bermudas, and one of the other vessels was lost. The remaining seven arrived safely at Jamestown, but the new settlers were as worthless as their predecessors. Having been severely wounded by an accident, Smith was compelled to return to England in Dec., 1609. He left 500 colonists well supplied with all necessaries. Six months later the number had dwindled to 60, and these were on the verge of starvation. At this time (June, 1610), Newport, Gates, and Somers arrived at Jamestown with 150 men and a mod- erate store of supplies, but finding the colonists in so sad a plight they resolved to abandon Virginia. As they descend- ed the river, they met Lord de la VV arr with three ships, bringing supplies and settlers. They then returned to James- town, and Lord de la \Varr established a trading-post at Hampton. Lord de la VVarr's health failing, he returned to England, leaving Capt. George Percy as his deputy. New settlements were made at Henrico and at what is new City Point. and the lands, which had previously been held in com- mon. were divided among the settlers. Lord de la \Varr re- turned to resume the governorship, but died at the entrance of the bay. Sir George Yeardley, who succeeded him, was more popular. The culture of tobacco became profitable; favorable laws were made : servants of two kinds began to come into the colony in 1619—felons or convicts sent over from English prisons and sold to the planters for a term of years, and Negro slaves brought by Dutch vessels from the African coast. In 1624-25 the Virginia Company was dissolved by writ of guo warm/nto, and the colony re- verted to the crown. In 1652 the colonists reluctantly submitted to the rule of Cromwell, but in 1660 they reaf- firmed their loyalty to the Stuart dynasty. Bacon‘s Re- bedion, which occurred in 167 6, was the result of the ra- aeity of Gov. Berkeley and two favorite courtiers of Charles II. (Arlington and Culpeper), to whom he had given a patent of the Virginia colony. In 1689 the colony reluctantly ac- knowledged the accession of I/Villiam and Mary. There were occasional conflicts with the Indians, but these were not se- rious until 1754, when the French war began. Virginia re- sented the levying of taxes by the mother country without representation as warmly as did Massacliusetts, and in 17 5 adopted resolutions denying the right of any foreign body to levy such taxes. The colony was not represented in the first colonial congress of Oct., 17 65. but approved its action, and asserted strongly, four years later, its rights and liberties. It was not until the accession of Lord Dunmore as Governor in 1772 that the opposition to the measures of the British ministry began to be generally manifested. Lord Dunmore 534 VIRGINIA became at length so obnoxious to the people by his tyranny that he took refuge on board a British man-of-war off York- town. and in June, 1775, sailed down the river, and was de- clared by the General Assembly to have abdicated his oifice. He subsequently attacked with a British and Tory force sev- eral of the towns along the coast, but was eventually driven south with heavy losses. In May, 1776, a convention of dele- gates met at Williamsburg, issued a declaration of rights, and on June 12 adopted a State constitution. Committed thus to the Revolution, Virginia was one of the fields of the Revolutionary war, especially toward its close. N a- val attacks were made on Norfolk, Portsmouth, and Gos- ort in 1779, and Benedict Arnold captured and burned ichmond in Jan., 1781. The battle of Jamestown was fought July 9, 1781, and the surrender of Cornwallis (with which the war ended) took place at Yorktown Oct. 19 of the same year. Virginia was prominent in the national conven- tion which framed the Constitution of the U. S., and ratified that Constitution June 25, 1788. In 1784 she ceded to the U. S. her claims to the lands lying N. W. of the Ohio, and soon after this she gave up the territory which forms the present State of Kentucky. In 1849 she changed her con- stitution, extended the suifrage, and codified her laws. In 1860 and 1861 the people of Virginia were divided in their views on the subject of secession. The convention, called Feb. 13,1861, to consider the subject, was composed of three classes—unconditional Unionists, unconditional secession- ists, and conditional Unionists; the last-named were largely in the majority. There was a long discussion, but on A r. 17, three days after the capture of Fort Sumter, the or i- nance of secession was passed by 88 yeas to 55 nays. It was subsequently submitted to the people, and a majority of 94,000 was said to have declared in favor of secession. The western counties opposed it, and as aresult the State of West Virginia was formed in October of the same year. Rich- mond became the capital of the Confederate States in the summer of 1861. The State was occupied by hostile armies during the whole of the civil war that followed, and many of the most important actions of the war, together with the final surrender of Lee’s forces at Appomattox, took place within its borders. (See CONFEDERATE STATES.) During a part of this time there were two State governments, the counties which were loyal and under Federal control having instituted a State government at Alexandria in 1863, and Francis H. Pierpont being elected Governor. The legisla- ture of this State government called a convention, which met Feb. 13, 1864, and abolished slavery. After the close of the war, an attempt was made to convene the old Virginia legislature to restore the State to the Union, but, as it was believed that that legislature would act in hostility to the government, its assembling was prohibited, the Pierpont gov- ernment recognized by President Johnson May 9, and Gov. Pierpont made provisional governor. The State was under military control till J an. 26, 1870, when it was restored to the Union by Congress under a constitution adopted by the peo- ple July, 1869. During Holliday’s term as Governor (1878-82) there arose a contest over the State debt which was not settled till 1892, when the debt was adjusted and bonded. VIRGINIA CITY GOVERNORS OF VIRGINIA. Ofiicers under the Virginia 00. Edw. M. Wingfield, pres.. 1607 John Ratcliffe. pres . . . . .. 1607-08 Capt. John Smith, pres... 1608-09 Sir George Percy, pres. . . 1609 Thomas West, Lord de la Warr, gov . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1609-11 Thos. Dale, high marshal. 1611-16 George Yeardley, lt.-gov. 1616-17 Captain Samuel Argall, lt.-gov ................ .. 1617-19 Sir Geo. Yeardley, gov. .. 1619-21 Francis Wyatt . . . . . . . . . . .. 1621-25 Governors under the Crown. Sir George Yeardley . . . . . 1626-27 Francis West . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1627-28 John Potts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1628-29 John Hervey . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1629-35 John West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1635 John Hervey . . . . . . . . . . . . 1635-39 Francis Wyatt . . . . . . . . . . .. 1639-41 Sir William Berkeley. . . . . 1641-45 Richard Kemp, lt.-gov.. . 1645 Sir William Berkeley. . . . . 1645-52 Governors (Conimonwealthi. Richard Bennett . . . . . . . . .. 1652-56 Edward Digges . . . . . . . . . .. 1656-58 Samuel Matthews . . . . . . .. 1658-60 Governors under the Crown. Sir William Berkeley... .. 1660-77 Herbert J effries, lt.-gov.. 1677 Herbert Jeffries, gov. . . .. 1677-78 Henry Ohicheley . . . . . . . .. 1678-79 Thomas, Lord Culpeper.. 1679-80 Henry Chicheley, lt.-gov. 1680-84 Lord Howard of Effing- ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1684-89 Nathaniel Bacon, lt.-gov.. 1689-90 Francis Nicholson, lt.- gov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1690-92 Sir Edmund Andros, gov. 1692-98 Fran. Nicholson, gov... 1698-1704 The Earl of Orkney . . . . . . . 1704-05 Edward Nott,lt.-gov . . . . .. 1705-06 Edmund Jennings, lt.-gov. 1706-10 Robert Hunter, lt.-gov. . . . 1710 Alex. Spotswood, lt.-gov.. 1710-22 Hugh Drysdale, lt.-gov. .. 722-26 Robert Carter. lt.-gov.. .. 1726-27 William Gooch,1t.-gov.. . . 1727-49 John Robinson, Sr., lt.- gov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749 Lord Albemarle, gov..... 1749-50 Louis Burwell, lt.-gov . . . . 1750-52 Robt. Dinwiddie, lt.-gov. . 1752-58 John Blair, lt.-gov . . . . . . .. 1758 Francis Fauquier, gov.. .. 1758-68 John Blair, lt.-gov . . . . . . .. 1768 Norborne Berkeley, Lord James Pleasant . . . . . . . . . .. 1822-25 de Botetourt, gov . . . . .. 1768-70 John Tyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1825-27 William Nelson, lt.-gov. .. 1770-72 William B. Giles . . . . . . . . . . 1827-30 J ohn, Lord Dunmore, gov. 1772-76 John Floyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1830-34 ‘ Littleton W. Tazewell. . .. 1834-36 State Governors of the Revolu- W_mdh9-m Robeftsoll (act- ”°"“'"yPe""°d- D2.‘€¢‘%',I.);1,Z_,~I_()}‘i;Ir1iSé(,)311_ ' ‘ " Constltutlowh John Leteher . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1860-64 Beverly Randolph . . . . . . .. 1788-91 Francis H. Pierpont . . . . .. 1864-68 Henry Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1791-94 Henry H. Wells . . . . . . . . .. 1868-70 Robert Brooke . . . . . . . . . . .. 1794-96 Gilbert C. Walker . . . . . . .. 1870-74 James Wood . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1796-99 James L. Kemper . . . . . . .. 1874-78 James Monroe . . . . . . . . .. 1799-1802 Fred. W. M. Holliday.. . .. 1878-82 James Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802-05 William E. Cameron . . 1882-86 William ii’. Cabell ...... .. 1805-08 Fitzhugh Lee ........... .. 1886-90 John Tyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808-11 Phili McKenney . . . . . . . . . 1890-94 James Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811 Char es T. O‘Ferrall. . .. . 1894- George W. Smith . . . . . . . .. 1811-12 James Barbour . . . . . . . . . .. 1812-14 Wilson C. Nicholas . . . . . .. 1814-16 James P. Preston . . . . . . . .. 1816-19 Thomas M. Randolph 1819-22 BiBLioeRAi>iiY.-—Jefierson, Notes on Virginia; Rogers, Geological Survey; Campbell, Geology and Mineralogy of James River Valley; Maury. Physical Survey; Hotchkiss, Summary; Ruffin, Caleareoas Manar*es; Reives, Birds of Virginia; Howe, History of Virginia; Brock, Virginia and Virginians; Smith, Governors of Virginia; Brown, Gene- sis of Virginia. THOMAS WHITEHEAD. Virginia: city (laid out in 1836) ; capital of Cass co., Ill.; on the Balt. and Ohio S. W. and the Chi., Peo. and St. L. railways; 13 miles E. by S. of Bcardstown, 33 miles W. by N. of Springfield (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 6—C). It is in an agricultural region, and has a public high school, library of the Central Illinois Science Society, 2 national banks with combined capital of $100,000, a private bank, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,420; (1890) 1,602. Virginia, or Vei'g‘inia: a Roman maiden, daughter of Lucius Virginius, a patrician, and betrothed to Lucius Icilius, a popular democratic leader who had signalized himself in the ofiice of tribune by procuring the passage of the law assigning the Aventine Mount to the plebeians. According to the ordinary histories-which, however, do not merit great confidence-the decemvir Appius Claudius, captivated by the beauty of the maiden, devised with one of his clients an infamous plot to obtain possession of her, under pretense that she was a slave; and when, in spite of all the efforts of the maiden‘s father and lover, the decemvir had in his magisterial capacity adjudged her to be the slave of his ac- complice, Virginius plunged a knife into his daughter’s breast in the midst of the Forum. The people, excited by this tragedy, overthrew the government of the decemvirs, re-established the consulate, and made Virginius tribune, by whom Appius was thrown into prison, where he committed suicide (B. o. 449). Revised by G. L. HENDRicKsoN. Virginia City: city (settled in 1859, incorporated in 1861); capital of Storey co., Nev.; on the eastern slope of Mt. Davidson, and on the Virginia and Truckee Railroad; 15 miles N. E. of Gunnison City, 200 miles N. E. of San~Fran- cisco (for location, see map of Nevada, ref. 5-E); elevation 7.825 feet above sea-level. It is the largest city in the State; was settled on the discovery of the famous Comstock silver lode; and is built over mines from which over $350,000,000 in gold and silver bullion has been taken. The city has a daily supply of 10,000,000 gal. of water for use for domestic and mining purposes, brought from the Sierra Nevada mountains, 30 miles W., at a cost of $2,500,000, and the principal mines are tapped by the Sutro drain tun- nel (4 miles long, cost $4,500,000) at a depth of 1,650 feet. The deepest mining-works have a depth of 3,000 to 3,350 feet. There are in the city numerous great mining-plants erected at a cost of from $350,000 to $1,000,000 each. There are 4 churches, 2 public-school buildings (cost $20,000 and $60,000 respectively), several private schools, branches of two San Francisco banks, county court-house (cost $250,- 000), county hospital, St. Mary’s Hospital, gas and electric- light lants, and a weekly and 2 daily newspapers. Pop. (1880) 10,917; (1890) 8,511; (1895) estimated, 6,800, the de- crease being due to the decline in the price of silver. GOLD HILL is a mining town 1 mile S. of the city, and was once a place of much importance. DAN DE QUILLE. VIRGINIA CREEPER Virginia Creeper: See AMPELOPSIS. Virginia Deer: the Cam'acus m'rgz'm'a/nus, or common deer of the Eastern U. S. See DEER. Virginian Snake-root: See ARISTOLOCHIA. Virginia, University of : an institution of learning at Charlottesville, Albemarle co., Va.; chartered in 1819 through the influence of Thomas Jefferson, its first rector, who drew up all the statutory enactments’ relating to it, as well as its basis of organization, code of government, and original plan of studies. It was opened in 1825, and had among its faculty several young English rofessors, two of whom, George Long and Thomas Hewitt ey, subsequently achieved eminence in connection with London University. Among the pecul- iar features which distinguish the University of Virginia from all other American institutions, the principal are its division into separate, independent schools, twenty-two in number, each under the charge of a professor, who in sever- al instances has assistant instructors, and the freedom of elec- tion in studies granted the student. There is no general cur- riculum, but students select their schools, usually three in number, for each year, and receive upon examination their respective degrees—namely, for proficiency in separate branches, for graduation in a single school, for the degrees of bachelor of arts, of master of arts, and of doctor of philos- ophy. The university has also medical, pharmaceutical, law, agricultural, and engineering departments with corresponding degrees. The academic head of the university is the chair- man of the faculty, annually chosen by the board of visitors composed of a rector and eight members, appointed by the Governor of Virginia, and confirmed by the Senate, in whom the government is vested. The institution is under State patronage, having enjoyed from the beginning an annual appropriation of $15,000, a sum which in 1875 was increased to $30,000 on condition of free tuition in the academical schools for suitably prepared students who are residents of the State. The annual appropriation was raised to $40,000 in 1884. The gifts in equipments and endowments (includ- ing an endowed observatory and an extensive museum of natural history and geology) since 1869 by William W. Cor- coran, Lewis Brooks, Leander J . McCormick, William H. Vanderbilt, and others, amount to $600,000. To this is to be added an estate in remainder left by Arthur W. Austin, of Massachusetts, in 1884, valued at $420,000. The department of agriculture was founded in 1869 by Samuel Miller, of Lynch- burg, with an endowment of $100,000. The library contains about 54,000 volumes; the number of alumni is about 15,000; and the number of students for the year 1894-95 was 575, under the tuition of 25 professors and 15 assistants. WILLIAM M. THORNTON. Virgin Islands (so-called by Columbus in honor of the Eleven Thousand Virgins): a group of islands in the West Indies, forming the northwestern extremity of the Caribbee chain, and lying immediately E. of Puerto Rico. The most important are ST. THOMAS, SANTA CRUZ (gq. 4).), and St. John, belonging to Denmark. Tortola, Anegada, Virgin Gorda, and some islets, belong to Great Britain, and are attached to the Leeward islands colony ; they have an aggregate area of 58 sq. miles, and a population (1891) of 4,639. Culebra, Vie- ues, etc., are dependencies of the Spanish colony of Puerto ico. All the islands are hilly or mountainous. Total area about 250 sq. miles; total pop. about 55,000. H. H. S. Virgin Mary: See MARY, THE Bmssnn VIRGIN. Virgin’s Bower: See CLEMATIS. Virgo: the sixth sign of the Zodiac, which the sun enters about Aug. 20; also a constellation which formerly marked this sign, but is now in the sign Libra. It is on the meridian during the evenings of May and June, and contains the bright star Spica. S. N. Viri'athus : a Lusitanian herdsman, who became a leader in the guerrilla war which was carried on in the middle of the second century B. 0. on the border between Lusitania and the Roman province of Spain. After some years of guerrilla warfare, in which for the most art Viriathus was signally successful, a peace was conclu ed with the Romans, by which the Lusitanians were acknowledged as an independent nation and the allies of Rome. But in 140 the consul, Q. Servilius Caepio, saw fit to invade Lusitania, bribed some persons to murder Viriathus while sleeping, and subjugated the country. Revised by G. L. HENDRICKSON. _Viro’qua: city; capital of Vernon co., Wis.; near the Kickapoo river, and on the Chi., Mil. and St. Paul Railway; VISCHER 535 80 miles S. E. of Lacrosse, 35 miles S. of Sparta (for loca- tion, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 6—C). It is in an agricul- tural and lumbering region, and has a high school, a State bank with capital of $25,000, and two weekly papers. The neighborhood is a favorite one among sportsmen because of the trout and game that abound. Pop. (1880) 762; (1890) 1,270; (1895) estimated, 1,600. EDITOR or “VERNON COUNTY CENsoR.” Virus [from Lat. virus, slime, slimy liquid, stench, poison : Gr. ids (for *F¢o'tis) : Sanskr. visa-, poison]: animal fluids produced in diseased conditions or by morbid pro- cesses, and capable of developing disease when transmitted to other animal bodies. Thus man may be inoculated by the virus of human origin, smallpox, syphilis, etc., vaccinia of the cow, glanders of the horse, and rabies canina or hy- drophobia. (See INOCULATION and VACCINATION.) A mi- nute amount of the virus gaining access to the body is sufii- cient to infect the entire volume of the blood and contami- nate every part of the body. Peculiar organisms, having vitality and tendency to reproduce themselves, constitute the active elements of all viruses. (See BACTERIOLOGY.) Having gained entrance to the system, they for a time seem dormant, but are really multiplying, and this period is well designated as one of “incubation.” Thus smallpox ap- pears twelve or more days after admission of virus, vaccinia within a week, hydrophobia on an average in forty days. Hygienic and supporting measures may prepare the body to meet those effects and pass safely through, but, with the exception of malaria and a few other diseases, no specifics are known which are capable of destroying the virus. Visa'lia: town; ca ital of Tulare co., Cal.: on the Ka- weah river, and the isalia and Tulare Railroad; 18 miles N. E. of Tulare, 40 miles S. of Fresno (for location, see map of California, ref. 9—E). It was founded in 1852, made the county- seat in 1853, and incorporated in 1874. There are 6 churches, thirteen-room public-school building, 3 State banks with combined capital of $250,000, and 2 daily and 2 weekly newspapers. It is principally engaged in agriculture and fruit growing and canning. Pop. (1880) 1,412; (1890) 2,885; (1895) estimated, 3,400. EDITOR or “ DELTA.” Visby: ancient town of Sweden. See WISBY. Viseacha, or Biscacha: See Lxeoms. Viscel1i'nus, SPURIUS GASSIUS2 a Roman statesman and general of the earliest period of the republic, who has re- ceived scant justice from the imperial annalists, but deserves to be considered one of the greatest and most illustrious his- torical figures of the early republic. In his third consul- ship, in 486 B. c., he made the league with the Hernicans which was the basis of Roman success for the century fol- lowing. His importance in Roman history is due to the fact that he was the first to introduce an agrarian law which should compel the rich patricians to give up the public land which they held, and rent it out for the benefit of the pub- lic treasury, and also divide it in part among needy citizens. His attem t failed, although his law was passed, and in the year after is consulship he was accused of aiming at royal power and was put to death (485 B. 0.). G. L. H. Vischer, fish'er, FRIEDRICH THEODOR: critic and poet; b. at Ludwigsburg, Wiirtemberg, June 30, 1807; studied theol- ogy and philosophy at Tiibingen; was appointed Professor of German Literature and Esthetics at Tiibingen in 1837; traveled in Italy and Greece, where he studied art; was sus- pended from his professorship on account of his radical views on religion ; was elected a member of the national as- sembly of Frankfort-on-the Main in 1848; accepted in 1855 a professorship at the polytechnical school of Zurich, and in 1866 was appointed Professor of £Esthetics and German Literature at the polytechnical school of Stuttgart. D. at Gmunden, Sept. 14, 1887. In 1837 Vischer published his Ueber das Erim-bane and Komz'sohe, a preliminary study in the philosophy of the beautiful, in which he sketches the plan of the chief work of his life, the ¢5Z'sz‘7zet‘z'k oder Wis- senschafzf des Sch6nen (4 vols., 1846-57). The first part of this classic, in which, on the basis of Hegel’s philosophy. the metaphysics of the beautiful is given. must be considered antiquated; but the parts containing the discussion of the single arts of sculpture, painting, poetry, and music are un- equaled for depth of thought, aesthetic insight, and sugges- tive criticisms. Vischer was the greatest German critic, after Lessing and Schiller, and many of his minor essays collected in II"r'z.'z‘t'sche Gdnge (2 vols., 1846. with 5 vols. of new additions, 1860-66), Altos and News (1881-82), are 536 VISCHER masterpieces of their kind. A great admirer of Goethe and his drama Faust, as shown by Goethes Faust, Neae Bee'- zfrdge zar Km'tz'le des Gediohts (1875), he was not blind to the deficiencies of the second part of the great drama, and ridiculed the extreme enthusiasts among the interpreters in his witty satire, Faust, Der Tragcedie drifter Thetl. That Viseher was also a poet of great talent and exquisite humor is evident from his novel, Aaoh Einer (1879), and his col- lection of poems, Lyrisohe Gdnge (1882). See Ilse Frapan, Vischer-E'm'nne7'?mgen (1889); Julius Ernst v. Giinthert, Fz'z'edm'o7t Theodor Visoher (1889); Fr. Spielhagen, Teelmilc des Romans, 101 ff; Victor Hehn, Geclanken fiber Goethe, 181 ff. JULIUS GOEBEL. Vischer, PETER: sculptor and worker in bronze; b. at Nuremberg, Bavaria, in 1455; d. there Jan. 7,1529. His father was a worker of reputation in bronze. Of his own life not much is known (see Die iViZrnberger K'iZnstZer, ge- solmlldert naoh ihren Leben and Werken, 1831), but he at- tained a great fame as an artist, and received orders from both German and foreign princes. Of his numerous works, the tomb of St. Sebaldus, in the Church of St. Sebaldus in Nuremberg, is the most celebrated (1506-19), containing sev- enty-two figures, besides those of the apostles and prophets. Other works only less celebrated are, in R6mh1ld, the tomb of Count Hermann von Henneberg and his wife; three monuments in Bamberg to three bishops of the cathedral; in Hechingen, the tomb of Count Eitelfritz von Zollern and his wife; and especially two of the splendid statues which decorate the tomb of the Emperor Maximilian I. at Inns- bruck. Revised by RUSSELL Sruaers. ViSGO]1' ti [from the Lat. oioecomvltes, viscounts]: an old Lombard family, said to descend from King Desiderius. Possessing large estates bordering on Lakes Como and Mag- giore, it obtained, in course of time, the sovereignty of Milan, and extended its power over the whole of Northern Italy, from Venice to Florence. One member of the fam- ily, OTTONE, is mentioned in 1078 as Viscount of Milan, and another Ottone was appointed Archbishop of Milan in 1263 by Pope Urban IV. This appointment by the pope, and not by the chapter, was considered an infringement on the rights of the people, and occasioned a popular rising under the leadership of the family of the Torriani, or Della Torre. A civil war ensued, which was brought to an end in 1311, when the Emperor Henry VII. expelled the Torriani from the city, and confirmed MATTEO as Viscount of Milan, also making him imperial vicar in Lombardy. Between Matteo and Pope John XXII. a controversy arose regarding the ap- pointment to the archiepiscopate of Milan, and Matteo was forced to resign a short time before his death. In 1322 the pope excommunicated the Viscontis, and in 1323 a crusade was preached against them, but by the aid of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria, GALEAZZO I. succeeded in completely de- feating the holy army at Vavrio, on the Adda, in 1324, and in 1327 became imperial vicar of Milan. The power of the family now increased rapidly. Its members were conspicu- ous as shrewd politicians, able generals, and great patrons of literature and art; but they were generally unscrupulous and cruel, and conspiracies, depositions, and assassinations fill the pages of their history. With GIOVANNI GALEAZZO (1378-1402) the power of the family culminated. He was a son of GALEAZZO II., the patron of Petrarch, the founder of the University of Pavia, and the inventor of the famous process of torturing called Galeazzo’s seat ; and the son evinced all the father’s virtues and vices on a grand scale. He founded the library at Pavia, re-established the university at Piacenza, founded the Cathedral of Milan, built the Cer- tosa and the bridge across the Ticino at Pavia, etc. He conquered Padua, Verona. Vicenza, etc., bought the title of Duke of Milan from the Emperor Wenceslas, and aspired to the royal crown of Italy, when he suddenly died from the plague. His daughter, Valentina, married Louis, Duke of Orleans, and was the grandmother of Louis XII., King of France. On the death of his son, Filippo Maria, in 1447, the male line of the family became extinct, but his natural daughter, Bianca, married to Francesco Sforza, retained Milan and a large part of the family inheritance. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Visconti, ENNIO QUIEINO: archaeologist; b. in Rome, Nov. 1, 1751. At an early age he became the conservator of the Capitoline Museum, and rose to the place of Minister of the Interior and of consul. At the approach of the Neapolitan army (1799) he went to Paris. where he was appointed cli- rector of the antiquities of the Louvre and Professor of VISHNU Archaeology. In this capacity he issued the celebrated Catalogue of the Museum (1801-03), and published the two works upon which his fame rests, the earlier having been instigated by Napoleon and published at his expense. The Ioonographe'e Greoqac was issued in three volumes in 1808, followed twelve years later by the Iconog/¢'a]2he'e Romaine, also in three volumes. A collection of all his minor trea- tises was made by Labres (Milan, 1808). D. in Rome, Feb. 7, 1818. His son, LOUIS TULLIUS JOACHIM, b. in Rome, Feb. 11, 1791, studied at the School of Fine Arts in Paris, and was much employed as practical architect by Louis Philippe and Napoleon III. He erected in Paris the fountains of Gaillon. Moliére, Louvois, and St. Sulpiee, the tomb of Na- poleon I. in the Hotel des Invalides, and the Collet Palace on the Quai d’Orsay. He also furnished the plans for the com- pletion of the Louvre, which, however, he did not live to see executed. D. in Paris, Dec. 1, 1853. ALFRED GUDEMAN. Visconti-Venos’ta, EMILIO, Marquis: statesman; b. at Milan in 1829. He wrote for various literary and political periodicals, and was at first a supporter of Mazzini. In 1859 Cavour appointed him royal commissioner at the headquar- ters of Garibaldi in Lombardy, and he acted, in conjunction with the dictator Farini, in measures for the annexation of Central Italy to the kingdom of Sardinia. In 1860 he was associated with Pepoli in a mission to Paris and London, and after his return held ofiice in the ministry of Foreign Affairs; accompanied Farini to Naples as legal and diplo- matic counselor on the annexation of that kingdom to Italy; was three times Minister of Foreign Afiairs, in 1863- 64, 1866-67, and 1869-76. In 1886 he became a senator. Viseos'ity [from Lat. m'seo’sus, sticky, viscous, deriv. of m's’ezm2,, bird-l1me; cf. Gr. Z§6s (for FzE6s)] : a term in phys- ics denoting that property of matter in accordance with which the relative motion of its parts tends to diminish. It is exemplified in the dying away of sound and the gradual disappearance of the waves caused by an object thrown into water. The kinetic theory of gases gives us a sim le ex la- nation. If contiguous layers of gas are moving with di er- ent velocities, the diffusion of molecules across the space between them will tend to produce an equalization of ve- locity—-that is, by increasing the velocity of the slower layer and diminishing the velocity of the swifter one. The viscosity is thus a diffusion of momentum, and may be measured by the rate at which the momentum is equalized across unit areas. If we cause a layer of gas to pass over another in parallel planes, the action of viscosity engenders a definite resistance. The same action takes place, but in a less degree, in liquids, and to a much smaller extent in solids. This property may be explained by Maxwell’s theory of the constitution of bodies, according to which the differ- ence between gases, liquids, and solids depends upon the readiness with which groups of molecules can be broken up. With every such breaking up of groups and assumption of new relative positions energy is expended and motion lost. Thus suppose that in the case of an elastic solid the mutual relations of groups of molecules are disturbed by stresses, then by the action of elasticity these relations are restored, but not perfectly, owing to viscosity. For in- stance, in the case of an oscillating tuning-fork, there is, independently of the resistance of the air, a tendency to the evanescence of motion in consequence of the deformation of the material itself. R. A. ROBERTS. Viscount, vi’kount [originally a vice-count, or earl’s dep- uty]: in the British peerage, the title of a nobleman higher in rank than a baron and lower than an earl. There is a corresponding title in the nobility of several other European nations. See NOBILITY. Viscous Fermentation: See FERMENTATION. Viscum: the genus of parasitic plants to which the MIS- TLETOE (Q. Iv.) belongs. Vishnu: the second person of the Hindu Trimfuti. While Brahma is said to create, and iva to destroy, the chief func- tion of Vishnu is said to be preservation. In tracing the history of the god, it can plainly be seen that the reason for nominating Vishnu as the Supreme Prescrver lies in the fact that in his avatars he appears as an almighty Deliv- erer. the last succor of gods and men. If we are to believe his votaries he stands alone, as the incomparable chief of the Hindu pantheon. But, unfortunately, zealous advocates of Saivism are as extravagant in the praise of iva, their own deity. and declare that he is so potent that he is worshiped by Vishnu. As for Brahma, he is rather a venerated name VISHNU that is encircled by shadowy awe, and which looms through the mists of tradition, than a living power to whom daily prayers and sacrifices must be offered up. Vishnu is usually represented with four hands, and as riding on the Garuda, a being which is half bird and half man. He has 1,000 names. His wife is LIAKSHIMI (q. 1).). The most remarkable thing about Vishnu as a god is his avatars or incarnations. Taking them in the order in which they are generally commented on, we come first to the in- carnation in which Vishnu took the form of a fish. This is called the Mat.sya avatclr. There are many indications that the history of this avatar has some connection with that of the Hebraic account of the Deluge. The origin of the avatar appears to have been the necessity for avenging the loss of the four Vedas which proceeded from Brahma’s four mouths. Brahma, we are told, fell asleep, and a de- mon who saw him thus unconscious took the opportunity to steal the Vedas. The demon succeeded, but was caught in the act by Vishnu, who determined to slay him. He ap- appears, however, to have taken a long time about it, and to have gone about his work in a very roundabout way. Vish- nu took the form of a fish, and slipping into the hands of the sage Manu while he was performing his religious ablu- tions, addressed him and claimed protection from the larger fishes. Manu consented, and placed it in his pitcher of water. But the fish grew so large that he placed it in a pond. Then the pond was found too small, and the fish was placed in a lake. Then nothing but the sea would contain the enor- mous creature; whereupon Manu became convinced of the divine character of the fish, and after he had paid his ador- ation to the god, Vishnu revealed to him the imminence of a deluge which would destroy the world, and told him that a large vessel would appear to him, in which he was to em- bark, together with the seven Rishis, taking with him all the plants and all the seeds of created things. Manu obeyed the behest of the god, and when the water covered the face of the earth, Vishnu again appeared to him in the shape of a golden fish, with a single horn 10,000 miles long, and to this horn Manu attached the vessel, Vishnu’s serpent serv- ing as a cord. While thus floating in the vessel, Manu was instructed by the fish-god in the philosophical doctrines and the science of the Supreme Spirit; and after the del- uge had subsided, the flsh-god killed the demon, restored the Vedas to Brahma, and taught them to the Mann Sat- yavrata. Next comes the tortoise avatar. The gods becoming aware of their mortality, desired to discover some elixir by which they might become immortal. After solemn consultation they repaired to the omnipotent Vishnu, who directed them to churn the ocean of milk, with the mountain ilfandara for their churning-stick. This was to be stuck down into the sea, cone downward, and the long serpent of Vishnu, Vclsulci, to be coiled round the mountain. The demons were to pull at the head of the snake, and the gods to pull at the tail, each alternately, so that the mountain should revolve in the sea of milk, and churn it. Vishnu himself, taking the form of a tortoise, descended to the bottom of the sea to support the mountain on his back while it re- volved on the pivot of his scales. From the ocean thus churned was produced the desired amrita or ambrosia, and thirteen other things. We now come to the Varclha, or bear avatar, in which Vishnu, taking the form of a bear, dived down to the bottom of the great ocean, and after a contest of 1,000 years rescued the earth which had been carried off by the demon Hiranya- kasha. In the Vamana-avatara, Vishnu appears as a dwarf. The demon Bali was so powerful a monarch that he ever- came Indra himself, and had gained possession of heaven, earth, and hell, and the gods knew not how to recover them. Vishnu appeared before him in the form of a dwarf, and did him reverence. Bali was pleased, and asked the little Brahman what he would like for a gift. The dwarf said, “ Only as much ground as I can cover by taking three steps." This request was at once granted, when the god leapt up as the mightiest of the host of heaven, and placing one foot on earth, one on the middle space, and one over heaven, gained to himself the three worlds, leaving only hell to Bali. In the next avatar Vishnu appears as a man-lion, and this incarnation is called Narasin/ta-a'va.z‘ara. In it the Pre- server is represented as saving the gods from the might, ac- %Iuired by the most rigorous penances, of Hiran-ya-Ka'si-pu. e had forced from Brahma the gift of a life which could not be destroyed by any created being. The moment he ob- tained this invulnerability, he began to molest the gods and VISIBLE srnnon 537 to persecute the votaries of Vishnu. At length, Vishnu took upon himself to slay this demon without there being any need for Brahma’s vow being broken. He came, there- fore, not in the form of a being which had been “ created," but as a new creation, a man-lion, and tore the heart of the demon from out of his breast with his sharp claws. In the Parasu-Rama avatar of Vishnu is accomplished the liberation of the universe from Arjuna of the thousand arms, a man of the military class who, by deeds of unex- ampled piety, had acquired great power of malignancy, and Vishnu vowed to extirpate him and his whole caste. Using an axe or a bow he did this. It has been supposed that the legend is in essence historical, and records a great struggle in primeval times between Brahmans and Kshatriyas. The avatar of Vishnu as Rama is given in full in the RALIAYANA (q. o.). The eighth avatar is that of Krishna (the most popular form of Vishnu), who first comes to earth as the opponent of Kansa, the fiend-king, who terrorized over gods and men. To annihilate Kansa, he, with Balarama, determined to be- come incarnate. Kansa had news of this, and killed every child born as soon as he could. But by means of stratagems and concealment Balarama and Krishna escaped and grew up, and after many pranks and wonderful deeds at length slew their great enemy Kansa, after having killed two of his pugilists before thought to be invincible. The ninth avatar is that of Buddha. It is evidently a late invention of the J ains, who tried to reconcile Brahman- ism with Buddhism. The last avatar is yet to come, when the great god with the four hands, and seated on a white horse, will descend and will destroy the universe. This is called the Kalki avatar. Revised by R. LILLEY. Visible Speech: a system of symbols (devised by the writer of this article) in which every possible articulate ut- terance of the organs of speech is represented. In the ordi- nary writing of languages the letters which represent sounds have no relation to the mechanism of the sounds- unless, perhaps, in the single case of O, which may be held to be pictorial of the rounded aperture of the lips. Some letters have their distinctive parts low, as in d b; others high, as in q p; some to the left, as in c q d; others to the right, as in p b; but there is no organic significance attached to the variations. In the system of letters called visible speech every letter, as well as every part of every letter, is organically significant. In a certain sense all writing may be called visible speech, because letters are the visible forms by which artic- ulate sounds are conventionally expressed; but the title of this system conveys a very different idea. Speech consists of definite movements of the threat, the tongue, and the lips. and in different countries the same letters are asso- ciated with different sets of movements, or the same move- ments are associated with different sets of letters, so that one may know the letters perfectly in connection with one language, and yet be unable to pronounce them in any other language. Visible speech consists of writing which depicts the actual movements of the organs of speech in all their modes of action; and as the same organs are common to all men, and the effect of every action is the same in all months, the letters have a universal meaning, which is inde- pendent of differences of language or conventional associa- tions. In this respect visible-speech letters resemble mus- ical notes or arithmetical numbers. Like musical notes they have, everywhere, a uniform value in relation to sound; and, like the Arabic numerals, they have everywhere an ab- solute value in relation to meaning. For example, the symbol for the English sound of L directs the learner to “ raise the point of the tongue against the palate and sound CONSONANTS VOWELS the voice over the sides of the tongue ”; and the s_v1_nbol.for the sound of M expresses to the eye the practical direction, -538 VISIBLE srnncr-1 “close the lips and sound the voice through the nose.” However variously these directions might be put in words in difierent languages, the effect of following the directions will, obviously, be the same in all mouths in every country. The basis of the visible speech symbolism will be under- stood from the diagrams on the preceding page, the first of which refers to consonants, the second to vowels. All con- sonants are represented by curves which have the outline of the organs they symbolize. Thus : C, back of tongue. 0, point of tongue. 0, top of tongue. Q, lips. These curves all imply emission of compressed breath over the organ symbolized. Thus: C, German ach. (4), English r in road. (1), English y in yes. 9, German w in wle. Five additional varieties of curves suffice to express all oral consonants. Thus: (3, mixed. (1, shut. 8, divided. (3, shut and nasal. 8,’, mixed divided. Mixed curves denote that two parts of the mouth are si- multaneously employed in forming the sound; as: Q, back of tongue and lips. Q, top and point of tongue. K), lips and back of tongue. Z3, point and top of tongue- Divided curves show that the breath, instead of passing through a central channel, issues through side channels. Mixed divided curves show that, along with divided breath, two parts of the month are employed. Shut curves denote that the mouth-passage is closed by means of the organ sym- bolized. Shut and nasal curves show that, while the mouth- passage is closed, the breath escapes through the nose; as: 8, 719; Q3. 9%; $3,?”- Voice is symbolized by a straight line. This, added with- in any curve, denotes the addition of vocality to the con- sonant action. The relation of b top ([3 D), d to t (G) U), gtoh (61 (]),v tof(3 3),z to s (65 (5) is in this way clearly indicated. A straight line is the basis of all the vowel symbols (see diagram). A distinctive sign added on the left of the line denotes the back of the tongue; on the right of the line, the front of the tongue; and on both sides of the line, the mid- dle of the tongue. Thus: ]_ I I. VVhen the distinctive sign is at the top of the line it shows that the tongue is high, or near the palate; when at the bottom of the line, that the tongue is low, or farthest from the palate; and when at both ends of the line, that the tongue is in an intermediate position. Thus: Back. Mixed. Front. High 1 I _[ (as in eel). Mid ] 1 [ (as in ale). Low I I '[ (as in ell). The vowels range themselves in pairs, the second of each pair being indefinite in quality as compared with the first: as in eel, ill; pool, put; all, on. The secondary vowels in these pairs are said to be of “wide” formation, because the cavity of the mouth behind the vowel aperture is expanded, so as to weaken the organic quality of the vowel. The “wide ” vowels are uniformly distinguished by an open hoo/0, instead of a solid point on the vowel-stem. Thus: I (T), I (5-), I (ah)- Certain vowels are modified by the lips. These labialized vowels are uniformly denoted by a short line crossing the vowel-stem; as in El; (00), f (ii). The lips form three aper- tures, as in ooze, old, all; the first, or narrowest, is associated with “ high” vowels; and the last, or broadest, with “low” vowels. Thus the vowel 00 has the “ high-back ” position of the tongue, with narrow labial aperture; and the vowel aw has “ low-back” position of the tongue, with broad labial aperture. The vowel 6 is intermediate between 00 and aw. In this outline the aim has been to give the reader a gen- eral idea of the nature and capabilities of visible speech. The application of the system to the teaching of speech to deaf-mutes must be obvious to every one, even if experience had not demonstrated the fact. But the method is equally applicable to the teaching of foreign sounds to English and American learners, or to the teaching of English sounds to VISION foreigners. The English language is advancing rapidly to universality, and the only impediment to its progress is found in the mode of writing it. If visible speech is used as a key to English sounds all initiatory difliculty will be removed. In the meantime the symbols may very advantageously be used for the transcription of foreign words and proper names which so greatly perplex the reader in books of travel, etc. For this purpose a font of these physiological types would have to be added to the equipments of newspa- per and book printing-otfices. Visible speech as a key to universal phonetics fulfills a function which has never before been possible. Objections have been urged against the employment of the system for the ordinary writing of languages, on the ground that the mechanism of familiar sounds, as embodied in the symbols, is not required to be constantly shown. This is true. After the local pronunciation of letters has been communicated by the visible-speech key, any established system of letters may be freely continued. For the representation of unwrit- ten tongues, however, and for such languages as Chinese, Japanese, etc., the advantages of visible speech should only require to be known to be adopted. The following works may be consulted for further details: Sounds and their Relations, a revision of the basis of visi- ble s eech; Lectures on Phonetics, delivered at Johns Hop- kins niversity, Baltimore, and in Oxford University, Eng- land ; English Visible Speech in Twelve Lessons, etc. ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL. Visigotllsz See Gorns. Vision [via O. Fr. from Lat. m"sto, m'sto'ne's, a seeing, deriv. of m'de’re, m"snm, see; cf. WITNESS]: perception by the sense of sight. The organ of vision is the eye. The immediate cause of the perception in normal vision is found in the action of waves of light upon the terminal expansion of the optic nerve. The sensation conveyed to the brain by this nerve is highly specialized, different from the deliver- ance of any other nerve, and has thus far been found in- capable of analysis. The existence of such sensation has to be accepted as an ultimate and inexplicable fact in nature. Construction of the Organ of Ve'sz'on.—The eye is a prod- uct of organic development, and, like all such products, it is by no means an ideally perfect instrument, even when quite free from such defects as are ordinarily recognizable. Op- tically it is a camera obscura with a very imperfect lens and a receiving-plate that is far from being uniformly sensitized, but with such ready mobility and capacity for quick ad- justment that no artificial camera can be compared with it in general availability for practical use. In shape it is nearly spherical, resting on a fatty cushion within its bony socket. The outer covering of the eyeball is a tough, fibrous white tunic, known as the sclerotic coat. Upon its exterior are attached six muscles, which oppose each other by pairs. By means of these, motion can be given it about a vertical axis, a horizontal axis, and a slightly oblique axis. The front portion of the sclerotic forms the visible white of the eye. About the center of this is a portion slightly more protuberant than the rest, and quite transparent; it is known as the cornea. Within the sclerotic is a second coat, the choroid, which is dark in tint and nearly covered with a network of blood- vessels and nerve filaments. Its continuation in front be- ,$'L'[l?I'0[l'C _ 6'//oral L! R at [/10 Irnnhn gf Hacrua C/1z'ar5/Muscle A .£i_yumsnL //:/a1aul.M:m6ranI ;, / . V- . . , . Circular Sinus Ca 71 all cy‘ PIN! FIG. 1.—Vertica1 section of the eye. neath the cornea is a colored curtain, the iris, perforated with a central opening, the pupil. This curtain is provided VISION with two sets of muscular fiber; one of these is ring-like and the other radial. By variation in the tension of these fibers the size of the pupillary opening is varied, andthe quantity of light thus admitted to the eye is to a limited extent under control. . . The space within the globular chamber is filled with trans- parent matter, which with the cornea makes up the converg- ing optical system that serves the purpose of a lens. This matter is varied both in consistency and in density. Most of it is jelly-like, and receives the name of vitreous humor. The portion just behind the cornea 1S thin and mobile like water, and is hence called aqueous humor. Between the aqueous and vitreous humors is the crystalline lens. This 1S held in a light transparent capsule, and_surrounded at the edges with the fibrous tissue of the ciliary mus_cle. P018 made up of transparent layers which increase in density from surface to center. It is moreover elastic, so that its form is capable of modification by varying the contraction of the ciliary muscle. For further anatomical details, _see EYE. Optical Character of the Eye.—To bring rays of light to a focus it is necessary that the converging system shall be denser than the medium through which waves are propa- gated from the radiant source, and that one or both of two opposite surfaces shall be appropriately convex. The meas- ure of density, optically considered, is the index of refrac- tion. (See REFRACTION.) Assuming that of the air as unity, the refractive index of the aqueous humor has been found by Listing to be 1338; of the vitreous humor, the same, and the mean index of the crystalline 1'455 ; these measurements being of course for the brightest part of a luminous spec- trum, corresponding to the line of sodium light. (See SPEC- TRUM.) The optical density of the aqueous and vitreous humors is thus a trifle greater than that of water, while the density of the crystalline is less than that of ordinary crown glass. Assuming the thickness of the cornea to be uniform, so that it produces no effective deviation of light, but only determines the limiting surface of the aqueous humor within, the effect is sensibly the same as if the light should fall on a converging surface of water, then upon the denser crystalline immersed in this, and be brought to a focus in the water. The deviating effect depends jointly upon the density of the medium and the curvature of the refracting surfaces. The radius of curvature of the cornea, and there- fore of the liquid surface which it bounds, is somewhat vari- able; a mean value is about 8 mm. The convexity of the rear surface of the crystalline is more abrupt than that of its front surface, its radius of curvature being 6 mm., while that of the latter is 10 mm. The interval between the front surfaces of cornea and crystalline is 4 mm., and the thick- ness of the crystalline about the same. Taking all these elements into consideration, the final effect is the same as if the light were focalized by a single lens whose optical center is a trifle in front of the rear surface of the crystal- line, and whose focal length is 16 mm. (about fiths of an inch). The crossing-point of rays within the crystalline is called the nodal point. If then a beam of homogeneous yellow light coming from a distant point should fall upon an eye of average dimen- sions, like that just described, and if there be no irregu- larities of structure in this, the back of the eye should be %ths of an inch behind the nodal point in order to re- ceive a sharp image. If the distance be too small, the con- verging rays will be caught upon a definite area without being brought to a focus; if too great, they will cross and be diffused over a definite area on the surface beyond. Such areas are approximately circular, and are called diffu- sion circles. If the light radiates, not from a single point, but from a collection of these forming a surface, the image will also be a surface, which will be sharply or badly de- fined in roportion to the absence or presence of diffusion circles. rom the elementary principles of refraction it is obvious that the image must be inverted, and that its linear dimensions must be as much less than those of the object as its distance from the nodal point is less than that of the object. That this is the case was proved theoretical- ly by Kepler in 1604, and practically by the Jesuit Scheiner in 1625. The latter removed the sclerotic from the back of the eye of a recently killed animal, and through the thin residual membrane the inverted image was found to be visible. The same experiment was then successfully per- formed upon the human eye. _ Accommodation of the Eye to Varying Distance.-——From the elementary theory of lenses (see LENS), it follows that if a screen be properly placed to receive a sharp image of a 539 distant luminous point, then if this point be brought near to the lens the screen must be moved farther back to main- tain distinct focalization. A child with good normal vision secures a distinct image of an object only 3 or 4 inches in front of the face with apparently as much ease as when the object is remote. Sixty years afterward the same person finds it impossible to obtain distinct vision of an object a yard away without the aid of spectacles, although the dis- tance from nodal point to retinal expansion of the optic nerve has changed but little, if at all. The eye therefore has some power of accommodation to varying distance, but this power diminishes with increasing age. In the photographer’s camera the distance between lens and sensitized plate may be varied at will. In the camera of the eye this is not possible. The passive condition of a normal eye is that of accommodation to an infinite distance, so that parallel rays are focalized as accurately as possible on the retina. If the object be at some finite distance, then theoretically the interval between nodal point and retina must be increased by a calculable amount. But practically the necessary rate of recession may be disregarded for dis- tances in excess of 20 feet. For example, if we assume the focal length of the eye to be five-eighths of an inch and a luminous point to be brought up from infinity to a distance of 20 feet, then an application of the formula for lenses shows that the retinal screen would need to be moved back less than ;{;5th of an inch. If brought up from 20 feet to 1 inch, distinct focalization would require a backward movement of the screen through a little more than an inch. Since, however, no such motion is possible for the retinal screen, the practical effect is the production of diffusion circles, small enough to be disregarded in the first case, and in the second case so large as to make distinct vision impossible even for an infant. With change of distance, therefore, ac- commodation is possible only by corresponding change in the converging power of the ocular lens system. Prior to the middle of the nineteenth century absolutely nothing was known regarding the mechanism of visual ac- commodation, but the subject had stimulated speculation to the utmost. Many denied completely the necessity for it and the existence of any variation in the refraction of the eye. Some maintained that the contraction of the pupil would suffice to produce approximate accommodation ; others that it was due to variation in curvature of the cornea, to displacement of the crystalline, to change of form of the crystalline or of the eyeball. For the solution of the prob- lem credit is due a number of investigators, but especially Langenbeck, Cramer, Helmholtz, Donders, and Knapp. Helmholtz in 1851 invented the ophthalmoscope, by which the interior of the living eye could be examined (see OPH- THALMOSCOPE), and shortly afterward the ophthalmometer, by which measurements are made upon the living cornea and the two surfaces of the crystalline without touching these bodies. As far back as 1837 the observation was made by Sanson, a French surgeon, that under appropriate con- ditions, if alight be held near the eye faint reflected images of it are formed by the front and rear surfaces of the crys- talline, which thus serve as mirrors. Cramer and Helm- holtz independently applied this method in the study of accommodation. They established the fact that, when the eye is changed from a passive condition to that of accom- modation to secure distinct vision of a near object, the sur- face of the cornea remains unchanged, but the convexity of the front of the crystalline is increased, while that of its rear is but slightly affected. Helmholtz‘s explanation is that the lens is kept continually in a state of tension by its at- tachment to the encircling ciliary body. W’ hen the ciliary muscle contracts, the lens in virtue of its own elasticity be- comes more convex than when the eye is passive. Its con- verging power is thus increased, and the adaptation for near objects is hence effected. During childhood the crystalline is comparatively soft, and it responds readily to variations of tension. VVith the lapse of time it gradually hardens so that during old age no efifort of the ciliary muscle is sulfi- cient to modify its form. The power of accommodation is then wholly lost, and increase of converging power is at- tained only by the use of convex spectacle glasses to aid the crystalline. The distance at which distinct vision is most comfortable for the normal eye is ordinarily assumed to be 10 inches. The selection of this distance is quite arbitrary. For a child of ten years the distance of the “near point” of distinct vision is about 3 inches; for a man of forty-five years, 12 inches; for one of eighty years, infinity. These estimates are applicable only to the normal eye. 540 The Retz'na.—This is the membranous expansion of the optic nerve spread over the inner surface of the choroid coat. The nerve itself extends from the base of the brain, and as a bundle of fibers inclosed in a protecting sheath it enters the eyeballs on the inner or nasal side of the middle of the sclerotic at the rear. From the end of this cable the fibers are spread out. Their terminals are connected, some with ganglionic cells and others with the minute rods and cones that compose the so-called bacillary layer. The length of one of these rods is about 0'07 mm., its thickness 0'0015 mm.; the cones are shorter, thicker, and flask-shaped. (An inch is barely more than 25 mm.) The rods and cones are packed together over nearly the entire surface of the retina, with their ends pointing toward the crystalline. This bacil- lary layer has been proved to be the part of the retina sensi- tive to light, while the fibers serve to convey the sensation to the brain. On the outer or temporal side of the entrance of the optic nerve, about 3 mm. distant, is a small area which, on ac- count of its color, is ordinarily named the yellow spot. At its center is a minute depression, less than 1 mm. wide, called the fovea centralels. Within this pit the rods are ab- sent, but the cones are crowded together and reduced in diameter, and no blood-vessel enters. This pit is remarka- ble on several accounts; through it passes the optical axis of the lens system, and therefore upon it is focalized the im- age of any single bright point to which the attention is directed. Here it is that the most exact discrimination of distances is made, and here the sensitiveness to color is a maximum, while the sensitiveness to light is less than in the surrounding neighborhood.* The sensitiveness to light reaches its maximum on the temporal side of the fovea about 8° or 10° away ; and here it is many times as great as within the fovea. It then diminishes with increasing dis- tance, vanishing near the equator of the eye. The limit of the ocular field of view is therefore vague. While the vis- ual line passes from fovea through nodal point to some ex- ternal “point of fixation,” the attention may at the same time be given to other points in the neighborhood of the latter ; but the perception of impressions produced by such indirect vision is wanting in definiteness. This is easily tested. Let a disk of red cardboard, a few inches in diame- ter, be held at arm’s length and aligned with some object in front which may serve as a distant point of fixation. On moving the disk horizontally outward the perception of its color quickly becomes less vivid and of its outline vague. Its tint changes through brown to black, and it becomes in- visible when the arm is pointed about 90° away from the constant visual line. In marked contrast with the yellow spot is the end of the nerve cable where the optic nerve enters the eye. Since this is wholly fibrous and devoid of rods and cones, it is in- capable of receiving luminous impressions. The blindness of this fibrous bundle is easily tested. Let the right eye be directed to the cross in the accompanying cut, while the left FIG. 2.-Detection of the blind spot. is closed, the line connecting the two pupils being parallel to the lines of print. Keeping the point of fixation constant, the white circle at the right is seen by indirect vision, but it disappears when the interval between eye and page is 7 or 8 inches. The angular diameter of this insensitive area on the spherical surface within the eye is nearly 8°, which corresponds to a linear diameter a little in excess of 2 mm. Optical Faults of the Normal E;/e.—The eye is very faulty if judged by the standards applied in the construc- tion of optical instruments. Considering it as a camera, the receiving-plate of this should be uniformly sensitized, and its lens system should be free from errors of refraction. The retinal receiving-plate, with its large “ blind spot,” its cones sensitive to variations of color chiefly, its rods sensi- tive to variations in intensity of light, but this sensitiveness diminishing outward from the yellow spot and vanishing in marginal regions, comes far short of fulfilling the requisi- *Eugen Fick, Studien fiber Lz'cht- und Farbenempfindung in Pfliigers Archie, vol. x1iii., p. 441 (1888). VISION tions of optical science. The retinal blood-vessels, moreover, cover many of the rods and cones, and under appropriate conditions the shadows caused by them may be projected outward and made perceptible. Similarly, shadows may be outwardly projected due to fibers, streaks, and clots in the vitreous humor. If the head be thrown back and the gaze be directed upward toward a bright sky, these obstructions often float into the field of view, and flit from side to side with the motion of the eye. In addition to these minor defects the material composing the cornea and crystalline lens is not uniformly clear, and their surfaces are not regular. When a strong light is used to examine these bodies they are found to be fluorescent (see FLUORESCENCE), especially if blue or violet light be em- ployed. Fibers and spots in the crystalline obstruct the ight transmitted and artially scatter it. This lens is an aggregation of layers, w 1OS8 fibers are arranged around six or more axes that render uniformity of structure impossible. A beam from a luminous point therefore is not accurately focalized to a point, but to a line, or group of intersecting lines, or an irregular small area. The stars on this account, though practically infinitely distant, appear not as points of light, but more or less radiated in form. The surface of a lens thus built up can only imperfectly approximate toward that of a mathematically regular curve. Measure- ments made on the surface of the cornea by means of the ophthalmometer have shown that irregularities here are even more conspicuous than on the crystalline, and that the axes of cornea and crystalline rarely ever quite coincide. These imperfections of structure necessitate a perceptible degree of astigmatism in nearly all eyes. (See AS'1‘IGMA- TISM). Light coming from a point nearer than that of dis- tinct vision is hence projected on the retina, not as a diffu- sion circle, but as a surface with irregular outline, often roughly elliptic. Artificial lenses are usually made of glass clearer and more nearly homogeneous than the media of the eye, and with surfaces whose curvature is spherical. With such a single lens it is impossible to bring a sheaf of parallel rays accurately to a single focus, for both spherical and chro- matic aberration need to be corrected. (See ABERRATION.) By combining two or more lenses made of properly selected but different kinds of glass, both of these defects may be almost wholly corrected. The retracting media of the eye are provided with no arrangement for the correction of either spherical or chromatic aberration, and on this ac- count, aside from all other defects, distinct vision is impos- sible. These defects belong to all human eyes. The existence of several of them may be demonstrated by an easy experi- ment. A tube is provided, an inch or two in width, and 3 or 4 inches long, open at one end and closed at the other. Through the middle of the closed end a perfectly circular small perforation is made with a needle, and a bright white surface is looked at through this opening, extraneous light being excluded by having the open end of the tube next to the eye. The light from the perforation is collected upon the retina as an approximate difiusion circle; but its boundary is irregular, its area is mottled and its border is fringed with orange and red light. In most cases the gen- eral outline is roughly elliptic rather than circular. That the eye is not achromatic is further ascertained by regard- ing a window of stained glass transmitting various tints. The blue and violet parts will appear more remote than the red parts. The indices of refraction for the extremes of the spectrum being different, the accommodation of the eye has to be varied, and this produces the illusion of variation of distance. The defects of the normal eye are usually not noticed, be- cause test conditions are not involved in ordinary natural vision. What the eye ordinarily sees is that small part of the field of view upon which the attention is fixed. The de- fects pass unnoticed if attention is not specially drawn to them. Standards of comparison are needed in order to be- come aware of defects of any kind. Those of the eye are largely oflset b its extraordinary capacity for rapid motion in its orbit. hen any object is regarded we habitually di- rect the visual line to various parts of it in succession, and thus secure the best image of each that is possible under the circumstances. Every portion of it is thus quickly fo- calized on the most sensitive part of the retina. Varia- tions of accommodations, moreover, are accomplished by the eye many times more quickly than is possible with any other optical instrument. The angular diameter of the VISION field of view, about 160° horizontally, and 120° vertically for each eye, is far in excess of that of any other instrument. While there is no approximation to theoretical perfection, its practical excellences are such that in comparison with them the defects of the normal eye are unimportant. Sharpness of Vz'sz'on.—Assuming an object at a standard distance and under standard illumination, the more this ob- ject can be reduced in size without loss of distinct vision, the keener is the sight of the observer. The standard of distance conventionally adopted is 20 feet. No more defi- nite standard of illumination than ordinary difiuse daylight is generally employed; indeed the attainment of an avail- able and practically invariable standard of illumination is exceedingly difficult. The absence of such standard ex- plains the very diverse conclusions reached by competent authorities regarding the dimensions of the minimum m'sz'- bile; for the apparent size of a small object, seen by the same eye under changing illumination, varies between very considerable limits. This process is called irradiation, and examples of it are abundant. If a post is aligned between the eye and the globe of an electric street-lamp, it appears much thinner where the bright light of the globe is seen on each side of it. If two small circles of the same size, one white on a black ground, the other black on a white ground, be brightly illuminated and viewed close together from a distance, the white circle will always appear the larger of the two. This follows naturally from what has been said about the fluorescence of the crystalline, the irregularities and numerous faint obstructions to light in it, and the gen- eral optical defects of -the lens system. Each ray is more or less scattered before it reaches the retina, so that the bright focus is surrounded by a halo which is scarcely perceptible if the light be faint, but noticeable if it be intense. It is commonly assumed that for a normal eye one minute of are measured on the fovea centralts corresponds to the small- est interval that can be distinguished between two bright points. Assuming the nodal point to be 157 mm. distant in front of the fovea, this angular interval corresponds to 00045 mm. Two points separated by the same angular in- terval a mile away in front of the eye would be rather more than 100,000 times as far apart, or about half a yard. If nearer together han this, they would appear as a single point. By appl g this datum with the assumption that at least two rods or cones must be impressed at the same time in order to distinguish any interval, the limiting di- ameter of the rods and cones has been estimated. But such estimates are exceedingly uncertain, because so much de- pends upon intensity of illumination. For short distances and moderate illuminations, the assumption may be suffi- ciently near the truth for a working hypothesis, but it fails when applied to distant self-luminous points on a dark background. Very rarely can a person be found who is able with the unaided eye to distinguish the third and fourth moons of Jupiter. The nearer of these is five minutes dis- tant from the planet, and the other about twice as far. The assumption that one minute of arc is the measure of the mz'nz'mnm m'st'bz'le has been applied by Snellen in the construction of letters and numerals, which are now univer- sally employed as tests in measuring sharpness of vision. For examination the subject is placed 20 feet away in front of various sizes of test type well illuminated by diffuse day- light. The size of the smallest type that he can read cor- rectly affords the means of expressing his sharpness of vi- sion in comparison with that of the normal eye. Remediable Defects of Vz'sion.—Upon the tombstone of an Italian, Salvino Armati, who died in Venice in 1317, is an inscription in which he is designated as‘ the inventor of eye-glasses. Not until 1604 was the correct theory of these given by Kepler, yet it is probably safe to say that during the last three or four centuries they have been generally used to supplement defective accommodation for the eyes of the aged. But only since the new era introduced by Cramer, l-Ielmholtz, and Donders has it been possible to de- termine with accuracy the defects of abnormal eyes, and the steps to be taken for the correction of errors of refrac- tion. The noteworthy increase in the use of eye-glasses dur- ing the present generation is not an indication that the conditions of modern life are specially damaging to eye- sight, but only that defects of vision are now detected and corrected which were formerly unsuspected or deemed inca- pable of explanation or correction. After defective vision as been detected by the use of test type, it remains to de- termine the nature of the defects. The oculist tries upon the subject a variety of glasses, convex, concave, and cylin- 541 drical, of successively diminishing radii of curvature, to as- certain which of these, or what combination of them, effects the greatest improvement in vision. He is enabled thus to prepare a formula for each eye, in accordance with which an eyeglass may be specially ground to correct its defects. The chief defects of vision are (1) near-sightedness or myopia, which may be remedied by the use of concave glasses of proper focal length. (2) Oversightedness or hy- peropia, which may be remedied by the use of convex glasses of proper focal length. (3) Astigmatism, which is due chief- ly to unequal curvature of the cornea in different planes, and may be regarded merely as hyperopia or myopia in a special plane. The remedy is to wear a convex cylindrical glass, whose radius of curvature is so adjusted as to collect the rays sufficiently in a vertical plane without affecting those in a horizontal plane. (4) Old-sightedness or presbyo- pia, which is due to the hardening and unequal shrinking of the crystalline which is developed during old age. The dis- tance of the near point of distinct vision becomes inconven- iently great, so that convex glasses are needed for vision of near objects, as in ordinary reading. This necessity is largely removed in the case of those who are naturally near- sighted; but for such persons concave glasses are still needed for vision of distant objects. For further details, see OPHTHALMOLOGY, SPECTACLES, and Vision, DEFECTS or. Vz'sual Sensatz'on.—Only a small part of the waves emitted by a source of radiant energy are capable of producing the sensation of light. The retina is insensible to many of those which affect the photographic plate, and equally so to those which produce heat. By placing an iodine cell in front of an electric lantern Tyndall* cut off the rays of light and converged those of heat to a focus. His eye was then put at this focus, with such precautions as to protect the external parts but transmit the concentrated beam of dark heat through the pupil to the retina. No damage was done, and no consciousness of heat was received through the optic nerve. Removing the eye, he substituted a sheet of platinum, which soon became red hot. Energy-waves longer than 0'00076 mm. or shorter than 0'00039 mm. thus fail to affect the retina. But within these limits, if sufficiently in- tense, radiant energy may be destructive. Plateau lost his eyesight through the inflammation produced by looking directly at the sun. , The sensation of light may be produced by other agen- cies besides radiant energy. An electrical current, even when very weak, produces the subjective sensation of a flash of light when passed through the eye. A blow upon the eye causes the recipient to “ see stars.” Poison in the system, such as may be due to excessive use of alcohol or opium, or mere fever, may induce the sensation of spectral images that are as real to the sufi°erer as if occasioned by external agency. Pressure upon the eyeball produces “ phosphenes,” visions of successively changing color that may last for sev- eral minutes. If the gaze be fixed for half a minute upon any object that is sharply defined and well lighted, then on changing the direction of the visual line a complementary “after-image” comes into view and may continue visible through some seconds, even in absolute darkness. Wl1at- ever is capable of exciting the optic nerve can produce the impression of light; and radiant energy of special wave- length is only one of many such agencies. But the optic nerve is the only one which this special mode of energy seems capable of exciting. Upon the rods and more especially the cones of the retina of a normal eye the quality of sensation varies with the wave-length. The longest light-waves produce the sensa- tion recognized as red, and from this the passage through orange, yellow, green. blue. and violet brings us to a limit of invisibility. (For details on this topic, see COLOR and COLOR—BLINDNESS.) The passage from one tint to another is quite imperceptible, but it is easy to specify three or four as specially prominent, and these have been called primary colors. Regarded from the standpoint of the artist, light was thought by Brewsterj to be resolvable into three primary colors, red, yellow, and blue. From pig- ments of these three tints all other necessary tints may be produced by mixture, though deficient in brightness; but the mixture of red, yellow, and blue lights can not produce white. Youngf had previously selected red, green, and violet ; for by mixture of these lights white can be produced. He supposed that in the retina are three kinds of nerve- * Rede lecture on Radiation (Cambridge, 1865). + A Treatise on Optics (Edinburgh, 1831). It Lectures on Natural Philosophy (London, 1807). 542 fibers. The first of these are excited most by light-waves of greatest length, red, and in less degree by those of shorter period. The second are in like manner most sensltlye to waves of green light and less to those of red and violet. The third are most sensitive to the shorter waves of violet light, and less to those of green and red. When all are simultaneously excited the resultant sensation is that of white. If one of these sets of nerves be wanting or defi- cient in sensitiveness the result is partial color-blindness. This theory, long forgotten, was revived by Helmholtz,* and with slight modification is now quite generally accepted by physicists. Among physiologists some adhesion seems to be given to a theory more recently advanced by Hermg,+ who regards white and black as primary color-sensations, to which he adds two complementary pairs, red and green, yellow and blue. To secure satisfactory objective proof of this, or indeed of any other theory of color-sensation, is diificult. The subject is fruitful of speculation rather than demonstration. Visual Pe7'ce]9ii0n.—From the time that Kepler demon- strated the inversion of the retinal image of external ob- jects, it became a troublesome source of debate to explain why we do not see all objects inverted. Accepting the fact, Brewstert formulated what he called the law of visible di- rection, claiming that “the line of visible direction does not depend upon the direction of the ray, but is always per- pendicular to the retina.” The mathematical relation im- lied in this statement was disproved by Ferrel," but it is 1n accord with all human experience to refer the source of an impression to the direction from which it comes. The line of visible direction is determined by the direction of the ray entering the eye. We are wholly unconscious of the inverted retinal image. The perception is mental ; the thing perceived is the object; and the retinal image, re- versed both vertically and laterally, is an intermediate step in a process that in no way rises into consciousness. Whether personal experience has any influence in deter- mining the perception, or whether it is the outcome of in- tuition, is a question on which there has been much hot debate, and which, if satisfactorily answered at all, can be determined only by cumulative evidence. The object per- ceived occupies an external position in space, and the per- ception is one of locality as well as form. The theory of intuition assumes that the conception of locality is innate, and that impressions from external points are automatically transmitted to corresponding points on the retina. The empirical theory assumes that our sensations give us only signs of external objects, and that we learn to interpret these signs only by experience and practice. Binocular Vision.—The contrast between the two the- ories of visual perception is yet more brought out by the special characteristics of single vision with two eyes. So long as we are dealing with but two dimensions in space, and considering surfaces like the retina which have length and breadth but no appreciable depth, there is perhaps little ground for choice between the two theories. We may ad- mit a fundamental correspondence between certain retinal points and external points, or that the point of intersection of the visual line with the retina may be regarded as cor- responding with every point along the direction of that line. But in looking with two eyes at the same object two retinal images of it are formed; yet ordinarily we do not see double. To explain this it is assumed on the intuitional theory that every point on the one retina has its correspond- ing point on the other, these correspohding points being so related that when simultaneously impressed they transmit but a single impression to the brain. In support of this view the fact is cited that the optic nerves of the two eyes cross before reaching the brain; and there is good reason for the belief that nerve-fibers from the right half of each retina extend together to the right hemisphere of the brain, and from the left halves to the left hemisphere. But there is no anatomical proof that fibers from corresponding reti- nal points are brought thus together by pairs. According to the empirical theory there is no necessary and invariable correspondence between retinal points, but the subjective “ sign,” whether simple or complex, is recog- nized by experience as the index of that which has produced it. This implies no analysis of phenomena, no consciousness of retinal images, whether erect or inverted, whether in one * Handbuch der Phusiologisehen Optilc (Heidelberg, 1866). 1' Zur Lehre uom Licht-Sinne (Vienna, 1878). 1 A Treatise on Optics (1831), chap. xxxv. I] On Vision, Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery (1855). VISION eye or both eyes. The visual education by which this inter- pretation of signs is acquired begins from the hour of birth. A new-born infant gives no evidence of knowing how to di- rect its eyes or interpret what it sees, but the sense of touch is conjoined with that of sight in the unconscious education of the eye; and this education is acquired with exceeding rapidity. The co-ordination of impressions, the correction of illusions by conjoint application of different senses, goes 011 throughout life; but the capacity to acquire and to mod- ify habit is incomparably greatest in infancy, and learning how to see is probably one of the earliest of all acquisitions. The intuitional and empirical theories are not quite mu- tually exclusive. Man is a product of development. There is no sharp division-line between automatic and volitional actions, between instinct and reason, between the outcome of inheritance and that of habit. Whatever may be the in- herited tendency to special modes of action, we may be quite sure that there is acquired very early in infancy the habit of associating mentally together the impressions produced by a single external object upon parts of the two retinas which. according to the intuitional theory, are called cor- responding. The two retinal points of focalization of the same external point may therefore be conveniently called corresponding points, with the reservation that this does not imply any necessary anatomical relation, and that they will not necessarily convey the same impression to the brain when binocular vision is had under abnormal conditions, but that they very generally do so under normal condi- tions. It is particularly in the perception of the third dimension in space, that of solidity or depth, that binocular is superior to monocular vision. With a single eye it is quite possible to obtain definite perception of distance or depth in space. Advantage is taken of all those elements that are combined in representing perspective in a landscape painting. The relative position of the different objects in the field of view may be estimated in terms of some arbitrary standard if they are not aligned exactly with the eye. The most impor- tant of these elements may be enumerated as follows: 1. Near objects subtend larger visual angles than remote objects of the same size. The visual angle gives thus the means of estimating the distance of objects of known size. 2. Near objects are seen more distinctly than those which are remote. The illusion of distance may hence be produced by decreasing the brightness of the object viewed and ren- dering its outlines hazy. 3. Near objects that are almost aligned with those at a distance, partly cover them. Covering objects are judged nearer than those covered. 4. Familiarity with the dimensions of known objects when near enables us to compare them when remote, and thus 'udge their relative distance. 5. e may move from one standpoint to another and compare the new view with what is retained in memory of the previous one. The difference of direction thus attained is called parallax of motion. It contributes in a very im- portant degree to the judgment of both distance and form. All of these elements except the last may be applied in a picture, and are equally effective in monocular and binocular vision, especially when considerable distances are repre- sented. Their sum may for convenience be called physical perspective. For distances in excess of a few hundred feet it makes little difference whether vision is monocular or binocular if the illumination is good. But if an object is quite near—for example, a few feet or inches away~—-a new element of exceeding importance is introduced when the vision is binocular. Each eye occupies a standpoint sensi- bly different from that of the other, and therefore the retinal pictures are different, but cover very nearly the same retinal areas. On the whole, the impression carried to the brain is that of a single object, but the right eye sees more of its right side, the left eye more of its left side, and both eyes equally see the side directly turned toward the observer’s face, but at different angles. The view is much more com- prehensive than is possible for a single eye, and the knowl- edge of the body’s total form, especially of the relation be- tween nearer and remoter parts of its surface, is much more thorough. But in this experiment there is no consciousness of the simultaneous use of two eyes. Subjectively the two are united into a single binocular eye, in which are com- bined the diverse impressions of two dissimilar retinal pic- tures. The distance of the object is so small that the ele- ments of physical perspective are almost wholly excluded. The superior knowledge of form in tri-dimensional space, VISION given under these circumstances, may be called binocular perspective. Most of our judgments of distance and form are due to the application of both physical and bmocular perspective together. It is easy to demonstrate that, when the two eyes are di- rected to a point on the nearer side of an object binocularly viewed so that its images fall on corresponding retinal points, the images of a point farther away can not fall on corre- s onding retinal points, and hence double vision must ensue. et two pencils be held vertically in front of the face, one behind the other, with an interval of a few inches between them and a bright surface, such as a white wall, for a back- ground. When the gaze is fixed upon the nearer pencil the farther one is by indirect vision seen double, so that the illusion is that of three pencils. Or, if the gaze is on the farther pencil, then the nearer one is seen double. The es- sential condition under which the binocular perception of depth in space is attained is that, while perfect fusion of retinal images is secured from points in one part of the tri- dimensional field of view, there shall be imperfect fusion of such images from points either more remote or less remote. This is most conveniently studied by use of the stereoscope (see Srnasoscorn), for unless the eyes have received some training it is not usually easy to fix the attention upon such double images. The effect of this imperfect fusion is the perception of depth, but the existence of such duplication of images is usually not suspected. The observer is as uncon- scious of them as he is of the inversion of the retinal image. In studying them by means of the stereoscope the stereo- graph should consist of a pair of properly constructed out- line drawings, from which the elements of physical perspec- tive have been carefully excluded. It will then be found that, while duplication is perceived, the effect is to mar the binocular perspective unless the eyes are directed in rapid succession to different parts of the field of view. Fusion of images representing foreground and background is thus se- cured with quick alternation, and the gradation from per- fect to imperfect fusion at any moment is imperceptible. Nevertheless, motion of the eyes is by no means indispensa- ble, for the perception of binocular perspective has been re- peatedly attained with only momentary illumination by the electric spark, lasting less than a thousandth of a second. That the impressions on corresponding points of the two retinas are not necessarily always fused by the brain into a single sensation is shown by the phenomena of stereoscopic luster, discovered by Dove,* and of binocular combination of colored fields in the stereoscope. Let binocular combi- nation of the two halves of the accompanying cut be attained by directing the right eye to the middle of the larger circle on the right, and the left eye to that on the left. This is easily done by looking through a pair of tubes. The right eye is impressed for the most part with a black field, the left eye with one that is white. The result is a lustrous appear- ance like that of graphite, rather than the uniform dull gray FIG. 3.—Binocular production of luster. that would be the effect of mixture. One eye receives reg- ularly reflected light and the other does not. The surface hence appears much brighter to one eye than the other, and the resulting appearance is that of lustrous polish imposed upon what alone would be dull. If the one field is bright red and the other greenish blue, the resultant impression carried to the brain is not gray. such as would be attained by mixture of lights, but retinal conflict of impressions. The field of view appears first of one color. then of the other. and while this alternation is going on each tint grows dull on account of retinal fatigue. Corresponding retinal points * Uebev‘ die Ursache des Glanzes und der Irradio.tio'n, aI>geIeitet aus Ch-'I‘Ol7l(‘l1tLSC]L€’n Versnchen mit dem Stereoskop, in Poggendor1f‘s Annalen, lxxxiit, 169 (1850). VISION, DEFECTS OF 543 are simultaneously impressed without complete unification of the two sensations. In like manner stereoscopic relief may be produced without the production of double images that can possibly be traced as such. While performing the experiment for the development of luster there is binocular combination of the circles, of which there are two small ones on the right and one of the same size on the left. The latter is binocularly combined simultaneously with both of the former, so that the resultant impression is that of two cir- cles in space, one nearer and the other farther than the plane of the paper. If such fusion were due to the unconscious perception of double images, we should admit that the same circle belongs to two opposite kinds of double image at the same moment. The effect is instantaneous, being attainable by use of the electric spark. In conclusion, it may be said that the binocular union of dissimilar retinal images to produce a single sensation is a purely mental act, independent of anatomic structure. Cor- responding retinal points are those which are usually im- pressed simultaneously, and which usually, but not inva- riably. carry to the brain sensations which are mentally united. BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most important treatise on vision is Helmholtz’s Handbuch der Physiologischen Optdk (1866 ; rev. ed. 1894). It contains nearly all that is at present known on the subject, apart from its applications to medical and surgical science. A mere list of those who have written on vision would cover several pages. A few of the more prominent in Europe have been: Maurolycus, 1575; Baptista Porta, 1583; Ke ler, 1604-09; Aguilonius. 1613 ; Scheiner, 1619 ; de la ire, 1709; Berkeley, 1709; R. Smith, 1738; Porterfield, 1759; Thomas Young, 1801-09; Purkinje, 1819-25; Johann Muller, 1826-37 ; Volkmann. 1836-66 ; Briicke, 1841-66 ; Listing, 1845-51; Donders, 1847-66; Wheatstone, 1838-52; Brewster, 1849-56; Cramer, 1853-55; Knapp, 1860: Fechner, 1838-64; Meissner, 1854-56; Du Bois-Reymond, 1848: Dove, 1846-70; Wundt, 1859-80; Claudet, 1856-58; Hering, 1859-90: Gi- raud Teulon, 1861; A. von Graefe, 1856-65; E. J aval, 1865- 94; and A. Ktinig, 1885-95. Among American writers, aside from those who have treated of ophthalmic surgery, may be mentioned Joseph Le Conte, whose popular treatise on Sight was published in 1881. Many articles have been published, chiefly in the American Journal of Science, by W. B. Rogers, E. Emerson, O. N. Rood, J . Le Conte, W. Ferrel, A. M. Mayer, C. F. Himes, W. Le Conte Stevens, E. L. Nichols, C. Ladd Franklin, G. Stanley Hall, and E. S. Ferry. W. LE CONTE STEVENS. Vision, Defects of : These are due either to (1) errors of refraction ; (2) opacities of the refracting media; (3) lesions of the optic nerve, retina, or choroid: (4) continued exclusion of the eye from the visual act ; or (5) affections of the visual centers in the brain, which may be acquired or congenital. (1) When the refraction of the eye is in its normal condi- tion, the eye is said to be emmetropic; i. e. the principal focus lies on the retina, the length of the visual axis corre- sponds exactly with the focal length of the dioptric appar- atus when at rest, and the eye is adapted to bring parallel rays to a focus on the retina. When these conditions are not fulfilled the eye is said to be ametropic. Ametropia is of three kinds: (ct) The refractive power of the eye is too weak. or the axis is too short, so that the principal focus of the eye falls beyond the retina. This condition is called lmypermetropia, or far-sightedness. (b) The refractive power of the eye is too strong, or the axis of the eye is too long, causing the principal focus to fall in front of the retina. This condition is called myopia. or near-sightedness. (0) The refractive condition of the eye is such that a lumi- nous point. e. g. a star, forms an image on the retina, the sha e of which image is a line, an oval, or a circle. ac- cor ing to the situation of the retina, but never a point. This condition is termed astz'gmatism. Usually the seat of astigmatism is in the cornea, and is due to the fact that the cornea is more curved in one meridian than in another. The astigmatism may be regnlm-, when the meridians of the cornea progress evenly in their refraction from the lowest to the highest. or flregnlar, when the curvature in dif- ferent parts of the same meridian varies. In regular astig- matism one principal meridian may be emmetropic and the other ametropic (hypermetropic or myopic). This is simple aszfz'gnz(tz‘z's'2n. Again. both meridians may be ame- tropic (hypermetropic or myopic), one being more ametropic than the other, but of the same character. This is com- 544 VISION, DEFECTS OF Finally, one principal meridian may pound astigmatislnz. _ _ This is mzxed be hypermetropic and the other myopic. astigmatism. In moderate degrees of ametropia, and with the coats of the eyeball in a healthy condition. the normal standard of vision may always be reached by the prescription of suitable glasses——convex glasses for hypermetropia, concave for my- opia, and cylindrical glasses for astigmatism. When there are very high degrees of ametropia, it is not alwayspossible to give the patient full acuity or sharpness_of vision even with proper correcting lenses. Very often h1gh_ degrees of myopia and astigmatism are accompanied .Wltll serious changes in the coats of the eyeball which interfere with vision, and make it impossible to reach a full standard of vision with the glasses. It is difficult and often impossi- ble to correct accurately with glasses these defects of vi- sion arising from irregular astigmatism. It is important to correct refractive defects, particularly astigmatism, espe- cially in early life, so that the retina may be properly edu- cated by receiving accurate images of external objects, and to avoid the consequences of eye-strain. ’ (2) Serious defects of sight may arise from opacities of the cornea, so slight that they can be perceived only by the aid of the ophthalmoscope or of a powerful convex lens. Again, the cornea may be entirely white and opaque, owing to former ulceration, and thus reduce the vision to a bare per- ception of light. Where the pupil is covered with opaque cornea and another part of the cornea is transparent, vision is often in a great measure restored by making an artificial pupil immediately behind the clear portion of the cornea. Opacities of the crystalline lens and its capsule constitute CATARACT (g. 1).), a condition which seriously interferes with sight. Occasionally the pupil is covered by the unabsorbed remains of the so-called pupillary membrane, which is a structure of foetal life. The pupil may also be occluded by a deposition of inflammatory material which has resulted from an inflammation of the iris or of the ciliary body. Opaci- ties of the vitreous may be due to hzemorrhage from the retinal or choroidal vessels, and the consequent mingling of blood with the vitreous humor, or to inflammatory or de- generative changes in the humor itself. Sometimes the vitreous contains numerous brilliant crystals of cholesterine, presenting a brilliant ophthalmoscopic picture, like a shower of sparkling meteors. (3) Inflammation or atrophy of the optic nerve, or of either of the coats forming the back wall of the eye, sepa- ration of the retina from the choroid, tumors of the choroid and retina, haemorrhages into the substance of the retina, and a great variety of inflammatory and degenerative changes in these structures—all produce grave defects of vision, and can be diagnosticated only by means of the ophthalmoscope. (4) In cases of squint of one eye, either convergent or di- vergent, the image of the object formed upon the retina of the deviating eye is often involuntarily suppressed or disre- garded. Thus the eye is excluded from vision and gradually loses the power of performing its function, as would be the case with any other unused organ. (See SQUINTING.) Some- times vision can be improved in eyes of this character by re- storing the visual axis to parallelism by an operation after correction of the refractive defect. Very often, however, no such improvement occurs. Again, especially in young peo- ple, when one eye is very amctropic and the other one nearly normal, the defective vision of the affected eye may some- times be improved by excluding the good eye from sight, and forcing the imperfect organ to perform visual func- tions. Curiously enough, defective vision of one eye may often exist for years without knowledge on the part of the patient. The defective vision of a squinting eye often, and perhaps usually, depends upon imperfect development of the visual centers, i. e. the arnblyopia causes the squint. (5) In certain diseases of the brain the centers which pre- side over vision are affected. The lesion may be of such character as to cause complete blindness of one or both eyes, or it may be so situated that it causes the remarkable condition of half-blindness, or hem2Icm0]9s2'a. Under these circumstances one-half of each field of vision is obliterated. It may be that corresponding halves of the retina lose their functions, and the equivalent portions of the field of vi- sion are darkened. Thus if the left half of each retina is paralyzed, the right half of each field of vision will be lost. Again, the lesion in the brain may press upon a point which causes less of function of the left half of one retina and the right half of the other retina. This will make both of the temporal fields of vision dark. A lesion in the brain which VISTULA presses on the optic chiasm at the base of the brain would cause this condition. A lesion which ressed upon any por- tion of the visual tract in the brain bac ( of the optic chiasm, that is the parts which are.called the optic tracts, the optic radiations, and the occipital lopes of the brain, would cause the other type of half-blindness. Practically, acondition of this kind is incurable, although in rare instances recovery has come about. G. E. DE SCHWEINITZ. Visitation and Search: a war right, the theory of and limitations upon which are explained under Search in the article INTERNATIONAL LAW (q. 1).). Some details of the way in which it is exercised are here added. Although confess- edly necessary for the enforcement of a belligerent’s war rights upon the sea, search is at best a serious interruption and annoyance to neutral commerce, and should be exer- cised as mildly and reasonably as possible. Only ships bearing a commission from the state have the right of search. There seems to be no valid distinction between visitation and search, the two being successive steps in a single act having as its sole object the discovery of the character of a ship and its cargo. In the absence of treaty regulation the usual method is to hoist a flag and fire a gun, which is equivalent to an order to the merchantman to heave to, the visiting ship doing the same at some little dis- tance. An officer and boat’s crew are then sent to make the examination. The chief points of interest are the na- tionality of the merchant-ship, her real destination, and the character of her cargo. These facts will all appear from her papers, her register, sea-letter, log-book, charter-party, invoices, and bills of lading. If these are regular and no ground for suspicion appears, she should be allowed to pro- ceed; but if otherwise, an actual examination of the facts in the case may follow. All of this must be submitted to under enalty of capture. Many treaties, however, attempt to lay down exactly how a visit shall be made, at what dis- tance the visiting ship shall lie, and so on. The U. S. has a dozen or so of these, nearly all with the smaller powers. These reciprocally provide that the searching ship shall remain at “ a convenient distance” or “out of cannon-shot,” or at the greatest distance compatible with the state of wind and weather; that only two or three men shall accom- pany the visiting officer; and that the examination shall be conducted with as little annoyance and disturbance as possi- ble. Of course, the absence of ship’s papers, carrying false papers, or, as has sometimes happened, their attempted de- struction, are very suspicious circumstances, and will war- rant arrest. A previous bad reputation will naturally di- rect suspicion to a ship; but constructive or probable guilt should not be too much relied on. During the civil war in the U. S. the U. S. cruisers had a number of ships black- listed, and apparently were ready to send any ship on this list in for adjudication, though some were probably free from guilt. At all events, previous wrongdoing is wiped out by the completion of a round trip, and a ship has a right to be judged on its present merits after that. An im- proper exercise of the right of search founds a claim for damages against the cruiser’s government. See also CoNvoY and SLAVE-TRADE. THEODORE S. WOOLSEY. Visitation Nuns: a religious order first established in 1610 at Annecy, Savoy, by St. Francis de Sales and St. Jane Frances de Chantal; received papal approbation in 1626; introduced into the U. S. in 1808 by Teresa Lalor. The or- der has numerous convents in the U. S. and in Europe. Vis’tula (Pol. lVz'sZ‘a; Germ. VVet'chseZ) : a river of Central Europe and the principal river of Poland. It rises in the Yablunka Mountains, in Austrian Silesia, 3,600 feet above sea-level, traverses Galicia, Russian Poland, and Prussia, and enters the Baltic Sea by several months. The main stream divides into two branches, which flow into the Gulf of Dantzic (Pol. Gdantsla) at Weichselmiinde and the Frisches Haff respectively. The entire length of the Vistula is 650 miles, and it is navigable at Cracow for small vessels, and after it is joined by the San for large vessels. Its principal tributaries on the right are the Dunajec, San, '\/Vicprz, Bug, and Drewenz, on the left the Pilica and Brahe. It is connected on the W. by the Bromberger Canal with the Oder, and on the E. with the Dnieper and the Niemen. The Vistula is the great artery of extensive trade for Austrian. Russian, and Prussian Poland, passing the large commercial cities of Cracow, Sandomierz, Warsaw, Modlin, Plock, Thorn, Kulm, Graudenz, M arienburg, and Dantzic. See Kalbus and Brand- stiiter, Die Weds/tscl von *6/wem Urs79//rung bis za z'7wer JlIitn- dung (Dantzie, 1852). HERMANN SCHOENFELD. VITACEZE Vita’ceae: another name for the Ampeltdece or VINE FAMILY (q. 11.). Vitalis : See SJCBERG. Vita’ lis Orderi’cus: historian; b. at Atcham, Shrop- shire, England, in 1075; educated in Normandy, where at an early age he entered the monastery of St. Evroul. Little is known of his life except that despite the strict rules of the order he managed to revisit England twice and to travel in France. D. about 1143, leaving the Htstorta Ecclesiasttca, a Latin chronicle of ecclesiastical history from the birth of Christ to the year 1141. One portion of the work is devoted to the annals of the monastery of St. Evroul, but the great- est historical value attaches to the part that deals with the history of Western Christendom from the Carolingian period to his own time, especially to his descriptions of the social condition of France and England. See A. Le Prévost’s edi- tion of Historic (1838-55). There is an English version of Guizot’s translation in Bohn’s Antiquarian Inlbmry. Vital Statistics [vital is from Lat. m'ta'lz's, pertaining to life, deriv. of m"ta, hfe]: a term sometimes defined as “the science of numbers applied to the life-history of communi- ties and nations,” or as “statistical ratios relating to the average course of life,” but used in this article in the re- stricted sense of “statistics of deaths, births, and mar- riages.” Reference is also made in the article to the sta- tistics of disease; the statistics of more or less permanent mental or physical disabilities, such as insanity, idiocy, deaf-mutism, etc., however, are excluded. Conclusions of Vital Stat1Ist'lcs.—The data of vital statis- tics are derived from the records of individuals, but the conclusions relate to groups of people, and their scientific value consists in the results obtained by comparison of the conclusions derived from different groups living under dif- ferent circumstances, with reference to determining the in- fluence which these circumstances, taken singly or in groups, may have upon the life of communities. The conclusions of vital statistics are therefore expressions of probabilities with regard to masses of men and not with regard to indi- viduals. These conclusions are for the most part given in the form of ratios, such as death-rates, birth-rates, or mar- riage-rates; and it is a matter of fundamental importance that these rates should be derived from corresponding fig- ures of results, and of the causes presumed to have been those chiefly efiicient in producing these results. For ex- ample, the number of births in a given place during a given time should be com ared with the number of women of child-bearing ages—t at is, between fifteen and fifty years of age—in that place, in order to obtain a scientific birth- rate—that is, one which can be fairly compared with the corresponding rate for another locality or for the same lo- cality at another time. The birth-rate commonly given is that derived from a comparison of the number of births with the total population, and is of little interest. Calculation of 1lI01'taZt'tg/.—The unit of quantity used in vital statistics is one year of life, and the ratios are usually given as per 1,000 of population, which means per 1,000 years of life. Mortality means death-rate, not number of deaths, as natality means birth-rate, in the sense in which these words are used in this article. The gross mortality of a place is found therefore by multiplying the number of deaths occurring in it during a given time by 1,000, and dividing the product by the amount of life in that place during that time expressed in years of life. If the time was one year, the number of deaths 12, and the mean popu- lation for the year 600, then (the number of years of life being the same as that of the population, i. e. 600), the mortality (12 x 1,000 —:- 600) was 20 per 1,000. With a mean population of 12,000 and number of deaths during one month (calling a month -_,lgtl1 of a year) 15, the number of years of life during this period was 1,000, and the death- rate was therefore 15 per 1,000. In general, if the time for which birth, death, or marriage rates are to be calculated is less or greater than a year, the result must be reduced to an annual ratio. Thus if the calculation be for one week, the result must be multiplied by 52'1'77, the number of weeks in a year, t.o give the annual rate. A more convenient and sufliciently accurate method in such a case is to divide the mean population for the year by 52 and to use the quotient as the divisor. The essential data of vital statistics are derived from enumerations of living populations and from records of births, marriages, and deaths. The numbering of the peo- ple is effected by a CENSUS (q. 2).). From the point of view VITAL STATISTICS 545 of the vital statistician it is important that the results of a census shall be com parable in details with the results of the records of births, marriages, and deaths which are avail- able for his work. The details which are of special impor- tance are the unit of area, the age, the sex, the race, the marital condition, and the occupation. In the U. S. the units of area of the U. S. decennial census are the ward of a city, the city, the county, and the State. For the purposes of vital and medical statistics these units of area are often very unsatisfactory, because the boundaries of wards, cities, counties, and States are fixed with reference to political or sociological considerations rather than with reference to altitude, drainage, character of habitations or of the people, all of which are important factors in the causation of disease and death. Moreover, the political boundaries of wards and cities vary, often changing in the interval between two cen- suses, thus making it difiicult or impossible to compare the results of one census with that of another, or, which is more important, to determine the mean population for any given period. As a census rarely occurs in the middle of the period for which it is desired to compute vital statistics, it is usually necessary to compute the mean population from the data furnished by two successive counts, upon the as- sumption that the population of a place increases according to the law of geometrical progression. To do this the first step is to ascertain the annual ratio of increase, which is done by the following formula: Let r = annual ratio of in- crease, p = population at last census, p’ : population at next to last census, and n : number of years between these two censuses; then, using the logarithms of these numbers, log P —— log P’ n . log 1‘-_— Having thus found the ratio, let x=the mean population sought, and m: the number of years between the time for which the population is sought and the last preceding census. If P is the population at the last census then log x :: log p + m log r. The mean population for any period of time, as found by this geometncal progression formula, is rarely absolutely correct, since the rate of growth of a place is subject to many changes. If it were uniform the population found by the formula would be greater than the population actually living in the middle of the period, and less than the arith- metical mean of the populations at the beginning and end of the period; but if the period does not exceed two years the differences are so small that either figure may be used. Estimates of opulation based on the number of voters, or of school chi dren as found by a police census, or upon the data of city directories, are almost invariably in excess of the true figures. and whenever a city ofiicial uses these instead of the figures derivable from the U. S. or State censuses, it is safe to assume that the death-rates he obtains from them are considerably lower than the true rates. The difiiculties in the way of obtaining fairly reliable estimates of the mean population of a given locality for a given period, although often considerable, are small in com- parison with the difficulties in ascertaining the mean num- ber of ersons of special age, sex, race, or occupation-groups living uring such a period. If all the data for such pur- poses are furnished by each of two preceding censuses, the computations for each group may be made by the above formula--as for children under five years of age, for women between fifteen and fifty years of age, etc., for difierent units of area; but the sum of all these will not correspond to the sum obtained for the gross mean population, and there are s ecial difficulties in ascertaining the mean population of c ildren under one and under five years of age. The number of births, deaths, and marriages occurring in a given population during a given time can be obtained with accuracy only by means of formal ofiicial registration of these events made at the time when they occur. It is utterly impossible to obtain by any system of enumeration or inquiry made at the end of a year records of more than 70 per cent. of the births and deaths which have occurred in any large group of population during the preceding year, and often not more than half of them can be thus ascer- tained. The only way to secure a complete registration of deaths is to forbid absolutely the burial or removal of dead human bodies without a permit for this purpose issued from a central office, which permit is issued only on the certificate of a person competent to state the cause of death, or as the result of a legal inquiry 1nade by a coroner or special exam- iner. Most European countries have such a system, but it exists in but a few of the States composing the U. S., although it is carried out in most of the large cities. 432 546 MARRIAGES. The usual mode of stating marriage-rates is to give the number of marriages annually per 1,000 of living popu- lation, although the correct method would be to give the annual number of marriages per 1,000 of unmarried males and of unmarried females of marriageable ages. The fol- lowing table shows the annual marriage-rates per 1,000 of living population for certain countries and States: Average rate COUNTRY. for 20 years, 1880 1890. 1891 1871-90. England and Wales . . . . .. 15'6 149 155 15'6 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13'9 132 13'?’ 13'9 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9'0 7'8 8'9 9'2 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15'4 14'9 14'0 15'0 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14'2 14'1 14'5 14'8 Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16'7 15'3 16'4 163 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16'3 15'3 15'1 15'4 Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15'6 13'9 14'7 15'0 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14'7 137 14' 1 14'3 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13'1 12'6 12'0 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . .. *19'08 17 '42 18'62 . . .. Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1“ 18'9 20'0 18'4 18'5 Forty years, 1851-90. t Thirty-two years, 1860-91. BIR'l‘H—RATE OR NATALITY. The following table gives the birth-rates per 1,000 of total population of several countries for the twenty years 1871-90, and for the years 1880, 1890, and 1891: Average rate COUNTRY. for 20 years, 1880 1890 1891 1871-90. England and Wales . . . . . . 34'0 34'2 30'2 31'4 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33'6 33'6 30'2 31'2 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24'9 24'7 22'3 23' 1 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24'6 24'5 21'8 22'6 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31 '0 31 '1 28'7 29'6 Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38'2 37'8 36'6 37'7 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38'6 38'0 36'7 38'1 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37'3 33'9 35'9 37'3 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 ' 4 29 ' 6 26 ' 6 28 ' 2 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 298 294 28'0 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . * 26'5 24'8 25'8 28' 1 Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24'7 22'7 24'7 26'5 * Forty years, 1851-90. In no part of the U. S. is there an accurate and complete registration of births, and the only means of obtaining an approximate estimate of the annual number of births in the whole country or in the great majority of the States is to take the number of children under one year of age reported as living at the date of the census, and add to this the num- ber of children born during the preceding year who died during the year. Using this method we find that the birth- rate per 1,000 of total population in the U. S. was 31'4 in 1880 and 26'8 in 1890. The figures for the different States are shown by the following table: Birth-rate per Birth-rate per STATES AND TERRITORIES. 1,000 of population, 1,000 of population, 1880. 1890. Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 '8 30'39 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19'3 2494 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42'7 33'79 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23'7 19'41 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 '7 25 ' 09 Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22'5 21 '26 District of Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30'7 23'06 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 '7 24‘88 Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 2830 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 ' 3 30'31 Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28'5 27'14 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31 '2 2959 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30'6 25'29 Iowa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31 '3 26 ' 15 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 '2 28' 16 Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34' 9 2945 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35'7 29'57 Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20'9 17'79 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 '6 25'87 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24'0 21 '51 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 280 24'80 Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33' 8 29 '94 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38'2 30' 10 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33'1 2872 Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22'6 22'81 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36'9 28'42 New Hampshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19'1 18'37 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27'5 25'16 New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 '7 23'28 Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22'2 1635 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33-6 34'08 VITAL STATISTICS Birth-rate per Birth-rato per STATES AND TERRITORIES. 1,000 of population, 1,000 of population, ‘ 1880. 1890. North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. 37'2 29'90 North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. * 36'86 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28'4 24'08 Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 2669 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28'8 22'49 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29°4 25 69 Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24'6 22'38 South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38'1 31'07 South Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 32'75 Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 ' 0 30' 60 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41 '3 31 '26 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41 '9 31 '20 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 ' 4 27' 12 Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22'1 18'51 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29'7 23'54 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30' 6 27 ' 00 West Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36'3 30'41 Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27‘ 1 21 '78 * Dakota, 1880, 334 The true birth-rates are probably about 15 per cent. greater than those indicated by the above figures; that is, the birth-rate of the U. S. in 1880 was about 36 and in 1890 31 per 1,000 of total population. The birth-rates in other countries also diminished in the same decade, as will be seen by the following table: BIRTH-RATE PER 1,000 OF POPULATION. COUNTRY. 1880. 1890. England and Wales . . . . . . . . . . 36'0 30'7 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33'6 30'3 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24'7 223 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24'5 21 '8 Belgium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 '1 28'7 German empire . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37'6 35'7 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38'0 36'7 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29'6 26'6 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35' 5 32 ' 9 The causes of this decrease in birth-rates are diminishing marriage-rates and an increasing tendency to voluntary avoidance of child-bearing on the part of married people. The general rule is that the birth-rate is a little more than twice as great as the marriage-rate, but to this there are many exceptions. As explained above, birth-rates thus calculated are not satisfactory, and a much better form is shown in the follow- ing table, given by Jacques Bertillon, in the Eneyolopédie d’hg/giene ( aris, 1890), vol. i., p. 179: NATALITY IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. ANNUAL BIRTH-RATE PER 1,000 WOMEN FROM 15 TO 50 YEARS OF AGE. Period of Total. Legitimate.* Iilegitimate.* COUNTRY. observa- flom Es se 59' 5'8 as Es e s -.= '3 e. '3 5 E e '2 3 s = 21 E E E 7:» E '6 == '6‘ E vs 5 :2 ea :1 as 2 :5 :5 2'5 -5 <2 5 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1878-82 103 99 173 166 17 '5 16'1 Alsace-Lorraine . . . . . . . . “ 138 133 264 255 19 ' 9 18' 9 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 138 132 75 263 201 18'9 Holland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 158 150 308 292 9 '7 9'0 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 149 144 249 242 24' 7 23 '7 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 122 117 249 240 10'9 10'2 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 158 152 278 265 29 '5 28'0 Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 159 152 282 271 25' 8 24'4 Saxony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 171 164 273 263 480 45'8 Bavaria. ... .. “ 164 158 285 276 433 41'7 Wiirtemberg . . . . . . . . . . . “ 169 163 300 290 30 '1 28'9 Baden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 149 144 275 266 22 ' 4 21 '6 Austria (excl. Hungary) “ 152 148 250 244 460 44'3 Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 146 142 264 257 21 '8 20 '8 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 121 118 245 239 22' 1 21 '3 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 136 131 283 27 20'2 19'2 Denmark. . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 135 131 248 240 27 ' 0 25‘9 * In the above table the legitimate birth-rate is calculated by com- paring the number of legitimate births with the number of married women between fifteen and fifty years of age. and the illegitimate birth-rate by comparing the number of illegitimate births with the number of unmarried women of the same age-group. DEATHS. For reasons given above, the death-rate of the U. S. and of the great majority of the several States can not be accu- rately determined; but for the whole country it was about 18 per 1.000, both in 1880 and in 1890. During the year ending May 31,1890, the general death-rate was, in Con- necticut, 19'4; in Delaware, 185; in Massachusetts, 202; in New Hampshire, 188; in New Jersey, 21; in‘Rhode Island, 219 per 1,000 of population. VITAL STATISTICS ~ The following table shows the death-rates of certain coun- tries per 1,000 of total population : courmar. 20 1880. 1890 England and Wales . . . . . . . . . 20'3 20'5 20'2 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 205 197 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 198 182 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 228 228 226 . Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21% Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25' ‘ ' ' Augtria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32(8) Ita y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' ' ' Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22' 1 21 '9 20' 9 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176 181 171 In England and Wales during the five years 1886-90, in- clusive, the general death-rate was, for males 20, for females 178: the death-rate for children under 5 years of age was, for males 619, for females 52; for those from 5 to 9 years of age, 49 for both males and females; for those from 10 to 15 years of age, for males 28, for females 29: from 15 to 20 years, males 41, females 4'1; from 20 to 25, males 55, fe- males 52; from 25 to 30, males 74, females 69; from 35 to 45, males 12, females 103; from 45 to 55, males 19'4, females 15; from 55 to 65, males 352, females 288; from 65 to 75, males 721, females 61-7 ; from 75 to 85, males 147'9, females 1329; 85 and over, males 313'8, females 2762. The death-rate of males is greater than that of females, and the death-rates in infancy and in old age are vastly greater than those of persons between five and fifty-five years of age; hence the death-rate of a particular group of persons depends largely on the proportion of infants and old persons in that group. For example, the death-rate of the foreign- born population in any State or city in the U. S. is less than the death-rate of the natives, because the latter class includes a much greater proportion of children; while, if the rates be compared by age-grou s, as under five, five to fifteen, fifteen to forty-five, etc.. the eath-rate in each group will usually be found to be higher among the foreign-born. The death- rate in the Western States and in newly settled regions is usually below the average, because of the comparatively large number of adults, who have low death-rates, found in such localities. During the year ending May 31, 1890, in those States having a fairly complete system of registration of deaths. the gross death-rate was 2038; for children under 5 years of age, 75'36; for those between 15 and 45 years of age, 939 ; for those between 45 and 65, 2136; and for those 65 years of age and upward, 7683 per 1,000 of population of the same ages. The following table gives statistics for each of the twenty- eight cities in the U. S. having a population of 100,000 and upward on June 1, 1890: DEATH-RATES PER 1,000; STILL-BIRTHS EXCLUDED. Age-groups. CITIES‘ Aggre- 65 years gate. Under Under Under 15 to 45 45 to 65 and over; 1 year. 5 years. 15 years. years. years. excl. un- known. Sum of 28 cities : Total . . . . . . . . .. 21'62 236'7'9 77‘99 32'25 10‘71 26'62 89"76 Males . . . . . . . . 16 2573?’ 8330 34'38 11'75 29'93 93‘95 FemaleS..... 20'08 21570 7259 30'10 9'68 2328 8633 Allegheny. Total . . . . . . . . .. 18'17 17156 6051 2608 8'72 21'04 91‘36 Males . . . . . . .. 1901 18583 6109 26'65 933 2425 9573 Females..... 17'33 157'44 5990 2551 8'11 178? 87'75 Baltimore. White-Total. . 21 '05 25895 80°27 30‘7'1 9'01 23''? 8602 Males . . . . . . . . 22'18 277‘94 85'14 3293 9'71 25‘65 83'15 Females..... 2000 23906 7528 2849 8'37 2202 8819 Colored—Total 32'94 544'20 171'?’ 6-4'24 1-4'96 29'95 104'14 Males . . . . . . .. 37'44 622'15 191'01 72‘32 15'08 35'98 127‘52 Females . . . . . 2950 47295 15373 57'08 1489 24' 93 9244 Boston. Total . . . . . . . . .. 2344 26134 87‘17' 35'50 12‘l6 27‘41 9-4'68 Males . . . . . . . . 24‘55 283'05 9339 3788 12 96 2895 91 95 Females . . . .. 22 40 238 59 80"? 33 09 11 41 26 00 92 34 Brooklyn Total . . . . . . . . .. 23 89 254'87 8553 35 65 11 33 29 44 96 82 Males . . . . . . . . 25 74 277'03 92'19 38 14 12 72 °‘ 7 96 45 Females.. . .. 22 11 232 44 7889 33 16 10 02 26 28 97 10 Buffalo Total . . . . . . . . .. 18 38 217 67 6327 26 58 8 11 22 84 82 86 Males . . . . . . . . 19 82 238 10 6790 28 77 8 60 27’ 03 90 25 Females. 16 91 196 18 58'50 24 37 7 59 18 65 76 51 Chicago Tota . . . . . . . . .. 19 05 212 66 6992 31 27 8 88 22 55 77 21 Males . . . . . . .. 20 12 233 95 74'98 33 38 9 40 25'38 81 67' Females..... 17'92 190'72 64'75 2915 8'31 19'32 73'25 547 CITIES. Age-groups. PER 1,000 ; STILL-BIRTHS EXCLUDED. Under . 15 years. Cincinnati. Total . . . . . . . . .. Males . . . . . . . . Females . . . . . Cleveland. Total . . . . . . . . .. Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . . Denver. Total . . . . . . . . . . Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . . . Detroit. Total . . . . . . . . . . Males . . . . . . .. Females. . . .. Indianapolis. Total . . . . . . . . .. Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . .. Jersey City. Total . . . . . . . . .. Males . . . . . . . . Females . . . . . Kansas City. Total . . . . . . . . .. Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . ._ Louisville. White—Total. . Males . . . . . . . . Females . . . .. Colored-Total Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . .. Milwaukee. Total . . . . . . . . .. Males . . . . . . .. Females . . . .. Minneapolis. New Orleans. White—Total. . Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . . . Colored—Total Philadelphia. Total . . . . . . . . . . Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . .. Pittsburg. Total . . . . . . . . . . Providence. Total . . . . . . . . . . Males . . . . . . . . Females . . . .. Rochester. Total . . . . . . . . . . Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . . . St. Louis. White-—Total. . Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . . . Colored—Tota1 Males . . . . . . . . Females . . . . _ San Francisco. Total . . . . . . . . . . Males . . . . . . . Females. . . . . ‘Va shington. W'hite—Total. . Males . . . . . . . Females. . . . . Colored-Total Males . . . . . . . . Females. . . . . 114'71 12522 6565 7024 61'08 49'18 52‘95 45'26 10-1'77 10804 101‘44 7019 8052 5995 90°03 9-1'50 29'74 21'86 46‘92 l—l\—lb-I ~ )—lb—l CO-\)CD l-‘O'€.O KTCDQ CDHQ ' oo *1 O1 C‘-‘Z0 $3238 oz -83¢» 8:0-1 938 “TCOOU >-120»-A G9»-l<‘.D-\7 Fr. ooirz: < Lat. cox, oo’ois : Gr. 2541, *F64/, voice : Sanskr. ode-, speak; of. Gr. évros, *F€'1ros, word, and Lat. ooea’re, call] : in the ge- VOICE neric sense, a property of all living animals which are struc- turally endowed with a capacity to produce sounds uttered from the mouth; articulate voice, the organ of language, the vehicle of thought and feeling, belongs to man alone. The methods by which the intellectual attainments of any one member of the human family may thus become the pos- session of all are two-—viz.. speaking and singing. These must have been almost coeval in their origin ; for, as the deductions of reason prove that the social necessities of the race must have very early given rise to spoken lan- guage, so a universal experience unites with remotest tradi- tion in ascribing to every human being a religious impulse which finds its most adequate expression in song. The least-civilized tribes have always celebrated their festivals of worship with rhythmic chants, while the cultivated na- tions of all time have cherished music as the ethereal medi- um of poetry and a potent agent in the culture of the soul. For the musical side of vocal art science has already done much by defining its forms and improving its processes. Mathematics and physics have expounded the laws of sound; philosophers have discovered the immutable principles upon which melody, harmony, and rhythm depend ; and the defi- nite nature of the work to be accomplished in giving force and expression to the singing voice has made it possible to conduct that work on a well-ascertained scientific basis. But to the cultivation of speech, a faculty normally univer- sal. and hence much more intimate and important in its re- lations to man, its more complicated mechanical processes and the less definite character of its melodic scale have hitherto presented the most formidable obstacles. The human voice may be treated from a physical, a physi- ological, and psychological point of view; in other words, we may consider (1) the instrument, (2) its mechanical uses and processes. and (3) those intellectual laws by which it is made to convey thought and emotion to the human soul. I. Of the physical apparatus employed in the production of voice the merest outline of description must sufiice. Any good manual of anatomy will furnish the inquirer with the detailed discussion he may desire. If we begin to construct the mechanism of the voice as we would build an organ (to which it bears some analogy), We find at the base, in the human chest, the lungs, which perform the office of a bel- lows to furnish air for the instrument above. This air is forced through bronchial tubes, which, extending upward through either lung, gradually converge until they meet in a single tube, called the trachea, or windpipe, consisting of incomplete cartilaginous rings lying horizontally one above the other. At the upper end of the trachea is a funnel- shaped piece of mechanism, enlarging upward and com- posed of various cartilages connected by ligaments, and moved by muscles. This is called the Zarg/ncv. Through its center, in continuation of the air-tube, runs a passage, which terminates in a triangular opening. Across this passage are stretched two pairs of tense elastic membranes—the ohoroke oooales. Of these, however, only the lower pair is immedi- ately concerned in the production of tone. These are called, therefore, the true vocal cords. Between their fine edges there is a narrow opening or chink, called the glottis; and as these cords are at will made more or less tense, the wind that is forced through the opening causes them to vibrate audibly with various degrees of force and pitch. This is the genesis of voice : from this point the tone here generated undergoes only modifications of fullness and qual- ity and such as combine to effect articulation. The voice now passes into the pharynx, a membranous bag which leads both into the mouth and into the nose. The curtain of the palate hangs between the pharynx and the mouth. It rises as a valve to cover the inner ends of the nostrils for purely oral sounds, and it falls to uncover the same for nasal sounds. The pharynx, together with the space between the two con- strictions of the larynx—the upper or false vocal cords and the lower or true vocal cords,—-and the anterior cavity of the mouth, with the frontal cavities over the eyes and in the cheek-bones, constitute a resonance apparatus, a species of sounding-board. by which the voice is modified in respect to fullness and quality. II. Sound comes to the ears in two forms—as tone and as noise. Tone is sound caused by the regular periodic vibra- tions of the sounding body, such as are given out by musical instruments. Noise proceeds from irregular vibrations of the sounding body. The crash of thunder, the rattling of street traffic, the discord which results from ‘striking all the keys of a piano at once—these are noises. The sounds made in speaking consist of both tones and noises. VOICE Helmholtz, in his Lehre von den Tonempfindnngen, showed that for the production of every vowel-sound the cavity of the mouth is definitely tuned by the disposition of its various parts——the teeth, the tongue, the lips, the soft palate, the harynx, etc. The air confined in the cavity of the mouth lias, like any other body of confined air, its own rate of vi- bration, and hence its own pitch, which varies with the variation of the cavity. The vowel-sound, therefore, is in- dependent of the musical tone produced by the larynx, and is always the same, whether in the mouth of man, woman, or child. This is true also of some of the consonant sounds, while others are merely noises produced by the breath vi- brating at points of resistance in partly closed organs. Thus every element of language has its own p_eculiar.type'—or Klang, as it is called by the Germans—-which distinguishes it from all others. These characteristic sounds may be heard even in whispering. In speaking aloud they are combined with the noises (also formed in the mouth-cavity) and sup- ported by the tones of the larynx. S eech thus results from the combined working of two very 1tfere_nt actions of the vocal organs. The difference between smgmg and speaking is that the first employs pure tones, each of defimte pitch and level throughout its duration, and that the second em- ploys unlevel tones which taper to a more acute or grave pitch at their termination. These speaking tones are called inflections. In speaking, noises predommate, and tone as- serts itself mainly in occasional prolongation of the vowel- sounds. ' ' Tone has three properties—strength, pitch, and quality, ‘called by the Germans Iflangfarbe (tone-color), and by the French timbre. The strength of a tone depends upon the amplitude, its pitch upon the rapidity, and its timbre upon the form of the vibrations which produce it. As the strength of the tone depends upon the breadth of the sound-waves, this, in its turn, depends primarily upon the structure, and then upon the disposition or adjustment, of the_vocal organs and of the resonance apparatus. Much misdirected labor is sometimes expended in attempting to increase the power of the voice by straining exercise of its muscular organism. In view of the delicacy and tenderness of these ligaments such a process must be worse than useless, When once these parts are fully developed it is not possible In this way_to make a strong voice out of a weak one. The tone may in- deed be re-enforced by adding to the impulse which pro- duces it a greater exertion of the diaphragm and abdommal muscles, and by a proper adjustment of the vocal cords and management of the breath; but the less of efiort in the muscles of the throat and chest, and in the force of breath, the more will a sweet and agreeable quality be communi- cated to the voice, together with that reach and ring which comprise all the best effects of power. . The pitch of a tone depends upon the number of the vibra- tions in a given time by which it is produced : the more rapid the vibrations, the higher the pitch. Variations of pitch in the human voice are due exclusively to the action of the glottis and the ligaments of the larynx, and are subject to the uniform laws by which the tones in hollow tubes ascend or descend according to the different lengths of the air- columns they contain, and in stringed instruments accord- ing to the greater or less tension, the extent, and the degree of vibrating surface in their strings. By means of the LARYNGOSCOPE (q. o.) the various movements of the larynx and vocal cords have been accurately inspected and recorded. It is found that in giving forth the lowest tones of what is called the chest-ooz'ce the windpipe is enlarged to its utmost capacity, the vocal cords are moved throughout their whole length with large, loose vibrations, which are communicated to all the interior parts of the larynx, and, by resonance, to the confined air in the cavity of the chest. When to this IS added a peculiar expansion of the pharyngeal cavity, that full, rich quality of the voice is produced to which Rush gave the name of orotnnal, and to which the dramatic artist is indebted for some of his finest effects. As the scale is ascended the vocal cords swiftly meet and separate at each new tone, and are shortened and made more tense; as the strings of a violin are controlled by the fingers of the player. The tones of the head-voice (as it is usually styled) are pro- duced by vibrations of the inner edges onlyof the chordce vocales. This, however, is but a general and Imperfect view of a very com licated process, and makes no account of the expansion and contraction of the trachea, with the conse- quent rise and fall of the larynx, and some other nnportant modifications; for it is of less importance at present to give an accurate description of the physiological processes 555 than to expound the physical laws relating to them, in obe- dience to which the phenomena of voice are produced. The division of the vocal scale into registers (chest-voice, head-voice, falsetto, etc.), their points of transition, and the treatment of the singing voice with regard to them, about which a wide difference of opinion exists, are less important in elocution, because the scale employed is more limited, little beyond the lower and a part of the middle register re- quiring cultivation, and that of a simpler character. Men speak (normally) an octave lower than women, employing usually only the chest-tones, rarely the head-tones, and never the falsetto. The usual range of the male voice is from the low F to A. Women use mostly the upper part of the chest register and the lower part of the falsetto, ranging from A below the line to B in the treble clef. Little children speak entirely in the falsetto. The upper part of the chest register—that is, the middle voice—is best adapted to public speaking, being most capa- ble of inflection. farthest of reach, and most easily sustained. If the voice is pitched too high, when excitement supervenes it will tend to break into a scream, while for low-keyed voices it is usually very difficult to rise out of a tedious monotony. The middle voice gets all the advantage from chest-resonance, and at the same time has room to rise or fall when emotion or occasion demands. The accomplished speaker should have full control over the pitch of his voice, and be able to modulate its key at will, so as to adapt it to all external circumstances. The increase of the compass of the voice is not so impor- tant in elocutionary as in musical instruction. A judicious practice of the scale under the guidance of a skillful master will accomplish all that is necessary in this respect, and at the same time tend to improve the voice in flexibility and purity. The most important thing to be considered in the cul- ture of the voice is timbre or quality. All bodies and in- struments employed for producing musical sounds give forth, besides their fundamental tones, certain other tones due to higher orders of vibration. It is the intermixture of these with the fundamental tone which determines the quality of the sound and distinguishes instruments from each other-— a clarinet from a flute (for example), both these from a violin, all of them from the human voice, and different voices from one another. These are the harmonics of the fundamental tone—called by the German physicists the har- monic overtones. Though feeble in comparison with the primary tone, they may, with a little practice and attention, be heard when, for instance, one of the lower notes is struck upon a pianoforte. Above every tone of a determined pitch may be traced a whole series of “harmonic overtones,” rising according to the “acoustic series” before indicated—viz., first the octave, then the fifth, etc. The timbre of a tone. as has been said, depends on the form of the waves of vibration. As the surface of water is moved into waves of a different form according to the object which agitates it--whether a falling stone, a rufliing wind, or a dividing keel—so the movements of the air take differ- ent shapes according to the way in which they are excited, whether by the violin-string under the rasp of the bow, the harp-string plucked by the finger, or the reed of the clarinet vibrated by the breath. These varieties are infinitely nu- merous, and are distinguished by the different relations which they cause between the fundamental tone and the overtones. The most beautiful timbre is found to result from that form of the vibratory waves which produces the primary and its harmonics in the intervals of the major chord to the sixth above, the former sounding most loudly and the latter gradually decreasing. As the overtones in- crease in strength in relation to the fundamental tone, the sound grows shrill; and if the higher overtones, which lie close together and are dissonant, overpower the fundamen- tal, the quality of the sound becomes harsh and disagree- able. The timbre of the voice depends on the manner in which the tone begins, the management of the breath in producing it, the direction given to the column of air which carries it, and the disposition of the anterior cavities by which it is tuned for the various elements of speech. It has been found that the form of vibration most favorable to a pleasing as well as far-reaching quality of voice is a -round form—i. e. one which sends the sound-waves out upon the air in such a way as to allow of their circulation in all directions with the least obstruction; and that this form is best produced by a light, elastic impulse, like that made by the sudden 556 fall of a pebble into the smooth surface of a lake--with the difference that sound spreads out in the air like a sphere, while the waves of water extend only in circles. This light impulse is to be accomplished by a careful adjustment of the vocal organs, so as to allow just the quantity of breath to escape which is necessary for the production of the tone. If too little breath is used, the vibrations will be feeble; if too much, the vibrations will be distorted from the form most favorable to an agreeable and effective quality. An excessive pressure of the breath drives the sound-waves forth in a single direction, instead of allowing them to ex- and, and the low harmonic overtones disappear, while the high dissonant overtones disagreeably assert themselves. Every particle of the column of air expired should vibrate, or of course it is lost to sound; besides that, the escape of unvocalized along with the vibrating air makes itself mani- fest in a certain wheezing very detrimental to the purity of the tone. The first impulse of the voice, then, should be sudden, light, and made with a moderate expenditure of breath. By this method the sound takes on a round and even form, which may be by due precautions maintained and the timbre kept always at its best; while the same proc- ess is most favorable also to the reach of the sound, as more speed and power can be generated by a quick, elastic blow than by the steady pressure of a heavier force. Again, both theory and experience teach that, for pur- poses of purity in tone, the air-column from the larynx should be directed, both in speaking and singing, to the front of the mouth, and concentrated there above the upper teeth, whence it should rebound to form continuous vibra- tions in the various resonance apparatus behind. If this rebound takes place farther back the inharmonic overtones become prominent, and various discordant qualities result. Among the well-known faults of vocal quality-—such as nasal, guttural, husky, thin. strained, metallic—the greater part have too often been deemed organic and unalterable, but they are (with the exception of rare instances of struc- tural defect) due to misuse of the vocal apparatus, and may, by proper treatment, be greatly modified or entirely obvi- ated. Finally, the form given to the mouth-cavity, by which_ it is tuned for the elements of articulation, has not a little in- fluence on the timbre of the voice. For, however excellent the tone may be in its origin, the form of the vibrations- on which, as we have seen, the quality depends-must be affected by the assages through which they proceed on their way to the ips. Care must always be taken to give room in the mouth-cavity for the proper formation of the vowel by expansion of the faucal passage; for the more room given for vowel-sounds, the more will musical tones predominate, and the richer, fuller, and sweeter will be the utterance. So true and so important are these injunctions that it has been said that the quality of a good voice has its origin in the mouth-cavities rather than in the vocal cords, as commonly supposed. One of the most wonderful and interesting results of scientific voice-culture may be seen in what it has accom- plished for the instruction of deaf mut-es. The occasional attempts hitherto made by these unfortunates to utter speaking sounds have resulted only in discordant tones, en- tirely uncontrollable in the essential particulars of pitch and quality; but by many years of minute investigation and unwearied experiment, assisted by an ingenious sys- tem of diacritic symbols, Prof. A. Graham Bell, of Boston, has been enabled to teach the deaf not only to produce all the sounds of speech, but to appreciate and to modify the quality of their voices, to sustain or to vary the pitch, and, in short, to fulfill all the conditions of a correct and pleas- ing utterance. The symbolic system alluded to was in- vented by Prof. A. Melville Bell. It is called VISIBLE SPEECH (q. u), and consists of a series of signs which indi- cate, by their form, the exact method by which all the sounds ossible to human speech must be produced. III. t remains to consider speech psychologically: as the medium of expression, the vehicle of thought and emotion. If we view the vocal elements combined in syllables and words and sentences as constituting the form of the art, we inquire now after the animating spirit which is to im- bue that form with beauty and power. This influence is to be found, primarily and comprehensively, in the largest general culture-intellectual, aesthetic, moral. Cicero de- manded for the orator the most consummate and various wisdom, and Quintilian contended that he should be also a good man; and even for the reader or the actor, who but VOICE embodies in his utterance the sentiments of another, it is clear that intelligence and sensibility to ap reciate the lan- guage he employs is absolutely indispensab e to the success- ful performance of his task. This psychological fitness makes itself immediately felt in an infinite variety of vocal inflections, some of them so minute as to defy analysis and almost to elude observation. These subtle phenomena some elementary writers have endeavored to classify, but, while the attained results are undoubtedly valuable to students, the rules for the modulation of the voice can not be con- sciously carried into actual delivery. Indeed, they are not intended to be so; their object is merely to cultivate the vocal powers and to open the mind to a recognition of the possibilities of expression. Notwithstanding the nearness of the subject to all human interests, it is not to be denied that the formal study of elocution as a branch of education has never been popular. There is a latent suspicion in the common mind that the subtleties of thought and emotion, and the innumerable varieties of vocal inflection which are the exponents of these, are incapable of'analysis and me- chanical production; that they must result from the intui- tive agency of the intellect and the heart; and that without this spontaneous energy no artificial system is competent to create them. If the culture of delivery, according to the supposition of Archbishop Whately, the eminent formu- later of the doctrine of Zaissez aller in this branch of rhe- torical study, necessarily involved the careful attention of the speaker, while in the act of speaking, to rules of tone. emphasis, and inflection, the question would be answered in the statement of it. But the technique of this, as of all other arts, is to be taught and wrought into a habit, so that the learner comes to conform to its minutest requirements automatically. The test of excellence in this art, more than in any other, is the concealment of all artifice, and any dis- closure by speaker or reader of his technical sub-processes is fatal to success. On the other hand, it is not easy to see why this, more than any other art, should be held as en- tirely independent of technical knowledge and Skill. Net- withstanding the elaborate effort of the distinguished critic in question to show a difference between this and the art of composition, it appears to the writer that the analogy is complete, and that his objection holds equally good against the study of the rules of grammar and rhetoric, which would doubtless prove mere impediments to the orator who should make conscious use of them in the pulpit or on the rostrum. On the other hand, it must be acknowledged that there has been a tendency in elocution, as usually taught, to fix the attention of the pupil too exclusively upon a prescribed set of modulations, apt to become mechanical, and so to shut the avenues of his soul against that infinite variety of deli- cate suggestions which nature is wont to make to, cultured sensibility, and which can never be reduced to system. The question has been asked “ What distinction of grave, or acute, or circumflex, for example, can inspire the actor to the proper utterance of the Et TU, Brute 9 of the dying Cae- sar, adopted from Plutarch by Shakspearef Here is a single word the just delivery of which all the systems of all the schools can never define.” The answer to this question is that notations for expression furnish a means of varied exercise in different modes of delivering the same language, and that the student does not merely follow a prescribed set of modulations, but Simply from them acquires the abil- ity to govern his voice in any way his judgment may ap- prove. We may at least admit that no analysis of the voice in delivery can be exhaustive, or be allowed to super- sede a constant fresh application to the oracles of nature for inspiration to the best utterance. Attempts have been made at different times, both in the U. S. and in Europe, to define and regulate expression by intervals identical with those which exist in music, and to indicate the modulation by musical notation. most eminent of these theorists was Dr. James Rush, of Philadelphia, who in 1827 published a Philosophy of the Human Voice, and who deserves mention as one of the first in the U. S. to give impulse to the investigation of this sub- ject, and for the many valuable contributions to the art of vocal culture whichhis work contains. This writer, having observed the diphthongal character of some of the vowels, gave the name of radical to the first and of vanish to the latter of the two elements, and asserted that the voice spans the interval of a musical tone in passing from one to the other. From this he proceeded to construct the theory that all the intervals of speech may be determined by musical analogies; and he elaborated a system by which all the One of the VOICE variations of the voice, in every phase of expression, may be measured by the degrees of the musical scale and marked by a quasi-musical notation. This theory was advanced before the more thorough investigations of modern science had better explained some of the imperfectly observed facts on which it rests. Its practical value may be esti- mated by the fact that not one of the notated phrases by which it is illustrated can be read by the musical symbols without first appealing to the independent action of the mind for a key; and also by the fact that of all the teach- ers who have professed to base their instruction upon the Philosophy of Dr. Rush, not one, apparently, has ever made a serious and persistent attempt to carry this portion of it into practice. It is but just to add that all through his rather voluminous work are scattered valuable suggestions of a general nature, and that his analysis of the vocal ele- ments has been found useful for the acquisition of a correct and forcible utterance. There is another system which is less open to the objec- tion of artificiality. It is that which derives the law of de- livery from the structure of the sentence. This idea was first advanced by Walker in his Elements of Elocution, but its fuller development was reserved for Dr. Henry Mande- ville, of Hamilton College, New York. The latter carried out the principle of modulation based upon sentential struc- ture (not forgetting the special influence of emphasis, of which he presents an acute and exhaustive discussion) through a very wide induction of sentences selected from English literature. This method of instruction, in causing the arts of composition and delivery to go hand in hand, re- stores elocution to its ancient dignified alliance with rhet- oric. But rules for delivery founded on sentential con- struction are not to be accepted as sufficient guides; for the fact is patent that grammatical constructions of any given kind may require very opposite expressions in different cases. Thus interrogative construction may require to be pronounced assertively and cice cersa. The governing principle is rather that the meaning intended to be con- veyed dietates the method of delivery, irrespective of sen- tential construction. The laws of vocal expression are in this way proved to be the true regulators of delivery. Hence is obvious the paramount importance of the cultivation of the voice, and the mastery of its movements. The whole matter of the advisability of formal education in elocution may be summed up in the well-worn maxim of Ovid: “ The safest path lies midway of extremes.” The true doctrine is thus well expressed by another: “ To be able to act upon the souls of men with an elevating and in- forming power, it is first of all necessary that an artist should cultivate the form of his art to its greatest possible perfection, and have such perfect command of it that the practical application of it is as natural to him as to breathe. or, empty and dead as all technical knowledge is unless it is animated with a soul, yet no product of art aesthetically beautiful is possible without a perfect technique." For details, see Helmholtz’s Lehre con den Tonempfin- dungen; Dr. Oscar Wolf’s Sprache und Ohr; Carpenter’s Human Physiology; and the writings of Max Mtiller, Czer- mak, Du Bois-Reymond, etc.; for popular reading, Tyndall’s Lectures on Sound; Emma Seiler’s The Voice in Singing and The Voice in Speaking, which present the results of scientific investigation so far as practically valuable to the ordinary student; also Dr. ll/Iandeville’s The Elements of Reading and Oratory. ROBERT R. Rxvuorvn. Revised by ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL. Voice (in music): The singing voice is divided into six classes, viz., three female, SOPRANO, Mnzzo, and ALTO, and three male, TENOR, BARYTONE, and BASS (qq. c.). The mezzo- soprano, as the name denotes, is a voice of not quite so high a range as the true or high soprano, but generally counter- balances this by a few added low notes, and not infrequently by a richer quality in the middle range. In like manner all the various species of voice approach each other in some one direction, so that the specific name does not signify a given limit of compass as applied to each and every individ- ual. Thus the barytone as a familiar division between true tenor and true bass is not infrequently subdivided by the Germans and spoken of in given instances as bass-barytone and tenor-barytone. There is also a difference among tenors, as the tenore leggiero (light tenor) and the tenore robusto. The difference between the two, however, lies rather in the volume and force of the latter voice than in a difference of compass. DUDLEY BUCK. VOLAPUK 557 Voice (in grammar): See VERB. Voice, Loss of: See Arnomx. Voir Dire, vwa‘5ar-deer’, 0. Fr., to say the truth; coir < Lat. ce'rus, true + dire < at. di'cere, say]: in law, an an- cient technical term derived from the Norman French, and denoting the preliminary examination of a witness or juror on a judicial trial in order to ascertain whether he is com- petent. At the common law no person pecuniarily inter- ested in the event of a suit was eligible as a witness on the side where his interest lay. If an individual was called on a trial and offered as a witness, the other party, suspecting him to be interested, might re uire that he should be spe- cially sworn and examined touc ing his interest. This pre- liminary proceeding was called an examination on his coir dire, or simply the coir dire. By modern statutes the inca- pacity resulting from interest has been almost entirely abol- ished. The coir dire examination, therefore, if used at all, must be for the purpose of ascertaining other grounds of incompetency whenever and wherever any such exist. The practice survives mainly and is of the most practical utility at the present time in ascertaining the competency of jurors in criminal cases, though it is, as thus employed, liable to great abuse. Revised by G. W. KIRCHWEY. Voisin Bey, vwa‘.'a’zan’ba’, FRANCOIS PHILIPPE: civil en- gineer, inspector-general of bridges and highways ; b. at Versailles, France, May 20, 1821; entered the Ecole de Ponts et Chaussées in 1840 ; was ordinary engineer in 1846, chief en- gineer in 1866, and inspector-general in 1880; director-gen- eral of the works of the Suez Canal from 1861 to their com- pletion ,in 1870; Professor of the Course on Maritime Works at the Ecole de Ponts et Chaussées from 1873 to 1881. He has published Ports de Mer (1883 ; Germ. trans. by Franzuis, director of imperial maritime constructions and professor at the Maritime Academy of Kiel) and lVotice sur les tracauct d Fembouchure du Danube (1893). He is an officer of the Legion of Honor. W. R. HUTTON. Vokes, Rosnu: actress; b. in Londori, 1854. She was the youngest of the company of actors known as the Vokes family, consisting of Frederic and his sisters, Jessie, Vic- toria, Rosina, and Fawdon Vokes, the latter’s real name being Fawdon. From childhood they all had a taste for the stage. They learned elocution and stage action at Plymouth, England, joined a pantomime troupe, and met with success throughout Great Britain, making their pro- fessional début in London at the Lyceum theater in .Humpty Dumpty Dec. 26, 1868. The Vokes family crossed the At- lantic a number of times. The most successful of their pieces was The Belles of the Kitchen. The company played in every city of importance in Great Britain, Ireland, the U. S., and Canada. In 1877 Rosina Vokes was married to Cecil Clay, an English barrister, and retired from the stage for several years. In 1886 she organized a company and visited the U. S. regularly every season, playing farces and short comedies in all the principal cities. D. at Torquay, England, J an. 27, 1894. B. B. VALLENTINE. Volapiik, V5-la‘a-piik’, [world’s language; cola, genitive of col, world + pills, language, words fashioned after English world and speak]: an artificial language invented by a clergyman, Johann Martin Schleyer, of Litzelstetten, in Baden, and given to the public in 1879. It first spread to Austria, and a society was formed for its propagation in Vienna in 1882. It was also studied extensively in Holland, Belgium, and especially France, but was not so successful in English-speaking countries. Its purpose was to facilitate ordinary intercourse between peoples of various tongues by affording a linguistic medium purged of all the irregularities and inconsistencies which characterize natural or traditional speech. Basing in general upon the English, it sought to utilize the convenient uniformity of the agglutinative ty e of languages. especially in regard to word-formation. The number of those who have studied the language has been estimated at over 200,000, and there have been many period- icals devoted to the interests of Volaptik, and printed in that language. Sounds of Letters.—These have in general their familiar continental values, but 0 = Eng. j in joke, h = Germ. ch in ach, j: Eng. sh in she, c : Eng. 20 in wet, y : Eng. 3/ in yet, z = Eng. ts in hats. The sound h is denoted by the Greek spiritus asper, as ‘ap, harp ; c’ = Eng. ch in child. Words are accented on the final syllable. Word-formati0n.——Words are formed from monosyllabic roots which themselves often serve as words. Derivatives 558 VOLATILE oILs are formed by the use of prefixes and affixes of constant value, possessing entire monopoly of their oflice. Thus : lab, possession. labile, mighty. labiin, possess. label, possessor. not, information. notilc, public. notiin. announce. notel, informer. notam, N. B. notad, publication. noted, remark. pen, pen. penile, feathered. pencin, to write. penel, writer. penam, the writing. penad, writing. pened, letter. Zabed, property. The prefix lu- indicates weakened or debased quality; thus sanel, doctor; lusanel, quack ; vole, sound, voice ; lucoh, shriek; man, man; Zuman, rascal. The prefix le- magni- fies, as jul, school, lejul, university; dom, house ; ledom, alace. Diminutives are formed by adding -il, as bod, loaf ; odil, small loaf; lcat, cat; lcatil, kitten. Comparatives end in -ileum, superlatives in -ilciin, as dib, depth; dibilc, deep; dibilcum, deeper; dibihiin, deepest. Feminine names are formed from the corresponding masculines by prefixing ji- (pronounced she), as fat, father; jifat, mother; gam, bride- groom; jigam, bride; blod, brother; jiblod, sister. In_fie.rion.—The inflexion of nouns is as follows: Singular. Plural. Nom. bulc, book. buks, books. Gen. bulca, of a book. bukas, of books. Dat. buke. to a book. bukes, to books. Ace. buki, book. bukis, books. The pronouns follow the nouns both in formation and in- fiexion, thus ob, I; om, he; obs, we; oms, they; obilc, my; omilc, his: obsilc, our; omsilc, their. The inflexion of the verb may be illustrated by the fol- lowing examples : Present. Imperfect. Perfect. Pluperfect. Future. Ziifob, I love. alofob. eléifob. ilbfob oliifob. Ziifom, he loves. aléifom. eliifom. iliifom. oliifom. l6fobs, we love. al'o'fobs. eliifobs. iliifobs. oliifobs. Optative (3 sin .), Z<'>'fom'o's; imperative, léifombd; infinitive, ldfor; participle, Z6 bl. LITERATURE.—W. A. Seret, Grammar, with Vocabularies of Volapwilc (2d ed. 1887; translation of the grammar of J . M. Schleyer) ; C. E. Sprague, Handbook of Volapitlc, a com- plete grammar, with exercises and vocabulary (1888); K. A. Linderfelt, Volapillc (2d ed. 1888) ; K. Dornbusch, Abridged Grammar of Volapiile, by Prof. Kerckhoifs, adapted to the use of English-speaking people (1887) ; S. Huebsch, Volapzth (1887). BENJ. IDE WHEELER. Volatile Oils: See ESSENTIAL OILS. V0lcanism: See GEoLoeY. Volcanoes [from Ital. oolca’no, volcano, orig. the volcano of Mt. Etna, fabled to be the abode of Vulcan, the Roman god of fire and the lower world < Lat. Vulca’nus, Vulcan] : (1) openings in the earth from which molten lava or other highly heated substances are discharged; or (2) mountains or hills from which such substances are or have been dis- charged. The typical shape of a volcanic mountain is a truncated cone, the apex being replaced by a conical cavity called a crater; but the form is often less simple. At the bottom of the crater is the opening, or vent, from which the discharges or eruptions usually take place. The body of the volcano is composed of erupted material which accumu- lates about the vent, gradually building up the conical mass. PHENOMENA or VOLCANIC AcTIvI'rY.—-E]7’usioe Eruption.— A large part of the material discharged from a volcano is liquid or pasty, consisting of melted rock or lava. The kinds of rock which are erupted differ from the ordinary stratified or sedimentary rocks in composition and structure. They are composed chiefly of silica and various silicates, which are sometimes amorphous or glassy, but more com- monly crystalline. (See ROCKS.) The varieties containing much silica are said to be acid, those with comparatively little silica basic. The basic varieties are heavier than the acid. They are also more fusible and as a class they are darker. When erupted a basic lava is heated much above the temperature of fusion, so as to be quite liquid. It flows down the slopes adjacent to the vent in a thin stream, or if issuing on a plain spreads into a broad lake. As it flows the superficial part is rapidly cooled and a solid crust is soon formed. This crust may move onward with the cur- rent, in which case it is rolled under it at the end, or it may adhere at the sides and become fixed, permitting the liquid portion to flow on beneath it. The liquid by cooling is gradually rendered viscous, and at the extreme point to which it flows is usually so stiff as to hold a wall 30 or 40 or jep, herd. jepik, in flocks. jepdn, to watch. jepel, shepherd. labam, the taking. jepam, protection. VOLCANOES even 100 feet high. Sometimes the crust of a narrow stream will become so strong as to be self-supporting, and the liquid beneath may then flow out from under it, leaving a cave or tunnel. An acid lava usually issues in a pasty or vis- cous condition, flows but a short distance, and comes to rest in a sheet several hundred feet in thickness. Sometimes it does not flow at all, but remains in a bulbous mass over the vent. Each eruption adds a layer of solid lava to the country adjacent to the vent. Where a series of eruptions take place from the same vent, each successive discharge flows toward the lowest tract, and in this way the country is built up somewhat evenly on all sides, the result being a conical mountain. Usually after an eruption the liquid lava re- treats down the funnel, leaving a crater at the top of the cone, but acid lavas sometimes produce dome-like mountains without craters. Escpulsioe Eruption.--Molten rock when subject to great pressure is able to absorb much water in the form of steam, and a certain amount of moisture is contained in all lavas. It is only those in which the quantity of steam is small that well out quietly, as described in the preceding sec- tion. When a large quantity of steam is present the phe- nomena of eruption are very dilferent. As the lava rises to- ward the surface the pressure on it becomes gradually less, and the diminution of pressure affects the condition of the steam. Under great pressure it is dissolved or occluded by the lava, and is inert; under small pressure it exhibits the elasticity characteristic of gases, and expands. Th us as the lava approaches the surface it becomes filled with bubbles and these bubbles continually grow. The lava is thereby made lighter and its upward motion is increased. Arrivin at the surface it is torn to fragments by the steam, an these fragments are thrown high in the air. In the extreme case they are so fine as to constitute a dust which is floated off by the wind and descends gradually to the earth, cover- ing a large district with a thin sheet. Usually the frag- ments are larger and fall to the ground near the vent. They may be in a pasty condition, so as to adhere, or they may have cooled in their transit through the air so as to ac- cumulate in a loose heap. They are more or less spongy in structure, being filled with bubbles, and for this reason they are ordinarily called cinders, or, when minute, ashes. The cinders are thrown some hundreds or thousands of feet into the air, and on descending fall upon a circular tract about the vent. The vent itself receives no deposit, as the particles falling toward it are thrown back by the rising steam, and the accumulation is thus given the form of a ring with the vent in the center. From the crest of this ring there is a steep slope toward the vent, and all particles falling on this slope roll into the vent, to be again thrown 1|" 11,,X " lu-: u ‘ ‘Q l -' ’ ,,,\ x l _ H ,| n I ‘ 1 I_( [Hi 4 I I 71-‘ -‘n : q _. -.=—§'* . ,1" ‘~ Pa _'--_ ~ 1.‘ _‘_ _4 ’ II, u¢_ ._/.'_‘\\\‘\ _ _/as \\_ . ‘E3 _ ' -\~-_:__ ;:\‘\.\“\ =_'. a N V -. /, 2' ~ , ' F-:...':'\ \ \\ ‘H p .__ 1 ._ V _//Q. \. -.;. ~\ ,\\,_ __-_ .- _ . 17- -. _.__ : ~- /'/ ' ~ ~ _ \\-\ \\ \\‘~ - 1- I‘ ‘ - \H- ‘ . ‘- ___ _». ‘ll \ \\§§ \\ \\ .1, _ ___y -‘ ‘E!£Lf/‘; 2 --_ - \ ~-.-\‘‘ ‘*1 *”-_"' . E I‘ “"’-r - --T“ \&-3 -1-"~= _,'.-=’\,_ " ‘ “*3-La §-_ .-.--V‘ P !W‘-’‘:‘‘“\‘_' G" ' W’ V J“ 3“? ~,w-\v-‘~‘~v:Y—"¢La~_-- ._ . W‘ “''‘R'.'&~-'I 7“ -If ‘ ‘ i <‘ D M‘ ‘'’m\\\\\ I -- _ “'~‘*"§-lG_P -~¢. 5 ‘ § \ ~v>~*:‘~~ ~11 -!;!-=-==_?-._ - I - " P C ‘ ““""‘*‘\" '-_-:;-"_,____-;-:_-,_.\'..__~_q-fT__- _~ _ _. .,. ,l x _\ -_\._',: '_L‘_‘-=-_..-—-_ - »... I ' --_-. ._v _ ' \ 2-‘? """-.-*‘“I==:-'_:\ "fi""\‘ " -" ._.-._--_~___‘ _ ; . _ ‘>2 _.J=- 4- - _ "‘> ."_-_ -. ’ _ -=- .'.-\\ - ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ - 0 " . ______ ." ' ', I :. I=“k_ -_-_....,._,,.= ‘ ' “'1 ' ‘ rz- ,_ ' ‘ »‘ \ ‘_'‘'r,- -1- - =1‘-— - \\ ._ Ea-_ * .~ ’ . !.~_-.- .,__.__ _ _ _‘_\\_..w. <~~_. "' ~-“‘ ‘ in ._ _ __ ‘ P_r.._r..-,- FIG. 1.—A cinder cone of the Franciscan group, Southern Arizona. Fresh lava stream near base at right. out. There is also a steep slope 0 tward which joins the surrounding plain by a curve. he cratered cone thus formed is known as a cinder cone, and is one of the most fre uent results of eruption. When the quantity of steam in the lava is moderate, the bubbles forming within the liquid at some distance beneath the surface gradually coalesce, making great bubbles which rise and burst with violence, throwing up fragments of the viscous and frothy films that surrounded them, and thus building up the slopes of the cone. - The tendency of the escaping steam to rise and of the ejected cinders and ashes to fall, ordinarily leads to their rap- id separation, so that the deposit on the cone is dry: but it sometimes happens that the steam is soon condensed to rain which falls on the cone, and is thus reunited with the solid discharges, constituting a mud which flows down the slopes. VOLCANOES While a mountain is in strong expulsive eruption a con- tinuous column of steam and dust rises from its crater to a height of several thousand feet, and then, having reached an air stratum of its own density, spreads as a horizontal cloud or is drifted away by the wind. Its color is black or white, as dust or steam predominates. About the column stones are seen to fall, and from the cloud may fall a shower of dust or ________’- _ ._.______._-—’_‘_____. _.__‘-._-x-’__’__.___'_ ____ _,_.-__> _. FIG. 2.—Vesuvius in eruption, April 26, 1872. rain. At night the column and cloud are lighted up by the glow from the crater, and flying stones within ‘the column are seen to be self-luminous. Eacplosion.—Yet another phase of volcanic activity is ex- hibited when lavas rising through the crust do not actually reach the surface, but stopping at some lower point heat the water contained in the adjacent rocks far above the temperature at which. under ordinary conditions, it is con- verted into steam. This conversion is prevented by the weight of the overlying rocks, and also by their strength, until a large amount of energy is thus stored and concen- trated. When at last the rocks above yield to the strain and are broken, the steam is suddenly expanded, producing an explosion. The underlying rocks are torn out, leaving a crater, and the rocks which were saturated by superheated steam are torn to powder and thrown high into the air. The explosion of Krakatoa in 1883 was one of the most nota- ble catastrophes of this class, the finer dust being carried to the upper layers of the atmosphere, where it floated for many months, producing red skies that were observed throughout the world. See KRAKATOA. Rhythm and Altcrnatz'on.-—ln various ways volcanic ac- tivity is rhythmic. Most volcanoes have periods of absolute rest and quiet, during which the subterranean conduits are sealed by the congelation of the lava. These periods are often so long that traditionary history retains no record of their beginning, and the catastrophes in which they some- times terminate are the more disastrous because unsuspected. It is usually after such an interval that the most violent ex- plosions occur. During active periods the degree of activity varies from day to day and from year to year. The bursting bubbles are larger and smaller, more frequent and less frequent, and for a time they may cease altogether, the crater retaining only a pool of hot lava in gentle ebullition. The pool may rise until it overflows the rim of the crater, or it may retreat far down the conduit. The size of the conduit varies, be- coming smaller by growth of its solid walls when the ac- tivity is feeble, and growing larger by fusion of its walls when activity is vigorous. Sometimes the pool expands into a lake, eating its way into the body of the mountain. From large volcanoes effusive eruption is not always over the crater rim. The pressure from the lava column and the stresses from unequal heating may crack the mountain, letting the lava escape from the flank. The lateral dis- charge draws down the pool in the crater, and may continue for a long time, but eventually the cracks are sealed, and the lava again rises in the crater. Still further variety is given by the alternation of differ- ent hases of activity. There are many vents which have yiel ed but a single eruption. Sometimes that eruption has 559 been explosive, sometimes effusive, and sometimes it has changed during its progress from the expulsive to the effu- sive type. There are also a few localities at which the only volcanic event has been an explosion. Often, however, eruptions recur at the same spot, or so nearly at the same spot that the discharged material combines in the forma- tion of a single volcanic mountain. In such cases the suc- cessive events are rarely of the same type. Effusion and expulsion alternate, and a long period of rest is apt to be ended by an explosion, partially destroying the heap already accumulated. Within the great crater of explosion new cones are built by expulsion and effusion, and these cones may eventually grow so large as to bury the remnants of their predecessors. Accessory Phen0mena.—For a discussion of earthquakes, which often precede the renewal of eruption, see EARTH- QUAKES. These are sometimes accompanied by the drying up of springs and wells. After each principal epoch of a volcano’s activity, and also at the close of its life, the slow dissipation of the heat within it is manifested in various ways at the surface. Springs in the vicinity are apt to be thermal and highly charged with minerals in solution. Sometimes they take the form of geysers. In craters and near the summits of volcanic mountains, steam or warm moist air may issue from crevices, or there may be extensive chemical reactions resulting in the decomposition of rocks, the con- centration of various minerals, and the escape of acid gases. Drsrarnurrox or VOLCANOES.—PFOf. Judd estimates the number of great habitual vents at from 300 to 350. If to these are added the volcanic mountains whose slopes show so little erosion that the date of latest eruption can not be more than a few centuries ago, the number is perhaps doubled, and it is still more greatly increased if there be added the subsidiary vents on the flanks of great volcanoes, and minor vents of brief activity. There are volcanoes in all the great divisions of the world ; the eastern hemisphere contains about as many as the west- ern, the northern as the southern. But their distribution in detail is far from equable. They are gathered in groups or lines, and these are arranged in belts or systems, so that in a general way the surface of the earth may be classified in volcanic districts and non-volcanic districts. This classi- fication is rendered more definite by including with active volcanoes all those which have perfect craters, or are other- wise so well preserved as to indicate somewhat recent activ- ity. More than one-half the whole number constitute islands of the ocean, or occur on islands of moderate size, and of the remainder by far the greater number occur near the shores of the ocean. One of the principal belts surrounds the Pacific Ocean. Starting at the South Shetland islands it may be traced along the western coast of South America, Central America, and North America, and through the Aleutian islands, Kamchatka, the Kurile islands, Japan. Formosa, the Philippines, the Moluccas, Solomon islands, the North Hebrides, Kermadec islands, and New Zealand. to South Victoria Land. Within this circuit the Ladrone, Hawaiian, Galapagos, Samoan, Tonga, and Fiji archipela- goes, beside many smaller grou s, are volcanic, and with them may be classed the coral is ands of Polynesia, which probably rest in great part on volcanic foundations. From the Moluccas a branch belt extends eastward by way of the Banda islands through Java and Sumatra. The margins of the Atlantic are comparatively free from volcanoes, the principal exceptions being the Antilles, off the coast of South America, and the Canaries, off the coast of Africa. An irregular, submerged ridge traversing the Atlantic Ocean from north to south bears the volcanic mountains of Jan Mayen, Iceland, the Azores, the Cape Verde islands, Ascen- sion, St. Helena. Tristan da Cunha, and at the extreme south the Sandwich islands. Between Ascension and the Cape erde group there have been several submarine eruptions. The volcanic belt of Europe follows the shore of the Mediter- ranean, and is continued in Eastern Asia in the mountains of Armenia and Western Arabia. There is a belt of ex- tinct volcanoes near the Persian Gulf, and a few active and extinct volcanoes are reported in Tibet and Manchuria. The principal groups of the Indian Ocean are on the Mas- carene and Oomorin islands, and Madagascar, and there is an important though straggling chain of volcanic islands along the borders of the Indian and Southern Oceans. In Australia. in the central and eastern parts of North America and South America, and in Northern Asia there are no vol- canic districts. - In the geologic ages volcanoes appear to have been quite 5 60 VOLCANOES as abundant as now, and their distribution was so varied from period to period that it is fair to assume there is no part of the earth’s surface which has not at one time fallen within a volcanic district. In the U. S. there were extensive eruptions about Lake Superior in Algonkian time. During and after the deposition of the Newark system there were many volcanoes along what is now the eastern seaboard from Connecticut to South Carolina. In the Cenozoic era the mountainous regions W. of the Great Plains was char- acterized by great volcanic activity. THE QUESTION or CAUsE.—The stores of volcanic material manifestly lie many miles below the surface of the earth. The cause of volcanic action, having its seat in regions remote and inaccessible, is shrouded in mystery, and at- tempts to discover it have been far from satisfactory. In early days, when the properties of matter were little known, it was easy to believe that the heat exhibited by volcanoes had its origin in fire. The black cloud of dust and the illu- mination of its rising column by the glowing lava of the funnel were readily mistaken for smoke and flame, and the imagination completed a theory by peopling the nether regions with blacksmith gods. In the early days of chemistry it was discovered that certain substances might be produced by the union of oxygen with metals and that great heat was evolved in the process. and for a time volcanoes were as- cribed to combustion of this character. When, however, it became fully understood that there is everywhere downward increase of temperature, and that the interior of the earth must be exceedingly hot, the apparent necessity for the pro- duction of heat disappeared, and theories of combustion were supplanted by others. The abundance of volcanoes near the shores of the sea, and the abundance of steam in volcanic discharges gave rise to a theory that water was the cause of eruption, the hot rock of the earth’s interior being in some way rendered eruptible by the access of water. This idea for a time prevailed, and is still widely entertained, but serious difficulty is found from the consideration of two facts : First, that there are some volcanoes hundreds of miles not only from the sea, but from all other large bodies of water; second, that some lavas contain only a minute quan- tity of water, the amount being so small that it manifestly can play no important part in the chemistry or physics of eruption. Steam, indeed, has much to do with many vol- canic eruptions, and is essential to explosion and the process of expulsive eruption, but the fact that it is not always pres- ent in notable quantities shows that it is not a factor essen- tial to the uprising of lava. In the judgment of the present writer an important step toward the understanding of volcanism was made by Clar- ence E. Dutton in pointing out a condition imposed by gravitation. Gravity is a feeble force, so feeble that it is overcome by all others in the various dynamic processes which pertain to the modification of the earth’s surface, but in subterranean processes the masses involved are enormous, and gravitation, which is proportional to mass, acquires the highest importance. It is gravitation that gives general form to the earth, and all the greater features of continent and ocean bed are conditioned by its law of equilibrium. Strength of material is in comparison a vanishing quantity. It results from this general fact that a great body of molten rock which is lighter than the earth material above is pow- erfully urged to change its position by rising through the upper rock and spreading over it at the surface. If a con- duit is open the rising of the liquid is inevitable, and if no way is open the liquid may be able to make one. On the other hand, a liquid which is heavier than the material above has no tendency to rise through it, and will not rise even if a passage is open. If urged by stresses originating elsewhere, it will lift the ceiling of its chamber instead of passing through it. It is therefore essential to volcanic dis-. charge not merely that the lava be liquid, but that it be relatively light, and all volcanism is thus conditioned by a quasi hydrostatic law. As eruptions not only begin but end, it follows that each eruption results from some change of condition whereby a limited quantity of subterranean material is fitted for upward flow. The change of condition may be liquefaction, or it may be the expansion of a rock already liquid. The introduction of this condition does not solve the problem of the volcano, but changes its character, limiting inquiry to the mode in which rocks are rendered eruptible. Several suggestions have been made of possible causes for the change in the condition of rock: (1) It is possible that some chemical reaction or the addition of water renders VOLHYN IA rocks fusible or lighter. (2) Of the same tendency, and more readily comprehended, is the addition of heat. It has been suggested that the temperature of subterranean tracts may be made to rise by the addition of deep sediments above. As the temperature of the surface is maintained nearly constant by radiation, a heavy sedimentary deposit would act as a blanket, and cause a rise of the isogeother- mals. (3) Heat may be produced dynamically in connection with diastrophic movements. Whatever the process by which mountains are made and the heights of continents are changed, great stresses and strains arise, and wherever strains are relieved heat may be evolved. (4) Heat may be produced by tidal action. The differential attraction which produces oceanic tides must also produce bodily tides of the earth and a corresponding system of strains. If it be true, as some physicists have inferred, that the nucleus and outer crust are highly rigid as compared to an intermediate zone, then tidal stresses may accomplish work in the intermediate zone, and thus produce the excess of heat manifested in vol- canic activity. While none of these suggestions is entirely satisfactory, and no one of them appears competent to ex- plain all volcanic occurrences, it is nevertheless possible that there are true causes among them, and that collectively they are sufficient. See the articles GEOLOGY, GEYSEE, LAccoLI'rE, LAVA, PHYS- IOGRAPHY, ETNA, KRAKATOA, VEsUvIUs, and TAYLOR, MOUNT. Consult J . D. Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes (1890); Charles Darwin, Volcanic Islands (in Voyage of the Beagle, 1839) ; C. Daubeny, Active and Extinct Volcanoes (1826); C. E. Dutton, Geology of the High Plateaus (1880); Hawaiian Volcanoes, Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey (1884); W. L. Green, Vestiges of a Molten Globe (1874); J . W. Judd, Vol- canoes (1881); F. J unghuhn, Java (1854); J . L. Lobley, Jlfount Vesuvius (1889); Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology; Robert Mallet, Volcanic Energy (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, 1873); G. P. Scrope, Vol- canoes (1872). G. K. GILBERT. Vole [Fr.]: the name given in England to rodents of the ,genus Aroicola, which is the type of the sub-family Arvi- colinoe, belonging to the family Muridw. The related spe- cies found in the U. S. are generally known under the name of field-mice, but are thus confounded with species of the sub-family Murince. See MURIDZE. Volga: the largest river of Europe. It rises in the marshes of the western Valdai plateau (government of Tver), Russia, not more than 550 feet above sea-level, and after a winding and tortuous course of 2,325 miles, it enters the Caspian Sea near Astrakhan by some 200 mouths and rivulets. Its basin covers about 563,300 sq. miles, with a population of over 40,000,000. Among the hundred or more navigable tribu- taries of the Volga the most important are the Oka (longer than the Rhine), draining 97,800 sq. miles, and the Sura from the right, and the Tvertsa, Mologa, and Kama (with a course of 1,120 miles) from the left. The Volga is joined to the Neva by a system of canals, and thus connects the Cas- pian with the Baltic, and Astrakhan with St. Petersburg. By less important canals the Volga is connected with the Dwina and the White Sea, i. e. Riga and Archangel, while a perfect railway system completes the body of arteries. Among the cities built on or near its banks or within the Volga basin, are Tver, Yaroslav, Kostroma, Moscow, Nijnii- Novgorod, Saratofi, Simbirsk, Kazan, Astrakhan; all of which owe their wealth and importance to the Volga or its tributaries. The period during which the river is closed by ice lasts from 90 to 160 days, according to climatic con- ditions. The chief Volga traffic is up-river, the amount of merchandise reaching St. Petersburg by way of the canals being about fifteen times more than that reaching Astra- khan. Half a million tons of fish (especially immense quan- tities of salmon and sturgeon). salt, and naphtha are sent from Astrakhan, besides enormous amounts of grain, flax, and other produce, 465,000 tons reaching Riga. The traffic down the river consists chiefly of wood and timber to sup- ply the southern provinces and the lower Don, which have been almost entirely deprived of their wealth of forests by destructive mismanagement. The trade down-river in manu- factured goods is important, and is mostly distributed at N ijnii-Novgorod. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. V0lhyn'ia: a government of Western Russia; bounded S. W. by Galicia, W. by Poland, separated from the latter by the Bug; area, 27,743 sq. miles. In the N. and E. the land is low, level, and sandy, and there are extensive marshes and forests; the south and west are broken by spurs of the VOLITION Carpathian Mountains. Agriculture flourishes in the south; grain, timber, cattle, tallow, hides, tar, and potash are largely exported to Odessa, Galicia, Poland, and Prussia (by way of the Bug). Volhynia possesses the finest studs in the empire-those of the Princes Sangusko and the Czartoryskis. Mills and manufactures are increasing yearly. Pop. (1890) 2,407,800, Russians, Poles, Lithuanians, Jews, Germans, and Tartars. Capital, Zhitomir. H. S. Volition : See WILL. Volkelt, f6l’kelt, J OHANNES, Ph. D. : professor of philos- ophy and pedagogy; b. at Liprik, Galicia (Austria), July 21, 1848; studied at the Teschen Gymnasium, Silesia, and at the Universities of Vienna, Jena, and Leipzig; privat docent at Jena, 1876-79; extraordinary professor, Jena, 187 9- 83 ; Professor of Philosophy, Basel, 1883-89, Wiirzburg, 1889-94; Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, Leipzig, since Easter, 1894. Volkelt is an energetic critic of positiv- ism in philosophy, and has won especial favor in Germany by his contributions to the theory of cognition and to zes- thetics. As the successor to hlasius in Leipzig, his lectures on theoretical pedagogy mark him a leader of liberal educa- tional thought. His principal works are Das Unbewasste und der Pessimismus (Berlin, 1873); Der Symbol-Begrijf in der neaesten Aesthetilc (Jena, 1876) ; Immanuel Kants Erl:ennt- nistheorie naeh ihren Granclprineipien analysirt (Leipzig, 1879) ; Erfahrung and Denlren : .Kriz‘isehe Grandlegang cler li'rleennlnzstheorie (Hamburg and Leipzig, 1886); Franz Grillparzer als Diehzfer ales Tragisehen (N iirdlingen, 1888); Vortriige zur Einfilhrang in die Philosophie der Gegenwart (Munich, 1892). J . E. RUSSELL. Volkmann, f5lk’ma”an, RICHARD, von, M. D. : surgeon and author; b. in Leipzig, Germany, Aug. 17. 1830 ; son of Alfred Wilhelm Volkmann, the physiologist (1801-77). He studied in the Universities of Halle, Giessen, and Berlin; became assistant in Blasius’s surgical clinic; was privat docent of surgery at Halle 1857-67; in the latter year became Pro- fessor of Surgery and chief of the surgical hospital; was connected with the German army during the wars of 1866 and of 1870-71, in the latter being surgeon-general of the Fourth Army-corps. In 1882 he was offered the professor- ship of surgery in the University of Berlin, but he declined to leave Halle. He was one of the first to introduce Lister’s methods of surgery into Germany. His investigations in surgery and surgical pathology are of importance, and as a lecturer he was unsurpassed. While serving as army sur- geon he wrote a work, under the pseudonym of Richard Leander, entitled Trdlumereien an franzdsisehen Kaminen, Jlliirohen; it was originally intended for his children, but has passed through fourteen editions. His other works in general literature are Ans cler Bursehenzeit (Halle, 1876); Gediehte (Halle, 1877). Among his professional works are Beit-réige ear Chirurgie (Leipzig, 1875); Bemerl:nngen ilber einige vom Krebs za trennenole Geschwillste (Halle, 1858); and numerous contributions to medical journals. D. at Jena, Nov. 28, 1889. S. T. Aausrnoxe. Volkmann, WILHELM FRIDOLIN, Ritter von Volkmar: psychologist; b. in Prague, Bohemia, Sept. 25, 1821; was educated at the University of Prague, where he became do- cent in 1849, and later professor. He remained teaching philosophy until his death, on J an. 13, 1877. His principal works are Die Lehre von den Elemenzfen der Psyehologie als Wissensohaft (Prague, 1850); Grunolriss der Psyehologie anf Grandlage des philosophisehen Realismas (Halle, 1856) ; Lehrbaeh cler Psyehologie com Sz‘andpzm/tie cles Re- alismus and naeh genetiseher Methode (4th ed. 2 vols., Ciithen, 1894-95); Die G-rundzilge der Ariszfotelisclz/en Psy- ehologie, ans den Qaellen clargestellt and krizfiseh beleueh- tet (Prague, 1858). J . M. B. Yollon, v5'l6ri’, ANTOINE: still-life, figure, and landscape pamter; b. in Lyons, France, Apr. 20, 1833; studied in the Academy at Lyons, went to Paris, and first exhibited at the Salon in 1864; received medals at the Salons of 1865, 1868, and 1869, and a first-class medal at the Paris Exposition of 1878; became oflicer of the Legion of Honor in 1878. He Is one of the greatest modern masters of still-life painting, and a wonderful technician. His works are especially nota- ble for strength and depth of color. His Fisherwoman of le Pollet, Dieppe (1876); C'ari0siz.‘ies (1868); Sea Fish (1870); and Armor (1875) are in the Luxembourg Gallery, Paris. One of his most famous still-life pictures, The Pumpkin, was bought by William Schaus, New York, and is in a private collection in New York. VVILLIAM A. COFFIN. VOLT 561 Volney, vo'l’na', CONSTANTIN FRANCOIS Cnxssnemur, Comte de: traveler and author ; b. at Craon. department of Mayenne, France, Feb. 3, 1757; studied medicine and Ori- ental languages in Paris ; spent several years in Egypt and Syria, and published after his return to France Voyage en Egg/pie et en Syrie (2 vols., 1787 ; translated into English in the same year), which gave him a great reputation. Elected a deputy for Anjou to the States-General of 1789, he advo- cated the ideas of the Revolution; published in 1791 Les Rnines, on llféolitations sar les Re'volulions des Empires (translated into English, New York, 1796; London, 1827), for which he has chiefly his fame as an infidel writer, and La Loi natarelle, on Cateehisme da Citog/en franeais (1793), but was nevertheless imprisoned as a royalist, and saved only by the fall of Robespierre. In 1794 he was appointed Professor of History at the Normal School; traveled in the U. S. from 1795 to 1798; was made a senator in 1799, and published in 1803 Tableau dn Climat et du Sol cles Ez‘ats- Unis d’Ame'riqae (2 vols.; translated into English by C. B. Brown, Philadelphia, 1804). After the establishment of the empire, he retired from the senate, but Napoleon neverthe- less made him a count in 1808, and Louis XVIII. a peer in 1814. In 1814-15 he published Recherches nouvelles sur l’Histoire aneienne (3 vols. ; translated into English by Col. Corbet, London, 1819). His complete works appeared in 8 vols. (Paris, 1820-26). D. in Paris, Apr. 25, 1820. Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. V0l0g'da : northeastern government of Great Russia; bounded N. W. by Archangel, and stretching to the Urals; area, 155,498 sq. miles (one-fourth larger than that of Great Britain and Ireland). The eastern districts are covered with branches of the Ural Mountains, rising to an elevation of from 3,000 to 4.000 feet: but the greater part of the sur- face is an undulating, marshy plain, dotted with lakes and impenetrable forests of fir and pine, and having a very severe climate. The soil is mostly barren, except in the south, where grain is produced. The sparse population of these regions is of Finnish descent, and is occupied chiefly in hunting and fishing. The people are for the most part still nomadic in their habits, and have their homes in settle- ments along the rivers, among which are the Northern Dwina, the Suchona, and Petchora with its tributaries. Fur, timber, salt, iron, skins, tallow, and cheese are exported. Pop. (1890) 1,272,100. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. "0l0gda: capital of the government of Vologda; on both banks of the river Vologda; 260 miles by rail N. E. of llloscow. It exports to St. Petersburg and Archangel its soap, potash, candles, leather, cordage, and ropes, as well as timber, tallow, and fur, to a considerable amount. Pop. (1888) 17,743. . S. Volsci: an ancient people occupying the southern and eastern portions of Latium. They were the hereditary ene- mies of the Latini and of the Romans, and allies of the fliqui. The Volsci for many generations harassed Rome in a series of bloody wars, but about 338 B. c. they were finally subdued, and became Latini (in a legal sense), and later full citizens of Rome. Revised by G. L. Hnnnnrcxson. Volscian Language: See ITALIC Lxneuxess. V0lsinii: See BOLSENA. V01Sk : district town in the government of Saratoif, Rus- sia; on the right bank of the lower Volga (see map of Rus- sia, ref. 8—F). It carries on a lively trade on the Volga, espe- cially with Nijnii-Novgorod, and is surrounded with gardens and orchards, the produce of which forms the chief wealth of the town and the flourishing neighborhood. Pop1.:I(1890) 39,995. . S. Volt [named from the Italian physicist ALESSANDRO VOLTA, q. 2).]: in electricity, the practical unit of electro- motive force or potential diflerence. With the growth of knowledge of the precise values of the absolute or C. G. S. units, upon which the system of practical electrical units is based, slight modifications in the definition of the volt have become necessary. The last authentic definition, that of the chamber of delegates of the Chicago congress of electricians (1893), is as follows : The chamber recommends “as a unit of electromotive force the international volt, which is the electromotive force that, steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one international ohm, will produce a current of one interna- tional ampere.” In this definition, as in all previous defini- tions of the volt, reference is made to the ampere and the ohm. The international ampere, as defined by the Chicago 433 56-2 VOLTA congress, is “ one-tenth of the unit of current of the C. G. S. system of electromagnetic units.” It is represented sufli- ciently well for practical purposes by the unvarying current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, deposits silver at the rate of 0001118 gramme to the second. T‘he international ohm, as fixed by the same con- gress, is the closest approximation which was attainable at that time to 109 C. G. S. units of resistance. It is “ repre- sented by the resistance ofiered to an unvarying electric cur- rent by a column of mercury, at the temperature of melting ice, 14'4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area and of the length of 1063 cm.” The ampere and ohm being thus definitely established, the volt is also established. The volt may also be defined approximately, as was done by the Chicago congress, as “ -Fl-$312 of the electromotive force between the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark’s cell, at a temperature of 15° C.,” and prepared in a specified manner. E. L. NICHOLS. V01’ ta, ALESSANDROZ physicist; b. at Como, Italy, Feb. 18, 1745; was first Professor of Physics at Como and then in the University of Pavia, where he taught and studied for thirty years. In 1769 he published a dissertation, De Vi al- trac1fz'-v¢iIgm's Electrici ; in 1775 invented the perpetual elec- trophore, in 1777 a lamp for inflammable gas, in 1782 the electric condenser, and finally arrived at the invention of the famous pile which bears his name, and was described by him in a letter to SirJoseph Banks in the year 1800. Sum- moned to Paris by Napoleon I.. he received the gold medal of the Institute, of which he became a member in 1802. Na- poleon conferred upon him the title of count and a sena- torship. The works of Volta were published at Florence in 5 vols. in 1816. D. at Como, Mar. 5, 1827. Voltaic Battery and Voltaic Electricity: See Emac- TRICITY and BATTERY, VOLTAIC. Voltaire, vol-tar’, FRANCOIS MARIE Anounr, de, universally known by the name he assumed, Voltaire : poet, dramatist, historian, and philosopher; b. in Paris, Nov. 21, 1694, of parents of the middle class in comfortable circumstances. His education was received at the Jesuit college Louis-le- Grand; at the age of sixteen he left the college and at his father’s wish began the study of law, though he had no taste for it. At the college he had allied himself with the sons of families of nobility, wealth, and distinction, and his great ambition was to shine in polite circles and enjoy to the full the gay life of the free-livers of the Temple. His wit and facility in turning verses made him a favorite in the houses of great lords like Sully and Villars, but also brought him into trouble with the authorities. Some scandalous lines on the regent led to his banishment from Paris to Sully-sur- Loire in May, 1716, and just a year later, for a satire that really was not his, he was sent to the Bastile. During his confinement of eleven months, wholly without rigor, he laid the solid foundations of his poetic fame, finishing the tragedy (Ecllpe, and beginning the heroic poem on Henry IV., the Henrlacle. In these works, but more especially in the occa- sional poems, epistles, epigrams, etc., that streamed from his pen, he showed himself the skeptical and railing critic of the religious and political traditions of his country, and pro- voked the enmity of the Church and that suspicious hostil- ity of the censorship which never ceased to follow his works and denied most of them the privilege of open publication in France. The relations that he cultivated with the nobil- ity exposed him to a rude insult from the Chevalier dc Rohan, who had him beaten and then thrown into the Bastile when he showed himself revengeful. He was set free only on con- dition that he retire to England (1726). The three years spent there and the acquaintance they gave him with Eng- lish literature, institutions, philosophy, and life were of the utmost importance for the development of his ideas and his criticism. Upon his return to France (1729) suspicion was still too alert against him to make his stay in Paris safe. After three years of almost continual movement, but great productivity, he settled down to a quiet and industrious life at Cirey with Mme. du Chatelet, where he remained till her death in 1749. In these years he was particularly interested in the study of the natural sciences, and his ambition was becoming more serious. He had already established rela- tions by correspondence with Frederick II. of Prussia, and in 1750 accepted his invitation to live at his court. But rivalries and jealousies, his own duplicity and petulance, and the king’s steady mastery, filled his stay in Berlin with irri- tations and quarrels. I-Ie fled in anger in 1753, launching satires against his enemies, among whom he now counted VOLTAIRE the king. After some years of wandering he purchased an estate at Ferney, near Geneva, where the rest of his life cen- tered. In these years Ferney became the resort of literary men from all parts of Europe, and the “ patriarch of Fer- ney ” was the foremost man of letters of the world. D. May 30, 1778, in Paris, where his reappearance three months be- fore had provoked unbounded enthusiasm. An outward and formal submission to the requirements of the Church secured him absolution and Christian burial. The Revolution gave him the honor of public burial in the Pantheon. His mind was prodigiously active and supple and his industry tireless, and he achieved the highest distinction of his time in almost all forms of literature : in elevated poetry by the Henriade (1728) ; in light and satiric verse by avast numberof pieces; in tragedy by works such as Gflclipe (1718), Zaire (1732), Alzire (1736), flfahomet (1741), ]VIe'rope (1743), Séf/m'ra'm/ls (1748), etc.; in history by the I-Ie'sloe're dc Charles XII. (1731), Steele cle Louis XIV. (1751), and others; in fiction by Zacllg (1748), Canclide (1759), La Princesse cle Babylone (1768), etc. ; in the political or philosophical essay or pam- phlet by the Essais sar les Anglais (1831), Diseoars sar Z’homme (1734-37), Essal sar les mwars et l’esprz't des na- tions (1756), De'ctz'ormaz're p/w'losophiqae (1764); his contri- butions to the great Erzcyclopédle of Diderot, etc. His mind was not profound, but it was perfectly lucid and saw what it saw with perfect distinctness. He was not an original thinker, but appropriated ideas eagerly and swiftly, and by his remarkable power of clear and forcible expression he made them seem simple and easy. He turned the large coin of philosophy and criticism into small change of uni- versal circulation. The alertness of his wit, the searching keenness of his satire, his exhaustless resources of ridicule and persifiage, powerfully seconded his appeal to reason against superstition and the oppression of traditional au- thority. Essentially a conservative in politics, an aristocrat by instincts and tastes, he yet contributed immensely to the revolutionary movement and the democratic idea by under- mining the historic institutions by criticism from the stand- point of even and universal justice. He loved justice and did its cause direct practical service by his defense of Jean Calas. He was essentially epicurean in his view of life, and rebelled at the asceticism lurking in the Christian distrust of the body and its satisfactions; he was devoted to the lux- urious accompaniments of civilization. So he was hostile to Protestantism and J ansenism for their moral severity. as to Catholicism for its intellectual tyranny and abuse of power. He was utterly without reverence, as was revealed in his scandalous travesty of the figure of Joan of Arc, La Pucelle cl’0rléans (1730-39), as well as in his well-known en- mity to religion. He held the theological conceptions of deism, but he was profoundly irreligious, and though he was thinking chiefly of the Church as an institution in his fa- mous denunciation, Ecrasez l"£n,fame, his attack involved the whole fabric of historical Christianity and even most exhibitions of the religious sentiment. The pert and super- ficially informed ridicule of religion current in certain classes in France is derived in great measure from hi1n. In his per- sonal relations he was capable of devotion and generosity, but was habitually suspicious and jealous, often deceitful and spiteful, and sometimes grossly untruthful, and apparently utterly selfish. By the universality and lucidity of his mind and, in spite of its superficiality, by the unfailing flash of his wit, by his prodigious literary cleverness, he deserves his rank as first man of letters of his time and one of the most powerful contributors to the work of enlightenment and in- tellectual enfranchisement which was the task of the eigh- teenth century. LITERATURE.—All older editions of his works are super- seded by the editions of Beuchot (Paris, 1828, et seg., 70 vols. and 2 vols. index) ; Avenel (Paris, 1867, et seq., 8 vols. 4to); and L. Moland (Paris, 1877-83, 50 vols. and 2 vols. index). There is an English translation by Smollett and others (Lon- don, 1776, 37 vols.). Many single works have been frequently reprinted separately. See Longchamp and VVagnie‘re (his secretaries), Me'moe'res sar Voltae're et sar ses oavrages (2 vols., Paris, 1825); Villcmain. Tableaa cle la lfilérafare da disc-hzlitleme siéele; G. Dcsnoiresterres, Voltaire et la soeiété fra/neaz'se aa X VIIIe szieele (8 vols., Paris, 1867-76); Ben- gesco, Voltcmlre, Bz'bllograplz/le de ses oeuvres (4 vols., Paris, 1882-90); J . Morley, Volzfailre (London, 1871); D. F. Strauss, Voltaire (Leipzig, 1870) ; James Parton, Life of Vollarfre (2 vols., Boston, 1881); E. Champion, Volta/ire (Paris, 1892); see also Carlyle’s essay on Voltaire and Macaulay’s essay on Fredemlelc the Great. A. G. CANFIELD. V OLTA METER V0ltam’eter [from voltaie (see VOLT) + Gr. p.e’¢pou, meas- ure]: an instrument for the measurement of the electric current by means of its electrolytic action. The principal forms are the water voltameter, the silver voltameter, the copper voltameter, and the zinc voltameter. The water voltameter is usually given a construction similar to that shown in Fig. 1. The current is carried into the voltameter by means of the wire marked +. which is connected with a platinum electrode within the mouth of the inverted cylindrical tube O, which is nearly filled with water. The other electrode, which is connected with a wire marked —, through which the current leaves the voltameter, is simi- larly situated at the bot- tom of the inverted tube H. The passage of the current in the direction indicated decomposes the water in the two tubes, setting free oxy- gen in O, upon the sur- face of the + electrode and hydrogen in H at the surface of the -— electrode. The measure- ment of the volumes of the gases liberated in a given time affords a measure of the average value of the current. The water voltameter is subject to errors due to loss of gas by occlusion upon the surfaces of the electrodes and by ab- sorption within the liquid of the voltameter. When these sources of error are avoided, and the amount of gas developed is determined by the exact methods of chemical gas analysis, the water voltameter becomes an instrument of precision. On account of the laborious character of the operations when thus carried out, however, it has been almost altogether aban- doned in favor of more convenient forms. The silver voltameter is perhaps the most exact of all known types. In its best-known form (Fig. 2) it consists of a platinum dish containing an aqueous solution of sil- ver nitrate (AgNO_-,). Be- low the surface of the so- lution is placed the losing electrode, which consists of a sheet or coil of wire of pure silver. To catch the granules of metal which are detached during electrol_v- sis the terminal is wrapped in filter paper or other por- ous material. The plati- num dish serves as a gain- ing electrode, and upon its inner surface the silver is de- posited in shining crystals. The amount deposited in a given time is determined by weighing the latinmn dish before and after the operation. The silver vo tameter owes its accuracy to the insolubility of the deposit in the elec- trolyte, and to the fact that the former may be washed, dried, and weighed without loss, and also without gain by oxidation. An ampere of current deposits silver at the rate of 0001118 of a gramme per second. To get the best results, a silver voltameter for a circuit carrying 1 ampere, accord- ing to the specifications of the chamber of delegates of the Chicago congress of electricians, should have : (1) As kathode. a platinum bowl not less than 10 cm. in diameter and from 4 to 5 cm. in depth. (2) As anode, a plate of pure silver not less than 30 sq. cm. in area and 2 to 3 mm. in thickness. (3) As electrolyte, a neutral solution of pure silver nitrate containing about 15 per cent. by weight of the nitrate and 85 parts of water. The copper voltameter is inferior to the silver voltameter in that the deposit is not altogether insoluble in the electro- lyte, nor so free from oxidation within and without the so- lution. It possesses certain advantages, however. the chief of which are the cheapness of the apparatus and of the electro- FIG. 2. VOLTERRA 563 lyte. the non-corrosive character of the latter, and the firmly adherent quality of the deposit. With proper manipulation it is scarcely below the silver voltameter in ac- curacy. but as common- ly used the errors some- times amount to '01 or more. Two forms of the copper voltameter rt R >- J are shown in Figs. 3 C“ C“ and 4. The former con- _____> sists simply of two cop- per. plates submerged in a cell containing a solution of copper sul- FIG“ 3, phate in water. A cur- rent sent through the voltameter from a to It carries copper with it at a rate which varies very slightly from '000328 gramme per ampere per second, according to the density of the current and the temperature of the solution. With high values of the current density, the deposit upon the edges and corners of the gaining electrode becomes gran- ular and non-adherent, and the indications of the voltame- ter begin to lose their accuracy. This source of error is avoided in the form of apparatus shown in Fig. 4. This instrument, which is due to Ryan, is known as the spiral- coil voltameter. The electrodes are coils of copper wire with a common vertical axis. Reasonable care in the handling of such an instrument affords uniformly consist- ent results, with errors not greater than ‘O01 to ‘O02. The zinc roliameter is used solely in the measurement of the electric current for industrial purposes. It is one of the best-known types of electric meters (see W ATT-METER), and is technically known as the chemical meter. For the purpose in question it has been found better adapted than other forms of voltameter, although inferior to them where a high degree of precision is required. See ELECTRICITY, ELECTROLYSIS, etc. E. L. NIcIIoI.s. "0lter'ra : a town in the province of Pisa. in Northern Italy; on the summit of a steep hill at the height of 1,800 feet above the sea, about 50 miles S. W. from Florence (see map of Italy, ref. 4-D). Volterra was the largest of the twelve capital cities of Central Etruria. and sustained a long struggle against Rome, but the time of its final con- quest is not known. During the Middle Ages Volterra was alternately the spoil of popes and emperors. In the latter part of the fourteenth century it fell into the hands of the Florentine republic, and remained ever after a possession of Tuscany. Volterra still retains some of her ancient gates, and considerable fragments of the old Etruscan wall, built of huge blocks of stone without cement, and much more ex- tensive than the Inediawal fortifications. The population is thought to be of more unmixed Etruscan blood than that of other old towns of that people. and many of the names read on the ancient sepulchral monuments are those of fam- ilies still existing in the city and territory of V olterra. The cemeteries have yielded rich contributions to Etruscan archa>ology, and the city museum-which, among many other interesting antiques, contains not less than 400 cin- erary urns and sarcophagi, chiefly of alabaster enriched with sculptures—-is among the most important existing re- positories of Etruscan art. In the neighborhood of Vol- terra are valuable salt springs, called by an Arabic name, Ie moje. yielding annually about 7,000 tons of salt. The Volterran quarries of alabaster are among the finest known deposits of that stone, and articles manufactured from it find a inarket all over the world. The cathedral. enlarged by Andrea Pisano in 1254, is a fine structure, and contains good ictures. Pop., comprising the suburbs and some sep- arate iamlets, 14,060. Revised by M. W. H.iRRI:\'eToI\'. 564 VOLTERRA Volterra, DANIELE, da, properly DANIELE RIOOIARELLI: painter and sculptor; b. at Volterra, in Tuscany, in 1509; went to Rome when very young. Under the influence of Michelangelo and greatly befriended by him Daniele painted many large pictures. An Assumption of the Virgin, form- ing the altarpiece in the Church of SS. Trinita de’ Monti, is especially famous, and in a chapel of the same church is a Taking down from the Cross, which is greatly injured, per- haps from having been transferred from the wall to can- vas, but which was at one time called by critics who were admirers of a certain classical convention one of the three greatest pictures in the world, the others being Raphael’s Transfiguration in the Vatican picture gallery and Michel- angelo’s Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel. At a later time Daniele was employed to paint draperies about some of the nude figures in the last-named fresco, and from this he was called ll Braghettone, “the breeches-maker.” On the death of Henry II. of France in 1559, his widow, Catha- rine de’ Medici, tried to get an equestrian statue of the dead king from Michelangelo. The work was transferred to Daniele, who finished the horse and had it cast in bronze before his death. This horse stood for many years in the Place Royale in Paris and has disappeared, said to have been destroyed in the Revolution. Daniele died in Rome, Apr. 4, 1566. Pictures formerly ascribed to Michelangelo are now often attributed to Daniele. In the Uffizi at Florence there is a Jlfassacre of the Innocents. In the store-rooms of the Louvre there is a Davicl and Goliath, two renderings of the subject on the two sides of a slab of slate, a picture long called a Michelangelo. In the Farnese Palace in Rome there is a fine Triumph of Bacchus. RUssELL STURGIS. Vol'tri (Medizev. Lat. Ulte'rium): town; province of Genoa, Italy; on the seashore between the Leira and the Cerusa; about 9 miles W. of the city of Genoa, with which, however. it is connected by an almost continuous line of houses (see map of Italy, ref. 3-D). Voltri has flourishing manufactures, contains some fine churches, and near it are charming villas, the most striking of which is the Brignole- Sale, on a hill commanding an exquisite view of this lovely coast. Voltri contains many paper-factories, and the sul- phurous water employed in its manufacture is believed to protect the paper against the attacks of the book-worm, for which reason it is used by regulation in many of the public otfices in England. It is also exported to the U. S. The mechanical power of the two torrents is also further util- ized in the manufacture of cotton, wool, hemp, linen, leath- er. etc. The mineral springs near Voltri, known as Acqua Santa and Acqua della Penna, are much frequented. Pop. 6,360. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. V oltur’ no (anc. Vulturnus): the principal river of South- ern Italy. It rises in Monte Santa Croce, near Castellone, flows first S. E., then W., through the plains of Campania, and enters the Gulf of Gaeta after a course of 100 miles. Along the Volturno was fought a series of battles between Garibaldi and the royal Neapolitan troops Sept. 19 and 21, and Oct. 1 and 2, 1866, in which the former was victorious. Volume, Molecular or Specific: a value obtained by dividing the specific gravity of a substance in the form of liquid into its molecular weight. The study of specific vol- umes has led to the conclusion that a close connection exists between the values and the constitution of the substances. Volumetric Analysis: See ANALvsIs, VoLUnETRic. Voluntary [from Lat. volunto/rius, willing, deriv. of vo- lens (vo’luns), pres. partic. of vel'le, will; so called from being at first extempore]: in music, a term originally sig- nifying an extempore performance on the organ, usually be- fore the opening or at the close of divine worship. In the pure voluntary the performer was unrestricted by any set form, rule, or style, but gave free scope to his imagination and to his skill in execution. In the present day the term “voluntary” is also applied to compositions of this class which are not extempore, but premeditated and carefully written. Large collections of them, composed by the best masters, have been published, and are extensively used un- der the names of organ-pieces, preludes, offertories, post- ludes, etc. Voluntary Conveyance: in law, a deed of conveyance without the adequate consideration which the law deems valuable—that is, something upon which a pecuniary esti- mate can be placed. It is, therefore, a gift and is frequently made to some near relative of the grantor, in which case the consideration is love and affection, which is regarded as VOLUN TA RYISM “ good,” though not as “ valuable.” As such, it is entirely legal and valid as between the parties—-except, of course, where obtained by fraud or undue influence—for the law permits gifts to be freely niade so long as the creditors of the donor are not thereby defeated or delayed. The term voluntary conveyance is generally applied to such a deed of lands, but the same principles control all similar transfers of chattels and other forms of personal property. The pe- culiar legal interest connected with voluntary conveyances arises from their effect upon the rights of the creditors of the grantor or transferror, and all the modern law on that subject has practically originated from two statutes passed in the reign of Elizabeth and from subsequent legislation of the same import. These statutes and the rules of law derived therefrom are treated in the article on FRAUDULENT CONVEYANCE. Revised by FRANCIS M. BURDIOK. Voluntaryism: the theory and practice of the support and control of churches by the voluntary act of their ad- herents as opposed to support and control by the state. The theory is based on considerations drawn from Scrip- ture, from history, and from social equity. Even under the theocratic system of the Old Testament religion presents certain voluntary aspects. And, turning to the New Testa- ment, the whole movement of Christianity at the beginning was of the voluntary kind. It had no state support and no state control. Christ’s kingdom was declared by himself to be “not of this world,” and therefore its being linked to the secular government of a country, to be enriched and guided thereby, is entirely out of the question. Further, it is a fact of history that Christianity was more truly (i. e. more spiritually) prosperous before it was endowed by the state than afterward; that Constantine’s was a fatal gift; that the union between the Church and the empire gave power to persecution; that now orthodoxy and then heterodoxy became established, and that each in turn oppressed the other through the enforcement of political laws; that dur- ing the Middle Ages the Church became miserably cor- rupted by its secular relations, and that some of the bright- est spiritual lights of that long period are to be found among those who protested against the worldliness of the reigning religion, and promoted spiritual truth and life in voluntary ways. The establishments in Europe have been instruments of persecution, and in them the wealth of the Church, being in worldly hands, has been necessarily mis- applied. A comprehensive church supported by the state so as to be truly national is an impossibility, and therefore every establishment is and must be more or less sectarian. It is the church of a party, not of a united people, and hence the unendowed and unpat-ronized are placed on terms of inequality, and consequently suffer a social wrong. Men ought not to be taxed for the support of creeds and systems in which they do not believe, and all such taxation involves social injustice. The voluntary principle was implied, if not distinctly as- serted, in some of Wyclifi°e’s writings; still more clearly by Leonard Busher, a London citizen and Baptist, in a tract published in 1614; but most of all, in his own day, by Rqger Williams in his Bloody Tenet of Persecution (1644). ot that the voluntary support of religion was prominently maintained in these works, but phases of religious liberty were unfolded which lead to such a conclusion. The Quak- ers, too, were among the pioneers of voluntaryism. On the other hand, the Puritans and Presbyterians generally advo- cated a state church; and some of the Independents and some of the Baptists accepted livings and emoluments in the Establishment. The Pilgrim Fathers and the founders of Massachusetts did not avoid state complications. Such Nonconformists as Watts and Doddridge based their non- conformity on other grounds than that of opposition to a legal establishment of religion. The clear enuneiation of the principle in England began in the first quarter of the nineteenth century, and has ever since been gaining ground. Nowhere is the practice of voluntaryism exemplified as it is in the U. S. Ever since the war of Independence closed and the U. S. became separated from Great Britain, religion has been left for its support to the willing offerings of Chris- tian people. The establishments which once existed have disappeared. Magnificent churches, well-supported minis- ters, prosperous colleges, and religious societies of all descrip- tions attest the energy and power of voluntaryism. , The voluntary system has been at work in Great Britain, by the side of the Establishment ever since nonconformity began. The practice preceded the theory. Before any VOLUNTEERS definite ideas on the subject obtained, proscribed sects were of necessity thrown upon their internal resources. Tithes and church-rates were beyond their reach had they wished for them. It is remarkable that those who practice the vol- untary system, in a small minority 200 years ago, have so multiplied and increased as now to vie with the endowed Church in activity and influence. In England the Congre- gational, Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, and Roman Cath- olic Churches and other large bodies are all voluntary com- munities. The voluntary system in Scotland has been widely ex- tended since the Disruption of 1843. The Free Church, which exists all over Scotland, as well as the United Presby- terian and other unestablished religious bodies, is entirely dependent for support on contributions from members and friends. Revised by W. J . BEECHER. Volunteers : See 1\dILITIA. Volusenus, FLORENTIUSZ See WILSON, FLORENCE. Volu'tidae [Mod. Lat., named from Volu/ta, the typical genus, from Lat. volzdta, spiral scroll] : a family of gastero- pod molluscs containing some of the most beautiful and es- teemed of univalve shells. The animals have the normal gasteropod form; the mantle is often more than usually well developed; the siphonal extension is short and re- curved (generally provided with auricle-like appendages at the base) ; the head is large and proboscidiform; the tenta- cles mostly far apart and connected by a broad “veil” forming a hood over the head, sometimes (in Volutomitra.) close together; the eyes sessile on the head, near the outer bases of the tentacles; teeth of the lingual ribbon are in a single longitudinal row, but diversiform in the several groups; the foot broad in front; an operculum is some- times developed, but usually wanting; the shell is convolute or turreted, with a narrow aperture and an anterior notch, with the columella obliquely plaited anteriorly. Although the generally recognized constituents of the family seem at first to be naturally associated in a group of the rank in question, on account of the similarity of the shell, they dif- fer so decidedly in dentition as to render it doubtful whether the association is of the value assigned. The representa- tives of the family are mostly confined to the tropical seas, and there they attain the largest size and exhibit the most beautiful colors. A few, however, are found in the temper- ate and even cold seas; the most northern species is a small shell, the type of the genus Volutomitm, the V. grtenlandzlcct of authors. In time they have ranged from the Cretaceous period to the present, and in the Miocene epoch typical forms of the family extended much farther north in both hemispheres than at present. The species are carnivorous. The principal genera are Yetus (=Cymbium, boat-shells), Voluta (much subdivided), Volutolg//r'zIa, Lyrvjd, Enceta, and V0lut0m'£t'ra. Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Vomer [Mod: Lat., from Lat. vo’mer, plowshare]: in the mammalia one of the bones of the skull forming the septum of the skeleton of the nose. In reality it is a double bone arising as two separate elements, right and left, from the roof of the mouth. In the lower vertebrates these bones oc- cupy that position permanently and frequently bear teeth. In transcendental anatomy it is considered the centrum of the first cephalic vertebra. It affords important characters in the classification of many fishes. Vomiting [from Lat. oo'mere, oo’mqitum, vomit : Gr. é,ue2‘v (whence Eng. emetic) : Sanskr. vam-] : a reflex contraction of the muscular coats of the stomach, ejecting its contents. It is an involuntary and spasmodic act, but when established may be aided by voluntary effort. The contraction of the stomach and vomiting may be the result of disease of the brain, of the pneumogastric nerve, of the walls of the stom- ach, of catarrh or inflammation of its mucous lining; it may be the result of indigestible food, bile. or mucus in the cavity of the stomach, or a sympathetic reflex result of dis- ease in other organs, as the uterus, ovaries, or liver. The vomiting of pregnancy and of uterine or ovarian disease, b1l1ous vomiting, vomiting of gastric catarrh, the vomiting at the onset of acute fevers and eruptive diseases of chil- dren, and vomiting from surgical causes, as fracture at the base of the skull, or concussion and inflammation of the brain, are to be distinguished, each from the other, in some instances, by peculiar features of the act of vomiting, but more often by observation of the associated symptoms. (See STOMACI-I.) At the onset of vomiting the face may be deathly pale; the surface becomes cool and bathed with VONDEL 565 clammy sweat; the pulse small and feeble ; and great pros- tration results. In some instances faintness occurs, or even fatal syncope. An occasional accident during vomiting is the impaction of solid food or artificial teeth in the larynx, causing suffocation. Robust persons, but little depressed by vomiting, become red in the face during the effort, and later are cool and slightly pale. A person vomiting should have his clothes loose, the air in the room should be fresh, and cold water should be poured on the face if needed. Stimulants are sometimes necessary to counteract collapse. Ice, carbonic-acid water, creosote, oxalate of cerium, and dilute hydrocyanic acid are useful remedies to allay vomit- ing. Revised by W. PEPPER. Vomiting of Blood : See HZEMATEDIESIS. Von’ del, J oos'r, van den: Dutch poet and dramatist; b. at Cologne, Nov. 17, 1587; d. in Amsterdam, Feb. 5, 1679. His father, by trade a hatter, had fled to Cologne from Antwerp, on account of his faith. There he had married Sara Kranen, daughter of Peter Kranen, a man of some lit- erary celebrity in his native city. In 1597 the poet’s parents removed to Amsterdam and there established a hosiery- shop. This later passed to their son, and was his means of support until 1657. when it was swallowed up in bankruptcy caused by a reckless son of his own. It should be said, however, that the poet’s wife was the business manager of the family, leaving him for the most part unmolested in his poetic pursuits. After experiencing bankruptcy, the poet was given a place as bookkeeper in the public loan office, receiving full salary even after his retirement in 1668 on account of old age. Vondel’s life was thus in the main that of a quiet middle-class shopkeeper, and this shows itself clearly, and often with intention, in his poetic work. He knew agitations, however, particularly when he determined to give up his Arminian faith and turn Catholic (1640). His earliest work is strongly under the influence of the po- etical school known as the Rederzjker. To this period be- long his first drama, Het Pascha (1612), and his earliest lyrics. Soon after the production of Hezf Pascha, however, he became intimate with the members of the group of Cos- ter, particularly Hooft and Roemer Visscher. From these men he obtained a much greater knowledge,of the classics than his meager education had given him; and he con- ceived an unbounded admiration for the masterpieces of the Greek and Latin drama, as well as reverence for the dramat- ic rules laid down by Aristotle in the Poetics. In his sub- sequent dramatic work, accordingly, he strove to conform to these rules, observed the unities, employed a chorus. etc. The result was not unhappy, owing mainly to the fact that his own genius was rather lyric than dramatic in the true sense. He liked also to use his plays for didactic and even controversial purposes. \Ve have from him a double series of pieces, the first consisting of translations or imitations of classic plays; the second. of original dramas. To the first belong the Amsz‘erdae'msche Hecubrt (1625) and Hippolg/z‘us (1628), imitated from Seneca; the Electra. (1638), Koning Oedipus (1660), and Hev*czzles in Trachin- (1663), from Soph- ocles; the Ifigenie in Tau~rz'en (1666) and Fenz'cz'aensrhe I figenie (1668), from Euripides. Of his original dramas the best are Hierusalem re/rwoest (1620); Pdlamedes (1625); GzZ7'sbrecht ran Aemsfel (1637); 1lIam'a Sz‘uart (1646): Lu- cifer (from which Milton has been thought to have bor- rowed, 1654); Jephtlza (1659); Adam in Ball z'ngsc7zap (166-1); Zu/n,(7chz'n (1666); .N0ah of ondergang der eersfe zrerelt (1667). Poetically quite as significant as the plays, how- ever. are the lyric poems. Of these many, to be sure, were written to order, and sound hollow and pompous. after the manner of such verse. But in others the real delights and admirat-ions of the man appear with power and beauty, his joy in Holland’s greatness on the sea and in trade, his stalwart preference for bourgeois ideals of life. his simple gladness in the presence of nature. His genius here shows itself, flawed indeed by constant lack of taste and often curiously limited, but none the less true genius. And he still remains, on the whole. the greatest poet Holland has had. Vondel’s works have been edited. with Life, by J. von Lennep (12 vols., Amsterdam, 1855-69; new ed. 1888, seq). See also Baumgartner, Joost van den Vondel (Freiburg, 1882); Unger, Bz'blz'og;mpizie ran Vondeis ever/l'en (Amster- dam, 1888); Looten, Etude Z'z'zf1‘éI'mfre sur Ze 1/voefe 1ze'e2'Za2z- dais Vondel (Brussels, 1889); D. Hack. Jusz‘us van den Von- del : ea‘/it Beiérog zur Gesclzz‘chz‘e des m'eder/r'irzdz'scizen »Sc72/m'_fz‘th1mz.s (Hamburg, 1890); August Miiller, Ueber Jllilz‘ons Ablzd»ngz'glre'it von Vondel (1891). A. R. l\lAB.SH. 566 voN DER RECKE Von der Recke : See R-ECKE, ERNST, VON DER. Von Huysum, JOHN: See HUYSUM, J OHN, VON. V011 Martins: See IVIARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP, voN. Voorhees, DANIEL WOLSEY: U. S. Senator; b. at Liberty, Butler co., C., Sept. 26, 1827 ; graduated at Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) University in 1849 ; was admitted to the bar in 1851; was U. S. district attorney for Indiana 1858-61; defended John E. Cook for participation in the Harper’s Ferry raid 1859; was a Democratic member of Congress 1861-65 and 1869-71. He became U. S. Senator from In- diana in 1877, filling the vacancy caused by the death of Oliver P. Morton. One of his earliest speeches in the Senate was a plea for the free coinage of silver and the preservation of the greenbacks as full legal-tender money. He was re- elected to the Senate i11 1879 (tl1e rival candidate being Benjamin Harrison), 1885, and 1891. Voragine, J ACOBUS, de : See J ACOBUS DE VORAGINE. Vorarlberg, f5-raarl'bareh : extreme western province of Austria, between Switzerland and Tyrol; administratively associated with the latter. Chief town, Bregenz. See TYRoL. Vor'men: one of the principal rivers of Norway. It rises under the name of Lougen in the Less6-Verks-Vand, at an elevation of more than 2,000 feet, flows through the narrow, wild, but beautiful Gudbrandsdale, forms the Lake of Mjiisen, receives then the name of Vormen, and joins the Glommen. Lake Mj6sen, about 80 miles long and 8 miles broad, and situated at an elevation of between 500 and 600 feet, is the scene of some traffic. V01‘0ne.', or Voronetz, V5-r5-nesh’ : a government in the south of ‘reat Russia; on both sides of the Don; area, 25,443 sq. miles. On the southern slopes of the central Rus- sian plateau its surface is hilly in the west, but fiat to the E. of the Don. The soil, rich in black earth, is very fertile, and the climate mild. Voronej is drained by the Don and and its principal tributaries. The former traverses the gov- ernment from N. to S. W. for more than 400 miles, and is the principal channel for the export of grain, cattle, tallow, wool, fruit, skins, and other raw produce. Wood is imported from the north, less than one-tenth of the area being for- ested. The chief articles of manufacture are spirits, oil, sugar, woolens, and tallow. Cattle, sheep, and especially horses of excellent breed are largely raised. Pop. (1890) 2,755,400. Voronej, or Voronetz: capital of the government of Voronej ; on the river of the same name, near its junction with the Don; 365 miles by rail S. of Moscow (see map of Russia, ref. 8-E). It is the seat of a military school and a gymnasium for boys and girls, and has an important theater. Its trade in grain, flax, tallow, hides, wood, and coal by way of the Don and the Moscow Railway to the Sea of Azov is important. Pop. (1892) 56,403. H. S. V'(i'r6s1narty, MIHALYZ poet; b. at Nyék, Hungary, Dec. 1, 1800; d. Nov. 19, 1855. He studied law at Pesth, but early turned to literature. This did not prevent him, how- ever, from taking an ardent and active part in the struggle of Hungary for freedom. He was an eager revolutionist in 1848, and a member of the short-lived National Assembly. Twice he was condemned to death by Austrian tribunals and twice reprieved at the last moment. The failure of the revolution to obtain permanent success nearly broke his heart; he withdrew to his country estate and lon refused even to write. For a brief period before his death, owever, he had recovered somewhat his mental tone, and had begun a translation of Shakespeare, which was left at his death in- complete. His literary work was in many kinds and much of it excellent. His epic narrative Zaldn fatdsa (The Flight of Zalan, 1825) awakened great enthusiasm in Hungary by reason of its patriotic feeling. Of the same character is the shorter epic Eger (1827). As a dramatist he won great ap- plause, though rather by the lyric fervor of his pieces than by their dramatic excellence. Perhaps the best of his plays are King Solomon (1821) and Kent (1825). Many of his minor poems have great beauty, and one among them, the patriotic song Szozat (1845), is almost a national hymn among the Hungarians. A complete edition of his Works, with Life, was edited by Paul Gyulai (10 vols., 1865-66; 2d ed. 12 vols., 1884).‘ A. R. MARSH. Vor'stius, CONRAD: theologian; b. in Cologne, Germany, July 19, 1569; studied theology at Heidelberg; lectured in Geneva; became Professor of Divinity at the Gymnasium VOSMAER of Steinfurt 1596; in 1599 was acquitted of the charge of Socinianism, and in 1610 succeeded Arminius as Professor of Theology at Leyden. He got into controversy with the Gomarists and was deposed in 1612, and solemnly con- demned as a heretic by the Synod of Dort in 1619. He fled from Holland, and lived in concealment until 1622, when the Duke of Holstein offered the Arminians an asylum, but Vorstius died shortly after at T5nningen, Schleswig-Hol- stein, Sept. 29, 1622. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Vos, GEERHARDUS, Ph. D., D.D.: professor of theology; b. at Heerenveen, Netherlands, Mar. 14, 1862; was educated at the Gymnasium of Amsterdam, Seminary of Holland Christian Reformed Church, Grand Rapids, Mich., Prince- ton Theological Seminary, and the Universities of Berlin and Strassburg; was Professor of Theology in Seminary of Holland Christian Reformed Church 1888-94; since 1894 Professor of Biblical Theology in Princeton Seminary. Dr. Vos has published The lllosatc Ore'gz'n of the Pentateuehal Codes (New York, 1886); Die Ktimpfe and Strettighetten zwz'seh_en den Bana U//najja and den Bana Hasohtm oon Tahzjj addtn al-]l[alt‘re'ze:7'j (Arabic dissertation, Leyden, 1888) ; The Doctrine of the Covenants tn Reformed Theology (Grand Rapids, 1891); and The Idea of Biblical Theology as a Sczenoe and as T heologtcal Discipline : Inaugural Ad- dress (New York, 1894). C. K. Hovr. Vos, lVlARTIN, de: painter; b. in Antwerp in 1530; stud- ied painting in his native city under Francis Floris, and in Venice under Tintoretto; formed a school in Antwerp. His best pictures, among which are The Triumph of Christ, Ccesar’s Penny, and St. Luke painting the Portratt of the are in the museum in Antwerp. D. in Antwerp 1n . Vosges, v6zh: department of Eastern France; area, 2,266 sq. miles. The eastern portion of the department is occupied by the Vosges Mountains, which are partly cov- ered with forests of oak, beech, and fir, and partly afford excellent pastures, where large quantities of superior cheese are produced. In the western portion, the, Plaine, wheat, Wine, and fruits are raised. Iron, copper. and silver are mined, and marble is quarried. Pop. (1891) 410,196. Capi- tal, Epinal. ' Vosges Mountains (Germ. Vogesen): a range of moun- tains on the left bank of the Rhine, situated partly in N orth- eastern France, partly in Southwestern Germany, and run- ning parallel with the Black Forest on the opposite side of the Rhine in Baden, which they resemble, not only in direc- tion, but also in form and geological structure. By the de- pression between Montbéliard and Miihlhausen they are sharply separated from the Jura Mountains, and their east- ern slopes toward the plain of the Rhine are steep and abrupt. But to the N. they connect with the Hardt in Rhenish Bavaria, and to the S. W. by the plateau of Langres through the hills of Faucilles. They are generally rounded and of a regular shape. whence they are called ballons, covered with forests of oak, beech, and fir on the sides, and afiording excellent pastures on their tops during the six months of the year in which they have no snow. Ballon de Guebviller, the highest peak, reaches 4,700 feet; Ballon d’Alsace and Ballon de Servance are not much lower. Mineral and thermal springs are numerous, and copper, iron, and lead ores, and rock-salt abound. The Meurthe, Moselle, Saar, Ill, and Ognon descend from them. See Wolff, The Country of the Vosges (1891). Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Vosmaer, v6s’maar, CARELI manof letters; b. at The Hague, Holland, Mar. 20, 1826; d. at Montreux, June 12, 1888. He studied jurisprudence at the University of Ley- den, obtaining the degree of doctor; and was for many years attached to the court of cassation at The Hague. In 1873, however, he resigned, and gave the rest of his life to letters. His first serious production was Eene stadte over het sohoone en de kanst (Amsterdam, 1856), which showed artistic interests later of great importance in his work. His next success, however, was with a series of sketches pub- lished in the periodical lVederland, and collected in 1860 under the title Eentge sohetsen. Of a similar character were Vogels can dtoerse pltmnage (1872); Een Zaater: Stndten over Jlfaltatnlt (1874); and Vlagmaren (3 series; 1879-81-83). The romance of art, Amazone (1880), had very great success and has been translated into several lan- guages (English, by Miss E. J . Irving, London, 1884). In verse also, which Vosmaer employed in his Londtntas VOSS (1873)—impressions of a journey to London—-and Nanno : Eene Griehsche Idylle (1882), he showed delicacy and tech- nical skill of an unusual kind; though, on the whole, the best evidences of his imaginative powers are to be found in his translations of Homer’s Iliad (1878-80) and Odyssey (1888). It is perhaps as a critic and historian of art that Vosmaer will be longest remembered. In this field his most important works are Rembrandt Harmens can Rijn : ses précurseurs et ses années d’apprentissage (1863); Rem- brandt Harmens can Rijn, sa cie et ses ceucres (revision of the receding, 1868; new enlarged ed. 1877); Les aucres de . Unger (1873-78); Frans Hats (1874); Over /aunst schetsen en studit/‘n (1882). A biography of Vosmaer, with bibliography of his works, is given by J. Ten Brink, Ge- schiedenis der Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIXe eeuw (Amsterdam, 1888). A. R. MARSH. Voss, JOHANN HEINRICH: poet and scholar; b. at Som- mersdorf, Mecklenburg, Feb. 20, 1751. The misfortunes of his father compelled him to become a tutor in order to ob- tain means to finish his education, but he nevertheless ac- quired a comprehensive knowledge in classical and modern languages and literaturcs, and had established relations with many of the leaders of German literature, when in 1778 he was appointed rector of the gymnasium at Otten- dorf in Hanover. In 1772 he removed to Eutin, near Lu- beck, as rector of the gymnasium there. From 1802 to 1805 he resided in Jena, where he received a pension from the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar. In 1805 he accepted a chair in Classical Literature at the University of Heidelberg, and here he died Mar. 29, 1826. He had an uncommon mastery of the German language and a fine sense for the formal cor- rectness of verses. His translation of Homer (4 vols., 1793) was the great work of his life. After numerous attempts to translate Homer in verse and prose, which had been made since the time of the humanists, Voss succeeded for the first time in making a classical version of the famous epics, and so great was the influence of his translation that it has frequently been compared with the influence of Luther’s translation of the Bible. His translations of Vir- gil’s Eclogee and Georgica, of Ovid’s ilfetamorphoses, of Hesiod, Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, ete., were less success- ful. His power of imagination and emotion was not great. I-lis translation of Shakspeare, finished by his son (9 vols., 1818-29), is unimpressive, and so are his own poems, col- lected in 4 vols. (1825), though one of them, the idyl Luise, became very popular. His critical works show the same character—-his attack on Heyne, his polemics against Creu- zer, Jllythologische Bricfe (2 vols., 1794), Antisymbolilc (2 vols., 1824-26), etc. They are clear, and rest on solid knowl- edge, but they lack elevation and are singularly unsug- gestive. A striking picture of the man’s noble and open but somewhat circumscribed character is given in his lVie ward Fritz Stolberg ein Unfrcier (1819), which he wrote when his friend Friedrich Stolberg was converted to Roman Catholicism. His letters were published by his son in 3 vols. (1829-33). See W. Herbst, Johann Heinrich Voss -(1876) ; A. W. Schlegel, Werke, 10, 115 ; R. Prutz, Der Grit- tinger Dichterbund. Revised by JULIUS GOEBEL. V0s'sius, GERARD Jormnnssz classical scholar; b. near Heidelberg, Germany, in 1577, of Dutch descent; studied classical languages and literature at Leyden and Dort; was appointed in 1600 rector of the school at Dordrecht, and in 1615 director of the theological school at Leyden, later also Professor of Eloquence at the university, but became entangled in the controversies between the Arminians and Gomarists. Through Archbishop Laud he received a pre- bend in the Cathedral of Canterbury, and in 1629 went to England to be installed, but returned to Holland and was made Professor of History (1631) at the newly founded College of Amsterdam, in which city he died Mar. 27, 1649., Vossius is the polyhistor of Dutch scholars. The most re- markable of his works are Aristarchus sive de Arte Gram- matica (1635; 2 vols., 1834); Etymologicum Linguze La- tince (1662; 2 vols., Naples, 1763); Commentariorum Rhet- -oricorum sive ()ratoriarum Institutionum Libri V J. (1606) ; Ars Rhetorica (1623); De ffistoricis Grcecis Libri IV. (1624; ed. by Westermann, 1838) ; De H istoricis Latinis Libri III. (1627); De Artie Poeticce Natura (1847). His complete works appeared at Amsterdam in 6 vols. (1695-1701). His letters were published in two collections (London, 1690, and Augsburg, 1691). His rich collection of valuable MSS. are in the library of Leyden. See Toll, De Vossio, per- fecto grammatico (Amsterdam, 1778).—His six sons were VOTING-MA CHINES 567 all prominent men, but only the youngest, ISAAC Vossws, survived him. He was born at Leyden in 1618, and received the instruction of his father. In 1648 he went to Stockholm on the invitation of Queen Christina, but fell out with Salmasius, and returned to Holland in 1658. In 1670 he re- moved to England. was made canon of Windsor in 1673 by Charles II., and died there Feb. 21, 1689. His principal works, besides editions of Justin, Catullus, and the geog- raphers Scylax and Mela, are De cera Etate llfundi; De Septuaginta Interpretibus; De S ybillinis aliisque Oraculis; Dc Poematum Cantu ct Viribus Rhythmi; and Variarum Obsercationum Liber. See de Crane, De Vossiorum Junio- rumgue familia (1820). Revised by ALFRED GUDEMAN. Vote [Lat. cotum] : a suffrage; a statement of a choice by an individual who, with others having a like power, thereby renders a decision upon some pending question, or makes a selection of a person for some representative or official posi- tion. Although the terms voting and votes are frequently used in matters connected with the private law—as, for ex- ample, by the stockholders and directors of corporations- the terms are most frequently and significantly employed to describe the means and instruments by which many officials are chosen at public elections and measures are passed in legislative bodies. In Great Britain the voting for members of the House of Commons was for a long time cicd coce. Each voter came up to the polling-place or booth, and cast his vote by naming aloud the candidate or candidates of his choice; and the names thus announced were immediately registered in the polling-book. This method was long up- held as being peculiarly in harmony with the English char- acter, but it plainly subjected tenantry and others to an enormous political pressure from their superiors and land- lords. Parliament finally abolished the whole system, ex- cept for the parliamentary elections in the universities, and introduced the ballot by the statute of 35 and 36 Vict., ch. 33, § 2 (1872), which goes to the very opposite extreme, and prescribes very minute and careful provisions for rendering the votes absolutely secret. At an early day after the adop- tion of the U. S. Constitution the cicd-coce vote existed in a few of the States, but the ballot has long been established in the U. S., and now prevails in all elections, national, State, and municipal. (For an account of the means to insure se- crecy and prevent fraud in voting, see the articles BALLOT REFORM and VOTING-MACHINES.) Another common and im- portant species of vote is that used for the determination of questions—-and especially for the passage of bills—in legis- lative assemblies. In the British House of Commons, in the U. S. Congress, and in all the State Legislatures the votes must be given by the members personally while present at a session, but in the British House of Lords votes by proxy are permitted. There are three forms of the legislative vote—by a rising and count, by a collective and simultane- ous utterance of the ay or no, and by a call of the roll, each member responding “ ay ” or “ no” when called, so that his name and response may be entered on the records. The U. S. constitutions, statutes, and parliamentary rules contain spe- cial provisions by which the latter form may or must be re- sorted to in the decision of certain classes of questions. and especially in the final passage of bills. Stockholders of cor- porations are generally permitted to vote by proxy in the election of trustees or directors and in the determination of other matters left to them by the charters. For an account of the methods of voting by which minority representation can be secured, see the article REPRESENTATION. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Voting-machines: contrivances by which voters may mechanically record their choice of candidates, and which usually also automatically count the votes. The introduc- tion of practical voting-machines was an outcome of the general movement for ballot reform. which seeks independ- ence and secrecy for the voter, and the prevention of fraud in casting and counting votes. The Australian ballot sys- tem has done much toward accomplishing all these results, but still further improvements appear to be possible by machine voting. Moreover, the habit of independence in voting which has been developed by the Australian system has itself generated the need for further improvement of voting methods. The separate marking of names, especially where a “split ” ticket is cast, is far less simple and rapid than casting a straight party ballot. Machines help to sim ilify and shorten the process. T e general principle underlying the several machines in actual use is that of recording or registering votes for 568 candidates by pressing buttons, the names of all the candi- dates being displayed upon a face-plate, corresponding in ar- rangement to a blanket ballot (for description of which see BALLOT Rnronm). Ballot-machines can be adapted to all the variations in form of which the blanket ballot is capable. Chief Advantages.—The following are the chief advan- tages which, attained by different devices in the various machines, are secured by mechanical voting: (1) Independ- ence. The voter may be required to indicate his choice for each oflice separately, and the names being all before him, it is as easy to cast a split ticket as a straight one; in other words, the machine has all the advantages of the blanket ballot in this regard. It may of course be arranged, if desired, so that pushing a single button casts a full party ticket, but this is not usual. (2) Secrecy. No one can tell what vote the person is casting at the time, nor can his bal- lot be afterward identified. This last has not always been accomplished by the secret paper ballots, as marks are some- times made upon them by which they may be identified in the canvass, so that a bribed voter can give evidence of keeping his contract. (3) Simplicity of voting. Pushing a button is a simpler and 1nore definite act than marking with a pencil. The voter can not by mistake vote for two candi- dates for the same office, or so mark his vote that his inten- tion is doubtful, as often happens with the paper ballot. There is no need of writing or pasting in names, as in the separate party ballot system. If the voter is illiterate or needs time to decide upon his vote, he can, before voting, study the chart corresponding to the face of the ballot-ma- chine, which is usually posted outside the poll. A voter who can not read may, by determining the relative location of the names, be sure of voting for the men he desires. Symbols or colors may be used to designate parties, as with the blanket ballot. (4) Impossibility of multiple voting. Mechanical devices prevent the casting of more than one vote by the same man, or render possible in canvassing its immediate detection. (5) Rapidity of voting. (6) Cheap- ness, saving largely, as it does, the cost of ballots and reduc- ing the amount of clerical work, as well as other expenses. (7) Simplicity and rapidity of counting. Canvassing under the Australian system is very complicated and slow. By the machines the votes for each candidate are automatically registered by serial numbers, so that the total can be read instantly, or they are all recorded in a row and can be rapidly counted. (8) Impossibility of fraud in counting. The complex- ity of the blanket paper ballot often renders it possible for cor- rupt election officers dexterously . to change the count. This is probably impossible with the ma- chines. Types of ]lIachines.—The use of three types of voting-machines has already received legislative sanction in different States. Oth- ers have been devised, but have obtained no general attention. The Myers American ballot-ma- chine was perhaps the first to claim public interest. lt has been employed especially in New York State, where its use was first legal- izcd in 1892. It consists of a small room or cabinet to conceal the voter, on one wall of which are the names of the candidates, with a push-knob opposite each. The names are arranged vertical- ly according to parties, and hori- zontally according to offices, pre- cisely as in a blanket ballot. By pushing a knob the voter makes one count for the desired candi- date on the automatic register on the other side of the partition wall. By means of levers the pushing of one knob locks the knobs for all candidates for that office, but they are automatically set free by the closing of the door when the voter leaves the compartment. On opening the door which covers the back of the partition the result can FIG 1.-McTammany voting- machine. VOTING—MACHIN ES at once he read off. A further description of the Myers bal- lot-machine, with illustrations, is given in the article BAL- LOT REFORM. . The McTammany ballot-machine is made in Massachu- setts, and its use was authorized by that State in 1893. It is much smaller than the Myers machine, consisting of a. vertical steel box 14 inches square and 5 inches doe , fast- ened on a standard. Though the machine is in fu 1 view the ballot is secret. There is one slot on the face for each oflice only. Underneath this slot is a sliding card bearing the names of the candidates for that oflice, only one name being visible at a time. By turning a hand - wheel the voter brings into view the name of the desired can- didate for each _, office, and then \ pushes a knob, i:,“\ ‘ making a hole in '~ the proper col- ' umn on the tally- I ... 1"ii!lllE’: lljlt I 1 .\~ l",| -filiifl Hllll i ll —~...._.._ sheet. When the _-. "Oterhas finlshed, FIG. 2.—McTammany ballotcounter. an offi cer by means of a lever moves the tally-sheet forward, ready for the next voter. The vote for each candidate can be ascer- tained by counting personally the punches under his name ;. or the roll containing the tally can be placed in a mechani- cal ballot-counter, and, by turning the handle till the sheet. is unwound, the vote for all the candidates will be auto- matically counted. It is evident that this machine, as now in use, is specially adapted to Massachusetts and other States having an educational suffrage qualification, as the voter must be able to read the names of the candidates. This corresponds precisely to the form of blanket ballot in use in Massachusetts. The votograph, or American ballot protector and recorder,. formerly known as the Rhines machine, was made legally usable in Michigan in 1893. It is a box with a horizontal face on which the names of the candidates are arranged, as with the Myers machine, by parties and offices. Slips bearing the names are inserted in the push-buttons them- selves. Below are separate tally-rolls for each candidate, with serial numbers printed upon them in a vertical row. Pushing the button places a punch in position for each name desired, so that when all the candidates have been selected the closing of the machine lid puts a hole through the proper number on each roll. Mistakes can thus be corrected before closing the lid. 'When the election is over each roll is cut off ten numbers below the last one punched, so that it may be evident that it has not been di- vided in the midst of the votes. Over these blank numbers the elec- tion officers sign their names. The tally-sheet for each candidate will then appear as in the diagram. 190 H Considering their recent inven- tion, the extent to which voting- machines are in actual use is natu- l rally com aratively slight. In no State ha they been universally employed in the year 1895; nor was their use compulsory for any jurisdiction, but several States had SHERIFF John Smith made it a matter of local option. % 1 7 New York in 1892 authorized any 52- 5/ town to adopt the Myers machine W 198/ 74 for town elections, and in 1894 per- 1 99 mitted counties and cities, save 200 New York and Brooklyn, to adopt it in both local and State elections. There was some doubt as to whether machine voting was voting “ by ballot,” and accordingly constitutional; and though no case was brought in the courts, the constitutional convention of 1894 inserted an FIG. 3.-Votograph tally- roll. VOUCHER amendment providing for the lawful use of any machine- voting system that secured the secrecy of the ballot. A similar constitutional amendment has been adopted in Del- aware. Massachusetts has authorized towns to use the McTammany machine for local elections. Michigan per- mits the use of the Rhines votograph or of the Myers ma- chine for town and city elections. Connecticut in 1895 legalized the use of either the McTammany or the Myers machine for local elections. E. DANA DURAND. Voucher [from O. Fr. voucher, ooeher < Lat. ooea're, call] : in the ancient common law, a term denoting a pecul- iar proceeding in an action brought to recover land, where- by the defendant “ vouched,” or summoned, his own grantor or lessor, who had warranted the title, to appear and de- fend his title against the attacks of the plaintiff. The de- fendant thus calling in his predecessor to defend the suit was also named the voucher, while the party summoned was styled the vouchee. This special process and the names belonging to it have been abrogated by the modern amendments made in the system of legal procedure. The term also denot-es—and this is now its ordinary signification ——any written memorandum, receipt, discharge, or evidence of the payment of money, and also the books of account in which are entered such payments and receipts, used in ac- tions or other proceedings for the judicial settlement of ac- counts. Every writing showing the payment of money by the person whose accounts are investigated, and which there- by strengthens or even supplies the place of the oral testi- mony, is a voucher. People vs. Green, 5 Daly (N. Y.) 194. Revised by FRANCIS M. BURDICK. Vouet. voo’5/, SIMON: ainter; b. in Paris, J an. 9, 1582; son and pupil of Laurent ouet. He went to London when only fourteen years of age, already proficient in his art and able to earn his living. In 1611 he was taken by the Baron de Saucy, ambassador to the Sublime Porte, to Constantino- le, where he received many commissions. He went to Venice in 1612 and studied the works of Paolo Veronese, and assed some time in Rome and Genoa. He was re- ceive with honor in both cities and named president of the Roman Academy. Louis XIII. recalled him to Paris and appointed him court painter. Vouet did much to advance the progress of art in France. Among his pupils were the Lebruns, Lesueur, and Mignard. D. in Paris, June, 30, 1649. For further information, see The Historic Gallery of Por- traits (vol. iv., London, 1807). W. J . STILLMAN. Vourla: town ; in Asia Minor, vilayet of Smyrna, on the south side of the Gulf of Smyrna. It exports large quantities of raisins and olives. Its excellent harbor, formed by the eninsula and the islands of Ourlac, is a favorite station of IEuropean men-of-war. The town occupies the site of an- cient Clazomenze, whose inhabitants, on the approach of Alexander the Great, removed to one of the Ourlac islands. The causeway, built out by the monarch to capture the city, still exists, and has become a sandy isthmus. Between Vourla and Smyrna there are numerous warm springs much used for bathing. Pop. 25,000. E. A. GROSVENOR. Voussoir: one of the ring-stones of an arch, the central one being the keystone. See ARCH. Vowel: See Consomur and Pnoxrrrrcs, as well as the articles on the letters A, E, I, O, U, and Y. Voy'sey. CHARLES; clergyman; b. in London, England, Mar. 18, 1828; educated at Stockwell Grammar School; graduated at St. Edmund Hall, Oxford. 1851; took orders in the Church of England ; was curate of Hessle, near Hull, 1852-59, of Craigton, Jamaica, 1860—61: became incumbent of St. Mark’s, Whitechapel, London, 1861; was ejected in consequence of having preached a sermon against the doc- trine of endless punishment; held for a short time the eu- racy of Victoria Dock parish, London, and became vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, 1864. He began in 1865 the publica- tion of The Sling and the Stone in monthly parts. each con- sisting of two sermons, and continued the series until 1871. In consequence of these sermons containing opinions which were held to be inconsistent with the Thirty-nine Articles, Mr. Voysey was prosecuted in the chancery court of York minster by the secretary of the Archbishop of York. De- cision having been pronounced against him Dec. 1, 1869, he appealed to the judicial committee of the privy council, which confirmed the decision and sentenced the a ellant to be deprived of his living and to pay the costs ( *eb. 11, 1871), giving him, however, a week in which to retract his opinions. Since that date Mr. Voysey has preached and VULGATE 569 lectured upon his own responsibility in halls in London, and since Apr., 1885, at the Theistic Church, Swallow Street, Piccadilly, being supported by the Voysey Establishment Fund, to which there were numerous and wealthy sub- scribers. His sermons, which were increasingly “ heretical” in their tone, were printed weekly and had a wide circula- tion. He published some controversial pamphlets, and con- ducted for a few months in 1876 the Langham .Magaze'ne, an organ of free religious thought which had but a brief existence. He has written The Mystery of Pain. Death, and Sin, and Therlsm, or the Religion of Common Sense. Revised by W. S. PERRY. Vuillefroy, viil’frwaa’. DOMINIQUE FELIX, de : animal and landscape painter; b. in Paris, Mar. 2, 1841; pupil of Hébert and Bonnat; received a medal at the Salon of 1870, a second-class medal in 1875, and a first-class medal at the Paris Exposition of 1889; became a member of the Legion of Honor in 1880. The Return of the Herd (1880) and In the Jlfearlows (1883) are in the Luxembourg Gallery, Paris. Vuillefroy’s work is virile in style and of excellent technical quality. W. A. C Vulcan (Lat. Vulea/nus): in Roman mythology. the god of fire, whether conceived of as a beneficent or as a dev- astating agent. and of those arts which depend on the use of fire. The principal celebration in the worship of the god was the Volcanalia, on Aug. 23. In course of time Vul- can became completely identified-—in literature and art at least—with the Greek god Hnrnazsros (q. 7).). G. L. H. Vulcan [named from Vulcan, the god of fire]: a planet supposed to be revolving around the sun, within the orbit of Mercury. About 1859 Leverrier announced that a certain motion of the perihelion of the orbit of Mercury could be accounted for by the existence of another planet still nearer the sun, even as the perturbations of Saturn had enabled him to discover the planet Neptune. The planet has been looked for on many occasions, especially during total eclipses of the sun, and some astronomers have believed that they saw it. But it is now fairly well settled that the supposed planet has no real existence, so well settled, in fact, that the ques- tion no longer appears in astronomical literature‘. S. N EWCOMB. Vulcanite and Vulcanization: See Iivnrx-RUBBER and DENTISTRY. Vulca' no. or Volcano: the southernmost of the Lipari or ZEolian islands; in the Mediterranean Sea; in lat. 38“ 22’ N., lon. 15° 0' E.; 12 miles off the northern coast of Sicily. It is '7 miles long and 3 miles broad, and contains. nearly in the center, a crater nearly 1,200 feet high and about one- fourth of a mile in circumference. which constantly emits smoke and vapors charged with sulphur, ammonia, vitriol, and alum. The southern part of the island is very fertile, and produces excellent grain, grapes, fruit, and flax. The interior is sterile, and on the northern side the island is con- nected by a row of low rocks with the Vulcanello, a minor crater, likewise emitting smoke and vapors. The eruptions of V ulcano (of which there was one in 1888) alternate with those of Stromboli. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Vulgar Fractions: See FRACTIONS. Vulgate [from Late Lat. rulga'z‘a (sc. edi’tz'o, edition), liter., fem. perf. partic. of /vnlga’re. rulga'tw/n. make common or popular, deriv. of vnt'gns, common people] : Latin trans- lations of the Bible. The Latin is one of the three oldest versions of the Old Testament. the Greek. the Syriac, and the Latin, and one of the two oldest of the New Testament, the Syriac and the Latin. The history of its origin is lost, but it is certain that it was made in Africa, and in the second century. It would naturally be assumed that it was made in Rome, but at that period the Church in Rome was essen- tially Greek, the Roman bishops bore Greek names, the earliest Roman liturgy was Greek, and the few remains of Roman Christian literature are Greek. The same statements hold true of Gaul. The Church in Africa, however, seems to have spoken Latin from the first. At what exact time this Church was founded is not known, but at the close of the second century Christians were found there in all places and in every rank. Tertullian of Carthage, the first of the Latin Fathers, directly cites or alludes to every part of the New Testament which we now have, except the second and third Epistles of St. J ohn. the second of St. Peter, and St. James. (See H. Ronsch. Dos Nene Testa--ment Terfzzllhrns, Leipzig, 18'?’ 1.) This version, the Vetus Latina, or Old Latin, was preserved generally unchanged in Northern Africa, but 570 when introduced into cultured Italy its provincial rudeness would offend, and the familiarity of the leading bishops there with Greek would make the revision, so likely to take place, easy of accomplishment. Hence in the fourth cen- tury a revision of the Gospels seems to have been made in Northern Italy, and to have been distinguished by the name Jtala, Italian, although scholars are not agreed as to the exact meaning of this term. This version St. Augustine recommends for its accuracy and perspicuity (De Doctr. Christ. ii., 15), and the text of the Gospels as quoted by him, on occasion, in his works bears out his representation; but in the other books the difference can not be traced with ex- actness. The Latin version of the New Testament appears to have arisen from individual and successive efforts; for St. Augustine says that any one in the first ages of Christianity who gained possession of a Greek MS., and thought he had a fair knowledge of Greek and Latin, ventured to translate it. And as the LXX. about B. o. 250 furnished the mould in which the thoughts and expressions of the Greek Testa- ment are cast, so the LXX. may have taken a Latin form for the Latin-speaking Jews, and thus may have made ready a dialect for the Latin version of the New Testament. But however this may have been, there is found, in fact, a sub- stantial similarity between the character of the Old Testa- ment and the New Testament in Latin, and this justifies the belief that there was one Latin version of the Bible current in Africa in the last quarter of the second century. The name Vulgate—that is Vulgata editio, the current text of Holy Scripture—originally answered to the designa- tion of the Greek version of the Old Testament, the sou/9; %'K5oo'¢s. As the vetus versio of the Old Testament was made from the LXX., and in substance identified with it, St. Jerome introduces Latin uotations from the Old Testament under the name of LX . or Vulgata cditio indifferently, and thus this term was transferred from the current Greek to the current Latin of the Old Testament. This use of the expression Vulgata editio continued to later times. It is found in St. Augustine, Ado of Vienne, and in Roger Bacon, and it is recognized even by Bellarmine. The Council of Trent, therefore, historically erred in styling St. Jerome’s Bible Vulgata editio. The Latin Fathers themselves com- monly spoke of St. J erome’s version as nostra versio, our Version, or nostri codices, our books. After the translation received a definite shape in Africa it was jealously guarded by ecclesiastical use, and was re- tained there even when St. J erome’s version was almost uni- versally received elsewhere. But at the same time the text suffered by the natural corruptions of copying and by the interpolation of glosses, especially in the Gospels, and thus the different forms of the text became almost as numerous as the copies. The one remedy for this confusion was to go back to the first form in Greek. St. Jerome had not been long in Rome (A. D. 383), when Pope Damasus applied to him for a revision of the current Latin version of the New Testament by means of the Greek original. St. Jerome undertook the work, and confined himself strictly to the labors of a reviser. In the prosecu- tion of his work he collated early Greek MSS. and intro- duced the necessary changes, but he preserved the old ren- derings where the sense was not injured by it. Some of his alterations were made on purely linguistic grounds, but it is impossible to ascertain on what rules he proceeded; others involved questions of interpretation; the greater number, however, consisted in the removal of the interpolations by which the first three Gospels especially were corrupted. These interpolations must have been far more numerous than are found in existing copies, but instances still occur to show the service he rendered in checking the perpetuation of apocryphal glosses and additions. St. J erome’s Preface, addressed to Damasus, speaks only of a revision of the Gospels; and St. Augustine, writing to St. J erome, alludes to the Gospel, and there is no preface to any other book such as is elsewhere found before St. Je- rome’s versions or editions; but this omission is probably due to the fact that the rest of the New Testament was pre- served comparatively pure. St. Jerome himself enumerates among his works his Restoration of the New Testament to Harmony with the Greek. The old version of the Old Testament was made from the unrevised form of the LXX., and thus included many false readings and other imperfections. Therefore about the same period in which St. Jerome revised the New Testa- ment he put his hand to the Old Testament. He first un- dertook and accomplished a revision of the Psalter. This VULGATE was done with the aid of the LXX.. but not very thorough- ly. It was called the Roman Psalter, probably because made for the use of the Church in Rome at the request of Damasus. Afterward, urged by Paula and Eustochium, he made a new and more careful version in 392, which became very popular, and which Gregory of Tours is said to have introduced into France, hence called the Gallican Psalter. From this work he proceeded to a revision of the rest of the Old Testament by means of the LXX., which he ap- pears to have completed in four or five years. About the year 374 he had begun the study of Hebrew, which he zeal- ously pursued for some years, and about 389 published sev- eral treatises connected with this study. These paved the way for his version of the Old Testament direct from the Hebrew, which he now undertook, and in about 405 seems to have completed. Portions of this. as the books of Solo- mon, Judith, and Tobit, were done in great haste, but the greater part was accomplished successfully. The critical labors of St. Jerome were received with an outburst of reproach. He was accused, as other such la- borers have been, of disturbing the peace of the Church and of undermining the foundations of the ancient faith. Acknowledged errors were looked upon as hallowed by usage, and few had either interest or courage to seek the purest text of Holy Scripture. Even St. Augustine was carried away by popular prejudice and endeavored to dis- courage St. Jerome from his presumptuous work, as it ap- peared to him ; but the improved translation gradually came into use side by side with the old, and at length supplanted it; and this it did without any direct ecclesiastical au- thority. The Latin Bible which thus became current under the name of St. Jerome was a composite work containing ele- ments that belonged to every period and form of the Latin version: (1) Unrevised Old Latin, Wisdom, Eccles., 1 and 2 Maccabees, and Baruch; (2) Old Latin revised from the LXX., the Psalter; (3) St. Jerome’s Translation from the original Greek, Judith, ‘Tobit; (4) St. Jerome’s Transla- tion from the original Hebrew, the Old Testament except the Psalter; (5) Old Latin revised from the Greek origi- nal, the Gospels; (6) Old Latin thus revised cursorily, the rest of the New Testament. The MS. remains of the Old Latin text of the Old Tes- tament are very scanty. There still exist important MSS. of the New Testament: Of the African teat, Oodea; Vercel- lensis, at Vercelli, of the fourth century; Cod. Olaromon- tanus, in the Vatican, of the fourth or fifth century; Ood. Bobiensis, at Turin, of the fifth or sixth century, a remark- able revision of this text; of the Italic text, Cod. Bria;ia- nus and God. lllonacensis, of the sixth century. Of St. Jerome’s teat we have Ood. Amiatinus, at Florence, of the seventh or beginning of eighth century; Cod. Toletanus, now at Madrid, in Gothic letter, of about the tenth century (Berger would date it eighth century); and Cool. Fulden- sis, of the sixth century, containing the New Testament merely. At the invention of the art of printing, St. J erome’s Bible was the first book produced from movable types, about 1455. It was printed again and again by various hands and in va- rious forms, but it was not until the heat of controversy in the sixteenth century exaggerated the differences in the text and in the interpretation that an authorized edition was de- termined on for the Church of Rome. This was undertaken by Pope Sixtus Quintus, and put forth in 1590. Though de- clared by the pontiif authentical and in a manner absolutely perfect, it contained such typographical and other errors as to compel the publication of a second and revised edition in 1592, of another in 1593, and still another in 1598, with a triple list of errata, one for each of the preceding editions. This is the standard of the Vulgate, or Roman Catholic Bible, of the present day. The MS. form of St. Jerome’s Bible—which, upon the whole, stands highest in the estimation of scholars—is the Oodex Amiatinus, mentioned above. The editors employed by Pope Sixtus rightly valued this MS., and in some pas- sages solely or chiefly followed its authority. The portion containing the New Testament has been repeatedl pub- lished, and is easily accessible, as edited by Fleck (1840), common text with the Amiatine variations; by Tisehendorf (1854 and 1873), Amiatine text with learned prolegomena. Facsimiles in Zangemeister and Wattenbach, Ewempla Oodd., lat. pl. 35, and English Palaeographical Society, ii., pl. 65, 66. See also H. T. White, The Codex Amiatinus and its Birth- place in Studia Biblica (ii., p. 273, Oxford, 1890). VULGATE Some specimens of the diction of the Vulgate are sub- joined, under different heads, extending over the first ten chapters of St. Matthew, as given in the Greek and the Latin text of Prof. Tischendorf in his N. T. Triglottum, published in 1854: (1) It preserves the exact order of the original in very many instances. At the opening of the Gospel we find Liber generationis Jesu Christi filii David, filii Abraham. Abraho/m genuit Isaac, Isaac autem genuit Jacob. This follows the Greek word by word: BlfiAos 761/- éaews ’Ino'oz'i XpIo"ro17 vioii Aavl6 viofi ’ABpaoi,u. ’ABpari,u. é'ye'I/- 1/mreu 1-bu ’I¢mdIc, ’Io‘ouluc 6% é'ye’w/ncev rbu ’Iouca'>B. So i11 clauses and phrases: vi. 6, 21‘: 6% 61-av arpocrezix-g, Tu autem cum ora- bis; iv. 22, of 6s’, illi autem. The advantage of following the order of the Greek sometimes appears conspicuously, as in iv. 10, Dominum Deum tuu/m adorabis et illi soli ser- vies-—an order preserved in English only by the Rheims version, and far more forcible than the common order. In iii. 1, ’Ev 6% 1-a'is i7,u.e'pous érceimus is given by In diebus autem illis: here (a) the postpositive particle autem stands for the postpositive 6é, but the Vulgate, faithful to Latin usage, puts it after the noun, not after the preposition, as in the Greek; and (b) the demonstrative follows its noun like the Greek; now, common as this order is in Greek, it is com- paratively rare in Latin, though found in the best writers (Cicero, Livy). But we meet here and there with a departure from the arrangement of the Greek without apparent rea- son: in i. 12,Me1-6: 6% 1-1‘7v /.ie1-omedav is given by Et post trans- migrationem, instead of Post transmigrationem autem; and in ii. 5 and iv. 20, of 6%’ is given by At illi, instead of Illi autem; and this is the more strange, as the stricter form is common in the Vulgate. (2) Many of its renderings are peculiarly exact in sense or form, or both, in reference to the Greek. In i. 11, é1rl rfis ,u.e'rouceo'ias BaBvA6wos, is given by in transmigratione Baby- lonis, which, though unclassieal, as mentioned again below, preserves the euphemism of the Greek Testament and of the LXX. for “ captivity,” and of all our versions, Wycliffe‘s and the Rheims alone have retained it. In ii. 19, Te7\.evr7'7- cam-as 6% T06 'Hp¢66ov, the gen. abs. is exactly given by the abl. abs., Defuncto autem Herode, and so in vi. 3. In iii. 2. Meravoeire is given by Pcenitentiam agite, and this Latin was rendered by Wycliffe “ Do penance,” which the Rheims followed; but, though this English phrase has now, even to the Roman communion, come to mean rather mortifica- tion of the body than sorrow of mind, yet the Latin is a good classical equivalent of the Greek, and is actually found in Petronius, Sat., 132, in Tacitus, De Orat., 15, in Pliny, Ep., vii. 10, and has the express sanction of Quintilian in a critical observation in ix. 3, 12. In iii. 9, M 66§me is given in form by ne velitis, and no is so used in v. 42; vi. 13; vi. 25, while, as mentioned below, the freer and quite classic noli and nolite with the inf. prevails in the Vulgate. In iii. 15, ”A4>es &pn is ingeniously rendered by Sine mode, and in iv. 17, ’A1rb rive by Eosinde (Plaut., Cic., Verg.), and vi. 25, Aid roilro by Ideo. In iv. 16, 6 Aabs 6 K666’/)/LEVOS iS nicely given by populus qui sedebat, who were sitting, and viii. 24, Z6076 1-6 m-Aoiov ua7u51rreo'0ai by ita ut navicula operiretur, was being covered, while the A. V. has " sat,” and “was cov- ered.” In viii. 16, 6aI,u.oI/l§'0/ac’:/ovs is rightly rendered doe- monia habentes, “ possessed with demons,” while all our ver- sions have here “ devils,” as if it were the plural of 6 AwiBo- Aos, the devil; but the plural in this sense nowhere occurs in Holy Scripture; and though “devils” is found also four times in our version of the Old Testament, the Vulgate has likewise dtemonia uniformly there. (3) Certain of its renderings seem more or less inexact or faulty. In i. 20, Taiira 6% aim-06 év5v,u:q6éwros is given by Hwc autem eo cogitante, but this would be the proper rendering of the pres. participle, as is given by the Vulgate in Acts x. 19, while here the proper rendering would have been, Gum autem hcec cogitavisset; we also find the aor. part. of the Greek given by the pres. part. in the Vulgate in i. 24; ii. 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11 bis, 16 bis, 21, 22, 23; iii. 7; iv. 3, 9, 21; v. 1, 2, 24. These instances are enumerated in full, because there is an impression, even among scholars, that our loose use in English of the pres. part. is largely due to the influence of the A. V.; yet against these twenty cases of such loose use in the Vulgate only four can be adduced from the same portion of the A. V., and one of these (iii. 15) is logically right: ’A1ro:qm0els 6% 6 ’Imr0i)s efarev, “ And Jesus answer- ing said.” In ii. 8 the diminutive rracdlou is given by puer, mstead of the dim. puellus, by which the Vulgate always renders this elsewhere, except in Tobit i. 8, where it uses puerulus. 571 (4) Many of its renderings are strictly in accordance with Latin usage, even when this difiers from the Greek. \Ve have the Greek part. given by cum and the subj.: (a) the aor. part., i. 18, Mzmareveeians yap rfis ,um-p6s, Cum esset cle- sponsata mater, and so ii. 1, 9, 13, 19; iv. 2, 12; v. 1; (b) the pres. part., i. 19. 6hcaws 861/, cum esset justus. We have the Greek aor. part. given by the abl. abs.: K¢1?\.€l0‘as‘ robs udyovs, vocatis magis; so ii. 11, 12; iv. 13. 22; vi. 6. In i. 20, ,ui7 ¢0Bn6fis is given by the idiomatic noli timere ; so v. 17; vi. 2, 7, 8, 19, 31, 34, but in iii. 9, as said above, and elsewhere, we find the Greek form imitated, ne velitis. In iv. 1 we have weipaabfivai, denoting a purpose, rendered by ut temptaretur, and in iii. 13, rm’) ,8a1m-Io'§h"7z/at by ut baptizare- tur, though, as illustrated below, the Greek inf. of purpose the Vulgate commonly gives by an inf. (5) It not u/nfreguently gives literal renderings from the Greek in violation of the Latin idiom. In i. 11, éarl rfis ,u.e'romea'ias BaBvAZ‘n/as is given by in transmigratione Baby- lonis, for cum Babylona commigrassent (Liv.); iii. 8,1roI'r’]— a'a're——Kap1r Ziprq: /zdvq:—-&7\2\’ év 1raz/Tl fl’/7/Lari, non in pane solo—sed in omni verbo, for the simple abl., pane—verbo ; so v. 13, 28; vi. 7; iv. 19, A661-e bvriaw ,u.ov, Venite post me, for Seguimini me. (6) It employs some words, forms, and hrases of very un- usual, but still of authorized Latin. £1 i. 19 al’1"l'i)u 6ery- ,u.orrio'aL, eam traduce-re: this verb is so used by Livy and Martial; ib. c’ura}\6o'aI ou’1'ri)1/, dimittere eam: this is an early and late phrase, being found in Plautus and Suetonius; ii. 16, éwrb 6:61-oils, a bimatu: this noun is used by Varro and Pliny : v. 13, £611 6% T6 ébtas ,uwpaz/515, si sal evanuerit: Cic., in Div., ii. 17, says, salsamentum (the brine) vetustate evanuit; v. 43. /.ua'7'7¢Te:s -rbv e’;¢8p6v crov, odio habebis inimicum tuum: a phrase used by Plautus; v. 45 firms yévnode, ut sitis, for ut fiatis: esse is so used in Cic., De Ofii, i. 11, and elsewhere. (7) It employs some words and phrases quite une./sampled in Early or Classical Latin, and found only in Ecclesias- tical and Later Latin. In iii. 12. 6iaKa6apieI, permundabit: only Later Latin for purgabit; iv. 2, I/170-1-do-as, cum jeju- nasset: only ecclesiastical for cum _y'ejunus fuisset ; iv. 10, "'I‘7ra7e, Vade: only poetic and used in the sense of “Go!” for Apage, Abi hinc. (8) In the use of particles it commonly follows classical usage, even in nice points. In iii. 11, /.46’:/—6e', guidem-au- tem : employed by Cicero occasionally, and as if in imitation of the Greek formula; v. 13, ééw 6e’. quod si : used by the purest writers; 6e’ is regularly given by autem, and mi by et, but 6e’, resumptive, in ii. 1 is well given by ergo. (9) Some of its uses of particles are uncommon, others un- 8fZ7(.t77?}7l6d. In V. 29, o'v,uqbe’peI—o'ol ‘[1/a.—rcal p:h, G.’I‘_PEdiL‘ Ifibi uz‘-guam, as now and then in Tacitus. for magis quam; vi, 14. édu-é&v 6e’, si—si autem for si—-sin or sin autem; v. 12, Xaipere—6n. Gaudete-guoniam. for guod, guia, or cum; vi. 29, 066% Eo7lo,u.é‘>v, nee Salamon, for ne Salamon quidem; nor is the familiar classical ne-—qu/idem known to the Vulgate New Testament any more than our familiar not even is known to the Authorized Version of the New Testament, except once in a question (1 Cor. xi. 14); nec—guidem, how- ever, is found in 1 Cor. iii. 2, and ne—guidem in the Vulgate Old Testament. One of the most remarkable peculiarities of the diction of the Vulgate remains to be noticed under this head. It is well known that verbs of hearing, saying, thinking, ete., are construed in Greek sometimes with 57!, “ that,” and a finite verb, and sometimes with the ace. and the inf.; while in Latin the latter is the regular construc- tion. But besides its objective meaning, “ that,” 6'7: has, according to its context, a causal force, ~‘because.” The Vulgate, to preserve the exact form of the Greek, commonly construes these verbs with a particle, but, as if taking the wrong meaning of 61-1, renders, for example, in ii. 22, Eucobaas 3'1’! by audiens quia; so v. 21,27, 33, 38, 43; in ii. 16, c’6cl;v 67¢ by videns guoniam. There are at least fifteen similar examples of this use of quia and quoniam in ii.-vi. And in all this portion we find quod used only once in this relation. though at certain periods of the language and in certain cases this particle alone stood in such relation; that one instance is in iv. 12, where ’A:coz5cras 6% 611 is rendered Cum audisset quod. 572 VULGATE (10) In the use of the moods it generally conforms to clas- sical usage. Omitting illustrations of this conformity, the exceptions to this rule are as follows: In ii. 2, 1’7’A§ro,ueu Irpocmvvfiom abrqb‘, venimus adorare eum: only a poetic con- struction for ut adoremus, and so v. 17 ; viii. 29; ix. 13; X. 34, 35 ; in iii. 11, eZ,u.l ircax/6s—— Ba0"Toi0'aI, sum dignus portare : also poetic for sum dignus gui portem ; in iv. 19, 1TOL'l/1010 1‘)/a&s rir.MeTs &z/Srpdnrwu, faciam vos fieri piscatores hominum: rare, but found in Varro and Sallust for faciam ut, etc. ; in three instances the subjunctive is strangely used after certain par- ticles: ii. 16, videns guoniam inlusus esset; ii. 22, audiens guia regnaret; and iv. 12, Cum audisset guod Johannes traditus esset. ‘ Such are some of the characteristics of the Vulgate ap- pearing from an examination of a portion of one of the Gospels. Its excellences are great and marvelous, and even its defects, generally arising from a scrupulous desire to keep close to the side of the sacred original, often suggest or confirm points of the gravest importance. Prof. Lach- mann, Prof. Tischendorf, and Dr. Tregelles, the three great- est names connected with the textual criticism of the Greek Testament in recent times, adopting the view of the learned Bentley, regarded the Latin in the purest and most ancient forms as the most important witness to the integrity of the New Testament next to the Greek MSS., nor did they fail to observe that the Latin in some phases goes back to a pe- riod which no Greek MS. now extant represents. The Vulgate is to a degree not generally understood the venerable parent of our own translation, the Authorized Version. The history of the English Bible begins with Wycliffe, and the Wycliffite version, as it is now more strict- ly called, was made directly from the Vulgate. All the par- tial and preliminary versions also of Caedmon, Aldhelm, Bede, and others, it is to be remembered, were made directly from copies of the Vulgate. The influence of the Wycliflite version, representing the whole Vulgate, has been great and constant on all the subsequent English versions and revi- sions, furnishing apt and established words and phrases, which the new translators and revisers were neither willing nor able to lay aside. The above indicates our indebtedness to the Vulgate in general. To be more particular, when the Vulgate was turned into its earliest English form, the Anglo-Saxon ver- sion, it was hardly possible that this act should not have greatly modified our language by introducing new words, mostly religious, and by giving us new forms of construc- tion; and again, this work would be carried further by the Wycliflite version, and was perhaps nearly consummated in the Rheims, the last great version that preceded our own. Our Christian nomenclature itself has thus in great measure been furnished to us by the Vulgate, and many of these precious words were either invented in Latin or there first used in their higher and spiritual sense; such as regenera- tion, conversion, justification. sanctification, predestination, election, propitiation, reconciliation, Saviour, salvation, Re- deemer, redemption, Jliediator, Spirit, cross, faith, grace, revelation, inspiration, Scripture, Testament, communion, orders, congregation; some words are Greek, but given to us through the Latin, as baptism. Paraclete, and presbyter or priest; while some were coined in Latin to copy the Greek, as transgress from transgredior, in imitation of 1rapa,8ai1/w. I If we say, as we may with truth, that Christianity in the first instance was received in the Greek language and through Greek thought, we may surely say that it was adopted in Europe chiefly in Latin forms: and the influence of the Vulgate upon the religious language, thought, and culture of Europe can hardly be overestimated. See Canon West- cott, The Vulgate, in Smith’s Dictionam ; Dr. Tregelles, I-Iorne’s Introduction to the Scriptures, vol. iv.; F. H. A. Scrivener, A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament, 4th ed. edited by E. Miller (London, 1894), vol. ii., c. iii., pp. 43-90; Two Letters on 1 John v. 7 (Discussion of N. African Latin), Card. Wiseman, Essays (vol. i., 1853); Kaulen, Geschichte der Vulgata (Mayence, 1868); Riinsch, Itala und Vulgata (Marburg, 1875) ; Riinsch, Das lVeue Tes- tament Tertullians (Leipzig, 1871); Ziegler, Itala-fragmente (1876 ; T. K. Abbot, Evangeliorum versio antehieronymiana co: co ice Usheriano, accedit versio vulgata secundum codicem Amiatinum (2 vols., Dublin, 1884) ; S. Berger, Histoire de la Vulgate pendant les premiers siecles du moyen age (Paris, 1893); W. A. Copinger, Incunabula Biblica, or The first VYATKA half century of the Latin Bible, being a bibliographical ac- count of the various editions of the Latin Bible between 14.50 and 1500 (London, 1892); J , Wordswortli and H. J . White, N ovum Testamentum secundum editionem sancti Hieronymi (Oxford, 1889-95-—four parts, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and J ohn-—have appeared); Sabatier, Bibliorum sacr. Latince versiones Ant. seu Vetus Italica, etc. (3 vols., Rheims, 1743- 49). A revised edition of this great work for the Old Testa- ment is in course of preparation under the auspices of the Munich Academy, and the superintendence of Prof. E. \V5lif- lin. See also E. Nestle’s Ein Jubildum der Lateinischen Bibel (Tiibingen, 1892). CHARLES SHORT. Revised by M. WARREN. Vul'pius, CHRISTIAN AUGUST: author; b. at Weimar, Germany, J an. 23, 1762; studied at Jena and Erlangen; re- ceived an ap ointment at the library in Weimar in 1797. D. in Weimar, une 26, 1827. He wrote a great multitude of operas, romantic dramas, romances, tales, etc., and edited Curiositdten derphysisch-litterarisch-artistisch-historischen Vor- und Jflitwelt (10 vols., 1810-23), and Die Vorzeit (4 vols., 1817-21), which contain some interesting materials. One of his original works became very famous—Rinaldo Rinaldini, der Rduberhauptmann (1797). It was republished over and over again, translated into many foreign languages, and imi- tated by all the scribblers of Europe. It is still of interest to the student, showing whither the imagination of that age liked to wander when it was unoccupied by real business and uncultivated by true art, making evident, besides, how lim- ited the popularity of men like Goethe, Schiller, and Herder at that time must have been.—His sister, J oHANNA CHRIS- TIANE SOPHIE VULPIUS, b. at Weimar, June 1, 1765, met Goethe for the first time in the summer of 1788, when she addressed him in the park of Weimar, in order to present a petition to him ; removed shortly after into his house; bore him a son, August von Goethe, Dec. 25, 1789, and was offi- cially married to him Oct. 19,1806, a few days after the battle of Jena. Goethe chose this time in order to attract as little attention to the affair as ossible, since he had always considered her his lawful wife. VVhile for a long time Christiane had to suffer from the malicious gossip that became current in Weimar, and was repeated even in biographies of Goethe, recent publications have proved that the poet’s relations to her were of a most tender nature, and that she was an excellent wife and mother. When she died (June 6, 1816), Goethe mourned her sincerely, and she was spoken of with kindness and with respect by all his friends. See E. Brauns, Christiane v. Goethe (1881); K. Heinemann, Goethe’s Iklutter (1892); Schriften der Goethe- gesellschaft, iv. (1889). Revised by JULIUS GOEREL. Vulture [via 0. Fr. from Lat. vul'tur; cf. vel’lere, vul- sum, pluck, tear out] : any one of those birds of prey which have the head bare and feed on carrion. The vultures of the Old \World and those of the New were, until recently, considered as nearly related, but the former belong in the family Falconidae, while the latter form a separate family, Cathartidce, which contains such birds as the CONDOR, KING— VULTURE, and TURKEY-BUZZARD (qg. v.). The true vultures, like the other Falconidce, have a bony portion, or septum, separating the nostrils, and are considered as divisible into several genera—viz., Vultur, Gyps, Pseudogyps. Otogyps, Lophogyps, and Neophron. These essentially agree in hab- its, living for the most part on dead animal matter, and even appearing to prefer that which is putrescent, although not confining themselves to such. When an animal has died the carcass is soon discovered by these birds, and they fly from all points of the compass. After eating to satiety they rest in a lethargic manner near the remains of the carcass, and are scarcely able to fly, and when disturbed generally vomit their ingesta before they are able to take to wing. They are birds of bold flight and soar high in the air, scan- ning the ground in search of food, which they find much more by the sense of sight than by that of smell. They are particularly inhabitants of the tropical and warmer parts of Asia and Africa, but some species occur in Southern Europe, notably the griifon vulture (Gyps fulvus), the ty ical species of the group and one of the largest. It is, as t Ie scientific name implies, of a fulvous ash color, with a rufl° of soft white feathers; the primaries and tail are brownish black. The length is about 3% feet, spread of wing 6 or 7 feet. See also BRUSH-TURKEY and EGYPTIAN VULTURE. F. A. LUCAS. Vyatka: See VIATKA. W : the twenty-third letter of the English alphabet. Form.—The form W is a ligature re- sulting from the doubling of V. This device was first employed in mediaeval times to express with Latin letters the value of Germ. consonant -’Ll (: w), and was continued in the writing of German loan-words by those Old French dialects which preserved the sound; thence it passed into the Middle English orthog- raphy, displacing the Old English symbol wén (P). The use of an was also known in the oldest O. Eng. texts. Name.—The name “double-ii,” which has displaced the older wén since the fifteenth or sixteenth century, is de- scriptive of the appearance of the symbol. It of course ante- dates the differentiation of V and U. S0nnd.—It denotes in general the consonant form of it (00), being characterized by the high-back position of the tongue and lip-rounding. After initial s, t, h, it is voice- less, as in swell, twenty, what (for hwat), wh being a sign for voiceless w. The same sound is denoted by it after 9, as in question, quality, quack. The letter is silent before r, as in wreck, wrong, and in sword, toward, answer, two, who, whoop, whole, whose, Greenwich, etc. Sonrce.——(1) Teutonic w < Indo-Europ. gt; wolf : Sanskr. 'v7"ha- : Gr. (F)Az5:cos; word: Lat. cerbnm : Lith. cardas. (2) Teuton. jw < Indo-Europ. c[ before the accent, or gh; saw : Lat. seqnor; snow : Goth. snaiws < Indo-Europ. snoi hos > Gr. vigba, Lat. nivem. (3) wh < Teuton. hw < Indo- urop. <[ ; wheel < O. Eng. hwéol : Sanskr. cahrcZ- : Gr. rczltcitos. (4) In a few loan-words, as from Latin (early) wine (vinnm), wall (vallnm), -wick (vicus); Amer. Ind. wampum, wigwam; Celtic welt, whisky. BENJ. IDE WHEELER. Waagen, raa’gen, GUsTAv FRIEDRICH: critic and writer on art; b. in Hamburg, Germany, Feb. 11, 1794; was edu- cated in Silesia, whither his father, a painter of some reputa- tion, had removed in 1807 ; made the campaigns of 1813-14 as a volunteer; studied art subsequently under the influence of Ludwig Tieck, a relative of his, at Breslau, Dresden, Heidel- berg, and Munich; was appointed director of the picture- gallery of the Museum of Berlin in 1830; became Professor of the History of Art at the University of Berlin in 1844. His princi al works are Knnstwerhe and Kiinstler in Eng- land and Paris (3 vols., Berlin, 1837-39), of which a much enlarged edition of the English part, Treasures of Art in Great Britain, appeared in 3 vols. in 1854, and a supple- ment in 1857; Knntswerlce and Kilnstler in Deutschland (2 vols., Leipzig, 1843-45); Die Gemdldesammlnng der kaiser- lichen Eremitage in St. Petersbwrg (Munich, 1864); Die oornehmsten Knnstdenhmdler in lVien (2 vols., Vienna, 1866-67). D. in Copenhagen, Denmark, July 15, 1868. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Waahoo: See SPINDLE-TREE FAMILY. Waal: river of the Netherlands: one of the principal arms of the Rhine; thrown off near the village of Tanner- den, whence it flows past Nymwegen, Tiel, Nieuw-St.-An- dries, joins the Maas, and then receives the name of Mer- wede. The Merwede passes by Gorinchen and Dordrecht, and becomes the Oude, or Old Maas. Wabash, waw’b£tsh: city; capital of \Vabash co., Ind.; on the Wabash river, and the Ft. VVa_vne, Cin. and Louisv. Railroad ; 30 miles E. of Logansport and 42 miles W. S. W. of Fort Wayne (for location. see map of Indiana, ref. 4-F). It is i11 an agricultural region, and has high and grammar schools, 2 national banks with combined capital of $195,000, a private bank, a daily, at monthly, and 3 weekly periodicals, railway repair and machine shops, woolen, flour, paper, and oil mills, planing-mills, shoe and hat shops, and carriage and spoke factories. Pop. (1880) 3,800; (1890) 5.105; (1895) estimated, 8,200. EDITOR or “PLAIN DEALER.” Wabasha, waw’b:i.sh-aw: city; capital of Wabasha co., Minn. ; on the Mississippi river, and the Chi.. Mil. and St. P. Railway; 30 miles E. S. E. of Red I/Ving and 33 miles N. N. W. of Winona (for location, see 1nap of Minnesota, ref. 10-G). It is 3 miles below Lake Pepin; is an important grain-mar- ket and trade center: and has 4 churches, court-house (cost $40,000), a national bank with capital of $50,000, a State bank with capital of $30,000. 2 weekly papers, foundry, rail- way machine-shop, church-furniture factory, roller flour- mill. oatmeal-mill. boat-yard, soap-works, and large lumber interests. Pop. (1880) 2,088: (1890) 2,487; (1895) estimated, 3,000. Emroa or “ WABAsIIA COUNTY HERALD.” Wabash College: an institution of learning at Crawfords- ville, Ind., founded in 1832; non-sectarian, but in close affili- ation with the Presbyterian Church. The college grounds comprise 33 acres. There are five large college buildings; a museum in which are collections of minerals and botanical, geological. and archaeological specimens. and laboratories for the study of biology. geology, and other branches of science; Center Hall, containing the chapel, also recitation and society rooms; Peck Hall, with extensive laboratories for the study of physics and chemistry; and Yandes Library Hall, containing 33,000 volumes. The college offers three courses, leading to the degrees A. B., Ph. B., and B. S. In 1895 there were 16 professors, 11 assistants. and 270 students. George S. Burroughs, Ph. D., LL. D., was inaugurated presi- dent June 21, 1893. The amount of invested funds is nearly $500,000. G. S. BURROUGHS. Wabash River: a river which rises in Grand Reservoir, Mercer County, O.; flows at first N. to VVabash city, where it receives Big Beaver river; turning N. W., it sweeps in a devious course across Indiana, and during the last 120 miles of its course forms the boundary between that State and Illinois. It is the largest northern tributary of the Ohio. It has been navigated at high water by steamboats as far as Lafayette, Ind. ; and from Terre Haute to Huntington. Ind., it is followed by the Wabash and Erie Canal. Length, 550 miles; area of basin, 31,500 sq. miles. ' Wae'camaw River: a river which rises in Waccamaw Lake and in the marshes of Bladen, Columbus, and Bruns- wick cos., N. C., flows into South Carolina in a direction nearly parallel to the coast, and at Mt. Gilead, S. C., after a course of 125 miles. unites with the Great Pedee, which in- deed is usually called Waccamaw below the junction. It finally flows into Winyaw Bay. The Waccamaw proper is navigable to Conwayboro, S. C. Wace. often called MASTER WAGE (Waice, Gace, Guace, or Gasse): poet; b. in the island of Jersey about 1100; was taken in childhood to Caen, Normandy, where he began his studies. He was destined for the Church; continued his studies at Paris; returned to Caen, and was a reading-clerk (clere lisa/nt) in the royal chapel about 1135; was made canon of Bayeux by Henry II. of England about 1162; d. about 1175. He wrote two long poems, the Brut, or Geste des Bretons, a paraphrase, in 15,000 lines of eight syllables, of the 1Yistoria regum Britannia> of Geoffrey of Monmouth, which he finished in 1155, and dedicated to Eleanore, wife of Henry II., and Le Roman de Ron, or Geste des _Normanz, of nearly 17,000 lines, narrating the history of the Norman dukes to 1107, including the conquest of England, and valu- able both as an historical source and as a monument of the Norman dialect of French. The Brut was edited by Le Roux de Liney (2 vols., Rouen, 1836-38) : the Roman de Row, by F. Pluquet (2 vols., Rouen, 1827), more satisfactorily by H. Andresen (2 vols., Heilbronn, 1877-79). The portion of the latter work relating to the conquest of England was translated into English prose by Edgar Taylor, lfaster 'Waee, his Chronicle of the lVorman Conquest (1837), and by Sir Alexander Malet, The Clonguest of England, from Wace’s Poem, now first translated into English Rhyme (London. 1860). VVe have also three shorter poems of \Vace: La Conception lVotre Dame, edited by Luzarche (Tours,1859); La Vie de Saz'ntNie0las, edited by Delius (Bonn, 1850): and La Vie de Sainte llrlargnerite, edited by A. Joly (Paris. 1879). See Romania, vol. ix. A. G. CANFIELD. Wace, HENRY: principal of King’s College. London; b. in London. Dec. 10. 1836; was scholar of Brasenose College, Oxford, from which university he received B. A. 1860, M. A. (573) 57.1 WACHUSETT MOUNTAIN 1873, B. D. 1882, D. D. 1883 (same degree from University of Edinburgh, 1882). He was curate of St. Luke’s, Berwick Street, London, 1861-63, and at St. James’s, I/Vestminster, 1863-69 ; lecturer of Grosvenor chapel, South Audley Street. 1870-72; chaplain of Lincoln’s Inn 1872-80, and since 1880 has been preacher of Lincoln’s Inn. He was Professor of Ecclesiastical History in King’s College, London, 1875-83, and has been principal since 1883. He delivered the Boyle lectures for 1874 and 1875 on the subject of Christianity and Jtloralitg/, and in 1879 the Bampton lectures, on The Foundations of Faith. He was select preacher at Cam- bridge 1878 and 1890, and same at Oxford 1880-82; honor- ary chaplain to the Queen 1884-89, and since 1889 a chap- lain in ordinary. Since 1881 he has been a prebendary of St. Paul’s. In conjunction with Dr. William Smith, he edited the monumental Dictionary of Christian Biography, Lit- erature, Seats, and Doctrines, during the first Eight Cen- turies (4 vols., 1880-87); with Prof. C. A. Buchheim, First Principles of the Reformation, or the Ninety-fi't’e Theses and the Three Prirnary Works of Dr. Jlfartin Luther, translated into English (1883); with Dr. Philip Schaff, the first seven volumes of the second series of the Select Library of the lVieene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church (1890-94); and alone, The Bible (Speaker’s) Commentary on the A,/ooerypha (2 vols., 1886). He is also the author of lec- tures delivered in 1881 at St. J ames's, \Vestminster, on The Gospel and its Witnesses: Some of the Chief Facts in the Life of our Lorcl, and the Authority of the Evangelical Narratives (1883); Some Central Points of our Lord’s M in- istry (1890). SAMUEL MAOAULEY JACKSON. Waehu'sett Mountain: a mountain in the northern part of Princeton, Worcester co., Mass.; elevation, 2,018 feet. It is a detached peak, from whose top there is a wide and picturesque view. Waek’ernagel, JAcoB: philologist; b. at Basel, Switzer- land, Dec. 11, 1853; studied at Basel, Giittingen, and Leip- zig; privat docent, afterward Professor of Greek, in the University of Basel; author of De pathologice oeterum ini- tiis (1876); Der Ursprung der Brahminismus (1877); Das Dehnungsgesetz cler grieeh. Composita (1889) ; Das Stuolium des hlass. Alterthurns in der Sehweiz (1891); also of numer- ous important contributions to philological journals. His work, the best of which is to be found in the journals, is characterized by great precision in treatment and by the most conscientious regard for the recorded facts of lan- guage. BENJ. IDE WHEELER. Waco: city (surveyed as a town in 1849, incorporated in 1850); capital of MeLennan co., Tex.; at the junction of the Brazos (which divides it) and the Bosque rivers; on the Mo., Kan. and Tex., the St. L. S. W., the San Ant. and Aran. Pass., the Tex. Cent., and the Waco and N. W. rail- ways; 43 miles N. W. of Bremond, 95 miles N. E. of Austin (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 3-H). It is the princi- al interior cotton-market of the State, and received and shipped 160,000 bales in the season of 1894-95. Since 1889 it has had an abundant supply of artesian water of high medicinal value, there being (1895) 24 flowing wells, each 1,820—1,850 feet deep, yielding 500,000-1,000,000 gal. daily, and having a pressure of 65 lb. The water is used for all do- mestic and public purposes and, instead of steam, for man- ufacturing. The city has 60 miles of water-mains, 35 miles of electric railway, gas and electric plants for lighting and power, and 40 miles of paved and graded streets. Churches ancl Sehools.—There are 29 church buildings, representing the principal denominations, which cost, with ground, $500,000. The public-school system costs about $60,000 annually, and comprises a central (graduating) building that cost $40,000 and 14 ward schools that cost from $8,000 to $12,000 each. The institutions for higher education are BAYLOR UNIVERSITY (q. 1).) ; Waco Female Col- lege (Methodist Episcopal South, established 1855), with grounds and buildings that cost $80,000, and about 150 stu- dents; Paul Quinn College (African Methodist Episcopal), for colored youths of both sexes, with about 200 students; and the Academy of the Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic), a boarding-school, with an average of 200 pupils. Both Bay- lor University and Paul Quinn College have theological de- partments. Public Builcli/ngs.—There are 3 bridges across the Brazos river here, one a suspension bridge, with 475 feet span, and two of iron for railway traific. The city contains a U. S. Government building, county court-house, and public li- brary. WADDING Finances and Ban7cing.—The municipal receipts and ex- penditures are each about $315,000 annually; the assessed valuations aggregate $15,000,000; the bonded and floating debt is about $500,000. There are 4 national and 4 private banks, with combined capital of $1,300,000, which in 1894 had clearings of $62,300,000. Business Interests.—The city has (1894) a retail trade of $22,000,000 and wholesale trade of $7,400,000. There are about 600 mercantile and business firms. The manufac- tories employ a capital of about $2,000,000 and about 1,500 persons. There are 3 cotton-compresses, 2 cottonseed oil- mills, 2 roller flour-mills, 3 iron and brass works, woolen- mill, cotton-mill, 2 ice-factories, and numerous minor pplants. Pop. (1880) 7,295; (1890) 14,445; (1895) estimated, 24,500. A. R. MeCoLLUM. Wadai, waa-daa’e“e: the most powerful empire of the Cen- tral Sudan. It lies S. of the Sahara Desert, Darfur adjoining it on the E. Bargirmi and Kanem on the W. are tributary states. Area about 140,000 sq. miles. This large territory was wrested from its heathen possessors by the Arabs in the seventeenth century. Its conquerors made it a pow- erful Mohammedan state, and extended its boundaries and mfiuence far beyond their present limits. At the begin- mug of the nineteenth century the greater part of the Middle and Eastern Sudan was controlled by the Sultan of Wadai. Much of his possessions has since been lost, but Wadai is still the most potent political influence in the Central Sudan. Sultan Ali, who ascended the throne in 1858, is said to be a shrewd and far-sighted ruler, under whose influence the country has made great-progress in Arabic civilization and in agriculture. A large part of the country is very fertile, a great number of cattle and horses are raised, and agriculture and iron manufactures are lead- ing industries. \Vara was the former capital, but in 1863 the father of Sultan Ali removed the seat of government to Abeshr, ostensibly because evil spirits had rendered the old capital uninhabitable, but- really because he desired to live at a greater distance from the most owerful of the an- cient nobles of the country. Pop. of adai, about 2,600,- 000; of Abeshr, 15,000. C. C. Anxns. Wad’delI, JAMES IEEDELL: naval officer; b. at Pit-tsboro, Chatham co., N. C., July 13,1824; entered the U. S. navy Sept., 1841; became a passed midshipman in 1847 and a lieutenant in 1855. At the breaking out of the civil war in 1861 he resigned his commission and returned to his native State. He entered the Confederate navy as lieutenant, Mar., 1862; in April was ordered to burn the unfinished ram Mississippi at New Orleans; served as ordnance-oflicer at Drury’s Bluif on James river, Va., where the Federal iron- clad fieet was repulsed; was sent to Europe on special service in 1863, and took charge of the steamer Shenandoah on Oct. 19, 1864, near the island of Madeira. This vessel, originally called the Sea King. had left London on a voyage with British papers, but in the meantime was sold to an agent of the Confederate Government, and turned over to the com- mand of Lieut. Waddell at the time and place stated, where, under her new name, she set out on a cruise against the commerce of the U. S. She first went to Melbourne, Aus- tralia, the only port she visited in a cruise of thirteen months. During this cruise she made 38 captures, valued at $1,152,000. She destroyed 32 vessels, and released 6 on bonds. She visited every ocean except the Antarctic. She was the only vessel that carried the Confederate flag around the world, and bore it afloat six months after Lee’s sur- render. The last gun fired from her deck was on June 22, 1865. Commander Waddell having been informed at sea in Aug., 1865, by the master of the British bark Bara- couta, of events in the U. S., desisted from all further bellig- erent acts, and proceeded to Liverpool with the Shenandoah, where by formal letter to the ministry on Nov. 5, 1865, she was turned over to the British Government, and, soon after- ward, by it to the U. S. consul at Liverpool. Commander Waddell, after spending some time in Europe, returned to his native land. He was afterward engaged in the Pacific Mail Steamship Company’s service as captain. D. at An- napolis, Md., Mar. 15, 1886. Wadding, LUKE: eeelesiastie and author; b. at Water- ford, Ireland, Oct. 16, 1588; studied theology in the Irish College at Lisbon and elsewhere in Portugal; joined the Franciscan order 1604; became Professor of Divinity at the University of Salamanea; accompanied as chaplain an em- bassy to Rome in 1618 for the settlement of the controversy relating to the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, and WADDINGTON wrote the history of the mission in Latin; remained at Rome; founded in 1625 the College of St. Isidore for Irish Franciscans; was one of the papal councilors appointed in the settlement of the Jansenist controversy, in which his own opinions coincided with those of Jansen, but he re- tracted them upon the publication of the papal bull of con- demnation; was procurator of his order at Rome 1630-34, and vice-commissary 1645-48, and refused a cardinal’s hat. His works are‘ numerous and voluminous. He edited from the MS. the posthumous Concordantice Bibliorum of Marius de Calasio (4 vols. folio, 1621) and the works of Duns Scotus (12 vols. in 11, fol., 1639), and wrote the history and bibliog- raphy of his order in the elaborate Latin works Annalee Ordim's illinorum (Lyons, 8 vols. folio, 1625-40; new ed., by J . M. Fonseca, in 22- vols., Rome, 1731-45, continued by Michelesi to 1794) and Scriptores Ordinvls ltlinorum (Rome, 1660; new ed. 1806). D. in Rome, Nov. 18, 1657. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Waddington, WILLIAM HENRY: statesman and author; b. at St.-Remi-sur-l’Avre, in the department of Eure-et- Loire, France, Dec. 11, 1826, of English parentage; grad- uated at the University of Cambridge 1849 ; was naturalized in France; spent some time in archaeological explorations in Asia Minor and Palestine; became in 1865 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions; was chosen to the National Assembly in 1871 ; was Minister of Public Instruction under Thiers for a few days in May, 1873, and again held that posi- tion under MacMahon in 1876, having in the meanwhile been elected senator. In the new cabinet of Dufaure, Dec. 14, 187 7 , he became Minister of Foreign Affairs and was the French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Berlin 1878. After the accession of President Grévy he was invited to assume the presidency of the council while still holding the portfolio of Foreign Affairs. His policy aroused vigorous opposition in both the Senate and the Chamber, and on Dec. 27, 1879, he resigned. He was ambassador to the court of St. James 1883- 93. D. J an. 13, 1894. Among his works are Voyage en Asie mineare an point dc cue numismatz'gae (1850); 1lIélanges de N amismatiqae et de Phz'ZoZogz‘c (1861) ; and Edit de Dvloclétien (1864). He continued the publication of Le Bas’s Voyage archéologvlque en Greice et en Asie mineure (1868-77). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wade, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN: statesman; b. near Spring- field, Mass., Oct. 27, 1800; worked on a farm during his early manhood, teaching district schools during the winters ; removed with his parents to Ashtabula co., 0.. 1821. He was admitted to the bar in 1827, and was elected prosecut- ing attorney 1835, to which post he was twice re-elected; State Senator 1837; and president judge of third judicial district 1847. As U. S. Senator 1851-69 he was a firm oppo- nent of slavery, and after Mr. Lincoln’s election in 1860, on the question of compromise between the North and the South, he strongly opposed any concessions. The Home- stead Bill, which he had for many years advocated, finally passed the Senate in 1862. As chairman of the joint com- mittee on the conduct of the war, he advocated the vigorous prosecution of the war, and favored the confiscation of prop- erty in slaves; became president of the Senate pro fempore and acting Vice-President of the U. S. on the assassination of President Lincoln; and was one of the commission sent in 1871 to Santo Domingo to report upon the proposed ac- quisition of that island. D. at J elferson, 0., Mar. 2, 1878. See his Life, by Albert G. Riddle (Cleveland, 0., 1888). Wadesboro: town; capital of Anson co., N. C.; on the Atl. Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line railways; 52 miles E. S. E. of Charlotte, 120 miles S. W. of Raleigh (for location, see map of North Carolina, ref. 4-F). It isin an agricultural region ; contains Anson Institute (non-sectarian, opened in 1854), and a national bank (capital $50,000); and has 2 weekly papers. Pop. (1880) 800; (1890) 1,198. Wadi-Halfa (ancient name Behem): a place in Nubia, near the second Nile cataract, at about 22° N. lat. 0n the west bank of the Nile are two temples, described by Cham- pollion, one bearing the names of Usertasen I. (with a list of conquered tribes), Amenophis II., and Ramses I., and the other dedicated by Thothmes II. and III. to Horus of Beheni. A stele from the twenty-third year of Thothmes III. makes mention of victories over the Phoenicians and other eastern tribes. C. R. G. Wadsworth: village (settled in 1816, incorporated in 1865); Medina co., 0.; on the N. Y., Penn. and Ohio Rail- road; 14 miles W. of Akron, 33 miles S. of Cleveland (for WAGER 57 5 location, see map of Ohio, ref. 2—G). It is in an agricultural, coal-mining, and tobacco-growing region; has quarries of sandstone and deposits of salt, fire-clay, and ocher in its vicinity; and has 7 churches, normal school, public-school system of 12 departments, a semi-weekly and a weekly news- paper, and manufactories of steam-injectors, friction-clutch pulleys, flour, carriages and wagons, and door and window screens. Pop. (1880) 1,219; (1890) 1,685 ; (1895) 1,981. EDITOR OF “ BANNER.” Wadsworth, JAMES SAMUEL : soldier ; b. at Geneseo, N. Y., Oct. 30, 1807 ; educated at Hamilton College and at Harvard University ; studied law in the oflice of Daniel Webster; was admitted to the bar, but never practiced law as a profession. Applying himself to agricultural affairs, he was in 1842 elected president of the New York State society. 0f Federalist stock, he was a Democrat by conviction, but in the agitation of the slavery question in 1848 he supported the Free-soil party. In 1856 and 1860 he was a Republican presidential elector. 0n the outbreak of war and interrup- tion of railway communication with the national capital, Wadsworth provisioned two vessels at New York, and ac- companied them to Annapolis. At the battle of Bull Run he served as volunteer aide to Gen. McDowell. Commissioned a brigadier-general of volunteers in Aug., 1861, he command- ed a brigade in front of Washington until Mar., 1862, when appointed military governor of VVashington. \Vhile holding this command he received the Republican nomination for Governor of New York, but was defeated by Horatio Sey- mour. Applying for service in the field, he was assigned to the First Corps in Dec., 1862, participating in the battle of Fredericksburg. At Gettysburg, Wadsworth’s division was the first one to engage the enemy on the morning of July 1, 1863, and in the struggle that ensued that day his division lost 2,400 out of 4,000. During the second and third days’ fighting he rendered conspicuous service in maintaining the heights on the right of the line. In the Richmond campaign of 1864, Wadsworth commanded the fourth division of the Fifth Corps, which crossed the Rapidan May 5, and was en- gaged for several hours, sustaining severe loss. In the fight- ing which was renewed next morning he served with the Second Corps, and while endeavoring to rally his men was struck in the head by a bullet, which eausedhis death May 8, 1864, two days after being breveted major-general of vol- unteers. Wafer [M. Eng. waf-re, from 0. Fr. wa/afre, gaufre > Fr, gaufre, honeycomb, wafer, from Dutch wafel; cf. Germ, wabe, honeycomb, and zeeben, weave]: the small circular disk of unleavened bread employed in the celebration of the Eucharist in the Roman Catholic Church. It is usually marked with emblematic figures. Wager [M. Eng. wager, zeajour, from 0. Fr. wagzTe'r, wajour (> Fr. gageur), deriv. of wage'er, gagier > Fr. gager, pledge, bet, from Teuton. *wadjan, wager, pledge > Germ. "wetfe'n] : a promise to pay money or transfer property upon the determination or ascertainment of an uncertain event; the consideration for such a promise is either a present pay- ment or transfer by the other party, or a promise to pay or transfer upon the event determining in a particular way. (Anson, Law of Confracz‘, 173.) The early common law treated all wagering contracts as valid. During the eigh- teenth century, however, the courts became anxious to dis- countenance those in which the parties had no interest ex- cept that which was created by the wager, and were “ astute even to an extent bordering on the ridiculous to find rea- sons for refusing to enforce them.” (Parke, B.. in Egerfon vs. Earl of Brownlow, 4 House of Lords Cases 124.) Parlia- ment has also declared void some forms of wagering con- tracts. As a result, wagers in which the parties have no in- terest are now unenforceable in Great Britain, although they are not illegal. Such has always been the rule in Scot- land, the courts declaring that they were instituted to en- force the rights of parties arising from serious transactions, and would pay no regard to sporting agreements. Bell, P2'2lnc'zIpZes of Law, § 37. The English common-law view was adopted by the courts in some parts of the U. S., notably in New York. but throughout New England and in most of the States that view was rejected, the courts holding that wagers were in- consistent with thc established interests of society, in con- flict with the morals of the age, and therefore illegal and void as against public policy. (Bernard vs. Taylor, 20 Ore- gon 416.) In accordance with this doctrine it has been decided that a broker who knowingly makes a wagering 576 WAGER-POLICY contract and pays money for his principal thereon, can not recover it or his commissions from such principal. (Irwin vs. Wtlltar, 110 U. S. 499.) It follows also from this doctrine that if the losing party notifies the stakeholder not to pay the money to the winner, and it is thereafter paid, the loser may recover it either from the winner who received it or from the stakeholder. Love vs. Howey, 114 Mass. 80; Ber- nard vs. Taylor, supra. Nearly all of the States have statutes declaring void or illegal every species of wager. Occasionally the legislation is very drastic, not only declaring the wager itself illegal, but avoiding all securities given for money lost thereon, even negotiable paper in the hands of a bona-jtde holder, and permitting the recovery from the stakeholder of money paid to the winner under the loser’s directions. (N. Y. Re- vised Statutes, 8tl1 ed., p. 2218 ; Raohrnan vs. Pitcher, 1 N. Y. 392.) See BETTING. FRANCIS M. Bunmox. Wager-policy: in law, an instrument having the form of a policy of insurance, but without any legal interest held by the assured in the subject-matter of the contract or in the risk insured against. It is, therefore, merely a wager, according to the nature of the instrument, between the in- surer and the assured, that the contingent event referred to will or will not happen—that the ship will or will not per- form her voyage, that the house will or will not burn, or that the person will or will not die, as the case may be. The assured puts at risk or stakes the premium paid, and bets that the uncertain event will take place, while the in- surer puts at risk or stakes the sum insured, and bets that such event will not happen. See INSURANCE (Insnrable In- terests). Revised by FRANCIS M. Buamcx. Wages [from O. Fr. /wage, gage, pledge, guarantee, en- gagement; cf. Fr. engager. These words are from the Tent. *oadjo-; Goth. wadt; Germ. wette]: in general, that which is paid for services rendered; in political economy, the share of the workingman in the wealth that his labor has contributed to roduce. Under the title TOLITICAL EooNoMY (g. e.) the abstract theory of wages is treated briefly. In this place an account is given of the rates of wages at different times in the history of the U. S. Examining wages in this respect, that is, his- torically, it is found that there has been a persistent tend- ency upward, although the tendency has been broken here and there by industrial conditions. The rise has been gradual, although there have been long periods when but little, if any, change was noticeable. Since the earliest colonial days rates of wages have been governed by economic laws and the conditions of business, but in those days attempts were made at frequent intervals to establish wage-rates by legislative action. Following the custom of the old country as it had prevailed at different periods, the Massachusetts Bay Colony, as early as 1633, by the action of the general court, made it a rule that carpen- ters, sawyers, masons, bricklayers, tilers, joiners, wheel- wrights, mowers, and other master-workmen should not re- ceive more than 2s. a day, the workman to pay his own board, but should he elect to board with his employer, then he was to receive 14d. a day. The rates of pay of in- ferior workmen in the occupations named were fixed by the constable. Skilled tailors were paid 12d. a day, and the . poorer ones were paid 8d. with their living. The time of labor included the whole day, allowances being made for food and rest. An employer paying wages beyond the amounts established by law and a workman receiving extra wages were subjected to penalties. Idleness, even, was the subject of punishment. Such legislation, varying in quality and terms. continued for some years, one statute following an- other in the attempt to regulate the rates of wages, and the regulation applied first to one side and then to the other; that is, an employer was punishable if he paid too high a wage and an employee was punishable if he demanded a higher wage than that paid by law. It is quite difficult to state with any definiteness the aver- age wages paid to any class, but it is certain that for a long period after the settlement of the colonies 2s. a day was a fair average for mechanical labor, the variation from this depending much upon legislation, for the annoying regula- tions continued through the seventeenth century, even pro- hibiting excessive prices by dealers in order to regulate wages. At the close of the seventeenth century, however, common laborers were paid 28. a day, the same as they had been paid forty years before. Women, when they went out to service, received from £4 to £5 a year. After the seven- WAGES teenth century laborers were paid 3s. and sometimes as much as 4s. a day. It is somewhat strange that wages remained as steady as they did during the whole‘ of the seventeenth century, no great change coming until far into the eighteenth century, when the compensation of farm-laborers was very gen- erally taken as the standard for wages paid to mechanics and tradesmen. When the colonial period closed, laborers on farms were paid about 40 cents a day, butchers only 33%- cents a day, carpenters 52 cents, ship and boat builders about 90 cents. shoemakers 73 cents, and blacksmiths only 70 cents. These illustrations are quite sufficient to show the general rates of wages during and at the close of the colonial period. Of course the value of a day’s wage then, as now, should be estimated by its purchasing power, in- stead of by its nominal rate. To state with reasonable ac- curacy the purchasing power of money during the seven- teenth century is a more difficult matter than to give the rates of wages. Quality can not be compared with quality, while the great variation in the price of an article on ac- count of conditions and locality distorts any comparison even when quality can be ascertained. There was no mar- ket price. Wheat might bring 5s. per bushel in one place and at another point near by it might be sold at 108. Tak- ing the fairest possible quotations for the closing years of the seventeenth century and for 1890 for New England, cov- ering some leading articles of consumption, some reason- ably honest comparisons can be made. For instance, a dol- lar present money would have purchased a bushel of winter wheat or a gallon of common molasses or a bushel of barley at both periods, while of corn 1% bush. could have been purchased in 1698 and 3 bush. in 1890;, a dollar repre- sented a bushel of rye in 1694 and nearly 2 bush. in the later period. A common grade of wheat flour brought about $16 per barrel in 1697 and $6 in 1890. Butter, cheese, and meats generally were considerably lower than now, butter selling for from 8 cents to 14 cents per pound, and meats for from 10 cents to 20 cents. Sugar, tea, and coffee, on the other hand, were very dear all through the earlier period, tea selling for from $5 to $10 per pound, while a good article could be obtained for 50 cents per pound in 1890. In the absence of price-lists for a large number of articles, classi- fied according to importance in consumption, but using such fugitive material. as exists, the conclusion must be reached that a dollar will purchase now a much larger quantity of the necessaries of life than during the last quarter of the seventeenth century, although the commonest things, those which nearly every family produced for home consumption, were quite low during the earlier period. An exceedingly limited market existed for any small surplus of products. Real wages, wages measured by purchasing power, were much lower than at present. It is to be regretted that many elements essential to fairly exact comparison are often lack- ing. The citations given, however, are re resentative of general conditions and show the upward tent ency of wages. Soon after the colonial period closed industry revived, and the factory system was established, and it may safely be stated that American industries were securely planted, so that from that time on there has been a very constant up- ward tendency in wages in all directions. The earlier part of this period, that following the establishment of the fac- tory system, showed fair advance. Carpenters in 1790 were paid less than 60 cents a day; in 1800, over 70 cents; in 1810, $1.09 on the average; in 1820, $1.13; in 1830 about the same, although in the northern parts of the U. S. $1.40 a day was the average for carpenters during the years from 1830 to 1840. There was not much change in this class of labor until 1860, since which date the average for carpen- ters has been raised constantly, until in 1880 it reached $2.42, and now very often carpenters receive $3.50 a day. If we turn to laborers as in a fair way representing gen- eral conditions, the facts at command show that they re- ceived about 43 cents a day in 1790, 62-5- cents in 1800, while from 1800 to 1810 their average pay in the Northern States was 82 cents a day. This was increased to 90 cents during the next decade, although from 1840 to 1860 the pay of common laborers varied from 87% cents to $1 a day. They receive from $1.50 to $2 a day at the present time. Cotton-mill operatives, a class not much known in the U. S. until about 1820, received from that year until 1830 44 cents a day, on the average, while just prior to 1840 their pay was increased to 90 cents, and during the next decade their average pay was $1.03 a day. The compensation of woolen-mill operatives was somewhat higher, for in the WAGES early part of the factory period, that is, during the years just prior to 1830, they were paid a daily wage of $1.12, but this was rarely reached again before 1880. In the latter year agricultural laborers were paid $1.31, blacksmlths $2.28, masons $2.79, and shoemakers $1.76. A_ general average wage for operatives, however, is misleading, and representative classes are better for a general conclusion ; so specific rates have been given. . _ Carrying this comparison of actual wages for distinct classes into the building trades, it is found that a representa- tive establishment in New York reports the pay for carpen- ters in 1840 at $1.50 a day, and in 1891 at $3.50 a day, while the hours of work were reduced from ten to eight. The pay of bricklayers and their helpers rose from $1.75 and 81 re- spectively in 1851 to $4 and $2.50 respectively in 1891, while the working time was decreased two hours. Railway em- ployees experienced the same increase, locomotive engmeers and firemen moving from $2.14 and $1 respectively in 1840 to $3.77 and $1.96 respectively in 1891. Passenger-car con- ductors had their average pay raised from $2.11 to $3.84 a day. These examples are taken from actual pay-rolls. The great commercial convulsions of 1837 and 1857 caused a depression in wage-rates, and they did not fully recover prior to 1860; yet the averages for the decade from 1850 to 1860 were a very decided advance over those for the decade ending in 1830. The civil war caused great fluctuations in currency, while the financial crisis of 1873 had a powerful influence on wages, so that there were many changes. It is therefore better in these days to compare the averages for 1860 with those for 1880 and 1890. All these averages, wherever made, indicate a general increase in wages in all occupations during the fifty years from 1830 to 1880. Using the statements taken from actual pay-rolls and as made by the Senate committee on finance in its report on Wholesale Prices, ‘Wages, and Transportation (Senate Report No. 1394, Fifty-second Congress, second session), one is able to make a general comparison of wages without much reference to occupations. This comparison, as made by the committee, is a most excellent one, and indicates the general course of wages better than any other statement yet made. The method was to put all wages that were paid in 1860 at 100. Starting from such a basis it was found that, taking the wages in 22 industries and comprehending about 100 dis- tinct establishments, and reducing all the facts to simple averages, wages stood at 877 per cent. in 1840 as compared with 100 in 1860; in 1866 they stood at 1524, and in 1891 at 1607; that is to say, as compared with 1860 wages in 22 industries showed an increase‘ of 607 per cent. in 1891, and as compared with 1840 wages were 73 per cent. higher in 1891. To be more correct, however, the rates should be taken in accordance with the importance of each industry relative to all industries. Taking 1860 as re resented by 100 again, as in the former case, the genera average of wages in 1840, on the basis of the importance of each indus- try as compared to all, is represented by 825 per cent., in 1866 by 1556, and in 1891 by 1686, there being some varia- tion in the two methods. On the latter basis wages have increased 686 per cent. since 1860 and 861 per cent. since 1840. These two percentages, then-73 and 86‘1—come into comparison. Probably the mean is more just, and thus it is fair to say that wages in the leading industries of the coun- try are 80 per cent., at least, higher than they were in 1840. Very many wages are double what they were at that date. It is true that with this increase there has been, in every direction, a decrease in the working time of each day and a general decrease in the cost of living, taking all articles into consideration. The decrease in cost of living, however, has not been equal to the increase in wages. Rents are much higher, and so are meats and some other articles: but taking the wholesale prices of two hundred and twenty-three of the leading articles of consumption, it is found that there has been a decrease since 1860 of about 6 percent. The general conclusion, therefore, is quite positive and absolute that, while the percentage of increase in prices may have risen at dil‘r"erent periods, say in 1866 and along for ten years, far beyond the increase in wages, they had by 1891 fallen to a point lower, on the whole, than they were in 1840, and certainly 6 per cent. lower than in 1860, while wages had risen to a point even much above what they reached in the inflation period of 1866. Wl1at is true of the U. S. is true of other countries en- gaged in mechanical industries as allied to agriculture. In Great Britain the increase in wages since about 1850. start- ing from a lower point, however, has quite kept pace, rela- WAGNER 577 tively, with the increase in the U. S., whether taken on the basis of nominal wages—that is, the simple rates paid—or upon real wages--that is, the consuming power as governed by the prices of commodities. For a general study of the rates of wages attention should be given to Six Uentaries of Work and Wages, by J . E. Thorold Rogers, M. P.; the statistical statements of Dr. Robert Giffen, of the British Board of Trade; the reports of the British Department of Labor; the facts to be found in the Historical Review of Wages and Prices, 1752-1860, published by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of la- bor; the report of the Senate committee on finance already referred to; and a work by the author entitled The Indus- trial Evolution of the United States (Meadville, Pa., 1895). For very full statements as to the wages in colonial days, given in more detail than in any other of the American works referred to, reference is made to Weeden’s Economic and Social History of .New England, 1620-1789 (2 vols., Boston and New York, 1890). CARROLL D. WRIGHT. Wagner, RUDOLF, M. D.: physiologist; b. at Baireuth, Bavaria, July 30, 1805; studied medicine at Erlangen and Wiirzburg, and comparative anatomy in Paris under Cuvier; was appointed Professor of Zoiilogy at the University of Erlangen in 1833, and in 1840 at the University of Getting- en, where he died May 13, 1864. His principal works are Lehrbueh der vergleiohenden Anatomic (2 vols., Leipzig, 1834-35); Ioones physiologiece (Leipzig, 1839); Lehrlmch der Physiologic (Leipzig, 1839); Handwdrterbueh der Phys- iologie (4 vols., Brunswick, 1842-53) ; .Neurologische Unter- sueh/angen (Giittingen, 1854); Vorstudien za einer 'u'issen- sohaftliehen .ll[orphologie and Physiologie des me/nseh lieh en Gehirns als Seelenorgans (2 vols., Giittingen, 1860-62).—His younger brother, Moarrz Fnmnnrcn WAGNER, b. at Baireuth, Oct. 3, 1813, studied natural science at Erlangen and Munich; accompanied the French army in Algeria 1837-38 as a member of the scientific commission; studied geology at Giittin gen ; was appointed professor at the University of Mu- nich in 1860. Author of Reisen in der Regentsohaft Algier (3 vols., Leipzig, 1840); Der Kalukasuls und das Land der Kosacken (2 vols., Leipzig, 1848); Reise naeh dem Ararat and dem .Hoehlande Armeniens (Stiittgart, 1848); Reise naeh Kolehis (Leipzig, 1850) ; Reise naeh Persien und dem Lande der Kurden (2 vols., Leipzig, 1852) ; Reisen in _Nord- amerika (with Scherzer, 3 vols., Leipzig, 1854); Die Re- pnblih Oostariea (Leipzig, 1856); l\aturzcissenschaftliehe Reisen im tropisehen Amerilca (1870); Die Entstehung der Arten dureh rdumliehe Sondernng (1889). His Travels in Persia, Georgia, and Ifoordistan was translated into Eng- lish in 3 vols. (London, 1854). D. in Munich, May 31, 1887. Revised by S. T. Anmsraone. Wagner, WILHELM Rrcnxnn : composer; b. in Leipzig, Germany, May 22, 1813; d. in Venice, Italy, Feb. 13, 1883. His father, who was a police actuary, died six months after Richard’s birth. His mother married an actor and painter, and the family removed to Dresden. Richard’s stepfather wished to make a painter of him, but he showed no aptitude for the painter’s art. The boy played tunes on the iano at the age of seven; at nine he entered the Dresden 'reutz- schule, and studied hard-—not music, which he cared little for, but Greek, Latin, ancient history, and mythology. He made verses, longed to be a poet, translated twelve books of the Odyssey, took up English, and in his enthusiasm for Shak- speare projected a tragedy which was a compound of Ham- let and Lear. His passion for music was‘ awakened by hear- ing Beethoven’s music in Leipzig; he studied then in order to adapt his great tragedy for the lyric stage, but in a desul- tory and fitful way, which resulted in no solid attainment. He had no systematic instruction until his sixteenth year, and then his impetuous genius disdained rules; he preferred composing music to studying it. One of his boyish over- tures was played in the Leipzig theater. Less than six months with Theodor Weinlig. spent in the study of counter- point, was his first equipment for his extraordinary career. He was then nineteen. An overture composed at this time, after the model of Beethoven, was played and well received, he tells us, at one of the Gewandhaus concerts; a symphony, com )OS8d after Beethoven and Mozart, was performed at the Donservatory in Vienna. and later at the Gewandhaus in Leipzig. At this period Wagner visited Vienna, Prague, \Vi1rzburg, making the acquaintance of music and musi- cians, all the while undergoing the intellectual preparation which introduced his musical reform. At twenty-one he abandoned Beethoven as an operatic model, and felt that a 434 578 WAGNER new era in music was about to dawn. In 1834 he accepted the place of musical director at the theater of Magdeburg; completed and on ten days’ notice presented an opera, Das Liebesverbot, and was not disheartened by its failure; went to Berlin with Das Liebesverbot, but met with no practical encouragement at the royal opera; asked for and received the position of musical director at Kbnigsberg ;. In Dresden was moved by reading Bulwer’s Rienzi to write an opera with that title, which, after some delay, was brought out In Dresden in 1842; visited London, and, being driven by a storm into a Norwegian port, caught the legend of The Fli - ing Dutchman; went to Paris, but found no welcome; In 1839-40 composed an overture to the first part of Goethe’s Faust and several songs; suffered from want to the degree that he was compelled to arrange music for all sorts of In- struments. In 1842 the success of Rienzi at Dresden secured his appointment to the post of Kapellmeister at the Dresden opera-house. Here he finished The Flying Dutchman, and composed Tannhduser. In 1849 his revolutionary enthu- siasm forced him to take refuge in Zurich. There he be- came director of the musical society and of the orchestra of the theater; composed Lohengrin, and began the com os1- tion of the Illibelungen; in 1858 left Zurich, and reside for short periods in Italy, Paris, Vienna, Carlsruhe; attracted the attention of Ludwig II., King of Bavaria; established himself in Munich, and entered on his fame. Tristan und Isolde appeared in 1865; Die Ilfeistersinger con Niirnberg in 1868, and Rheingold, the prelude to the .Nibelungen, In 1869. At Munich was laid the plan so brilliantly carried out at Baireuth in the summer of 1876, where in a theater of his own design, with an orchestra composed of the best material Germany could furnish, and singers he had himself selected, was produced, under royal patronage and imperial countenance, with the moral and financial support of a large and distinguished public, the famous opera of the Nibe- lungen Ring, in which his musical theories first found full expression. Wagner’s musical reform is not technical; it embraces the whole field of conception and expression. Dis- gusted with the Italian and French school of opera, while persuaded more and more that opera was the highest form of musical expression, loathing the silly Zibretti and disdain- ing the practice of making music subservient to the conven- ience of pet singers, he contended that the theme of opera should be poetic in the purest, deepest sense; that the poetry should be joined with fitting music, vocal and instru- mental; and that the whole should be associated with the convictions and sympathies of humanity. Hence he took his themes from romance, legend, and popular myths, and in his musical adaptations consulted the intellectual de- mands of his theme, neglecting and even scorning the popu- lar types of song and melody. Wagner was always his own librettist, and the text of his musical works has a very con- siderable poetic value. His many prose writings (collected in nine volumes) show that he would have made his mark as a philosophical and polemical essayist, had not music itself supervened. The Flying Dutchman, Tannhduser, and Lo- hengrin were composed and performed prior to the works in which he more fully developed his art theories. These lat- ter comprise the Ilfeistersinger, Tristan und Isolde (1865), the N ibelungen Ring, and Parsifal (1882). The Nibelungen Ring is the collective name for four large works, each re- quiring an evening’s performance, beginning with Rhein- gold as general preface to the story and followed successively by the Wal/cgrie, Siegfried, and the G'o'ttc/rddmmerung (Dusk of the Gods). Even prior to the performance of these colos- sal works Wagner had himself declared that Tristan und Isolde illustrated his theories fully, and by it he was willing to be judged. Here he said, “I moved with entire freedom and disregard of all theoretic scruples.” I/Vagner resented the charge that his music is destitute of melody. “The one true form of music,” he said, “is melody. Music that has no melody has no inspiration, no power over the feelings, no originality. But melody is something more than the fixed and narrow form that belongs to the childish stage of mu- sical art—the dance form.” “The wanderer in the wood becomes every moment more distinctly aware of endlessly varied voices that are audible in the forest. They grow louder and louder, and the voices, the separate tunes, he hears are so many that the whole music seems to him one grand forest melody. Yet he can not hum it over to himself; and to hear it again he must again go to the woods.” I/Vagner is without doubt the greatest musical genius that has arisen since Beethoven. He is the acknowledged master of orchestration and of dramatic construction for the stage. WAHABEES In music he was a revolutionist and reformer. Like other reformers in other spheres than music he may have been too radical in certain directions, but the influence of his de- clared and marvelously exemplified principles will very largely affect the dramatic composition of the future. See, further, besides his own writings, R. Wagner, by F. Hueffer (London, 1874); The Nibelungen Trilogie, by G. Kobbé (New York); an exhaustive review by E. Dannreuther in Grove’s Dictionary of Ilfusic and Ilfusicians, with complete list of Wagner’s compositions; and the best and most unbiased work, Richard Wagner : his Life and Works, from the French of Adolphe J ullien (Boston, 1892). Revised by DUDLEY Bucx. Wagons: See Caanrxcns. Wagrani, caa'gra“am: a village of Lower Austria; 12 miles N. E. of Vienna (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 5-F); famous for the victory which Napoleon gained here over the Austrians under the Archduke Charles July 6, 1809. After his severe repulse at Aspern (May 21-22) Napo- leon retreated to the island of Lobau, which he fortified. On the night of July 4, having hastily thrown bridges over to the northern bank of the Danube, he marched toward the Austrian position with a force of about 180,000 men, and on the evening of the 5th ordered an attack on the enemy’s center. The Austrians, numbering about 120,000. drove back the French, inflicting heavy losses, and on the morning of the 6th themselves assumed the offensive. Their right wing carried all before it, but their left was outflanked by the French. At this juncture Napoleon gathered all his available forces‘ for an attack on the Aus- trian center, which the Archduke Charles had weakened in order to add to the strength of the wings. The French broke through the line and gained the day, but the Aus- trians retreated in good order. The loss in killed and wounded was about 24,000 on each side. It was one of the most hotly contested battles of the Napoleonic wars, and, had the Archduke John with his 30,000 men re-enforced the Austrians, as was expected, the issue of the battle might have been different. An armistice was concluded at Znaim on July 12, and this was followed by the peace of Vienna Oct. 14, 1809. F. M. COLBY. Wagtail : any bird of the passerine genera Illotacilla and Budgtes. The wagtails have the bill slender and con- ical, with the upper mandible slightly notched at the ti ; have long and pointed wings, each with nine primaries; t e tail is slightly rounded, longer than, or equal to, the wings ; the feathers are mostly broadest at the middle, and thence taper to the tips. The name is given in allusion to their habit of “wagging ” their tail in a fan-like manner. They are active birds, at home equally in the air and on land; they fly by short undulating courses, and frequently emit, while on the wing, chirping notes; on the ground they run by a rapid succession of steps. The species are quite nu- merous, and naturally peculiar to the Old World and Aus- tralia, but Motacilla alba and Budg/tes flaoa stray into North America. F. A. L. Wah : See AILURUS. Waha’ bees, or Wahabites: a Mussulman sect founded about 1750 by Abd-el Wahab, an Arabian reformer. He taught no new doctrine, but strove to restore Islam to its original simplicity and austerity. He denounced as super- stitious the veneration paid to the memory of the prophet and to relics and tombs esteemed holy, taught total absti- nence from tobacco as well as from wine and opium, and demanded purity and frugality in life. He did not inter- fere in politics. Preaching was his principal weapon. Sou- oud, Sultan of Nedjed, speedily espoused the cause of the reform. From his ca ital, Derayah, it spread rapidly, and before the death of Vi ahab (1787) was accepted by the larger part of the peninsula. To Sououd, as to his successors, Abd-ul Aziz and Sououd II., the reform was a political en- gine which they employed with success to subdue their neighbors and t-o unite Arabia under their sway. Mecca (1803) and Medina (1804) were captured, and Bagdad was threatened. All pilgrimages were stopped. Thereupon the Ottoman sultan, Selim IIl., ordered his vassal ll/IEI-IEMET ALI PASHA (q. o.) to chastise Sououd. Seven years were spent in preparation. Meanwhile Napoleon, who had not abandoned his scheme of uniting the Arabs in a grand expedition against the British in India, was negotiating with the Wahabees. They entertained his proposals favorably, but the ruinous Russian campaign (1812) intervened. Mecca and Medina were captured (1812) by Toussoun Pasha, son of Mehemet WAHEHE Ali. Derayah was destroyed (1818) by Ibrahim Pasha, an- other son of Mehemet Ali, and Abdullah II. surrendered. He was sent to Constantinople, and beheaded in front of St. Sophia. The I/Vahabees seemed crushed. Nevertheless they speedily expelled their Egyptian governors, and in 1849 all attempts to subdue them were definitely abandoned. They have since remained undisturbed, and dominate the Nedjed. They probably number 1,500,000. heretics. This is due rather to their political actions than to their doctrines, as they differ in few respects from the most orthodox Moslems. They are the Puritans of Islam. See Corancez, Histoire des Wahabites depuis leur origine jusgu’d l’an 1809 (Paris, 1810); Palgrave, lvarration of a Year’s Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia (Lon- don, 1865); Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and the Wahabys (London, 1830); Sedillot, Histoire des Arabes (Paris, 1850). EDWIN A. GRosvENoR. Wahehe : another spelling of UHEHE (g. c.). Wahoo’ [Amer. Ind.]: (1) the Euonymus atropurpureus, a fine ornamental shrub of the U. S. belonging to the family Sapindacece, and often called burning bush and spindle- tree. Its bark has considerable use in medicine as a diuretic, tonic, and alterative, with cathartic powers. (2) The winged elm, Ulmus alata, a small tree of the Southern U. S. Its wood is much vahfed for timber. Its branches have singu- lar corky wings. - ‘ Wahoo : city; capital of Saunders co., Neb. : on the Cot- tonwood creek, and the Burl. Route, the Era, Elk and Mo. Val., and the Union Pac. railways; 18 miles S. S. W. of Frémont, 50 miles W. of Omaha (for location, see map of Nebraska, ref. 10—G). It is in an agricultural and stock- raising region, and has 11 churches, 2 public-school build- ings, Luther Academy (Evangelical Lutheran, chartered in 1883), 2 national banks with combined capital of $180,000, a private bank, and 4 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,064; (1890) 2,006; (1895) estimated, 2,500. EDITOR or “ Wxsr.” Wah'peton: city (founded in 1875, incorporated as a village in 1881, as a city in 1884) ; capital of Richland co., N. D. ; at the junction of the Red River of the North and the Sioux Wood river; on the Chi., Mil., and St. P., the Great N orth., and the N. Pac. railways; opposite Brecken- ridge, Minn., 45 miles S. of Fargo (for location, see map of North Dakota, ref. 4—F). It has 8 church organizations, the Red River Valley University (Methodist Episcopal), public- school system of 6 departments, parochial school of 4 depart- ments, county court-house, water-works system (cost $85,000), electric lights, and 3 weekly newspapers. It is principally engaged in shipping agricultural produce, and has large flour-mills, grain elevators, and grain warehouses. Pop. (1880) 400; (1890) 1,510; (1895) estimated, 2,200. EDITOR or “ GAZETTE.” Waiblingen, ci'bling-en : town of the kingdom of Wi‘1r- tember , in the circle of the Neckar, on the Rhems; 2 miles . E. from Stuttgart, in an exceedingly fertile region (see map of German Empire, ref. 7-D). It is a central sta- tion on the Wiirtemberg state railways, and has tanneries, manufactures of silk, wool, and linen, and four large factories of bricks and ottery. The town, originally a settlement on the Roman igh-road to Germany, was an imperial pal- ace (Pfalz) under the Carlovingians, passed to the Salian emperors, who took from it the name of Waiblinger, and then to the house of Hohenstaufen. Their name of VVaib- linger became Italianized into Ghibellines as the designation of the Hohenstaufen party against the Guelphs. Pop. (1890) 4,786. H. S. Waice: See Wxon. Waihu Island : See Exsrna ISLAND. Waiilatpu’ an Indians [W'aiilatpuan is from W(1yi'let- pu, the plural of Wa-i’let, one Cayuse man]: a linguistic family of North American Indians established by Hale, who placed under it the Cailloux (or Cayuse or Willetpoos), and the Molele (or Molale). The Cayuse occupied the region between Des Chutes river and the Blue Mountains, Ore., adjoining the Nez Percé and Walla VValla Indians. According to Maj. Alvord, in 1853 they resided chiefly on Umatilla river, claiming a large area from Willow creek (in Morrow County) on the S. \V. to the Blue Mountains and including the Grande Ronde, and north- ward to within 15 miles of Fort VValla Walla. According to the census of 1890, there were 415 Cayuse Indians on the Umatilla reservation. although these speak the Umatilla lan- guage instead of their own. They are accounted. WAITE 579 The Molele form the western division of this family. They were originally an offshoot of the Cayuse, and, as the latter state, lived with them in their country S. of the Columbia. In 1853, according to Maj. Alvord, there were many Molele on the upper Des Chutes river, wanderers from the body of the tribe, whose proper haunts were W. of the Cascade Mountains. The Molele appear to have been essentially mountain Indians, and to have lived in the Cas- cade Mountains, Oregon, at various points between Mts. Hood and Scott (the latter in Klamath County). They ap- pear never to have been numerous, and at present are al- most extinct. Their common name is derived from a creek in Clackamas County, Ore., S. of Oregon city, and was applied to a band of these Indians who dispossessed the original oc- cupants. Subsequently the name was extended to the vari- ous bands. In 1889 there were thirty-one Molele on Grande Ronde reservation, Ore., and a few in the mountains W. of Klamath Lake. Both the Cayuse and Molele appear to have been brave and warlike, and to their frequent warfare was probably due their small and, during historical times, constantly de- creasing numbers. The Cayuse were frequently at war with the Blackfeet, and used to levy tribute on the Dalles Indians, claiming the fishery. They were intimately associated with the_Nez Percé and Walla Walla, with whom they have so often intermarried that they have become practically extinct as a tribe. See INDIANS OF N ORTH Annarcx. J arms OWEN DORSEY. Wainwright, J ONATHAN l\IAYI-IEW, D. D., D. C. L. : bishop and author; b. in Liverpool, England, Feb. 24, 1792, of American parents, his mother being a daughter of Rev. Dr. Jonathan Mayhew, of Boston; went with his parents to the U. S. 1803; graduated at Harvard 1812 ; was tutor there in rhetoric and oratory 1815-17 ; took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church 1816; became rector of Christ church, Hartford, Conn., 1816 ; assistant minister of Trinity church, New York, 1819 ; rector of Grace church, New York, 1821, of Trinity church, Boston, M ass., 1834, and again assistant minister of Trinity church, New York, 1838, having especial charge of St. J ohn’s chapel: visited Europe and the East 1848- 49, and Europe again in 1852, when the University of Oxford conferred upon him the doctorate of civil and canon law; he received the doctorate in divinity from Union College ‘in 1823, and from his alma mater (Harvard) in 1835; was many years secretary to the House of Bishops ; was chosen provisional bishop of New York in October, and consecrated Nov. 10. 1852; was a fine musician, and an admired pulpit orator. D. in New York city, Sept. 21, 1854. He published a Boole of Chants (1819); Music of the Church (1828) : The Pathu-'ays and Abiding-places of our Lord (illustrated, 1851) ; The Land of Bondage, a Journal of a Tour in Egypt (1852) ; several liturgical compilations; and. with Dr. VV. A. Muhlenberg, The Choir and Family Psalter (1851). He edited Bishop Ravenscroft's ll[emoir, and the Life of Bishop Heber, by his IVidow (2 vols., 1830), and the magnificently illustrated volume, Our Sariour with Proph- ets and Apostles (1850). A controversy between him and Rev. Dr. Potts on the possibility of “a Church without a bishop ” was issued in a volume 1844. A Memor-ial Volume containing thirty-four of his sermons appeared in 1856, with a memoir by Bishop Doane: and another Life was prepared by Rev. John N. Norton, and published in New ork in 1858. Revised by W. S. PERRY. Wait, WILLIAM: law-writer; b. at Ephratah, N. Y., Feb. 2, 1821; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1846; was district attorney in 1848; took up the compilation and publishing of law-books, for which he was especially adapted by his accuracy and thoroughness. D. at Johns- town, N. Y., Dec. 29, 1880. Besides other works, he pub- lished The Code of 0‘I,'7,‘2:Z Procedure of the State of New York: Law and Practice in Ciidl Actions and Proceedings in Justices’ Courts and on Appeals to County Courts in the State of lVew York; Practice at Law, in Equity, and in Special Proceedings in all the Courts of Record in the State of Nezc York; Treatise upon some of the General Principles of the Law, ivhether of a Legal or an Equitable Nature, including their relations and application to Ac- tions and Defenses in General (generally known as ll'ait's Actions and Defenses). F. STUReEs ALLEN. VVaite. MoRRIsoN REMICK, LL. D.: jurist; b. at Lyme, Conn., Nov. 29, 1816; attended Bacon Academy at C-olchester, Conn., and graduated at Yale College in 1837: took up the practice of law with his father, but in 1838 removed to 580 WAITS Maumee City, O., where he entered the law office of Samuel M. Young, and, being admitted to the bar in the following year, entered into partnership with Mr. Young; in 1850 re- moved with Mr. Young to Toledo, and later entered into partnership with his younger brother, continuing the part- nership until made chief justice in 1874. He soon became the acknowledged leader of the Ohio bar, and declined a seat on the Supreme Court bench of that State; in 1849 was elected to the Ohio Legislature, and held some other public positions, but refused to sacrifice his legal work to take an active part in politics. He gained a national reputation as one of the counsel for the U. S., together with William M. Evarts, in the arbitration on the Alabama claims in Geneva, Switzerland, 1871-72; in 1873 was president of the Ohio constitutional convention ; in 1874 was nominated and unanimously confirmed to fill the vacancy in the Supreme Court created by the death of Chief Justice Chase; in 1876 declined to allow his name to be used as a candidate for President of the U. S. In his position as chief justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S. he wrote many of the most important decisions of the court, among which are those on the head-money tax cases (1876). the election laws (1880), the power of removal of the President (1881), the Civil Rights Act (1883), the Alabama claims and the Legal Tender Act (1885), the express companies and extradition cases (1886), the Virginia debt cases and the affair of the Chicago anarchists (1887). He was a firm believer in the doctrine of State rights. I11 politics he was a Whig until the disband- ment of the Whig party, and from that time he was a Re- publican; but in his decisions he was never influenced by political considerations or fear of public opinion. He was remarkable not so much for brilliancy and extraordinary learning as for administrative ability and for persistent at- tention to all the details and intricacies of any case in hand; and in administering the affairs of the court he rigidly en- forced the rules of practice. In private life he was very unassuming and of a genial disposition. D. in Washington, D. C., Mar. 23, 1888. F. STURGES ALLEN. Waits [M. Eng. waite, wayte, from O. Fr. waite, gaite, watchman, guard, from O. H. Germ. wahta > Germ. wacht, guard, watch]: a class of watchmen in English and Scotch towns who formerly at certain fixed hours of the night played upon the pipe and other instruments. In London and many other places the waits were oflicially recognized ,until toward- the middle of the nineteenth century, and even later in some places. In London there are still companies of men called waits who, during the Advent season, frequently serenade the citizens, and on Christmas morning call for a Christmas- box. Waitz, GEORG: historian; b. at Flensburg, Schleswig, Oct. 9, 1813; studied law and history at the Universities of Kiel and Berlin; visited numerous cities in Germany, France, and Scandinavia, investigating their archives; was appointed Professor of History at Kiel in 1842, at G6t- tingen in 1849, and removed in 1875 to Berlin, as editor of the Monumenta Germanice Ifistorica. His principal works are Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (4 vols.,1843-61); Die Sehleswig-holsteinische Geschichte (2 vols., 1851-54) ; Lilbeclc unter Jilrgen Wullenweber (3 vols., 1855-56); Grundziige der Politile (1862); besides numerous minor essays, mono- graphs, and editions of documents relating to the history of Germany. As an historian he is a pupil of Leopold von Ranke. As a practical politician he belonged to the school of Gagern, and in 1849 he attended as a delegate the diet that met in Frankfort-on-the-lllain, but, together with his master, resigned from that body. D. at Berlin, May 24, 1886. Revised by J . GOEBEL. Waitz, THEODOR2 psychologist and anthropologist; b. at Gotha, Germany, Mar. 17, 1821; studied at Leipzig and Jena: traveled in 1842-43 in France and Italy; published in 1844-46 a critical edition of Aristotle’s Organon (in 2 vols.), and was appointed in 1848 Professor of Philosophy at the University of Marburg, where he died May 21, 1864. He wrote Grundlegung der Psychologie (Hamburg, 1846; 2d ed. 1878); Lehrbuch der Psychologie als Naturwissen- schaft (Brunswick, 1849); Allgemeine Pddagogilc (Bruns- wick, 1852; 3d ed. 1882) ; and Die Anthropologie der Natur- vbl/cer (6 vols., Leipzig, 1859—71 ; 5th and 6th edited by Ger- land). Revised by J . M. BALDWIN. Waitzen, or Waizen, vit’sen (Hung. Velez): town; in the Hungarian county of Pesth-Pilis-Solt; on the left bank of the Danube, 20 miles by rail N. of Pesth (see map of Austria- Hungary, ref. 5-H). It has been a Roman Catholic bishopric WAKASHAN INDIANS since 1075, has many Roman and mediaeval monuments, sev- eral educational and charitable institutions, and a large trade in cattle and wine. Pop. 13,190. H. S. Waiver [from O. Fr. eveyver, guesver, waive, refuse, aban- don; of. Eng. waif, orig., goods abandoned by a thief in flight]: the voluntary relinquishment of a private right. The right may be conferred by a constitutional or a statutory provision, or by a common-law rule, or it may originate in a contract. In either case it may be waived, provided it is a private right. If, however, the right involves a matter of public morals or policy it can not be waived. Hence the defendant in a criminal case can not waive a trial by a com- mon-law jury in a jurisdiction where trial by jury is guar- anteed by a constitutional provision. (In re Stafi’, 63 Wis. 285.) But the right to have judicial proceedings in a civil action conducted in a prescribed manner may be waived by becoming a party to such proceedings without seasonably objecting to the irregularities. So the right to have a stat- ute declared unconstitutional may be waived by accepting the benefits of legislation based upon its assumed validity. lllayor vs. llfanhattan Railway, 143 N. Y. 1. If the right originates in a contract it can be waived only by an agreement of the parties based on a consideration. or by acts of the possessor of the right operating by way of ESTOPPEL (q. v.). Such is the general rule. If the right in question, however, is that of forfeiture—-for example, the forfeiture of an insurance policy by the non-payment of a premium—there is considerable authority for the view that the waiver of it need not be based on a contract or an es- toppel. If in any negotiations or transactions with the in- sured, after knowledge of the forfeiture, the insurer recog- nizes the continued validity of the policy, or does acts based thereon, the forfeiture is as a matter of law waived. (Titus vs. Glens Falls Ins. 00., 81 N. Y. 410.) In Great Britain another exception to the rule exists in the case of negotiable paper. The holder of such paper may waive his rights against any party thereto before or after maturity. without consideration, by an absolute renunciation thereof. This doctrine “ seems to have been consciously imported into the law merchant from French law.” (See opinion of Parke, B., in Foster vs. Dawber, 6 Exchequer, at p. 852, A. D. 1851.) By the Bills of Exchange Act, 1882, § 62 (1), the renuncia- tion is required to be in writing. In the U. S. this exception is not recognized generally. The weight of authority is in favor of a plying the general rule, even to commercial paper, that a rig t of action can be discharged only by contract or esto pel. 1 Daniels, Negotiable Instruments, ,8 544. hether the right is conferred by law or by contract, the facts upon which it is based must be known to its possessor in order that his acts relating to it should operate as a waiver; but it is not necessary that he know the legal effect of the facts or of his acts. This is well illustrated by the case of an indorser of commercial paper. If the paper is not duly presented for payment and the indorser duly noti- fied of its dishonor, he is discharged from liability. This discharge may be waived by the indorser’s promising to pay the paper, provided he knows the facts, although he is ig- norant that the legal effect of these facts was to discharge him. (Rindslcopf vs. Doman, 28 Ohio St. 516.) Waiver of presentment and notice is discussed in BILL or EXCHANGE (Presentment for Payment), and waiver of tort in QUASI CoN'rRAcrs. FRANCIS M. Buanrox. Waizen : See WAITZEN. Wakash'an Indians [Wakashan is from walcash, the Nootka word for “ good," mistaken for the name of a tribe] : a linguistic stock of North American Indians, also called Nootka. The languages spoken by the Aht of the west coast of Vancouver island and the Makah (Kaasath or Klaizaht) of Cape Flattery, congeneric tribes, and the Haeltzuk and Kwakiutl peoples of the east coast of Vancouver island and the opposite mainland of British Columbia, were at first re- garded as representing two distinct families, but through the investigations of Dr. Franz Boas it is now possible to unite them on the basis of radical affinity. The Wakashan family, thus constituted, comprised about 8,000 Indians in 1890; it consists of two groups of tribes-—the Aht, including twenty-two tribes,with over 3,600 members, and the Haeltzuk, including about twenty tribes, among them the Haeltzuk roper, the Wikeno (these two being often called Belbella or llillbank Sound Indians), and the three tribes commonly called Kwakiutl. Habitat.—The tribes of this family occupy a large art of I the west coast of Vancouver island, extending from oody WAKE Point on the N., in about lat. 50° 7’, to Nitinaht Bay on the S., in lat. 48° 40’. They also occupy the adjoiningislands and the opposite mainland coast of British Columbia from about Bute Inlet, in 50° 10’ N. lat., to Millbank Sound. The tribes of the Aht division are confined chiefly to the west coast of Vancouver island. They range as far N. as Cape Cook, the northern side of that cape being occupied by tribes of the Haeltzuk division. On the S. they reached nearly to Sooke Inlet, that inlet being in possession of the Soke, a Salishan tribe. The neighborhood of Cape Flattery, Wash., is occupied by the Makah or Tlaasath, one of the Aht tribes, who probably wrested this outpost of the Wa- kashan Indians from the Clallam, a Salishan people, who next adjoin them on Puget Sound. The Haeltzuk tribes occupy the northern part of Vancouver island, adjoining the Aht and Salishan territories, and the west coast of British Columbia, having the Chimmesyan Indians on the N., the Taculli tribes (Athapascan) and the Bilqula (Salishan) on the N. and E., and Salishan tribes on the S. E. General Uharactem'sZz'es.—All the tribes derive the greater part of their subsistence from the sea. Armed with bar- poons of their own manufacture they frequently attack and overcome the whale. They appear to have been always ag- gressive and warlike, and are very conservative in changing their habits and adapting themselves to the ways of civiliza- tion. Their houses are large communal structures covered with boards of their own manufacture, which are carried from place to place as they change their residence. They are especially skillful in basket-making. Head-flattenmg prevails among them to some extent, though not so largely as among the Chinook and some other tribes. Slavery largely prevailed among all the tribes. The women and children taken in war or obtained by purchase seem to have been in- variably used as slaves, as also all the captured men who were not killed out of revenge. The language possesses a number of dialects which probably do not differ greatly. According to Sproat, the Nitinaht language (this tribe is one of the Aht group) is understood throughout the group. In the essentials of life the Haeltzuk tribes do not differ mark- edly from their neighbors of the Aht division, or from the Haida. The Wakashan Indians are skilled in the various rude arts practiced by barbaric peoples, but they do not ex- hibit the same superiority in carving, boat-building, ete., that distinguishes the Haida. The villages consist usually of a single row of houses facing the sea and placed upon the edge of the beach. The various practices relating to the custom of “ potlatch ”—that is, the free distribution of prop- erty on certain ceremonial occasions—prevail as extensively among these tribes as among the others of this region. Among the Haeltzuk tribes. as among the Koluschan, the Haida, and the Chimmesyan, territorial rights are peculiarly well defined. Not only has each tribe its own sea-fishing grounds, its own salmon-streams from which it alone has a right to take fish, and its own hunting and berry grounds, but within the tribe each gens likewise has its own territory. According to Boas, descent and inheritance among the Haeltzuk tribes are in the male line. Comparatively little is known of the Haeltzuk language, but a suflicient number of vocabularies have been gathered to show the existence of several dialects. There is no social or political bond of union between the various tribes of this family of late years, as sev- eral of the smaller tribes have decreased in numbers, moved from their old territory, and become amalgamated with stronger tribes, so that in a number of cases the main or winter village is occupied by several tribes. See INDIANS or Nonrn Amuarca JAMES OWEN Doasnv. Wake [from 0. Eng. waca (in m'hzf-waca), a watch, deriv. of waean, wake; of. Lat. m"ge'Z, wakeful, watchful, "vzIg'zI'Zia, a watch, wake]: in old English usage, the equivalent of VIGIL (q. 2).). In many British parishes the term and custom still survive in the “country wakes," festivities of ancient origin which are kept up on the eves of certain saints’ days. The lg/lee-waive, in which the neighbors of a deceased person hold a watch over the dead body, is a custom of entirely different character. It is found among the lower classes in several countries, notably among the Irish. Wake, WILLIAM, D. D.: archbishop; b. at Blandford Dorsetshire, England, in 1657 : studied at Christ Church, Oxford: graduated 1676: took orders in the Church of England; became chaplain to the English embassy in France; had a theological controversy with Bossuet, aris- ing from what he claimed to be a misrepresentation of the doctrine of the Church of England, 1686-88; became WAKEFIELD 581 preacher to Gray’s Inn, canon of Christ Church 1689, chap: lain to King William, rector of St. James, Westminster, 1693. dean of Exeter 1701, Bishop of Lincoln 1705, Arch- bishop of Canterbury 1716, and discussed with Dupin a proj- ect for the union of the English and Gallican Churches 1718. He was author of several controversial publications against Bishop At-terbury, three volumes of Sermons, and an excellent translation of the Apostol/ical Fathers (1693). D. in his palace at Lambeth, London, J an. 24, 1737. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wakefield : capital of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Eng- land; on the Calder; 9 miles S. S. E. of Leeds (see map of England, ref. 7-H). The cathedral, a Perpendicular build- ing, was founded in 1329 and restored 1857-86. A town-hall, French Renaissance in style, was erected in 1880. Wake- field has been the seat of a bisl1opric since 1888. Its manu- factures of cloth and yarn have declined, but are still con- siderable. The Yorkist forces suffered a defeat here Dec. 31, 1460. Pop. of the parliamentary borough, returning one member (1891), 37,269. Wakefield : town (incorporated in 1868); Middlesex co., Mass.; on the Boston and Maine Railroad; 10 miles N. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H). It contains the villages of \Vakefield, Greenwood, and Mon- trose; has electric lights, electric street-railway, fine water- supply, two large lakes, public park, high school, 26 district schools, public library of about 12,000 volumes, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a State bank with capital of $10,000, a savings-bank, and a daily and 3 weekly papers. There are manufactures of rattan goods, pianos, and shoes, and iron and brass foundries. Pop. (1880) 5,547 ; (1890) 6,982. Enrroa or "CITIZEN AND BANNER.” Wakefield : village ; South Kingston township, Washing- ton co., R. I.; at the head of Point Judith inlet and on the Narragansett Pier Railroad; 5 miles S. of Kingston, 30 miles S. by W. of Providence (for location, see map of Rhode Island, ref. 10-N). It is principally engaged in farming and in the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, and has a trust company with capital of $100,000 and a weekly news- paper. Pop. (1890) 2,200; (1894) estimated, 6,000. Wakefield, EDWARD GIBBON : writer on. theories of colo- nization; b. in London, England, Mar. 26, 1796; educated to the business of a land-surveyor; was brought into public notice in 1826 from having eloped to Gretna Green and there married an heiress fifteen years of age, for which act he was tried and sentenced to confinement for three years. During his imprisonment he studied colonial questions, and after his liberation took part in promoting the colonization of South Australia. In 1838 he accompanied the Earl of Dur- ham to Canada as his private secretary. and rendered valu- able service in the introduction of the new form of govern- ment, and subsequently removed to New Zealand. a colony which owed its existence largely to his efforts, and where his brother, Col. William, and his son. Edward J erningham, had been (1839) pioneer settlers. D. at VVellington, New Zealand, May 16, 1862. The distinctive principle of the \Vakefield system much resembles that of the homestead and pre-emption legislation of the U. S., consisting in selling lands in small lots and at low prices to actual settlers, and employing the proceeds as a fund for the transportation of fresh emigrants. Wakefield. GILBERT: classical scholar and theologian; b. at Nottingham, England, Feb. 22, 1756; graduated at Cambridge; appointed curate of Stockport, Cheshire, and of St. Peter’s, Liverpool, 1778, but resigned and did not join any other religious body; classical tutor at the N onconform- ist Academy at Warrington 1779-83, and at the Unitarian College at Hackney 1790-91 ; engaged in bitter controversies with Porson and other classical scholars (see his voluminous correspondence with Charles James Fox, published 1813); was imprisoned in Dorchester jail from 1798 to May, 1801, for a “ seditious” political pamphlet, written in reply to Bishop Watson’s Address to the People of Great‘ Br/ifae'n. D. at Hackney, Sept. 9, 1801. \Vakefield’s chief publications are a T2I(Z7l8Z(lH0'7L of the lVew Teszfamenf (3 vols.. 1791) ; An En- que'r;z/ 1T'nzf0 the E.rpedieney and Pr0prz'ez‘3/ of Social Wor- ship (1793) answering the question negatively; Silva (7'r2'z‘£- ea (5 parts, 1789-95) ; T2-agzIc0r'u'm DeZe<+us (2 vols., 1794) ; Iforaee (2 vols., 1794); Virgil (2 vols., 1796) ; and especially a once highly esteemed critical and exegetical edition of Luc'rez"z'as (3 vols., 3d ed. 1821). See his A/u.z‘0b'1'0g'rap7z;z/ (2 vols., 1792 : 2d ed. 1804). ALFRED GUDEMANN. 582 WAKLEY Wakley, THOMAS, M. D.: surgeon; b. at Membury, Dev- onshire, England, in 1795; studied medicine and surgery in London, attending the lectures of Sir Astley Cooper 1815; practiced some years as a surgeon in London; re- tired from active practice in 1823, when he founded in Lon- don The Lancet, a weekly medical journal, which he edited nearly forty years, and which has been instrumental in pro- moting many reforms in surgery and medicine. Dr. \/Vakley was coroner for Middlesex 1839-62, and sat in Parliament 1835-52. D. in the island of Madeira, May 16, 1862.—His son, JAMES GOODOHILD WAKLEY (b. at Brompt-on, London, England, in 1825 ; d. in London, Aug. 30, 1886), succeeded him in the editorship of The Lancet. Revised by S. T. ARMSTRONG. Walafridus Strabus : See STRABO, WALAHFRID. Walcheren, vaVal’cher-en : island of the Netherlands, forming part of the province of Zealand, between the East and West Scheldt and the North Sea. It is 11 miles long and 10 miles broad, with an area of 81 sq. miles, and has 45,000 inhabitants. The chief town is Middelburg. It is low, and is protected against inundation partly by natural downs, partly by immense dikes, the rupture of which has on more than one occasion been most disastrous, but it is very fertile, and contains fine tracts both of meadow and arable land. The northern part of the island is well wooded. Walcheren is famous in military history for the disastrous expedition of the British under Lord Chatham and Admiral Strachan in 1809. It was aimed against Antwerp and might, if successful, have roused North Germany against Napoleon, but it was late in starting, and time was wasted in trying to reduce Flushing. Lord Chatham was utterly incapable as a leader, and Lord Castlereagh,who had planned the expedition, failed to provide the necessary supplies. After the delay at Flushing the army was quartered in the island of Walcheren. By the time Chatham was ready to attack Antwerp, Berna- dotte had come to its assistance, and, as the British forces had been greatly reduced by disease, success was hopeless. It was decided, however, to retain Ossession of Walcheren, and it was garrisoned by a force of) 15,000 men until Dec., 1809. Over 7,000 men lost their lives in the expedition, which was an utter failure. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Walckenaer, va”al-kc-naar', CHARLES ATHANASE, Baron : scientist; b. in Paris, Dec. 25, 1771; was drafted into the army in 1793; became a mayor of Paris in 1816 ; entered the civil service during the Restoration, and was appointed prefect of the department of Niévre in 1824 and of that of Aisne in 1826 ; retired from public life in 1830, and devoted himself exclusively to science; was chosen perpetual secre- tary of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1840. His most re- markable works are Eaune parisienne des Insectes (1805) ; Tableau des Aranéides (1805); Histoire naturelle des In- sectes apteres (1837) ; Le Monde maritime (1818) ; Ge'o- graphic historique et comparée des Gaules (1839) ; Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de La Eontaine (Paris, 1820) ; Mi- moires on Madame de Sévigné (5 vols., 1842); he also pub- lished Nouvclle Collection de Voyages (21 vols., 1826-31). D. in Paris, Apr. 27, 1852. Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. Walcott, CHARLES DOOLITTLE: paleontologist and geolo- gist ; b. at New York Mills, Oneida co., N. Y., Mar. 31, 1850; became assistant to Prof. James Hall, State geologist of New York, in 1876; entered the U. S. Geological Survey in 1879 as assistant geologist, and became paleontologist 1883, chief paleontologist 1891, geologist in charge of geology and pale- ontology 1893, and director 1894. Among his writings are The Trilobite .' New and Old Evidence Relating to its Or- ganization (Bull. Mus. Comp. ZO6l., vol. viii., NO. 10, 1881); Paleontology of the Eureka District, Nevada (Monograph 8, U. S. Geol. Surv.,1884); The Cambrian Faunas of North America (Bull. 10, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1885); Second Contri- bution to the Studies of the Cambrian Eaunas of North America (Bull. 30, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1886); The Taconic System of Emmons (Am. Jour. Science, vol. xxxv., 1888); The Fauna of the Lower Cambrian or Olenellus Zone (10th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., 1890); Correlation Papers, Cambrian (Bull. 81, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1891). Waldeck, va“al’dek, JEAN FREDERIC, de : traveler, ar'chee- ologist, and artist ; b. in Paris, Mar. 16, 1766. When a young man he was with Levaillant in South Africa ; subsequently be studied art, but during the French Revolution he entered the army, served under Bonaparte in Italy, and followed him to Egypt in 1798, though he was not in active service there. On the failure of the Egyptian expedition Waldeck, with WALDENSIAN CHURCH four companions, undertook a erilous exploration over the desert of Dongola, from which e alone returned. Later he was at Mauritius, and in 1819 went with Cochrane to Chili, whence he passed to Central America. He settled as an en- graver in London in 1822, but in 1825 returned to Central America, and, aided by a small grant from the French Gov- ernment, spent twelve years studying the ruins of Southern Mexico and Guatemala, and making careful drawings of them. A large portion of his notes and drawings were lost; the remainder were sold to the French Government, and from them he lithographed many of the plates for the Monu- ments anciens du Mercique, published in 1866, after he had passed his hundredth year. He published independently Voyage archéologigue et pittoresque dans le Yucatan (1837). D. in Paris, Apr. 29, 1875. H. H. S. Waldeck-Pyrmont : a principality of Northwestern Ger- many with one vote in the federal council and one in the imperial diet. It consists of two separate parts-the for- mer county of Waldeck, surrounded by Prussian territory, with an area of 407 sq. miles and 57,281 inhabitants (1890), and the principality of Pyrmont, 30 miles to the N., between Hanover, Lippe, and Brunswick, with an area of 26 sq. miles and 8,104 inhabitants. Waldeck is, for the most part, hilly. The rivers Diemel and Eder in Waldeck and the Emmer in Pyrmont belong to the \Veser system. The moun- tainous parts are not fertile, only 555 per cent. of the soil being utilized for fields, gardens, and pastures, while 36 per cent. is forest-land. Grain, especially rye and oats, potatoes, and flax, are the principal products; wood, iron, salt, slate, marble, and sandstone form the chief exports; cattle-raising is extensively carried on. The chief drawback of the coun- try is the absence Of railways, the Prussian railway sys- tem touching only the extreme southeastern part Of the principality. The capital and residence of the prince is Arolsen, in Waldeck, with (1890) 2,620 inhabitants, but the government is practically in Prussian hands under a Lan- desdirelctor. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Walden : village; Orange co., N. Y. ; on the Walkill river, and the Walkill Valley Railroad; 12 miles N. W. of New- burg, and 73 miles N. by W. of New York (for location, see map of New York, ref. 7-J). It contains woolen-mills, cut- lery-works, foundries, manufactories of engines and soa , a national bank (capital $50,000), and a savings-bank, and Ihas two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,804; (1890) 2,132. Walden, or Walden’ sis, THOMAS, whose family name was NETTER: ecclesiastic; b. at Saffron Walden, Essex, England, about 1375 ; educated at Oxford ; entered the Carmelite or- der in London, and was ordained sub-deacon 1395; was at the Council of Pisa 1409; on his return became and remained a leading prosecutor of the Wyclifites or Lollards, and is known to have been present at the trials of William Tailor (1410) and Sir John Oldcastle (1413); and to have publicly rebuked Henry V. because he was slow about punishing the heretics. He became a provincial prior of the English Car- melites 1414 ; attended in that capacity the Council of Con- stance 1415: went to Lithuania 1419; founded there several houses of his order, and negotiated a peace between the King of Poland and the Teutonic Knights; converted the Duke of Lithuania to .the Catholic Church, whence he was styled the “Apostle of the Lithuanians ”; was confessor to Henry V., whom he attended on his deathbed (1422), and became confessor to his son Henry VI. ; accompanied Henry VI. to France, and died at Rouen, Nov. 2, 1430. He instituted the order of Carm elite nuns in England, and in many other ways served his order, which in gratitude has enrolled him among the saints. He was the author of treatises, Doctrinale an- tiquum Eidei Ecclesice Catholicce contra Wicleiiistas ct IIus- sitas, and De Sacramentis, and is sup Osed to have been the writer of the series of tracts entitled asciculi Zizaniorum Joha/nnis Wyclif (Bundles of Wyclif’s Tares), consisting of seven portions, the first two of which were first edited by Dr. W. W. Shirley in the Rolls Series (1858). Revised by S. M. J AOKSON. Walden’ Sian Cllurcll [named from Peter Waldo (see be- low)] : the oldest Protestant Church in the world, and one of the three native Evangelical churches in Italy, the others be- ing the Evangelical Church of Italy, which was organized in 1865, and the Reformed Catholic Church, a branch of the Old Catholic movement which originated in Germany with Diillinger. Origin and Home.—The Waldensian valleys are in the north of Italy in the midst of the Cottian Alps, about 30 miles S. W. of the city of Turin, the capital of Piedmont. WALDENSIAN CHURCH The territory occupied by Waldenses is from 24 to 25 miles in length and from 14 to 15 in breadth. The chief place is Torre Pellice, with 5,000 inhabitants, where there is a col- lege for boys and a high school for girls. The Waldenses, numbering from 25,000 to 26,000, are chiefly peasants living in small villages. It is now generally agreed among church historians that there is no evidence that the Waldenses were in existence as a separate organization before the days of Peter Waldo, who is accordingly said to be their founder. The question, however, is far from bemg settled. But even if the connection between Waldo and the Walden- sians be denied, it is proper here to say a few words about a reformer whose doctrines are so much like those pro- fessed by the Waldenses themselves. Peter Waldo, rich and respected by his fellow citizens of Lyons, was one day in 1173 conversing with friends, when suddenly one of them fell dead at his feet. That tragical event was the means of turning his attention to spiritual things. He engaged at once two ecclesiastics to prepare for him a vernacular translation of several portions of the Holy Scriptures and of the Fathers. He began to read the word of God in his own tongue, but found no peace. One day he saw a large crowd of peo le listening to a minstrel who was sing- ing the praises of ‘t. Alexis, who had left all and had gone to the East to do penance. Waldo thought it his duty to do the same, and was confirmed in his opinion bya canon whom he had consulted, who said to hi1n. “ If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor.” He then gave part of his property to his wife and to his daughters, and part to the poor, and began to preach in the streets of Lyons. His aim was to revive the fervent. simple, self-denying piety of the primitive Church. He emphasized the right and duty of every Christian to study the Scrip- tures for himself. His followers styled themselves The Poor, others called them Leonistae, from Lyons, or Sabatati, because they wore sabots, or wooden shoes. Waldo, silenced by the Archbishop of Lyons, appealed to the pope, Alex- ander, who gave him a cordial reception, approved his vow of poverty, but advised him not to preach unless he had the permission of the local clergy. In 1184 he was con- demned by the Council of Verona and anathematized by Pope Lucius III. The date of his death is not known. His followers increased greatly, and some crossed the Alps and joined the Waldenses, who were steadily spreading over the north of Italy. He'story to 1848.—Every period in the history of the Wal- denses is marked by a new persecution by Rome and by the Dukes of Savoy, who too often were but the humble serv- ants of the popes. In 1487, under Pope Innocent VIII., Alberto Cataneo invaded the valleys at the head of 18,000 regular troops; being repulsed, he crossed the Alps and avenged himself by destroying the Waldenses of Val Louise. In 1655 occurred the most severe trial to which the Wal- denses were subjected. An army, composed partly of French troops of Louis XIV., partly of Irish soldiers, entered the valleys and spread destruction on every side. They treated the people with terrible barbarity, so that the conscience of Europe was aroused, and England under Cromwell called on the Protestant powers to join in remonstrance to the Duke of Savoy and the French king. The massacre to which the people were subjected called forth l\’Iilton’s immortal son- net beginning, “ Avenge, O Lord, thy slaughtered saints.” In 1686 the Waldenses, obliged by Victor Amadeus II. to choose between their religion and their country, after a hard struggle went into exile in Switzerland and Germany. In 1689 one of their pastors, Henry Arnaud, led a band of 800 men to the reconquest of their country, and succeeded. For a while the Waldenses were left in peace, but not long afterward all the Protestants who were not born in the valleys were obliged to leave them, and emigrated to IViirtemberg. Henry Arnaud, the brave leader and faithful pastor, being born in France, was obliged to accompany them. He died in Schtinberg, Sept. 8, 1721, after a faithful ministry. In short, it may be said with truth that the only time in which the I/Valdenses, during their long and eventful history, en- joyed real freedom was during the French Revolution and when Napoleon I. ruled over Italy. At last, on Feb. 17, 1848, King Charles Albert proclaimed the constitution and granted them religious toleration, toleration which now, by the force of events, has been changed into freedom. Doctrinal Hist07~y, Development, and P0lt'ty.—-It is com- monly asserted that the Waldensian Church was never re- formed because it did not need reformation, having kept the Gospel in its purity. That opinion, so fondly enter- 583 tained by many, is not in accordance with the facts. fundamental doctrines of the early Waldenses were: “We must obey God rather than man; we must follow Christ in his poverty and reclaim a crooked generation by the free preaching of the Gospel. Two are the ways, one leads to perdition, the other to eternal life. Purgatory exists, but in this life only. The intercession of saints is useless, and use- less their worship.” They had the triple vow of chastity, pfoverty, and obedience. They worshiped God, and held the 1rg1n Mary in veneration. They practiced confession, but their teachers pronounced the absolution in this way, “ May God absolve thee from thy sins.” They disapproved of capi- tal punishment. Their missionary spirit was great, and their knowledge of the Scriptures was wonderful for the times. Later on, when persecution had crushed so many of them, they were more lax in their observances; their ideas about many points of doctrine were confused, as ap- pears from a letter which two delegates, Maurel and Masson, laid before the Swiss and German reformers. From that letter it would appear that the Waldenses received the sacraments of baptism and Holy Communion from the regu- lar priesthood; that they acknowledged the seven sacra- ments of Rome, but gave them a spiritual meaning; that clerical celibacy was their rule, though they admitted that it created a great many disorders. The reformers, (Ecolam- padms, Bucer, Farel, advised and enlightened them on many pomts. “We admit,” they said, “ but two sacraments, bap- t1sm and the Lord’s Supper, and they are symbolical. The canon of Holy Scriptures must be expunged, and the apoc- ryphal books left aside. It is not against the Gospel to take an oath, matrimony is honorable for every man, the apostle did not prescribe celibacy ; you must not outwardly submit to the ordinances of the Church.” “ God,” said CEco- lampadius, “ is a jealous God, and does not permit his elect to put themselves under the yoke of Antichrist.” At a synod held at Chanforans in 1532- in the valley of Angrogna a new confession of faith was adopted, which assimilated the practices of the Waldenses to those of the Swiss congre- gations, renounced for the future all recognition of the Roman communion, and established their worship no longer as a secret meeting of a faithful few, but as public assem- blies for the glory of God. Henceforth the Waldenses were absorbed in the general Protestant movement of Europe. At the same synod 500 pieces of gold were set aside by the small Church for the purpose of having the Bible translated and printed in French. In due time the Bible of Olivetan was published at Neuchzitel, Switzerland. with this date, “ From the Alps, the 12th of February, 1535.” At the be- ginning of the nineteenth century the piety and the mis- sionary spirit of the Waldenses had lost much of their former fervor. Félix Neif revived their faith; Canon Gilly, of Durham, by his book, A Ve'sz't fo the Valleys of Piedmont, drew the attention of the Christian Church to this interest- ing people. Moved by that book, which he chanced to see in the library of the Duke of Wellington, Col. Beckwith visit- ed the Waldenses in 1827, settled among them, and for thirty-five years devoted himself to the promotion of their welfare. He married an accomplished VValdensian lady, lived among the people, established 120 primary schools, and was the means of building the fine Waldensian church in Turin. ]_Z'calest'aszfz'0al Polity/.—This is now undoubtedly Presby- terian, very much resembling that of the Church of Scot- land. The Waldenses are admitted in the Pan-Presbyterian council as a Presbyterian body. But it is by no meansyproved that this was their primitive form of government. Gilly. an Episcopalian, intimates that Presbyterianism was thrust upon them in the year 1630. In that year all the pastors, with but three exceptions, were removed by the plague which devastated the valleys. Recourse was had to Geneva and France for a supply of preachers, and those who were sent bemg Presbyterians, brought with them and established in Piedmont that form of Church polity which now prevails. The Moravian Brethren go so far as to afiirm that their first bishop received the Episcopal ordination from Ste- phanus, bishop of the Valleys. Wliether that opinion is true or not can not be affirmed with certainty. The fact is that the I/Valdenses, although Presbyterian, differ some- what from the Presbyterian Churches in some respects. They keep Christmas. Good Friday, Easter, and Ascension Day. They have the rite of confirmation as in the Episco- p_al Church; they have a liturgy, and the ministers are at hberty to use it or not. Their Synod, which corres onds to the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Churc , meets The’ 584 WALDENSIAN CHURCH once a year and is composed of all the ordained ministers of the home church and of the mission field. The lay deputa- tion is composed of two delegates (not necessarily ruling elders) from every parish in the valleys and one delegate for every 400 eommunicants in the mission field. During the interval between two synods the administration of the home church rests on a board of five members, and the adminis- tration of the mission field on the Committee of Evangeliza- tion, composed of seven persons. The seminary of the Church is in Florence. Those who wish to be enrolled as regular theological students must have a Government diploma which corresponds to the degree of M. A. in England. The curric- ulum lasts three years, nine months every year. There are three professors. History since 1848.-—After the Waldenses received their civil and religious freedom in 1848 they began a work of evangelization among their countrymen. Amidst great difficulties they have succeeded in establishing in the Italian Peninsula and in the islands of Elba, Sardinia, and Sicily, 44 churches, ministered to and superintended by 43 pastors. Kindred to these there are also 47 stations with 47 evangel- ists and 8 teacher evangelists. The number of communi- cants in the mission field is 5,018, the number of adherents 55,000 ; the contributions from the mission churches $15,200. Connected with the missions there are 29 day-schools, with 54 teachers and 2,397 scholars. There are also 12 night- schools for adults, and specially for workingmen whose edu- cation has been insutficient or utterly neglected in their boyhood. In these schools there are 370 scholars. There are 61 Sunday-schools with 3,119 pupils. The 25,000 or 26,000 Waldenses living in the valleys, of whom 14,248 are church-members, have 20 pastors, 17 par- ishes, 4,804 children in the day-schools, with 300 teachers and 3,290 children in the Sunday-schools. The contribu- tions from the churches for all purposes were in 1894 $14,- 000. Besides the Waldenses in the valleys, there are at least 2,000 in the city of Turin and some hundreds scattered throughout Italy, engaged either in business or in teaching. There is a large colony in Marseilles. About 1850 several hundreds left their mountains and went to colonize Rosario in the Argentine Republic. They number now 2,500, have two pastors and good schools, and are prospering. In the U. S. there are two colonies of Waldenses, one in Monett, Mo., and one in North Carolina. BIBLIOGRAPHY.——Th6 literature is copious. Space permits mention of only the more important of the numerous books. For convenience of reference these are arranged alphabetic- ally: Henri Arnaud, Histoire de la glorieuse rentre'e [1689] des Vaudois clans leur vallées (Cassel, 1710; n. e. Neuchatel, 1845; Geneva, 1879 ; Eng. trans. The Glorious Recovery by the Vaudois of their Valleys, London, 1827); Amedeo Bert, I Valdesi ossiano i Cristiani-Cattolici secondo la Chiesa primitiva abitanti le cosi dette Valli di Piemonte (Turin, 1849); Cesare Cantu, Gli Eretici in Italia : discorsi storici (3 vols., Turin, 1865-67); Emilio Comba, Henri Arnaud, sa vie et ses lettres (La Tour, 1889); the same, Storia dei Valdesi (Turin, 1893); Teofilo Gay, Il rimpatrio dei Val- clesi (Turin, 1879); Pierre Gilles, Histoire eeelésiastique des Eglises Reformées, reeueillies pn guelques vallées du Pie’- mont . . . autrefois appelées Eglises Vaudoises, commen- pant des l’an 1160 . . . et finissant en Pan 1643 (Geneva, 1644); William Stephen Gilly, Narrative of an Eascursion to the Mountains of Piemont, and Researches among the Vaudois, or Waldenses (London, 1824; 3d ed. 1826); the same, Waldensian Researches during a Second Visit to the Vaudois of Piemont, with an Introductory Inquiry into the Antiquity and Purity of the VValdensian Church (1831); Christoph Ulrich Hahn, Geschichte der Waldense¢~ und ver- wandter Sehten (1847 ; vol. ii. of his Geschichte der Ketzer im M'ittelalter, besonders im 11., 12., und 13. Jahrhundert, Stuttgart, 1845-50, 3 vols.); Johann Jacob Herzog, Die ro- manischen Waldenser, ihre vorreformatorisehen Zustdnde und Lehren, ihre Reformation im 16. Jahrhundert und die Riichwirhungen derselben (Halle, 1853) ; Antoine Monastier, Histoire de l’Eglise Vaudoise, etc. (2 vols., Paris, 1847 ; Eng. trans., A History of the Vaudois Churchfrom its Origin, and of the Vaudois of Piedmont to the Present Day, London, 1848); Samuel Morland, The history of the Eva/ngelieal Churches of the valleys of Piemont, containing a. . . de- scription of the place, and a faithfull account of the doc- trine, life, and persecutions of the ancient inhabitants; . . . with a . . . relation of the . . . bloudy massacre in 1655 (London, 1658); Alexis Muston, L’Israe'l des Atpes, etc. (4 vols., Paris, 1851 ; Eng. trans., The Israel of the Alps: a Com- WALDSEEMULLER plete History of the Vaudois of Piedmont and their Colonies, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and New York, 1857; n. e. enlarged, London, 1863); the same, Gian Luigi Paschale (Turin, 1893); Frantisek Palackyu Ueber die Beziehungen und die Verhc'tltn/isse der VValdenser zu den ehemaligen Sehten in Bo‘/mnen (Prague, 1869); Jean Paul Perrin, Histoire des Vaudois (Geneva,1619; Eng. trans., Luther’s Forerunners, London, 1624); Albert de Rochas d’Aiglun, Les Vallées Vaudoises (Paris, 1880) ; C. H. Strong, Brief Shetch of the Waldenses (Lawrence, Kan., 1893); Felice Tocco, L’Eresia nel .Medio Evo (Florence, 1884); James I-Ienthorne Todd, The Waldensian IV! SS. preserved in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin (London and Cambridge, 1865); B. Tron, Pierre Valdo et les Pauvres de Lyon (Pignerol, 1879); Au- gust Wilhelm, Die IValdenser im Mittelalter (Gtittingen, 1851); Jane Louisa Willyams, A Short History of the Wal- densian Church (London, 1855; 3d ed. by Mrs. Matheson, 1879) ; James Aitken Wylie, History of the W aldenses (Lon- don, 1880). Cf. Philip Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, i., 568-575 (The Waldensian Catechism, trans. 574, 575), iii., 757-770 (The Confession of the Waldenses, A. D. 1665); the Bulletin de la Société d’Histoire Vaudoise, annually pub- lished at Torre Pellice, and Bulletin du Bi-centenaire de la Glorieuse Rentrée (Turin, 1889). FRANcEsco ROSTAN. Waldensis : See WALDEN, THOMAS. Waldersee, ALFRED, Count von: soldier; b. in Potsdam, Germany, Apr. 8, 1832 ; entered the army in 1850 and served with distinction in the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71. In 1881 he was appointed quartermaster-general, and became deputy of Count von Moltke, whom he finally succeeded as chief of the general staff of the German army in 1888. Count von Vilaldersee married in 1874 the widow of Prince Fred- eric of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, née Mary Esther Lee, of New York. Waldeyer, HEINRICH WILEELM GOTTFRIED, M. D. : anat- omist; b. at Hehlen, Brunswick, Germany, Oct. 6, 1836; studied mathematics and natural sciences at the University of Gtittingen, but subsequently applied himself to medicine; studied anatomy under Henle at the University of Greifs- wald, and then went to the University of Berlin where he graduated M. D. in 1861. From 1862-64 he was an assist- ant to von Witticli in the physiological institute of the University of Ktinigsberg ; from 1864-65 he was assistant to Heidenhain in the University of Breslau, where in 1865 he was made extraordinary and in 1867 regular professor of pathological anatomy. In 1872 he was appointed Professor of Anatomy in the University of Strassburg, leaving in 1883 to go to the University of Berlin. He is the author of a number of monographs on anatomy and embryology, and assistant editor of the Archiv filr mihroshopische Anatomic. S. T. ARMSTRONG. Waldo, PETER: See WALDENSIAN CHURGH. Wald0b0I'0: town (settled by Germans in 1749, incor- orated in 1773); port of entry; Lincoln co., Me.; on the Iedomak river, and the Maine Cent. Railroad ; 19 miles W. of Rockland, 19 miles E. N. E. of Wiscasset (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 10-D). It is in an agricultural re- gion, was formerly noted for its ship-building interests, has a U. S. custom-house, public high school, a national bank with capital of $50,000, and a weekly newspaper, and is principally engaged in the manufacture of shoes and cloth- ing. Pop. (1880) 3,758; (1890) 3,505. EDITOR or “ LINCOLN COUNTY NEWS.” Waldseemiiller, or Waltzeemiiller, vaa1t’za-miil-ler, MARTIN (in the Greek form, which he adopted in accord- ance with the fashion of his time, Hylacomylus): geog- rapher; b. at Freiburg, Germany, about 1470. During several years, from 1504, he was Professor of Geography in the College of St. Die in the Vosges. There, in 1507, he published a small treatise in Latin, entitled Cosnzoyra- phice introductio, with translations of the letters of Ves- pucci as an appendix. This work is chiefly remarkable be- cause the name America was first proposed in it. (See VESPUCCI.) Several editions of it were printed on the col- lege press, but all are now extremely rare; the few copies in American libraries have been purchased for enormous prices and are treasured with great care. In conjunction with other scholars at St. Dié, Waldseemidler prepared an edition of Ptolemy, which was published at Strassburg in 1513 ; it is remarkable that the name America does not ap- pear in this work, though it has some curious maps of the New World. HERBERT H. SMITH. WALDSTEIN Waldstein: See WALLENSTEIN. Wales [from O. Eng. wealh, plur. wealas, foreigner, es- ecially a Celt or Welshman (: O. H. Germ. waZh,) whence by deriv. weltsc, foreign, especially Celtic (> Eng. W'eZsh): Germ. wdlsoh, foreign]: a principality; since 1282 an in- tegral part of the kingdom of England. It has an area of 7,363 sq. miles. Phym'eaZ Features.—The two-horned peninsula of \Vales extends from Liverpool Bay to Bristol Channel, and is bound- ed on the W. by St. George’s Channel, which separates it from Ireland (see map of England and Wales). The fertile plain of Cheshire and the valley of the Severn form the natural boundary between England and the mountain region of Wales, but the present political boundary lies much farther to the W. The Welsh Hills or Cambrian Mountains attain their greatest height in Snowdon (3,570 feet), close to Menai Strait, which separates the mainland from the dependent island of Anglesey. A depression at the head of the Severn separates North from South Wales, and the hills of the lat- ter are particularly distinguished by their barrenness, their highest range being known as Black Mountains (Brecknock Beacon, 2,910 feet), from the color of the heather which covers them. The only level tract of any extent is the Vale of Glamorgan on the Bristol Channel, but there are many valleys distinguished for their loveliness, especially those of the Wye in the south and of the upper Dee in the north. The coast is generally bold and rugged. At the south- west extremity of the peninsula a fiord, known as Milford Haven, penetrates far inland, and forms one of the most se- cure harbors of the British islands, although, owing to its remoteness, it is but little used. The Dee, Severn, and \Vye rise in Wales, but in each case the lower, navigable course is through England, and except the Tawe, Tafi°, and Conway, none of the exclusively Welsh rivers is navigable. The only lake of any size is that of Bala. Geologically, Wales is the most ancient soil of Great Britain, and its mountains, built up of Laurentian, Cam- brian, and Silurian rocks, reared their summits long before England emerged above the sea. These ancient rocks are pierced, as in Scotland, by granite, porphyry, and other ig- neous rocks, and in the south a belt of Devonian rocks in- tgrvenes between them and the coal-basin of Glamorgan- s ire. IncZustm'es.—Wales is in the main a pastoral country, for of its area only 20 per cent. is under the plow, while 41 per cent. consists of grass-lands and 9 per cent. of mountain pasture. The woods cover 35 per cent. The live stock in- cludes 666,000 head of cattle and nearlyr 3,000,000 sheep. Coal and iron abound, Glamorganshire alone raising nearly 22,000,000 tons of the former, half of which is exported an- nually through Cardiff, the greatest coaling-port of the United Kingdom. Lead, copper, and gold are found, and roofing-slates in large quantities are exported from North Wales. Iron and steel works have sprung up in the coal- basins, but among other industries that of fiannels and woolens is of most importance. PopuZcu%on.—The population between 1881 and 1891 in- creased from 1,360,513 to 1,518,914 souls, but the increase was confined to the counties of Glamorgan (increase, 175.- 785), Ca-rmarthen, and Denbigh, while throughout the re- mainder of the principality there was a decrease. The only large towns are Cardiff (128,849), Swansea (90,423), and Merthyr Tydvil (58,080). English is the language of commerce and of culture, but Welsh is still spoken by 51 per cent. of the population. The Church of England is still the established church in Wales, but in the greater part of the country the majority of the people have turned their backs upon it, and adopted the teaching of various Dissenting bodies, among which the Cal- vinistic Methodists are the most numerous. Education is not as far advanced as in England, but there are 4 un'iver- sity colleges (91 professors, 929 students), of which one has the power to confer degrees, 10 theological colleges, 4 training institutions, and 12 public grammar schools. See \VELSH LANGUAGE and WELSH IJITER-A'1‘URE. ' .HJstory.-—\Vales from the most remote time was divided mto a number of petty kingdoms or principalities, and only at long intervals did its tribes submit to the authority of a single ruler. Under the Romans, who established them- selves in the country about 50 A. D. after the defeat of the Silures and Ordovices, VVales, or rather Cambria, formed part of Britannia Secunda. Isca (now Caerleon), V enta Si- WALKER 585 lurum (Caergwert), and Segontium (near Carnarvon) were the principal towns. Christian missionaries first arrived in the fourth century. After the retirement of the Romans the wars between the Welsh and Saxons were incessant. Athelstan (925-941) imposed a tribute upon the Welsh, which they paid, however, only for a time. ‘William the Con- queror (1066) again reduced them to obedience, and his son, I/Villiam II., settled. the Lords Marchers along the borders of Wales to protect England against their incursions, and founded a Flemish colony in Pembrokeshire. On the ac- cession of Edward I. (1272) the Welsh prince Llewelyn (Llywelyn ap Gruffydd) refused to do homage; but, after the betrayal and murder of that prince (1282) and the execu- tion of his brother David at Shrewsbury, the nobility of Wales submitted to the king, and Wales was finally united with England, the title of Prince of Wales being bestowed upon the king’s infant son, then recently born at Carnarvon Castle. The last effort of the Welsh to recover their liberty was made in 1400 under the leadership of Owen Glendower (Owain Glyndwr), a descendant of the old princes. In 1546 Henry VIII. abolished the government of the Lords of the Marches, united Monmouthshire, and divided the rest of Wales into twelve shires. Since that time Welshmen have in all respects enjoyed the rights of Englishmen. See Woodward, The History of Wales (1853); Borrow, Wild Wales (1888); Doran, The Book of the Princes of Wales (1860). E. G. Ravmvsrsm. Wales, Prince of : See ALBERT EDWARD. Wales, Princess of: See ALEXANDRA. Walewski, v.~a'a-lev'ske'e, ALEXANDRE FLORI.-LN JOSEPH COLONNA, Count: statesman; b. at \Yalewice, Poland, May 4, 1810; reputed to be the son of Napoleon I. and the Countess Walewska; was educated at Geneva; fought in the ranks of the Polish patriot army in 1831, and was sent in the same year to London to solicit a British interven- tion; went to France after the fall of Warsaw; entered the army as a captain, but soon gave up the military career, and devoted himself to politics and literature; wrote Un Blot sur la Question d’A_fg*igue (1837), L’AZZz'ance angZaz'se (1838), also a drama, L'Ecole du l[onde (1840), and founded the ilfessager, which he sold in 1840 to Thiers; entered the diplomatic service, and was charge’ d’affaz'res to Buenos Ayres at the outbreak of the Revolution of 1848; from 1849 to 1854 was ambassador to Florence, Naples, and London, successively; was Minister of Foreign Affairs May 7, 1855- J an. 4, 1860, Minister of State Nov. 24, 1860—June 23, 1863, and president of the Legislative Assembly Sept. 1, 1865- Apr. 2, 1867. The emperor bestowed on him the title of duke in 1866. D. at Strassburg, Oct. 27, 1868. ‘ Revised by F. M. COLBY. ‘Valhalla or Valhalla, va“al-haal'la“a [: Germ., from Icel. vaZh5ZZ, liter., hall of the slain; ralr, slain + /252?, hall]: a marble temple of fame, built to commemorate the wars be- tween Germany and France which ended with the downfall of Napoleon I. in 1815. It was begun in 1830, and finished in 1842. It stands on a hill on the Danube, at a place called Donaustauf, a few miles below Regensburg. It was con- ceived by Louis I. of Bavaria and planned by Leo von Klenze. It is a copy of the Parthenon, and is 232 feet long. 110 feet wide, and 63 feet high. Visitors ascend by marble steps from the foot of the hill, and the substructure and surround- ings greatly enhance the grandeur and beauty of the build- ing proper. The bas-reliefs, statues, and groups which adorn the edifice are the works of Schwanthaler, Rauch, and J o- hann Martin von Wagner. This temple was made for busts and statues of all the great men and women produced by Germany. It now contains 163 busts, and also a number of marble tablets giving the names of persons of whom no reliable portraits could be procured. It is one of the most remarkable buildings in all Germany. See VALHAL. Rasnus B. ANDERSON. Walk : See GAITS. Walker, AMASA, LL. D.: political economist; b. at IVoodstock, Conn., May 4, 1799: educated in the common school at North Brookfield, Mass.; became a merchant at Boston 1825 ; was a prominent advocate of the construction of the Western Railroad, an influential member of the early anti-slavery circles, and a leader in the cause of temper- ance, and visited Europe 1843 and 1849 as delegate to peace conventions. He was Professor of Political Econom_v at Oberlin College, O.,1842-49; representative in the Massa- chusetts Legislature 1848, member of the State Senate 1849, 586 Secretary of State 1851-1852; member of the State consti- tutional convention 1853, of Congress 1862-63, and of the Philadelphia loyalists’ convention 1866; and lecturer on political economy at Amherst College in 1861-66. D. at North Brookfield. Mass., Oct. 29, 1875. He published The Science of Wealth (1866), and was one of the editors of the Transactions of the Agricultural Society of Massachusetts (7 vols., 1848-54). Revised by FRANOIS A. WALKER. Walker, FRANoIs AMASA, Ph. D., LL. D.: soldier and statistician; son of Amasa NValker; b. in Boston, Mass., July 2, 1840; graduated at Amherst 1860; studied law under Judges Devens and Hoar at \/Vorcester; entered the army 1861 as sergeant-major of Devens’s regiment; became assistant adjutant-general of Couch’s brigade Sept. 14, 1861, adjutant-general of Couch’s division Aug. 11, 1862, lieuten- ant-colonel on staff of Second Army-corps J an, 1, 1863, and brevet brigadier-general 1865 ; wounded at Chancellorsville; taken prisoner at Reams’s Station, and confined in Libby prison, where his health was shattered; was a teacher at Williston Seminary, Easthampton, Mass., 1865-68; an ed- itor of the Springfield Republican 1868-69; became chief of the bureau of statistics of the Treasury Department at Washington 1868; was superintendent of ninth U. S. cen- sus (1870) ; commissioner of Indian affairs 1871-72, and be- came in 1872 Professor of Political Economy and History in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College. He ed- ited three 4to volumes of Census Reports, compiled a Sta- tistical Atlas of the United States (1874), and published The Indian Question (Boston, 1874); The Wages Question (1876); Money (1878); and Money, Trade, and Industry (1879). Between 1879 and 1881 he conducted the tenth census, and superintended the preparation of the reports; was chosen president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1881; elected a correspondent of the Institute of France 1893; has published Political Economy (New York, 1883); Land and its Rent (1883); History of the Second Army Corps (1886) ; Life of Gen. Winfield S. Hancock, in the Great Commander Series (New York, 1894); and The Iflalcing of the Nation (1895). Walker, FREDERICK: painter; b. in Marylebone, Lon- don, May 24, 1840; studied at the Royal Academy; became a wood-engraver; furnished drawings for several magazines ; contributed to the exhibitions of the Society of Painters in Water-colors; and was made an A. R. A. in 1871. D. at St. Fillans, Perthshire, June 4, 1876. Among his oil-paintings, which are remarkable for their peculiar color effects, are The Bathers, The Vagrants, The Old Gate, The Plough, The Harbor of Refuge, and The Right of Way. There was an exhibition of about 200 of his pictures in London in 1876. Walker, GEORGE, D. D.: the defender of Londonderry; b. in County Tyrone, Ireland, about 1650; educated at the University of Glasgow; took orders in the Church of Eng- land; was rector of Donoughmore, near Londonderry, Ire- land, when James II. laid siege to that city 1689; gallantly defended Londonderry after it had been abandoned by its governor, and held out until the siege was raised, after 105 days’ investment. He received the thanks of the House of Commons, and was nominated to the bishopric of Derry by William III. He was killed at the battle of the Boyne, July 1, 1690. He published A True Account of the Siege of Lon- donderry (1689) and a Vindication. His statue surmounts a lofty pillar at Londonderry. Walker, Sir HOVENDEN :' naval officer ; b. in Somersetshire, England, about 1660; entered the navy at an early age; be- came a captain 1692, rear-admiral of the red 1709, and of the white 1710; was knighted by Queen Anne 1711; com- manded in that year the unfortunate naval expedition which sailed from Boston against Canada; lost half his vessels by shipwreck on the Isle aux CEufs, and had to abandon the enterprise; attributed his failure to lack of support on the part of the New England colonists; after- ward suffered the loss of his ship, the Edgar, which blew up at Spithead 1715, and he was thereupon dismissed from the service; subsequently settled in South Carolina as a planter, and published A Journal or Full Account of the Late Ezr- pedition to Canada (London, 1720). D. in Dublin, Ireland. in Jan., 1726. I Walker, JAMES, D. D.: preacher and educator; b. at Burlington (then Woburn), Mass., Aug. 16, 1794; graduated at Harvard College 1814; studied theology at Cambridge; was pastor of the Unitarian church in Charlestown. Mass., 1818-38; editor of The Christian Examiner 1831-39; Al- WALKER ford Professor of Moral and Intellectual Philosophy at Har- vard 1838-53, and resident of Harvard University 1853-60. D. at Cambridge, ec. 23, 1874. He left his valuable library and $15,000 in money to the university. He was the author of Sermons preached in the Chapel of I-Iarvard College (1861); A flfemoir of Daniel Appleton White (1863) ; A 1lIemoir of Josiah Quincy (1867); and a posthumous vol- ume of Discourses (1876); delivered three series of Lectures on Natural Religion and a course of Lowell lectures on the Philosophy of Religion; published a number of occasional sermons and addresses, and edited as college text-books Du- gald Stewart’s Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers of Alan (Cambridge, 1849) and Dr. Thomas Reid’s Essays on the Intellectual Powers, abridged, with Notes and Illus- trations from Sir William Hamilton and others (Cam- bridge, 1850). Revised by J . W. CHADWIOK. Walker, JAMES BARR, D. D.: clergyman and author; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., July 29, 1805 ; became an operator in a factory at Pittsburg; subse uently was a printer; was clerk to Mordecai M. Noah in New York city; principal of an academy at New Durham, N. J .; studied law at Ravenna, O.; graduated at Western Reserve College, Hudson, O., 1831 ; edited successively The Ohio Observer at Hudson, the Watchman of the Valley at Cincinnati, and the Watchman of the Prairies (now The Advance) in Chicago, all religious newspapers; was also engaged in the book-trade; studied theology ; was licensed to preach 1841, and was for a time a lecturer at Oberlin College and Chicago Theological Semi- nary. He was the author of The Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation (Boston, 1855, published anonymously under the editorship of Prof. C. E. Stowe), of which many thousand copies were sold in the U. S. and England, and which was translated into five languages; God Revealed in Nature and in Christ (1855), intended as a refutation of the devel- opment theory; Philosophy of Scepticism amd Ultraism (1857) ; The Philosophy of the Divine Operation in the Re- demption of llfan (London,1862); and The Living Ques- tions of the Age (Chicago, 1869). D. at Wheaton, Ill., Mar. 6, 1887. Revised by GEoReE P. FISHER. Walker, JOHN: dictionary-maker; b. at Colney Hatch, near London, England, Mar. 18, 1732; was in early life engaged in mercantile pursuits, and was subsequently an actor; established i11 1767 a school at Kensington, and from 1769 devoted himself to lecturing on elocution in England, Scotland, and Ireland, a profession in which he achieved great success. Author of a Rhyming Dictionary (1775); Elements of Elocution (1781); Rhetorical Gram- mar (1785) ; and of a Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language (1791), which was long the standard work of its class and has passed through forty editions. D. in London, Aug. 1, 1807. Walker, JOHN GRIMES: U. S. naval officer; b. Mar. 20, 1835, at Hillsboro, N. H. ; graduated at the Naval Academy in 1856; during the civil war served on the Atlantic coast blockade in 1861, and was transferred to the western Gulf blockading squadron in 1862 ; served with distinguished gal- lantry a.t the taking of New Orleans and Vicksburg, and in almost all the battles on the Mississippi river and its tribu- taries during the years 1862 and 1863, and commanded the gunboat Shawmut at the taking of VVilmington, N. C., in 1865. He was secretary of the lightl1ouse board 1873-78; chief of bureau of navigation Oct. 22, 1881-89; commanding South Atlantic station, with rank of acting rear-admiral 1889-93; rear-admiral and president of the naval retiring board in Washington in 1895. Walker, LEROY POPE: lawyer and soldier; b. near Huntsville, Ala., July 8, 1817 : became a lawyer; early entered public life; was speaker of t-he Alabama House 1847-50; a judge of the State circuit court 1850-53; became a prominent advocate of the internal improvement of the State and of the policy of secession; was Confederate secre- tary of war 1861-62; served afterward as a Confederate brigadier-general, and after the civil war resumed legal practice at Huntsville, Ala., where he died Aug. 22, 1884. Walker, ROBERT JAMEs: statesman; b. at N orthumber- land, Pa., July 19, 1801; graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1819 with the highest honors, and in 1821 was admitted to the bar at Pittsburg; entered upon polit- ical life as a Democrat ; in 1826 removed to Natchez, Miss., where he practiced law. He opposed the nullification movement of South Carolina, and, heading the opposition to Hon. George Poindexter, was in 1836 elected to the U. S. WALKER Senate; and in that year brought forward, without success, the first Homestead Bill. In the Senate he at once took a prominent position. In 1837 he brought forward and car- ried through the resolution recognizing the independence of Texas, and in the same year he ably advocated the Inde- pendent Treasury Bill. In 1841 he originated the Pre-emp- tion Act. In 1844 he published a cogent letter in favor of the “reannexation” of Texas, but recommended the grad- ual emancipation of slaves as a condition of her admission as a State. In 1845 he was appointed Secretary of the Treasury, an ollice which he filled with distinguished abil- ity until 1849. The revenue tariff of 1846, the warehouse system, the independent treasury, and the establishment of the Department of the Interior were measures proposed by him. In 1857-58 he was, by appointment of President Buchanan, Governor of Kansas at a most difficult crisis, and was soon at variance with the administration over its policy toward Kansas. He opposed the Lecompton constitution and resigned his office. On the breaking out of the civil war he sustained the Federal Government, and in 1863-64 was financial agent of the U. S. in Europe, negotiating the sale of $250,000,000 in Government bonds. In the latter part of his life he was successfully engaged in the practice of law at Washington, D. C., where he died Nov. 11, 1869. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Walker, SEARS CooK: astronomer; b. at Wilmington, Mass., Mar. 28, 1805; graduated at Harvard 1825; taught school in Boston and Philadelphia 1828-36 ; founded the ob- servatory of the Philadelphia High School 1837 ; was actu- ary to an insurance company in Philadelphia 1836-45; was employed at the Washington observatory 1845-47, where he took a leading part in inventing the electro-chronograph and applying the telegraph to the determination of longi- tudes; investigated the orbit of Neptune and identified that lanet with a star discovered by Lalande in May, 1795, and had charge of the longitude department of the Coast Survey from 1847 to his death, at Cincinnati, Jan. 30, 1853. His most important scientific works were published by the Smithsonian Institution, or in the Transactions and Pro- ceedings of the American Philosophical Society and in Gould’s Astronomical Journal. Revised by S. NEWCOMB. Walker, WILLIAM: filibuster: b. at Nashville, Tenn., May 8,1824. He studied medicine in Europe, and prac- ticed for a short time in Philadelphia; subsequently he was admitted to the bar, and resided for several years at New Orleans, where he was connected with the Crescent journal. In 1850 he went to California, where he settled at Marys- ville as a lawyer and editor. In J uly, 1853, he organized an expedition for the conquest of Northwestern Mexico, where he proposed to found a Pacific Republic. Eluding the vigilance of the authorities, he sailed from San Francisco in October, and landed in Lower California with 170 men. There he proclaimed himself president of the new republic; but a strong Mexican force was sent against him. The party sufi"ered great hardships in attempting to make its way overland to Sonora, and he finally crossed the frontier and surrendered to the commander of the U. S. forces at San Diego. He was tried in San Francisco for violation of the neutrality laws but was acquitted. In 1855, on the invita- tion of some American adventurers in Nicaragua, he agreed to join the democratic faction, which was carrying on a civil war in that country, his ultimate object being to establish an independent government under his own con- trol. fifty-eight men, and was at first repulsed, but, aided by numerous malcontents and by parties of filibusters who came to his aid, he eventually defeated Gen. Guardiola at La Virgen (Sept. 3, 1855), and soon after occupied Granada, the capital. Corral, his princi al opponent, was forced to treat with him in October, and IWalker acknowledged Rivas as president, but with the nominal title of commander-in- chief he really retained all the power. Within a few days he accused Corral of corresponding with the legitimists, and the unfortunate man was found guilty by a court martial and shot. Being new master of a great part of the country, Walker proclaimed himself a candidate for the presidency, and all opposition being suppressed, he was elected. Prae- tieally he was dictator, and though some of his acts were wise, many of them were arbitrary and tyrannical; among other decrees he issued one restoring slavery. But all Cen- tral America was now roused against the invaders. Costa Rica sent a force to aid the legitimists, and her example was soon followed by the other states. From July, 1856, He landed on the Pacific coast of Nicaragua with‘ WALLACE 587 Walker was repeatedly defeated. In Jan., 1857, he aban- doned Granada, after setting the town on fire; on May 1, 1857, he took refuge on a U. S. vessel, and was landed at Panama. He made two other attempts to invade Nicaragua, but was prevented from doing so by the interposition of the U. S. authorities. In June, 1860, he invaded Honduras with the intention of fomenting a revolution, but he met with a vigorous resistance, was eventually forced to sur- render to the commander of the British vessel Icarus, was by him turned over to the government of Honduras, and was tried and shot at Trujillo, Sept. 12, 1860. He published The War in .Nicaragna (Mobile, 1860), a work showing con- siderable literary ability. See also Wells, Walker’s Expe- dition to lVicaragna (1856); H. H. Bancroft, History of Central America, vol. iii. (1887). HERBERT H. SMITH. Walker, WILLIAM SIDNEY: author; b. at Pembroke, Wales, Dec. 4, 1795; educated at Eton and at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge; graduated in 1819; was fellow at Trinity 1822-29, during which period he became blind; afterward gained a scanty subsistence by his pen in London, where, after years of suffering from strange hallucinations due to a painful disease, he died Oct. 15, 1846. At the age of seven- teen Walker published an epic poem. Gnstarus Vasa (1813); translated while an undergraduate Poems from the Danish (1816); subsequently edited a Corpus Poetarnm Latinorum (Cambridge and London. 1827; new ed. 1854); and left in MSS. Shakspearels l’ersification (1852; 3d ed. 1859), and A Critical Escamination of the Text of Shakspeare, etc. (3 vols., 1859), both edited by W. N. Lettsom. See his Poetical Remains, with a 111 emoir, edited by Moultrie (1852). Revised by H. A. BEERS. VValkerton: town; capital of Bruce County, Ontario, Canada; on Saugeen river, 30 miles from Saugeen (South- ampton), and on the Wellington, Grey, and Bruce branch of the Grand Trunk Railway (see map of Ontario, ref. 3—B). It is in an agricultural region, and has three weekly news- papers. important manufactories, an active trade, and a con- siderable water-power afforded by the river. Pop. (1881) 2,604; (1891) 3,061. Walkerville: village; Essex County, Ontario, Canada; on the left bank of the Detroit river, opposite Detroit and adjoining VVindsor on the N. ; and on the Grand Trunk and the Lake Erie and Det. Riv. railways (see map of Ontario, ref. 6—A). It has large distilleries and storage warehouses, the latter containing 4,000,000 gal. Walking : See GAITS. IValking-leaf : the Cam_ptosorus rhizophyllus, a curious fern found in the northern and middle parts of the U. S. It derives both its common and its scientific name from the peculiarity of propagating by touching the ground with the tips of its leaves, where they take root and give origin to new plants. Revised by CHARLES E. BESSEY. W'£1lki11g‘-stick : any one of several orthopterous insects, which with their long bodies and protective coloration close- ly resemble the green or dry twigs among which they live. Their motions are slow, the wings rudimentary or lacking, and they owe their safety from the attacks of enemies to their mimicry of other objects. One common species, Dia- pheromera femorata, which lives on the oak, is about 3 inches in length, but in the tropics there are species 8 or 10 inches long. I ‘V,~11’la.by [the Australian name]: any kangaroo of the genus Halmaturus. \Vallabies are of moderate size, rang- ing up to 50 lb. in weight. The upper incisors of the third pair are comparatively elongate, and have rather narrow crowns and deep grooves, and the premolars are well devel- oped and mostly persistent through life. The wallabies mostly “have a bridle-mark behind the shoulder and a hori- zontal stripe across the haunch{’ They are chiefly nocturnal i11 their habits. The largest species live in Tasmania; the smallest are found in New South \Vales and in VVest Aus- tralia. Revised by F. A. LUcAs. Wallace, ALFRED RUssEL, LL.D.: naturalist: b. at Usk, Monmouthshi.re, England, Jan. 8, 1822; educated at the grammar school of Hertford; was articled to an elder brother as land-surveyor and architect; abandoned that profession to devote himself to natural history; undertook in 1848, with Henry \V. Bates, an exploration of Northern Brazil; resided some months at Para; explored the Ama- zon and Negro rivers; obtained numerous vocabularies of Indian tribes, and made extensive collections in ornithology and botany, which were mostly lost at sea; returned to 588 England 1852; published Travels on the_Amazon and Rio Negro, with Remarks on the Vocabularies of the Amazo- nian Languages (1853). aided in the linguistic part by Robert G. Latham, and Palm Trees of the Amazon (1853); spent eight years in exploring the islands of the_East Indies, espe- cially the Moluccas, Celebes, and New Guinea. He arrived, independently of Darwin’s researches, at a theory of natural selection, which he embodied in a paper, On the Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from the Original Type, read before the Linnman Society July 1, 1858, simultaneous- ly with Darwin’s paper On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties, etc., being the first public announcement of the so-called Darwinian theory. In 1862 he brought from the East Indies more than 8,000 birds and more than 100,000 entomological specimens ; was occupied for several years In the study and classification of his vast collections; published The Ilfalay Archipelago (2 vols., 1869) and Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (1870) ; was awarded In 1868 the medal of the Royal Society, and in 1870 the gold medal of the Geographical Society of Paris. Wallace has become noted for his investigations of spiritualism, in which he is a believer, as shown by his flfiracles and flfodern Spir- itualism (1875). In 1876 he issued, simultaneouslyin Eng- lish, French, and German, his work On the Geographical Dis- tribution of Animals (2 vols.). In 1880 followed Island Life, In 1882 Land Nationalization, in 1889 Darwinism, and in 1893 Australia and New Zealand. He has also published many pa- pers in scientific periodicals. Revised by J . S. KINGSLEY. Wallace, HORACE BINNEY: author and law editor; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Feb.26, 1817; was the youngest son of John Bradford I/Vallace; studied for two years at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania; graduated at Princeton 1835; studied medicine, chemistry, and law, but never adopted a profession; contributed largely to literary periodicals; pub- lished anonymously a novel, Stanley, or the Recollections of a _lVIan of the World (1838); edited, in conjunction with Judge Hare, American Leading Cases in Law (2 vols., 1847; 3d ed. 1852); Smith's Leading Cases (4th Amer. ed., 2 vols., 1852); and White and Tudor’s Leading Cases in Equity (2d Amer. ed., 3 vols., 1852), all copiously anno- tated; aided Rufus W. Griswold in his Napoleon and the Ilfarshals of the Empire (2 vols., 1847); traveled in Europe 1849—50 and again 1852, giving assiduous study to philo- sophical problems. In a fit of insanity resulting indirectly from overwork he committed suicide in Paris, Dec. 16, 1852. Two posthumous volumes of his miscellaneous writings were published—Art and Scenery in Europe, with other Papers (1855) and Literary Criticisms and other Papers (1856). Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Wallace, Sir JAMES: naval officer; b. in Great Britain about 1730; became post-captain in the navy 1771; com- manded the fleet on the Newport station 1775, and con- ducted the naval expedition up the Hudson river Oct., 1777, when Kingston was destroyed and several other towns laid waste; was captured in the Experiment by d’Estaing Sept. 24, 1779; commanded the Warrior in Rodney’s victory over De Grasse, Apr. 12, 1782; was governor of Newfoundland 1793-95 ; became rear-admiral 1794, vice-admiral 1795, and rear-admiral of the blue J an. 1, 1801. D. in London, Mar. 6, 1803. Wallace, LEwIs: lawyer, soldier, and author; son of David \/Vallace (1799-1859), jurist: b. at Brookville, Frank- lin eo., Indiana, Apr. 10, 1827; served as lieutenant in the Mexican war, 1846-47 ; then studied law, which he prac- ticed till Apr., 1861, when he was appointed adjutant-gen- eral of Indiana. In three days he organized six regiments —-the quota of the State under the first call for troops-—-and was appointed colonel of the Eleventh Indiana. He served in West Virginia, where be defeated the Confederates at Romney. The regiment r nlisted on completion of its term, and he continued as its colonel. He was commis- sioned brigadier-general of volunteers on Sept. 3, and sta- tioned in Kentucky. He commanded a division in the tak- ing of Fort Donelson,Feb. 16,1862; in recognition of his services on that occasion was appointed major-general of volunteers (Mar. 21). In the succeeding battle of Shiloh (Apr. 6-7) his division was not engaged during the first day’s fighting, but on the second day he led the attack and took part in the subsequent advance on Corinth. He saved Cincinnati from capture by Gen. Kirby Smith (Sept., 1862), and was subsequently president of the court to investigate the conduct of Gen. Buell (Nov., 1862). In 1864 he com- manded the middle department and Eighth Corps, and by WALLACE the desperate battle of Monocacy (July 9) prevented the capture of Washington and Baltimore by Gen. J ubal Early. He was a member of the commission which tried the assas- sins of President Lincoln, and in the same year president of the commission which tried Capt. Wirz, commandant of Andersonville prison. In 1866 he was sent to Mexico on a secret diplomatic mission to President Juarez; was appoint- ed governor of New Mexico, 1880; and was U. S. minister to Turkey in 1881-85. When not engaged iI1 public service, Gen. VVallace has practiced law, and devoted himself to lit- erature. He published The Eair G-od (Boston,1873); Ben- Hur, a Tale of the Christ (New York, 1880): The Life of Gen. Benjamin Ifarrison (Philadel hia, 1888); Commodus, a Tragedy (New York, 1889); The oyhood of Christ (New York, 1889); and The Prince of India (New York, 1893). Already a larger number of copies of Ben-Hur have been circulated than of any other American romance except Uncle Tom’s Cabin.—The wife of Gen. Wallace, Mrs. SUSAN ARNOLD (Elston) WALLACE, is an original and graceful writer. Among her published works are The Storied Sea (Boston, 1883); Ginevra, or the Old Oak Chest (New York, 1886); The Land of the Pueblos (1888); and The Repose in Egypt (1888). She has also contributed largely to period- icals and reviews. EDWIN A. GROSVENOR. Wallace, Sir WILLIAM: patriot; b. in Scotland about 1270; younger son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie, Renfrewshire. The early part of his life is involved in ob- scurity; the story of his flight after killing a fellow student in Dundee is doubtful, but it is probable that he had done something to anger the English, and was thus driven to armed resistance. He first appears in authentic history in 1297 as leader of a large band of insurgents against the au- thority of the English king, Edward I., who claimed the throne of Scotland. Emboldened by the success of several preliminary skirmishes, he attacked the town of Scone, where an English justiciary was holding court, and killed or captured-many of the English. Edward thereupon sent into Scotland a considerable force under the command of Sir Henry Percy and Sir Robert Clifford, who successfully repulsed a night attack made by Wallace near Loclmaber, and drove him back into Ayrshire, and received, by a treaty at Irvine, the submission of most of the Scottish leaders. Wallace and Sir Andrew Moray alone refused to lay down their arms, and withdrew to the Northern Highlands, where they organized large forces and captured nearly all the English garrisons in Scotland. Edward I. was at this time in Flanders, but his general, John de Warrenne, Earl of Warrenne and Surrey, who in the previous year had been appointed guardian of Scotland, gathered a owerful army and advanced toward Stirling, whereu on Wallace aban- doned the siege and marched against im. After a vain attempt at negotiation, Surrey was completely defeated at Stirling Bridge, Sept. 11, 1297, and pursued to Berwick. Wallace passed the border and ravaged Cumberland and Northumberland. On his return, he was recognized in Scotland as guardian of the realm in the name of John Baliol, then a prisoner in the Tower of London. In the following year Edward proceeded to Scotland with a force numbering, according to Scottish accounts, 80,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry, and gained over Wallace a decisive vic- tory at Falkirk July 22, by which the English rule in Sect- land was re-established. From this time little is known of his career except that he led a wandering life, heading oc- casional forays against the English, and that he visited France. He took part in the Scottish revolt of 1303, though not in any conspicuous capacity; was declared an outlaw on account of his refusal to respect the treaty between Edward and John Comyn, Earl of Badenoch (1304), large rewards being offered for his capture ; was betrayed by Sir John Menteith into the hands of the English near Glasgow early in 1305; was taken to London, tried for treason in Westminster Hall, condemned Aug. 23, 1305, and hanged, drawn, and quartered at West Smithfield on the following day. His head was placed above London Bridge and his limbs sent to Newcastle, Berwick, Perth, and Stirling. See J . Stevenson, Documents Illustrative of Sir William Wal- lace (Maitland Club, 1841) ; A. Brunton, Sir William Wal- lace (Glasgow, 1881); H. Gough, Scotland in 12.98 (Paisley, 1888); J . Moir, Sir William Wallace (Aberdeen, 1888). , - Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wallace, WILLIAM HARVEY LAMB: soldier; b. at Urba- na, O., July 8, 1821 ; removed to Illinois with his father in 1833; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1846; WALLACEBURG served in the war with Mexico; became district attorney of the ninth Illinois district in 1853 ; in May, 1861, was appoint- ed colonel Eleventh Illinois Volunteers, and at Fort Donelson (Feb., 1862) commanded a brigade in McClernand’s division with ability, and was appointed brigadier-general of volun- teers in March. In the succeeding battle of SHILOH (q. 1:), Wallace commanded Smith’s old division, which withstood for nearly six hours the furious assaults of the enemy, and was the last to leave the field, Wallace falling mortally wounded in an ineffectual attempt to resist the enemy. D. at Savannah, Tenn., Apr. 10, 1862. Wallaeeburg: village and port of entry; Kent County, Ontario, Canada; on the Sydenham river and the Erie and Huron Railway; 14 miles N. W. of Chatham (for location, see map of Ontario, ref. 6—B). It has saw and grist mills, tannery, several hotels, and a weekly and~a monthly period- ical. Pop. (1881) 1,525; (1891) 2,726. Wallaehia : See ROUMANIA. Wallack, JAMES WILLIAM: actor; b. in London, Eng- land, Aug. 24, 1795; son of William Wallack, a comedian and vocalist, and of Elizabeth Field, who for several years played leading women characters with Garrick; made his appearance on the London stage at the age of seven years -; was engaged by Sheridan at Drury Lane : played with Ed- mund Kean in Shakspearean dramas; went to the U. S. 1818 ; appeared as Macbeth at the Park theater, New York, Sept. 7, 1818; became stage manager at Drury Lane 1820 ; lived alternately in England and the U. S. for several years; opened in 1837 the National theater. New York, burned down in 1839 ; established in 1852 Wallack’s Lyceum, after- ward Wallack’s theater, on the corner of Broadway and Broome Street, rebuilt in 1861 at the corner of Broadway and Thirteenth Street, and later located at Broadway and Thirtieth Street. The name of this theater was changed to “ Palmer’s ” in 1888. He was a superior comedian and manager, owing much of his success to his care in the se- lection of competent supporters and to his regard for artistic proprieties in the details of stage costumes and scenery. D. in New York, Dec.25,1864.—His son J OHN LESTER, b. in New York, J an. 1, 1820, known for some time as J . W. Lester, afterward as Lester Wallaek, became proprietor of the thea- ter, maintained its reputation, and adapted some French comedies to the American stage. D. at Stamford, Conn., Sept. 6, 1888. See his ll’[emoz'rs of Fifty Y cars (New York, 1889). Revised by B. B. VALLENTINE. Wallaroo' : a name given to two species of kangaroos, constituting a section of the genus ilfacropus-—viz. : (1) HM- cropus anfiyaolinus, the red wallaroo, and (2) Macropus ro- Zmstus, the black wallaroo; the former inhabits the country about Fort Essington, and the latter the mountain ranges of the coast of New South Wales. Walla Walla : city; capital of Walla YValla co., Wash. ; on the Walla Y/Valla river, and the Wash. and Col. River and the Oregon Railway and Nav. Co.’s railways; 75 miles \V. S. W. of Lewiston. Id.. and 160 miles E. by N. of The Dalles, Or. (for location, see map of Washington, ref. 7-1). It is in an agricultural, fruit-growing, and stock-raising region, and is the trade center of that art of the State, of Northern Idaho, and of Northeastern regon. The name is Indian, meaning “many waters,” and was applied to the whole valley because of the numerous springs which flow down the sides of the surrounding mountains. The settlement was originally known as \Vailatipa; was incorporated as a town and made the county-seat in 1859, and was incorpo- rated as a city in 1862. It contains Methodist Episcopal churches of both the Northern and Southern branches, Bap- tist church and a mission, two Presbyterian churches, Ad- vent Christian, Congregational, Lutheran. Protestant Epis- copal, and Roman Catholic churches, and Salvation Army barracks. The educational institutions comprise the Baker Public School, Paine High School (building cost $30,000), Advent College, \Vhitman College (Congregational), Empire Business College, St. Vincent’s Academy for girls, and St. Patrick’s School for boys. Among the public buildings are those comprising the U. S. military post, Fort \Va-lla Wa.lla, the State penitentiary, and the U. S. penitentiary. The city has excellent water-power, foundry, flour-mills, machine- shops, 2 national banks with combined capital of $200,000. a State bank with capital of $50,000, a savings-bank with capital of $90,000, and 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,588; (1890) 4,709 ; (1895) 7,770. - Emroa or “ STATESMAN.” WALLENSTEIN 589 Wallenstein, oa”al’len-stin, or Waldstein, oa‘alt’stin, AL- BRECHT WENZEL EUSEBIUS, von: soldier; b. on the family estate of Hermanitz, Bohemia, Sept. 14, 1583; was educated in the Protestant faith, but came after the death of his parents under the guardianship of his uncle, Albrecht von Slavata, who sent him to the Jesuit Academy of Olmiitz, where he was converted to Roman Catholicism. After study- ing at the Universities of Padua and Bologna, and traveling through Italy, Spain, France, and Holland, he served in Hungary against the Turks in the army of the Emperor Rudolf, under Gen. Basta, and married in 1606 an old widow, by whose death in 1614 he inherited very extensive estates in Moravia. On his uncle’s death he became proprie- tor of one of the largest landed estates in Moravia and Bo- hemia. In 1616 he organized a regiment of dragoons at his own expense, and hastened to the rescue of the city of Gra- disca, which was besieged by the Venetians. The emperor now made him a count, and by his marriage with the daughter of Count Harrach he obtained connections and in- fluence at the court of Vienna. When the revolution which opened the Thirty Years’ war broke out in Bohemia in 1618, he sided with the emperor, saved the imperial treasury con- taining a large sum from falling into the hands of the in- surgents, equipped a new regiment of dragoons, and when, after the battle of the I/Veissemberg--in which, however, he was not present—enormous confiscations took place in B0- hemia, he bought of the emperor estates to the value of 7,290,228 florins. In 1623 the emperor created him prince, and in the following year hereditary Duke of Friedland. With his success his ambition increased. In 1625, when the Protestant princes of Northern Germany, under the leader- ship of Christian IV. of Denmark, and in alliance with Bethlen Gabor, of Transylvania, arose against the emperor, Wallenstein offered to organize an army of 50,000 men and lead it according to the orders of the emperor. After some negotiations the offer was accepted, and in an incredibly short time he actually created an effective army of about 40,000 men. Apr. 25, 1626, he defeated Count Mansfeld, one of the most famous generals of the time, at Dessau, and pursued him through Silesia into Hungary, where this part of the war ended with the dissolution of Mansfelds army and an advantageous peace with Bethlen Gabor. Return- ing through Silesia, Wallenstein occupied Brandenburg and Pomerania. expelled the refractory Dukes of Mecklenburg, penetrated through Holstein and Schleswig into Jutland, and compelled Christian IV. to conclude peace. In reward the emperor created him Duke of Mecklenburg in 1629. At this moment his career received a severe check. His army, now numbering about 100,000 men, was supported at the expense of the districts in which it was stationed, and the people complained of the burden that this imposed. Moreover, it was seen that he was possessed with an insatia- ble ambition, and permitted no scruple to stand in the way of its gratification. In Sept., 1630. he was dismissed and his army dissolved. He retired to his estates in Bohemia, where he lived in royal splendor. occupied with the admin- istration of his vast property, with astrological studies, and with schemes of the most daring ambition. When Gustavus Adolphus appeared successful in Germany, Wallenstein proposed to raise an army and attack the emperor in joint operation with him. but the Swedish king had no confidence in him, and dropped the negotiations. Meanwhile, after the defeat of Tilly and the annihilation of his army, when the Saxons invaded Bohemia and the Swedes penetrated into Bavaria, the situation of the emperor became almost desper- ate, and the reinstatement of \Vallenstein in power seemed almost the only means of escape. W'allenstein received the supreme military authority in Germany, the right of appoint- ing his own otlicers, the rights of confiscation, amnesty, and pardon—even the right of negotiating peace. But two months after his appointment there was a new army ready for battle. In the spring of 1632 the Saxons were expelled from Bohemia, and \Vallenstein occupied a strongly fortified position at Nuremberg in front of the army of Gustavus Adolphus. The attempt of the Swedes to dislodge him (Sept. 3) failed. Both the armies moved into Saxony, and on~Nov. 16, 1632, the battle of Liitzen took place. Gustavus Adolphus fell, but VVallenstein was defeated. He retreated into Bohemia, and here he remained inactive for over a year, in spite of the entreaties and positive orders of the emperor. He opened negotiations with the Swedes, the Saxon princes, and Richelieu. His plan was by an alliance with these powers to compel the emperor to accept such a peace as they would grant him, and the special goal of his 5 90 WALLER personal ambition seems to have been the acquisition of the Bohemian crown. At last his intrigues became known to the emperor, who placed Count Gallas in command of the army, and afterward declared Wallenstein a traitor. On Feb. 23, 1634, he fled from his headquarters at Pilsen to seek rescue and support by the Swedish corps which ap- proached under Duke Bernhard, but two days afterward he was assassinated at Eger by some of his oflicers. His Let- ters have been published by F. Fiirster in 3 vols. (1828-29), and monographs on his life and character have been written by Ftirster (1834 and 1844), Aretin (1846), Hurter (1855), Dudik (1858), Fiedler (1860), Ranke (1869), Gindely (1886), and Meyer (1886). See also Schmid, Die Wallenstein Lit- teratar (1878), Schiller’s trilogy (lVallensteins Lager, Die Piccolomini, and Walleristeins Tod), and the article THIRTY YEARS’ WAR. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Waller. EDMUND: poet; b. at Coleshill, Hertfordshire, England, Mar. 3, 1606, of an ancient and wealthy family; was first cousin, through his mother, of John Hampden, and distantly related to Cromwell ; educated at Eton and at King’s College, Cambridge: inherited in boyhood an estate of £3,500 a year ; was chosen to Parliament for Agmondes- ham at the age of nineteen, on the accession of Charles I. (1625), and sat in that body much of the time for sixty years; married in 1631 a London heiress, who soon died; became noted as a writer of elegant and rhythmical verses, most of which were in praise of Sacharissa (Lady Dorothy Sidney) and Amoret (Lady Sophia Murray), to whom he unsuccess- fully paid court; married Miss Mary Bresse, by whom he had thirteen children; was appointed after the battle of Edgehill (1642) one of the Parliamentary commissioners to negotiate with the king at Oxford ; was gained over by the royalists, and entered into a conspiracy known as “ Waller’s plot” for the restoration of royal authority; but the plot having been discovered May 31, 1643, he was imprisoned for a year, fined £10,000, and banished the kingdom, only saving his life by abject humiliation before the House of Commons, confessing his guilt and incriminating his companions, three of whom were hanged ; spent eight years of exile in France and Italy; was allowed to return about 1653, when he be- came a favorite with Cromwell, who several times visited his mother (a determined royalist) at Beaconsfield, where Wal- ler now took up his abode. Waller was commonly regarded in the eighteenth century as the first correct versifier, who used the heroic cou let with the smoothness and balance which Dryden and ope brought to a degree of mechanical regularity. (See From Shaleespere to Pope, by Edmund Gosse, London, 1885.) He was a general favorite with all parties on account of his wit and eminent social qualities; published a volume of his poems in 1645, and again in 1664, which ran through many editions. D. at Beaconsfield, Oct. 21, 1687. Of the twenty-five or more editions of his poems, the most valued are that of 1711, edited by Bishop Atter- bury, and containing two portraits of the poet, and that of 1729, with a Life by Fenton and a portrait by Vertue. There are modern Lives by Bell (1853) and Gilfillan (1857), ac- companying editions of the Poems. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Waller, THoMAs McDoNALD: lawyer; b. in New York about 1840. Left an orphan in childhood, he became a news- boy ; was adopted by a citizen of New London, Conn., whose name he assumed ; studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1861; was in the Connecticut Legislature in 1867, 1868, 1872, and 1876, and was speaker in his last term; became Secretary of State in 1870 and mayor of New London in 1873, and was State Attorney in 1876-82. In the latter year he was elected Governor of Connecticut as a Democrat ; in 1885 he was appointed U. S. consul-general in London, Eng- land, and on the expiration of his term he resumed profes- sional practice. VValler, Sir WILLIAM: general; b. in Kent, England, in 1597 ; educated at Magdalen College and Hart Hall, Oxford, and at Paris; served in Germany during the early part of the Thirty Years’ war; and on the outbreak of the civil war in England was appointed general and second in command of the Parliamentary forces under the Earl of Essex (1642). He was defeated by the royalists at Lansdowne, near Bath, July 5, 1643, and again at Roundway Down, near Devizes, July 13, but gained a signal victory at Cheriton (or Cherry- town) Down, Alresford, near Winchester, Mar. 29, 1644; was defeated by Charles I. in person at Cropredy Bridge, near Banbury, Oxfordshire, July 29 ; was deprived of his military command. by the “ Self-denying Ordinance ” Apr., 1645, but WALLINGFORD continued to be a leader of the Presbyterians in Parliament; was one of the eleven members of Parliament who were im- peached of high treason by the army June, 1647, and ex- pelled and twice imprisoned, but was soon readmitted to his seat ; was a second time expelled, together with all the Pres- byterians, by Col. Pride, Dec., 1648 ; remained in retirement until the Restoration, when he sat as a member of the coun- cil of state Feb., 1660, and of the Convention Parliament Apr. to Dec., 1660. D. at Osterley Park, Middlesex, Sept. 19, 1688. He left in MS. a Vindication, published in 1793, and Divine Meditations, printed in 1680. Wall-flower: the Oheiranthus cheiri, a European half- shrubby cruciferous plant. often growing on old walls, whence the name. It is a popular garden-flower, having blossoms single or double, of varied colors, and of a rich fragrance. The Western wall-flower, or “ yellow phlox ” of the U. S., is Erysimum asperum, a fine cruciferous plant. Wallich, NATHANIEL, M. D.: botanist; b. at Copenhagen, Denmark, Jan. 28, 1786; studied medicine; went to India 1807 in the employment of the Danish Government at Scram- pore; devoted himself to botany, and after the transfer of the Danish possessions to England transferred his services to the East India Company, and was superintendent of the Calcutta botanic garden from 1815 to 1846, when he returned to Europe and settled in London; vice-president of the Lin- nean Society 1849. He contributed to the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta and of the Linnean Society, and to Hooker’s Journal of Botany; added a supplement to Roxbury and Carey’s Flora Indica (3 vols., 1832); author of Tentamen Florce Nepalensis Illustratce (Calcutta and Serampore, 1824-26); A Numerical List of Dried Speci- mens of Plants in the East India Oompany’s Jkfuseum (1828); and Plantoe Asiaticce Rariores (3 vols., 1830-32), with 300 colored plates. D. in London, Apr. 28, 1854. Revised by CHARLES E. BESSEY. Wallin, va”al-leen’, J OHAN OLOF : poet ; b. in Dalarne, Sweden, Oct. 15, 1779. The son of a poor peasant, his early life was full of hardships. In 1815 his poetical genius, which had developed early, first won general recognition in the di- dactic poem Uppfostraren (The Educator), which received the highest prize of the Academy. Of special interest is his dithyrambic poem to Washington, which is permeated with a warm love for liberty. During the latter part of his life he confined himself wholly to the composition of sacred poetry. To the Swedish hymnal, which was published under his direction (1819), he contributed over a hundred original hymns, besides revising and translating a number of others. He richly deserves the title, conferred on him by Tegnér, of David’s Harp of the North. After filling several im ortant positions in the Swedish Church he was consecrate Arch- bishop of Upsala (1837). D. June 30,1839. D. K. DODGE. Wallingford: town (named in 1670); New Haven co., Conn. ; on the Quinnipiac river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad ; 12 miles N. of New Haven, 23 miles S. of Hartford (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 10-G). It contains the borough of Wallingford and the villages of East Wallingford and Yalesville. The streets of the borough are wide and laid out regularly, many of them lined with stately elms. There are 5 churches, a national bank with capital of $150,000, a savings-bank, and a weekly newspaper. The town has a private and 11 public schools, a grand list of $3,191,959, public debt of $75,000, and rate of taxation, 7 mills. The borough has a grand list of about $2,500,000, a water-works debt of $169,500, other debts $74,320, and rate of taxation, 5 mills. The village of Yalesville, in the north- west part of the town, is on the Quinnipiac river, the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad, and an electric railway connect- ing Wallingford borough with Meriden; has 3 churches, and is engaged in the manufacture of piano-stools, augers, edge-tools, and ironware. Wallingford borough is noted for its manufactures of britannia, nickel, sterling silver, silver- plated, and light brass goods, rubber goods, wheels, and iron- ware. A branch of the ONEIDA COMMUNITY (g. v.) was estab- lished here in 1850. The State Masonic Home is now es- tablished on the old community property. Pop. (1880) town, 4,686, borough, 3,017; (1890) town, 6,584, borough, 4,230. W. S. RUssELL, M. D. Wallingford : town; Rutland co., Vt. ; on the Otter creek, and the Bennington and Rutland Railway ; 9 miles S. of Rutland, 59 miles S. W. of Montpelier (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 7-B). It contains the villages of Wal- lingford, East Wallingford, and South Wallingford, and has WALLIS a public high school, several district schools, 4 churches, and 2 hotels. There are manufactures of coffins and caskets, harness, ox-bows, snow-shovels, stoves, tinware, and hay and manure forks. Pop. (1880) 1,846; (1890) 1,733. Wallis : See VALAIS. Wallis, JOHN, D. D., F. R. S. : mathematician ; b. at Ash- ford, Kent, England, N ov. 23, 1616 ; graduated at Cambridge about 1636; became a fellow of Queen’s College; took orders in the Church of England 1640 ; was secretary to the West- minster Assembly of Divines 1644; became Savilian Profes- sor of Geometry at Oxford 1648, and keeper of the archives at Oxford 1658; was one of the founders of the Royal So- ciety 1662; had a controversy with Hobbes, who pretended to have discovered the quadrature of the circle 1655-63; was one of the revisers of the Book of Common Prayer 1661. D. at Oxford, Oct. 28, 1703. He was the author of Gram- matiea Ling/aw Anglieanee (Oxford, 1653; 6th ed. 1765); Jlfclthesis Universalis (1657); Inst/itatio Logwce ad Com- manes Usns aecommodata (1687; 5th ed. 1729); and other works, collectively published as Opera Jlfathematwa et Mes- cellanea (Oxford, 3 vols. folio, 1695-99). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Wallkill River: a river which rises in Sussex co., N. J ., and flows N. N. E. through Orange and Ulster cos., N. Y., joining the Rondout. It furnishes considerable water-power. The \Vallkill valley is a famous dairy region. Wallon, oa”a’l5r'1’, HENRI ALEXANDRE: historian and statesman; b. at Valenciennes, France, Dec. 23, 1812; was educated in the Normal School of Paris, and became Pro- fessor of Modern History and Geography at the Sorbonne in 1840 ; was elected a member of the Legislative Assembly of 1849, but resigned his seat in 1850 on account of restric- tions under which the Assembly placed the suffrage; was again elected a member of the National Assembly of 1871, and contributed much to the final establishment of the republic by the famous amendemenl Wallovi, which was carried by a majority of one vote Jan. 30, 1875; became Minister of Public Education in 1875, and member of the Senate in 1876. Among his works are De l’Esclai'age clans les Colonies (1847); Histoire de l’Eselavage clans l’Anti- quite’ (3 vols., 1847-48); Jeanne d’Are (2 vols., 1860); La Vie de Jésns el son nonoel Historien (1864), against Renan; Richard II., Episode de la Rivalité de la France et de l’Angleterre (2 vols., 1864): La Terreu/r, Etudes critiques snr l’Histoire de la Révolntion franeaise (1872); Saint Louis et son Temps (1875); .Histoire da Tribunal revolu- tionnaire de Paris avee le Journal de ses aetes (1880) ; and Les Représenlants du peuple en mission, ete., 17’95>’—9.,/L (1888-90). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Walloons' [from O. Fr. Wallon, Gnalon (Dutch,W'alen); cf. Lat. Gal’lns] : the people occupying the tract along the German speech-boundary in the Southern Netherlands, from Dunkirk (D'unkirchen) to Malmedy, more especially in the Ardennes, parts of the French departments of Pas-de-Calais, Nord, and Aisne, Southern Brabant, Hainault, Namur, Liege, Luxemburg (except the German eastern part), and some places around hlalmedy in Rhenish Prussia. These people, belonging to the great Gallo-Romanic stock—about 2,250,- 000 in BELGIUM (q. 1).)-—are descended from the old Gallic Belgee (with a considerable admixture of Tentons), who in the forests of the Ardennes resisted the barbarous onslaughts of the Germans, mixed themselves with Roman elements, their language becoming Romanized to such an extent that it appears now completely as a French dialect (patois), con- taining, however, more Germanic and Gallic elements than any other French dialect. Though closely akin to their Gallo—Roman neighbors in France, and though French is the conversational and literary language of the educated Walloons, they have many distinctive traits of their own; they are persevering, patient, and industrious, but at the same time excitable and passionate; the Belgian revolution and the separation of Belgium from Holland is pre-emi- nently their work. They form the leading element in Bel- gium, the leading statesmen and men of mark belonging to their nationality. Against this prestige of the \Valloons with their French sympathies there is a strong antagonism among the Flemish population, which belongs to the Low German stock; the Flemish movement since 1840 has strug- gled with success against the suppression of the Flemish language and nationality and its submersion in the French spirit. The first permanent colony that settled in New York and also the first in Brooklyn consisted largely of I/Valloons. WALPOLE 591 See Grandgagnage, De l’origine des Wallons (Liege, 1852); Dielionnaire étg/mologigne cle la Zangne wallonne (Liege, 1847-50, continued by Scheler, Brussels, 1880); J . Sigart. Dielionnaire du lVallon de Zllons (Brussels, 1870); Forir, Dietionnaire Liégeois-Franeais (2 vols., Liege, 1866-74). HERMANN ScHoENFELD. Wall-papers: See PAPER-HANGINGS. Wall-pepper. or Stoneerop: a creeping plant (Seclnm acre) with small, fleshy, acrid-tasting leaves, and yellow, five-petaled flowers, belonging to the family Grassulaeeee. It is related to the live-forever (S. lelephinm), house-leek (Sempe'roi'v'u.m teetornm), Eeheoeria, Br;/ophyllnm, and other common succulent plants of conservatories. C. E. B Wallsend’ [so called from being at the end of Hadrian’s wall] : town of England, county of Northumberland; 4 miles N. E. of Newcastle (see map of England, ref. 3-H). It is famous for the excellent coal which is raised in its collieries. Pop. (1891) 11,620. Walnut [O. Eng. wealh-hnuta; wealh, foreign + hnntn, nut. See WALES] : the common name of trees of the genus Jnglans (family Juglandaeece), and also of their fruit. In some localities the name is locally extended to the hickories, which are of an allied genus. The English walnut or ma- deira-nut is the fruit of Jnglans regia, a stately tree pro- ducing excellent timber. The nuts are very good eating, and the kernels yield a fixed drying oil prized by artists and makers of varnishes. In the eastern parts of the U. S. grows the black walnut, J. nigra, which yields a very valu- able dark-colored timber, used for furniture, joinery, gun- stocks, etc. The black walnut produces a strong and very oily nut. The butternut, J. einerea, called also oilnut and white walnut, produces a useful timber. Its nuts are more prized than those of the black walnut, and its inspissated sap, or a decoction of the bark of the root, is a useful ca- thartic. The Japanese walnut, J. sieboldiana, now fre- quently planted, bears its fruit in long clusters. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Walnut Family: the Juglandaceee, a very small group (thirty-five species) of dicotyledonous trees with monoecious, apetalous flowers, the staminate in catkins, and usually with many stamens, the pistillate usually solitary with a single, inferior, bicarpellary, one-celled ovary, containing a single. erect, orthotropous ovule. The leaves are alternate and pinnately compound. and the young shoots and foliage are usually strong-scented or resinous-aromatic. They are found principally in the northern temperate zone, being about equally divided between North America and Asia. The family is important as yielding valuable timber and edible nuts, the important genera being Juglans (the wal- nuts, of seven or eight species) and H ieoria or Carya (the hickories, of about ten species, all of North America). CHARLES E. BESSEY. Walpole: town (incorporated in 1724); Norfolk co., Mass.; on the N. Y. and New Eng. and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. railways; 8 miles S. E. of Dedham, 19 miles S. W. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 5—I). It contains the villages of Vfalpole, East VV'alpole, and South Walpole: has a high school, 13 district schools, pub- lic library, 2 weekly newspapers, and 6 churches; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of paper, binder’s board, seersucker, clothing, and school furniture. In 1894 the town had an assessed valuation of over $2,000,000. Pop. (1880) 2,494; (1890) 2,604. “’alp0le : town (founded about 1745, site granted by Massachusetts in 1735 and by New Hampshire in 1752); Cheshire co., N. H. : on the Connecticut river, and the Fitch- burg Railroad; 4 miles below Bellows Falls, 20 miles N. W. of Keene (see map of New Hampshire, ref. 9-C). It is in an agricultural region, is a noted summer resort, and has 5 churches, a high school, 5 graded schools, 16 district schools, a public library with 5,000 volumes, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 2,018; (1890) 2,163; (1895) estimated, 2,200. EDITOR or “ GAzE'r'rE.” Walpole. HORACE, Fourth Earl of Orford: author; third son of Sir Robert Walpole; b. in London, England, Oct. 5, 1717 ; educated at Eton and at King‘s College, Cambridge ; received from his father several lucrative sinecures ; traveled on the Continent 1739-41, accompanied by the poet Gray, with whom he quarreled at Reggie; had a seat in Parlia- ment 1741-68, but took little part in politics; purchased an estate near Twickenham 1747 ; was occupied for many years in the erection and decoration of a strange, irregular Gothic 592 WALPOLE mansion, which he called Strawberry Hill and which he filled with a library and a museum of pictures, armor, antiquities, and miscellaneous objects; set up a private press in 1757, on which, among others, he printed several of his own works; succeeded his nephew as Fourth Earl of Orford 1791, but never took his seat in the House of Lords. D. in London, Mar. 2, 1797. He was never married. He compiled A Cata- logue of the Royal and Noble Authors of England (1758); Anecdotes of Painters in England (1761-71) ; I—Itstorz'c Doubts on the Life and Retgn of Richard III. (1768), and other works; wrote The Castle of Otranto, a romance (1764); The AI 1/stertous ].V[other, a tragedy (1768); JlIemotrs of the Last Ten Years of the Reign of George II. (1822), and other works, but will be best remembered by his voluminous and interesting letters. His Entire Correspondence (9 vols., 1857-59) was edited by Peter Cunningham. See the Ille- motrs edited by VVarburton (1852), and Dobson’s Horace IValpole (1890). Walpole, Sir ROBERT, Earl of Orford: premier; b. at Houghton, Norfolk, England, Aug. 26, 1676; educated at Eton and at King’s College, Cambridge; was elected to Parliament for Castle Rising 1701, and for King’s Lynn 1702; became Secretary at War 1708, and Treasurer of the Navy 1709. Failing to prevent the proceedings against Dr. Saeheverell in 1710, he acted with his fellow \/Vhigs, and was one of the managers for the House of Commons at the impeachment. On the overthrow of the ministry he showed great energy in opposition, and incurred the hatred of the ma- jority in the House. He was found guilty of “ a high breach of trust and notorious corruption ” ; was expelled the House and sent to the Tower Jan. 17, 1712, the condemnation being due to partisan animosity. He was soon released and on the accession of George I. became privy councilor, and afterward paymaster-general of the forces. On the impeachment of Bolingbroke and the late Tory ministers through his efforts, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer and First Lord of the Treasury, with the rank of Prime Minister, Oct. 11, 1715; re- signed oifice in consequence of disunion in the cabinet in Apr., 1717 ; was the determined enemy of the South Sea scheme; became again paymaster-general in 1720 ; returned to power as Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury in Apr., 1721, and was the virtual ruler of England for the ensu- ing twenty-one years. During his ministry Great Britain was kept free from foreign complications. Peace and sound finance were the chief aims of his administration. There is no doubt that he was not above the lax morality of the time in the matter of bribe-giving, and that he sometimes maintained his power by this means, but the popular im- ression of the extent of his personal corruptions was great- l)y exaggerated. In 1733 he suffered a severe check in his attempt to pass the Excise Bill, and after the death of Queen Caroline his influence began to decline. His fall from power was hastened by his peaceful foreign policy, which provoked sharp attacks by Pitt and the Grenvilles, and lost him the favor of the people. He resigned in Feb., 1742, having been created Earl of Orford two days before. D. at Houghton, Mar. 18, 1745. F. M. COLBY. Walpole, SPENCER: historian; b. Feb. 6, 1809; was edu- cated at Eton; was appointed inspector of fisheries in 1867, lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man in 1882, and secre- tary to the post-oifice in 1893. The most important of his works is A II1§storg/ of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815 (1878-86). Among his other works are The Electorate and the Legislature (1881); Life of Lord John Russell (1889) ; and The Land of Honze Rule (1893). Vvalpurgis (oaal-poor’gis) Night: the evening before May 1, the vigil of the old festival of St. VValpurgis (Wal- urga, VValburga; French forms, Gualbourg, Falbourg, aubourg, and Avongourg), who died Feb. 25, 779, and is commemorated on that day in some places, but generally on May 1. She was an Englishwoman of the royal blood of Wessex, b. in Sussex, educated at Vlinburn, Dorset, where she was a nun for twenty-seven years. She then went to Bischofsheim in the diocese of Mentz and established a nun- nery (752); after two years (754) she removed to Heiden- heim in Bavaria, and became abbess of the Benedictine nunnery of Heidenheim, where was a monastery under her brother, Winebald, in her other brother’s (Willibald) dio- cese. In 760 \Vinebald died, whereupon she became super- intendent, and retained the charge of both monks and nuns until her death. She had a great reputation for sanctity. Her relics were put in a cave at Eichstiidt, from which ex- uded a kind of bituminous oil. This soon got the name WALRUS Walpurgis oil, and was supposed to have miraculous proper- ties. The cave became a place of pilgrimage. Walpurgis Night is celebrated as the season of the supposed annual celebration of the “ witches’s sabbath” on the Brocken in the Hartz Mountains. St. Walpurgis had no connection with this ancient superstition, except a partly accidental one. In fact, the old May-day festival was a heathen one, like that of midsummer (which became the feast of St. J ohn), and the traditions with regard to \/Valpurgis Night have a dim reference to the old heathen practices. The life of St. \Valpurgis, written in the ninth century, by Wolfhard, is found in Acta Sanctorum, O. B., ed. Mabillon, iii., 2, 260, seq. See HALLOWEEN. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Wal1‘l1s [from Norweg. hoalros, liter., whale horse; heal, whale (: Eng. whale) -|- ros, horse (: Eng. horse)] : the morse, sea-horse, or sea-cow; a pinniped of the family Odobcentdce, distinguished by having the upper canines developed as large tusks which point downward. There are two species—one (Oclolxenus ros/marus) inhabiting the northern Atlantic, and the other (0. obesus) the northern Pacific. The species at- tain a large size, old males sometimes reaching, or even ex- ceeding, 12 or 13 feet in length, and their girth is nearly as great; they are therefore very obese, and consequently in- efilcient on land, but in water their movements are easy and not ungraceful. They swim entirely under water, rising only occasionally to breathe, when they blow somewhat like a whale. The females are smaller than the males, and have much smaller tusks. They feed chiefly upon shellfish- clams, mussels, etc., but also on the bulbous roots of plants which grow in the lagoons and bays. It is chiefly by means of their tusks that they unearth the clams and drag them from their holes. The walrus was first pursued by the Nor- wegians along the coast of Finmark, then about the shores of Nova Zembla, finally around Spitzbergen and the adja- cent islands, where walruses are still found in limited num- bers. The fishery is also prosecuted along the coast of Greenland, and as far to the northward as the animals are (N l\i‘1l\lC{ll;? flit M ____.=-A \l\'l‘l“ 4llh'é\l‘§'\ ‘\ lb TQ‘:-_"-__‘,v,\' Ii‘ C l \ \,\.. \ FE \ \' \ M ‘_- l A /// , /'//-' .''I, A ' "'21-'-I 4 , .. ‘I ‘/4 I.//A; .v '-' /1] :. . . __- _. F — . ' Jl ~ _ \ ;, __.._ _' '\ :¢,'.',- /..__ J ' :4-I-____ ' - 1 § "- 1 4 /‘ .76) 1 I ( i \ x, '1 J‘: ‘v 5 I ‘\"§:~‘ 2:." '-I-' “ |‘ ;‘ .. \ l : - ~. .: ."\"l;_'_’///4//”))I/%/1:’. \ u , , \\‘\\\. .:'. '~_;:/ ‘"1’. \ \ l\ \\ ‘ ..\,\\. __'k‘T///_;Ml.,//,;//.//M ' . - '-1. ' -' ~ -W///t,,. ' ‘ ' . ,: i\ "'/"/ /- ‘<‘F %/f )) \ O to be found. From 1600 to about 1770 the Magdalen islands and other places in the Gulf of St. Lawrence yielded vast numbers of walruses, as many as 1,500 having been killed on one drive, but it has been man years since a walrus has been seen, even on the coast of abrador. In the Pacific the hunting-grounds are in Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean, especially on the Asiatic side. The Atlantic walrus-fishery was originally prosecuted from small vessels, and the ani- mals were mostly killed on shore with lances or by shoot- ing; by the Norwegians they were also taken with harpoons from large boats. Vast herds of walruses are no longer found, and at present the walrus-fishery is carried on as a mere adjunct to the whale-fishery, and the animals are either taken with harpoons or shot with rifles while on the ice. This latter method is that almost exclusively followed in the Pacific, where a large share of the walruses taken are killed while the whalers are waiting an opportunity to get north. One or two men, armed with rifles, are landed near a small herd, and it is not uncommon for a skillful hunter to kill from forty to eighty in succession. Walrus-blubber makes a good quality of oil, the tusks are largely used in the manufacture of umbrella-handles, and the hides also are an article of commerce. The walruses, especially those of the Pacific coast, are threatened with extinction. See ODOB./ENIDAQ. F. A. LUCAS. WALSALL Wal'sall: town; in Staffordshire, England; 8 miles N. N.W. of Birmingham (see map of England, ref. 9-G). It stands on the border of the South Staffordshire coal-field, and has large brass and iron foundries, and manufactures of cutlery and hardware. Its tanneries, malt-houses, and manufac- tures of harness and saddlery are also extensive. Walsall returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1891) 71,791. Walsh, ROBERT : journalist; b. at Baltimore, Md., in 1784; educated in the Roman Catholic college at Baltimore and the Jesuit college at Georgetown, D. C.; spent several years in Europe, returning 1809 ; studied law, but abandoned the profession; became a writer for Dennie’s Portfolio; pub- lished A Letter on the Genius and Dispositon of the French Government, including a View of the Taxation of the French Empire (1810), which in six weeks ran through twelve edi- tions in London; conducted from 1811 to 1813 the first quarterly attempted in America, The American Review of flistory and Politics, in which most of the articles were from his pen; issued Correspondence respecting Russia be- tween R. G. Harper‘ and Robert Walsh, Jr. (1813), and an Essay on the Future State of Europe (1813); wrote bio- graphical prefaces to an edition of the English poets in fifty small volumes, and An Appeal from the Judgments of Great Britain respecting the United_ States of America (1819); con- ducted The American Register (1817-18); The ltluseum of Foreign Literature and Science (1 vol., 1822) ; The Ameri- can Quarterly Review (22 vols., 1827-37) ; and The National Gazette (1821-37); and published Didactics: Social, Lit- erary, and Political (2 vols., 1836), a selection of aphorisms from his newspaper articles and MSS. In 1837 he removed to Paris, where he was U. S. consul during 1845-51, and where he resided until his death Feb. 7, 1859. Walsh, WILLIAM PAKENHAM, D.D.: prelate; b. at Mote Park, County of Roscommon, Ireland, May 4, 1820; had a brilliant career at Trinity College, Dublin; became canon of Christ church, Dublin, 1872; dean of Cashel1873; and Bishop of Ossory, Ferns, and Leighlin 1878. He has written several books, among them Christian illissions (Dublin, 1862); Heroes of the Mission Field (London, 1879; 2d ed. 1882); Jllodern Iieroes of the Mission Fields (1880; 3d ed. 1888); Voices of the Psalms (1889). S. M. J . Walsingham, Sir FRANCIS: one of Queen Elizabeth’s principal Secretaries of State; b. at Chiselhurst, Kent, Eng- land, about 1536; studied at King’s College, Cambridge: traveled on the Continent, and remained there during the reign of Mary; acquired the favor of Cecil, Lord Burleigh, by his political abilities and his knowledge of foreign lan- guages; was sent three times on missions to the court of France, where he resided 1570-73; was on Cecil’s recom- mendation knighted, sworn of the privy council, and made one of the principal Secretaries of State 1573; was sent on important embassies to the Netherlands 1578, to France 1581, and to Scotland 1583; was a man of strict morals and undoubted integrity, addicted to religious meditation and to the Puritanie party in the state, but displayed as a states- man a consummate craftiness, bordering on duplicity; was said to have had in his pay in foreign countries many agents and spies, through whom he was quickly informed of the secrets even of hostile courts; was an uncompromising po- litical adversary, if not a personal enemy, of Mary Queen of Scots, whom for years he surrounded with spies and inform- ers, who endeavored to inveigle her into real or pretended plots and conspiracies in order to intercept her letters: had in his pay a servant of the French ambassador, Castelnau, and Gray, the envoy of the Duke of Guise to the Scottish court, who was employed iI1 managing the correspondence of Mary and James with their friends in France, thus dis- covering the so-called “ Babington’s plot” 1586 ; was a mem- ber of the commission for the trial of the Queen of Scots at Fotheringay Oct., 1586; was charged by her with having forged the correspondence produced against her-—a charge which he of course solemnly denied. About this time he was made Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and soon afterward withdrew from the management of public affairs. He received but a scanty pecuniary reward for his services, and was in debt at the time of his death, which occurred at Barn Elms, near London, Apr. 6, 1590. He was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral. A tolerably full account of \Valsing- ham’s French embassy (1570-73) is given in Sir Dudley Digges’s Gompleat Ambassador (folio, 1655). He was the chief patron of Richard Hakluyt in his enterprise of collect- ing and publishing the voyages and discoveries of the six- teenth century. Revised by F. M. COLBY. WALTHER 593 Waltel‘, JOHN: journalist; b. in England in 1739; be- came a printer in London; bought in 1780 two patents is- sued to Henry Johnson for logography, or the art of using entire words, their radices, and terminations, instead of single letters, in arranging and composing for printing; en- deavored to introduce that invention by the establishment of a newspaper, The London Daily Universal Register, of which the first number appeared Jan. 18, 1785. Though the system of printing proved a comparative failure, the newspaper itself prospered, especially after a change of title was made to The Times (Jan. 1, 1788), and it gradually rose to the rank it now holds as one of the leading periodicals of the world. Mr. Walter acquired a considerable fortune. D. at Teddington, hliddlesex, Nov. 16, 1812. His son John (1784-1847) and his grandson John (1818-94) in turn suc- ceeded to the proprietorship of The Times. Walter, THOMAS USTICK, LL.D.: architect; b. in Phila- delphia, Pa., Sept. 4, 1804; became Professor of Architecture in the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia; designed the Phila- delphia county prison 1831, Girard College 1833, the U. S’. Capitol extension 1851-65, Treasury building and Govern- ment hospital for the insane at \Vashington. As engineer he designed a breakwater at La Guyra, on the coast of Ven- ezuela, and as consulting architect he was employed upon the public buildings at Philadelphia. He was one of the founders of the American Institute of Architects, and presi- dent for some years before his death. D. in Philadelphia, Oct. 30, 1887. Walterboro: town (founded about 1800); capital of Col- leton co., S. C.: on the Charleston and Savannah Railway (Plank system); 30 miles W. of Charleston (for location. see map of South Carolina, ref. 7-E). It is in an agricultural region; has Baptist, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian. and Protestant Episcopal churches, a graded school. a State bank with capital of $25,000, a loan and savings bank, and two weekly newspapers: and has large naval stores and lum- bering interests, dry-kiln and planing-mills, and cotton-mills. Pop. (1880) 691; (1890) 1,171; (1895) estimated. 1,500. EDITOR or “ Panss AND STANDARD.” Vvaltllanl 2 city (set off from IVatertown and incorporated as a town in 1737; chartered as a city in 1884); Middlesex co., Mass; on both sides of the Charles river, and on the Boston and Maine and the Fitchburg railways; 10 miles IV. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H). It is connected by electric railways with Newton and Boston; is compactly built, with two principal streets, a common in the central part, and a fine park in process of construction on the west of the city. There are thirteen churches, representing the Baptist, Roman Catholic. Uni- versalist, Protestant Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal, Pres- byterian, Unitarian, Swedenborgian, and Congregational denominations: 57 public day-schools and 3 evenin<>~-schools, with an enrollment of 3,328, maintained at an annual cost of $61,255: a parochial school with 1,000 pupils, a Sweden- borgian school with 70 pupils. a free public library of 23.000 volumes, a weekly and 3 daily newspapers, and a hospital supported in part by the city. The Massachusetts School for the Feeble-minded is here. \Valtham’s assessed valua- tion is $18,766,060; debt, 81.026508. In 1895 there were a national bank with capital of $150,000, and a savings-bank with deposits of $2-,689,232-. There are two watch-making works. one, the American Waltham, in which the manufac- ture of watch-movements on a large scale by machinery was first attempted, being probably the largest in the world; a cotton-mill, erected in 1814, with bleachery and dye-works attached, in which cotton cloths were first made in the U. S. from the raw fiber under one roof; and ten other manufac- turing corporations. Pop. (1880) 11,712; (1890)18.707: (1895) estimated, 22,000. IV. R. BUTLER. Waltham Abbey, or lvaltllam Holy Cross: town of Essex, England; on the river Lea; 13 miles N. by E. of London. It has Government powder mills, and Enfield, where the royal small~arms factories are situated, is in the immediate vicinity of the town. The town took its name from the ancient monastery founded here by Harold Hare- foot. Pop. (1891) 6,066. Walther, CARL FERDINAND WILI-IELM, D. D.: theologian; leader of the large body of so-called Missouri Lutherans; b. in Langenchursdorf, Saxony. Oct. 25, 1811; the son, grandson, and great-grandson of Lutheran pastors; studied at Leipzig; pastor at Brfiunsdorf, Saxony, 1837: emigrated with a colony of six clergymen and 800 people to America 435 594 WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE in J an., 1839, settling first in Perry co., Mo., and becoming pastor in St-. Louis 1841. He founded Der Lutheraner, 1844, to which was added in 1855 the theological journal . Lehre und Wehre; in 1846 he organized the Missouri Synod, which numbered in 1895 344,000 eommunicants; and was professor in the Theological Seminary at St. Louis from its founding in 1850 until his death, May 7, 1887. His later years were marked by a controversy on predestination that divided the Synodical Conference of the Lutheran Church, in which he was charged with holding Calvinistic principles, a charge which he denied, and which could not be recon- ciled with the doctrine of the universality of redemption that he taught. Among his works are Kirche und Amt (Erlangen, 1852; 3d ed. 1875); American Lutheran Pas- toral Theology (1872); and numerous volumes of sermons. See biography (Lebensbild), by his colleague Martin Giinther (St. Louis, 1890); also Briimel, Homiletische Characterbilder (Leipzig, 1874). HENRY E. JAeoBs. Walther von der Vogelweide, va"al'ter-f5n-dar-f6'gel-vi- ‘de: poet and minnesinger; b. about 1170, probably in Aus- tria. He came from a noble but poor family, and learned the art of poetry in Austria, presumably from Reinmar der Alte, the famous minnesinger at the court of Vienna. Walther seems to have remained at Vienna until after the death of Duke Frederick I. in 1198. In Sept., 1197, Empe- ror Henry VI. had died, and a time of great political con- fusion ensued. Walther wandered from court to court through various parts of Germany, singing his beautiful love-songs and stirring up the conscience of the nation by his political poems. Despite the prominent part which Walther played in art and politics, he remained a poor wan- dering minstrel, gaining his livelihood by the favor of his patrons, until finally, in 1220, Emperor Frederick II. granted him a small property, probably near \Vi1rzburg. In 1227, when the emperor contemplated his long-delayed crusade, \Valther composed his famous Ifreuzlied, but did not per- sonally participate in the expedition of 1228. He died prob- ably in the same year, and presumably at Wiirzburg, where a stone is pointed out in the Laurence Garden of the Neu- miinster as marking his grave. The contemporaries of Wal- ther all praise his greatness, and his fame as the foremost of the mediaeval German lyrics has steadily increased. In his poetry, as preserved in the best manuscripts, we may dis- tinguish three periods. During the first of these he shows the influence of Reinmar der Alte; like him, Walther is fond of analyzing his feelings and giving his subjective re- flections, though gifted with a far deeper feeling for nature than his teacher. It is, however, a proof of his greatness as a man and as a poet that he felt the unnatural and even immoral basis upon which the artistic minnesong of Rein- mar and his predecessors was built, and openly in his songs opposed it. With this strong and manly protest begins the second period in Walther’s poetic development. He at- tacks his former teacher and model, parodies the latter’s poems, and ridicules their sentimentality. But I/Valther was not only a severe critic of his degenerated times; he was also one of its leaders, who in the depth of his soul had discovered new paths which he was eager to point out to his fellow men. Thus matured and in full possession of his great gifts he entered the third and most important period of his life. In order to comprehend the power of his ethical feeling one must study his so-called Spritche, didactic poems which he developed to classic perfection. These are mostly political and religious, and convey the convictions of a true patriot and a Christian of broad human feelings. No man before Luther attacked the pope and the Roman clergy as fearlessly as Walther did. The best and most perfect of his lyric poetry belongs to the last period of his poetic activity. In 1889 a statue was erected to him at Bozen, Tyrol. BIBLIoeRAPEY.—The best critical edition of Walther’s poems is that by K. Lachmann (1827); later editions by Wackernagel and Rieger (1862), Pfeiffer (1864), Wihnanns (1883), and Paul (1882). Of the many translations into modern German the best are by K. Simrock (1833) and Ed. Samhaber (1882). There are biographies by L. Uhland (1822), Menzel (1865), Burdach, Reinmar der Alte und Walther von der Vogelweide (1880), Wilmanns (1882), A. Schiinbach (1890). See also the article IWIINNESINGERS. JULIUS GOEEEL. Walton: village; Delaware co., N. Y.; on the Delaware river, and the N. Y., Ont. and West. Railway; 17 miles S. W. of Delhi, 180 miles N. W. of New York (for location,see map of New York, ref. 6-H). It is in an agricultural and dairy- WALWORTH ing region, and has 7 churches, high school, union school, 2 banks, 4 hotels, electric lights, 2 water companies, 2 foun- dries and machine-shops, tannery, baby-carriage factory, novelty manufacturing-works, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,389; (1890) 2,299; (1895) estimated, 3,500. EDIToR or “REI>oRTER.” Walton, BRIAN, D. D. : bishop and biblical scholar; b. at Seymour, in Cleveland, Yorkshire, England, 1600; educated at hiagdalene College and Peterhouse, Cambridge; was a curate in Suffolk and in London; was successively rector of St. Martin’s, Orgar, London, of Sandon, Essex, and of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, London; became prebendary of St. Paul’s and chaplain to Charles I. 1639. During the ascendency of the Puritans his livings were sequestrated (1642). He was forced to flee to Oxford, where he devoted ten years dur- ing the civil war and the Protectorate to the preparation of his great work, the Biblia Sacra Polyglotta (London. 6 vols. folio, 1657), including the Hebrew original of the Old Testament, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Chaldee. Syriac, Arabic, Persian, and Latin Vulgate, with various readings, notes, etc., constituting one of the chief monuments of Oriental scholarship in England, and still considered “the most complete biblical apparatus in any language.” In its preparation Dr. Walton received aid from Archbishop Usher, John Selden, Samuel Clarke, Drs. Edmund Castell, Thomas Hyde, Edward Pocock, and John Lightfoot, and several other noted Orientalists, and for its publication sub- scriptions to the amount of £9,000 were made. He wrote in 1658 his Dissertatio on the antiquity and authority of his texts, usually styled in later editions the Prolegomena, and in reply to the attack made by the celebrated Dr. John Owen in his Vindication of the Purity and Integrity of the Hebrew and Greeh Texts, etc. (1658), wrote his conclusive treatise, The Considerator considered, etc. (1659). Walton became chaplain to Charles II. at the Restoration, was con- secrated Bishop of Chester Dec. 2, 1660, and took part in the Savoy Conferences 1661. D. in London Nov. 29, 1661. iltemoirs of his life and writings (2 vols., 1821) were written by Henry John Todd. The Prolegomena was republished in the original Latin, edited by Francis W rangham (2 vols., Cambridge, 1827-28). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Walton, GEORGE: signer of the Declaration of Independ- ence; b. in Frederick co., Va., in 1740; was apprenticed to a carpenter ; acquired a tolerable education by private study ; was admitted to the bar and settled in Savannah, Ga., 1774; was one of the four persons who called the first public meet- ing at Savannah (July 27, 1774) to concert measures for the defense of that colony; drew up the resolutions passed on that occasion; was a delegate to the Continental Congress 1776-81, and signed the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation; was colonel of militia in the defense of Savannah Dec., 1778, when he was dangerously wounded, and was a prisoner until Sept., 1779; was chosen Governor of Georgia in Oct., 1779, and again 1789; became chief justice of Georgia 1783, and was U. S. Senator 1795-96. D. at Augusta, Ga., Feb. 2, 1804. Walton, IZAAK: author; b. at Stafford, England, Aug. 9, 1593; became a linen-draper in Fleet Street, London, 1624, and acquired a competency, upon which he retired in 1644; sympathized with the royalist cause in the great rebellion, and from that time “lived mostly in the families of eminent clergymen of England, of whom he was much beloved,” de- voting himself to literature, the contemplation of nature, and the pleasures of the fishing-rod. He wrote Lives of Dr. John Donne (1640), Sir Henry Wotten (1640), Richard Hooker (1662), George Herbert (1670), and Dr. Robert Sanderson (1678), which have often been published together, and are known collectively as Walton’s Lives. The Compleat Angler, or the Contemplative ]tIan’s Recreation (1653), has been many times reprinted, and is one of the best-known works of the seventeenth century, perhaps the quaintest treatise of the pleasures of fishing ever penned, and made specially fas- cinating by charming descriptions of nature. D. at Win- chester, Dec. 15, 1683. He left a son Izaak, who became a clergyman. A Life of Ieaah IValton, including Notices of his Contemporaries (1823), was published by Thomas Zouch, D. D. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Waltzeemiiller: See WALDSEEMULLER. W alworth, CLARENCE ALPI~IoNsus: Paulist priest; b. in Plattsburg, N. Y., May 30, 1820; son of Reuben I-Iyde Wal- worth; graduated at Union College; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1841; practiced law one year, and WALWORTH then entered the general theological seminary of the Prot- estant Episcopal Church in New York city; after three years joined the Roman Catholic Church; studied abroad, and after traveling abroad and in the U. S. returned to Saratoga, and later became rector of St. Mary’s parish in Albany. He has written The Gentle Skeptic (New York. 1860); The Doctrine of Hell Ventilated in a Discussion between Rev. G. A. Walworth and lVilliam H. Barr, Esq. (1874) ; besides various poems and essays. He is one of the founders of the Paulist order in the U. S. F. S. A. Walworth, REUBEN HYDE, LL. D. : lawyer and judge; b. at Bozrah, Conn., Oct. 26, 1789; passed his early years on a farm at Hoosick, N. Y. ; was for the most part self-educated ; was admitted to the bar in 1809 ; settled at Plattsburg, N. Y. ; was an officer of volunteers 1812, and acting adjutant- general of New York militia during the British campaign against Plattsburg 1814; became master in chancery and county judge 1811 ; took a high position at the bar ; in 1823 removed to Saratoga; was a member of Congress 1821-23; was a circuit judge 1823-28; was chancellor of New York 1828-48, taking rank as a master of equity jurisprudence. During the twenty years of his chancellorship he resided in Albany, but upon retiring returned to Saratoga, and acted for some years as chamber counsel and referee, being the referee in the famous “Spike case” of Burden vs. Corning. Dur- ing his last years he prepared an elaborate genealogy of his mother’s family, The Hyde Genealogy, or the Descendants, in the Female as well as in the Male Line, from W'illiam Ifyde of Norwich (2 vols. 8vo, 1864, with twenty-two steel portraits). On the bench he was somewhat stern, and often anticipated the remarks of counsel. His decisions as circuit judge are in Cowen’s Reports (9 vols., 1824-30); those pro- nounced as chancellor are contained in Paige and Barbour’s Reports (14 vols., 1830-49) ; and his opinions delivered as an ea;-ojficio member of the court for the correction of errors may be found in the Reports of Wendell, Hill, and Denio (38 vols., 1829-50). D. at Saratoga, Nov. 21, 1867. Besides the Genealogy he was the author of Rules and Orders of the Court of Chancery of the State oflVezo Y orh (Albany, 1829). Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Wame’g0: city; Pottawatomie co., Kan.; on the Kansas river, and the Union Pac. Railway; 15 miles E. of Manhat- tan, 37 miles VV. by N. of Topeka, the State capital (for loca- tion, see map of Kansas, ref. 5-H). It is in an agricultural region ; has a public high school, national bank with capital of $75,000, a private bank, and two weekly newspapers ; and is an important grain-market. Pop. (1890) 1,473; (1893) 1,750. Enrron or “KANSAS AGRICULTURIST.” Wampum [from Amer. Ind., signifying white; of. Mass. wompi : Del. wdpe, white]: the strings and belts of beads used as money by some tribes of North American Indians. The shells of Venus mercenaria, the round clam, or qua- haug, were the favorite material. These were drilled length- wise and strung upon a thread. Wam um was either white or of a black or violet-purple color, t e last being valued twice as highly as the first. The wampum-belt served not only as money, but as an ornament, and the beads seem to have been used as counters or aids to memory in such simple computations as the Indians made. Wan’ amaker, J ornv: merchant; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., July 11, 1838; engaged in business on his own account in 1861, and became a successful and widely-known merchant of Philadelphia. He began mission work there in 1858; founded Bethany Presbyterian church and its great Sunday- school, and became prominent in benevolent and missionary work. He was one of the founders of the Christian Com- mission during the civil war, and president of the Y. M. C. A. of Philadelphia 1870-83. From 1889 till 1893 he was U. S. Postmaster-General, under Harrison. 8. M. J . Wandering Cells: See Ehsronocv (Connective Sub- stances). Wal1(le1'ing‘ Jew: the hero of a legend which first ap- peared in the middle of the thirteenth century in the chron- icle of Matthew of Paris, who professes to have received his information from the lips of an Armenian bishop, to whom the Wandering Jew himself had communicated the events. According to this version, he was a servant in the house of Pilate, by the name of Cartaphilus, and gave Christ a blow when he was dragged out of the palace to be executed. Ac- cording to another version—probably of the fifteenth cen- tury and of German origin-—-he was a shoemaker by the name of Ahasuerus, and refused Christ permission to sit WAPAKONETA 595 down and rest when, on his way to Golgotha, he passed by his house. All versions, however, agree with respect to the verdict of Christ, that he should remain wandering on the earth until the second coming, and consequently the myth-' forming imagination immediately went to work to narrate his travels. N ow and then a man appeared who claimed to be the Wandering Jew. Thus in the sixteenth century Ahasuerus was seen in Hamburg and other German cities, and held long conferences with Dr. Paulus von Eitzen, Bishop of Schleswig. In the beginning of the eighteenth century Cartaphilus appeared in London in the higher cir- cles, and communicated to the most learned professors of Oxford, who came to see him, anecdotes from his personal acquaintance with the apostles, Mohammed, Tamerlane. and others. He has figured very largely in works of fiction by Schubart, A. \V. Schlegel, Julius Mosen, Lenau, Klinge- mann, Edgar Quinet, Béranger, Eugene Sue, H. C. Ander- sen, and other writers of the nineteenth century. See M. D. Conway, The IVandering Jew (London, 1881); L. Neu- baur, Die Sage worn ewzgen Juden (Leipzig, 1884). Revised by S. M. JAcKsoi<. Wanderley’, J o.Ko MAURICIO: statesman; b. at Barra do Sao Francisco, Pernambuco, Brazil, Oct. 23, 1815. He studied law at Pernambuco; joined the Conservative party; was elected deputy 1842 and repeatedly re-elected; was senator from 1856. and president of the senate 1882 and 1885. In 1868 he was created Baron of Cotegipe, by which title he is best known. He held portfolios in most of the prominent conservative cabinets from 1854, and was min- ister to the Platine republics in 187 0, signing the treaty of peace with Paraguay. On Feb. 25, 1885. he organized the ministry which carried through congress the general eman- cipation law: this cabinet remained in power until May 10, 1888. D. at Rio de Janeiro, Feb. 13, 1889. H. H. S. Wanderoo’ [from Cingalese, zranderu. monkey] : (1) a men- key of the coast of Malabar (flfacacus silenas) ; distinguished by its long hair and venerable appearance, whence it has been also called Silenus vetus. The head is oblong and the face rather produced; the hair on each side of the face and on the neck and chest is elongated and forms a sort of ruff round the face, and is of a gray or whitish color; the face about the eyes is naked and flesh-colored ; ‘the snout black; the fur is mostly black on the back and sides, and whitish beneath and inside the limbs; the tail is rather short and tufted; it is chiefly brown, but its tuft is whitish. The wanderoo lives in the depth of the forests, and its appear- ance has given rise to several legends. and to the idea that it is the lord of the monkey race. These monkeys were known to the ancients, and have been supposed to be the “race of men ” described by Ctesias as “inhabiting the mountains of India, having heads like dogs, but with larger teeth. They have nails, but larger and more rounded. They bark, but do not talk; they have tails like dogs, but more hairy." The wanderoo attains a length of about 18 inches. (2) The name is also given to, and in fact appears to have been primarily employed for, species of the genus Selmnopithecu/s, and especially for the S. leucoprymnus of Ceylon. Revised by F. A. LUOAS. Wanklyn, JAMES ALFRED, M. R. C. S.: chemist; b. at Ashton-under-Lyne, England, in 1834; received a thorough scientific education; studied chemistry at Heidelberg under Bunsen; made several important discoveries in chemistry, especially in settling the relation of the sugar group to the alcoholic series, and the ammonia process of water-analysis; became demonstrator of chemistry at the University of Ed- inburgh in 1859; Professor of Chemistry at the London In- stitution 1863-70; lecturer on chemistry and physics at St. George’s Hospital 1 77-80: has been public analyst for the county of Buckingham and for several boroughs; in 1871 conducted for the Government the analysis of the milk sup- plied to the London workhouses. Author of treatises on Water Analysis (1868; 7th ed. 1889) and Jlfilh 1-lozalysis (1873); On Tea, Coffee, and Gocoa (1874); Bread Analysis (1881); The Gas E/ngz'neer’s Ghernical Jlfanual (1886); and of Air Analysis (1890). Revised by IRA Rnnssn. Wapakone’ta : village (laid out in 1833); capital of Au- glaise co., O.; on the Auglaise river, and the Cin., Ham. and Dayton Railroad; 12 miles S. by \V. of Lima, 31 miles N. of Piqua (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 4-D). It is in an agricultural, natural-gas, and petroleum region, and has 2 public-school buildings, county court-house (cost $260,- 000), 2 national banks with combined capital of $200,000. 3 weekly newspapers, and manufactories of churns, wheels. and 596 WAPELLO furniture. The site was an ancient Indian capital, was the scene of the signing of the treaty by which the Senecas and Shawnees gave up their lands to the U. S. in 1831, and was the last point in Ohio occupied by the Indians. Pop. (1880) 2,765 ; (1890) 3,616; (1895) 4,080. EDITOR OF “REPUBLICAN.” Wafpelloz town; capital of Louisa co.. Ia.; on the Iowa river, and the Burl., Ced. Rap. and N. Railway; 21 miles S. by NV. of Huscatine, 30 miles N. of Burlington (for loca- tisn, see map of Iowa, ref. 6-K). It is in a grain, vegetable, and fruit-growing and stock-raising region, and has a large public-school building, 4 churches, 2 weekly newspapers, a flour-mill, plow and wagon factories, and fruit and vegetable canneries. Pop. (1880) 928; (1890) 1,009; (1895) estimated, 1,200. EDITOR OF “RECORD.” Wap’iti [from Amer. Ind. (Cree) wapitilc, liter., white deer; cf. WANPUM]: the Cervus canadensis, or large deer of the Northern U. S. and British provinces. It is more generally called elk, but that name belongs by right to the Alces malchis, otherwise called moose. The wapiti is very closely related to the common red deer or stag of Europe, but is a still larger and more noble-looking beast, attaining ‘\ Iy.‘ \\ ~_ ' ‘-‘ ‘ “P \ ..._‘\ i ' ,\\-,\._ _ . ----' ~~.>.>;=\\\_~'--..\.='- ; is ‘ \. /-"-v-_~= \ ‘:2.--<\--~-. - \\‘ ‘ , RN, i (O -\ -trite;'»'a?.‘§.§\i1u~t\\sRife I'- ‘~, " - 5 )1 . \\ ‘ _ _ [9 '.-$ ,5)?“ \\ W1-\%¢¢_-/\‘l _ l _ ‘ ‘ (/Q'Z¢I%"; \ ~®\$ :-A. . - - -‘ "W ‘t'/ ‘ @ ~_ ‘ ~‘\ -_ . 9/ EE%;F%" A * “ /' * HM \ : !;¢:<-f £2 E. _ -- ’ "2 1:" I I I \\ -/3. P \ ' .\ \\,\~('\'\,,l‘,'~‘: ‘I7-‘iinii ‘ ,. /' -'L-H l~ -‘%it\ \ €,4’‘’”;e}.i)‘1,\ .\,\. . /A _ " I - J »"’“> Germ. wirbcln, warble, "trill, liter., whirl] : any small bird of the families llfniotiltidoe or Sylciidce. \Vhy the popular name was given it is hard to say, as very few of the warblers sing. The lldniotiltidce have nine primaries, a slender, unnotched bill, and scutellate tarsi. Theyare a pc- culiarly American group, comprising over 120 species, all of small size, under 6 inches in length, and many of bright but not gaudy plumage. They are active, largely insectiv- orous in diet, and vary greatly in their nesting habits, some making simple nests, others structures which rival those_ of humming-birds in beauty. The Sylciidce have ten primaries, a slender but rather broad, notched bill, and booted or seutel- late tarsi. The family contains about 150 species, mostly of Old World birds, and generally of subdued colors. In habits they largely resemble the .Mniotiltialce. F. A. LUCAS. War'burton, ELICT BAETECLCMEW GEORGE: author; b. at Aughrim, County Galway, Ireland, in 1810; studied at Cambridge; was called to the Irish bar, but soon relin- quished that profession to devote himself to the care of his estates. He traveled in the East in 1843 ; published on his return The Crescent and the Cross, or Romance and Reali- ties of Eastern Travel (2 vols., 1844), which obtained im- mense popularity; settled in London 1844; published ]l[em- oirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (3 vols., 1849); Reginald Hastings (3 vols., 1850), a novel of the great re- bellion ; Memoirs of Horace Walpole and his Contemporaries (2 vols., 1851); Darien, or the 1lIerchant Prince, an Historical Romance (3 vols., 1851); and A Jllemoir of Charles .ll[or- daunt, Earl of Peterborough (3 vols., 1853). He perished in the burning of the steamer Amazon oif Land’s End J an. 4, 1852. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Warburton, WILLIAM, D. D.: Bishop of Gloucester; b. at Newark-upon-Trent, Dec. 24, 1698, where his father was an attorney and town-clerk; attended school at Newark and Oakham; in 1719 began the practice of law at Newark, but in 1723 abandoned the law and took deacon’s orders; in 1727 was ordained priest, and made vicar of Gryesly, Not- tinghamshire ; became rector of Brant Broughton, Lincoln- shire, 1728; preacher to the society of Lincoln’s Inn, Lon- don, 1746; prebendary of Gloucester 1753; king’s chaplain in ordinary 1754; prebendary of Durham 1755; dean of Bristol 1757, and in 1760 Bishop of Gloucester, where he died June 7, 1779. His spirited defense, in 1739-40, of Pope’s Essay on illan against the charge of atheism made the poet his ardent and lifelong friend. He published I1! is- cellaneous Translations in Prose and Verse (1723); An ]n- guiry into the Causes of Prodigies and Jlfiracles (1727); Alliance between Church and State (1736); Divine Lega- tion of Moses demonstrated, on the principles of a religious Deist, from the omission of the doctrine of a future state of reward and punishment in the Jewish Dispensation (his greatest work, 1738-41; 10th ed. 3 vols., 1846): a very poor edition of Shakspeare (1747); Julian, or a Discourse concerning the Earthquake and Fiery Eruption which de- featcd the Emperor’s Attempt to rebuild the Temple at Je- rusalem (1750) : an edition of Pope’s Wbrhs (1751; Pope, in his will, left him the copyright of his l\lSS., and appointed him their editor); View of Boli/ngbrohe’s Posthumous IvVrit- ings (1754; contains a defense of revelation, which is “ uni- versally allowed to be a most masterly performance”); The Doctrine of Grace (1762). His own works were published by his friend Bishop Hurd, with a Jilemoir prefixed (7 vols., 1788-94). His Letters to Hurd appeared in 1808, and Liz‘- erary Remains in 1841. See the Life by Rev. John Selby l/Vatson (1863). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. WARD 601 Ward [O. Eng. weard, keeping watch, guard (: O. H. Germ. warta), deriv. of weardian, to guard, watch: O. H. Germ. warten < Teuton. *warcl-, deriv. of war- > Germ. wahren, bewahren, heed : Eng. wary; cf. Gr. dpdz/, *Fop5w < Indo-Eur. uor-]: in feudal law, the heir of the king’s ten- ant in capite during his non-age, but in general language the term is applied to all infants under the power of guard- ians. See GUARDIAN. Ward, ADCLPEUS WILLIAM : literary historian and biog- rapher; b. at Hampstead, London, England, Dec. 2, 1837; educated in Germany and at Peterhouse College, Cambridge, and became Professor of History at Owen’s College, Man- chester, in 1866; afterward was principal of the college. Besides contributions to the Encyclopceclia Britannica and leading English reviews, he is author of The House of Aus- tria in the Thirty Years’ War (1869); Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth (2 vols., 1875); and Lives of Chau- cer (1879) and Dickens (1882), in the English Men of Let- ters series; translator of Curtius’s History of Greece (5 vols., 1868-74); and editor of Pope’s Poems (Globe ed. 1869) and of the Chetham Society’s edition of Byron’s Poems (1894). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Ward, ANN: See RADCLIFFE, ANN. Ward, ARTEMAS: soldier and jurist; b. at Shrewsbury, Mass., Nov. 27, 1727; graduated at Harvard 1748; served in the French and Indian war, becoming lieutenant-colonel; was appointed a general officer by the Massachusetts pro- vincial congress Oct. 27, 1774, and commander-in-chief of Massachusetts forces May 19,1775; was in nominal com- mand at the battle of Bunker Hill, though he remained at headquarters at Cambridge, and had no actual share in de- termining the events of that day; was appointed by the Continental Congress first on the list of major-generals June 17, 1775; was in command of the forces besieging Boston until the arrival of Gen. 'Washington, after which he was second in command; resigned Apr., 1776. in consequence of ill health ; was chief justice of common pleas for W'orces- ter County, 1776; president of the Massachusetts executive council 1777; sat in the Legislature sixteen years; was Speaker of that body 1785. and member of Congress 1791- 95. D. at Shrewsbury, Oct. 28, 1800. , Ward, ARTEMUS : See BROWNE, CHARLES FAEEAE. Ward, EDGAR l\IELVILLE: genre-painter; b. in Urbana, O., Feb. 24, 1839; studied at the National Academy of De- sign, New York, and under Cabanel, in Paris; National Academician 1883. His pictures of scenes of country-life in the U. S. are good in the rendition of character. Brit- tany Washerwomen (1876), The Sabot .J[alrer (1878), The Collar Shop (collection of T. B. Clarke, New York), and The Quilting Party (1892) are some of his principal works. His studio is in New York. YVILLIAM A. CCFFIN. Ward, EDWARD l\IATTHEW, R. A. : painter ; b. at Pimlico. London, England, in 1816; was a nephew of Horace and James Smith, authors of the Rejected Addresses: became in 1834 an art student at the Royal Academy, where he en- joyed special instruction from \Vilkie, and exhibited a de- cided talent for original composition and color; studied at Rome 1836-39, gaining the silver medal of the Academy of St. Luke 1838; pursued a course of fresco-painting under Cornelius at Munich; exhibited his first picture at the Royal Academy 1839: presented unsuccessfully his Boadieea in the cartoon competition at \Vestminster Hall 1843; was brought into favorable notice by his Dr. Johnson reading the JIIS. of the Vicar of Wakefield (1843), Goldsmith as a I/Vandering .ll[usie/ion (1844), and Dr. Johnson in the Ante- room of Lord Chesterfield (1845); devoted himself success- fully to the illustration of English and French history by a series of large pictures; was commissioned to paint eight pictures in oil for the corridor of the House of Commons 1852, three of which have since been reproduced in fresco and two in water-glass. He exhibited frequently in the Royal Academy, was made an associate in 1847, and became an Academican 1856. D. at lVindsor, Jan. 15, 1879. ‘Vard, ELIZABETH STUART (Phelps): novelist and poet; b. at Andover, Mass., Aug. 13, 1844; daughter of Prof. Austin Phelps of the Andover Theological Seminary. She has resided mostly at her native place, devoting herself to the pursuit of letters and to various philanthropic and reform movements. In 1888 she was married to Rev. Herbert D. Ward, of New York. Her story The Gates Afar (1868) made a strong impression, and has been followed by Ellen, IVomen, and Ghosts (1869); The Silent Partner (1870) ; The 602 Trott Book 1870); The Story of Avis (1877); Old Maiids’ Paradise (1879); Beyond the Gates (1883); Dr, Zay (1884); The Gates Between (1887); and, in collaboration with her husband, The Ilfaster of the ]VIagicians (1890), and Come Forth (1890). She has contributed many short stories to the magazines, and published a volume of essays, The_Strugglefor Immortality (1889); Poetic Studies, _verse (1870); Songs of the Silent World (1885), etc. Religious earnestness and a certain tenseness of the conscience and the emotions, char- acteristic of New England and of Puritan inheritance, dis- tinguish the work of this very popular writer. H. A. B. Ward, FREDERicx TowNsEND: b. at Salem, Mass., Nov. 29 1831; educated at the Salem High School; was a heu- tenant in the French service during the Crimean war; was with I/Valker in Nicaragua; became admiral-general in the service of the Emperor of China; organized the .ChlIlGSB soldiers by modern methods, and won many victories over the rebel Taipings, but was killed in an engagement with them near Ningpo, Sept. 21, 1862. Ward, HENRY AUGUSTUS: naturalist; b. at Rochester, N. Y., Mar. 9, 1834; educated at Williams College and at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University, where he became assistant to Prof. Agassiz in the museum of comparative zotilogy; went to Europe in 1854; studied zotilogy at Paris and mineralogy at Freiberg; traveled in Palestine, Arabia, Egypt, Nubia, and the west coast of At- rica. ascending the Niger; subsequently visited the West Indies, Central America, and the Western Territories of the U. S. as a mining engineer: was Professor of Natural Sci- ences at Rochester University 1860-75; established there a laboratory for the production of facsimiles of rare fossils, since extended to include various branches of natural his- tory ; made an extensive collection of modern zo6_logy; was naturalist to the U. S. expedition to Santo Domingo 1871 ; and has since traveled extensively in various parts of the world. The Ward cabinets of mineralogy and geology at the University of Rochester occupy a large portion of Sibley Hall. Revised by F. A. LUcAs. Ward, Mrs. HUMPHRY: See WARD, MARY AUGUSTA. Ward, JOHN Qumcv ADAMS: sculptor; b. at Urbana, 0., June 29, 1830. About 1849 he went into the studio of HENRY KIRKE BROWN (g. v.) and assisted him in_ some of his works, especially the equestrian statue of Washington in Union Square, New York. Between 1857 and 1861 he resided chiefly in Washington, D. C., where he made portrait-busts of some of the leading public men. During the excitement of the breaking out of the civil war he modeled his cele- brated statuette of The Freedman, which represents a Negro breaking his manacles. This work became very popular because of its subject, and was of real excellence; many copies were sold in bronze, as well as in other material. In 1863 he modeled the Indian Hunter; he visited the western frontier that he might see the American Indians at home and found great instruction and inspiration in the opportunities there afforded him of studying the nude form of man in vigorous action. In-1864 the Indian I-Iunter was cast in bronze and put up in Central Park, New York city. Before this time Ward had opened a studio in New York, where he has since resided. Of figures of life size and larger he has completed for New York city the Seventh Regiment Illonument, consisting chiefly of a colossal figure of a uniformed soldier of the regiment; a bronze statue of Shakspeare, in Central Park; a seated figure of_ Horace Greeley, in front of the office of The New York Tmbune; a statue of Senator Conkling, in Madison Square ; a statue of William E. Dodge, at Broadway and West Thirty-fourth Street; a statue of Washington, in front of the Sub-Treas- ury in Wall Street, on the spot where Washington took the oath of office as the first President of the U. S. in 1789; The Pilgrim, a bronze statue larger than life, erected in 1885 to commemorate the landing of the Pilgrims on Plym- outh Rock. There is also a bust of Alexander L. Holley in Washington Square. His colossal statue of Henry Ward Beecher stands in front of city-hall in Brooklyn. One of his most important works is the equestrian statue of Gen. George H. Thomas, in Thomas Circle, Washington. In the same city is the statue of President Garfield, with three colossal em- blematic figures at the base of the pedestal. In Boston is a large group commemorative of the discovery of the anaes- thetic properties of ether; it represents The Good Samari- tan, and was erected about 1865. The statue of Gen. John F. Reynolds. at Gettysburg, the statue of Israel Putnam, at Hartford, Conn., those of Gen. Lafayette, at Burlington, WARD Vt., and of Gen. Daniel Morgan, at Spartansburg, S. C., and very many portrait-busts are included in his works. He was president of the National Academy of Design 1872-73, and has always been active in the management of that in- stitution. He was one of the founders of the National Sculpture Society in 1893; was its first president, and was re-elected to that oflice in J an., 1895. RUSSELL STURGIS. Ward, LESTER FRANK: geologist and botanist; b. at Joliet, Ill., June 18, 1841; attended various schools in the early part of his life; served in the Union army during the civil war; graduated at Columbian University, Washington, in 1869, and later received LL. B. and A. M. from that institution. Since 1865 he has lived in Washington, D. C., holding various civil positions-—chief of the navigation di- vision and librarian of the U. S. bureau of statistics-and in 1881 he entered the U. S. Geological Survey, where he has had charge of the paleobotany. He is also honorary curator of fossil plants in the S. National Museum. I-Iis scientific papers, etc., number dbout 400. In 1869 he con- ceived, and in the following years outlined, an extensive work on social science, which culminated in the publication of his Dynamic Sociology (2 vols., New York. 1883), and in 1893 he published The Psychic Factors of Civilization (Boston). Aside from these, his more im ortant papers are a pamphlet entitled Haec/cel’s Genesis of Ian (1879); Guide to the Flora of Washington and Vicinity (1881); Sketch of Paleobotany (Fifth Annual Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1885); The Geological Distribution of Fossil Plants (Eighth Annual Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1889); The Course of Biologic Evolution (1890); and Neo-Darwinism and Neo- Lamarckism (1891). He also contributed the botanical mat- ter to The Century Dictionary from H to Z, and the article on Plants, Fossil, to Johnson’s Universal Cyclopoedia (1895), Ward, MARY AUGUSTA (Arnold): novelist; b. at Hobart, Tasmania, in 1851 ; eldest daughter of Thomas Arnold and niece of Matthew Arnold. Her father returned to England in 1856, and in 1872 she was married to Thomas Humphry Ward. She published Milly and Olly (1881); Ilfiss Brother- ton (1884), the heroine of which was popularly identified with Mary Anderson, the actress; a translation of Amiel’s Jour- nal (1885); Robert Elsmere (1888), a story dealing with re- ligious doubt, which made a powerful impression and had an enormous circulation in England and the U. S.; The His- tory of David Grieve (1892); Marcella (1894); and The Story of Bessie Costrell (1895). In 1890 she aided in establishing University Hall, in London, a settlement among the poor, and remains its honorary secretary. HENRY A. BEERS. Ward, NATHANIEL: author; b. at Haverhill, Suffolk, England, about 1578; studied at Emmanuel College, Cam- bridge; graduated 1603; was for some years a lawyer, but later became preacher at St. J ames’s, Duke’s Place, London, and afterward rector of Standon Massaye, Essex. He be- came connected with the Massachusetts Company in 1630, emigrated to Massachusetts in 1634, and immediately be- came pastor at Agawam or Ipswich; resigned his charge on account of ill health Feb., 1637; took part in the settlement of Haverhill (named from his native place) May, 1640; was the author of the Body of Liberties adopted Dec., 1641, be- ing the first code of laws established in New England; re- turned to England 1646; took part as a pamphleteer in the great political struggle then going on; became pastor of Shenfield,Essex, 1648, and died there in Oct., 1652. He was the author of The Simple Cobbler of Agawam (1647), a quaint political satire ; Illercurius Anti-Ilfechanicns, or the Simple Cobbler-’s Boy, with his Lap full of Caveats (1648); A Religious Retreat Sounded to a Religious Army (1647); and a Sermon before Parliament (1647). A flfemoir by John Ward Dean was published at Albany in 1848. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Ward, RORERT PLUMER: author; b. in London, England, Mar. 19, 1765; educated at Oxford; was admitted to the bar in 1790, and wrote a number of juristic works which brought him into favorable notice. He sat in Parliament for Cockermouth 1802-05, and was afterward Under Secre- tary of Foreign Affairs; was member of Parliament for I-Iaselmere 1807-20; became Lord of the Admiralty in the Portland administration 1807; was clerk of the ordinance 1811-23, and auditor of the civil list from 1823 to 1831, when he retired from political life on a pension of £1,000, and spent his remaining years in literary work. D. at Oke-' over Hall, Staffordshire, Aug. 13, 1846. Among his juristic writings were An Inquiry into the Foundation and History‘ of the Law of Nations, etc. (1795) and A Treatise of the WARD Relative Rights and Duties of Belligerents and Neutral Powers in fltaritime Afiairs, etc. (1801). He published anonymously Tremaine, or the ]PIan of Refinement (1825), and De Vere, or the Man of Independence (1827), novels which had extraordinary popularity as delineations of Eng- lish society, and subsequently issued De Chfiord (1841) and other novels, and An I-Iistorical Essay on the Real Char- acter and Amount of the Precedent of Revolution o_f'1688 (2 vols., 1838). See E. Phipps, IVIernoirs of the Political and Literary Life of Robert Plumer Ward, Esq. (1850). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Ward, WILLIAM: missionary; b. at Derby, England, Oct. 20, 1769; learned the printer’s trade; was licensed as a Baptist preacher; was sent in both capacities as a mission- ary to India 1799; settled at Serampore; printed numerous religious works in the Bengali language; wrote An Account of the Writings, Religion, and Itlanners of the Hindoos, including Translations from their Principal Works (Scram- pore, 4 vols. 4to, 1811; 5th ed. Madras, 1863); visited Eng- land, Holland, and the U. S. 1819-21, delivering addresses upon the cause of missions, and printed Farewell Letters to a Few Friends in Britain and America, on Returning to Bengal in 1821 (London, 1821). D. of cholera at Scram- pore, Mar. 7, 1823. His Account was long a leading author- ity upon Indian matters, and may still be profitably con- sulted upon some points, although later works have revealed many inaccuracies in the description of native religions, and still more in the translations. A volume of .ZV[emoirs (1825) was prepared by Samuel Stennett, and a more ade- quate biography is in the Life and Times of Carey, flIarsh- man, and Ward, embracing the History of Serampore ]lIis- sion (2 vols., 1859; abridged ed., New York, 1867), by John Clark Marshman. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Ward, WILLIAM HAYES, D. D.. LL.D.: Orientalist and editor; b. at Abington, Mass., June 25, 1835; graduated at Amherst College 1856, at Andover Theological Seminary 1859, ordained in 1859, and became acting pastor of the Congregational churches of Oskaloosa and Grasshopper Falls, Kan.; in 1857-58 taught the natural sciences in Beloit College; in 1862 became teacher of sciences in the Utica Free Academy; in 1865-68 was Professor of Latin in Ripon College. Wisconsiii ; in 1868 joined the editorial stafi of the New York Independent, of which he became superintend- ing editor in 1870. He is a member of the American Oriental Society. and in 1889 was elected its president. He has pub- lished various articles in the Bibliotheca Sacra and in other journals on biblical criticism and Assyriology. The second ‘statement of the American Palestine Exploration Society contains a paper of his on the Hamath inscriptions. In 1884 he led an exploring party to ancient Babylonia, of which he published a report in pamphlet form. Revised by Gsoaes P. FISHER. Warden, DAVID BAILLIE, M. D. : author; b. in Ireland in 1778; emigrated to the U. S. in youth ; received a classical education; graduated at the New York Medical College; was appointed secretary of legation to France 1804, and re- sided at Paris forty years, filling most of the time the oflice of U. S. consul; was well known in literary circles, and formed two libraries of American books which were acquired respectively by Harvard College (1823) and by the New York State Library (about 1840). He was the author of A Sta- tistical, Political, and Historical Account of the United States of 1Vorth America (Edinburgh, 3 vols., 1819), also published in French (Paris, 5 vols., 1820) and in German (Ilmenau, 1824); L’Art de oérifi-er les Dates, Chronologie historique de l’Ame'rigue (Paris, 10 vols., 1826-44); Biblio- theca Americana septentrionalis, etc. (1820); and Biblio- theca Americana (1831); Recherches sur Ies Antiquités de l’Ame'rique septentrionale (Paris. 1827), which originally appeared in Antiguitates Jlfevicance (Paris, 2 vols. folio. 1834-36); and several other minor publications. I). in Paris, Oct. 8, 1845. War Department: in the U. S.. an executive depart- ment of the Government, having control of military affairs: under the supervision of the President, as commander-in- chief of the army, and under the immediate direction of the Secretary of War, an officer of the cabinet appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The chief functions of the secretary are the super- vision of all estimates of appropriations for the expenses of the department and of the administration of the military service. the control of the board of ordnance and fortifica- tion, the supervision of the U. S. Military Academy at West WARE 603 Point, and the general direction of all matters relating to river and harbor improvements. In the performance of his duties he is aided by an assistant secretary and a chief clerk. The department is subdivided into military bureaus, each under the direction of an officer of the regular army. These officers are the adjutant, inspector, quartermaster, commissary, surgeon, and paymaster generals, the chief of engineers, the chief of ordnance, the judge-advocate-gem eral, and the chief signal ofiicer. F. M. C. Wardian Case [named from Nathaniel Bagshaw IVard, its inventor, an Englishman]: a box whose sides and top are of glass, containing at the bottom a layer of earth. and used for growing ferns and other plants in parlor-culture. Probably from the fact that the air within is highly charged with moisture, many beautiful plants thrive well in IVardian cases which can not be grown in the open air. Wardlaw, RALPH, D. D.: preacher and professor of the- ology; b. at Dalkeith, Midlothian, Scotland, Dec. 22. 1779; educated at the University of Glasgow and at the divinity school of the United Secession Church, for the ministry of which he was intended, but joined the Independent or Con- gregational denomination; in 1803 was ordained pastor of the North Albion Street chapel, Glasgow, Scotland. where, and at the chapel of the same congregation in ‘V est George Street, he labored through life, filling also gratuitously from 1811 the professorship of Systematic Theology in the Inde- pendent Theological Academy of that city. In 1853 the fiftieth anniversary of his ministry was celebrated by a pub- lic meeting and the formation of a fund for the establish- ment of the “ VVardlaw Jubilee School and Mission-house ” at Dove Hill. Glasgow. He was for many years the recog- nized head of the Independent body, which through his in- fiuence was widely extended through Scotland. He was the author of several treatises on the Socinian controversy, infant baptism, and Christian ethics, of Escpository Lectures on the Boole of Ecclesiastes (2 vols., 1821); Lectures on Sys- tematic Theology (3 vols., 1856-57); and other works. D. at Glasgow, Dec. 17, 1853. His Life was written by Rev. Dr. W. L. Alexander (1856). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Ware: town of England; county of Herts: on the Lea; 2-3; miles E. N. E. of Hertford (see map of England. ref. 11-K). St. Mary’s church, portions of which date from 1380, was restored in 1885-86. The great bed of Ware re- ferred to in Twelfth Night has been taken to Rye House, 2 miles distant. IVare has breweries and malting establish- ments. and is celebrated in Cowper’s poem, John Gilpin. Pop. (1891) 5,121. Wal'e : town (made a precinct in 1742, a district in 1761, and a town in 1775); Hampshire co., Mass; on the W‘ are river, and the Boston and Albany and the Boston and Maine railways; 12 miles N. of Palmer. 25 miles N. E. of Springfield (for location. see map of lllassachusetts, ref. 3-E). It has an elevation of 550 feet above sea-level. is compactly built, and has narrow but well-graded streets and sidewalks, an excellent water-supply, and gas and electric- light plants. There are 8 churches. high school. 28 district schools, public library of 12.000 volumes, Roman Catholic parochial school, and a weekly newspaper. The town has annual receipts and expenditures balancing at about $86.- 000; net debt. $145,900; assessed valuation, over $4,000,000. There are a national bank with capital of $300,000, and a savings-bank with deposits of nearly 83.500000. The prin- cipal industry is the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods. Pop. (1880) 4,817 ; (1890) 7.329; (1895) estimated, 8,000. EDWARD H. GILBERT. “la-re, HENRY, D. D. : theologian; b. at Sherburne, Mass., Apr. 1. 1764: graduated at Harvard 1785; pursued the study of theology 1785-87 ; was ordained pastor of the first church at Hingham. Mass. Oct. 24, 1787; was a leader in the direction of the Unitarian opinions then becoming prevalent among the Congregationalists of New England; precipitated the theological crisis by his acceptance of the Hollis professorship of Divinity in Harvard University 1805, but took no part in the controversy thereby excited until some years later, when he published Letters to Trin i- tarians and Calvinists. occasioned by Dr. IVoods's Letters to Unitaria/ns (Cambridge. 1820). followed by An A/nszrer to Dr. Woodsls Reply (1822) and A Postscript to an Ansu'er, etc. (1823). He printed a number of single sermons, and is- sued in 1842 one of his comses of theological lectures with the title An Inquiry into the Foundation. Evidences, and Truth of Religion (Cambridge and London, 2 vols., 1842). 604 WARE In addition to his professorship, which he resigned in 1840 in consequence of the loss of his sight, he had charge of the Harvard Divinity School from its foundation in 1826 to his death at Cambridge, July 12, 1845. His opinions were con- servative among Unitarians, and he became a founder of that “ Unitarian orthodoxy” which Channing heartily con- demned and which Andrews Norton defended against Emerson and Ripley in 1839-men whose intellectual free- dom he had inspired by his critical studies. Revised by J . W. CIIADwIcK. Ware, HENRY, Jr., D.D.: preacher and author; son of Henry VV are, theologian; b. at Hingham, Mass., Apr. 21, 1794; graduated at Harvard 1812; taught at Phillips (Exe- ter) Academy 1812-14; studied theology under his father’s direction; was ordained pastor of the Second church (Uni- tarian) at Boston, J an. 1, 1817; took an active part in the formal organization of the Unitarian body, editing its organ, the Christian Disciple, which afterward became the Chris- tian Ervaminer; visited Europe 1829-30; resigned his pas- torate on account of ill health 1830, and filled the Parkman professorship of Pulpit Eloquence in the Divinity School of Harvard University 1830-42. He was the author of Hints on Ecctemporaneous Preaching (1824) ; Recollections of Jotham Anderson, Illinister of the Gospel (about 1824); On the Formation of the Christian Character (1831); Life of the Saviour (1832; new ed. New York, 1868); The Feast of the Tabernacles (1837), a poem prepared for an oratorio; Ilfemoirs of Rev. Dr. Parker (1834), Dr. Noah Worcester, Dr. Joseph Priestley, and Oberlin; and Scenes and Char- acters illustrating Christian Truth (2 vols., 1837), besides miscellaneous poems and single sermons. D. at Framing- ham, Mass., Sept. 22, 1843. A Ilfemoir was published by his brother, John Ware, M. D. (Boston, 1846). Four volumes of selections from his writings were edited by Rev. Chandler Robbins (1846-47). Revised by J . W. CHADWIGK. Ware, WILLIAM: author; son of Henry Ware, theologian ; b. at Hingham, Mass., Aug. 3, 1797 ; graduated at Harvard 1816; taught school at I-Iingham 1816-17 ; studied theology under his father’s direction, graduating at Cambridge 1819 ; preached successively at Northboro, Mass., Brooklyn, Conn., and Burlington, Vt.; was pastor of the First Unitarian church in New York city from Dec. 18, 1821, to Oct. 19, 1836; preached at Brookline, Mass., 1836-37, at Waltham 1837-38; settled without pastoral charge at Jamaica Plains 1838, and at Cambridge 1839; was editor and proprietor of the Christian Examiner 1839-44; was pastor of a church at West Cambridge 1844-45; resigned on account of failing health; settled again at Cambridge, where he occasionally reached; spent a year in Europe, chiefly in Italy, 1848-49. e was the author of Letters from Palmyra (New York, 2 vols., 1837), which appeared in the Knicherbocher ]l’[a_(/azine the previous year, and were subsequently republished in London and New York with the title Zenobia, or the Fall of Palmyra (new ed. 1868); Probus, or Rome in the Third Cen- tury (2 vols., 1838), subsequently republished as Aurelian (new ed. 1868); Julian, or Scenes in Judea (New York, 2 vols., 1841) ; S/cetches of European Capitals (1851) ; Lectures on the Wor/cs and Genius of Washington Allston (1852); and a Life of Nathaniel Bacon, in Sparks’s series; editor of American Unitarian Biography (2 vols., 1850). D. at Cam- bridge, Mass., Feb. 19, 1852. Revised by J . W. CIIADWICK. Wareham: town (incorporated in 1739); Plymouth co., Mass.; on Buzzard’s Bay, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 16 miles N. E. of New Bedford, 49 miles S. E. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 5-J). It contains the villages of \Vareham, West Wareham, South Wareliain, East \/Vareham, and Onset; has 4 churches, high school, 18 district schools, public library, national bank with capital of $100,000, and a savings-bank; and is principally engaged in cranberry-growing and iron-manufacturing. In 1894 it had an assessed valuation of nearly $2,000,000. Pop. (1880) 2,896; (1890) 3,451. Warehouseman : one who receives and stores goods as a business for compensation. He is a bailee for hire, and is bound to take ordinary care of the property intrusted to him. (See BAILMENT and NEGLIGENCE.) According to the prevailing view in the U. S., the business of a warehouse- man may be so affected with a public interest as to justify the Legislature in fixing his charges. Hence statutes declar- ing grain elevators public warehouses, regulating their use, and prescribing schedules of charges have been held con- stitutional, even though the elevators in question were not practical monopolies to which the citizens were compelled WAREHOUSING SYSTEM to resort, and by which a tribute could be exacted from the community. (Brass vs. Stoeser, 153 U. S. 391, A. D. 1894, four judges dissenting.) The correctness of this view has been strenuously denied. “The vice of the doctrine is,” said Justice Brewer, dissenting in Budd vs. New Y orh, 143 U. S. at p. 548, “that it places a public interest iii the use of property upon the same basis as a public use of property. . . . I believe the time is not distant when the evils result- ing from this assumption of a power on the part of govern- ment to determine the compensation a man may receive for the use of his property or the performance of his personal services will become so apparent that the courts will hasten to declare that government can prescribe compensation only when it grants a special privilege, as in the creation of a corporation, or when the service which is rendered is a pub- lic service, or property is in fact devoted to a public use.” This opinion, as well as the dissenting opinion of Judge Peckham in the same case, in 117 N. Y. 34-71, will repay the most careful perusal. FRANeIs M. BURDICK. Warehouse Receipts: documents issued by warehouse- men, reciting that certain goods have been received by them and are deliverable upon the indorsement and return of the receipts and the payment of charges. Such instruments are frequently declared negotiable by statute or by the agree- ment of the parties. Their indorsement and delivery oper- ate as a symbolical delivery of the goods to which they refer. Hence the owner of goods who sells and gives a warehouse receipt for them loses his vendor’s lien, although they re- main in his warehouse, if the receipt is transferred by the purchaser to a bona-fide holder. (Greenbaum vs. A. Furst Distillery Co. (Ky.), 25 S. W. R. 498.) When they are nego- tiable, their transferee may acquire rights which the trans- ferrer did not have. For example, if they describe the goods as deposited in a free warehouse-that is, one where they are free from taxes or duties—-their bona-fide purchaser will be entitled to recover the goods from the warehouseman without paying such taxes or duties, although his vendor knew the taxes or duties had not been paid, and was under an obligation to pay them; These receipts, however, are not treated as negotiable paper in the full sense of that term. They are not repre- sentatives of money, nor securities for the payment of money. Those who issue them are not guarantors that the persons to whose order the goods to which they refer are deliverable are the owners of such goods. Insurance Co. vs. Kiger, 103 U. S. 352. FRANCIS M. BURDICK. Warehousing System : a credit system, whereby the Government extends the time for the payment of duties and revenue upon goods, retaining them in its possession mean- while, to secure such payment. Duties on imports or on manufactures naturally fall due as soon as the goods arrive in the port or are produced on the soil of the government imposing them. But the economy and convenience of im- porting and manufacturing articles in great quantities and in advance of their actual requirement for consumption is so great, and the immediate payment of duties upon them would often involve such a large and unremunerative in- vestment of the capital of importers and manufacturers, that the principle of warehousing goods in Government custody, with a reasonable extension of time for the payment of the duties and other Government charges, has been adopted by all the leading commercial nations. The payment of the duties is secured by a bond given by the importer or owner of the goods to the Government, with sufficient sureties, stipulating for the payment of the duties within the credit period provided by law. The goods are then said to be “ in bond,” the period allowed for the payment of the duties, etc., is the “bonded period,” and the places of de- posit are known as “ bonded warehouses,” or, less fre- quently, as “ bonded stores.” The importer or owner has access to the goods for the purpose of disposing of them at any time during the bonded period, and he thus practi- cally pays the duties when he sells the goods. Under the statutes providing for such a system the duties, although levied at the time when the goods are received at the port of entry or when the manufacture of them is completed, do not become payable until the withdrawal of the goods or the expiration of the whole term of credit, and consequently the consignee or owner is free from any interest charges upon the duties payable by him. The system is of comparatively recent origin, having been first adopted in Great Britain in 1802. It is now governed in that country by the Customs Consolidation Act of 1853. WAREHOUSING SYSTEM and its amendments. In the U. S. the system, notwithstand- ing its manifest conveniences, was not established till 1846, though it had for more than a score of years been persist- ently urged upon the attention of Congress by the leading commercial bodies of the country. Confined at first to the warehousing of imported merchandise, it has been developed by subsequent legislation into a very elaborate and some- what complicated system for the Government control, in its own or in private warehouses, of nearly all classes of du- tiable and taxable goods, whether imported or of domestic production. This system will be better understood if the two classes are considered separately. I. Bozvnnn WAREHOUSES FOR IMPORTED Goons. The warehousing system, when finally established, did away entirely with the old system of credits on imports, the immediate payment of duties being postponed only on_ those goods that were stored in the Government warehouses. The original act, passed Aug. 6, 1846, has been extensively modified by subsequent legislation, especially by an act passed Mar. 28, 1854, and the tariff law of 1890 (the McKin- ley Act). Under these statutes an elaborate oflicial classifi- cation of bonded warehouses has been adopted. As the sev- eral classes are usually designated by the numbers assigned to them, it is necessary to enumerate them here, notwith- standing the fact that the original classification has become defective, and does not include several classes which have been created by recent acts of Congress. This classifica- tion is as follows: Class I. Government Bonded IVarehouses.—These are maintained by the Government in buildings owned or leased by it, and exist only in those ports in which there are no private bonded warehouses, or where the latter are not ade- quate to transact the business of the port. They are in the immediate and exclusive custody of the collector. who con- ducts a general storage business for dutiable goods in behalf of the Government. Class II. Im_raorters’ Bonded W'arehouses.—These belong to the class of private warehouses, and may be established by the Secretary of the Treasury in certain cases where it seems desirable to make special provision for the warehous- ing of the goods of a large importer or purchaser of im- ported goods. The building employed as a warehouse must be exclusively devoted to that purpose, and the owner or importer pays for the services of the customs’ ofiicer in charge of the same. Class III. Pm'vate Bonded lVarelzouses.—These were an- thorized by the act of 1854, above referred to, and, under Government supervision, do the bulk of the warehousing business in the ports of entry of the U. S. They are owned and conducted by private parties, who carry on an ordinary storage business for their own profit, the Government ex- tending its authority over them and retaining a virtual pos- session of and control over the goods stored therein. No person has a right to keep a warehouse for the storage of dutiable goods unless appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury, who may revoke such appointment at his pleasure. Class I V. Pr't't‘a,le bonded wareltouses, consisting of yards or sheds of suitable construction for the storage of wood. coal, mahogany, dyewoods, lumber, molasses, sugar in hogs- heads and tierces, railroad, pig, and bar iron. anchors, chain cables. and other articles specially authorized. These yards or sheds must be built and inclosed in a prescribed way. Class V. Private bonded ’w(I,)‘6lI/0'11/868, consisting of bins or parts of warehouses or elevators separated from the rest of the building, and used exclusively for the storage of grain. Class VI. Primte bO’)td@(1l‘Zt’(I/I'6lt0'll888, consisting of cellars or vaults. used exclusively for the storage of imported wines and distilled liquors. To the foregoing enumerated classes of bonded warehouses should now be added two non-enumerated classes of more recent origin, viz.: (a) Imporzfers‘ bonded /warelzouses, created by act of Mar. 24, 1874, for the storing and cleaning of rice, which has been imported for the purpose of cleaning and re-exporting the same; and (Z2) Bonded marr/ufa0f’m'z'ng /warelzouses. created by the Tariff Act of 1894 (See. 9). for the manufacture of articles in whole or in part of imported materials, or of materials sub- ject to internal-revenue tax, and intended for exportation. II. BONDED WAREI-ioUsEs ron DOMESTIC Paonncrs. In addition to the foregoing classes of bonded warehouses provided for the storage and custody of dutiable imports. 605 the Treasury Department has, under the authority of suc- cessive acts of Congress, established the following classes of warehouses for the storage of domestic products which are subject to internal-revenue taxes. A. Distillery lVarehouses.—The creation of bonded warehouses for the storage of distilled spirits formed an im- portant part of the internal-revenue system, established by the so-called Internal Revenue Act of July 20, 1868. The warehouses provided for by this act were, in respect of their ownership, custody, and regulation, similar to those of the second and sixth classes above described. They consisted of buildings or parts of buildings, belonging to the distiller, exclusively devoted to the storage of the product of the dis- tillery to which they belonged, but under the immediate and constant supervision of the internal-revenue collector of the district. The spirits. as soon as stored, passed into the legal possession and control of the Government. B. Special Bonded Wareh ous-ea—The development of the industry of manufacturing spirits from grapes and other fruits led to the enactment, Mar. 3, 1877, and Oct. 18, 1888, of laws authorizing the establishment by collectors of in- ternal revenue of warehouses for the storage of brandy made from such fruits. C. General Bonclecl IVarehouses.-—These are intended to supplement and perhaps, in most cases, to supersede the distillery warehouses above described. The authority for their establishment is contained in the Tariff Act of Aug. 27, 1894, known as the \Vilson Act. They are to be used ex- clusively for the storage of spirits distilled from materials other than fruit, and it is provided that such spirits may be transferred by the collector from the distillery warehouses to the warehouses established under the act. D. Bonded llIanufacturing Warelmuses.—These have already been briefly referred to above, in connection with the system established by Congress for the warehousing of imported goods. The act creating or authorizing them (Tariff Act of 1894) exempts from internal-revenue taxation articles otherwise subject thereto, which are employed in the manufacture of goods intended for exportation. \Vare- houses of this class are established to provide for Govern- ment supervision of such articles until thus manufactured and exported. The rules governing the reception and. custody of goods and the rights of the Government in the same. in these sev- eral classes of warehouses. are substantially identical. Merchandise of a perishable nature and gunpowder and other explosive substances, except firecrackers, are not en- titled to storage. If any such articles are deposited, either in public or private stores, the collector is required to sell them forthwith. The right of the importer or owner to withdraw goods upon payment of the duties and charges is limited to the credit period provided by the statute. At the end of that period—which is now (with an exception to be noted hereafter) uniformly fixed at three years—the goods are forfeited to the Government, and 1nust then be sold and the proceeds paid into the Treasury. There is no right of redemption. and the owner can not prevent such sale by tendering the amount due after the bonded period has ex- pired. However, the Secretary of the Treasury is author- ized to pay over the proceeds, after deducting all duties, charges. and expenses, to the consignee or owner of the goods. Until 1890 an additional duty of 10 per cent. was added to the original duty on imported goods which were allowed to remain in storage longer than one year, but the Tariff Act of that year. as interpreted by the Treasury De- partment, impliedly repealed this provision. It is obvious that, in the absence of express legislation. the duty or tax for which goods are liable is such as is in force and is levied at the time when the goods are received or produced. and that subsequent changes in the tariff, made while the goods are in bond. will not affect them. However, there is nothing to prevent Congress from subjecting merchandise on which the duty has not already been paid to the altered rate of a new tariff act. and this was, in fact, done in the case of dis- tilled liquors, by the Tariff Act of 1894. Such liquors then in bond were expressly included within the terms of the in- creased internal-revenue tariff, and, in consideration thereof. the bonded period of such liquors was extended from three to eight years. Inasmuch as duties and other revenue taxes are levied on goods imported or manufactured for home consumption. such taxes are withdrawn, even after having been once levied. from goods which are thereafter exported. Accordingly, there is nothing to prevent an importer who desires to avail 606 WAREIELD himself of afavorable change in the tariff, effected while his goods are in bond, from exporting those goods again and then reimporting them under the new rate. Of course this would be a profitable transaction only in the unusual event of a tariff reduction so great as to more than neutralize the cost of handling and shipping the goods twice over the route of exportation. The foregoing principle (exempting from duty goods imported for the purpose of exportmg them again, has been extended, in a few cases, so as to per- mit the temporary withdrawal of merchandise from bonded Warehouses for the purpose of treating it and changing its commercial form and then of re-exporting it. Thus metals imported for the purpose of smelting and refining and then of exporting the same may be withdrawn from bond with- out the payment of duty thereon. Such cases are excep- tional, however, the general rule being that goods can not be withdrawn from store to make a change in their condi- tion (as sugars to be refined), or for temporary use. and then returned. Thus in 1889 the Treasury Department was called upon to decide that the roprietors of a hippodrome could not be permitted to wit idraw t-he hippodrolnealid its paraphernalia from bond for the purpose of exhibiting the same and then of exporting it again, and also that there was no authority under which the Madison Square Garden in New York could be made a bonded warehouse so as to allow the said hippodrome to be entered under bond for performance there. The materials for a more detailed study of the warehous- ing system are to be found in the U. S. statutes at large and the decisions of the Treasury Department. GEORGE W. KIRCHWEY. Warfield, BENJAMIN BRECKENRIDGE, D. D., LL.D.: edu- cator and author; b. at Lexington, Ky., Nov. 5, 1851 ; grad- uated at Princeton College 1871, at Princeton Theological Seminary 1876; studied at Leipzig University 1877; pastor of First Presbyterian church, Dayton, 0., 1876-77; of First Presbyterian church, Baltimore, Md., 1877-78; instructor in New Testament Literature and Exegesis in Western Theo- logical Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., 1878-79; professor of same 1879-87; became Professor of Didactic and Polemical The- ology in Princeton Theological Seminary 1887; author of The Divine Origin of the Bible (Philadelphia, 1881); with Dr. Hodge, of Inspiration (Philadelphia, 1881) ; Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the .New Testament (London and New York, 1886) ; Augustine’s Anti-Pelagian Treatises (New York, 1887); The Idea of Systematic Theology con- sidered as a Science, an inaugural address (New York, 1888) ; On the Proposed Revision of the lVestminster Confession (New York, 1891); The Development of the Doctrine of In- fant Salvation (New York, 1891); The Canon of the IVew Testament (Philadelphia, 1892) ; The Gospel of the Incarna- tion (New York, 1893); edited Princeton Sermons, chiefly by the professors in Princeton Theological Seminary; man- aging editor with Charles A. Briggs, D. D., of The Presby- terian Review (1889); managing editor since 1890 of The Presbyterian and Reformed Review. Warfield, ETHELBERT DUDLEY, LL. D.: educator and author; b. at Lexington, Ky., Mar. 16, 1861; graduated at Princeton College 1882 ; pursued a graduate course at Wad- ham College, Oxford, England, and in Germany; graduated at the law school of Columbia College, New York; ad- mitted to the bar 1884; practiced law until called to the presidency of Miami University, Oxford, O., 1888; became president of Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., Sept..1891. In 0th institutions he joined to the duties of president the headship of the department of history. Author of The Ken- tuchy Resolutions of 1798 (New York, 1887), and of various contributions to periodicals. C. H. T. Warm-blooded Animals: those vertebrates possessed of warm blood, which is such simply by virtue of a complete circulation of the fluid, and its aeration through the medium of lungs at each revolution. The animals must consequently all breathe air direct, and this is done by the fish-like whales and porpoises as well as by the true terrestrial quadrupeds and birds. The only warm-blooded animals are the mam-. mals and birds, and these were almost always associated by the older naturalists under the above name or its equiva- lents, Calida animalia, Hazmatotherma, etc. This com- bination is now known, however, not to be a natural one, inasmuch as the birds are much more nearly related to the reptiles than to the mammals, and the character combining them is a mere physiological adaptation for the same func- tions of life. WARMING AND VENTILATION Warming and Ventilation: In cold and temperate cli- mates the heating and the ventilation of buildings must be considered together, because the amount and arrangement of the heating surfaces depend largely upon the amount of ventilation to be provided for, and the arrangements for se- curing ventilation depend, to a considerable extent, upon the methods of heating employed. By ventilation is meant a regular and continuous change of air in a room or inclosed space. The objects of ventilation are to remove offensive or dangerous gases, foul odors, dusts, and moisture, to supply oxygen, and to regulate temperature. As applied to human habitations and public buildings, it is intended to bring into a room the external air in sufficient quantity to dilute the products of respiration and exhalation of the occupants to a certain degree, and to remove from the room a corresponding quantity of the vitiated air. It is a very common idea that ventilation means simply the removal of foul air, and that if an opening, tube, or flue is provided for this purpose all that is necessary has been done. Most of the so-called patent ventilators are contriv- ances of this character. But it is the securing of the admis- sion and proper distribution of a sufficient quantity of fresh air that is the real problem, and if this be done the getting rid of the foul air is a comparatively easy matter. In the process of animal respiration, and in the combustion of wood, coal, oil, or illuminating-gas, a part of the free oxy- gen of the atmosphere combines with carbon, forming carbon dioxide. A certain amount of free oxygen is necessary for the maintenance of animal life, and when the proportion of this gas in the inspired air falls below this amount death rapidly follows. In 100 parts of ordinary free atmosphere there are about 2096 parts of oxygen, 78 parts of nitrogen, 1 part of argon, and '04 part of carbon dioxide, these gases being a mixture and not in chemical combination. In 100 parts of air expired from the human lungs there are about 1603 parts of oxygen, 78'2 parts of nitrogen, 1 part of argon, and 477 parts of carbon dioxide. If a man be in- closed in an air-tight space and compelled to rebreat-he the air which he has inhaled, the free oxygen continues to di- minish and the carbon dioxide to increase until the oxygena- tion of the blood in the lungs, which is necessary to life, can no longer be effected, and death from suffocation follows. On the capture of Fort \Villiam. in Calcutta, in 1756, 146 Europeans were pressed into a chamber scarcely 20 feet square, with two small windows. The next morning only 23 were alive. and these were greatly exhausted. This inci- dent of the “Black Hole of Calcutta,” and a somewhat sim- ilar oceurrence on the steamer Londonderry, when, out of 150 assengers confined in a small cabin for several hours, 70 died, illustrate the effects of air rendered excessively im- pure by respiration and bodily exhalations. A much smaller amount of such impurity in the air is sufficient to produce discomfort, and, if its inspiration is long continued, disease; but definite information is wanting as to the precise nature of the disorder which is thus produced, or as to what may be called the permissible limit of deterioration of the air. The vital statistics of soldiers living in unventilated bar- racks and of the occupants of crowded and ill-ventilated tenement-houses show that such persons have a high death- rate, due mainly to consumption, pneumonia, and other dis- eases of the lungs; but how far this is due to changes in the gaseous constituents of the air, and how far to increased risk of inhaling the bacteria of tuberculosis, pneumonia, etc., in such uncleanly localities, is uncertain. Carbon dioxide, in the proportion in which it is found in the most crowded barrack or lodging-room, does not appear to be, in itself, poisonous; at all events, it may be inhaled in such propor- tion for days together without producing any apparent effects, provided that the proportion of oxygen is nearly normal. It has been commonly supposed that expired air contains volatile organic matters which are poisonous, but careful experiments have recently shown that this is very doubtful so far as the lower animals are concerned, and that if such matters do exist in expired air it must be in ex- tremely small quantity. The discomfort produced in crowd- ed and badly ventilated assembly-halls appears to be largely due to excessive temperature and moisture, but it may also be in part due to changes in the composition of the air itself. In a railway-car running between St. Petersburg and Mos- cow, and carrying eighty third-class passengers, at the end of nine hours—-with an outside temperature of —22° F., a tem- perature in the upper part of the car of 21° F., and at the floor of -6° F., the carbon dioxide being 94 per 10,000—a chemist could no longer endure the foul air, although the WARMING AND VENTILATION peasants did not seem to be materially affected. The rule that is usually accepted is that when the air in a room occu- pied by human beings has a decidedly close and musty odor to a person coming in from the outside a1r—that air is so impure as to be probably injurious to health. Under ordi- nary circumstances of humidity and temperature such an unpleasant odor will exist when the proportion of carbon dioxide in the air has risen to 8 or 9 parts per 10,000. As the proportion of carbon dioxide in air can be measured with comparative ease and accuracy, such proportion 1S taken as the index of the other im mrities, and it IS generally agreed that this proportion s ould not_ exceed 7 parts in 10,000, while English sanitarians, followmg Parkes and de Chaumont, fix the limit at 6 parts in 10,000. An adult mal_e gives off from '6 to '7 cubic foot, and a female from '4 to '0 cubic foot of carbon dioxide an hour, the mean for a mixed assembly being about '6. _ The amount of air-supply to be promdecl for a room de- pends on thetpurposes for which it is to be used-whether it is to be occupied for hours continuously, like a sleeping- room or hospital ward, or only for an hour or two. Assum- ing that no reliance is to be placed on cracks and crevices, and that the walls will be made practically air-tight by paper or paint, the following table shows the amount of air which should be supplied to different kinds of rooms to se- cure freedom from odor and satisfactory ventilation: Character of rooms. Cubic feet of air an hour. Hospitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,600 per bed. Legislative assembly-halls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,600 seat. Barracks and bedrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,000 “ person. Schools and churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..2,000 to 2,400 “ “ Theaters and ordinary halls of audience . . . . . . .. 2,000 “ seat. Office-rooms and dining-rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,800 “ person. These quantities are nearly double the amounts usually sup- plied, but they are the quantities which should be used by the architect in calculating sizes of fiues, registers, and heat- ing apparatus for new buildings. As a rule, the amount of air required for diluting the, products of respiration is also sufficient to maintain com- bustion of fires and lights; but if the number of lights be large in proportion to the number of persons, a special sup- ply of air for them may be desirable; 1,000 cubic feet of air per hour per gas-burner is sufiicient. Electric lights re- quire no provision for air-supply. Men require fresh air not only for respiration, but to carry off the heat which they produce, and the warmer and moister the air the more is required to secure comfort. In a hot, moist day without wind, suflicient ventilation can not be secured out of doors. Ventilation implies movement of air due to some force, usually that due to differences in weight of two adjacent columns of air, such difference being due to differences in temperature. Air expands about 1,-,1,-T of its vol- ume for each degree Fahrenheit, or Q-7% of its volume for each degree centigrade, that it is heated ; and the cause of the as- cent of warm air in a flue is the greater weight of the column of outside air of the same height, but of a lower temperature, and therefore denser and heavier, which falls toward the opening at the bottom of the flue and pushes upward the warmer and lighter air. The differences in pressure be- tween the two columns in any given case are indicated by the velocity with which the warm air ascends, and this, in feet per second, is equal to 8‘/(_t_;§i;h', in which t is the temperature of the warm air in the flue, t’ the temperature of the colder air outside, both in degrees Fahrenheit, and /z the height of the fine in feet. The velocity thus determined is the theoretical velocity, and the real velocity is usually from 20 to 30 per cent. less. Knowing the velocity and the area of the cross-section of the flue, the quantity of air that is passing up is easily de- termined. The cause of wind is the same as that of the cur- rent at the base of a heated flue. The ventilation which is produced by currents of air due to wind, or by the warming of the air by ordinary heating apparatus, is called natural ventilation; while that which is produced by power which is independent of the heating apparatus or of wind, and which is applied expressly for the purpose, is called artificial or forced ventilation. Forced ventilation may be produced by heating, the air in the outlet flue or chimney being expanded and rarefied by means of coils of steam-pipe, called accelerating coils, or by gas-jets, or by small furnaces, and the velocity of the air-current be- ing thus increased as well as the aspirating power at the 607 openings into the flue from the rooms to be ventilated; or it may be produced by fans or blowers driven by steam or water power, or by inducing currents of air by means of jets of steam, or of compressed air, or by a stream of fall- ing water. In seasons when artificial heat is not required, the wind is one of the most powerful and useful means of ventilation, since an enormous amount of air is moved by a gentle wind acting through open windows and doors; but it is irregular in its action, and often fails when it is most needed. Systems of Artificial Ventilation.-—-VVhile natural venti- lation is still relied upon for almost all dwelling-houses, en- gineers are resorting more and more to the use of some form of fan or blower to insure and regulate the proper flow of air in schools, hospitals, theaters, and other large buildings where many persons are assembled. Such fans or blowers are often so placed as to force a current of air through a series of coils of steam-heated pipes, and thence through galvanized iron ducts to the rooms which are to be warmed, forming what is known as a hot-blast system. Such fans are usually comparatively small, are run at high speed, and, to save expense, the ducts are made as small as pos- sible, thus necessitating considerable velocity in the cur- rents passing through them to furnish the requisite supply. This involves great loss of force from friction, especially in the smaller ducts, and what is gained in cheapness of first cost of construction by making the fan and flue small is much more than lost in a few years by the increased con- sumption of fuel to furnish power. As a general rule, air- fiues, especially the smaller ones, should have such dimen- sions that the requisite amount of air may be obtained through them with a velocity of not more than 480 feet per minute, and a velocity not to exceed 400 feet per minute is more economical in the long run. In an ordinary chim- ney-fiue, without a forced draught, the velocity of the as- cending current averages about 6 feet per second. Wheii the air is forced into a room by means of a fan or blower it is called a plenum system, and this is what is usu- ally employed for halls of assembly. When the air is drawn from the room by a fan or heated chimney, it is called an aspirating system. Sometimes both systems are employed together. As electricity has become more available as a source of power. the use of small electric aspirating fans is increasing, and they may often be made useful; but to effect a really useful change of air they must have some opening for discharge of air outside the room, because if they are used merely to stir the air and produce a current in the room they contribute nothing to its ventilation. rljethods of lVarmz'ng Bzzz'tdz'ngs.—-The artificial heating of a room or building is effected in several different ways, technically known as direct radiation, indirect radiation, and direct-indirect radiation, or by combinations of these. In heating by direct radiation the heating surfaces are placed in the room to be warmed, and are not connected with the air-supply. This includes fireplaces, ordinary stoves (see Srovn), pipes, or radiators placed in the room and heated by steam, hot water, or electricity, and methods of heating the walls and floors of a room as a mass. Of these the fire- place, or open grate, is the only one which really heats en- tirely or mainly by radiant heat, in which the heat passes in straight lines through the air until it is intercepted by some solid or liquid, which it warms. Such heat does not ap- preciably warm the air through which it passes. Much the greater part of the heat furnished by stoves and heated pipes or other surfaces is convected heat-—that is, heat con- veyed by particles of air which come in contact with the l1ot surface and then pass off in currents, conveying this heat to the colder surfaces in the room against which they strike. Heating by indirect radiation is the heating by hot air, which air has been warmed by heating surfaces ilaced in some other room, usually in the basement or ce lar, and which are heated either directly as in a furnace, or by steam or hot water. In heating by direct-indirect radiation the heating surfaces are placed in the room to be warmed, but are so arranged, usually against the outer wall or be- neath the windows. that fresh cold air is brought in around them in order that it may be warmed. Direct-radiation heating by means of fireplaces is the cheapest as regards construction, but much the most costly as regards fuel. It is an agreeable and desirable addition to other means of heating, furnishes a good outlet flue, and should be placed in all sitting-rooms and bedrooms ; but it isf dangerous, and is now rarely relied upon as the sole source 0 heat. 608 WARMING AND Direct-radiation heating by means of steam is now more used in large buildings than any other, because the ap- paratus is cheaper to construct than that for steam or hot water indirect radiation, and can also be run with less cost if there is little or no fresh air to be heated. The great majorityr of small dwelling-houses in the U. S. are heated by stoves, and have no provisions for ventilation. In houses of a somewhat better class the hot-air furnace is very commonly employed, and of this there are many pat- terns. As a rule, they are too small, and in very cold weather the heating surfaces must be raised to a high tem- perature to secure comfort, the joints soon become leaky and allow carbonic oxide and sulphur compounds to pass into the air-supply, which is excessively hot and dry, and is apt to produce headache, languor, and unpleasant sensations of various kinds. As furnaces are usually set, the only way to prevent the room from becoming too warm is to shut off the air-supply of the room. The source of the fresh-air supply to a furnace is often unsatisfactory, and is contaminated with cellar air. So far as comfort and health are concerned, the best mode of heating a first-class dwell- ing-house, or a hospital, is by indirect radiation from sur- faces heated by water to a temperature not to exceed 180° F., and usually not exceeding 150° F. The object of this method is to warm all the air required for heating and venti- lation to the temperature desired and no more. In steam heating with ordinary forms of radiators, the temperature of the radiators must be about 210° F. while steam is circu- lating, hence the air must be heated more than is desirable, and the requisite temperature obtained by mixture with cooler air. As a hot-water apparatus must have a greater amount of radiating surface and larger flow and return pipes than one for steam, it is more expensive, the extra cost being from 25 to 35 per cent.; but, on the other hand, it uses less fuel, and requires less skilled management. The force which produces the circulation in a hot-water apparatus is very slight, being merely the difference in weight of two columns of water, one of which is from ten to twenty degrees warmer than the other; the boiler must be at the lowest part of the system, and the grades of the pipes 1nust be uniform. In a steam apparatus the boiler may, if necessary, be higher than some of the heating sur- face, and accurate gradation of the pipes, while desirable, is not essential. \Vhere steam-power is required for ma- chinery, elevators, dynamos, etc., the waste steam from the engine can often be usefully employed for heating. A steam-heating apparatus is a little more dangerous than a hot-water one, although the difference may be small ; and it is much more apt to produce unpleasant noises and jarring, technically known as “water-hammer,” but this can be avoided if the apparatus be properly constructed. The differences in steam-heating plants are very great as to efficiency, durability, original cost, and cost of running, and those which are cheapest at first often prove to be much the most expensive in the end. The covering of boil- ers and of steam-pipes in places where heat is not wanted. as in cellars and basements, with some non-conducting ma- terial, such as asbestos or magnesia, is an important matter for saving fuel, especially in large plants with much surface in the supply and return mains. A steam or hot-water heating apparatus is composed of radiators, supply and return pipes, and boiler. The amount of radiating surface required to heat a room is computed in various ways. If direct radiation only is called for, and no provision to be made for fresh air, the rule of thumb of the shops is to allow 1 sq. foot of radiating surface to each 100 cubic feet of space to be heated. In heating by indirect radiation the amount of radiating surface is to be doubled. A much better way is to calculate for both loss of heat through windows and walls, and for heating the air-supply required. Taking the thermal unit as the amount of heat required to raise 1 lb. of water from 50° to 51° F., the exter- nal temperature as zero F., and the internal temperature of the room as 70° F., the number of thermal units trans- mitted each hour through each square foot of surface is ap- proximately as follows: Windows, 55; doors, 29; brick wall 12 inches thick, 22; brick wall 12 inches thick, plas- tered. 12; same, hollow wall, 16 inches thick, or furred out and plastered, 7. In a well-constructed dwelling-house, school, church, or hospital, the loss of heat through 1 sq. yard of wall may be taken as equal to that through 1 sq. foot of glass—-it being, in fact, a little more. The amount of heat given off each hour from 1 sq. foot of steam-heated radi- VENTILATION ating surface in a room at 70° F. is about 130 thermal units, or a little more than enough to supply the heat lost through 2 sq. feet of window surface with the external temperature at zero. For a stove or furnace 1 sq. foot of radiating surface is usually reckoned as equal to 6 sq. feet of steam-heated surface at 210° F. Hence the rule: Take the number of square feet of window surface plus the quotient of the number of square feet in the outer walls divided by 9, and multiply this by -1-78- for hot water or by 5- for steam; supposing the lower temperature of the outside air to be zero F., the product is the number of square feet of radiating surface required to keep the room at 70° F., with no allowance for change of air. For air-heating, multiply the number of cubic feet of air to be heated in each hour by the number of degrees Fahrenheit to which it is to be heated, and divide the product by 12,500. The quo- tient is the number of square feet of radiating surface re- quired. The heat which passes off through walls and windows produces no useful effect, and involves a necessary waste; but the heat which passes off with the warmed air, however it may have been warmed, is doing good work if it causes the movement of this air required for ventilation. If, how- ever, the warmed air is removed by a fan, its heat is also wasted. When chimneys and upcast fiues are placed in outside walls there is waste of heat. In heating dwelling-houses and the majority of other buildings, by steam, what is called a low-pressure apparatus should be used. By this is meant that the maximum pressure at the boiler shall not exceed 10 lb. to the square inch; that a pressure of 1 lb. to the square inch shall give a complete circulation of steam throughout all pipes and radiators; and that the condensed water shall flew back by gravity to the boiler, which must, therefore, be below the level of the lowest radiators. In a one-pipe sys- tem the condensed water passes down in the same vertical pipe in which the steam ascends; in a two-pipe system the water returns in an entirely distinct system of pipes; and this is much the best, although the one-pipe system is the cheaper. The supply-pipe, or main, being that which con- veys the steam from the boiler to the radiators, should rise as soon as possible after leaving the boiler to the highest point to which it is necessary to carry it, and from this point should begin to slope downward to the most distant radiator and the connection with the return-pipe, which. in its turn, should steadily descend to the boiler. This is to insure that the steam and condensed water in the pipes shall always move in the same direction. To secure a satisfactory circulation with low pressure the supply-main must be comparatively large, the usual rule being that its diameter in inches should equal one-tenth of the square root of the number of square feet of radiating surface which it is to supply. The return-pipe for con- densed water may be smaller than the flow-main. There are many kinds of boilers for steam-heating in the market. For plants which supply 1,500 or more square feet of radiat- ing surface, the ordinary horizontal flue boiler is in most cases preferable, because it wears well, and is easily cleaned and repaired by ordinary workmen. If a part in a patent boiler gives way it may be difficult and expensive to re- place it. For small dwelling-house plants, however, some of the forms of vertical boilers with drop tubes answer very well, and take up much less floor space than the horizontal form. If heating from a zero temperature is to be provided for, the boiler should have 1 sq. foot of heating surface to each 6 sq. feet of the radiating surface which it is to supply. When exhaust steam from an engine is to be used for heat- ing. a back-pressure valve is placed in the exhaust-pipe, and from below this valve a pipe is taken through a grease sepa- rator to the pipe supplying the radiators, which are arranged for a low-pressure system. Reference has been made above to the hot-blast system of heating, in which a fan or blower is used to force air through a single centralized coil or stack of radiators. This is one of the cheapest systems so far as cost of plant is concerned, because by concentrating the radiating surface, the cost of connecting mains and returns is much diminished; it does not take up much room in the basement, and hence it is a favorite system with contractors. It is most applicable to buildings which are to be occupied for only a few hours at a time; but it is not an economical apparatus for hospitals, asylums, prisons, or other buildings which are to be constantly occupied. Some of the practical applications of the above statements WARMING AND VENTILATION with regard to warming and ventilation will now be con- sidered. In the great majority of buildings heated by di- rect radiation only, whether by stoves or steam, no special provision is made for fresh-air inlets; but in a few the fresh air is admitted through tubes or ducts arranged so that in winter the cold air shall enter the room in an upward direc- tion, and mingle with the warm air at the top of t-he room before it comes in contact with the persons of the occupants. If the floor of a room be constructed of brick, cement, tiles, etc., in such a way that it can be warmed as a whole, after the manner of the Roman hypocaustum, or as is done in some of the wards in the Hamburg Eppendorf Hospital, it is possible to maintain comfort while air at about 50° F. is supplied for respiration; but such arrangements are cost- ly, and there is no evidence that they are more comfortable or healthful than the method of heating by indirect radia- tion with a large air-supply. In deciding on the position of fresh-air inlets to a room it is important to remember that air, like other fluids, has a decided tendency to adhere to the surfaces with which it comes in contact. When a jet or stream of air strikes a wall or floor it does not rebound from it as a ball would do, but spreads out over it, as a stream of water does. If the surface is of limited extent, the atmos- heric pressure on the opposite side of the surface is dimin- 1shed, as may be seen by holding a card near a candle and blowing obliquely against the card. The flame of the candle will be drawn toward the card. In like manner, if the wind blew strongly against the north side of a house, all openings on the south side are under diminished atmospheric pres- sure, and may become outlets for the air in the house, al- though intended to serve as inlets. Under such circum- stances a furnace may work backward, as it is said, and a direct-indirect radiator on the lee side of a room may draw air from within and discharge it outside, thus tending to cool rather than to warm the room. The mouth of the air- duct of a hot-air furnace should therefore be on what is usually the windward side of the house in cold weather, and the inlets to radiators should be lessened or closed when they are on the leeward side in a strong wind. As a rule, in heating by indirect or by direct-indirect radiation the air-supply is taken at the nearest point directly from the exterior of the building ; but in cities, if the open- ing is near the ground on the street, the air is liable at times to contain much dust, and may become contaminated with sewer air. For some large buildings, such as assembly-halls, hospitals, etc., a special single inlet in the for1n of a shaft or tower is sometimes provided, the airbeing drawn down it by mechanical means. Such a shaft should usually be about 25 feet high. Sometimes provision is made for the filtration of the in- coming air in order to remove soot, dust, and fog, and this is specially desirable for chemical and bacteriological labora- tories, and for picture-galleries and libraries. This can be done by screens covered with coarse cotton cloth, or, for a large building, by drawing the air through a water spray or a moistened screen, as is done in the Glasgow Infirmary. Dry filtration causes much less obstruction to the air-cur- rent than a wet screen, and hence the dry screen may be smaller, but it must be changed more frequently. The position of fresh-air inlets within the room depends largely upon the purpose for which the room is to be used, and must be considered in connection with the position of outlets and the means employed to secure the movement of the air. In dwelling-houses heated by indirect radiation the inlets for warm air are usually in the floor or near the floor in a chimney, while the outlets are also near the floor. being open fireplaces or grates. This secures a fairly good circula- tion in rooms occupied by but few persons, the warm air ris- ing to the top of the room and slowly descending to take the place of the air which has been cooled by windows and walls and is being drawn off through the chimney-flue. It is, how- ever, not desirable to place fresh-air inlets in fioors, because the dust and dirt from the floor is continually falling into the fresh-air ducts through these inlets, and is being re- turned in the air-currents. A current of air with a velocity of 1% feet per second is not perceptible unless it is very cold or very warm, while a cur- rent of 2 feet per second is just perceptible at ordinary tem- peratures ; and therefore this is usually taken as the limit of the velocity which a current issuing from a fresh-air open- mg should have if any one is to be seated where it will strike him. If we allow three-quarters of a cubic foot of air per -second per person (2,700 cubic feet per hour), it follows that to obtain the requisite supply with a velocity of 2 feet per WARNER 609 second there must be a register opening equal to 037 sq. foot, or a little over 53 sq. inches per person. As about one-half of the surface of an ordinary register is occupied with ironwork it follows that 100 sq. inches of register sur- face per person would be requisite at this velocity, and that in a schoolroom containing thirty-six children the fresh-air registers, if placed near the floor, would occupy 25 sq. feet of surface. In schoolrooms or other rooms occupied by a number of persons it is usually better to place the fresh-air inlets at a height of about 6 feet from the floor, and let the air pass through them with the same velocity that it has in the fines, viz., about 6 feet per second. In hospitals, however, it is better to put the fresh-air inlets in the wall near the fioor, in order to be able to control the temperature in the vicinity of each bed to a certain extent. In winter the position of the outlets should usually be near the floor, for reasons given above; but in summer the outlets should be near the top of the room to allow the heated impure air to escape as rapidly as possible. The size of the outlets should be calculated for a velocity of air-current of from 4 to 6 feet per second. To prevent loss of heat, and conse- quent checking of draught, vertical foul-air fines should be placed in interior walls as far as possible, and each should have two inlets from the room which it is to serve, one near the floor and the other near the ceiling. Both inlet and out- let fiues should have smooth surfaces, and to secure this they are often lined with tin or light galvanized iron. YVith the exception of coal mines, the ventilation of which is often peculiar, the most difficult problems in heating and ventilation relate to large assembly-halls in which a num- ber of persons are seated on the floor and in the galleries. The fresh air for those seated near the center of the room should be brought either from below or from above, and not by lateral currents passing over the bodies of other persons and thereby becoming contaminated with their exhalations. To avoid unpleasant draughts the air-currents which may strike a person must not have a velocity of over 2 feet per second. The increase of temperature and moisture of the air from the bodies of persons in the room must be met by arrangements for furnishing cooler air after the audience has assembled and the room is thoroughly warmed. Illumi- nation should be by electric lights, or, if.gas must be used, ample facilities should be provided for the escape of the heated and impure air from such lights. It is to be remem- bered that the waves of air which transmit sound are not only retarded if they travel against an air-current, but that they become confused and irregular in passing through layers of air of different densities. In assembly-halls in which the speaker occupies one part of the room only, as in churches and theaters, the air should he so introduced that there shall be a constant and uniform current from the speaker toward the audience; but in legislative halls, where the speaker may occupy any part of the room, care is to be taken to secure as far as possible air of a uniform temperature moving in the same direction throughout the lower part of the room. and especially to avoid local columns of heated air rising from registers in the fioor. Finally. no system of ventilation can be made to give entire satisfaction unless operated by a thoroughly competent manager. J . S. BILLINGS. Warner: town (founded in 1735); Merrimac co.. N. H.; on the Boston and Maine Railroad; 18 miles N. \V. of Con- cord (for location, see map of New Hampshire, ref. 8—E). It contains the villages of Warner, Roby's Corner. Melvin’s Mills, Waterloo, and Davisville; has two churches, high school, Pillsbury Free Library (founded in 1891). and a weekly newspaper; and is principally engaged in lumbering and in the manufacture of gloves and mittens. Pop. (1880) 1,537; (1890) 1,383; (1895) estimated, 1,550. Enrroa or “ KEARsAReE INDEPENDENT AND TIMES.” Warner. CHARLES DUDLEY: author; b. at Pla-infield, Mass, Sept. 12. 1829; graduated at Hamilton College 1851 : in 1853 and 1854 was a member of a surveying party in Missouri; studied law in New Y ork: was admitted to the bar in Phil- adelphia 1856: practiced in Chicago until 1860, when he became assistant editor, and in 1861 editor. of the Hartford Press (consolidated in 1867 with the Hartford C0umm‘). He has traveled much, and has published several volumes of travel, humorous sketches, essays. novels. and other writ- ings, including ]l[y Simvnzer M a Garden, (1871); Saunlcr- tags (1872); Bach-log Sfudzfes (1872); The Gilded Age (with S. L. Clemens, 1873); Baddech and That Sort of Thz"ng (1874); 1l[u~rmm.'es and ]l[0sZems (187 6); I n the Lermzt (1876); In the lViZderness (1878); l'l'ashz"ngt0'n Irvz'ng 436 - both in Great Britain and in the U. S. 610 WARNER (1881); Their Pilgrimage (1886); On Horseback (1888); A Little Journey in the lVorld (1892); and The Golden House (1894). He conducted the Editor’s Drawer in IIarper’s flfagazine 1884-92; then succeeded William D. Howells as conductor of the Editor’s Study. HENRY A. BEERS. Warner, SETH: soldier; b. at Roxbury, Conn., May 17, 1743; settled at Bennington, Vt., 1765: was a leader of the “Green Mountain Boys ” in the conflicts of jurisdiction with the New York authorities, by whom he was outlawed; was second in command to Ethan Allen at the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point 1775; was chosen colonel of Vermont troops July 27, 1775; took part in Montgomery’s campaign in Canada; rendered good service in the retreat to Ticonderoga May, 1776; commanded in a sharp engage- ment at Hubbardton July 7, 1777 ; participated in the battle of Bennington, and continued in the service until 1782, when he retired because of ill health, and returned to Roxbury, Conn., where he died Dec. 26, 1784. A Memoir by Daniel Chipman was published at Middlebury in 1848. Warner, SUSAN: novelist; b. in New York, July 11, 1819; published The VVide, Wide IVorld (1850), a novel which had great success in both Great Britain and the U. S., reaching a sale of 250,000 copies in the U. S. alone; Qaeechy (2 vols., 1852); The Hills of the Shatemac (1856); a volume of Lyrics from the Wide, Ii/'ide lVorld; The Golden Ladder (1862); The Old Helmet (1868); Wych Hazel (1876) ; and other works, among which are a theological treatise of some importance, The Law and the Testimony (New York, 1853), and an essay on American Female Patriotism. She published her novels under the pen-name of Elizabeth Wetherell. D. at Highland Falls, N. Y., Mar. 17, 1885.—Her younger sister, ANNA BART- LETT, b. in New York in 1820, also acquired a name as a novel-writer. Among her works are Dollars and Cents (2 vols., New York, 1853). a representation of political life in America at that time; My Brother’s Keeper (2 vols., 1855) ; Mr. Rutherford’s Children and Stories of Vinegar Hill (6 vols., 1871). She wrote under the name Amy Lothrop. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Warner, WILLIAM: poet; b. in ()xfordshire, England, about 1558; educated at Magdalen College, Oxford: became an attorney, and is supposed to have spent most of his life as business agent of Henry Carey, Lord Hunsdon. He was the author of Pan, his Syrincv (1584), a pastoral novel, and Albion’s England, a Continued History of the same King- dom from the Originals of the First Inhabitants thereof, etc. (1586), a long poem in rhymed fourteen-syllable lines, and combining history, legend, and anecdote, which enjoyed contemporary popularity, passing through nine editions, the last of which was in Chalmers’s series (1810). D. at Amwell, Hertfordshire, Mar. 9, 1609. H. A. B. War of Succession: See SUeeEssIoN WARS. “’al‘1’ant: any one of various writs, precepts, or writings by which a person or court legally authorizes or directs a person or officer to do some act; specifically, an order or writ or process (which must be under seal unless the use of a seal has been dispensed with by statute) issued by some court or justice or oflicer having authority so to do, author- izing and directing the person to whom it is addressed to arrest or take some person named therein and bring him before a court, judge, or magistrate for examination, trial, or sentence, or otherwise legally dispose of him, or to take certain goods named, or to search for the person or prop- erty named and take the same. A warrant issued by a court is called a bench warrant, and such warrants are gener- ally used for the purpose of apprehending a criminal who is at large either on bail or otherwise for an examination, indictment, or trial, or when he has committed an offense in the presence of the court. A warrant to discharge from prison a person who has been bailed is called a warrant. of deliverance. A warrant authorizing the levy of a penalty by distress and sale of goods is called a warrant of dis- tress. There are various other species of warrants. The issuing of warrants is mostly regulated by statute In Great Britain a warrant of arrest may be granted in case of treason or other like offense by the privy council or by one of the secretaries of state, and in case of any person charged with a felony, by any judge of the Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court of Justice; and under statutory provisions-48 Geo. III., e. 58 (c)——any such judge may grant the warrant in certain specified cases in order that a person charged with an of- fense which may be prosecuted by indictment or informa- WARRANT tion (on being satisfied that the indictment or information has been found or filed) may be held to bail or committed to trial. But in the ordinary case the writ is issued by a justice of the peace out of sessions under the statute 11 and 12 Vict., c. 42 (e), by which act it is provided in general that when a charge or complaint is made before any justice of the peace. alleging that any person has committed or is suspected of having committed any treason or felony or any indictable misdemeanor or offense, and is, or is suspected to be, within his j urisdiction, such justice may issue to the con- stable or other peace officer of the county or jurisdiction a warrant for his apprehension, and may cause him to be brought before him or some other justice to answer and to be dealt with according to law. A justice of the peace may also issue a warrant for search for stolen goods. A warrant from any judge of the Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court of Justice extends over all England; but the warrant of a justice extends only over one county, although it may be executed in any other county if simply “backed” or in- dorsed by a justice of that county, by a custom which long prevailed and was finally authorized by 11 and 12 Vict., e. 42, and 14 and 15 Vict., c. 55, s. 18. Warrants issued in England or Wales are backable in Scotland, Ireland, or the Channel islands, and vice cersa. A summons may be issued instead of a warrant, and may be granted on a parol or unsworn information or complaint, unlike a warrant, which must be upon information or complaint in writing and under oath except when the offense was committed in the presence of the court. In the U. S. the statutes of the various States vary in details, but the general procedure is essentially the same as in Great Britain, the ordinary warrant being obtained from a justice of the peace or other magistrate of corresponding jurisdiction upon a sworn com- plaint or information. The officer receiving the warrant is bound to execute it in any place to which the jurisdiction of the magistrate and himself extends, and he may break open doors in order to exe- cute it in case of treason, felony, or other indictable offense, provided that no admittance can be obtained on demand, and there is in these cases no immunity from arrest either in the night-time or on Sunday. The ofiicer must make return of what he has done, either that he has executed the warrant partially or completely as directed or has been unable so to do by reason of failure to find the person or property named or for some other reason. The illegal or oppressive issuing of warrants has given rise to so1ne of the gravest questions and conflicts in English history. General warrants have never been recognized as legal in England, except that under the acts regulating the press a practice obtained in the office of the Secretary of State of issuing general war- rants to take up (without mentioning any persons in par- ticular) the authors, printers. and publishers of obscene or seditious libels mentioned; but in a case which arose in 1763 the court said they were void, and such general war- rants were expressly declared to be illegal by a vote of the House of Commons in 1766. The constitutions of most of the States and the Constitution of the U. provide that general warrants shall not be issued. See the articles on ARREST, SHERIFF, J UsT1cE or TI-IE PEAcE, etc. W'arrant of attorney was formerly the same as POWER or ATTORNEY (q. 1).). This expression is now the general term, both in England and in the U. S., for a written au- thority addressed by a person to an attorney specified (in England an attorney of the court to which it is intended that judgment shall be entered up), or to any attorney, au- thorizing the attorney to appear for him in an action brought, or to be brought, and confess judgment in favor of some person named, or suffer the judgment to go by default. When given after the action has been commenced a war- rant of attorney is distinctively called a CoeNov1T AcT1oNEM (g. c.). The giving of a warrant of attorney is generally regulated and restricted by statute. In England an attor- ney of one of the superior courts must be present and ad- vise the person giving it, and must subscribe his name to show due execution thereof, and the warrant must be filed in court within twenty-one days. In the U. S. in some States judgment by confession or warrant of attorney is not-allowed; in others it is allowed, but regulated and more or less restricted by statute. See Archbold’s Criminal Practice and Pleading: Arch- bold’s Criminal Pleading and Evidence; Bishop’s New Criminal Procedure; Stephen’s Commentaries on the Laws of England; Alison’s Practice of the Criminal Law of Scotland. F. STURGES ALLEN. WARRANTY Warranty [from 0. Fr. warantte. See GUARANTY]: in law, a name given to a class of agreements which are always based upon and collateral to some other and principal con- tracts. There are three distinct species in common use to which the term is applied. Warranty on the Sale of Land.-—This is an express cov- enant contained in a deed of conveyance, whereby the grant- or binds himself and his representatives to warrant and defend the grantee, his heirs and assigns, in the quiet and peaceable possession of the land conveyed against any one claiming the same by a title paramount to that of the grantor. Another form protects the grantee against per- sons only claiming under the grantor himself. This cove- nant does not purport to guard the grantee against the acts of mere trespassers, or of those who have no valid superior claim to the land; it becomes operative against the grantor only when the grantee or his assigns are evicted, either in , fact or in contemplation of law, from the premises or a por- tion thereof, by virtue of a valid paramount title or out- standing prior incumbrance. See COVENANT and DEED. Warranty on the sale of chattels is discussed in the article on SALE (Condition and Warranty). Warranties tn Policies of 1nsnrance.—These are stipula- tions by the assured which constitute the conditions upon which the policy is issued. See INSURANCE (The Policy and Representations and VVarranttes theretn). Revised by FRANCIS M. BURDICK. Warren: village; Jo Daviess co., Ill.; on the Chi., Mil. and St. Paul and the Ill. Cent. railways; 26 miles N. W. of Freeport, 27 miles E. by N. of Galena (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 1—C). It is in a lead-mining, tobacco-grow- ing, stock-raising, and agricultural region, and has Metho- -dist Episcopal, Presbyterian, Free Baptist, and Roman Cath- olic churches, high school, academy, public library, a private bank, 2 weekly newspapers, large creamery, and steam flour- mill. Pop. (1890) 1,172; (1895) estimated, 1,870. Enrron OF “ SENTINEL.” Warren: town (founded in 1833); Huntington co., Ind.; -on the Salamonie river, and the Tol., St. L. and Kan. City Railroad; 14 miles S. by E. of Huntington, the county-seat (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 4-F). It is in an agricultural, natural-gas, and petroleum region, and has 3 churches, a public school, a private bank, 2 weekly news- apers, manufactories of flour, lumber, and hoops, and arge grain, corn, hay, and live-stock interests. Pop. (1880) 503; (1890) 1,120. EDITOR OF “ REPUBLICAN.” Warren: town; Knox co., Me. : on the St. George’s river, and the George’s Val. and the Maine Cent. railways; 9 miles W. of Rockland (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 9-D). It was formerly known as the Upper rI‘own of St. George, was known as a trading-post as early as 1631, settled in 1736, and incorporated in 1776. The town contains the villages of Warren, North \Varren, South W'arren, West Warren, Pleasantville, Highlands, and East \Valdoboro; is in a limestone region; has good power for manufacturing; and contains 2 churches, high school, public library, and 2 hotels. Pop. (1880) 2,166; (1890) 2,037. Warren: town (incorporated in 1834); Worcester co., Mass.; on the Quaboag river, and the Boston and Albany Railroad; 26 miles N. E. of Springfield, 28 miles S. W. of \Vorcester (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-F). It contains the villages of Warren and West \Varren; has 6 churches, high school, 23 district schools, public library with about 9,000 volumes, a savings-bank, and a weekly newspaper ; and is princi ally engaged in dairying and the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, stationary engines. and steam-pumps. Pop. (1880) 3,889; (1890) 4,681; (1895) estimated, 5,000. EDITOR or “ TIIE VVAR-REN HERALD.” Warren: city (founded in 1799); capital of Trumbull co., 0. ; on the Mahoning river, and the Erie, the Penn.. and the Pitts. and W. railways; 14 miles N. W. of Youngstown, 52 miles S. E. of Cleveland (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. ‘2—J). It is in an agricultural, coal-mining, iron-mining, and dairying region, and has 7 churches, 10 stone and brick school buildings. electric lights, electric street-railways, im- proved water and sewerage plants, 3 national banks with combined capital of $350,000. a State bank with capital of $50,000, a monthly, 2 daily, and 3 weekly periodicals, flour, rolling, and planing mills, machine-shops, tin and wood novelty-works, and electric-lamp factories. Pop. (1880) 4,428; (1890) 5,973; (1895) estimated, corporation 7,000, with suburbs 7,500. Enrron or “ CHRONICLE.” WARREN 6 1 1 Warren: borough; capital of Warren co., Pa.; on the Alleghany river, and the Dunk., Alle. Val. and Pitts., the Penn., and the West N. Y. and Pe11n. railways; 29 miles E. by S. of Corry, 35 miles N. E. of Titusville (for location, see map of Pennsylvania. ref. 2-C). It is the center of the oil-trade of a large region, and has Presbyterian, Metho- dist Episcopal, German Methodist, Lutheran, Roman Catho- lic, Scandinavian, and other churches, 4 public schools, a parochial school, 3 national banks with combined capital of $350,000, a State bank with capital of $100,000, 3 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, iron-works, foundries, and machine- shops, table-factory, curative-oil works, and a consumption cure. The village of Glade was annexed in 1895. Pop. (1880) 2,810; (1890) 4,332; (1895) estimated, 8.000. EDITOR or “ BIIRROR.” Warren : town (incorporated in 1746-47) ; Bristol co., R. I.; on Narragansett Bay, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 10 miles S. E. of Providence (for location, see map of Rhode Island. ref. 8-0). It has an excellent harbor, cotton, braid, and twine factories, the George Hale Free Li- brary, three national banks with combined capital of $480- 000, a savings-bank with deposits of over $1,000,000, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 4,007 ; (1890) 4,489. Warren, FRANCIS E.: politician; b. in Hinsdale, Mass.; June 20, 1844; received an academic education; enlisted in 1862 in the Forty-ninth Massachusetts Volunteers, and served as private and non-commissioned ofiicer in that regi- ment till it was mustered out of the service; was after- ward captain in the Massachusetts militia; was engaged in farming and stock-raising in Massachusetts till early in 1868, when he removed to \Vyoming (then a part of Da- kota); was president of the council, \Vyoming Legislature, in 1873, and member of the council in 1884; was mayor of Cheyenne, and served as treasurer of Wyoming; was a delegate to the national Republican convention in Chicago in 1888; was appointed Governor of Wyoming by President Arthur and removed by President Cleveland; was again appointed Governor of VVyoming by President Harrison and served till the Territory was admitted as a State, when he was elected Governor Sept. 11, 1890; was elected to the U. S. Senate in 1890 and was re-elected in 1895. Warren, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE: soldier; b. at Cold Spring, N. Y.. J an. 8. 1830; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy July 1, 1850, and entered the Corps of Topograph- ical Engineers; was employed on surveys of the delta of the Mississippi river 1850-53 ; topographical engineer of Sioux expedition 1855: in charge of surveys, and preparing re- ports and maps thereon, of Dakota and Nebraska Terri- tories 1855-59, in connection with the Pacific Railway ex- ploration: Assistant Professor of Mathematics at YVest Point 1859-61; lieutenant-colonel of the Fifth New York Volunteers May, 1861. Promoted colonel of his regiment in August, he served in the construction of the defenses of Baltimore until the spring of 1862, when his command was united with the Army of the Potomac. He was assigned to the command of a brigade iI1 the Fifth Corps in May, 1862, and distinguished himself at Gaines’s Mills (for which he was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers Sept. 26, 1862). Malvern Hill. Manassas, and Fredericksburg. In 1863 he became chief topographical engineer under Hooker, which place he held until after the battle of Chancellors- ville, when he was made chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac. At the battle of Gettysburg he seized Little Round Top. the key to the entire national position. was wounded. and breveted colonel U. S. army for gallant and meritorious services. He was now promoted major-general of volun- teers to date from Chancellorsville, and Aug. 12 assigned to command of the Second Corps. I11 Mar., 1864, the First Corps was united with the Fifth Corps and IVarren as- signed to this command, which he held through the cam- paign of 1864, participating with most marked ability, en- ergy, and gallantry in all the battles from the opening of the Wilderness campaign through the siege of Petersburg, and until the close of the battle of Five Forks (Apr. 1, 1865). when he was deprived of his command by Sheridan, owing to an unfortunate misunderstanding between them; was assigned Apr. 2 to the command of the troops between the Appomattox and the James, and Apr. 3 placed in com- mand of Petersburg. Ordered to command the department of the Mississippi May 14, he held this till May 27 , when he resigned his volunteer commission, and was breveted major- general for gallant and meritorious service in the field. Re- turning to duty as major of engineers. to which rank he had 612 . attained June, 1864, he had charge of various harbor and river improvements, bridge constructions and investigations, and fortifications in course of construction and modification, and on other works of survey, improvement, and construc- tion. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel of engineers Mar., 1879. D. at Newport, R. I., Aug. 8, 1882. Author of nu- merous reports and of a pamphlet on the battle of Five Forks. Member of National Academy of Sciences, American Association for Advancement of Science, and other scientific associations. Revised by JAMES MERcUR. Warren, HENRY WHITE, D. D., LL. D.: bishop ; b. in \Villiamsburg, Mass., J an. 4, 1831 ; graduated at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., in 1858; was for two years Professor of Ancient Languages at Wilbraham Academy, Massachusetts; joined the New England Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1858, and was pastor of various churches in New England; pastor of Arch Street church in Philadelphia 1871-74. From there he was sent to St. J ohn’s church, Brooklyn, N. Y., but in 1877 again became pastor of Arch Street church; was afterward appointed to Spring Garden church in the same city ; is author of Sights and Insights (1874); Studies of the Stars (1878); Recrea- tions in Astronomy (1878); The One Book : Lectures on the English Bible (1892); The Bible in the IVorld’s Education (1893). He was elected bishop May 12, 1880. Revised by ALBERT OSBDRN. Warren, J OHN COLLINS, M. D. : surgeon; son of Dr. John Warren (1753-1815); b. in Boston, Mass., Aug. 1, 1778; graduated at Harvard 1797; studied medicine with his father, also at Edinburgh and in the hospitals of London and Paris; began practice in Boston 1802; was Assistant Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the Harvard medical school 1806-15, and professor (as successor to his father) 1815-47, and emeritus professor 1847-56; was one of the founders of the Massachusetts General Hospital 1820, and of the McLean Asylum for the Insane; founder and editor of the Boston 11/[edical and Surgical Journal (1828) ; presi- dent of the Massachusetts Medical Society 1832-36; presi- dent for many years of the Massachusetts Temperance Soci- ety and of the Boston Society of Natural History; carried into effect (1846) the successful application of ether in a surgical operation at the Massachusetts General Hospital; was a member of scientific societies in the U. S. and Europe, and made collections of comparative anatomy, osteology, and paleontology. D. in Boston, May 4, 1856. By his will he ordered his body to be given for examination to the med- ical school, and that his skeleton should be deposited in its museum. He was one of the editors of the Itlonthly An- thology and Boston Review (1804) and of the Gospel Advo- cate (1821-22); published numerous and valuable profes- sional monographs, a Genealogy of Warren, with some His- torical Sketches (1854); and several addresses before scientific bodies. See the Life, chie/ly compiled from his Autobiog- raphy and Journals (Boston, 2 vols., 1860). by his brother, Edward Warren, M. D. Revised by S. T. ARMs'rRoNe. Warren, J OSEPH: patriot ; b. at Roxbury, Mass., June 11, 1741; graduated at Harvard 1759; studied medicine under Dr. Lloyd; began practice at Boston 1762; delivered in 1772, and again in 1775, the civic oration on the anniver- sary of the “Boston Massacre”; was a member of the pro- vincial committee of correspondence in 1772; chairman of the committee of public safety 1774, and in 1775 president of the provincial congress, being thus the virtual executive of a de facto government at the outbreak of hostilities with Great Britain; was efficient in organizing the volunteers after the battle of Lexington; was chosen major-general bv the provincial congress June 14, and took an active part as a volunteer, declining the command at the battle of Bunker Hill, at which he was killed June 17, 1775, falling near the spot where the Bunker Hill Monument now stands. A statue by Dexter was erected on Bunker Hill June 17,1857. A Life by A. H. Everett may be found in Sparks’s American Biography, and another by Richard Frothingham was pub- lished at Boston in 1865. Warren, MERcY (Otis): poet and historian; sister of James Otis, orator; b. at Barnstable, Mass., Sept. 25, 1728; mar- ried James Warren about 1754; became a zealous patriot; corresponded with Samuel and John Adams, Thomas J effer- son, and other leaders of the Revolution; wrote several dramatic and satirical poems against the royalists (1773-75), which, with two tragedies, were included in a volume of Poems, Dramatic and Ill’!/'S(3(£llCl177/(3071/8 (1790), and published A History of the Rise, Progress, and Termination of the WARREN American Revolution, interspersed with Biographical, Po- litical, and Ilforal Observations (Boston, 3 vols., 1805). D. at Plymouth, Oct. 19, 1814. The Correspondence of John Adams and Jlfercy Warren was published by the Massachu- setts I-listorical Society in 1878. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Warren, MINTON, Ph.D.: educator and author; b. in Providence, R. I., J an. 29, 1850; educated at Tufts College (1866-70), Yale College, graduate department (1871-72), Leipzig, Bonn, and Strassburg Universities (1876-79) ; Ph. D., Strassburg, 1879; associate at Johns Hopkins University 1879-82; Associate Professor of Latin in the same institution 1883-92; and Professor of Latin since 1892; author of The Enclitic ne in Early Latin in A merican Journal of Philology, ii. (Baltimore, 1881); Bentley’s English IVISS. of Terence, same journal (1882); Latin Glossaries with especial refer- ence to the Codes; Sangallensis 912, edited for the first time with notes, in Transactions of the American Philological Association, vol. xv. (1885); On the Contribution of Latin Inscriptions to the Study of the Latin Language and Lit- erature, iii same (1895). C. H. T. Warren, SAMUEL: lawyer and author; b. at Racre, Den- bighshire, Wales, May 23, 1807 ; educated at the University of Edinburgh; began the study of medicine, but soon aban- doned it for that of the law, which he pursued at the Inner Temple, London, 1828-30 ; contributed to Blackwood’s IVI ag- azine the story Blucher, or The Adventures of a New- foundland Dog (1824), when he was only seventeen years of age, and afterward his well-known Passages from the Diary of a Late Physician (1830-31) ; wrote several legal works: On the Duties of the Attorneys and Solicitors, Select Ex- tracts from Blackstone’s Commentaries, Popular and Prac- tical Introduction to Law Studies (with J . W. Smith), etc.; became queen’s counsel 1851 ; was recorder of Hull 1854-74; sat in Parliament as a Conservative 1856-59, and was ap- pointed master in lunacy Feb., 1859; published Ten Thou- sand a Year (1839), a successful novel, and Now and Then (1847), an unsuccessful one; collected from the pages of Blackwood 2 vols. of .Miscellanies, Critical and Imaginative (1854), and was author of various other literary productions, including the pamphlet The Queen and the Pope (1850) a violent attack on the pretensions of the Roman Church. D. in London, July 29, 1877. Revised by H. A. BEERS. VVarren, SAMUEL PROWSE: organist; b. at Montreal, Canada, Feb. 18, 1841 ; educated in Montreal till 1861, then in Germany till 1864. Returning to America he settled in New York, and in 1868 was appointed organist of Grace church, which position he resigned in 1894. He has played at many organ recitals and concerts. His compositions iii- clude much church music, organ arrangements, some songs both for solo and concerted voices, mixed and male part- songs, etc. D. E. I-IERYEY. Warren, WILLIAM: actor: b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 17, 1812; made his first appearance on the stage at the Arch Street theater as Young Norval Oct. 27,1832; played an en agement at the Park theater in New York in 1841; in 184 appeared in London at the Strand theater; in Oct., 1846, appeared as Sir Lucius O’Triggcr in The Rivals on the open- ing night of the Howard Athenaeum, Boston, where he won an immediate success. In Aug., 1847, he became a member of the Boston Museum company, appearing Aug. 23 as Billy Lackaday. From that time until he retired, in 1882, with the exception of a brief interval when he made a tour of the principal cities of the U. S., he performed continuously at the Museum with unvarying popularity and success, repre- senting probably in that time a greater variety of charac- ters, and appearing a greater number of times, than any other living actor. In the old English comedies he was un- rivaled, while the hits he made in special character parts were numerous. D. in Boston, M ass., Sept. 21, 1888. Revised by B. B. VALLENTINE. Warren, WILLIAM FAIREIELD, S. T. D., LL. D.: minister and educator; b. at \/Villiamsburg, Mass., Mar. 13, 1833; graduated at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., 1853; became a preacher in the Northeastern Methodist Conference 1855 ; subsequently studied theology at Andover, Berlin, and Halle; traveled in the East; was Professor of Systematic Theology in the Methodist Mission Institute at Bremen, Germany, 1861-66; acting president of the Boston Theological Seminary from 1866 until chosen president of Boston University 1873. He was the author of treatises on logic (1864) and on systematic theology (1865), both in Ger- man. Other works are True Key to Ancient Cosmology WARREN SBURG and Mythological Geography (1882); Paradise Found: the Cradle of the Ifuman Race at the North Pole. A Study of the Prehistoric World (1885; trans. into French by Count Soporta); In the Footsteps of Arminius (1888); The Story of Gottlieb, a study of ideals (1891; trans. into Arabic and German); Constitutional Law Questions in the Methodist Episcopal Church (1894). The Quest of the Per- fect Religion (1887) was translated into many languages, and prepared the way for the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893. Warrensburg-: city; capital of Johnson co., Mo.; on the Black river, and the Missouri Pac. Railway; 29 miles W. of Sedalia, 64 miles E. S. E. of Kansas City (for location, see map of Missouri, ref. 4-E). It is in an agricultural re- gion, has large sandstone quarries, and is a noted health and pleasure resort with several valuable springs. The city _contains the South Missouri State Normal School, 3 public- school buildings, and 4 State banks with combined capital of $127,000, and has electric lights, water-works, flour and woolen mills, grain elevator, carriage and wagon factories, foundry and machine-shop, and 2 daily and 4 weekly news- papers. Pop. (1880) 4,049; (1890) 4,706; (1895) estimated, 6,000. EDITOR or “ STAR.” Warrenton: town; capital of Fauquier co.,Va.; on the Southern Railway; 50 miles W. by S. of Washington, D. C. (for location, see map of Virginia, ref. 4-G). It is in an agricultural region in the foothills of the Blue Ridge Moun- tains; for many years has been a popular summer resort; and has 7 churches, 3 public and 3 private schools, gravity water-works, private bank, building and loan association, and 2 weekly papers. Pop. (1880) 1,464; (1890) 1,346; (1895) 1,615. JOSEPH A. J EFFRIES, son EDITOR or “ TRUE Ixnnx.” Wal‘1‘ing‘t0n: town; in Lancashire, England; on the Mersey; 18 miles E. of Liverpool (see map of England, ref. 7-15‘). The parish church is a Decorated building with a spire 300 feet high. There are manufactures of fustians, twills, corduroy, and other cotton goods, glass, leather, soap, and many kinds of tools. Pop. of the parliamentary bor- ough, returning one member (1891), 55,349. Warsaw (Polish, W'arszawa; Germ. lVarschau; Fr. Var- sooie): the capital of the Russian general government of the Vistula provinces, and formerly the fortified capital of the kingdom of Poland; on the left bank of the Vistula, be- low its junction with the Pilica and Weprz (see map of Russia, ref. 8-A). It stands on a hill which gradually cle- scends into a flat plain, and consists of the old town, the new town, and suburbs, of which the most important is Praga, on the right bank of the river, and connected with the city proper by two iron bridges—one of them 500 me- ters long, built in 1859-64, the other completed in 1876. The city is surrounded with walls and ditches, having at its lower end the Alexander citadel, built 1832-35, with a monument of Alexander I. Since the insurrection of 1830 the suburb Praga has been strongly fortified, and the head of the bridge protected by the fort Sliwitzki, so as to con- trol the city proper; in 1883 a circle of fortifications was begun, eleven on the left, four on the right bank of the Vis- tula. Warsaw is the seat of the governor-general of the Tsarstvo of Poland with royal military powers, of a civil governor. and of a Roman Catholic and a Greek Catholic archbishop. The location of Warsaw is of great commercial importance. The navigable Vistula, the highroads running in all directions, the railway lines to Moscow, to St. Petersburg (built 1862), to Vienna (1848), to Dantzic, to Berlin by way of Lodz (which connects it with the rich coal-fields of Kielce), the \Varsaw-Terespol (1867 , and the Vistula Railway (Kowel-Mlawa, 1877), combine to make the city a commer- cial center, and the entrepdt of the European-Asiatic traffic. The city is traversed by street-railways, connecting the sta- tions_ of the various railways. Manufacturing industries flourish. Linen and woolen cloths, carpets, boots, leather goods, saddlery, cotton and silk fabrics, pianos, carriages, fur- mture, goldware and silverware, machinery, chemicals, sugar. and tobacco are manufactured, and extensive distilleries and breweries are in operation. The transaction of business is facilitated by many banks that are under strict state super- v1s1on. There is much export trade in grain, flax, cattle, and horses, and in coal, while the finer manufactured goods are imported. Weekly markets and annual fairs attract thousands of Russian and foreign tradesmen. In architec- tural respects Warsaw has been greatly improved; formerly wretched and dirty huts alternated with magnificent pal- aces. Some portions of the city, like the Cracow suburb, with w./msaw 613 the statue of Copernicus by Thorwaldsen, and the New )Vorld. with their splendid buildings and streets, are very beautiful, and are not surpassed by those of any other Eu- ropean city. Warsa'w has twelve public squares, full of his- torical monuments; among them are the Saxon Square, the Krasinski Square, and the Sigismund Square, with the col- umn of Sigismund III., erected in 1643. Cracow Street is adorned with the equestrian statue of King Poniatowski by Thorwaldsen. Among the public buildings that show the fondness of the old nobility for display is the royal palace, built by Sigismund II., embellished by Augustus II. and Stan- islas Augustus, with its famous senate-hall, deputy-hall with historical pictures and sculptures, unique library, and the Polish archives. A beautiful park adjoins St. J ohn’s Cathe- dral, built in 1360, which contains fine pictures and many tombs of celebrated Poles, and which is the most remarkable of the 179 Catholic churches. The Saxon, the Briihl, and many other palaces are royal in their magnificence. The Belvedere, the residence of Grand Duke Constantine till the outbreak of the great insurrection, the city-hall, the mint, and the theaters are beautiful edifices. The Greek Catholic Cathedral, completed in 1842, is in the modern style; the Lutheran church is one of the finest buildings in the city. Among the scientific institutions. which are numerous and excellent, is the university, founded in 1817, suppressed in 1832, and re-established in 1869 in the Kasimirowski Palace; it has about 1,000 students, and its avowed purpose is to Russianize the Poles. The university library contains more than 350,000 volumes. and is rich in works of Polish litera- ture and history and law, though its contents were confis- cated in 1794, and transferred to St. Petersburg. and it was again ransacked in 1831 for the same purpose. Other valu- able possessions of the university are the numismatic cabi- net, the museum of antiquities, the ethnographical museum, the zofiilogical and mineralogical collections, the botanical garden, and the observatory. Besides a public art gallery there are private art collections belonging to the Ossolinski, Potocki, Dombrowski, and other families. There is documentary evidence of Warsaw’s existence in 1224. and in 1339 it was surrounded with walls and strongly fortified. It was the residence of the Dukes of Masovia till their extinction in 1526. Sigismund Augustus made it the residence of the Polish kings instead of Cracow. At W ola, a village near Warsaw, the elections of the kings formerly took place. The Swedes under Charles IX. Gustavus con- quered the city in 1655, lost it again next year, but recon- quered it after the murderous three days’ battle at VV.-arsaw (July 28-30, 1656). By the third partition it fell to Prussia, and by the Vienna Congress in 1815 it became definitely Rus- sian. After the insurrection of 1830 it was stormed and crushed by Paskevitch. and again in 1863 a revolution was suppressed and the Siberian prisons and mines filled with Polish patriots. Still the vitality of the city and the nation was such as to recover and to increase even in spite of the most unfavorable political conditions. IVarsaw is the cen- ter of the Polish nation, full of national spirit, learning, and culture. Pop. (1891) 490,417 (including garrison, 523,- 133), more than 50 per cent. Roman Catholics. 33 per cent. Jews. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Warsaw: city; Hancock co.. Ill.; on the Mississippi river, and the Tol., Peoria and VVest. Railway; 3 miles be- low Keokuk, 40 miles above Quincy (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 5-B). It is an important shipping-point for hay and general produce; is largely engaged in cooper- age; and has fiour and woolen mills, manufactories of agri- cultural implements and stove-polish, large pickle-works, public park, Masonic and Odd Fellows halls, 4 public- school buildings, Roman Catholic and Lutheran schools, public library. a private bank. and 2 weekly newspapers. It is the site of Forts Edward and Johnson, erected early in the nineteenth century. Pop. (1880) 3.105; (1890) 2,721; (1895) estimated, 3,000. Enrron or “ BULLETIN.” Warsaw: city; capital of Kosciusko co., Ind.; on the Tippecanoe river. and the Cleve.. Cin.. Chi. and St. L. and the Penn. railways; 40 miles ‘V. of Fort Wayne, 109 miles E. of Chicago (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 2-E). It is in an agricultural and lu1nbering region, and has 9 churches, 3 public-school buildings, court-house (cost $250,- 000), 2 State banks (combined capital, $160,000), a daily and 2 weekly papers, Spring Fountain Park, largo canning and pickling works, flour and saw mills, and manufactories of flour-mill machinery and furniture. Pop. (1880) 3.123; (1890) 3,574; (1895) estimated, 4,100. Enrron or “ Tmns." 614 WARSAW Warsaw : village (founded in 1803) ; capital of Wyoming co., N. Y.; on the Buffalo, Roch. and Pitts. and the Erie railways; 44 miles S. ‘W. of Rochester, 48 miles E. of Buf- falo (for location, see map of New York, ref. 5-D). It is in an agricultural region, with extensive deposits of salt in its vicinity, and has a national bank with capital of $100000, a private bank, public union school with library, sanitarium, and salt baths, iron-foundry, map-roller factory, wagon and broom factories, numerous salt-works, and two weekly news- papers. Pop. (1880) 1,910; (1890) 3.120; (1895) estimated, 3,500. EDITOR OF “WESTERN NEW YORIIER.” Wars of Succession : See SUOOESSION WARS. Warta: the largest tributary of the Oder; rises about 33 miles from Cracow, passes through Poland and the Prus- sian provinces of Posen and Brandenburg, where it joins the Oder at Ciistrin after a course of 445 miles, of which 265 are navigable. Through its chief affluent, the Netze, the Bromberg Canal, and the Brahe river, the \Varta is con- nected with the Vistula. and forms the principal waterway of the province of Posen. H. S. ‘Wartburg, va“art’bo“orch: a castle near Eisenach, in Saxe- Weimar; founded in 1067 by Ludwig the Leaper, Land- grave of Thuringia, and for several centuries the residence of his successors. After passing through many vicissitudes it was restored with great magnificence and exquisite taste by Charles Alexander, Grand-Duke of Saxe-Weimar. It ex- ercises, however, a much greater attraction by its historical remembrances than by its architectural merits. Here the famous contest between the minnesingers took place in the time of Landgrave Hermann I., about 1206 (see Lucas, 1838 ; Pl5tz, 1851), an event which forms the subject of the singu- lar epic Der Krieg von Wartburg, probably written about 1260, edited by Ettmiiller in 1830, and translated into mod- ern German by Simrock in 1858. It was the residence of Elizabeth of Hungary (1207-31), the wife of Landgrave Louis II., and afterward one of the most renowned saints Of the Roman Catholic Church; and Luther was kept con- cealed in the castle from May 4. 1521, to Mar. 3, 1522, while finishing his translation of the Bible. It is also famous for the festival held there by the Burschenschaft on Oct. 18, 1817, to celebrate the third centenary year of the Reforma- tion and the recent liberation of the country from the French yoke. In the excitement of the moment the enthu- siasm for liberty and fatherland ran a little high. Some books which were considered illiberal and unpatriotic were burned, and some plans were proposed for the reformation and elevation of the students’ life at the universities, more especially for the abolition of the old traditionary barriers which separated the students of various German countries from each other. The whole affair was harmless, in spite of some exaggerations, but the German princes, alarmed by this attempt to revolutionize and republicanize Germany, and influenced by the reactionary warnings of Mett-ernich, made it the occasion of severe measures against the liberals. See Keil, Die burschenschaftlichen Wartburgfeste von 1817 und 1867 (Jena, 1868). F. M. C. Wartenburg, York von : See YORK voN WARTENBURG. Wart-hog: any wild hog of the genus Phacochoerus, family Phacochoeridce. The popular name was given on account of the large, fleshy projections on the sides of the face. The body is stoutly built, legs small, head dispropor- tionately large, with a small but prominent eye set far up and back on the head. The snout is large, upper canines or tusks curved upward and outward, and sometimes of enormous size. Two species are known, Phacochoerus af- ricanus or celiana, quite widely distributed over the north- ern parts of Africa, and P. oethiopicus, confined to South- east Africa. F. A. LUCAS. Warton, JOSEPH: poet and critic; b. at Dunsford, Sur- rey, England, in 1722; brother of Thomas Warton, poet, and son of Thomas Warton (d. 1746), vicar of Basingstoke, Hampshire. and Of Cobham, Surrey, and Professor of Poetry at Oxford 1718-28; educated at Winchester School ; studied at Oriel College, Oxford; graduated 1744; took orders inthe Church of England ; was curate to his father at Basingstoke 1744-46 ; curate at Chelsea 1746-48 ; became rector of Winslade, Hampshire, 1748; traveled on the Con- tinent with his patron, the Duke of Bolton, 1751 ; obtained the rectory of Tunworth 1754, that of Wickham 1782, and of Upham 1788; was second master of Winchester School 1755-66, and head master 1766-93; became chaplain to Sir George (afterward Lord) Lyttleton 1756, prebendary of St. WARWICK Paul’s, London, 1782, and of Winchester 1788. He pub- lished Odes on Various Subjects (1746); a poetical transla- tion of the Eclogues and Georgics of Vergil (1753) ; an Es- say on the Genius and Writings of Pope (2 vols., 1756-82) ; contributed twenty-four critical papers to The Adventurer (1753-56), and edited the works of Pope (9 vols., 1797) and Dryden, the latter completed after his death (4 vols., 1811). D. at Vi/ickham, in Hampshire, Feb. 23, 1800. A volume of Biographical Memoirs (1806) was published by Rev. John Wooll. The VVarton brothers were scholars of antiquarian tastes, leaders in the English romantic movement, elegant critics, and imitative poets. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Warton, THOMAS: poet; brother of JOSEPH WARTON (q. v.); b. at Basingstoke, Hampshire, England, in 1728; studied at Trinity College, Oxford ; graduated about 1747 ; became a fellow there 1751; took orders in the Church of England 1755; was Professor of Poetry in the university 1757-67 ; became Camden Professor of Ancient History and poet-laureate 1785 ; and obtained the livings of Kiddington 1771 and Hill Farrance 1782. D. at Oxford, May 21,1790, having resided for forty years in Trinity College. He was the author of Observations on the Faerie Queene of Spenser (1754); The Life of Sir Thomas Pope (1772); and of a valuable I:Iistory of English Poetry (3 vols., 1774-81), in- tended to extend to the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury, but never continued beyond the Elizabethan age. Revised editions were issued in 1824, 1840, and 1870. War- ton edited the Greek Anthology (1766), the works of Theoc- ritus (Oxford, 2 vols., 1770), and the Iliinor Poems of ]lIil- ton (1785; 2d ed. 1791), and published several occasional poems, of which a collection appeared in 1777. His Poet- ical W'orhs (1802) were edited, with a sketch of his life, by Richard Mant, D. D., Bishop of Down. They have also been included in Chalmers’s British Poets (1810). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Warts, or Verrucse [wart Mod. Germ. ivarze) : Icel. varta; verrucae is plur. of Lat. verruca, wart] : small circum- scribed excrescences or elevations on the skin, developed by hypertrophy or abnormal growth of the papillae of the skin. They may be round and ovoid or conical, thread-like, or broad and fiat. The so-called “seeds” or points of a dry wart correspond to the number of papillae which have be- come elongated and thickened. Each papilla of the skin has an independent supply Of blood by a little loop of capil- lary blood-vessels at its base. Hence mere removal of the wart is followed by its renewal from the well-nourished base and remaining cells which have transmitted the tendency to excessive growth. Cases are often cited of warts com- municated by the blood from other warts, but the best authorities deny them. Warts occur chiefly in children between the second and fourteenth year; their cause is uncertain. Their duration is indefinite; they sometimes disappear suddenly, probably by contraction of the vascular papillary base and casting off of the Superabundant dry cells. When they are kept free from handling or irritation, the diet is corrected, and alteratives are given, they may slowly disappear. The common treatment is to snip them Off and touch the base with nitric acid, glacial acetic acid, or lunar caustic. Warville, BRISSOT, de : See BRISSOT DE WARVILLE. Warwick, wor'ik, or Warwickshire: county in the center of England; bounded on the W. by \/Vorcestershire, on the N. by Staffordshire and Leiceste-rshire, and on the S., by Oxfordshire, watered by the Avon and the Tame in the N. Area, 885 sq. miles. The surface is elevated; in the northern part, which once was covered with the Forest of Arden, moor, heath, and forest alternate, and the soil is often heavy and cold; in the southern part the soil is very fertile. Agriculture and dairy-farming are in an ad- vanced state. Coal, chalk, lime, and marl are found. The manufactures are extensive. Pop. (1891) 805,070. Warwick: county-town of Warwickshire, England; on the Avon; 21 miles S. E. of Birmingham (see map of Eng- land, ref. 10-H). It contains several fine buildings, among which the most remarkable is the castle. The oldest, and also the highest, of the castle’s towers (147 feet). is of uncertain date : the next highest (128 feet) dates from the latter part of the fourteenth century. Besides having great architectural‘ interest, the castle contains large collections of paintings, arms, and other objects of artistic and arclueological value. By the fire of Dec. 3, 1871, the building and collections WARWICK (which are open to the public) suffered considerably; but by 1876 the damage had been repaired. There are some manufactures of art furniture and a trade in agricultural produce. Pop. of the parliamentary borough, returnmg one member (1891) 39,102. arwick : villa e ; Orange co., N. Y. ; on the V_Vawayan- davzfreek, and the Hehigh and Hudson River Railway ;. 11 miles S. of Goshen, 29 miles S. W. of Newburg (for location, see map of New York, ref. 7--I). It is in an agricultural re- gion, with granite quarries and iron mines 4 to 6 miles dis- tant, and is near Greenwood, \Vawayanda, Clarkis, and Glenmere lakes. It has 6 churches, Warwick Institute, 5 hotels, 3 creameries, fabric-hose works, foundry, railway- shops, a national bank (capital $100,000), a savings-bank, and 2 weekly newspapers. Warwick is 550 feet above tide- water, and is a health and summer resort. Pop. (1880) 1,043 ; (1890) 1,557; (1895) 1,775. EDITOR or "AnvEa'risER.” Warwick: town (settled in 1642, incorporated in 1647); Kent co., R. I.; on the Providence and Pawtuxet rivers, Narragansett and Greenwich Bays, and the N. Y.. N. H. and Hart. Railroad ; 5 miles S. of Providence (see map of Rhode Island, ref. 8—N). It was the fourth town settled in the colony; has no compactly settled quarter; and contains twenty-seven villages. Good power for manufacturing is furnished by the Pawtuxet river on the northern border. The town has a national bank with capital of $100,000, a savings-bank, the Crompton Free Library, the Old VVa_r- wick Library, and public libraries, aided by the State, in many villages, an electric railway connecting the_ manufac- turing villages, churches and schools in every village, and cotton, woolen, and print-goods mills. Pop. (1880) 12,164; (1890) 17,761. SIDNEY S. RIDEE. Warwick, GUY, Earl of: a legendary Saxon hero who figures largely in early English metrical romances as _a champion against the Danes, being especially noted for his victory over the giant Colbrand. The romance of Sir Guy is mentioned in Chaucer’s Canterlmry Tales and alluded to in Shakspeare’s King John and IIenry VIII. He is usu- ally assigned to the period of King Athelstan. In his Specirnens of Early English ]l[ezfr'z'oal Romances, _Ellis sug- gests that the legendary Guy is identical with Egil, an Ice- landic warrior in Athelsta-n’s army, who contributed much to his victory over the Danes at Brunanburg; and Dugdale even goes so far as to fix the date of his combat with C01- brand in the year 926. But Guy of )Varw1ck is unknown to English history, and equally so to English legend. until he emerges as the hero of Anglo-Norman poems of the twelfth century. Two English translations of these were made at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and a third about fifty years later. The Booke of the most victory- oas Pm'noe Gay of Warwick, a metrical romance of the ear- lier half of the fourteenth century, was printed before 1567, and a prose French romance on the same subject, printed in 1525, was edited by J. Zupitza for the Early English Text Society 1875-76. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Warwick, HENRY nE BEAUCHAMP, Duke of, and King of the Isle of Wight: son of Richard ; b. at Hanley Castle, War- wickshire, England, Mar. 22, 1424; succeeded to the earl- dom on the death of his father 1439 ; distinguished himself in the defense of Normandy 1442—44; was created Duke of Warwick, to rank next the Duke of Norfolk and before the Duke of Buckingham-—a provision which led to a contro- versy with the latter nobleman, which was settled by act of Parliament to the effect that the claimants should take prec- edence in alternate years; and received from Henry VI., who had been his companion in childhood, many honors, the most extraordinary being that he was crowned by that mon- arch as vassal King of the Isle of Wight early in 1445, which, however, did not mean much more than an empty ceremony. He survived his advancement but a few months, dying with- out issue June 11, 1445. _ Warwick, RICHARD nE BEAUCHAMP, Twelfth Earl of : b. at Salwarpe, Worcestershire, J an. 28, 1381 ; son of Thomas, who was condemned as a traitor in the reign of Richard II., but not executed; was made a Knight of the Bath at the coronation of Henry IV. (1399); succeeded to the earldom 1401 ; fought against Owen Glendower 1401-02. and against the Percies 1403, taking part in the famous battle of Shrews- bury; made a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulcher 1408 ; vis- ited several European courts, where he distinguished him- self at tournaments; was lord high steward at the coronation of Henry V. (1413), and in the same year commissioner to 615 negotiate peace with France ; headed an embassy to the Council of Constance 1414; was an energetic opponent of the Lollards or followers of Wycliffe; became in 1415 Cap- tain of Calais, where he entertained the Emperor Sigismund with such grace as to receive from him authority to bear the title “father of courtesy”; aided in the siege and capture of Caen 1417; was ambassador to the Duke of Burgundy 1418; was created about that period Earl of Aumerle (oth- erwise Albemarle) ; attended Henry V. on his deathbed (1422); was regent of France 1425—28; directed for nine years the education of the young king, Henry VI., gaining the title “ the good earl,” and was again regent or lieutenant- general of France and Normandy from 1437 to his death at Rouen, Apr. 30, 1439. He was buried and has a magnificent tomb in the Church of St. Mary, Warwick. He was pos- sessed of immense landed estates, was father of Anne, the wife of Richard Neville, subsequently Earl of \Varwick, and was author of some courtly verses preserved in MSS. in the British Museum. Warwick, RICHARD NEVILLE, Earl of, known as “ the king-maker”: soldier and statesman; b. in England between 1420 and 1430 ; was related to both the Lancastrian and the Yorkist houses, being first cousin to Edward IV. and second cousin to Henry VI. ; became the most wealthy and power- ful nobleman of the kingdom ; fought along with his father in the \Var of the Roses, which grew out of the claims of the Duke of York to the throne ; bore a leading part in the first battle. that of St. Albans, 1455, which he decided in favor of the Yorkists by a daring charge into the town; was rewarded with the important post of captain of Calais and was afterward reconciled with Henry VI., but having been accused of misconduct. attacking a fieet of Lubeck merchant- men, he retired to Calais in anger. On the renewal of the civil war in 1459 he joined the Yorkist forces, and on the failure of their attempt returned to Calais, whence after ne- gotiating with the Duke of York he fitted out an expedition, landed in Kent (June, 1460), and entered London without a battle. He defeated the queen’s arm_vnear Northampton in July, capturing the imbecile king, Henry VI., after which the Duke of York laid formal claim and was recognized as heir to the throne. At the disastrous battle of Wakefield, however, in December. the pretender was killed, and the Earl of Salisbury (IVarwick’s father) and twelve other Yorkist nobles were captured and beheaded at Pontefract. War- wick suffered another defeat at the second battle of St. Al- bans Feb., 1461. but, having raised another army and joined the young Duke of York, marched upon London. where the duke was proclaimed king Mar. 4 under the title of Edward IV. Warwick next defeated the Lancastrians at the des- perate battle of Towton, near the city of York. Mar., 1461, and was active in suppressing the attempt of the Lancastri- ans to regain their power in 1463. He captured the deposed king, Henry VI.. and lodged him in the Tower (1465). He was rewarded with vast estates and the most important ofiices in the kingdom. He had now a revenue from his offices alone of 80.000 crowns a year, and displayed a regal magnificence, keeping open house wherever he went and maintaining many thousands of servants or dependents. He was employed on missions to France, Burgundy, and Brit- tany, and took such deep offense at the king’s marriage with Elizabeth IVoodville (1464), while he was engaged in nego- tiating for him the hand of a French princess. that he began to be disai“I“ected; gave his daughter in marriage to Ed- ward’s brother. George, Duke of Clarence, without the royal permission, 1468, and, taking advantage of an insurrection against certain taxes in Yorkshire, placed himself, with Clar- ence, at the head of the rebellion ; defeated the royal forces at Edgecote 1469, capturing the king and putting to death the queen’s father and brother; had a brief reconciliation with the king; was again in arms against him in the follow- ing year (1470) ; was forced to flee to France ; made at Am- boise a treaty with Queen Margaret for the restoration of Henry VI., the marriage of Prince Edward of Lancaster to his daughter Anna (August), and the recognition of his son- in-law Clarence as lieir-presumptive to the latter. By this double marriage the crown seemed now assured to the de- scendants of \Varwick, who, aided by Louis XI., landed with a body of exiles at Plymouth and Dartmouth Sept. 13, 1470, successfully marched upon London, restored Henry VI.. and was reinstated in all his offices, with the addition of that of lord high admiral. The Lancastrian restoration, however, had lasted barely six months before Edward IV., who had escaped to Holland, obtained the aid of Charles the Bold, 616 WARWICK Duke of Burgundy; landed at Ravenspur, near Hull, with 2,000 men, English, Dutch, and Flemings, and Warwick, along with his brother Montague (then Earl of Northumber- land), betrayed by l1is son-in-law Clarence, was defeated and killed at the battle of Barnet, Apr. 14, 1471. They were buried at Bisl1am Abbey, Berkshire. F. M. COLBY. Warwick, ROBERT RICH, Earl of: a descendant of Lord Chancellor Rich; b. in England about 1590; succeeded to the earldom 1618 ; became a prominent leader of the Puri- tan party; took a11 active part in promoting the coloniza- tion of New England, especially of Rhode Island; was an intimate friend and protector of Thomas Hooker, the cele- brated founder of Connecticut, and of other Puritan clergy- men, whom he protected during the ecclesiastical prosecu- tions of the reign of Charles I.: adhered to the cause of Parliament during the great rebellion: became lieutenant of the fleet under the Earl of Northumberland 1642, and was a prominent supporter of Cromwell as Protector, and was appointed to bear the sword of state in the latter’s pres- ence 1657. D. in 1658. Wasatch or Wahsateh Mountains: Roonv MOUNTAINS. Wase’ca: city (founded in 1869) : capital of Waseca co., Minn. ; on the Chi. and N. W. and the Minn. and St. L. rail- ways; 15 miles W. of Cwatonna, 26 miles E. by S. of Man- kato (for location, see map of Minnesota, ref. 11-E). It is in an agricultural and dairying region; is on Clear Lake, where are located the extensive grounds and buildings of the Minnesota Chautauqua; and has 11 churches, graded public school, Roman Catholic academy. a State bank with capital of $25,000, flour-mills, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,708; (1890) 2,482; (1895) estimated, 3,000. EDITOR or “ RADICAL.” VVaSllbu1'n : town (settled in 1829, incorporated in 1861); Aroostook co., Me. ; on the Big Machias river; 52 miles N. by W. of Houlton, the county-seat (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 3-F). It contains the villages of Washburn and East Washburn, three churches, high school, and public li- brary. Pop. (1880) 809 ; (1890) 1,097. Washburn: city (founded in 1883); capital of Bayfield co., Wis. ; on Lake Superior, and the Chi., St. P., Minn. and Omaha Railway; 60 miles E. of Duluth, 198 miles N. E. of Minneapolis (for location, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 1-C). It has 11 churches, high school (building cost $40,000), 3 grammar schools, court-house (cost $50,000), a State bank with capital of $16,000, and 2 weekly newspapers, and is principally engaged in lumbering, brownstone-quarrying, and shipping coal, grain, and general merchandise. It is the site of the oldest settlement in Wisconsin, a Jesuit mis- sion having been established here in 1665. Pop. (1890) 3,039. Enrroa or “ ITEMIZER.” Washburn, CADWALLADER COLDEN, LL. D. : soldier; brother of Charles A. Washburn; b. at Livermore, Me., Apr. 22, 1818; studied law and settled at Mineral Point, Wis., in 1841, where he had a large practice as counsel for the early settlers in securing their homes. In 1854 he was elected to Congress, and by re-elections served till Mar. 3, 1861, de- clining another election. At the breaking out of the civil war he raised the Second Wisconsin Cavalry, of which he was made colonel, in Oct., 1861; was commissioned brigadier- general by President Lincoln in July, 1862, and was engaged in the Arkansas campaign during that year; was commis- sioned major-general of volunteers in Nov., 1862; was en- gaged in the siege of Vicksburg, and at its close was ordered to the department of the Gulf in command of the Thirteenth Corps ; was ordered to Texas in Nov., 1863, with a portion of the Thirteenth Corps, and captured Fort Esperanza, a strong casemated fortification at Pass Cavallo, guarding the entrance to Matagorda Bay; in Apr., 1864, relieved Gen. Stephen A. Hurlbut in command at Memphis of the district of West Tennessee; resigned May 25, 1865. In 1867 he was again elected to Congress and re-elected in 1869; in Nov., 1871, was elected Governor of Wisconsin, but failed of re- election in 1873. He resided at Madison, Wis., and was largely engaged in the manufacture of lumber at La Crosse, VVis., and of Hour at Minneapolis, Minn. The Washburn Observatory of the University of Wisconsin was founded by him. D. at Eureka Springs, Ark., May 14, 1882. Revised by JAMES MERCUR. Vvasllbllrn, CHARDES AMES: editor and author; brother of C. C. Washburn; b. at Livermore, Me., Mar. 16, 1822. He graduated at Bowdoin College 1840, and soon after went See UTAH and WASHBURN to California, where he became editor and eventually proprie- tor of the Alta UaZ't'forn't'a, a journal published in San Fran- cisco. This was the first Californian paper to advocate the principles of the Republican party, and the growth and the strength of the party on the Pacific slope were largely due to Mr. \Vashburn’s influence. From 1858 to 1861 he was editor and proprietor of the San Francisco Dazly Times, and in 1860 he was chosen presidential elector-at-large. In 1861 President Lincoln appointed him minister to Paraguay, and he resided in that country in 1861-65, and again in 1866-68. During the latter period the most exciting episodes of the Paraguayan war with Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay were enacted, and Minister W ashburn was almost the only intelligent observer of the interior condition of Paraguay while the struggle was going on. The tyranny of Lopez culminated in the imprisonment and death of nearly all the better class of Paraguayans and foreign residents, who were accused of complicity in an imaginary conspiracy. Mr. \/Vashburn, after vainly protesting against these acts, was himself accused, and escaped with his family only by the timely arrival of the U. S. steamer Wasp. After his return to the U. S. he published The History of Paraguay (2 vols., 1871). Mr. Washburn also wrote Plztltp Thawter (New York, 1861) ; Gomery of ilfon tgomery (1865), and other novels. D. in New York, J an. 26, 1889. HERBERT H. SMITH. Washburn, EDWARD ABIEL, D.D.: clergyman; b. at Bos- ton, Mass.,Apr.16, 1819; graduated at Harvard 1838; stud- ied theology at Andover and New Haven ; became a Congre- gational minister in 1842, but left the denomination to enter the Protestant Episcopal Church, and was ordained priest 1845 ; was rector of St. Paul’s church, Newburyport, Mass., 1844-51 ; traveled in Asia, Egypt, and Europe 1851-53; was rector of St. John’s, Hartford, Conn., 1853-62, and at the same time Professor of Church Polity in the Berkeley Divin- ity School, Midclletown ; was rector of St. Mark’s, Philadel- phia, 1862-65, when he succeeded Bishop Coxe as rector of Calvary church, New York, which charge he held till his death. Dr. Washburn was a member of the New Testament company of revisers, and a leader among the Broad Church clergy of the Episcopal Church. Besides numerous sermons and review articles, he published Relation of the Eptseqoal Church to the other Chm'ste‘an Bodies (1874); The Sacral Law of God (New York, 1874; 6th ed. 1884); Epoehs of Church History (posthumously ed. by Dr. Tiffany. 1883); Voices from a Busy Life (poems, 1883). D. in New York, Feb. 2, 1881. Washburn, Enonv, LL. D. : jurist; b. at Leicester, Mass., Feb. 14, 1800; entered Williams College at the age of thir- teen; graduated in 1817 ; after a three years’ course of study at the Harvard Law School was admitted to the bar, and at the age of twenty-one commenced practice at Charlemont, Mass; afterward removed to his native town of Leicester, and in 1828 settled in \Vorcester. In 1825 and 1826 he rep- resented Leicester in the Massachusetts General Court. and VVorcester in 1838. In 1841 and 1842 was a member of the State Senate for Worcester County. He was also nominated for Congress at a time when his party, the Whigs, had several thousand majority, but declined the nomination ; in 1844 was appointed a judge of the court of common pleas, which office he resigned in 1847. During his absence in Europe in 1852 he was nominated and elected Governor of Massachusetts, and was re-elected the ensuing year. He removed to Cam- bridge in 1856, having been appointed Professor of Law in the Harvard Law School, which position 'he held for twenty years, resigning Sept. 1, 1876 ; then took up the gen- eral practice of law; served in the State Legislature, and held other positions of public and private trust. His Lec- tnres on the Study and Praetrlee of the Law, his Treatise on the American Law of Easements and Serm'tucZes, and the more elaborate work in three volumes, Treatzse on the Amer- tean Law of Real Property, all of which have passed through several editions, are the highest standard authorities in both the law schools and the courts throughout the U. S. He also published a Jnch'ee'aZ History of Jllassachasetts, a Hristory of Leicester, and a Ilfanual of Om'nm'nal Law (1878), besides pamphlets, essays, etc. D. at Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 17, 1877. Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Washburn, WILLIAM BARRETT, LL. D.: U. S. Senator; b. at Winchendon, Mass., J an. 31, 1820; graduated at Yale College 1844; engaged in manufacturing at Greenfield, Mass, and made it his residence; was also engaged in banking, and in 1859 was chosen president of the Bank of Greenfield; was elected to the Massachusetts State Senate 1850, and a WASHBURNE member of the House of Representatives 1854. He was nominated as the Republican candidate for Congress for his district in 1862, and had the unusual, if not unprecedented, honor of being elected by a unanimous vote; was re-elected biennially till 1872, when he resigned to be inaugurated Governor of Massachusetts ; was twice re-elected Governor, and was U. S. Senator 1874-75 to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of Charles Sumner. He was one of the trus- tees of Yale College and of the ll/Iassachusetts Agricultural College; also a trustee of Smith College, Northampton, Mass. D. at Springfield, Mass., Oct. 5, 1887. Washburne, ELIHU BENJAMIN: statesman; b. at Liver- more, Me., Sept. 23, 1816 ; brother of Charles A. Washburn (added an “ e ” to the family name); early learned the print- er’s trade, and studied at the academy at Kcnt’s Hill, Read- field, Me.; afterward studied law in Hallowell and Boston and at Harvard law school; in 1840 settled in Galena, Ill., where he began the practice of law with Charles S. Hemp- stead; in 1852 was elected to Congress, and continued to serve till Mar., 1869. At the time of his retirement he was by consecutive elections the oldest member, or, in congres- sional parlance, the “father of the House.” On the acces- sion of Gen. Grant to the presidency he was appointed Sec- retary of State, but soon resigned that office to accept that of minister plenipotcntiary to France. He was serving in this capacity at the outbreak of the war between France and Prussia, and was the only foreign minister to remain at his post during the siege of Paris and the Commune, giving shelter and protection as far as possible to all foreigners. His firmness in protecting those unfortunate Germans who were unable to leave Paris won the admiration of all for- eign governments. At the close of the war the German em- peror conferred upon him the Order of the Red Eagle and sent him his portrait and autograph. On his return to the U. S. he settled in Chicago, Ill., and in 1880 his name was brought forward as a candidate for the presidency, but he declined to have it presented to the convention. He was the author of Recollections of a Minister to France (2 vols., New York, 1887). D. in Chicago, Oct. 22, 1887. Ivashing of Feet: in supposed accordance with the Lord’s example and mandate (John xiii. 5-14), apractice which was common in early Christianity, and continued so during the Middle Ages. At the present day it is observed by many of the minor Protestant sects in America, as Seventh-day Adventists, the Original Free-will Baptists, United Baptists, Baptist Church of Christ, Primitive Baptists, Old Two- seed-in-the-Spirit Predestinarian Baptists, River Brethren, United Zion’s Children, the Church of God, the Dunkards, and Mennonites. It is observed in Europe by the Menno- nites and other similarly primitive organizations. It was a practice of the early United Brethren in Christ. In the Roman Catholic Church the pope himself and the bishops and priests of certain dioceses wash the feet of twelve pil- grims once a year on Maundy Thursday, after the celebra- tion of a solemn mass. It is a court ceremony, participated in by the emperor in the burg at Vienna and in the Krem- lin at Moscow. It was formerly observed among the Jesuits. SAMUEL MACAULEY J ACKSON. Washington : one of the U. S. of North America (West- ern group) ; the twenty-ninth in order of admission into the Union; popularly known as the Ever- green State; capi- tal. Olympia. Location, and Area.—It lies be- tween lat. 45° 32’ and 49° N. and lon. 117° and 124° 48' \V., and is bounded on the N. and N. W. by British Columbia, on the E. by Ida- ho, on the S. by Oregon, and on the W’. by the Pa- cific Ocean. The southern bound- ary line for about three-fourths of its length follows the lower course of the Columbia river, the eastern part of it following the parallel of 46°; and the Seal of Washington. wxsnnveron 617 southern part (about 30 miles) of the boundary between Washington and Idaho is formed by the Snake river. The extreme width of the State from N. to S. is about 240 miles; extreme length E. to W., 860 miles; area, according to the annual report of the U. S. General Land Office, 1892, 69,- 994 sq. miles (44,796,160 acres). Physical Fealures.—The Cascade Mountain range, extend- ing through the State from N. to S., divides it into two parts known as Eastern Washington and 'Western Washing- ton. Eastern Washington includes an area sometimes called Central Washington, lying between the Columbia river and the Cascade Mountains, and including the Yakima and Kittitas valleys, which were formerly considered sterile sage-brush plains, but are now being rapidly transformed into most fertile valleys by irrigation. \Vater for this pur- pose is taken largely from the Yakima river, a tributary of the Columbia. These two rivers, with the Snake, Spokane, Methow, and Okanogan rivers, include the most important watercourses of Eastern \Vashington. They afford untold possibilities of water-power, as there are many falls and rapids. The falls at Spokane are estimated at 35,000 horse- power, and are used by manufacturers. The largest lake in the Northwest is Lake Chelan, in Okanogan co., Eastern Washington. 70 miles long and about 3 miles wide. Besides the two valleys mentioned there are the fertile valley of Walla I/Valla. the Palouse valley (a large area of rolling land, especially adapted to cereals), the Colville valley (in Stevens County), the Okanogan valley (now used for graz- ing), and the large plateau known as the Big Bend Coun- try, because it lies in the loop or large bend of the Co- lumbia river. There are several smaller areas, such as the fertile Klickitat valley, and small fruit plats along the river courses. Yvestern VVashington is entirely different in its general features. Its area is a little over one-half as great, and its slope to tidewater is abrupt when compared with the long stretch of rolling plains and valleys of Eastern Washington. The most important part of \Vestern IVash- ington is known as the Puget Sound Basin. Its great body of water, now known generally as Puget Sound, embraces, with its bays and inlets, an area of about 2,000 sq. miles, including what is acknowledged to be one of the finest se- ries of harbors on the globe. The rest of the coast is abrupt and barren of harbors, excepting Gray’s and \Vill-apa har- bors. The important rivers of the Puget Sound Basin are the Skagit, Snohomish, Puyallup,- Nisqually, White, and Dwamish—all of which drain productive and fertile valleys bearing the names of the rivers. Other important rivers of Western \Vashington are the Chehalis, flowing into Gray‘s harbor; the W illapa, flowing into Willapa harbor; and the Cowlitz, flowing southward into the Columbia river. A branch of the Snohomish forms the picturesque Snoqualmie Falls, about 20 miles E. of Seattle. The most important lake in Western \Vashington is Lake IVashington, about 15 miles long and 3 miles wide. Lake Union lies between this lake and Puget Sound, and Seattle extends to the shores of both lakes. Lake What-com lies back of New I/Vhatcom, in Whatcom County. Along the west coast of the State is a range of irregular mountains called the Olym- pics, or Coast Range, which embraces a stretch of practically unexplored lands between Puget Sound and the Pacific Ocean. One important feature of \Vestern Washington is the islands of Puget Sound. Two whole counties-Island and San J uan—are composed entirely of islands. They are important for agricultural purposes, and supply the bulk of the lime used in the State. The possession of most of these islands was a matter of dispute with Great Britain for many years, and was not adjusted until 1873. The names of the most import-ant islands are \Vhidby. San Juan, Orcas. Lopez, Camano, Fidalgo, Guemes, Lummi, and VValdron. The fol- lowing table shows the altitudes of important points in the State: Locality. Elevation. feet. Locality. Elevation, feet. Mt. Rainier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14,444 Colfax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,941 Mt. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,827 Colville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,917 Mt. St. Helens . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9.750 S okane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.910 Mt. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,570 E lensburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,518 Natchess Pass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,900 Dayton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.360 Stampede Pass (summit) .. 3.980 Fort Spokane . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,300 Snoqualmie Pass . . . . . . . . . . . 3,110 Sprague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,200 Great Plain of Columbia Walla Walla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1.000 to 3,000 North Yakima . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 N. P. R. R. Stampede tunnel 2.885 Palouse Junction . . . . . . . . . . 858 Kechelas Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.388 Pasco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 Kachess Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.158 17,6‘!/IL’)?/(‘11.-—Tl16 native animals found in \Vashington include the elk, deer, caribou, mountam goat, mountain sheep (big- 618 horn), bear, cougar, wildcat, wolf, coyote, raccoon, otter, beaver, wolverine, martin, skunk, muskrat, sewellel, fisher, and small rabbits and squirrels. There are no poisonous reptiles or insects, except the rattlesnakes that are found in a few places in Eastern Washington. The birds of the State are innumerable. The principal game birds are ducks of various kinds, geese, swans, prairie chickens, grouse, pheas- ants, quails, and pigeons. Fossil remains of many extinct animals and fishes are found, notably the Elephas Pre'mt'- gem'as. The streams and lakes, and the various bodies of salt water, abound in many varieties of fish and shellfish. The principal fishes of commerce are the salmon and hali- but. Native oysters, though of very small variety, are large- ly exported to Pacific coast markets. Soil and Prodactions.—The two natural divisions of the State are not more different i11 climate and topography than in the general characteristics of the soil and productions. The prevailing soil in Eastern Washington is a volcanic ash. It is light, and, when properly watered, is wonderfully pro- ductive. In Western W'ashington the soil mostly cultivated is that of the river bottoms and reclaimed tide-marshes, where it is a rich alluvial loam. The first settlers found in Eastern Washington the bunch-grass plains, unexcelled anywhere for natural grazing-ground, and in \/Vestern Washington the unparalleled forests of cone-bearing trees. The reclaimed tide marshes of the Puget Sound Basin have proved wonderfully productive. In a report on the tide- marsh lands in the U. S. in 1885, the U. S. Agricultural De- partment made the following statement : “ Reclamation has nowhere been so popular and uniformly successful as with the pioneers on Puget Sound.” And, further: “Perhaps no other farm-lands in the country have for a series of years yielded so large returns on the invested capital as the diked lands of Puget Sound.” The State, especially the western portion, was very heavily clothed with native vege- tation. The forests are famous for the size and number of trees. A large percentage of these belong to the family of conifers, and the deciduous or hardwood varieties are few and of little value. About nine-tenths of the Puget Sound forests consist of the fir timber of commerce (Psendotsuga ta:zn'_foZ/ta). The other trees are cedar, spruce, hemlock, larch, pine, maple, alder, cottonwood, dogwood, madrona, bearberry, crabapple, yew, and a few scattering oaks. Smaller vegetation grows in luxuriant tangles in the low lands of Western Washington, and in some places is practi- cally impenetrable. The soil in such localities, when cleared, is the richest. In Eastern Washington there are some for- ests of pine, fir, and cedar, greatly prized by the settlers of that part of the State, but the timber is much inferior to that of the Puget Sound forests. The drier plains of East- ern \Vashington were originally covered with sage-brush and bunch-grass. The principal agricultural crops of Eastern Washington are wheat, barley, hay, hops, and oats ; and of I/Vestern Washington, oats, potatoes, hops, and hay. There are also grown vegetables of all kinds, flax, rye, Indian corn, and in a few places in Central Washington some peanuts are raised. Hops thrive well; there was an unusually heavy yield in 1890. when 42,476 bales were harvested. Yields are reported of from 600 to 3,000 lb. of hops to the acre. In fruits, the State excels in prunes, apples, pears, cherries, and the small ber- ries. The acreage is increasing rapidly and the surplus product is shipped to markets in the Eastern States. Irriga- tion is revolutionizing agriculture in the central part of the State, where sage-brush plains are being transformed into productive farms. In 1890 there were reported 48,000 acres of irrigated land under cultivation. This has been largely increased and millions of dollars are being invested in irri- gating-works. The principal crops produced in the sections reclaimed by means of irrigation are fruits, alfalfa, hops, and vegetables. The Yakima valley, in the center of the irrigated lands, exports, among other things, many earloads of watermelons. The following summary, which is compiled from the cen- sus reports of 1880 and 1890, shows the extent of farm oper- ations in the State: FARMS. ETC. 1880. 1890. Per cont.* Total number of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,529 18,056 1766 Total acreage of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,409,421 4,179,190 1965 Total value of farms, including build- ings and fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . .. $13,844,224 $83,461,660 502'9 * Increase. WASHINGTON The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of the principal crops in the calendar year 1894: CROPS. Acreage. Yield. Value. Indian corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,295 110,136 bush. $75,994 Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548,700 9,108.420 “ 3,552,284 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87,612 3,197,838 "‘ 91,330 Rye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,322 33,437 “ 18,725 Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,336 1,595,223 “ 510,471 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,422 1,927,750 “ 539,770 Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372,956 7 64,560 tons. 5,642,453 1,079,643 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $11.331,027 On Jan. 1, 1895, the farm animals comprised 200,057 horses, value $6,457,895; 1,392 mules, value $56,616; 113,- 962 milch cows, value $2,835,375; 428,708 oxen and other cattle, value $6,887,672; 748,857 sheep, value $1,304,360; and 211.870 swine, value $1,189,268-—total head, 1,704,846; total value, $18,731,186. all/t'ne/raZs.—’l‘he value of the total mineral product in 1889 was $2,998,355. The greatest product of the mines thus far has been coal, but gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, zinc, anti- mony, nickel, bismuth, and other metals are found in pay- ing quantities. Granite, sandstone, lime, marble, and valu- able clays are also found. Many of the mining districts abounding in precious metals are as yet only prospected and are awaiting railways to mature development. Two large smelters are in operation, one in Tacoma, the other in Ever- ett. Only bituminous coal is now mined. There are twelve mines in operation, located in King, Pierce, Kittitas, Thurs- ton. Skagit. and Whatcom Counties. King County produced in 1893 577,731 short tons; Kittitas, 253,467; Pierce, 408.- 074; Skagit, 2,905; Thurston, none, though it had an out- put of 22.119 tons the previous year; and Whatcom, 22,700. The total production was 1,264,877 short tons, valued at $2,920,876, the largest annual production on record up to that year. Of the precious metals the products were: Gold, 10,744 fine oz., value $222,100: silver, 152,700 fine oz., coin- ing value $197,430—total value, $419,530. In 1889 the product of limestone for building purposes and lime-making was $231,287, and of sandstone $75,936. Eight limestone and five sandstone quarries were in operation. There are productive mineral springs at the Cascades, in Skamania County; Medical Lake, in Spokane County; and North Ya- kima, Yakima County. Valuable deposits of iron ore are known to exist in the State, but mining operations are in their infancy. C'lz'¢nate.—The director of the Washington weather serv- ice for the U. S. Government says: “For equability and mildness of climate, absence of either very hot or very cold waves, and freedom from destructive tornadoes or cyclones, Washington stands foremost among the favored States of the American Union.” The following table shows the mean temperature and mean rainfall in Eastern and West- ern Washington by months, the averages being deduced from observations extending from two to forty years: WESTERN EASTERN WASHINGTON. WASHINGTON. MONTHS. Menn tem- Mean Mean tem-I Mean perature. rainfall. pemture. rainfall. January . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37'3 7'82 263 2'17 February . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40'2 6'45 31 '4 208 March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44'3 5'80 42 6 1'20 April . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49"? 3'21 51'0 1'33 May . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54"?’ 2'77 59 4 1'25 June . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60'1 1'94 66 0 0'88 July . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62"? 0'96 716 0'56 August . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 625 1'13 70'6 0'27 September . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 331 60'6 0'69 October . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51 '2 4'54 496 1'92 November . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44'7 6'94 38'6 1 '58 December . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 ' 9 7'65 322 2' 58 Average temperature for year . . . 50 4 . . . . 49'? . . . . Total rainfall for year . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 5252 . . .. 16'51 The mean annual rainfall over the western half of Clal- lam, Jefferson, Chehalis, and Pacific Counties ranges from 79 to 107 inches. This region is the immediate Pacific coast portion of the State, and comprises about 6 per cent. of the entire area of the State. This immense rainfall occurs during the three winter months, and during the rest of the year the rainfall is not excessive. The Government records are doing much to dispel the erroneous idea that Washington has an excessively rainy climate. E 1 A, E .%:=8.:o Q: .52“: 2Z.m 3|! u H I R. . §32EFa a “$535 2:0 3:8 / I\.(l muagg @ _E>5.r $550 3 2 3 ow 2 o 3:2 we 23¢ _ ‘F-m Y2 E . . .5. \ .¢$.,§==§Q . ._¢.\“.\‘ : ... :wE~=._oRaun._Q.O .m__b!Sx: ‘ _. .H. _ 356$ M; .. .Q.@ nM.T :~bo_.§_:= ll . . 7 linrl \_dV._w“_. 5 Q Q I i 1 .r 5:. . \ ." . . L r. wcyuvwwmvuow M‘@,Md..bcuC HOG O . ._ . -:5 X! . . ~..r..2_.5 rd . .8. ti £2. r._mm.. 5?; 582 I iI|]||L hm 0 m 4 s3 _ Q..wR.\‘.__:@u_ea: ‘ . .3 o&E._._d‘fl\.\vO ;v V , ' ‘” ‘ ‘ ; ~. ' ‘ -k 47 ‘ ‘ 1; 1-’ " I - V.’ - I ' “ \. -1 IQTQ-.L.flfi ’ ' >_.-‘ -‘V ‘H A \~‘_V V ‘ A ‘ - - N '1 ' . ‘Q ." _-V V . 2./¢L3u»0 I w . WASHINGTON Dicisi0ns.—For administrative purposes Washington is divided into thirty-four counties, as follows: COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWNS, WITH POPULATION. 0 . Po . connrms. f;°8‘(’," 1I;‘;,l(’,'_ COUNTY-TOWNS. 52,8?) 189% ams . . . . . . . . . . 2,098 Ritzville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 500 ,£AL(s1otii1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,580 Asotin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Chehalis . . . . . . . 921 9.249 Mentesano . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,632 Clallam . . . . . . . . . 638 2,771 Port Angeles . . . . . . . . . . . * 5,000 Clarke . . . . . . . . . . 5,490 11,709 Vancouver . . . . , . . . 1,722 3,545 Columbia . . . . . .. 7,103 6,709 Dayton . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 1,880 Cowlitz . . . . . . . . . 2,062 5,917 Kalarna . . . . . . . . . . 129 325 Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,161 Waterville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 Pasco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 500 Garfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,897 Pomeroy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Island . . . . . . . . . . . 1,087 1,787 Coupeville . . . . . . . . . 90 513 J eiferson . . . . . . . 1,712 8,368 Port Townsend. . . . 917 4,558 King . . . . . . . . . .. 6,910 63,989 Seattle . . . . . . . . . . . 3,533 42,837 Kitsap . . . . . . . . . . 1,738 4,624 Port Orchard . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Kittitas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,777 Ellensburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.768 Klickitat. .. . . . 4.055 5,167 Goldendale . . . . . . . . 545 1,833 Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . 2,600 11,499 Chehalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,818 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,312 Sprague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,689 Mason . . . . . . . . .. 639 2,826 Shelton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 Okanogan . . . . . . . . . . . 1,467 Conconnully . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Pacific . . . . . . . . . . 1,645 4,358 South Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . " 2.500 Pierce . . . . . . . . . . . 3.319 50,940 Tacoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,006 San Juan . . . . . . . 948 2,072 Friday Harbor .. . . . . . . . 400 Skagit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,747 Mt. Vernon . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Skamania . . . . . . 809 774 Cascades . . . . . . . . . . 149 164 Snohomish 1,387 8,514 Snohomish . . . . . . .. 149 1,993 Spokane . . . . . . . . 4,262 37,487 Spokane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,922 Stevens . . . . . . . . . 1,245 4,341 Colville . . . . . . . . . .. 67 ’-‘ 900 Thurston . . . . . . . 3,270 9,675 Olympia . . . . . . . . . .. 1,232 4,698 Wahkiakum. . . . 1,598 2,526 Cathlamet . . . . . . . . . 133 ’-‘ 300 Walla Walla. . .. 8,716 12,224 Walla Walla . . . . .. 3,588 4,709 Whatcom . . . . . . . 3,137 18,591 New Whatcom . . . . . . . . . 4,059 Whitman . . . . . .. 7,014 19,109 Colfax . . . . . . . . . . . .. 444 1,649 Yakima . . . . . . . . . 2,811 4,429 North Yakima . . . . . . . . . 1,535 Totals . . . . . . . . . 75.116 349,390 Estimated. Principal Cities and Towns, with Population for 1890.- Seattle. 42,837; Tacoma. 36,006; Spokane, 19,922; Walla Walla, 4,709; Olympia, 4,698; Port Townsend, 4,558; Fair Haven, 4,076; Whatcom (now New VVhatcom), 4,059; Van- couver, 3,545; Ellensburg, 2,768; and Centralia. 2,026. Population and Races.—In 1860, 11,594; 1870, 23,955; 1880, 75,116 ; 1890, 349,390 (native, 259,385 ; foreign, 90,005 ; males, 217,562; females, 131,828; white, 340,513; colored. 8,877, comprising 1,602 persons of African descent, 3,260 Chinese, 360 Japanese, and 3,655 civilized Indians). There are (1894) in the State 18 Indian reservations with an aggre- gate area of 7,094,950 acres. Much of the land has been allotted to the Indians in severalty. I ndastries anal Business Interests-The principal ar- ticle manufactured in Eastern Washington is flour, large mills being located at Spokane, \Valla Walla, Dayton, Waitsburg, Cheney, and other cities. The chief articles manufactured in VVestern Washington are lumber, iron, brick, and tile. The census of 1890 showed that 1,543 manu- facturing establishments reported. These had a combined capital of $34,369,735, including an investment of 88,766,- 916 in machinery, tools, and implements. There were 20,- 366 persons employed, to whom $12,658,614 was paid in wages. Materials used cost $19,917,057,_and the output was valued at $41,768,022. SEATTLE and TACOMA (qg. /0.) were the principal manufacturing cities reporting. Since then the city of Everett has come into existence and has important manu- factories in operation. In 1892 there were in operation in the State 227 sawmills, 246 shingle-mills (of which 127 were erected during the year). and 73 sash and door factories. The aggregate annual capacity of the sawmills is 2,970,000,- 000 feet, and of the shingle-mills 3,723,000,000. The capital invested in these plants is about 330,000,000; total number of employes about 12,000, who receive over $7,000,000 wages yearly. The total output for the year 1892 was 1,164,425,880 feet of lumber, 436,716,000 lath, and 1,883,868,750 shingles. The standing timber of the State is estimated as follows: DIVISION, Acres in timber. Timbelilezttanding’ Value. Eastern Washington . . . . . . . . 11,616.72 106,978.0-41,000 $80,426,521 Western Washington . . , . . . . . 11,971,792 303,355.294._000 189,134,808 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,588,512 410,3-33,335,000 $269,561,329 Statistics of salmon canned and packed on the Columbia river have been preserved since 1866. The total to 1893 is 9,323,550 cases. In 1866 the pack was 4,000 cases, and in 619 1892 465,000 cases. The greatest pack for any single year was in 1883, 629,000 cases. During 1892 2,081 tons of stur- geon were exported. In the Puget Sound district the value of the fish catch of 1892 was $138,700. There are 335 acres of oyster-beds in the State, from which 560 sacks of oysters are taken weekly. In 1892 the value of the output of the fisheries was $1,176,862, and of oysters and clams $132,840. Commerce.—In the year ending June 30, 1894, the foreign trade in the Puget Sound customs district was as follows: Exports of gold and silver $59,320, of merchandise $4,942,- 040; imports of merchandise $1,230.399—total foreign trade $6,231,759. The entrances were, sailing-vessels 122, tonnage 94,900; steam-vessels 1,144, tonnage 694,465; and clear- ances, sailing-vessels 209, tonnage 193,755; steam vessels 1,168, tonnage 701,898. Finance.—The constitution limits the State’s indebted- ness to $400,000. Interest on State and county warrants is limited by law to 8 per cent. a year. State warrants usually mature in two years, and they sell readily for from 1 to 2 per cent. premium. The tax levy for State purposes is a trifle over 28% cents on $100. The assessed valuation of real and personal property as equalized by the State officers for 1894 was, real, $183,683,372; personal, $28,747,139—total, $212,430,511; in 1892, however, it was $319,016,341. The debt on Apr. 1, 1895, was, bonded, $300,000; floating, $931,369. . Banking.—In 1895 there were 56 national banks with com- bined capital of $5,995,500; 38 State banks with capital of $1,855,100; 19 investment and loan companies, 17 of which reported authorized capital of $2,925,000; 3 trust companies with capital of $800,000; 14 incorporated banks; and 16 private banks. Post-oyjices and Perioclieals.—ln J an., 1895. there were 822 post-offices. of which 32 were presidential (3 first-class, 4 second-class, 25 third-class) and 790 fourth-class. Of the total, 209 were money-order offices and 17 were limited money-order offices. There were 225 newspapers and period- icals, viz., 18 daily, 3 tri-weekly, 181 weekly, 22 monthly, and 1 quarterly. Illeans of Communication.-—The first steam railway built \V. of the Rocky Mountains was in Skamania co., Wash- ington. It was a short portage railway around the falls or cascades in the Columbia river, at the town of Cascade. From that beginning very little was done until 1885, when the first transcontinental railway entered \Vashington. Four great railways have since come into operation, and have their main lines or important branches in the State. The total mileage in 1893 was 2,619, of which 1,244 miles be- longed to the Northern Pacific and its branches, and 487, the next largest number, to the Great Northern and branches. The great area of navigable waters has resulted in building up important water transportation enterprises. The U. S. Government has commenced (1895) a canal between Puget Sound and Liike YVashington, for the benefit of the naval station at Port Orchard. Considerable steamboat business is done on the Columbia and Snake rivers, but the great bulk of water transportation is on Puget Sound, Gray's harbor, and Willapa harbor. Ch/u.relzes.—Tl1e whole State constitutes two missionary jurisdictions of the Protestant Episcopal Church na1ned Washington and Spokane, and a diocese of the Roman Catholic Church, named Nesqually. The census of 1890 re- ported 882 church organizations, 532 edifices, valued at $2,408,625. 58,798 communicants, and the following statis- tics of the principal bodies: DENOU , , Organiza- Churches value of - L IL ATIONS. . Members. church none. and halls. property. Roman Catholic ................ .. ss ss 2o.srs $156.05? Methodist Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 195 11,592 652,425 Disciples of Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86 88 5,816 93,400 Presbyterian in the U. S. of A.. . . 85 92 3,77 3-13,175 Congregational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 103 3,154 316,230 Protestant Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 23 1.698 242,800 Sclzools.—Every section of land numbered 16 or 36 is set aside for the maintenance of public schools. The aggre- gate is 2,484,480 acres, and none of it can be sold for less than $10 an acre, while much of it will bring several times that price. The proceeds from the sale of these lands constitute an irreducible fund, having a minimum value of 824,844,800, only the interest on which can be used. In 1894 there were 1,741 public-school districts, 1,654 school build- ings, 3,088 teachers, 112,300 pupils, and school property, ex- 620 clusive of school lands, valued at $4,872,710. The payment of teachers’ salaries aggregated $881,048. Besides the public schools there are over fifty colleges, endowed academics, and private and denominational schools. The colleges include the University of Washington (see Wasnmeron, UNIVER- srrv or); Colfax College (Baptist). at Colfax; Whitworth College, at Sumner; Whitman College (Congregational), at Walla Walla; and St. James’s College (Roman Catholic), at Vancouver. There are State normal schools at Ellensburg and Cheney, and an agricultural college and school of sci- ence at Pullman. Charitable, Reformatory, and Penal Instttuttons.—The State institutions comprise a Soldiers’ Home at Orting, Re- form School at Chehalis, hospitals for the insane at Steila- coom and Medical Lake, a School for Defective Youth at Vancouver, and a penitentiary at VValla \Valla. There are numerous private and denominational hospitals, orphanages, homes, and other institutions, and a small penitentiary on McNeil’s island, belonging to the U. S. Government. Political Organlzatton.—The constitution provides that the State officers shall be elected for four years at the same elections at which the vote is taken for President of the U. S. Much of the multifarious work of the State govern- ment devolves upon boards of trustees or commissioners. Each State institution has a separate board of trustees. There are boards to handle the State lands, to look after the State printing, to equalize the taxes, to appraise the tide lands, to regulate the practice of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry, and to perform various other duties. These of- ficers, except a few who are ea:-ofiieto members of certain boards, are all appointed by the Governor. An elector must be a male citizen of the U. S., and must reside in the State one year, in the county six months, and in his voting pre- cinct thirty days before being entitled to vote at any elec- tion. For a brief period in territorial days the suffrage was extended to women, but it was withdrawn before statehood, though women are still allowed to vote at school elections. In the State Legislature there are thirty-four senators and seventy-eight representatives. Half the senators and all the representatives are elected biennially, making the sena- torial term four years. Hlstory.—'fhe geographical nomenclature of Washington throws light upon the history of its discovery. Along the seacoast are found names that perpetuate the memory of the earliest Spanish voyages to the Pacific Northwest, such as the Strait of Juan de Euca and San Juan islands. The greater number of names, as Vancouver Island, Puget Sound, Mt. Rainier, etc., commemorate the more complete work of the English navigator, George Vancouver. Gray’s harbor and Columbia river are named after Capt. Robert Gray, and his vessel, the Columbia; he discovered both in 1792 while on the first voyage of exploration in the Pacific Northwest by and for Americans. These discoveries gave the U. S. a claim to at least a large part of the territory now embraced in the State of Washington, but title was not made perfect until 1803, when the Government purchased from Napoleon I. the Louisiana territory, which cleared away the last controversy except trifling differences with Great Britain as to boundaries between the U. S. and British America. The famous Lewis and Clarke overland expedi- tion made valuable discoveries in 1803-05. The Hudson Bay Company long operated in this region, and remains of their forts and buildings still exist. The American Fur Company, John Jacob Astor‘s Pacific Fur Company, and other enter- prises sought this field in the early part of the nineteenth century. Washington was a part of the Territory of Oregon until 1853, when a part was set off and organized as Wash- ington Territory. Two years later white settlers experi- enced much trouble with Indians in different parts of the Territory. Washington was admitted into the Union as a State Nov. 11,1889. GOVERNORS OF WASHINGTON. Territorial. William A Newell . . . . . . .. 1880-84 Isaac I. Stevens . . . . . . . . .. 1853-57 Watson 0- Squire - - - - ' ' " 1884"” J. Patton Anderson *_ . _ H 1857 Eugene Semple . . . . . . . . . .. 1887-89 Fayette McMu1lin ...... .. 1857-59 M1165 G Moore --------- -- 1889 Richard D. Gholson 1859-61 William H. 1/Vallace .... .. 1861 State, William Pickering . . . . . . .. 1862-66 Elisha P. Ferry . . . . . . . . . .. 1889-93 George E. Cole . . . . . . . . .. 1866-67 John H. McGraw . . . . . . . .. 1893- Marshall F. Moore . . . . . . .. 1867-69 Alvin Flanders . . . . . . . . . .. 1869-70 Edward S. Salomon . . . . .. 1870-72 James F. Legate * . . . . . . . . 1872 Elisha P. Ferry . . . . . . . . . .. 1872-80 "‘ Did not qualify. WASHINGTON AUTHORITIES.--The1'e are as yet but few books giving the history of Washington. Hubert Howe Bancroft includes one in his extensive series of the Pacific Coast histories. Others are I-Iawthorne’s Iflstory of VVashtngton, the Ever- green State (2 vols., New York, 1893); Evans’s History of Paetfie .North'west, Oregon and lVashz'nglon (2 vols., Port- land); Evans and Meany’s lVashtngton, the Evergreen State (1876); Barton’s Leg/tslattne Manual of ‘Washington (Olym- pia, biennial). EDMOND S. MEANY. Washington: town (incorporated in 1779); Litehfield co., Conn.; on the Shepaug river, and the She., Litch. and N. Railroad; 40 miles N. of Bridgeport, 90 miles N. E. of New York (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 9-D). It was set off from the towns of Woodbury, Litehfield, Kent, and New Milford; contains the villages of Washington, Washington Depot, Romford, New Preston, Marbledale, and \Voodville; is principally engaged in agriculture; and is a summer resort. Pop. (1880) 1,590; (1890) 1,633. Wasllingtollz city; capital of the U. S. of America and seat of the Federal Government since 1800; coextensive with the District of Columbia; on the east bank of Potomac river, 106 miles above its mouth, and 105 miles in a straight line W. of the Atlantic Ocean; in lat. 38° 53’ 39" N. and lon. 77° 2' 48" W. of Greenwich (for location, see map of Mary- land, ref. 3—E). The District of Columbia is bounded N., N. W., E., and S. E. by Maryland, and W. and S. W. by the Potomac river, which separates it from Virginia. Area, 64 sq. miles. Washington is almost alone among the capitals of great nations of modern times in the fact of its creation for the sole purpose of a seat of government, apart from any ques- tions of commercial greatness or population. While Lon- don, Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg, Vienna, and Madrid are the commercial capitals and the most populous cities of the nations they represent, Washington never was the leading city of the U. S., or the great metropolis of a commercial and manufacturing population. Although located at the head of tidewater navigation, and possessing some natu- ral advantages in the water-power of the Potomac, the city has no natural harbor. In trade and manufactures it is overshadowed by the neighboring commercial cities of Bal- timore and Philadelphia, distant only 40 and 136 miles respectively, while New York is but 226 miles distant by rail- way. As a residence city, however, the capital has unsur- passed advantages. Washington is connected with the Virginia shore by three bridges across the Potomac. The Long bridge, which has a track for railway running S. and a carriageway for vehi- cles and pedestrians, is laid on piers. The Aqueduct bridge at Georgetown is now used only for travel to Arlington, Fort Myer, and the Virginia interior. The Chain bridge at Little Falls, 4 miles above, has given place to an iron truss bridge, erected in 1874. Across the Eastern Branch, or Ana- costia, runs the Navy-yard bridge, an iron structure erected in 1875, and affording communication with the suburb of Anacostia, and another iron bridge connects Pennsylvania Avenue, E., with Twining City. Benning’s bridge, of wood, lies about a mile above the navy-yard. Streets and Avenaes.—The streets are laid out of the width of 160 feet down to 70 feet. The length of the streets and avenues is 264 miles, and they are wider than those of any other great city. There are twenty-one avenues bearing the names of States of the Union. Pennsylvania Avenue is a celebrated thoroughfare 160 feet in width, paved with smooth concrete, constituting a splendid and attractive driveway. Massachusetts Avenue, of like width, is over 4:} miles long. East Capitol Street, 160 feet wide, extending from the east front of the Capitol to Lincoln Park, has be- come one of the most attractive streets. K Street, 148 feet wide, extendingfrom Rock creek, the Georgetown bound- ary, to the Anacostia, is one of the finest thoroughfares of the city. Sixteenth Street, 160 feet wide, runs from Lafa- yette Square, opposite to the President‘s house, due N. to the boundary, whence it is extended into the country. In 1871 an extensive system of sewerage and of street pave- ments was instituted, the Washington Canal was filled up, and about 260 miles of streets and avenues paved, mostly with smooth asphalt or concrete. Many streets were com- pletely regraded, while in the streets and avenues about 75,- 000 shade trees have been planted, giving the capital the aspect of a forest city. The city proper measures 41} miles by about 2% miles, and its circumference is 14 miles, there being a water front on B F _ G I Railway Stntlone. 113. Randall, 5 E Pre_sidentfs House, 5 _E _ H4. Rig House, 4 E Srmthsomnn Inshtntxon, 5 F A Bnltamore and Ohio R. R., } F 15. Sr, 518m”, 4 F Soldiers’ Home, ‘2 D N. J. Ave. and C St... N. W. 4 ‘16, shoyeham, 4 E State War, and Nury Depts., B Pemuylu R- R Sgtem, ) 4 11. Willnrd’a, 4 E 5 B and Sixth Sts., . W. I F Treangy Dept., 4 E Pennsylvnnh R. R. Chul-elleg, U. S. avnl Observatory 5 C Chesapeake and Ohm Railway Washington Barracks wid ar- Philn, Wilmington & Ba-lt. R. R. H8. Ascension Epim, 4 E aennl), 5 G Southern Railway ll9. Falvary, apt., 4 E ‘Vuhington Monument, 5 E st b t L d II-ipiphany, Lpm, 4 :34 E 1 enm 03 an In _ . wstkon e lions , 7 ea‘ 9-}. First Presgl: gnan, 4 F cemeteries‘ ~ ' : ~ 0 Seventh “ hnrf, 5 F ~23. Garfield fiemorial, Cbriatinn, ' /9_ 2 ' _ " Alexandria, Va. 4 [5 Arlington, VL (Nat‘onnl\, 6 D I ‘ / 1 , Mt Vernon, Va. ‘24. Metro olitan,Meth.,4 1-‘ ‘ Congressional 3 H Rrm klr/ml - 1 ‘ Steamboate for Baltimore. 1303- 25. Mt. ernon, Meth., 4 E 1 Glenwood 9 i , 0 [,';|“,v_7'~ily 5m,‘ V ‘ ton, New York Norfolk Old ‘26, St. Aloysius, R. l'., 3 F Graceland. 2‘ G we , , , , » Point Coznforl, Va.. and f-mm. 21. St. Augustine, R. C., 4 E Harmonia, 2 F ':-,,aCathoIw Un/versllv ‘ 4 have landmgs in this vicinity '28. St. Dominick 5,11. c., s F Mt. Olivet, 2 F \-9 of Anmr/'ca,“'\_>/1 ' 29. St. John's, Epi.s., 4 E on mu. 5 C ‘J 7 . Hotels. so, st. Manhew';, R, (3,, 4 D ‘ Prospect Hill 2 E Rock Lreek élntionfl), 1 C 1: 2‘I1l::1'g:0é1, 4 E Public Buildings, Etc. . Cha.rnber1in's, 4 E ‘31. Army Medical Museum, 6 F Principal Pnrln, Etc. . Cochran,_4 E Cgpilolfll F I . . Congresswnnl, 4 F Central Market, 4 F Bctnmc Garden, 4 F . Ebbmtt House, 4 E Congresional Library, 4 F Garfield, 4 G - Hflfrlfl, 4 E 139. Corcoran Art Gallery, old. 5 E ‘ I-lnnccck Place, Seventh St. and 8. .\letropolit.sn 4 F 33. Corcoran Art Gallery, new, 5 El Pa Ave., 4 F 9. National, 4 1-‘ Agricultural Dept, 5 F ‘ Judiciary, 4 F ‘~; 10. No'rmmdm,4 E (Tonrt-house, 4 1- l..af:15-ette, 4 E 1 11- P 58:8 4 E Fish Commission, 4 F Lincoln 3 G \ 19- gil, 4 5 House where Pres Lincoln died. Mall, flue, 5 F 4 E ‘ President’: (in rear of White Louise Home, 4 D House]. 5 E 0 Manna Barracks. 4 G Rock Creek, 2 B Masonic Temple, 4 E Seaton, 4 F National Museum, 5 F Seward. 4 G Naval Hospital, 4 G Sheridan Place, Pa. Ave. andE ‘ Navy-yard, 4 G St., bet. Thirteenth und Four- ' OBEDALE ‘L ‘< Northern Liberty Market, 4 E teenth Sts., 4 E -1 ,/ ' 36. Odd Fellows Hull. 4 F Smithsonian, 5 F ' H‘. Columbia _ .. I : ‘’;31SH‘ER\V Patent Ofice, Dept of Interior, Soldiers’ Home, 9 D '1 ~ . 4 E Sumon 3 F -- for ".‘-'-- 1- '7 . / J9 "/‘ 1‘ Pension Ofice 4F Wash'n‘ n (Monument -T‘ Deaf and f_f; 141;; - 5 '4 (4 Pogeomee, néw, 4 E Grolnngdtg). 5 E '1 Q; f‘~‘ Poet-Ofliee Dept., 4 F Zoological, 4 C ' -Q , _ - ' ‘9 '<'’ 4'32 15* *~$-M Washing ‘/gm Q ' --‘$8,,’ >*Al7)7S_I'Irn££'r.— . v Q‘ 1 )‘\i'i‘;'I}r6£1x '~ Q ‘ ' ‘I Ar\~ ‘ \ c).'1ai1?1\;1.1l*:§\’n V BARK \ In smRIcAx'\\‘.'f-’-_ . IVERSIT Y [HEIGHTS ‘ 4 \\ \ p D 0 unvcnt b r _. ‘ ' ‘ Q r _r ' 4 dz? IWRHGHO :3 Q ,_=:I:- - lg at J , x I 4 _lf\\‘ 4 I . ‘ _ V‘, __ I ‘- 6"» roum \ ¢ 6* -51 - r- \ ‘ > >_ “ ~E:;l~sANé‘: Q < ov $00 4 N _ ‘V V Y‘ L ‘ ‘. \ W‘ _ V ‘ i PA]/ISADES 1' \;Q' 0*“d:>4l"6 4 . V _V > 2 E ’ ‘ _ \ J U r V ,1 orrnl e , 7 _ - ~ I ,, ‘ '-~' 7 \-r ' " " M": M I Ggozggtowng V J ‘ V r V- 7 J ‘ ‘Q - - ‘ ~ Colleges and Unlvenltla -Q29 ' __ University. ‘ _ 7 ‘A “ >r 7, ‘ , ' ‘‘ American Univereity,5 A Cafirolic University of Amer- ica, I E Columbian Institution for Deaf and Dumb 8 F Columbian lfniversity. 4 E Eoisco al Cathedral, Founda- tion Ate, 4 C Georgetown Unlversih-, 6 C Gonngn C 11 . 8 F ' Howard Uzilvfiity, 3 D Theaters 37. Academy of Music, 4 F 88. Bijou Theater, 4 F 89. firms! Qpga-House_ 1;;-I Scale of Miles ‘ 40- man ! mum 4 D 41. La§a_vette Park (‘pen-House, , ' , .\ “ E A ' 49. Metzerott mu 4 E 43. New National ’r1mm, 4 E '1 T‘ '- G ‘ ,v‘a :"" 3-0; I it B J WASHINGTON the Potomac of 4 miles, and on the Anacostia, or Eastern Branch of the Potomac, of 31- miles. The area amounts to 6,111 acres, of which the Government reservations comprise 405 acres, while the avenues and streets embrace 2,554 acres, leaving only 3,152 acres to the squares on which private resi- dences are built, which greatly conduces to the public health by the large open spaces and abundant ventilation in every quarter. There are 301 parks or reservations in all, varymg from a few hundred square feet to 82 acres. The principal are Washington Park (Monument Grounds), President’s _Park (in rear of the White House), Smithsonian Park, Judiciary Park, Garfield Park, and Lincoln Park. The site of the city of Washington is admirably adapted by nature for the building up of an attractive and imposmg city. Situated in part on the tongue of land lymg at the confluence of two broad rivers, from which the ground rises in natural and not abrupt ridges into the expanded plateau of Capitol Hill, about 100 feet above the Potomac, the sur- face of the city presents a gentle undulation which gives variety and constant transition of prospect, without produc- ing any obstructions to travel. The city proper IS sur- rounded on the E., N., and W. by an amphitheater of well- wooded hills, embracing in some cases the ancient forest- growth of tall timber, which was but partially cut_ off or burned on the Maryland side (as on the Virginia) durmg the ravages of civil war. Viewed from the vantage-ground of the Capitol dome, or from the Washington Monument, the environs of Washington present a landscape of rare beauty and varied effect. The near view includes the mass of the city, thickly covered with dwellings, stores, and shops, inter- sected by the two great arteries of Pennsylvania Avenue, running to the Treasury, and Maryland Avenue, running westward to the Potomac. At frequent intervals through the perspective of roofs rise the tall spires of churches and the massive white marble and granite edifices of the various Government buildings. Turning westward, the bright broad current of the Potomac—nearly a mile wide opposite the Capitol—sweeps southward, while there comes in on the left, 621 The latter little city, with its houses. churches, and ship- ping lying along the harbor, 7 miles below Washington, is clearly visible, and the river is dotted with the sails of river- craft and with steamers plying up and down. To the N. W., over the roofs of the Executive Mansion and the buildings of the State, War, and Navy Departments, rise the lofty and picturesque heights of Georgetown, attaining. just outside the borders of the District of Columbia, a height of some 400 feet above the level of the sea. To the N. are seen the buildings of Howard University, crowning Seventh Street hill, and beyond, the tower of the Soldiers‘ Home, a free refuge for the disabled soldiers of the army, comprising a beautiful park of 500 acres in extent. It was this compre- hensive view which drew from Baron von Humboldt the re- mark, as he stood on the western crest of Capitol Hill and surveyed the scene, “I have not seen a more charming pano- rama in all my travels.” The Capital, the most conspicuous object in Washington, is constructed in the purely Classic style, with a center and two projecting wings of great extent, and is ornamented on the east front with sixty-eight Corinthian columns. The length of the Capitol is 751 ft. 4 in. ; breadth, 121 to 324 feet, covering 3% acres. From the central building springs a lofty iron dome 135% feet in diameter, and containing 8,009,200 lb. of cast and wrought iron. The apex of the dome is sur- mounted by a lantern 15 feet in diameter and 50 feet high, crowned by a bronze statue of Liberty, the height of which is 19% feet. The total height. from the base of the Capitol to the crest of the statue is 2851} feet. The advantageous position, great architectural mass, and harmonious and im- posing eifect of the Capitol from most points of view have secured for it the almost unanimous praise of the best judges of all countries as the most impressive modern edifice in the world. The material of the central building is Virginia freestone; that of the wings is white marble from Massa- chusetts; while the fiuted marble columns are from Mary- land. The total expenditure upon the Capitol for erection, extension, and repairs has been a little over $15,000,000. Executive Mansion (1 hite House). joining its broad stream at Green1eaf’s Point (on which the Government arsenal is situated), the deep current of the Ana- costia. To the S., on the heights beyond the Eastern Branch, is seen the long mass of the Government insane asylum building. On the Virginia shore rises a long forest-clad range of hills, amid which may be discerned Arlington Heights, with its pillared edifice erected by George \Vashington Parke Custis, now occupied by the Government, and the National Cemetery or city of the dead, where 15,000 Union soldiers are interred, While the s wire of Fairfax Seminary, 6 miles dis- tant, rises above the orizon in the direction of Alexandria. The first Capitol was erected on the same site, the corner-stone laid by George Washington Sept. 18, 1793. Before its comple- tion the building was destroyed by the British in 1814. The present central structure dates from 1818 (completed 1827), and the extension or wings from 1851. The cornerstone of the Capitol extension was laid July 4, 1851. and the Hall of Re are-sentatives, in the south wing, was first occupied in 1857, an the Senate Chamber in the north wing in 1859. The work was continuously prosecuted during the civil war, until the statue of Liberty crowned the summit on Dec. 12, 1863. The rotunda is the central attraction of the Capitol, and 622 is 96 feet in diameter by 180 feet in height to the canopy of the dome above, on the concave interior of which is a mam- moth fresco by Brumidi representing allegorical and his- torical subjects. The eight panels surrounding the rotunda are adorned by historical paintings, four of which are by Trumbull, representing the Declaration of Independence, the surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga, the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, and \Vashington resigning his commission as commander-in-chief in 1783. The best em- bodiment of the sculptor’s art in the external decorations of the Capitol is the group by Thomas Crawford on the east front of the Senate wing. This represents the progress of civilization in the U. S. The great bronze doors by Ran- dolph Rogers which adorn the east front entrance of the Capitol represent in sculptured alto-rilievo events in the discovery of America and the life of Columbus. while the similar doors in bronze, the main entrance to the Senate wing, designed by Thomas Crawford, represent Revolu- tionary battles and prominent civic events in the history of the country. The Senate Chamber, in the north wing, is 113 by 81 feet, with seats for 88 Senators, the galleries furnishing room for 1,000 spectators. Staircases of white and colored marble run from the basement to the Senate galler- ies. The long apartment in the rear of the Senate Chamber known as the Marble Room is constructed wholly of marble, the ceiling resting upon four Corinthian columns of Italian marble, while the walls are of variegated Tennessee marble highly polished. Adjoining the Marble Room is the Presi- dent’s Room. The south wing of the Capitol is occupied by the House of Representatives and its offices. This is the largest legislative chamber in the world, 139 feet by 93 feet. The galleries accommodate about 1,500 persons, while the floor affords ample space for 360 members, each provided with a writing-desk. The Library of Congress occupies the West projection of the central building, and contains over 700,000 volumes. The law department of the library is in the basement of the Capitol. It has 90,000 volumes, in- cluded in the above. The Supreme Court-room and otfices occupy the old Senate Chamber, in the central building, and rooms adjacent. The old hall of the House of Representa- tives is in the form of a semicircle, surrounded by columns of variegated marble. This hall was devoted in 1864 to the purposes of a national memorial hall, each State to con- tribute statues of two of its most distinguished citizens. The States which have already furnished statues are the six New England States, New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and Illinois. In this hall, too, is the fine piece of sculpture by Franzoni representing the Muse of History on the winged car of Time, with a clock recording the hours. The Capitol contains, besides these, the historical paint- ings in the rotunda, and the frescoes, a considerable nu1n- ber of works of art of various merit. At the head of the grand staircase W. of the House is Leutze’s large painting representing an emigrant train crossing the Rocky Moun- tains. A corresponding panel E. of the House holds Car- penter’s picture of the signing of the emancipation procla- mation. Powell’s picture of Perry’s victory on Lake Eric is at the head of the eastern staircase in the Senate wing. Two paintings of scenery on the Colorado and Yellowstone by Thomas Moran are in the corridor to the E. of the Sen- ate gallery. Statues of Franklin and Jefferson by I-Iiram Powers, and of Hancock, Hamilton, and Baker, by Horatio Stone, are among the decorations of the Capitol. Marble busts of all the Vice-Presidents are to be placed in the Sen- ate chamber. The Electoral Commission, a group of his- torical portraits by Mrs. Fassett, is also exhibited. The Neiu Congressional Librarg building occupies a square of about 10 acres just E. of the Capitol. It is built of white New Hampshire granite, three stories high, in the Italian Renaissance style, the four-corner pavilions and cen- tral front being moderately projected, with forty ornate pil- lars and capitals. The dimensions are 470 by 340 feet, the building covering 3% acres. The central feature of the in- terior is the reading-room, an octagonal or nearly circular hall 100 feet in diameter, its walls decorated with numerous beautiful arches of richly carved marbles, harmonious in tone and color. The book repositories opening out from the reading-room are filled with iron cases or stacks, ac- commodating 2,000,000 volumes, the ultimate capacity of the whole library building being 4,500,000. There are four great inner courts lined with white enameled brick. and the number of windows exceeds 2,000, rendering this the best- lighted library in the world. Copyright record-rooms, con- VVASHINGTON gressional reading-rooms, a lecture-hall, an extensive map- room, and an art gallery of large dimensions, are other features of the building. Numerous statues of men eminent in literature and science and emblematic mural decorations in oil painting and fresco are in the interior. The Treasury Department, at Fifteenth Street and Penn- sylvania Avenue, is an imposing granite edifice in Ionic style, 468 feet by 264, and cost $6,000,000. The great building of the State, War, and Navy Depart- ments is a massive pile of granite architecture in Italian Renaissance style, 567 by 471 feet, and with 4 facades, look- ing to the E., W., N ., and S. respectively. The total cost of the building was about $10,000,000. The Department of the Interior, best known as the Patent- oflice building, occupies the entire square between F and G Streets, from Seventh to Ninth. This building is of se- verely simple though massive proportions, the architecture being pure Doric, modeled after the Parthenon, 453 by 831 feet, with an elevation of 75 feet. In it are located, besides the Patent-oifice, which occupies the larger portion of its 191 rooms, the Indian office and the offiee of the Public Lands, together with the offices of the Secretary of the In- terior. Cost, $2,700,000. The Post-ofiice Department is immediately opposite the Patent-office. It is of Maryland marble, 300 feet long by 204 wide, in pure Corinthian architecture. Cost, $1,700,000. The Department of Agriculture occupies a large brick building with brownstone trimmings, in Renaissance style, 170 by 61 feet, adjoining the Smithsonian Institution. The U. S. Naval Observatory is on Georgetown Heights, its white marble buildings being in the purely Classic style. The great equatorial telescope, with an object glass of 26 inches, cost $47,000. The Army .Medical Museum building, at the corner of Seventh and B Streets, S. W., contains the hospital rec- ords of the U. S. army in over 10,000 MS. volumes, and a vast assemblage of curious and instructive specimens repre- senting the effects upon the human body of wounds, morbid conditions, surgical operations, etc. The library of the surgeon-general’s office, here deposited, about 100,000 vol- umes, is by far the most complete medical collection ever gathered. The Washington Narg-yard, established in 1804, occupies 27 acres on the Anacostia river at foot of Eighth Street, about a mile S. E. of the Capitol. This yard, now disused for the construction of naval vessels, is an important dépét for the manufacture of ordnance. The President’s house—known also as the Executive Mansion, and popularly called the White Housc—is on Pennsylvania Avenue, occupying a reservation of about 20 acres, midway between the Treasury and the Departments of State, War, and Navy. It is a plain edifice of frcestone ainted white, 170 by 86 feet, with a colonnade of eight onic columns in front and a semicircular portico in the rear. The grounds are adorned with fountains, flowers, and shrubbery, and form a pleasing retreat in the midst of buildings devoted to commercial and public business. The building is adorned by excellent portraits of the ex- Presidents of the U. S. The largest apartment, known as the East Room, is 80 by 40 feet in dimensions, and 22 feet high. The adjoining Blue Room, an apartment finished in blue and gold, is devoted to receptions, diplomatic and social. The Green Room and Red Room (so called from their furnishings) are each 30 by 20 feet. The rooms of the second floor are occupied by the executive ollice and the President’s secretaries, together with apartments for the presidential family. The first President’s house, begun in 1792, was occupied by President Adams in 1800, and was burned by the British army in 1814. The present edifice was constructed 1818-29. The Fine Arts.—Henry K. Brown’s fine bronze eques- trian statue of Gen. Winfield Scott, erected in 1874, occupies the circle at the intersection of Massachusetts and Rhode Island Avenues on Sixteenth Street. Ball’s bronze statue, in Lincoln Park, emblematic of Emancipation. represents Abraham Lincoln freeing a slave in chains. Greenough's marble statue of Washington, classical in style and colossal in size, is immediately before the east front of the Capitol. Many other bronze statues, of various merit, of military and naval heroes, are located in the public reservations. The finest, as awork of art, is the statue of La Fayette in Lafayette Square, opposite the White House. The only public insti- tution devoted exclusively to the fine arts is the Corcoran Gallery of Art, on Pennsylvania Avenue and Seventeenth ..q E ~ 3 A ; HM a .. Q. .. _§m_~..W~ ~23 Om._.¢:o__ < Mod. Germ. wespe; cf. Lith. wa/pea, gad- fly: Lat. respa, wasp, and Fr. gaejae, from H. H. Germ. wespe] : any one of a large num- ber of hymenopterous insects (see ENTOMOLOGY) which are all essentially similar in the posses- sion of a sting of no mean ca- pacity at the end of the abdo- men of the female. They have strong biting jaws, and the ab- domen is either joined to the thorax by its whole breadth or by a slender pedicel. They may be separated from all other stinging H'ymeno])2.‘e1'a (Aeuleata) by the absence of a kink or “knot” in the pedicel of the abdomen (which occurs in the ants), and by the cylindrical first joint of the hind foot or tarsus (which in the bees is expanded into a “bas- ket” for carrying pollen). There are two well-marked groups of wasps. each containing many species : (1) The digger wasps, in which the wings are not folded when at rest, and (2) the true wasps, in which they are folded. In the first, of which there are several families, the female usually constructs nests for the young by excavating holes in the earth or in wood, and in them she lays her eggs. The diggers are all solitary in habit—i. e. each female works by herself in the nest-making. In the nest she stores up food in the shape of insects, which she paralyzes, but does not kill, with her sting. On these the larva feeds until ready to go through its transformations. Each species has its pecul- iar habits in this respect, some storing the nests with spiders, Common wasp (Vespa vul- garis). Nest of paper-making wasp. others with beetles, others still with caterpillars. Compara- tively little is known of the habits of the American species in these respects. To the digger wasps also belong the mud- daubers, which make nests of clay in barns, garrets, etc. Among the true wasps are some with all the habits of the WASTE diggers, boring in wood or earth, or making mud nests, each female working alone in this respect; while others are so- cial in habits, and in the colonies of these forms we find, as in the ants and bees, males‘, females, and workers, the males alone being stingless. Most of the work is done by the workers, who build the nests either attached to the caves of buildings or to trees, or concealed in the ground. The best known of the true wasps are the “ yellow-jackets ” or hornets, which construct the well-known large paper nests. The pa- per is obtained by tearing up weathered wood and mixing it with saliva, the whole forming a veritable wood-pulp paper. The cells are arranged in combs much as in the case of the honey-bee. No food is stored up, however, and the adults feed the growing young on masticated insects which they have captured. Males and workers die in the autumn, while the females pass through the winter to form new colonies in the spring. L1'rER.ATUR.E.—For species, etc., see papers by Packard (Proe. Entomol. Soc. (vol. vi., Philadelphia, 1866); Cresson, (Transact. Entom. /800., Philadelphia, 1882-83, 1887); Sausson, 1853-75. For habits, see Lubbock’s Ants, Bees, and Wasps (New York, 1882). J . S. KINGSLEY. Waste: any injury to real property committed by a ten- ant for life or for years to the prejudice of the reversioner or remainderman. This injury was punishable at common law by Writ of Waste, instituted“‘ by him that had the im- mediate estate of inheritance,” or it could, in a proper case, be restrained by an action in Chancery. At the present time the proceeding in Chancery, extended so as to cover an award of damages already sustained by the owner of the inheritance, has generally completely superseded the com- mon-law remedy, the technical action of waste having been abolished in England and most of the U. S. In some of the States a statutory action at law has been substituted for the old writ of waste (see, e. g., the New York Code of Civil Proce- dure, 1651-1659), without, however, derogating from the jurisdiction of the equity tribunals. The doctrine of waste was a necessary corollary of the common-law doctrine of estates in land. (See the articles ESTATE and PROPERTY.) It will be remembered that there was at common law no such thing as an absolute owner- ship of lands by any subject, but only an estate, or interest, for a definite or indefinite period of time. So far as the term owner was applicable to any holder, or tenant, of lands, it belonged to a tenant for life as well as to a tenant in fee simple, and so long as the present owner (the particular tenant) was in possession, the future owner (reversioner or remainderman) was a stranger to the land, and could main- tain no action at law or in equity with reference to it. He was, therefore, in theory at least, wholly without protection against the wasteful use of the tenement by the particular tenant. Just as a tenant in fee simple may devastate his property, leaving it to descend in a wasted and ruinous con- dition to his heir, so might a tenant for life or for years, upon the expiration of his estate, transmit the land to his successor denuded of everything that rendered it a valuable acquisition. It was to remedy this anomalous consequence of the common-law theory of property in land that the doctrine of waste was devised. It was in its origin apparently a crea- tion of the courts of common law, as a lnnitation on cer- tain classes of life estates, which were themselves created by that law. As the estates known by the description of guardianship in chivalry, tenancy by the courtesy, and ten- ancy in dower, arose without the act or consent of the pre- ceding owner of the fee, it was deemed just that the law which created them should also protect the heir against the abuse or destruction of the inheritance by such intervening tenant. The doctrine of waste as thus employed was by the Statute of Marlborough (52 Henry III., A. D. 1267) extended to tenants for years. (1278) by the Statute of Gloucester, which gave a writ of waste against any tenant for life or for years, fixed the dam- ages at “thrice so much as the waste shall be taxed at,” and punished the wasting tenant by forfeiture of his estate. Starting from this legislation the doctrine of waste was elaborated by the courts into a body of minute and, some- times, technical rules. Waste was of two kinds——voluntary and permissive. Voluntary waste was such as was caused by the active misconduct of the tenant; permissive, such as resulted from his passive negligence. Cutting down timber trees, tearing down or altering buildings, opening new mines and quarries, and the like, are examples of the for- This statute was followed in 6 Edw. I.- WATCH mer; while merely suffering buildings and fences to become dilapidated or out of repair, or orchards to become decayed, or fields to become overrun with weeds and briers from lack of proper cultivation, are illustrations of the latter. But it was at common law as unequivocal an act of waste to build a new house or to alter and improve an old one. as to de- stroy a portion of the inheritance. To redeem waste land, or to convert woodland or meadow into arable land, or vice versa, were equally wasteful acts. The destruction of build- ings by accidental fire or by the act of an incendiary was waste, but if a house “fall down by tempest, or be burned by lightning, or prostrated by enemies [i. e. the public enemy], or the like, without a default of the tenant, or was ruinous at his coming in and fall down,” it is no waste. The law of waste remains at the present time substantially as above set forth, although it has in its more technical ap- plications been considerably modified, both in England and in the U. S. Thus it is generally provided by statute that a tenant for years shall not be compelled to suffer the con- sequences of a destruction of the premises by fire for which he was in no wise to blame, and in the U. a tenant may generally make such changes in the use and character of farming land as are deemed to be a proper and husbandlike treatment of the land in question, or, if the waste alleged is an unauthorized improvement of the premises, he may jus- tify by showing that he has thereby actually and materially benefited the inheritance. The jurisdiction of the common- law tribunals has from a very early period been supple- mented by equity in restraining and punishing acts of van- dalism by a tenant which did not come within the technical description of waste. Of this character was the destruction of shade and ornamental trees, which were not timber trees, and the excessive and wasteful use of his privileges by a tenant who held his lands “ without impeachment of waste." The term timber was ordinarily confined to the three va- rieties of trees usually employed for building purposes— namely, oak, ash, and elm—although in some parts of Eng- land, where proper timber was scarce, beeches and some- times other trees were included under that designation. It is to the doctrine of permissive waste as thus developed at common law that we owe the familiar rule of law which throws upon the tenant the burden of making all ordinary repairs to the premises occupied by him. Strictly speaking, the tenant can not be called upon to make repairs, nor is he liable in damages for his failure to do so. But as the deterioration or destruction of the premises subjects him to the harsh consequences of an action for waste, and as his only defense to such an action is to show that he has re- paired the waste, he chooses the lesser hardship in keeping the premises in repair. The liability for waste, which was at common law confined to tenants for life and for years, has in recent years been extended by statute or judicial legislation to cover the acts of mortgagors and mortgagees in possession, of tenants in common, and of the vendor and vendee, respectively, under a contract for the sale of land. It is a confusion of the subject to refer the similar liability of a tenant at will (known as his liability for voluntary waste), as well as that of a tenant at suiferance, and of per- sons unlawfully in possession of lands, to the law of waste, instead of trespass, where they belong. Devastation by trustees, executors, and judgment debtors, as well as by owners of the fee whose estates are subject to executory limitations (see TENURE), while not coming within the de- scription of waste, will yet be enjoined as such by the courts of equity. See LANDLORD AND TENANT. Consult also the (70'mmen- tmies of Blackstone and Kent; McAdam on La/ndiord and Tenant; Taylor on Landlord and Tenamf: Williams on Real Property; and the Amcricaln and Elnglislt Encyclo- pceclia 0 f Law, title lVaszfe. GEORGE W. Kincnwny. Watcli [deriv. of watch, hour of the night, period of time occupied by soldiers, etc., on duty < 0. Eng. mecce, watch- ing, watch, deriv. of 'z0a.can,, wake] : a timepiece designed to be worn or carried on the person, as distinguished from a clock, which is a stationary timepiece. (See CLOCKS.) IVhile to some extent the principles of the mechanism of clocks and watches are identical, yet there a.re radical differences in construction. It is evident that the employment of weights and pendulums is applicable only to stationary timepieces; but the equivalent of the weight has been found in the coiled spring, and the vibrating balance-wheel has been found to answer the purpose of the vibrating pendu- lum, when supplemented by the action of the hair-spring, 683 which, like the force of gravity in the case of the pendulum, is:E constantly striving to bring the moving balance to a state 0 rest. De.s-crz'ptvJon of ca VVatch.—A complete watch is made up of two parts—the case and the movement. The latter con- sists principally of a train of gear-wheels and pinions, mounted between two metallic plates, commonly of brass or nickel alloy, in which the arbors of the wheels and pinions are journaled or pivoted. For symmetry of form and con- venience in construction, as well as in practical use, this train of gearing is arranged as compactly as possible, and FIG. 1.—Arrangement of time-train of a 5’;-plate, open-face, pendant- setting watch. somewhat circular in form. (See Fig. 1.) Except for these reasons, however, the several members of the train could be located in a straight line, as shown in Fig. 2. At the right- hand extremity of this train is a large box.-like wheel, con- taining the coiled mainspring (a ribbon of carefully tempered steel. from about 12- to 24 inches long), which serves as a medium for storing the physical energy or force exerted by the individual who winds the watch. In the ordinary form of construction the inner end of this spring is attached to the barrel arbor, while the outer end is connected to the barrel itself: the spring is wound up by turning the barrel arbor, and is prevented from immediately unwinding by a ratchet on the arbor, the teeth of which are engaged by a pawl or click attached to some stationary portion of the watch. In its efforts to relieve itself from the stress caused by the winding process, the action of the spring is to turn the in- closing barrel. the gear-teeth of which mesh into the center pinion, the next member of the train. In modern watch- es, as ordinarily constructed, this second member is located FIG. 2.—Watch time-train arranged in a straight line : From right to left in order, the members are (1) the barrel; (2) center wheel and pinion ; (3) third wheel and pinion ; (4) fourth wheel and pinion ; and (5) escape-wheel and pinion. in the center of the circular watch-plates. and upon its axis is fixed the minute-hand. Fixed to the staff or arbor of the center pinion is a wheel, technically known as the center wheel, which meshes into the third member of the train. called the third pinion. To this pinion is also aflixed a wheel called the third wheel, which in like manner meshes into and gives motion to a fourth pinion and wheel. The fourth member of the train revolves at sixty times the speed of the center wheel and carries the second-hand. This in- crease of speed is obtained by the interposition of the third wheel and pinion, which also secures another desirable end —viz.. that of making the direction of the two members identical. 634 Although the minute-hand is mounted upon the axis of the second member of the train, it is not fixed directly to the staff, but upon the upper end of the cannon-pinion, so called from its having a long body, or hub, slightly sugges- tive of a cannon; and whereas the pinions in the time-train proper are integral with the staves or arbors, which are solid and pivoted at their ends, the cannon-pimon has an axial hole running its entire length, corresponding in size with the diameter of the projecting end of the center staff, upon which it is placed, being held by a sutlicient frictional contact to carry the pinion and hand, and still allow of movement upon the staff, for the purpose of setting the hands. On key-winding watches of “full plate” model, the upper end of this cannon-pinion is made square, and of the same size as the square end of the mainspring or barrel arbor, so that the same key may be used for both setting the hands and winding the mainspring. In 1nodern watches, commonly known as stem-winding watches, the hand-set- ting is performed by mechanism which may be thrown in gear with the stem at will, the same operation throwing the winding mechanism out of gear. It remains to consider the provision for the mounting and movement of the hour-hand. The teeth of the cannon- pinion are made to engage with the teeth of a little wheel which fits loosely upon a sta- tionary stud pro- jecting from the lower or pillar plate of the watch. The proportion in the number of teeth of this wheel and the cannon- pinion is ordi- naril y three to one. Rigidly atlixed to this wheel is a pinion, commonly called the minute-pinion, the wheel being designated as the minute- wheel. Upon the body or hub of the cannon-pinion is loosely fitted a wheel also having a projecting hub, upon the upper end of which is placed the hour-hand. The teeth of this wheel are made to engage the teeth of the minute- pinion before mentioned, their relative proportion being that of four to one, so that through the interposition of the minute wheel and pinion it will require twelve revolutions of the cannon-pinion, carrying the minute-hand, to produce one revolution of the hour-wheel, which carries the hour-hand. The E'scapement.—Witl1 only the time-train properly mounted, if the mainspring should be wound up, the effect would be to turn the mainspring barrel or wheel in which it is inclosed, which in turn would move the second wheel of the train, and it the third. and so on, each with increas- ing velocity, so that within perhaps a minute or two the various hands would have traversed their individual cir- cuits as many times as would be required for a complete day. It is evident that no attachment in the nature of a brake which should serve to reduce the speed of the wheel would be practicable, for two reasons—first, it would be im- possible to maintain a uniform degree of friction, and, sec- ond, because of the constantly diminishing force of the un- coiling spring. The device employed to secure a correct and uniform speed is called an ESCAPEMENT (g. 1).). The form which is now most commonly used, and which is probably, on the whole, the most satisfactory, is known as the cletctc/2,e(Z-lever escapement. To the fourth or last pinion of the time-train is attached a wheel meshing into a small pinion known as the escape-pinion, to which is made fast the escape-wheel, in form entirely unlike any of the wheels of the time-train. (See Fig. 4, 5, or 6.) This wheel has fifteen teeth, and of each tooth one side is straight, but not radial, so that these teeth form a series of hooks. It will also be observed that the tops of these teeth are also straight, but not tangential, forming a series of inclines. Pivoted at one side of this wheel is the pallet, a peculiar anchor-like piece, the arms or ends of which are turned inward, but at dilfering angles. The ex- tremities of these arms (also called pallets) are usually formed of some kind of precious stones, such as garnet, ruby, or sapphire, and are so placed that one or the other of them always slightly projects between some of the teeth of the escape-wheel so as to lock the escape-wheel and pre- vent its turning, which, of course, makes impossible the 4 ./—" “' __ ‘ ‘ll, l\\l“"1,l1“;‘\l§p . I "iiillli \“%\"W'i‘il nlillls" ‘L .. . _ , .\ U ._ _ M \ . A , . ' : >"(T/al.= . l WATCH movement of the time-train. If, however, the pallet should be rocked back and forth, causing the two extremities to alternate in looking the escape-wheel, one tooth of the latter would be allowed to escape at each oscillation, and therefore with the fifteenth oscillation the escape-wheel would com- plete one revolution. Evidently if this vibratory motion of the pallet could be continued at a correct and exactly uni- form rate, the entire mechanism could be made to operate as desired and the progress of time be accurately indicated. This result is accomplished by means of a balance-wheel, hair-spring, etc. In Fig. 3 is shown a balance-wheel mounted upon an arbor or stalf upon which is also placed a hair-spring. This spring is on the upper side of the balance, while below the balance is fixed a small disk, technically known as the roller, from the lower side of which, near the periphery, projects a small pin formed from a precious stone and called the roller-pin. The pivots of the balance-staff are made ex- ceedingly small and delicately finished, and are journaled in jewels of ruby and sapphire because of their special hard- ness, and, unlike the pivots of the time-train proper, are pro- vided with end-stones to receive the end thrust which in the other pivots is received by the shoulders of the staffs. The object of this form of mounting is to reduce the run- ning friction of the pivots to the smallest possible amount, and also to make it constant and uniform. The necessity for this extreme delicacy arises from the fact that the in- itial force given by the mainspring is small, and that only about TE-b--$55 of it can be exerted at each oscillation of the balance. From the pallet there extends back an arm, the extreme end of which has a semicircular hollow curve like the top of a crutch, in the center of which is a narrow slit. The balance-wheel is mounted in relation to this fork and the pallet and escape-wheel, so that their arbors are in a straight line, and so adjusted that when in position of rest the roller- pin above mentioned rests in the little slit in the hollow of the fork, with one of the arms of the pallet resting on the in- clined top of one of the teeth of the escape-wheel (Fig. 4). The slight turning of the escape-wheel (in clockwise revo- lution). however, on account of the transmitted force of the mainspring, causes the pallet to swing to one side, on account of the inclined top of the tooth, and the lever swing- ing also carries with it the roller-pin, so causing the bal- ance-wheel to turn, thereby creating a stress in the hair- FIG. 6. FIG. 4. spring. The motion of the pallet in this direction substan- tially ceases as soon as the teeth of the escape-wheel leaves it, but its movement is suillcicnt to swing the other arm of the pallet directly in front of another tooth of the wheel, and so further movement of the wheel is arrested (Fig. 5). Now the hair-spring asserts itself, and begins to turn the balance back to the point of rest. In so doing the roller- pin is again made to enter the fork, and with sufficient force to swing the lever and pallet in the opposite direction, thereby unlocking the teeth of the escape-wheel, which at once begins to turn, and, as before, the inclined top of the tooth gives an impulse to the swinging pallet (Fig. 6). Each movement of the pallet and fork gives a slightly in- creased arc of motion to the balance until the proper equi- librium is reached. It is evident that the strength of the hair-spring and the WATCH weight of the balance 1nust be properly related. This ad- justment is exceedingly delicate. In most modern watches the train is arranged so as to require 18,000 vibrations of the balance-wheel per hour, and a loss of only a single vibration each hour would be a loss of a trifle over 33 seconds per week. _The balance of the ordinary gentleman’s watch travels about 18 miles each twenty-four hours. The detached-lever escapement was the invention of Thomas Mudge about 1765, although several modifications in form of construction have been made. The form shown in Figs. 4, 5, and 6 shows the impulse action divided be- tween the pallets and the escape-wheel teeth. A favorite form of the wheel with English watchmakers has slender pointed teeth, and the im- pulse angles are entirely on the pallets. The Germans, on the other hand, make an escapement in which the pallets are simply round pins, and the impulse plane is entirely on the wheel- teeth. In the description of the action of the de- tached lever no mention was made of one important function of the roller viz., its use as a safety device. For greater safety double rollers are now used on the better grades of Waltham watches. Although the detached-lever escapement is the simplest and most reliable form, others are in use. The chronometer es- capement, invented by Pierre Le Boy in 1765, and improved by Earnshaw and Arnold about 1780, is used in ship or box chronometers, and by reason of its peculiar design is well adapted for timepieces which are not subjected to sudden and extreme changes of position. It is, however, sometimes applied to pocket watches of high grade. In the ordinary de- tached lever we have seen that each tooth of the escape-wheel acts first as a detent, and then to give an impulse to the bal- ance, through the intermediate agency of the pallet and fork and roller-pin, and also that this action takes place at each ex- cursion of the balance. In the chronometer escapement one of the teeth is held by a fixed spring detent, which is lifted by a little arm or dog attached to the balance arbor or stafi“. At the instant of the lifting of the detent and release of the escape-wheel tooth another tooth of the wheel imparts im- pulse to the balance through a second and longer arm or dog. This action takes place during the movement of the balance in one direction only. On the return movement of the balance the longer arm or dog passes between the teeth of the wheel, while the shorter arm is allowed to repass the detent by slightly deflecting a delicate spring, which rests upon a rigid seating, so as to resist pressure in the opposite direction. This form of escapement admits of some variety in arrangement and construction of the several parts. The dwplea; escapement? (patented about 1782 by Thomas Tyrer) possesses several features of similarity to the fore- going. It comprises an escape-wheel furnished with two sets of teeth in different planes, one set serving to impart the impulse -to the balance direct, while the other set act as detents, to arrest the movement of the time-train during the movement of the balance in one direction, and also during most of its return movement. A fourth form of escapement (invented by Booth and pat- ented in 1695) is known as the c_z/Zz'nrZer escapement, by rea- son of the construction of the balance arbor, which is much larger in its body portion than in other forms (Fig. 7). This middle portion is cylindrical in form, one side of it being cut away so that when turned to a certain position one of the peculiarly formed escape-wheel teeth which was resting on the periphery of the cylinder is allowed to escape and move in until it strikes the inner side of the cylinder on the opposite side (in its passage in, the tooth, by means of its inclined top, gives an impulse to the cylinder). The peculiar form of the tooth permits the cylinder partly to encircle it, and on the return movement of the cylinder the tooth passes out, and by means of its inclined top, or face. gives an im- pulse to the cylinder and balance in a direction opposite to its entering impulse. This form of escapement possesses the merit of compactness. and is therefore used b_v European makers, especially in small watches, but its nature and plan of operation preclude a high degree of accuracy. Demlces to Lesson FrI§0z‘t'on.—-'I‘l1e facts and conditions which have been described make it evident that the very FIG. 7.—Original cylinder escape- ment. 635 small amount of power available must be economized, so that the least possible portion of it shall be absorbed in friction. To insure this economy it is needful to have spe- cial regard to the construction and care of those portions of the mechanism where friction will be developed, viz., those parts which have a movable contact with each other; these points being the teeth of the wheels and pinions, the various pivots, and the parts of the escapement which slide one upon another. In forming the teeth of the wheels and pinions it is the practice to employ the epicycloidal curve, so that a rolling instead of a sliding contact may be ob- tained, and great pains are taken to produce a smooth and glossy surface on the pinion-teeth. The attempt is also made to proportion the teeth of the wheels to those of the pinions with which they act, so that no contact shall occur before the line of centers, the object being to avoid side thrust or pressure against the staff pivots. A further provision for reducing friction in the train, and at the same time for insuring greater durability, consists in the employment of jewels as hearings in which the vari- ous pivots revolve. The advantages gained result from the fact that it is possible to produce a smoother surface in a precious stone than can be made in brass or nickel. There is also secured a greater durability, by reason of the fact that particles of dust inevitably find their way into a watch. and, reaching the bearings, become imbedded in a softer metal, remaining to wear or cut away the moving pivots. This alone makes it necessary that watches should be care- fully cleaned at intervals not too prolonged. Adjus2fment.—VVatch movements of the higher grades are subjected to three kinds of adjustment, viz., adjustment to isochronism-—to make both long and short arcs of vibra- tion of the balance take place in identically equal intervals of time; adjustment to position—to put the movement in such condition that its time rate shall be constant in what- ever position it may be placed. or however often its position may be changed; and adjustment to varying temperature. For the adjustment to position the movement is tested in six positions, viz., dial up. dial down, and 12 up. down, right, and left. The most important adjustment. however, is that for varying temperature. This consists in certain simple manipulations of the balance to put it in such con- dition that it will automatically compensate for the other- wise disturbing effects of thermal changes. Besides the lengthening of the spring and the enlargement of the bal- ance, in accordance with the law of expansion of metals under the influence of heat. a much greater disturbance is caused by the loss of elasticity in the spring due to the in- crease of heat. It has been estimated that the loss per day from a change from 32° to 92° F. would be 6 minutes 33 seconds. To neutralize or overcome this difliculty, the best movements are provided with what are called compensation or expansion bal-ances—i. e. balances whose rims are com- posed of two metals in laminated form—the outer lamina being of an alloy of much higher expansibility than the inner. and so constructed that the thermic changes. which would otherwise greatly modify the speed, are made to pro- vide a means of correction. Compensating balances are ordinarily formed of steel, to which is carefully fused an encircling band of brass. The ratio of expansion of these two metals is indicated in Fi Mod. Germ. rwasser) : Icel. oatn : Goth. watri; of. O. Bulg. coda : Gr. iidwp : Sanskr. /addn; cf. Sanskr. ad-, to wet, Lat. em/da, water, wave, and Eng. wet]: a tasteless, inodorous, and transparent fluid, a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and represented by the chemical formula I-IQO. The impor- tance of its functions in the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, its peculiar properties, and the numberless uses made of it, consciously and unconsciously, by man make it worthy of the most attentive study. WATER Occmvence in N ature.——Water in the state of vaporis al- ways present in the atmosphere. On the one hand, this va- or is continually condensing to liquid water, which makes Its appearance as cloud, fog, or mist, as rain, snow, or hail, falling upon the earth’s surface, or deposits directly on cold solid surfaces as dew or frost. On the other hand, new sup- plies of vapor are continually entering the atmosphere by evaporation from surfaces of liquid water, as that of the ocean, from moist earth, and from the bodies of plants and animals. _ In the liquid state a vastly larger quantity of water 1s found, covering something like eight-elevenths of the earth’s surface with ocean, while less extensive bodies of this sub- stance present themselves as seas, lakes, rivers, and springs. Moreover, liquid water occurs to no small extent dflfused through soils and porous rocks, and forms a large part of the bodies of plants and animals. As a solid—ice—we find great masses permanently cover- ing the coldest parts of the surface of the globe, in the polar regions, and about the summits of the higher mountams, and temporarily extending to lower levels and more tem- perate regions during the colder portions of the year. Much of the ice found in largest masses represents high- ly compressed and consolidated snow; the slowly moving solid streams of this which descend valleys are known as glaciers, and the detached masses from the lower ends of these which reach the sea and float away, along with large masses of floating ice which has formed on the surface of the sea itself, are spoken of as icebergs and ice-floes ; these when they reach warmer regions melt and return to the liquid form. In much smaller quantity water is also encountered as a chemical constituent of minerals, such as gypsum, which sometimes form rock-masses. A rough calculation of the quantity of water known to exist on the earth’s surface in the three states of vapor, liquid, and solid is as follows: Millions of metric tons (of 1,000 kilog.). Total weight of water in the gaseous state existing in the atmosphere at any one time (on the basis of the average ten- sion of aqueous vapor of the Challenger observations), about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115,000,000 Total weight of liquid water on the sur- face of the earth, about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,255,'737,000,000 Total weight of solid water (ice) on the earth’s surface (probably a low esti- mate, especially as regards the extent of the south polar ice cap), about. . . . . 6,373,000,000 1,262,225,000,000 If this be stated, as respects distribution in the three phys- ical states, in the form of parts per million, we have— In the state of vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 In the state of liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994,860 In the state of solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,049 W The estimate of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere is doubt- less too high, being based on vapor-tension observations made at sea; possibly one-half or two-thirds might be taken to be nearer the truth. If but 30 inches of annual rainfall be assumed as the average for the earth’s whole surface, this will represent an annual distillation (and condensation as rain or snow) of about 387,000,000 millions of metric tons of water. See RAIN, Snow, HAIL, Ice and GLACIERS. Imporzfamf lVatwraZ lrluncflons of lVaz‘er.——The mobility of the particles of this, the only liquid substance occurring in nature in large quantity, renders it the vehicle for the application of mechanical energy on the grandest scale in modifying the earth‘s surface, cutting away and removing the solid material of the higher portions of the land, and sweep- ing such material down to lower levels or into the ocean, of which the coasts are altered by water-currents; while the ex- pansion of water in freezing disintegrates rocks and soils, and ice itself plays its part as an abrasive and shares in the transport of solid matter from place to place. (See GEOL- oev). The mechanical effect of the expansion of water in freezing is observable also in the disruption of the tissues of living plants, and the pulpy condition of animal flesh which has been frozen, leading to speedy putrefaction. Water is peculiarly fitted by some of its special physical roperties to serve also as the vehicle for the distribution of eat. As aqueous vapor in the atmosphere, as liquid water 637 in the ocean and in lakes, and as changing its state by freez- ing or melting, evaporating or condensing, its influence is of the highest importance in maintaining In general. and, under special conditions of season and weather, of modify- ing the distribution of heat on the earth’s surface, and de- termining the climate of its various parts. (See l\IETEoaoL- oer). A like part is played by the same substance in our own bodies, conveying heat from the seats of its development to the parts where it is dissipated, dissipating it by evapora- tion from the skin and lungs, and maintaining the needful equilibrium of temperature. The relations of water as a solvent of great and varied power both for solids and gases give it still ‘further the character of the restless agent of change in nature. The permanent gases of the atmosphere are brought down in solution to do their work upon the mineral crust of the globe, and to perform a part of their duty in the maintenance of plant and animal life, while the rocks and soils of the land are leached by the water continually distilled over them as rain, part of the matter brought into solution serving for plant nutrition, and most of the remainder being borne to the ocean, on which it confers its saline character. As a chemical agent water is found changing feldspar and other minerals into clay, forming or modifying partic- ular metallic ores, taking part in the chemical processes of vegetable and animal nutrition, and aiding in the changes of putrefaction and decay by which the material of organ- ized structures is restored to the mineral forms from whence it came. Irzclztsfrial A]9]9Zicat'i0ns.—Beside the indispensable use of water for drinking, it is applied by man indirectly to endless purposes of utility and convenience. As a vehicle for mechan- ical energy in the work of the water-wheel, in hydraulic min- ing, in the mechanical separation of ores, as the means of making available in the steam-engine the potential energy of fuel, as the basis for transportation on the largest scale by ocean, lake, river, and canal, as the vehicle of heat dis- tributed by hot water or steam, as a solvent in metallurgy and the manufacture of chemicals. in brewing, distilling. dyeing, tanning, soap-making, in connection with pottery and the use of mortar and cement, and in a thousand other directions man’s work would stop were he deprived of this material. See \VATER-POWER, HYDRAULICS, Hvnaosramcs, HYDRAULIC ENGINES. STEAM-ENGINE, WATER-WHEELS. etc. Process of completely Pum'_fy’1.'9z g l\Ia2‘u'raZ lVa1‘er.-—\Vater is never found pure in nature; it always contains in solu- tion varying quantities of foreign solids and gases. If we desire to examine its properties in the pure state, either these foreign substances, of which the particular character will be noticed further on, must be separated, or water itself must be artificially produced by chemical combination of its elements. The former method is generally used. Clear rain or spring water has added to it a small quantity of permanganate and hydroxide of potassium, is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, and is then slowly distilled from a vessel of block tin or tinned copper, in the upper part of which are perforated diaphragms to arrest any drops of liquid carried up, the steam being condensed in a tube of tin cooled from the outside. To separate traces of ammo- nia the condensed water is redistilled after having added to it a minute quantity of acid sulphate of sodium, and the va- por is now condensed in a tube of platinum. Finally. to expel dissolved air, the doubly distilled product is boiled down to two-thirds of its volume in a platinum vessel and allowed to cool in the vacuum produced by an air-pump. P/zyszlcal Properties of W afar in a Pure Sz‘a1‘e.——As seen at common temperature. water is a readily mobile liquid, transparent and colorless when in small quantity, but in mass appearing blue by transmitted light, without smell or taste. Its density at 4° C. (in England at 60° or 62° F.) is assumed : 1, and is made the common standard of compa- rison for the densities of other liquids and of solids. The mass of 1 cubic decimeter of water at 4° C. and under nor- mal pressure (760 mm.) : 1 kilog. One cubic inch of water at 673° F. and normal pressure (30 in.) : 252236 grains. Wa- ter yields but little to compression : each additional atmos- phere of pressure reduces its volume by '0000462- at about 18° C. It presents greater cohesion between its particles than any other liquid, and rises to a greater height in ca- pillary tubes. In the solid state water is also colorless. or in mass blue, and occurs crystallized in forms of the rhombohedral s_vs- tem. snow often forming six-sided stars produced by slender hexagonal prisms. If solid water (ice) at a temperature well 638 below its melting-point be heated, it expands like other solids, gaining in volume by about '000077 for 1° C., until it melts. The melting-point under normal pressure (760 mm.) is made the zero of the centigrade scale of the ther- mometer (32° on the Fahrenheit scale), but it is lowered by in- crease of pressure, at the rate of '0075° C. for each additional atmosphere; on this efiect of pressure depends the regela- tion of ice, two pieces at the melting-point uniting when pressed together and the pressure afterward relieved, or a large mass, as a glacier, changing its form under varying pressure. Clear water when at rest may be cooled several degrees below the normal melting-point without freezing, but agitation quickly causes the formation of some ice, and the temperature goes up to 0° C. The so-called latent heat of fusion of water is greater than that of any other substance; the heat required to melt 1 part of ice at 0° to water at 0° suffices to raise the temperature of 7925 parts of the water by 1°. Unlike most substances, ice in melting contracts, so that 1,000 parts by volume of ice produce but 917 parts of water ; hence ice floats upon water, and vessels or pipes completely filled with water are burst when the water freezes. If water at 0° be heated, contrary to the general rule, it contracts until the temperature of 4° C. (or, more exactly, 3'982°) is reached, but at that point begins to expand with increase of temperature, like most liquids, so that 4° C. is spoken of as the temperature of the maximum density of water. The existence of this point of maximum density in- volves a number of important consequences in the economy of nature. 1,000'122 volumes of water at 0° become 1,000 at 4° and 1000118 at 8°. Above 4° expansion continues at an increasing rate with increase of temperature : 1,000 vol- umes at 4° C. become 1,000'847 at 15°, 1,001‘731 at 20°, 1,004'25 at 30°, 1,007'70 at 40°, 1,011'97 at 50°, and 1,043'23 at 100°. The specific heat of water (i. e. the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 part of water by 1°) is greater than that of any other known single liquid, and increases as the temperature rises. Its value between 0° and 1° C. is taken as the unit of comparison for specific heat. The specific heat of ice is much less than that of liquid water—namely, about '504, and that of steam is still less, '369 under constant volume, or '4805 under constant pressure. Water evaporates at all temperatures, even when it exists as ice or snow, and into empty space or space occupied by air or other gases. The tension of the vapor formed increases as the temperature rises: at — 20 °C. it is equal to '9 mm. of mercury in the barometer, at 0° : 4'6 mm., at + 20° : 1’7'4 mm., at 50°: 92 mm., at 100° : 760 1nm. (this 760 mm. representing normal pressure: under it the temperature at which water boils is counted as 100° on the centigrade scale of the thermometer), at 150° : 3,581'2 mm., at 200° : 11,689 mm. The boiling-point of water with freely exposed sur- face being taken at 100° C. (or 212° F.) under normal pres- sure, is lower as the pressure is reduced and higher as the pressure is increased; it is practically affected by some other circumstances, as by the nature of the surface of the vessel in which it is heated. The critical temperature for water (at which it becomes a vapor under any pressure) is 370° C., the critical pressure being 196 atmospheres. The latent heat of vaporization of water is greater than that of any other substance ; the heat required to convert 1 part of liquid water at 100° into steam of 100° suffices to raise the temperature of 534 parts of water at 0° by 1°; this amount of heat becomes greater if the water be evapo- rated at lower and less if at higher temperature. In chang- ing to colorless, invisible vapor, water increases greatly in volume; 1 volume of liquid water at 100° produces under normal pressure 1,632 volumes of steam. The density of steam is nearly 9 as compared with hydrogen, or '625 as compared with air. Liquid water is a bad conductor of heat and electricity as compared with such substances as the metals. Heat sutficient to raise '154 milligrammes of water from 0° to 1° C. passes per second through a layer of water 1 mm. thick and 1 sq. mm. area with a difference of temperature of 1° be- tween the two surfaces. The electrical resistance of 1 mm. of water equals that of 40,000,000 km. of copper wire of same area. The index of refraction of light is for water of com- mon temperature about 1331. The absorption spectrum of water vapor is chiefly characterized by live groups of ab- sorption bands in the red and yellow. (/'71./mwlcr/.Z iVa2fme of 'Wa/ter.—From the earliest times water seems to have been generally looked upon as one of WATER the simplest or most elementary substances. Only in the sec- ond half of the eighteenth century was its true nature discov- ered, at about the same time that clear ideas began to be formed of the existence of chemical elements in the sense in which the word is now understood—that is, of substances which can not be decomposed or separated into dissimilar constit- uents. In 1781 Cavendish, experimenting on the changes undergone by common air in which substances are burned, showed that “inflammable air” (hydrogen), which was al- ready known and had been distinguished by him as a pecu- liar gas in 1766, when added to “ dephlogisticated air” (0.1;/zyg/en) formed an explosive mixture, which, fired by an electric spark, left as residue a “condensed liquor,” which was pure water. (See Cnenrsrnv.) In 1783 Watt, without making new experiments of his own, expressed the opinion that water is a compound of the two gases which we now call hydrogen and oxygen, and in the same and the follow- ing year Lavoisier and Meusnier prepared hydrogen from water by passing it as steam over heated iron, determined the quantity of hydrogen obtained, and the gain in weight of the iron by combining with the oxygen. The chief meth- ods used since have been the formation of water by explod- ing together hydrogen and oxygen (repetition, in more re- fined form, of Cavendish’s experiment), the decomposition of water by an electric current (producing from it hydrogen and oxygen as gases), and the formation of water by passing hydrogen over heated oxide of copper (weighing the water formed and finding the quantity of oxygen contained in it from the loss of weight of the metallic oxide). VVater is composed pretty nearly of 1 part of hydrogen united to 8 of oxygen by weight, and will yield 2 parts of gaseous hydrogen and 1 part of gaseous oxygen by volume, but there is still some question (of no small importance to the scientific chemist) as to the precise proportions. If Prof. Morley’s last determination of the volumes of hydro- gen and oxygen combining to form water—namely, 2'0002 : 1 —be adopted, along with Lord Raylcigh’s last determination of the density of oxygen--namely, 15'882—the composition of water by weight will be—- I-Iydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 atoms, 200 or 11'186 Oxygen... .... ... . . .. 1 atom, 1_§_'_8_8_ or 88814 1788 100-000 The molecular weight of water in the gaseous state is 1788, but for the liquid state the value may not improbably be double this, or even a higher multiple. Phg/sical Relations of Water to other S/abstances.—Solid substances which are not visibly “ wetted ” by water often retain it in a mechanically adherent state, as so-called hy- groscopic moisture, so that while dry to the touch they give off, on being gently heated, vapor which condenses to liquid water on cooling; this is specially noticeable in the case of porous substances, such as charcoal, seemingly dry earth, etc. Water acts as a solvent for a remarkably large number of solid and gaseous materials, and also dissolves or mixes with very many other liquids. N o substance is so useful in bringing to the liquid condition of a solution an immense variety of other materials without changing their chemical nature. In a large proportion of the most familiar liquids, such as blood, milk, wine, beer, vinegar, liquid ammonia, etc., water is really the chief substance present. The mo- bility of the particles of a dissolved solid and the condensa- tion into smaller space of a dissolved gas, which loses its elasticity, not only admit of such substances being easily carried from place to place with the solvent water, as in the flow of blood through arteries and veins, but also greatly increase the readiness with which such substances enter into chemical changes between themselves or with outside materials. Aqueous vapor is by some solids taken up from the air in such quantity that a solution of the solid gradu- ally forms, as in the case of common potash, which, when exposed to the air, runs down to a lye; such substances are said to deliquesce. See SOLUTION. When substances dissolve in water there is generally change of volume, most commonly contraction when the substances in question are solids or liquids, expansion when they are gases. Changes of temperature are also observed in connection with solution, the physical result of dissolv- ing a solid being lowering of temperature (most notable when the water is taken in the form of ice or snow, and itself becomes liquefied, as in the common mixture of ice and salt used to freeze ice-cream), while the solution of a gas, such as ammonia, produces rise of temperature. Fre- WATER quently there is evidence in the amount of heat given out or absorbed that chemical action is also going on, and it is often not easy to separate clearly its effects from those of simple solution. The presence of foreign substances in solution in water tends to lower the temperature at which the water freezes, so that sea-water, containing chiefly common salt, may be exposed to a temperature below 0° C. without any ice forming in it. When so far cooled that ice does form, this ice, if separated and melted, yields nearly pure fresh water, though it has been recently shown that it always retains a little salt in solid form, either entangled in or perhaps united to a portion of the water. The presence of foreign solids in solution tends, on the other hand, to raise the boiling-point ofwater, so that the latter may be heated much above 100° C. under normal pressure without boiling. Thus a saturated solution of saltpeter may be made the means of applying a temperature above 115°. C/rem/tcctl Relations of Water to other Substanees.— Water is so commonly employed to dissolve other materials, and hence as the vehicle by means of which they are brought to act upon each other, that the chemical action of the water itself, the formation of new portions of water by chemical interaction of other materials, or the disap- pearance of water the elements of which have formed new associations, may easily be overlooked, and in fact many of the errors of early chemistry are traceable to neglect of such facts. Chemical Oomponncls formecl by Water.—What are called h,y(lmtes are substances formed by the combination of water with some other materials, in definite proportions by weight and under conditions which suggest that the water itself re- tains its original chemical constitution. Thus if chlorine gas be passed into water but little above the freezing-point a solid compound _of chlorine and water separates out in pale-yellow crystals; this contains 27"?’ per cent. of chlo- rine. In like manner, at — 20° C. a crystallized compound of 46 parts of alcohol and 216 of water is produced. In many cases saline solutions on being cooled become con- centrated to a certain point by the freezing out of ice, and then the remaining solution (containing a definite amount of the dissolved saline substance) solidifies through- out to a crystallized mass; such masses are spoken of as eryohg/dmtes. In the case of common salt, 180 parts of water and 585 parts of salt solidify to a cryohydrate at about — 23° C. A large number of substances commonly seen in crystals permanent at common temperatures, such as alum, copperas, Rochelle salt, etc., contain definite amounts of water, known as water of crystallization, the presence of which is essential to the crystallized form and often to other properties of the substance, such as its color. There are, however, many crystallized substances which contain no water, and iii those which do contain it the amount present varies ; thus calcium sulphate crystallizes with 2 molecules of water, copper sulphate with 5 molecules, common iron sulphate with 7, sodium sulphate with 10. The same substance may assume different crystal forms by combining with different, but in each case definite, amounts of water; thus sodium sulphate forms crystals containing 10 molecules of water, or 7, or none at all. " Isomorphous ” salts contain the same proportion of water in the crystals. \Vater of crystallization is generally removed with ease by moderate heating, as in the preparation of plaster-of-Pr ris or stucco from gypsum; when the calcined plaster is mixed with liquid water the setting or hardening which soon afterward takes place is the result of recrystallization with the resumption of the orig- inal proportion of water. In heating crystallized salts it appears that definite fractions of the water present are retained with different degrees of tenacity. Some crystal- lized salts give off in fairly dry air more or less of their water of crystallization in the form of aqueous vapor, crumbling down in doing so, and are said to effloresce; common sal-soda, or crystallized sodium carbonate, used in washing, is an example of this. Chemical Changes e'nzi0lv/tug the Productzion of Water.— It has been already mentioned that when hydrogen gas burns in an atmosphere of oxygen or in common air, which is diluted oxygen, the product of the combustion is water. In the burning in the air of many common forms of fuel, such as wood, bituminous coal, kerosene, illuminating gas, etc., of which hydrogen is a constituent, water is formed in large quantity, though it may be overlooked in consequence of its not immediately condensing, but going up the chimney 639 or otherwise mingling with the atmosphere as aqueous vapor. When hydrogen is passed over any one of many heated metal- lic oxides, as the oxide of iron or of copper, water is formed and volatilized, while the metal is reduced to the free state. Many hydroxides of the metals are decomposed by heat, forming water and the corresponding metallic oxides; the temperature required for this decomposition varies, cupric hydroxide undergoing partial decomposition at the boiling- point of water, while slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is resolved into water and lime only at a bright-red heat. When an acid acts upon a metallic hydroxide or oxide, water is formed and a metallic salt simultaneously produced, and in like manner alcohols, which are hydroxides of organic radicles, react with acids to produce water and “esters,” or salts of these radicles. In numerous other processes afiect- ing organic substances, such as the production of aldehyde from alcohol, aniline from nitrobenzene, etc., water is formed by the union of hydrogen and oxygen derived from the materials used. In the complex changes which occur on strongly heating organic matter in closed vessels, in so- called destructive distillation, as in making charcoal, coke, etc., water generally presents itself among the products, often in large amount. From the lungs and skin of living animals water is freely given off, most of it simply evaporated, hav- ing been taken into the body as pre-existing water, but some of it formed by the oxidation within the body of sub- stances containing hydrogen and derived from the food consumed. In the slow decay of the bodies of both plants and animals after death large quantities of water are formed and evolved. C’hemz'cal Changes e'nvolm'ng the Dee0m]9os2'tz'on of IVa'te'/'. —\Vhcn metallic oxides of well-marked acid or basic char- acter are brought into contact with water the latter often ceases to exist as such, and loses its characteristic properties, but its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, take their places as constituents of new substances, to which the names acids and bases respectively are properly given. Thus sulphur trioxide by its interaction with water forms sulphuric acid, and freshly burned lime, or calcium oxide, forms, in the ordinary slaking of lime with water, calcium hydrox- ide. In such actions heat is often given ofi to a remark- able extent; wooden buildings or ships may be set on fire and gunpowder ignited by the slaking of lime in large quantity. Chlorine decomposes water gradually at common temperature, especially in daylight. combining with the hydrogen and setting free oxygen, and this oxygen at the moment of its liberation appears to be the chief effective agent in the common processes of bleaching and disinfect- ing by chlorine, moisture being always present. Many of the metals, on the other hand, decompose water, uniting with the oxygen and setting free hydrogen; sodium does so at ordinary temperature, magnesium at the boiling-point of water, iron at a red heat. At a red heat carbon decomposes water, liberating most of the hydrogen, but combining with a little of it to form marsh-gas, while carbon monoxide or car- bon dioxide, or both of these,are produced. On these interac- tions depends the manufacture of the so-called water-gas, now very largely used for heating, and, after further special treatment, for illuminating purposes. Phosphorus penta- chloride reacting with water forms phosphoric and hydro- chloric acids, and in like manner acetyl chloride and water yield acetic and hydrochloric acids. By distillation with superheated steam fats are resolved, taking up the elements of the water, on the one hand, into fatty acids used in the manufacture of candles, and on the other into glycerol (glycerin), useful as the source of the most energetic of modern explosives and in a number of other directions. Chen2'2'ca,l Deco-mp0stt'zT0n of lVa-ter by Physical 1l[ea.ns.— IV hen heated to a sufficiently high temperature water under- goes “dissociation ”—that is to say, separates into its com- ponent elements, hydrogen and oxygen; these, however, re- combining if they remain mixed with each other when the temperature gradually falls. Thus fused or white-hot platinum dropped into cold water causes a few bubbles of gas to escape, which are found to consist of oxygen and hydrogen in the proportions yielded by water, or. much better, by passing steam through a tube of porous earthen- ware, surrounded by one of glazed porcelain, and raised to something like a white heat, an indifferent gas being made to surround both surfaces of the porous tube, hy- drogen may be collected from the outer side of the latter. having when liberated passed through the porous material more rapidly than oxygen, while oxygen may be withdrawn from the interior of the porous tube. 640 Although water itself in the purest condition in which it can be obtained is scarcely at all decomposed by the pas- sage through it of an electric current, if a little sulphuric acid, sodium sulphate, or any one of a number of more easily decomposable substances be added, such added ma- terial may be separated into products which by their several actions upon water set free from it its constituent elements,‘ reproducing at the same time the added material itself, to serve over and over again in the same way, so that by this “secondary electrolysis” water is practically resolved with ease into its‘ constituents, the oxygen making its ap- pearance at the positive, and the hydrogen at the negative In the production of 1 part of liquid water of atmos- pheric temperature by burning together hydrogen and oxygen gases, heat is evolved to the extent of about 3,830 units, i. e. heat enough to raise the temperature of 3,830 similar parts of water by 1° C. Natural Wazfers.——All natural waters, such as must be depended upon for the practical use of man, contain for- eign substances, of kinds and in amounts varying with the circumstances under which the water has been collected or to which it has previously been exposed. Some are orig- inally gaseous, a few liquid, and both of them occur in the state of solution; many are originally solid, and of these some are dissolved and others simply suspended in the water. Of solid matters in suspension, some are mineral in character, others are derived from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and in the latter case may be destitute of or may present organized structure, and if organized may be dead or living. In relation to the indispensable and extensive application of water to practical purposes it is important to consider the character, as respects these foreign substances, of natural waters under the conditions which surround them as they occur in large quantity. Water as Precipz'tated from the Atmosphere—Raz'n, Snow, HaiZ.—l/Vhen water condenses in the atmosphere from the state of vapor to that of liquid, it dissolves, in falling through the air, the gases of which the latter consists. and such soluble solid matter as may be present in a finely di- vided condition and in suspension, and it mechanically washes down with it insoluble suspended particles of dust. The proportion in which these substances are found in rain- water varies greatly with local conditions; it is generally much less after long-continued rain than in rainfalls follow- ing dry weather, and less in winter than in summer. The principal gases found in rain-water are nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide (often called carbonic acid), the second, and still more the third, of these occurring in larger rela- tive proportion than in the air,’-‘ on account of greater solu- bility in water. On the average they are present in rain- water to about the following extent : Nitrogen (and argon).. 13,080 parts in amillion by volume. Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,370 “ “ “ .. Carbon dioxide. . . . . . . . 1,280 “ “ “ “ Ammonia is found as carbonate, nitrate, or nitrite to the extent of from '05 to 1'55 parts—on the average about '49 part per million by weight; occasionally a good deal more than this has been observed. Nitric and nitrous acids, chiefly as ammonium salts of these acids, are often present; in England from 0 to '44 part——on the average about '07 part per million by weight——has been found ; larger amounts have been occasionally recorded. In cities burning large quantities of coal very appreciable quantities of sulphurous and sulphuric acids, derived from the sulphur of the coal, are washed down by rain; thus in the rain-water of Eng- lish and Scotch cities, the equivalent of from 205 to 702 parts per million of sulphuric acid has been found, much of it in the free state. In the neighborhood of the sea sodium chloride (common salt) appears in rain-water; one analysis of a sample collected at the Land’s End, Cornwall, gave chlorine equivalent to 3592 parts of salt per million. So- dium sulphate and calcium salts have also been detected. Soot is common in the rain-water of cities. Mineral dust from the soil (and in cities coal-ashes) is always accompa- nied by more or less organic matter, sometimes by the pol- len of plants, often by microbes, including, it may be, some of disease-producing character, and their spores. The aver- age total amount of solid impurities in rain-water is some- *The newly discovered minor constituent of the atmosphere, argon. is more soluble in waler than nitrogen, and has been found to occur in the dissolved gases of rain-water in larger proportion than in the air. WATER thing like 30 or 40 parts per million. As collected from the roofs of houses it is liable to include grosser impurities, derived from the decay of wooden shingles, the excreta of birds, cats, etc. i S/wrface Drainage Wazfer.—Rain-water which runs off upon the surface of the earth, without sinking into the soil or underlying rocks, begins at once to take up such soluble matter as it comes in contact with, but naturally becomes charged with soluble matter to a less extent than if it had percolated downward to any great depth. Its character depends much upon the local nature of the rocks and soils, especially whether these are, on the whole, siliceous or cal- careous, upon the land being bare or clothed Witl1 vegeta- tion, and upon the distance which the sample taken has flowed from the seat of rainfall. In such waters the total solid matters in solution average about 50 to 80 parts in a million for siliceous and 140 to 230 for calcareous districts, with somewhat larger figures if the land be under cultiva- tion. The chief substances present are carbonates, sul- phates, and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, with silicic acid or acid silicates, and smaller amounts of iron, manganese, and other m'aterials. The or- ganic matter present is chiefly of vegetable origin ; it varies much in amount, and is liable to be much increased at times, as during the fall of leaves in autumn. Spm'ng-'wcu‘e1'.—l\'Iuch of the water falling as rain sinks into the earth, and percolates through porous masses of soil, sand, gravel, and rock until it encounters some impervious stratum by which it is retained, and above which it accumu- lates, until it finds exit at some lower level upon the surface, and makes its appearance as a spring. Spring-water, hav- ing come 1nore intimately into contact with the mineral material of the earth’s crust, naturally contains a larger pro- portion of dissolved mineral solids than surface-water— about 60 to 250 parts in a million for siliceous, and 300 to 660 for calcareous regions. The amount of organic matter is generally quite small, nitrates are generally present in appreciable quantity, giving evidence of the oxidation of organic nitrogen, and dissolved oxygen is absent, or present only to very small extent. lVaier of Zlfinerctl orlfledqlcrlncolly Useful S]9m'ngs.-—Vi7hen either the ordinary mineral constituents of spring-water present themselves in unusually large quantity, often giving strongly marked taste, or substances not commonly present are met with, such as iodides, bromides, arsenic. sulphuretted hydrogen, ete., the term mineral spring is applied, and the waters from such springs, as well as those distinguished mainly by high temperature (“ thermal ” waters), are largely used in the treatment of disease. See l\'IINERAL Wxrnas. Rive?‘-20ate¢'.—Tlie water of streams and rivers is a mix- ture of surface and spring water, and represents more and more, as smaller watercourses unite into larger ones, the average product of the leaching of the earth on and beneath its surface. The total solids present range generally from about 125 to 350 parts in a million, with some examples con- siderably outside these limits. The amount of mineral mat- ter in suspension varies greatly as a river is swollen by floods or falls in the dry season of the year, and also with the dis- tance from the mountain sources of the water. Among the gases, carbon dioxide occurs dissolved to a much larger extent than in rain-water. Along the course of rivers the water is subject to pollution by organic matter from decaying vegetation, from the excreta during life of the lower animals and man, from the decaying bodies of animals after death, and from the introduction of sewage and of factory refuse in inhabited districts. On the other hand. a certain amount of “self-purification” takes place by filtration of surface- water over herbage, by the removal of substances taken up by growing plants or by the nutrition of fish and other aquatic animals, by the dilution of polluted water with that from purer sources, by subsidence of suspended solid mat- ters, by absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere and oxida- tion thereby of organic matter, and to a large extent by the action of bacteria and other extremely 1ninute organisms. Water" of La7ces.—In the case of lakes from which there is large outflow the water generally resembles that of rivers, and water of very great purity is often obtainable from mountain lakes supplied from limited areas of uncultivated land with underlying siliceous rocks. Such lakes serve the purpose of subsidence reservoirs, and, as in the case of the Lake of Geneva, water which comes in turbid leaves the lake clear. But lakes which discharge little or no liquid water, while subject to constant evaporation, present water often highly charged with saline matter and quite unfit for drink- '87,870 parts in a million. WATER ing. In such water sodium chloride is usually most abun- dant, but the sulphate, carbonate, and borate of sodium are also met with in some cases. Sea-water.—-Such water, condensed upon the surface of the land, as escapes evaporation on its way down to the ocean carries to the latter the suspended and dissolved materials it bears along, and forms deposits of silt and mud, while gradually accumulating in solution the soluble salme matter, part of which comes to be afterward removed, espe- cially the calcium salts, by precipitation and by the agency of coral-building organisms. The total amount of salme matter in ocean water varies between about 88,010 and Sodium chloride largely pre- dominates, but chlorides, sulphates, and carbonates, and in smaller proportion bromides, iodides, fluorides, and borates of sodium, magnesium, calcium, and potassium are also present, and silver, as well as probably many other elements, occurs in minute traces. Phosphates occur in remarkably minute quantity. Of the gases, carbon dioxide is but sparmgly present. usually in less proportion than corresponds to bi- carbonates of the basic constituents. For the chemical com- position of sea-water, see OCEAN (é'omposz'twn of Ocean Water. W ell-water.-—Of wells, the artificial outlets provided for ob- taining underground water, three kinds require notice. Com- mon shaft wells, dug to very moderate depths-—say, 10 to 100 feet—often pass altogether through porous strata, and situ- ated, as they commonly are, as a matter of convenience, close by human dwellings, are peculiarly liable to suffer contamina- tion of their water by kitchen slops, leakage from urinals and sewers, and the leaching of solid garbage thrown out on the surface of the ground. N 0 other source of drinking-water en- tails so much danger to health as this, and the danger is en- hanced by the two facts that filtration through a considerable amount of pervious earth frequently renders such water clear, sparkling, cool, and attractive to eye and taste, though it may, in fact, be seriously polluted by disease-germs, and that such water may in reality be wholesome and be used for years without any harm resulting, while the occurrence of a single case of typhoid fever in the adjoining dwelling may all at once render it in the highest degree dangerous by the in- troduction of disease-producing organisms without any warn- ing change in the apparent character of the water. “ Driven ” wells, established by forcing down a moderate length of iron pipe, perforated at the lower end, and penetrating by a sharp, conical steel point, involve the same danger of surface pollution of the water unless an impervious stratum be passed through to tap a porous bed beneath; in this case the risk is somewhat lessened. So-called artesian wells. bored to great depths—often many hundred, and in some cases several thousand feet—frequently yield good, whole- some water, though sometimes too highly charged with saline materials to be fit for drinking. They are far less exposed to the danger of surface pollution than ordinary shafts or dug wells. The temperature of the water is some- times quite high, rendering it unfit for immediate drinking, but valuable for washing purposes. See Anrnsmn WELLS. Relations of IVater to Use by 1l1an.—Tl1ese require to be carefully considered, particularly when the complex condi- tions present themselves under which the densely crowded populations of large cities live and have to be supplied. In these cases quantity as well as quality of the supply 1nust be taken into account, and the cost of resorting to particu- lar sources for the water needed can not be overlooked. The practical question generally presents itself in this form: From what source or sources can water of the best available quality be obtained in suflicient quantity for the present needs of the population to be supplied, and with reasonable allowance for increased demand in the reasonably near future, at the least cost, and, at any rate, within the limita- tion of maximum cost feasible ‘i Quantity of lVater-suppZy.—Rain-water collected from clean roofs and stored in proper tanks or cisterns, water from anumber of driven or deep-bored wells, may occasion- ally be obtainable in suflicient quantity, but for an adequate supply recourse must in general be had to rivers, mountain- lakes, or the water of numerous springs and small streams collected in a reservoir of sufficient storage capacity. In the case of rivers the average flow, and in that of lakes the out- flow, must be carefully gauged at various seasons, represent- ing the average of differing years. In the case of a tract of springs and streams, the area of “ catchment” must be measured, and the average annual amount of rainfall ascer- tained, with allowance for evaporation. Theloss by evapora- 641 tion depends much upon whether rain is light and frequent, or heavy and concentrated at particular seasons; also upon the character of the surface—whether bare, or clothed with vegetation—upon the degree of porosity of the surface ma- terial, upon the general slopes of the surface and of the stream-beds being abrupt or gradual, and upon the rainfall occurring chiefly in the colder or warmer seasons of the year. In the selection of a catchment area an eye should be had to suitable sites for the construction of dams, to form storage-reservoirs from which water may be as far as possi- ble drawn off by gravity, avoiding the expense of pumping machinery. In estimating the storage capacity of such reservoirs, aside from the advantage of having them large with a view to allowing satisfactory clearance of the water to take place by subsidence, provision should be made for holding a sufficient body of water to tide over the longest drought that can reasonably be expected; such drought in temperate climates may perhaps be estimated as extending to not less than 70 nor more than 800 days. For the amount of water consumed in cities, etc., see VVATER-WORKS. Quality of “Waiter-suppZy.——The most important aspect in which the quality of water for human use has to be consid- ered is, of course, its wholesomeness as abeverage. In gen- eral, it may be said that good drinking-water should be cool and clear—i. e. free from visible suspended particles—with- out any disagreeable smell or taste, and not capable of ac- quiring such by standing for a day or two in a clean and well-closed vessel; should contain enough of the gases de- rived from the atmosphere to give a slight fresh taste dis- tinguishable from the “ flatness ” of recently distilled or boiled water, and should not contain solid matter in solu- tion to the extent of more than about 800 parts in a million. In the mineral portion of this solid matter no distinctly in- jurious substance should occur, such as a compound of any one of the poisonous metals. As little as possible of the solid contents should consist of organic matter—usually not to exceed 15 or 20 parts in a million—and it is particularly desirable that decomposing nitrogenous organic matter (usu- ally, though not necessarily, of animal origin), or the sub- stances derived from it which give evidence of its having been present, shall be found, if at all, only in mere traces. Above all, good drinking-water should be free from disease- producing bacteria or other injurious micro-organisms. It is generally considered desirable that drinking-water shall not be “hard ”—i. e. shall not contain sodium and mag- nesium salts in considerable quantity; but the evidence that hard water is necessarily unwholesome does not seem to be conclusive. All these statements must. however, be taken with various limitations, and not too rigidly. Thus some good waters contain notably more solid matter in solution than has been mentioned, and some peaty mountain waters contain much more organic matter, but of non-nitrogenous vegetable character. Many organisms are revealed by the microscope in perfectly unobjectionable water which look alarming. but represent merely harmless rhizopods, crusta- ceans, etc. Occasionally in water-reservoirs large accumu- lations form of conferwe, minute sponges, etc., which, dying and decomposing, produce for a time disagreeable taste and smell without seriously affecting the health of those using the water. Even the far more minute bacterial and other organisms which play so important a part in fermentation and putrefactive decay, and among which are to be found the unquestionable carriers or causes of formidable disease, are by no means all of this dangerous character, the ma- jority being harmless. Water to be used for cooking, especially for cooking leguminous vegetables, as a general rule, should not be de- cidedly hard, but the presence of a moderate amount of cal- cium carbonate—say 7 0 or 7 5 parts in a milhon—is said to be advantageous in making tea or coffee, as reducing the proportion of tannin dissolved, and so rendering the bever- age less astringent. For domestic washing purposes the greatest importance attaches to the softness of the water, since the calcium and magnesium salts of hard water “curdle " or precipitate in insoluble form the fatty acids of soap, greatly increasing the necessary consumption of the latter, and producing a dis- agreeable sticky deposit on the surface of the skin or of clothing. From this point of view a distinction must be drawn between the states of combination in which calcium and magnesium occur in natural waters. A part, some- times the principal part, consists of the carbonate, which is itself practically insoluble in water, but is dissolved in con- siderable quantity in the presence of carbonic acid (carbon 488 642 dioxide gas in solution), forming what is sometimes called the bicarbonate. The hardness due to this cause is removed by continued boiling, the solvent carbon dioxide gas being driven off and the calcium or magnesium carbonate pre- cipitated——hence the term “temporary hardness ” is applied to that due to the carbonates. But calcium and magne- sium also occur as sulphate and chloride, and these salts being of themselves soluble in water, are not precipitated by boiling, and the hardness due to their presence is spoken of as “permanent hardness.” \/Vater to be used in washing without being heated requires the “total hardness” to be considered, while for that used hot and having been boiled the “permanent hardness” alone requires attention. For producing steam in the boilers of steam-engines or of heating apparatus the absence as far as possible of calcium and magnesium salts is extremely desirable. During the boiling of the water carbon dioxide is expelled and the car- bonates are thrown down, and as the water is removed by evaporation calcium sulphate also deposits in solid form, both these changes giving rise to incrustations or “scale ” on the inner surface of the boiler, objectionable in more than one way. The deposited solid material conducts heat badly, and hence serious waste of fuel is caused, the out- side of the boiler becomes overheated, the metal is burned away, and the boiler becomes weakened, while it is probable that at least some dangerous boiler explosions are caused by the scale cracking and permitting sudden access of water to the overheated metal. Most boiler deposits from fresh water consist mainly of calcium (and magnesium) carbon- ate, those from sea-water mainly of calcium sulphate, those from brackish water—as in the case of steamships supply- ing their boilers at the mouths of rivers—of a mixture of both. The incrustation of marine boilers is now much diminished by condensing and using over again a large part of the water. Calcium and magnesium chlorides, if present in large quantity, tend to produce corrosion of the iron of the inner surface of a boiler, and this corrosion is par- ticularly noticeable in the case of waters containing dis- solved oxygen and carbon dioxide in large proportion. For many special industrial purposes the character of the water used is highly important. Thus, for brewing, freedom from decomposing organic matter is always essential and soft water is generally desirable, but it is said that certain kinds of pale ale require the use of water containing not less than 300 or 400 parts of calcium sulphate per million. For bleaching and dyeing it is important that the water used shall be quite free from iron and manganese, shall not be acid, and in most cases shall not be hard, but in dyeing with certain colors the presence of a small amount of lime is desirable. For tanning, freedom from decomposable or- ganic matter, softness, and the absence of an excess of chlo- rides are the chief requisites. For sugar-refining the occur- rence of alkaline salts, especially nitrates, in unusual amount is objectionable. For paper-making water should be soft, and especially free from iron even in minute quantity. For many purposes the quality of water is practically un- important, as, for instance, for washing off vehicles, the fronts of houses, and the surfaces of sidewalks and streets in cities, for watering roads to keep down dust, for extin- guishing fires, and the like. Owing to the great and ever- increasing difficulty of securing for large cities a sufficient supply of water of good quality, it has been suggested, and to a very limited extent the suggestion has been acted upon, that two separate supplies be provided-—-the one of water as pure as possible, to be used only for those purposes for which purity is important, the other of water of inferior character for all other purposes only. Such an arrangement carries with it some very great advantages, but is not free from practical difficulty. The expense of duplicate systems of distributing pipes and the risk of mistakes being made by careless people as between the two supplies have to be considered. Examination and Inspection of VVater for Human Use, especially from a Sanitary Point of View.—In judging of the quality of water chemical examination is chiefly re- sorted to, but this is beginning to be supplemented by bio- logical study, and sanitary inspection of the sources of pos- sible contamination of a water-supply is also highly im- ortant. The greatest care should of course be taken in col- ecting, preserving, and transporting samples of water to be examined so that the results of examination may really rep- resent the water in its original condition. Only perfectly clean glass bottles with glass stoppers should be used to con- tain such samples. WATER Chemieal Examination of Natural Waters.-—This chiefly involves attention to the following points, to which space permits only brief reference. For numerous details and precautions requiring to be observed, special treatises on this branch of analytical chemistry must be consulted. The condition of the water as to clearness or turbidity is noted, and if deemed necessary suspended solid matter is filtered off and its quantity determined by weighing. The -color of the water is noted as seen in a tube of 2 feet in length. A nearly pure greenish-blue color is presented by the pur- est water, while those of less purity are often distinctly vel- lowish green, yellow, or brown. Any smell or taste is.ob- served, and also acid or alkaline reaction to test-paper, repeating the last-named observation with a portion of the water which has been boiled to expel carbon dioxide. The total amount of solid substances in solution is found by evaporating gradually to dryness a certain quantity of the water and weighing the residue after it has been dried at about 100° or 110° C. The dissolved gases can be expelled by prolonged boiling in a specially constructed apparatus avoiding mixture with air, their total volume measured, the carbon dioxide removed by caustic potash, the oxygen by the further addition of pyrogallol, and the volume'of each of these ascertained by measuring the residue. The unab- sorbed portion is usually nitrogen. The “total hardness” is determined by adding to a known quantity of the water in a stoppered bottle a dilute solution of soap of known strength, the addition being gradually made in small por- tions from a measuring vessel, and the bottle shaken after each addition. As long as the water still contains calcium and magnesium salts the soap added is curdled or precipi- tated, and the froth formed on shaking speedily disappears ; but as soon as the calcium and magnesium salts have been all removed from solution and a small excess of soap has been added the froth becomes more permanent. When it remains visible for, say, five minutes, the quantity of soap solution which has been used is noted, and becomes the measure of the hardness of the water. This is often -ex- pressed in “degrees” of hardness, each degree being un- derstood to mean the presence of calcium and magnesium salts equivalent in soap-curdling effect to 1 grain of cal- cium carbonate in each imperial gallon of water. A second experiment made in the same way upon a sample of water which has been thoroughly boiled gives the “permanent hardness,” and the latter subtracted from the former result gives the “temporary hardness.” Salts of the poisonous metals may be sought for by the appropriate tests for each, using large quantities of water, since such impurities, most of them likely to occur only under special conditions, such as those of mining districts, the neighborhood of special factories, etc., are usually met with in extremely minute amount only. Such metals most claiming attention are lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, barium, and chromium. In ex- amining water for technical purposes, iron, which is not poi- sonous, may need to be looked for; its quantity may be de- termined by the colorimetric use of potassium ferrocyanide. By far the most important question is that of the amount and nature of the organic matter present. It must be re- membered that the term organic matter is a vague one, that under it are included endlessly numerous substances, con- sisting essentially of the same elements—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen—-united in different proportions, that for very many of these substances no distinctive tests are available, and that many of them are absolutely harmless when swallowed, while others are in a very high degree in- jurious to health; furthennore, that chemistry affords us no means of distinguishing unorganized, dead, and biolog- ically inert organic matter from that which constitutes the material of organized and living structures. capable of in- definite self-multiplication when surrounded by suitable conditions. Modern investigation has shown the immense importance attaching to the minuter forms of living organ- isms in connection with fermentation and putrefaction, and with the propagation of disease. Chemical examina- tion of water in regard to organic matter can never enable us to decide absolutely as to a given water being wholesome or nnwholesome, but it may render valuable service by in- dicating whether such water is to be regarded as suspicious, and if so in what degree, suggesting caution in its use, and a search for possible sources of contamination, as also by drawing attention to changes of a suspicious character oc- curring in water which has formerly been used with safety. By evaporating to dryness a known quantity of water, at a gentle heat and with special precautions to exclude dust, WATER decomposed mineral carbonates, etc., and burning the residue completely in a small glass tube with cupric oxide, the car- bon may be determined as carbon dioxide and the nitrogen as elementary nitrogen gas, and from the quantities of carbon and nitrogen, and the proportion borne by the former to the latter, an approximate idea may be formed of the amount of organic matter from which these elements have been derived, as also of its general character, since animal material is generally, though not always necessarily, more highly nitro- genous than that of vegetable origin, and on the whole more is to be feared from animal than from vegetable contamina- tion. Other processes look to an estimation of the carbon or nitrogen separately. Thus by treating the water under exami- nation, either at common temperature or boiling hot, with an acidified solution of permanganate of potassium of known strength, the latter loses its deep-purple color as long as it gives off oxygen to oxidize the organic matter present, and hence a determination of the quantity of the permanganate thus decolorized becomes a measure of the quantity of oxy- gen it has furnished, and this indirectly, though only by rough approximation, indicates the presence of more or less organic matter oxidized—the indication bearing much more on the carbon than on the nitrogen. Distillation of water to which a little sodium carbonate has been added drives off any ammonia present, this ammonia having usually been, in part at least, derived from the nitrogen of decaying organic matter; its quantity, even when very minute, can be easily determined by the application of the Nessler test solution. If water which has already been thus treated have added to it a strong solution of potassium permanganate, and the distillation be continued, a further portion of ammonia is obtained, to be determined as before; this second portion may be assumed to come from the more or less extensive decomposition in the retort of nitrogenous organic matter still in the water, and as substances allied to albumen form a very large proportion of such matter in the bodies of plants and much more in those of animals, the name albu- minoid ammonia is often given to that obtained in the proc- ess under notice, that obtained in the first distillation being referred to as “free ammonia”; the predominance of free ammonia indicating a more, that of albuminoid ammonia a less, advanced stage of decay of nitrogenous organic matter. In the decay of such matter under special conditions, includ- ing the presence of a special ferment organism—a microcoecns —nitrates and nitrites are often produced, and a very high degree of importance deserves to be attached to the pres- ence of these salts in unusual quantity, though a small amount of nitrates may be found in the best waters, being partly of atmospheric origin. Nitrites may be determined colorimetrically by the use of solutions of sulphanilic acid and a salt of naphthylamine ; nitrates and nitrites together by applying the same solutions after conversion of nitrates into nitrites by reduction with zinc dust; or the nitrogen of both classes of salts may be evolved as nitrogen dioxide by shak- ing up with strong sulphuric acid over mercury and the evolved gas measured. More weight should generally be given to the presence of an unusual amount of nitrites than of nitrates, the former being in general more significant of decay still going on; ordinarily the formation of nitrites seems to precede that of nitrates, though under certain con- ditions the latter may revert to the former. Nitrites are specially significant in the water of shallow wells and of rivers; but little importance attaches to them in the case of natural springs and deep-bored wells when not exposed to surface pollution. The greater abundance of chlorides in most animal than in most vegetable material makes the quan- titative determination of chlorine in water an indication of -considerable value ; it is easily eifected by means of a solu- tion of silver nitrate of known strength. which precipitates insoluble silver chloride. The pollution of shallow wells by the drainage into them of urine may often thus be detected, as urine contains chloride of sodium in very notable amount. It is to be remarked that such substances as ammonia. ni- trates, nitrites, and chlorides are in themselves entirely harmless, certainly in any such uantities as ever present themselves in drinking-water, an therefore that their de- termination in water analysis is only important as indirectly throwing light upon the question of present or past con- tamination of the water by decaying organic matter. It is also to be noticed that sometimes the presence of these sub- stances may be accounted for in other and unobjectionable ways ; thus chlorides are to be looked for in unusual quan- tity in the neighborhood of the ocean, or may find their way into wells from the throwing out of spent freezing mixtures 643 of ice and salt used in making ice-cream: ammonia might be accounted for by the neighborhood of gas-works, or ni- trates by that of a gunpowder-mill, etc. ' Biological Eccamination of Natural Waters.—l\i[uch labor has already been expended, with the aid of the microscope and of the refined “ culture methods ” of modern biologists. upon the study of the relations to potable water of the swarming hordes of microbes or minute living organisms which are always more or less present in it. Great difficul- ties, however, are encountered, and much yet remains to be done. The determination of the number of microbes in a given small volume of the water examined—-often extending to tens or hundreds of thousands in a single cubic centi- meter—requires the immediate study of a sample after its collection, owing to the enormous rapidity with which these organisms multiply, and the value of the result is greatly diminished by the fact that the larger proportion of species of such organisms are harmless, and their presence without sanitary significance. These determinations are valuable, however, as means of testing the efficiency of different methods for the purification of water. In a few cases par- ticular diseases have, with more or less probability, been traced to particular pathogenic organisms in drinking-water, or the chemical products which they form,and in such cases, as of epidemic cholera or typhoid fever, a bacteriological search for the specific cause of the mischief acquires, of course, very great interest. Experiments have also been made with a view to ascertain the greater or less fitness of a particular water to sustain or to cause the disappearance of particular microbic organisms intentionally introduced by the experi- menter. Sanitary Inspection of Sources of lVaier-suppZy.—Apart from or side by side with laboratory examination, and guided in part by the indications its results afford, there should always be made a careful inspection of the sources of a water- supply, and of the channels by which it reaches the con- sumers, taking note of all dangerous contamination, actual or possible. The necessity for this becomes greater as pop- ulation is more dense and the conditions of life more com- plicated. Particular attention should be given to any drain- age reaching the water from kitchen-sinks, garbage and ma- nure piles, stables and cow-pens, privies and water-closets (above all, during epidemics of disease aifectin g the digestive organs), leaky sewers, or sewers discharging into streams, heavily manured land in cultivation, cemeteries. slaughter- houses. tanneries, flax and hemp steeping-grounds, and fac- tories producing large quantities of easily decomposable or- ganic refuse, such as paper-mills (especially those working up wood-pulp), starch and glue factories. etc. In such an in- spection questions of difference of level have to be considered, as bearing upon the direction taken by drainage; thus the top of a well may lie so high as to be safe from contamination from a given source, and yet the bottom of the shaft may be dangerously polluted from such source by underground filtration. In tracing possible underground channels of communication use has been advantageously made of soluble substances thrown into water at one point and admitting of easy detection at another. Thus a very small quantity of the substance known as uranine will communicate to a large body of water its peculiar fluorescent green color, which will be easily recognized if the water emerge else- where. Lithium chloride, readily detectable by the spectro- scope. has also been proposed for this purpose. In the cele- brated case of the Lausen (Switzerland) epidemic of typhoid fever in 1872, the use of a large quantity of common salt established the fact of a subterranean channel connecting two points about a mile apart and lying on opposite sides of a mountain. Arz‘zZficiaZ Pmificai/z'on of lVa,zfe'r for Human Use.—The purification of water by distillation as practiced in chemical laboratories is too tedious and expensive to be generally available on a large scale, but is occasionally resorted to under special conditions. Thus on board seagoing steam- ships fresh water is obtained by condensing the steam from the boilers, and a portion of it, rendered palatable by aera- tion, is supplied for drinking and washing purposes to the crew and passengers. Artificial ice-factories use distilled water to be frozen; it is often employed for the preparation of “soda-water” and other efiervescent beverages, and in some cities distilled and aiérated water is sold in limited quantities to those who are specially cautious as to the purity of the water they drink. Partial purification is brought about by freezing. so that the ice formed in Arctic regions from sea-water when melted yields water practically fresh and fit 644 to drink. But in water polluted by decaying organic matter the purification is not sufficiently complete for safety, and microbes retain their vitality after exposure to temperatures much below the freezing-point. The most important methods in use upon a large scale aim chiefly at clarifying the water from suspended solid partieles——mineral silt, finely divided organic matter, and living organisms—either by subsidence, filtration, or precipitation; at “softening” the water by re- moval of calcium and magnesium salts; at destruction of organic matter by oxidation; or at “sterilizing” the water by destroying the vitality of living bacterial or other organ- isms. These results may be attained separately or, to some extent, together. Purification by Sabsiclence.—-This has already been re- ferred to in connection with the natural clearing of river- water in the larger and more slowly moving portions of large rivers, and in the expanded basins of fresh-water lakes, as also in the larger storage-reservoirs provided by engineering work for the water-supply of cities. Such reservoirs are necessary adjuncts of the arrangements for precipitation, to be mentioned presently. Purification by Filtration.—The porous materials used for the construction of filters vary, partly with the scale on which they are to be applied and partly with the special conditions of application. For small domestic filters fine siliceous sand, porous sandstone of natural or artificial origin, asbestos, siliceous infusorial earth, vegetable or animal char- coal, and spongy iron are among the most extensively adopted substances. Sponge, paper. and other organic materials are to be deprecated as furnishing the basis for decay in the fil- ter itself. The most effectual clarification is brought about by the use of the Chamberland-Pasteur filters of unglazed porcelain or other fine earthenware; these at first entirely remove even bacteria, but their action is slow, and soon be- comes much slower, and after a time bacterial organisms make their way, seemingly by growth, through the fine pores, though the filter can be re-sterilized by heat. Domestic fil- ters are variously constructed; in some the water, in moder- ate quantity, passes through merely by its own weight; in others pressure, as, for example, the “ head” of water in a system of city pipes, is used to force it through. It should never be forgotten that all filters require careful, periodical cleaning, often aided by a reversal of the current of water through them, and that the filtering material must after a time be renewed. If these precautions be neglected, filtra- tion may become a source of increase rather than diminution of pollution. On the larger scale sand is the material chiefly used, nat- ural sand-beds being sometimes utilized. Brick tanks are constructed, often of an acre or more in area and several feet in depth. Broken stone is placed at the bottom of these, over drains for drawing off the water, and upon this layers of coarse gravel, fine gravel, and, on top, 3 or 4 feet of fine siliceous sand. The water is allowed to stand to the depth of 1 to 4 feet over the sand. The rate of filtration should be slow, generally not more than 2%; or 3 gal. an hour for each square foot of area. The efficiency of these filters, es- pecially in the removal of microbes, is at first much increased by the formation of a slimy deposit on the upper surface of the sand, but later on the filter becomes so clogged that the rate of filtration is too slow for practical purposes. Hence periodical cleaning becomes necessary. The foul upper part of the sand is removed, water is introduced from below to effect an upward washing of the lower layers, and when the sand layer becomes too thin fresh sand is supplied on top. Spongy metallic iron has been used in some filters, but soon becomes clogged by oxidation, and is with difficulty kept in eflicient condition. In cold weather large filtering-tanks may give trouble from freezing: under such circumstances covered tanks or more rapid filtration under increased pres- sure may be resorted to. Pu,ri]’icat/ion by Precipitation.——Various saline substances, when added to turbid water, cause a more rapid deposition in the form of sediment of whatever suspended particles may be present. Even the common salt in sea-water acts in this way. Alum is thus employed, being added generally at the rate of from 2 to 5 grains, sometimes not more than half a grain, to the gallon. As the aluminium hydroxide, thrown down by carbonates in the water, has much to do with rapid sedimentation, it appears still better to add simultaneously alum and sodium aluminate. It is extremely desirable that no more be used than is absolutely necessary, so that no aluminum compounds remain in the clarified water. Iron chloride (ferric chloride) in very small quantity may be ap- ‘when a minute excess has been added. WATER plied to the same purpose. The Anderson process has been successfully employed at Antwerp; it consists in passing the water slowly through revolving cylinders partly filled with iron borings. Ferrous carbonate in small quantity is formed and dissolved, and this by subsequent exposure to the oxygen of the air forms ferric hydroxide, which deposits in a flocculent state, carrying down with it the suspended mat- ter of the water and materially reducing the amount of or- ganic matter and of microbes. The application of any pre- cipitating material requires, of course, to be followed by sub- sidence or filtration for the removal of the sediment formed. Purification by Removal of Calcium and Jlfaynesium Salts.—In 1841 it was first proposed by Dr. Thomas Clark,. of Aberdeen, to get rid of the “ temporary hardness ” of water, due to calcium and magnesium carbonates held in solution by carbonic acid, by adding lime-water or milk of‘ lime in quantity just sufficient to combine with the carbonic- acid to form calcium carbonate; this, being insoluble in water, precipitates, and at the same time the original cal- cium and magnesium carbonates of the water treated, de-~ prived of the solvent carbonic acid, precipitate also, the united precipitate being afterward removed by subsidence or filtration. The softening of hard water by this process is particularly valuable when it is afterward to be employed for certain industrial purposes. If to the lime-water there be added a carefully regulated quantity of sodium hydroxide, or if sodium carbonate and hydroxide be used together, “ per- manent ” as well as “ temporary” hardness may be removed. This may be made valuable in the purification of water to be used for raising steam, to avoid boiler incrustation. For the same purpose barium chloride is sometimes applied to the pre'cipitation of calcium and magnesium sulphates when these salts are present in the water. For preventing steam- boiler incrustation a multitude of substances have been tried and are more or less used, which aim not at preventing the deposition of calcium and magnesium salts in the boiler, but at causing the deposit to form as a loose powder, easily re- movable, instead of producing a hard and adherent scale. Among such substances may be mentioned trisodium phos- phate, paratfin oil, molasses, catechu, logwood sawdust, and tanbark. Many of those offered for sale are of very doubtful etficacy, and may even be considered positively mischievous. Parijicatioh by Oxidation of Organic lV[attcr.—Among solid oxidizing agents the most available for the removal of‘ organic matter from water are the manganates and perman- ganates. Sodium manganate is now manufactured at a very moderate price for the disinfection of city sewage, and pure crystallized potassium permanganate may be employed un- der special circumstances, as in the exploration of specially unhealthful tropical countries, to diminish the risk of drink- ing-water contaminated by organic matter. The quantity required is small, and the right amount may be recognized by the pink color of the salt in solution ceasing to disappear The mixture used by the British troops in the Ashantee campaign of 1873-74 consisted of 1 part of calcium permanganate, 1_0 aluminium sulphate, and 30 parts of fine clay, the ast two- being added to promote sedimentation. The attempt has been made at several places, and with. considerable success, to imitate artificially the natural action on organic matter of atmospheric oxygen in the so-called self-purification of rivers. Either air is sent through pipes in the storage-reservoirs, with numerous minute apertures. for the gradual escape through the water of air in bubbles, or air is pumped into the distributing-pipes, becoming in them intimately mixed with the water under pressure greater than that of the atmosphere, so that when the water is drawn off for use it often appears for a short time milky, in conse- quence of effervescent escape of the surplus air in a very finely divided condition. Excellent results are reported as obtained with sewage, or water largely polluted by organic matter, by rapid filtration through gravel and sand, aided by the passage of a current of air. Purification by Boiling, to Destroy Vitality of Microbes. —Great practical value attaches to the simple process of heating water intended for drinking, so as to bring it to ac- tive ebullition for a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes, allowing it to cool, and removing the “flatness” of taste by aeration, which may be brought about by passage through a porous filter (not to be also used for unboiled water). All, or all but the merest traces, of living organisms are destroyed by the boiling, and water originally suspicious or dangerous may be safely used for drinking. Of course, exposure to arts of ' WATER unicrobe-laden air or dust might lead to the boiled water becoming again contaminated, so that it should not be kept too long on hand, and should be preserved in closed vessels. The method is chiefly applicable in a domestic way to small -quantities of water, but arrangements have been devised by which larger quantities may be treated for the supply of barracks, hospitals, etc. It has been suggested that the dense population of China, living under conditions in. many re- spects highly insanitary, may very probably owe its exemp- tion from much disease that might be expected to prevail, to the general use of boiled water in the form of weak tea. Influence upon Water of the Jllaterials usecl for its Stor- age and Oonoeyance.——Some considerations in regard to the materials of tanks, cisterns, and pipes used for storing and distributing water, and their effects upon the character of the water, may suitably close this article. Masonry cisterns should be built with the best hydraulic cement, so as not to give up any considerable quantity of lime to the water. Wooden cisterns and casks used _for the storage of water are with advantage charred on the inside to the depth of something like a quarter of an inch. Boiler-plate iron serves well for the construction of water-tanks, as for use on board ships, and cast iron is the chief material used for the main lines of distributing-pipes, while smaller wrought- iron pipes are in part employed in the interior of build- ings. The passage of water charged with atmospheric oxygen and carbonic acid through iron pipes is apt to lead to solution of enough of the metal, as ferrous carbonate, to cause tea made with the water to be blackened, clothes washed with it to be stained yellow, and sometimes a per- -ceptible chalybeate taste to be produced. Dippingthe pipes, previously heated to black redness. into well-boiled coal- tar tends greatly to protect them, and the black, asphalt-like coating formed does not give a bituminous taste if the pro- -cess is properly carried out. An extremely convenient material, but one which more frequently than any other has been found to affect the whole- -someness of water, is lead, often used as sheet-lead to line wooden tanks, and still more commonly as lead pipe in dis- tributing water in houses. Waters differ greatly as to the extent of their action upon lead, and the conditions of ac- tion have not been defined with entire clearness. In general, very soft water containing much dissolved oxygen, that con- taining organic acids or peaty matter, and that which is brought intermittently into contact with the metal, attacks it most; hard water, especially that containing sulphates in large proportion, is much less active. The continued use for drinking of water which has taken up lead into solution, to the extent of but —1lO-th or even as little as 1—$Tth of a grain to the gallon, may give rise to the exceedingly serious symp- toms of chronic lead-poisoning. It has been found advan- tageous to add to water found to attack lead notably a very -small quantity of calcium or sodium carbonate. and it has been proposed to protect in some degree the surface of the metal by running through the pipes, when new, a strong solution of sodium sulphide, thus forming a film of insoluble lead sulphide, which may afterward change by oxidation to the likewise insoluble lead sulphate. Water which has stood for some time in the service-pipes is naturally most danger- ous; hence when lead pipes are used at all for the convey- ance of drinking-water, care should always be taken to allow the water to run to waste for a time on opening a stopcock before collecting the portion to be used. Block-tin pipes are quite harmless and by far the best substitute for those -of lead, but are expensive. An ingenious process has been invented for making lead pipe lined with tin, but it is not easy in making connections to insure the protection of the whole surface of the interior by tin. Zinc is also attacked and dissolved by many natural waters, especially when they come in contact with iron su erficially coated with zinc (so- called “galvanized iron ”). opper, either alone or as brass (an alloy of copper and zinc), is acted upon, though in gen- eral slowly, the action being much promoted by the presence also of air. Soluble compounds of both zinc and copper must be counted among the deleterious impurities of drink- ing-water. Various other materials—such as stoneware, glass, glass- lined iron, “ enameled ” iron, gutta-percha, and paper soaked with asphalt--have been, to a limited extent and under special conditions, used for the storage or conveyance of water, but can not be considered generally available for such use. AU'.rHonrrIEs.—A1nong the works which may be consulted with advantage in reference to some of the aspects in which WATERBUBY (545 water has been considered in this article are the following: Tyndall, The Forms of lVater (London, 1872); Dove, Der Kreislauf cles ll/hssers anf der Oberflc'lche cler Ercle (Berlin, 1873); Dittmar, Report on the Composition of Ocean lValer (1884. reports H. M. S. Challenger expedition); Reports of English Rivers Pollution Commission (London; especially the Sixth Report); Report of Royal Commission on \Vater Supply (London, 1869); Reports of State Board of Health of Massachusetts on I/Vater Supplies (1887-90); Nichols, lVater Supply consitlerecl mainly from on Chemical and Sanitary Slamlpoint (3d ed.); Bolton and Frankland. Col- lection, Storage, Purification, and Exarnina.2fion of lVater (Chatham lectures, London, 1886); Fischer, Das Wasser, seine Verwemlnng, Reinigung ’Ll. Beurtheilung (2d ed. Brunswick, 1891); Guichard, L’Ean clans l’Incluslrie (Paris, 1894); Guinochet, Les Erma: ol’a/imenlalion; épuraiion, filtration, stérilisation (Paris, 1894); Frankland. l’Va.z‘er Analysis for Sanitary Purposes (London, 1890); VVanklyn, lVa2fer Analysis (5th ed. London, 1879); Mallet, Report on Chemical Jllethocls for the Delerm inazfion of Organic 171' after in Potable I/Voter (Annual Report of U. S. National Board of Health, Washington, 188.2) ; Leifmann and Beam, E:camina- tion of Water for Sanitary anal Technical Purposes (2d ed. Philadelphia, 1891); Miquel, Zllannel cl’Analyse bacte'riolo- gigue cles Ea/ax (Paris, 1891); Frankland and VVard, First Report to the lVazfer Research Comnzefiee of the Royal So- ciety on the Present State of our Knowleclge concerning the Bacteriology of ll/‘cater (London, 1892); Fanning, Practical Treatise on ll'aier Supply Engineering (New York); and. Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Chemisz‘ry (London. vol. iii., article lVaz‘er). J . W. MALLET. Water-bear: See Txnnrenxnx. Water-beetle: any representative of two families of beetles which live in fresh water—the DYTISCIDE (q. o.) and G-yrinirlce. These two families, although distinct, agree in these respects: the beetles belonging to them have the body oval and depressed, the first ventral segments visible only at the sides, the legs of the second and third pairs flattened and fitted for swimming. The Gyriniolce are beetles “of an oval form, somewhat attenuated at their end, usually of a brilliant bluish-black color above, with the punctures reflecting,a golden tint”; the prothorax has the prosternum short and carinated, and the episterna and epimera are distinct; the abdomen has seven segments ; the eyes are completely divided by the margin of the head; the antenna-3 are inserted under the sides of the front, behind the base of the mandibles, and are short and thick, the “ anterior legs very long, and received in oblique grooves of the pro- and mesosternal segments; tibiae slender, with one terminal spur"; the middle and posterior legs are short, broad, and much compressed. The beetles of this family associate in groups. and are more gen- erally known by their peculiar habits. In the proper season and place they abound, and move rapidly in whirl-like 1no- tion on the surface of the water, and, if disturbed, suddenly dive to the bottom. This habit of gyrating has obtained for them the name of whirligigs. See Leconte‘s Classifica~ tion of the Ooleopiera of North America’. E. A. BIRGE. Water-boatlneliz hemipterous insects of the family .No- toneetzklre. These have a boat-like supinate form, the ros- trum is free, the antennas concealed beneath the eyes and four-jointed. and the posterior pair of legs have the coxae very slightly movable in a longitudinal direction and longi- tudinally grooved. and the other joints are elongated and provided with a ciliated fringe, which enables them to swim rapidly through the water. Representatives of the family occur very generally in pools, etc. They are good divers, and also fly readily. They often collect around electric lights in such numbers as to be called electric-light bugs. Their eggs are laid in spring, and are attached mostly to the stems and leaves of aquatic plants. The young are com- paratively broad and flattened. Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Yvaterboro : town (incorporated in 1787, settled in 1789); York co., Me.; on the Portland and Rochester Railroad; 4 miles N. of Alfred, 28 miles S. W. of Portland (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 11—A). It contains the villages of Waterboro. Waterboro Center, North IVaterboro. East lVa- terboro, South We-terboro, and Ossipee Mills, 2 churches, 3 hotels, manufactories of lumber, and an apiary for breeding Italian bees and queens. Pop. (1880) 1,482; (1890) 1,357. Waterbury; city; New Haven co., Conn.; on the Nau- gatuck river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart., and the N. Y. (546 WATERBURY and New Eng. railways ; 21 miles N. by W. of New Haven, 33 miles S. W. of Hartford (for location, see map of Con- necticut, ref. 10—F). It owes its origin as a manufacturing center to the Naugatuck river and several smaller streams that unite here, but these now provide a very small fraction of the power required by its manufactories. The business of making metal buttons was begun here nearly 100 years ago, and for a long time the making of brass and German silver and of articles made therefrom was, in the U. S., con- fined to this city. The census of 1890 showed that 219 manufacturing establishments reported. These had an ag- gregate capital of $17,682,921, employed 10,354 persons, to whom $5,608,654 was paid in wages, used materials that cost $8,715,921, and had an output valued at $17,712,829. Of the total capital, about $10,000,000 was invested directly in the manufacture of brass and German silver, and of goods made therefrom. I/Vaterbury is called the Brass City, and its buttons, plated ware, clocks, and watches are known all over the world. The city has two reservoir water-supply systems, which have cost nearly $1,000,000, by one of which water is brought from the hills in the southeast part of Litchfield County, 11 miles distant; also electric lights, electric street- railway, public park, board of trade, 4 national banks with combined capital of $1,000,000, 3 savings-banks, a private bank, and 3 daily and 6 weekly newspapers. There are 23 churches, viz., Roman Catholic, 6; Methodist Episcopal, 5; Baptist, 3; Congregational, 3; Protestant Episcopal,3; Luth- ‘ eran, 2; and Second Advent, 1 ; and 3 chapels. The graded public schools number 16, employ nearly 150 teachers, and cost for maintenance over $130,000 a year. There are nearly 10,000 children of school age, and public-school property is valued at $468,500. A new high-school building was nearing completion in 1895, at an estimated cost, with site, of $130,- 000. Other educational institutions are St. Margaret’s Di- ocesan School (Protestant Episcopal, chartered in 1875), Academy of Notre Dame, a large parochial school, and sev- eral private schools. The Silas Bronson Public Library, es- tablished on a bequest of $200,000 by the man whose name it bears, was opened to the public in 1870, and contains 51,- 000 volumes, for which a handsome building was completed in 1895. The city also contains a Masonic Temple, an Odd Fellows’ Hall, a soldiers’ monument, a costly drinking-foun- tain in the park, an armory, and an opera-house. Pop. (1880) 17,806; (1890) 33,202. H. F. Bxssnrr. Waterbury: town; Washington co., Vt.; on the Water- bury river, and the Cent. Vt. Railroad; 12 miles N. W. of Montpelier (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 4—B). It contains the villages of I/Vaterbury and IVaterbury Center; has a Congregational, a Roman Catholic, two Free-will Bap- tist, and two Methodist Episcopal churches, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a graded school, the Green Moun- tain Seminary, and two hotels; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of boots and shoes, carriages and sleighs, leather, lumber, chimney-tops, and brick. Pop. (1880) 2,297; (1890) 2,232. Water Cavy: See Cxrvnxaa. Water-clock: See Cnersvnax. Water-closet: a stool in which excremental matter is diluted with water and discharged into the soil pipe of a house. It consists of an earthenware basin to which water is brought by a pipe from a small tank, and is provided with a trap at the base. This trap keeps the gases of the soil-pipe from entering the house, and a vent-pipe should be attached to it on the lower side to prevent the water in it from being discharged by siphonage. The earliest form of water-closet which was extensively used was the pan closet. In this the matter was received in a metal pan which was tipped by means of a handle attached to a lever into a lower basin con- necting with the soil-pipe. It was a very objectionable form owing to the difliculty of cleaning the lower basin, and has now gone out of use. The wash-out closet receives the mat- ter in an earthenware basin, from which it is washed out into the trap by water entering around the upper rim of the upper basin. The hopper closet is the most approved modern form, the matter falling directly into the water which fills the trap; there being really but one compart- ment to the basin, it is more easily kept in good order than the wash-out closet. There are numerous kinds of both wash-out and hopper closets which vary in the special de- tails. Automatic devices for discharging a water-closet are used to some extent. These are operated by the weight of the person upon a movable platform or movable seat to WATERCOURSES which is attached the mechanism necessary to discharge the tank. These devices are liable to get out of order and for a private house are not to be recommended. See Gerhardt’s Sanitary Plumbing and Waring’s H onse Drainage. See also PLUMBING and SEWERAGE. MANSFIELD IVIERRIMAN. Water-color Painting: painting by means of color dis- solved in water, some glutinous vehicle being combined with the color to fix it upon the surface to be painted. Fresco- painting is water-color and so is calcimining, such as is done upon ordinary walls and ceilings. The term is used especial- ly for painting upon paper with colors prepared in advance by being carefully ground and mixed with gum. The colors are sold in hard cakes, in pans, and collapsible tubes. In the early stages of this art the solid cakes did not lend them- selves to facile manipulation. The admixture of honey and glycerin with the colors, by keeping them soft, better meets the requirement of the artist for swift work, as in sketching. It has been held by some that opaque color such as has been got by mixing white with the paints is ille- gitimate, and is like a process of oil-painting. These critics hold that the lights in water-color should be got by the white paper showing through the work, which is to be kept as translucent as the pigments allow. The skill required by water-color artists is not inferior to that required by a painter in oil, but is in some respects different; thus there are some water-color artists who are not masters of oil- painting, and the reverse is also true. In fact, the artistin water-color requires greater swiftness and certainty of touch, and mistakes in drawing can not be corrected or covered over, as on canvas: the lines and the processes stand re- vealed. The ease with which the painter in water-color throws ofi sketches and produces startling effects with a few masses of light and shade, or a few bold gradations of tone, deludes many into the belief that this is a light and trifling branch of art. The method, in fact, is remarkably well suited to sketching, owing to the lightness of the materials and the rapidity with which the paper dries; the luminous- ness of the paper likewise greatly assists the immediate, superficial effect. But finished painting in water-color de- mands skill of a very high order; great works come only from masters, and no master has exhausted or even severely taxed the resources of the method. Its permanency seems to be unquestionable, though perhaps it is too early to pro- nounce a decided opinion on this point. Water-color paint- ings—not tinted drawings, which are very different thin gs— have been known to retain their freshness and brilliancy for the space of ninety years, giving then no indications of weakness. The darkening of the paper on long exposure to the air may be partly avoided by protecting the surface with glass. The colors in other respects may be trusted to hold their own with even more certainty than is the case with canvas painting. The liability of paper to be torn renders the water-color painting less durable than the work on canvas, but this disadvantage reflects no disparagement on the method of applying color. True gems of art receive the greater care from being committed to fragile materials. And this care will be bestowed the more readily as it is a peculiar property of the paper on which water-color pictures are painted to retain and give back light, as may be ob- served by the luminousness of water-colors at dusk, when oiled canvas rapidly darkens. Societies of artists in water- color hold now a distinguished place among the schools of painting. The Belgian association, under the patronage of the king, is by some ranked first. In Great Britain there are two—the Royal Society of Painters in Water-colors, which was instituted in 1804 as the Society of Painters in Water- colors, but was not chartered till 1882, and the Royal Insti- tute of Painters in Water-colors, which was founded in 1831. The French have paid less attention to water-color than the British, though individual artists owe their fame to it- Vibert and Detaille, for example—and there is a Parisian Society of Water-color Painters. Artists of the Spanish school find_it admirably adapted to produce the gorgeous effects they aim at. In New York the American Society of Painters in Water-colors was formed in 1867, and is already an established institution. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Watel'c0lll‘Ses: in law, streams of water which flow usu- ally and between defined banks. They need not flow in a constant current or regularly throughout the year in order to have the character of watercourses, but must neverthe- less be something more than mere torrents whereby the accumulation of surface water is carried off, perhaps always through the same channels or beds, but which soon become WATER—CRESS exhausted and remain dry until the next supply from the rain or melting snow. So the watercourse is, on the other hand, to be distinguished from a mere percolation of water through underground strata of the earth or the drainage of surface water, however constant these may be, without being collected into a distinct current running between ascertained banks. A stream may have the character of a watercourse though it flow, throughout its course, in underground chan- nels. The only point of difficulty in such a case is the as- certainment of the facts by which its character as a water- course, as above defined, is determined. It is only to such defined and regular watercourses, sur- face or subterranean, that the law of RIVERS and of RIPARI- AN RIGHTS (qq. v.) has any application. Percolating waters, surface waters not collected in defined channels, and occa- sional or intermittent torrents are not subject to property rights, nor will any action he for detaining or diverting such waters. G. W. KIRCHWEY. Water-cress: See CRESSES. Water-cure: See HYDROPATHY. Water-dog: See MUD-PUPPY. Water-feather: See FEATHERFOIL. Water-ferns: See FERNWDRTS (Hg/clropteridece). Water-flea: a name sometimes given to certain of the ENTOMOSTRACA (q. '0.) and especially to the Daphmdce. Waterford: county of Ireland, province of Munster; bordering S. on the Atlantic. Area, 721 sq. miles. The surface is mountainous, several ranges from 2,000 to 3,000 feet high traversing it. The Suir and the Blackwater are the chief rivers. Pasturage and dairy-farming are the prin- cipal occupations. Coal, iron, lead, copper, and marble are found. Marble quarries are worked with success. Pop. (1891), 98,251. Waterford: capital of the county of Waterford, Ireland; at the head of the tidal estuary of the Suir ; 97 miles S. S. W. by rail of Dublin (see map of Ireland, ref. 12—H). It has a good harbor, with ship-building docks and a fine quay, to which vessels of 2,000 tons burden can ascend and unload. It contains fine streets; has good educational and benevo- lent institutions; manufactures flour, ale, and spirits, and carries on a considerable trade with England, exporting large quantities of agricultural produce. Pop. of the parlia- mentary borough, returning one member (1891), 27,623. Waterford: town; Saratoga co., N. Y.; at the junction of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers, and on the Champlain Canal and the Del. and Hud. Railroad; 2 miles N. E. of Cohoes, 101} miles N. of Albany (for location, see map of New York, ref. 4-J). It has abundant water-power, paper, flour, and knitting mills, boiler-works, foundries, soap and candle works, steam fire-engine shops, machine-shops, and other manufactories, library of School District No. 1, Union Free School, a private bank, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 4,328; (1890) 5,286. Water-gas: the mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide gases which is produced by the contact of water or steam with carbon at the temperature of incan- descence, or higher. It has been considered preferable, in practice, to heat the steam itself to as high a temperature as practicable, before contact with the carbon. by passing it through some superheating apparatus. The general result of this is to produce a mixed gas containing more carbon monoxide and less carbon dioxide, the latter gas being not only a useless but a detrimental constituent, as involving the consumption of lime (or other adequate purifying agent) i11 its removal from the gaseous mixture. It would appear that no temperature, however high, altogether prevents the for- mation of carbon dioxide; but the process has been con- ducted with such success as to involve the formation of but little, if any, more carbon dioxide than occurs in ordinary illuminating gas from gas-coal. If no carbon dioxide were formed, the reaction (supposing the carbon pure) should be as follows: I-I20 + C : H2 + CO, and the resulting gas would consist of equal volumes of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. More than one circum- stance conduces, however, to prevent the volume of carbon monoxide from being equal to that of the hydrogen. One is the formation of carbon dioxide. Another is the presence of more or less iron pyrites in the carbon (which in America is always anthracite coal), the iron of which decomposes some steam without forming the equivalent of carbon WATER—LILY FAMILY 647 monoxide. Another is the fact that no natural form of car- bon (anthracite included) is free from hydrogen. It must also be added that marsh-gas is probably a con- stant component of water-gas made from anthracite coal. The consequence of this is that water-gas, after purifica- tion to separate its carbon dioxide impurities, has been found to contain a proportion of carbon monoxide as small as 36 per cent., with about 56-.1L per cent. of hydrogen and 3% of marsh-gas; the remainder, about 4 per cent., being nitro- gen, which is derived from several sources. Most of the experiments that have been made involving the preparation of water-gas—of which the most prominent in the U. S. have been by the different modifications known as the Gwynne-Harris, the Tessie-du-Motay, and the Lowe systems—have had as their object to produce a cheaper substitute for ordinary coal-gas for illuminating purposes; and the product is therefore usually combined with other gases made from gas-coal, petroleum, and the like. Its practical qualities and behavior under various conditions, and its peculiarities when handled in the way in which other gases are handled, on a large scale. are similar to those of other illuminating gases. It is produced in great volume and with great rapidity from comparatively compact apparatus, whose first cost is much less (per capacity of production) than that for ordinary coal-gas; and water-gas has therefore largely superseded coal-gas for heating and illuminating purposes. Watel'-glass, also called Soluble Glass: a class of com- pounds of silica with alkalies which contain a sufficient pro- portion of the latter to confer solubility in water. The first formation of a definite compound of this kind has the com- position K2O.4SiO2, and should contain very nearly 72 per cent. of its weight of silica. Fuchs’s soluble glass is not deliquescent, and is insoluble in cold water; solutions made with boiling water, when strong and pure, are sirupy in consistence, transparent and colorless, and of specific grav- ity 1'25 or higher. The material is insoluble in alcohol, and the latter decomposes it when in aqueous solution, pre- cipitating a silicate which contains twice the amount of silica corresponding to the above chemical formula. One of the most important adaptations of soluble-glass solutions is in the making of cement compositions and. artificial stone. When brought into contact with lime or calcium carbonate or sulphate, insoluble, hard, glassy calcium silicates are formed, and this fact has been extensively applied, not only in hardening the surfaces of artificial-stone compositions, but in compounding the whole mass thereof. Other ap- plications of water-glass are as a detergent, as a dressing for textile fabrics, for reducing the explosiveness of guncotton, for some surgical applications, as a cement for broken glass and porcelain, and even as a substitute for common glue. See GLASS. Revised by IRA Rmrsnx. Wate1'—hen: another name for the MOOR-HEN (g. v.). Water-hog, or- Water-cavy: See CAPYBARA and HYDRO- CH(ERIDE. Waterland, DANIEL, D.D.: divine and controversialist; b. at IVasely, Lincolnshire, England, Feb. 14, 1683; studied at Magdalene College, Cambridge; became a fellow (1704) and master (1713) of that college ; took orders in the Church of England; was appointed chaplain to George I. 1714 ; de- livered the Lady Moyer lectures at St. Paul‘s, London, 1720; became rector of Ellingham 1713. and of the united parishes of St. Austin and St. Faith, London, 1720; chancellor of York 1723; canon of \Yindsor 1727; vicar of Twickenham and Archdeacon of Middlesex 1730; was highly distin- guished as a Trinitarian controversialist. D. in London, Dec. 23, 1740. He has been called the last of the great patristic scholars of England. Among his writings were controversial treatises on the D'z'vt'm'z"_2/ of Chrisz‘, against Drs. Daniel Wliitby and Samuel Clarke (1718-24), in vindi- cation of the authority of Scripture, against Middleton and Tindal, and on the doctrines of the Eucharist and baptis- mal regeneration, against the laxer divines of the Anglican body; and a critical essay on the Athanasian Creed, which he traces to Hilary of Arles. A complete edition of his Works, with a Ilfcmoir, was published by Bishop \V. Van Mildert (11 vols., Oxford, 1823-28 ; 3d ed. 6 vols., 1856). Revised by S. M. Jxcxsox. Water-lily Family: the l\Tyrn})ha>.acew; a small group (thirty-five species) of herbaceous, aquatic, ehoripetalous dicotyledons, natives of all temperate and warm climates. The sepals are three to five, petals three to many, stamens 648 WATER—LILY FAMILY six to many, and ovaries three to many, free, or united into a compound pistil. The stems are creeping and submersed, and the leaves mostly peltate, long-petioled, and floating. Fourteen species are North American. The white water-lily (Castalia 0cZ0raI.‘a, Fig. 1) is common in the Eastern U. S. A FIG. 1.—White water-lily (Castalid cbdorata), one-half natural size. near relative (C. zfuberosa) occurs more abundantly in the Mississippi valley. The lotus, water-chinquapin, or yellow nelumbo (N elumbo Zutea, Fig. 2), occurs in the waters of the , ®® ,- , -I 1 (1 lg" @ , '/ .‘ l " :l.llf Wu "i"/‘QT? @ ~- ‘W t ‘t . _//jg/@657 -\ _ I , ,' /ll l;/it \ -15 ~\ ' ' I §<'->1‘ “. I _ \ --:\;“,\§\‘\\\\\\\\\\~ . I I. '_ , ,.,I/,1,” l -- , Ii 2%’ . '- .- " fl//, '. F I’ '5::;= “\-\\-4/° , ~“ ’/’{/// % ' />f/ \- fwi ' / "71 ..\\\\T\\ \ FIG. 2.—Lotus or water-chinquapin, one-fifth natural size. Mississippi valley. It is curious on account of its large top- shaped receptacle, in the cavities of whose upper surface the p__ _.r----r~ N - ¢'**1-w-%r."..?»tt.~I - ~ N1 -' istils are imbedded (Fig. 2, at the left). The common yel- ow water-lily, or spatter-dock (Nymphaaa aduena), has WATERLOO, BATTLE OF smaller, yellow flowers with fewer petals. It is widely dis- tributed in the U. S. The Victoria lily (Vz'otom'a regvia, Fig. 3), the largest of all, occurs in the waters of the Ama- zon region of South America. Its peltate leaves are 6 to 10 feet in diameter, with an upturned margin 2 inches in height. Its flowers are from 10 to 15 inches in diameter, pinkish and fragrant. The starchy seeds are eaten by the natives. It is now grown in the parks and public gardens of many cities of the U. S., and flowers in the open air as far north as \/Vashington. CHARLES E. BESSEY. Waterloo : a suburb of Berlin, the county-seat of Water- loo County, Ontario, Canada (see map of Ontario, ref. 4—C). It has a large trade, good water-power, and thriving manu- factures. Pop. (1881) 2,066; (1891) 2,941——ncarly all Ger- mans. Waterloo: a thriving town, the chef-Zz'eu of Shefford County, Quebec, Canada; near the center of the Eastern Townships, and having railway connection with Montreal by the Central Vermont Railway (see' map of Quebec, ref. 6—C). The Canadian Pacific Railway has a branch running through the town. The trade of the place consists in the export of farm produce and such manufactured goods as leather, furniture, carriages, and woolen stuffs. Pop. (1881) 1,617; (1891) 1,733. J. M. HARPER. Waterloo: city (founded in 1818); capital of Monroe co., Ill.; on the Mobile and Ohio Railroad; 22 miles S. of St. Louis, M0. (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 9-C). It is in a wheat and corn growing region; has a quarry of fine building-stone known as Waterloo marble, public-school building, St. J oseph’s Academy (Roman Catholic),a State bank with capital of $25,000, a private bank, and 2 weekly newspapers; and contains 2 flour-mills, 2 soda-water facto- ries, marble-works, large brewery and bottling-works, and ice‘-factory. Pop. (1880) 1,802; (1890) 1,860; (1895) esti- mated, 2,300. EDITOR or “ REPUBLICAN.” Waterloo: town (founded in 1857, incorporated in 1864); De Kalb co., Ind.; on the Cedar creek, and the Lake Shore and Mich. S. Railway; 28 miles N. of Fort Wayne, 79 miles W. of Toledo (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 2—G). It is in an agricultural region, is an important shipping- point for general produce, and has a graded high school, 7 churches, 2 private banks, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,376 ; (1890) 1,473; (1895) estimated, 1,800. ' EDITOR or “ PRESS.” Waterloo: city; capital of Black Hawk co., Ia.; on the Cedar river, and the Burl., Ced. Rap. and N., the Chi. Gt. W., and the Ill. Cent. railways; 93 miles W. of Dubuque, 297 miles VV. of Chicago (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 4—I). It is in an agricultural region; derives excellent power from the river for manufacturing; has gas and electric- light plants, water-works, street-railway, 2 private banks, and 2 daily, 5 weekly, and 4 monthly periodicals; and contains several flour-mills, foundries, carnage-factories, agricultur- al-implement works, railway machine-shop, well-drilling machinery-works, gasoline-engine factories, and sash, door, and blind factories. Pop. (1880) 5,630; (1890) 6,674; (1895) estimated, 9,000. EDITOR or “ OoURIER.” Waterloo : village ; one of the capitals of Seneca co., N. Y. ; in the towns of Waterloo and Fayette. on both sides of the Seneca river and the Cayuga and Seneca Canal, and on the N. Y. Cent. and Hud. River Railroad; 17 miles W. of Auburn, 58 miles E. of Rochester (for location, see map of New York, ref. 5—F). It contains several large woolen, flour, and saw mills, wheel, wagon, and piano factories, un- ion public school with library, a national bank with capital of $100,000, and a State bank with capital of $25,000; and has two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,893 ; (1890) 4,350. EDITOR or “ OBSERVER.” Waterloo, Battle of: one of the most important military engagements in all history, fought June 18,1815, between the allied forces of Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Prus- sia on the one hand, and France on the other. The battle was the culmination of the campaign resulting from the es- cape of Napoleon I. from his exile at Elba. The 1'~Iu/nd,"1'ecZ Days.—Napoleon, on his return from Elba, reached Paris on Mar. 20,1815. The great powers, whose representatives were then in session at Vienna, at once agreed to unite for his final overthrow, and the forces of Great Brit- ain, together with those of the Netherlands and Brunswick, were placed in command of the Duke of Wellington, the Prussians were united under Field-Marshal Bliicher, and the forces of Austria and Russia were to be commanded by WATERLOO, Prince Schwarzenberg. Napoleon decided to strike his blow before the enemy was ready to receive him, but wished to ostpone the movement as long as possible in order to gather is forces. He judged that 800,000 men would be necessary to defend his recovered empire, and as early as June 1 there were 560,000 men on the rolls. Charras has shown, however, that at that date there were really only 198,000 troops in condition for active service. Plan of Ocwn]Jcn'gn.—-Napoleon kept himself fully in- formed through private sources of the movements of his enemies. Though by guarding the frontier with the utmost strictness he endeavored to keep his own plans a secret from the enemy, it afterward appeared that he had not been completely successful. The Prussians under Bliicher, with headquarters at N amur, were the first to be ready for action. Of_this Napoleon was fully aware, and accordingly he de- cided to strike a decisive blow before Wellington could come to the sup ort of his ally. The line occupied by the two armies of ellington and Bliicher on the 10th of June may be roughly described as extending about 150 miles from Ostend, on the channel, through Brussels, to Liege, in the eastern part of Belgium. The headquarters of Wellington were at Brussels. Napoleon very naturally attached not a little importance to the fact that Wellington’s army depend- ed upon the channel ports for its supplies, while the supplies of the Prussians must come from the Rhine; for either army in case of defeat would naturally, Napoleon thought, fall back toward its base, and thus the two forces would be driven farther apart. Napoleon’s plan of operations seemed to be invited by the fact that a great turnpike which furnished admirable facilities for the movement of an army extended from Brussels almost due S. to the French frontier. Wel- lington’s army was entirely W. of this road, while Bliicher’s was entirely E. of it. But Wellington believed that the em- BATTLE OF 649 convenient for immediate concentration either at the western or at the eastern end of the line. \Vellington has often been criticised for this extension of his forces, but it would seem that a sufficient answer to this criticism is found in the fact that when the attack came he was able to concentrate his troops in time to frustrate the advance at Quatre Bras, upon which so much depended. The Number and Position of the Forees.—At the begin- ning of the campaign the Prussian force under the com- mand of Bliicher consisted of four corps: the first, under Ziethen, of 32,692 men, stationed at Charleroi; the second, under Pirch, of 32,704 men, at Namur; the third, under Thielmann, of 24,456, at Ciney; the fourth, under Biilow, of 31,102, at Liége; constituting a total, including 3,120 wagoners, of 124,074 men. This force consisted mainly of veterans, even the youngest of them having seen hard service in 1813 and 1814. Bliicher’s corps commanders were all ex- perienced oflicers, though Biilow was the only one of them who had ever before had an independent command. ‘Vell- ington’s force was a motley collection made up from differ- ent nationalities and speaking different languages. The number of the British troops was 31,253; of the king’s Ger- man legion, 6,387; of Hanoverians, 15,935; of Dutch-Bel- gians, 29,214; of Brunswickers, 6,808; of the Nassau con- tingent, 2,880; of engineers, etc., 1,240; making a total of 93,717, of whom 69,829 were infantry, 14,482 cavalry, and 8,166 artillery. The force was grouped into two corps, the first, of 25,233, commanded by the Prince of Orange; the second, of 24,033, by Lord Hill; while the reserve, of 20,563, and the cavalry and artillery were under the more immedi- ate direction of the duke himself. The commanders of this motley army, and even the subordinate officers, were men of large military experience, though the army as a whole was declared by the duke to be the poorest he had ever led. MAP mnsrnxrmc rm: CAMPAIGN OF WATERLO O L SICALE OF ENGLISH MILES I l I 5 0}} / peror would strike the blow at the N. WV. for the purpose of cutting off the British and Dutch from their line of supplies. Ever afterward, as his 1l[emomndnm of 1842 shows, \Velling- ton believed that Napoleon might have attacked at that point with greater chance of success. It was this belief which led the British commander, even up to the hour when the French crossed the frontier, to keep his forces distributed at points @ BRUSSELS Quatre Bras Frasncs / OH RLEOI L \ I r\[a/re 1 ies / /J ' / F EURUS ,4‘ Bry . X» : mis ‘L W / \ / Ligny r Until the blow was struck \Vellington deemed it necessary to guard the approaches by Lille and Ath, and by Mons and Hal, and consequently his first corps was stationed about Mons, Enghien, and Nivelles, while his second was distrib- uted at points as far W. as the Scheldt. The reserve was held in the vicinity of Brussels. The French army was or- ganized in five corps, besides the reserve. The first corps, 550 WATERLOO, d’Erlon’s, had 19,939 men; the second, Reille’s, 24,361; the third, Vandamme’s, 19,160; the fourth, Gérard’s, 15,995; and the sixth, Lobau’s, 10,465. Besides these, the Guard contained 20,884, and the reserve 13,784, making a total fighting force of 124,588 men. try. 23,595 cavalry, and 11,578 artillery, with 344 guns. Napoleon decided to concentrate his army on' the French frontier a few miles S. of Oharleroi, and to this end the first and second corps were sent to Solre, about 8 miles S. W. of Oharleroi, the third to Philippeville, and the fourth and sixth, with the reserve, to Beaumont. These positions of- fered good roads to the point of crossing the Sambre at and near Oharleroi, about 8 miles away. Though the Prussian army had pushed its line S. of Oharleroi, the concentration of the French at the three points named was so quietly and successfully accomplished that on the evening of June 14 Napoleon believed his movements had been unobserved. But in this he was in error, for as early as the evening of the 13th Ziethen had reported to Bliicher the gathering of two great camps at Solre and Beaumont, and had received orders in return to send heavy baggage back to Gembloux. On the evening of the 14th Bliicher received further reports, whereupon he ordered Ziethen to fall back and hold Fleurus. a village 7 miles N. of Oharleroi. At Wellington’s head- quarters it was also understood that the enemy was approach- ing. Miiflling, then with the duke, says that “ on the 13th and 14th it was positively known that the enemy was con- centrating in the neighborhood of Maubeuge.” On the evening of the 14th, Napoleon himself, who had just arrived from Paris and established headquarters at Beaumont, sent to all the regiments one of those stirring addresses he was accustomed to issue to his troops on the eve of a great bat- tle. His orders were that all should be ready to move at 3 A. M. on the 15th. Ligny and Qaatre Bms.—Various causes delayed the movements of the French. Napoleon had supposed that his whole force would be across the Sambre at noon, but in fact when night came on a little less than 100,000 were N. of the river. A glance at the map will show that two great roads extend northward from Oharleroi, the one running al- most due N. through Quatre Bras and Waterloo to Brus- sels. the other running in a northeasterly direction through Fleurus and Sombreife to Gembloux. These two roads are crossed at Sombreflfe and Quatre Bras by the great turnpike leading from Namur to Nivelles and forming the most im- portant line of connection between the allied armies. At a meeting of Wellington and Bliicher as early as May 3 it was agreed that if Napoleon should cross at Oharleroi, the utmost endeavors should be put forth to prevent his taking posses- sion of either Sombreffe or Quatre Bras. Napoleon, on the other hand, was equally aware of the importance of securing one or both of these points. He met with a stubborn resist- ance, especially from the Prussians under Ziethen, who was slowly driven back contesting every point on the way. Ziethen' held Fleurus at dark, but the most of his forces were already encamped on the slopes about Bry and Ligny. It was while Napoleon was near Fleurus that he was joined by Mar- shal Ney, who, in response to the emperor’s call at the last mo- ment, had just reached the arm y. Napoleon assigned his old marshal to the command of the left column, intrusting to him the great work of opening the road through Quatre Bras to Brussels. Ney, not having been with the army, was quite un- acquainted with its organization, and the orders that had been given the corps commanders. He gathered the threads into his hands, however, as best he could, and in the course of the afternoon pushed forward through Gosselies to Frasnes, and finally to the vicinity of Quatre Bras. Here he met with a stubborn resistance by a brigade of Wellington’s troops. It was now eight o’clock and nearly dark, and the French had been on the march for seventeen hours. Leaving his troops as he had brought them up, N ey returned to Oharleroi, where he remained until two o’clock in the morning of the 16th with N apoleon. Meanwhile the forces were gathering in the north for the contests of the morrow. Ziethen at daybreak of the 15th had sent a message to Bliicher that his posts had been driven in, and Bliieher at once issued orders to the corps of Pirch, Thielmann, and Biilow. Pirch reached Ligny at five, and Thielmann at eight on the morning of the 16th. The march of Biilow, however, was less fortunate. Sta- tioned at Liége, he had received his orders at a later hour, and as the dispatch had not told him that the conflict had already begun, did not press forward with unusual haste. The consequence was that it was not till noon of the 16th Of these, 89,415 were infan- - BATTLE OF that he reached Hannut, 25 miles from Ligny, although if his orders had been more explicit he might have arrived at Ligny in time to have saved the battle-. Wellington received the first news of Napoleon’s advance at about three o’clock in the afternoon of the 15th at Brus- sels. He hesitated, however, to issue orders until he should receive further information, alleging as a reason that the French design was not yet sufficiently revealed. It is evi- dent he feared the attack at Oharleroi was designed merely to conceal a more formidable advance by way of Mons. It was therefore not until he had received further news in the evening assuring him directly from Mons that the enemy had turned his entire force against Oharleroi that he issued two orders—the first to, be in readiness, and the second to move the whole army to the left. The delays that occurred on the part of the French on the morning of the 16th can be accounted for only by the sup- position that Napoleon was entirely ignorant of the condi- tion and situation of his enemies, and that his conjectures in regard to their movements and purposes were grossly erroneous. At six o’clock Grouchy reported to Napoleon that the Prussian army was deploying before Fleurus, where the corps of Ziethen had already been joined by that of Pirch. It was not until eight o’clock, after Thielmann’s corps, having marched 15 or 18 miles from Namur, had joined the other Prussians, that Napoleon issued the orders for the day. He then formed the army into two wings, giv- ing the right to Grouchy, the left to Ney, and keeping the reserves under his own more immediate supervision. ' The orders that he gave to Grouchy and Ney show that he had no adequate conception of what was before him. As if there were hardly more than a skirmish line of Prussians to be brushed aside, he ordered Grouchy “to march on Som- breife and take up a position there.” He was then “ to send an advance guard to Gembloux and reconnoitre all the roads, especially that to Namur, establishing also communication with Marshal Ney.” To Ney he writes in equally explicit terms. He says he will himself be at Fleurus before noon; that he will clear the road to Gembloux before three; that he will there decide what future course to pursue. His in- tention was to march on Brussels, and Ney was directed to be ready to start for Brussels in the evening. Ney received the order between ten and eleven, but did not succeed in bringing up the scattered forces from the rear so as to begin the advance from Frasnes until between one and two, Wellington arrived on the field from Brussels at about eleven. The emperor was not ready to attack until two ; but before ordering an advance he sent a note to Ney directing him to drive off vigorously what was before him, and then to wheel and assist in the annihilation of the Prus- sians. But although at first Ney made good progress and seemed fora time likely to secure the Namur road at Quatre Bras, the arrival of Picton at about three made all further advance impossible. At six Ney received a further dispatch from the emperor saying that the Prussians were hotly con- testing their attacks, and calling upon him “ to maneeuver immediately in such a manner as to envelop the right of the enemy and fall upon his rear.” Thereupon Ney called up all his reserves for another desperate attack. But Wellington’s force had now been increased to over 30,000 men, and, feel- ing himself now superior to the enemy, the duke took the offensive and drove back the exhausted troops of Ney to Frasnes. Here the corps of d’Erlon, which by a misunder- standing had marched over to assist Napoleon and then turned back, came up just in time to prevent further pur- suit by the allies. This defeat of Ney at Quatre Bras compelled Napoleon to finish the battle of Ligny without his assistance. The des- erate fight had continued about three hours, chiefly on the Prussian left, where Vandamme had attacked again and again without important results. At about half-past six, when the Prussians had become entangled in the indecisive results all along the line, the emperor ordered the Guard to charge upon the enemy’s center. The furious onsets of the French pierced the russian line and threw it immedi- ately into confusion. The French captured twenty-one guns, but darkness prevented ursuit. Bliicher, who had fallen from his horse and been isabled, at this point turned over the command to Gneisenau, his chief of staff. In the course of the night Gneisenau decided upon a general retreat north- ward upon Wavre, and gave orders to start at daylight. By this movement Napoleon was completely deceived.. Never thinking that the Prussians would abandon their source of supply at Namur, he assumed that they had retreated in that WATERLOO, direction. On the morning of the 17th he wrote N ey : “ The Prussian army has been put to rout; Gen. Pajol is pursuing it on the road to Narnur and Liége.” It was the error of this supposition that made victory impossible on the following a . l’Vaterloo.—Napoleon, apparently quite satisfied with what had been accomplished on the 16th, did not leave his tent at Fleurus until late on the morning of the 17th. The Prussian troops, having started at about three o’clock, had already been more than four hours on the march. Ziethen and Pirch made their way due northward by narrow roads through Tilly and Gentinnes, while Thielmann, who had the reserves and a large part of the artillery and heavy wagons, took the better though longer road, through Gembloux. Biilow, who had learned of his mistake in delaying at Hannut on the morning of the 16th and had hurried along the old Roman road toward Ligny, only to find himself too late, received or- ders early on the 17th to turn from Gembloux to Wavre. At nightfall Ziethen and Pirch had their corps safe on the north side of the Dyle at Wavre, Thielmann was on the south side, and Biilow was at Dion, 2 miles to the southeast. Gneisenau in the course of the night sent word to ‘Wellington of his line of retreat, but the messenger did not reach the headquarters of the duke at Quatre Bras until seven in the morning of the 17th. Wellington, on receiving assurance from Bliicher that he would join him, began to fall back, and at night the 30,000 who had fought at Quatre Bras, united with about 42,000 others, slept upon the field which on the following day was to be made one of the most famous battle-fields of the world. Early in the morning of the 17th Ney sent to Napoleon for instructions. In answer to this inquiry the emperor sent a letter containing the most explicit directions. Ney was ordered to concentrate all his forces near Quatre Bras and await further orders. He added : “ To-day is required for completing this operation, filling up ammunition, and gathering stragglers and detachments.” From this it was made evident to Ney that no general engagement was in- tended unless the allies should assume the offensive. The emperor after sending this letter reviewed the several divi- sions at Bry and at Ligny, and even took the time to address the Prussian prisoners at some length. At noon, hearing that Wellington was still at Quatre Bras, he directed Soult to send another letter to Ney in which he said : “ The em- peror has just placed in position before M arbais a corps of infantry and the Imperial Guard. His Majesty desires me to tell you it is his intention that you should attack the enemy at Quatre Bras and drive them from their position, and that the corps at Marbais should second your operations. His Majesty is going to Marbais and waits impatiently for your re ort.” It was just after sending this letter that he called rouchy to his side and intrusted to him a force of 33,000 men and orally directed him to pursue Bliicher, “ com- plete his defeat,” and communicate constantly with the em- peror by the Namur road. Grouchy expressed himself freely as to the difficulty of finding and defeating the Prussians, who had about eight hours the start. But the emperor in- sisted upon the marshal’s doing his duty. At Marbais, how- ever, Napoleon received information which shook his confi- dence that Bliicher had gone to Namur, and sent, through the hand of Gen. Bertrand. positive instructions for Grouchy’s guidance. He was to march on Gembloux and throw out exploring parties “to ascertain whether the Prussians were separating from the British or bent on uniting with them to save Brussels and try the fate of another battle.” This letter, written about three o’clock, probably reached Grouchy not earlier than four, at the very time when a full half of the Prussian army was north of the Dyle at Wavre. After two o’clock it rained in torrents, and it was 10 P. M. when the rear of Grouchy’s column bivouacked at Gembloux. It is worthy of note, moreover, that it was not until he reached this point that Grouchy was able to state positively that even a part of the Prussians had gone to \/Vavre. The reports in- dicated, however, that Bliicher himself with one column had retired to Liege, and that one column had gone to N amur. At 2 A. M. he satisfied himself that the whole army had gone to Wavre ; and accordingly, at that hour, he wrote to Napo- leon that he should move in that direction early in the morn- ing to prevent Bliicher from uniting with Wellington for the protection of Brussels. When Napoleon, leaving Marbais at about two o’clock, reached Quatre Bras, he found that Wellington’s force had left before noon, and that Ney’s army was still resting about the crossing of the Namur and the Charleroi roads. Napo- BATTLE OF 651 leon‘s re-enforcements raised the army to 71,947 men and 240 guns. The French marched toward Waterloo and biv- ouacked in parallel lines only a few thousand yards from the enemy. Both armies were drenched during the night, as the downpour of rain did not cease until three or four hours after sunrise ; but the French, nearly destitute of fire- wood, suffered more severely than the British. Both the allies and the French were put under arms at an early hour. The French lines were drawn up in full view of the allies, and were purposely so disposed as to make the largest possible impression. The emperor went from di- vision to division cheering the men and showing the ut- most confidence in the issue of the day. Wellington was equally active. He gave his final directions to the various commanders, and then dispatched messengers to Bliicher. Three contingencies were provided for: If Napoleon should attack the British right, the Prussians were to approach by way of Ohain for the purpose of meeting the two armies ; if he should assault the center or the left, they were to advance by St.-Lambert and Lasne, and take the French on the right flank ; if he should advance to St.-Lambert, Bliicher was to meet him in front, while Wellington would attack vigor- ously in the rear. At half-past eleven the French began a cannonade and apparently were making preparations for an assault upon the center, but on account of the difficulty of moving the guns Napoleon decided to delay the forward movement until one o’clock. Before the advance began the head of Biilow’s column had been a full hour in sight on the heights of St.-Lambert. Wellington knew that these were Prussians, but Napoleon could not be sure whether they were Prussians or Frenchmen. But where was Grouchy‘? Leaving Gembloux at about the same hour that Bliicher left VVavre, the head of his col- umn under Vandamme had reached Nil St. Vincent, and Grouchy himself had reached Sart-les-Walhain, when, at half-past eleven, the roar of artillery in the west announced that the battle had begun. Napoleon had ordered Grouchy to find Bliicher and follow him. The question now arose whether he should carry out his orders strictly or, on hear- ing the cannonade, wheel to the left, and by crossing the D yle near Mousty attempt either to arrest the Prussians or to push on with all possible speed to Planchenoit. The question was discussed by Grouchy and his ofiicers, some of whom warmly urged the latter movement. But the head of the column was 14 miles from Planchenoit, they would have for most of the way only a single narrow road, the mud was so deep that all movements must be exceedingly slow, the general of ar- tillery protested that it would be impossible to reach the battle-field in time to be of assistance that day, and Grouchy decided to continue his march on Wav1'e. Whether he was right in this decision has been a matter of almost endless controversy among military critics. The head of Grou- chy’s column after the utmost endeavors did not reach W avre until after two o'clock. Over a much worse road it could hardly have reached Mousty before half-past two or three. But at three the last of Biilow’s column was passing St.-Lambert, and Pirch was approaching. St.-Lambert, moreover, is more than 5 miles nearer the battle-field than Mousty. From all this, it appears that it would have been impossible for Grouchy to interfere with the advance of Bi'1- low, and probably impossible to arrest Pirch. But even if he had succeeded in reaching the second of the Prussian columns, Pirch and Thielmann, with their superior num- bers, would at least have kept him back, and Biilow and Ziethen would have been left to pursue their way undis- turbed. In view of these facts, it is not easy to see how Grouchy could in any way have influenced the result of the battle. The first advance ordered by Napoleon at Waterloo was on the Ohé‘.teau Hougoumont. at the left of the line, for the purpose of diverting attention from the more formidable at-tacks soon to be made on the right and the center. But the walls had been pierced with portholes by order of Wel- lington, and every assault was successfully repulsed. The attacking force was increased until it numbered about 12.000 men, and so persistently and wastefully was the effort kept up that very few of this force took any part in the assault on the main line of the allies. Napoleon’s plan was to make the main attack upon the center, for the purpose of taking possession of the high ground where the Wavre turnpike enters that from Charle- roi. To prepare the way for the charge an enormous bat- tery of seventy-eight pieces planted in front of the French lines had continued for an hour and a half to fire at a range 652 VVATERLOO, BATTLE OF of less than a third of a mile into the allies lying across the pike at the junction of the ‘Wavre road. The attack was to be made in four columns, so arranged that they were from twenty-four to twenty-seven ranks deep. This unusual ar- rangement proved to be unwieldy, and when the assault came tended only to confusion. The charge was led by d’Erlon, and at first swept everything before it. The Dutch-Belgian brigade fell back in confusion. The French reached the crest of the ridge, when Picton’s division re- ceived them with so hot a fire, and then charged them with so much vigor that they were arrested and staggered. While they were trying to disengage their ranks Pon- sonby’s brigade of heavy cavalry charged them furiously, and, riding down between the columns, cut down the infan- try right and left with such fury that the French, leaving two eagles and fifteen guns in the hands of the British, were obliged to withdraw in confusion. It was at this moment that Napoleon saw the Prussians approaching in such mass as to require his immediate attention. He decided to send the Sixth Corps to hold Bliicher in check beyond Planche- noit. This necessity weakened his attacking line by about 16,000 men, making his available force now some 6,000 less than Wellington’s. The next movement was a reckless assault upon the farm- house at La Haye Sainte, the walls of which were defended with the same vigor that had characterized the defense of Hougoumont. After vast numbers of oificers and men had been sacrificed, the place was taken just before four o’clock. Napoleon now thought it necessary to give his own atten- tion to the Prussians, who were striking at his flank and rear 1% miles away. Meanwhile it had been decided to make the next great assault on the west of the Brussels pike. It Was therefore determined to make the advance with cavalry. From four o’clock until six, N ey hurled the magnificent divi- sions of Milhaud, Lefevre-Desnouettes, Kellermann, and Guyot in four successive assaults upon the British squares, but could not break through the lines. While these events were going on Napoleon himself was occupied in defending his flank and rear against Biilow at Planchenoit. The Prussians drove back the Sixth Corps and took possession of the village; but the emperor, believ- ing that his flank should be defended at all hazards, called in strong re-enforcements from the Old, the Middle, and the Young Guard, the very élite of the army. \Vith the help of these he retook the town. and then, thinking the line was safe, returned to witness the results of Ney’s charge. It was now seven o’clock, and Pirch was only 2 miles in the rear of Biilow. Ney, having no control over the Guard, had exhausted his resources, and an hour of lull gave VVel- lington time to reform his line. The emperor now had before him the hard task of bring- ing his force into order for a final attempt to break the enemy’s center. There were but eight battalions remaining that could be used against the allies. These, with such artillery as could be manoeuvered for their support, were drawn up just at the left of the Brussel’s pike, and, after be- ing addressed and appealed to by Napoleon, were given into the command of Ney. They were to advance by column di- agonally across the field so as to attack the British center. As they advanced at quickstep, shouting Vice l’Empereur, all firing ceased. The heavy infantry, who were to receive them, lay flat upon the ground until the column was within 50 or 60 paces ; Maitland’s brigade, presenting a front of 450 men, were then ordered to stand up. The.French suddenly halted. As they seemed to hesitate, M aitland’s famous brigade sprang forward with the bayonet. The charge was supported by the allies with a vigorous fire on the flanks, and the French were forced back-to their own lines with great slaughter. It was at this time that the head of Ziet-hen’s column reached the ground. Coming from Ohain, he approached the field opposite the space which divided the contending armies. The division of Steinmetz at once wheeled into position and began a furious attack upon the French, spreading terror and confusion throughout the right wing of the army. At this juncture the duke, seeing that the battle was won, ordered an advance along the whole line. The French gave way at every point. The emperor did what he could, but the troops were everywhere too much exhausted to make any determined resistance. Only one line of retreat was open. The army was crowded into a confused mass, and the Prussian cavalry took up the pur- suit with such terrific vigor that at Genappe the French abandoned 100 cannon, and from that point made no attempt to preserve even the semblance of order. The WATER-METER army broke into confusion, and the flying troops, throwing away every incumbrance, made their way as best they could toward Paris. Napoleon himself left the field in the center of a square “ with a s'omber, but calm countenance, his far- seeing glance probing futurity, and seeing that more than a battle had been lost on that day.” Before sunrise he reached Charleroi, on the 21st he arrived at Paris, and on the 22d he presented his abdication. The number of casualties to the French it is impossible to determine. Charras, who studied the matter, estimates the killed, wounded, and missing at between 31,000 and 32,- 000. The allied armies lost in killed, wounded, and missing, a total of 22,428. The losses of the British, Scott says, “ threw half Britain into mourning.” AUTHORI'1‘IES.——Th8 accounts of the campaign and battle written before a critical examination had been made of the dispatches were all very untrustworthy. Even the celebrated description of Thiers has been shown to abound in errors of the most fundamental and important nature. Alison’s ac- count, written from the British point of view, has also been entirely superseded. The two accounts of the cam- plaign and battle given by Napoleon himself while at St. elena, though important, are shown by the dispatches to abound in errors and misrepresentations. In some impor- tant points also they contradict each other. The most im- portant modern works, written after a study not only of the original dispatches, but also of the memoirs of the offi- cers who took part, are the following: Charras, Histoire de la Campagne de 1815 ; Chesney, Waterloo Lectures (London, 1868; 3d ed. 1874); Clausewitz, Der Feldzug von 1815 in Franhreich; Gardner, Quatre Bras, Ligny, and Waterloo; Hooper, Waterloo, the Downfall of the First Napoleon; Kennedy, Notes on the Battle of Waterloo; Miifiiing, A Sketch of the Battle of Waterloo; Ollech, Geschichte cles Felclzuges von 1815; Quinet, Histoire de la Campagne cle 1815 ; Siborne, History of the War in France and Belgium in 1815; and Ropes, The Campaign of Waterloo (New York, 1893). Those of Ropes, Gardner, and Chesney are the most valuable authorities in English. The fullest bibliog- raphy and the best maps are in Ropes. Gardner abounds in admirable notes, and has an interesting Appendix of “ Water- loo Poetry.” The highest value of Chesney perhaps is his merciless and irrefutable exposure of the mendacity of Napo- leon, and the consequent worthlessness of such descriptions as those of Thiers and others that are founded on the em- peror’s representations. C. K. ADAMS. Watermelon : the fruit of the Oitrullus yulgaris, a trail- ing annual vine of the family Oucurbitacece, anativc of Asia and Africa, extensively found wild on the plains of the lat- ter continent, where some varieties or specimens of its fruit are bitter and poisonous. Watermelons are largely grown in the U. S. for their cooling, watery pulp. In warm cli- mates sugar has been profitably made from watermelons. About sixty different varieties are offered by seedsmen. A variety with hard, inedible flesh, the rind of which is used for preserves, is popularly known as citron. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Water-meter: an automatic device for measuring and registering the flow of water. One of the most difficult problems in municipal engineer- ing is to prevent wanton waste of the water supplied to the inhabitants at public cost. (For statistics illustrating the fact that great waste is prevalent, see WATER-wonxs.) The only mode of restraining such waste appears to lie in a system of charges based upon the quantity of water actually drawn by each consumer. Such a system of charges pre- supposes accurate means of determining the quantity of water drawn. The device made use of must be capable of registering the smallest as well as the largest quantity deliverable; it must work under all pressures from a few feet up to 200 or more ; it must work for long periods with- out attention ; it must not leak ; it must be capable of standing idle or even of remaining dry without losing its efliciency; it must offer but slight resistance to the flow of the water: and, finally, since it must be applied in great numbers, it must be furnished at a moderate cost. A leading type of modern water-meter is the disk meter. Figs. 1 and 2 show the principle on which the meter acts ; 1 is a section on the line A B through the chamber of the me- ter, and 2 shows the meter in plan. The top and bottom of the chamber are formed by two conical surfaces, whose ver- tices meet at the center and whose axes coincide. They are joined by the vertical partition c d extending from the cen- WATER—METER ter to the circumference. The circular wall of the cham- ber, uniting the outside edges of the cones, is a spherical surface. A slight en- largement of the cham- ber at g receives the admission-pipe I6 and the discharge-pipe Z. A round ball is fitted in the center of the chamber, the cones and the partition be- ing cut away to receive it. It fits watertight and is sus- ceptible of a slight rotary movement. Through the center of the ball passes the disk a b, and at right angles to the disk is the spindle p. The disk exactly fits the interior of the spherical zone of the chamber. In the position shown the disk touches the upper conical surface in a line extend- ing from e to the ball, and the lower one in a line extend- ing from the ball to f, Fig. 2. FIG. 2. As shown in the figure, the portion of the chamber below the disk is divided into two parts, viz., the first, which is in communication with the supply-pipe, extends from the par- tition c d to the line f; the second, which is in communica- tion with the discharge-pipe Z, extends from f to the parti- tion. The upper part of the chamber is also divided into two parts, viz., the first, which, in communication with the supply-pipe la, extends from the partition to e; the second, communicating with the discharge Z, extends from c to the artition. It should have been noted before that the disk y means of a radial slot “ straddles ” the partition. From this description it will be apparent that the admis- sion of water through the pipe 70 will cause the disk to take FIG. 3. an oscillating or “ wabbling ” motion. The line of contact e f will travel round and round the chamber. The point of the spindle p will move in a circle, and at every rotation one- half the contents of the chamber will be discharged. In practice the point of the spindle turns a crank and gives mo- tion to a train of wheel-work, by means of which theamount of the discharge is indicated on a dial-plate. The combination shown in Figs. 3 to 5 is the crown meter. a type adopted by the city of Boston. Fig. 3 is a plan of the case showing the ports and passages in the bottom. Fig. 653 4 represents the case with piston. Fig. 5 is a section on the line a b : B is the piston which rests on the bottom plate and is covered by the top plate, both fitting so closely that the FIG. 4. piston revolves water-tight between them. The piston, as will be seen, is susceptible of a slight revolving motion, roll- ing around the case so that its center describes a small cir- cle shown in dotted line at the center of the case. The pro- E1 . " = I ri I: "i: I " “— I L ——-Q“ mm jections j on the piston make water-tight contact with the projections i on the case. In the position shown the cham- ber is divided into two compartments on the line a b. The piston is provided with the central cavities 0 above and q below, and the annular grooves f above and g below; g com- municates with 0 by the internal passages m m, and q com- municates with f by the passages n. The two compartments into which the chamber is divided on the line a b mav be called the high-pressure and the low-pressure compartments. The rotation of the piston is eifected by such an arrange- ment of ports and passages as keeps the high-pressure com- partment in communication with the inlet a and the low- pressure in communication with the outlet Z2. The lower plate has the ports c1 c3 c3. etc., communicating by means of the curved passages with the spaces It; he 713, etc. The up- per plate is an exact duplicate of the lower. but being re- versed in position, it brings the upper port c4 in communi- cation with ha instead of /24, etc. The space q stands in constant communication with the influx, and, as the piston rotates, successively opens and closes the ports 01 ca cs, etc. Likewise the space 0 is in constant communication with the efflux, and successively opens and closes the upper orts. When the lower port 02 is opened to the influx throng the space q the opposite lower port cs is opened to the efiiux through the groove g and passage m. W’ hen the upper port c2 is in communication with the effiux through the space 0, the opposite upper port cs is opened to the influx through the groove f and passage n. As j; passes out of contact with is, js comes into contact with i4, and the line of division be- tween high and low pressure is all is. This line of division travels round and round the chamber. The spindle 1' moves the train of wheel-work which registers the quantity of water. One of the oldest forms of meter which has attained any success is the piston meter, in which the water is admitted alternately to opposite sides of a reciprocating piston. In the early forms two pistons were used which mutually worked each other’s valves. Latterly a successful meter has been made with a single piston. 654, WATER-MOLE Another type of water-meter adopts the principle of the rotary pump. See PUMP and BLOWING-MACHINES. Reference must be made to the Venturi meter, a type de- veloped by Clemens Herschel. This is more especially ap- plicable to large quantities of water. As indicated at Fig. 6, it consists simply of a contracted section in the line of M1 FIG. 6. pipe conveying the water. A small pipe, a, is inserted at the point where the contraction commences, and another, b, at the smallest section of the pipe. The height to which water rises in a and b indicates the pressure at these points respec- tively ; or when, as more commonly happens, the pressure is too great to be observed in that manner, it can be shown by pressure-gauges. In moving through the diminishing section of the pipe from a to b the velocity of the water is greatly increased and its pressure is correspondingly diminished. The difference of pressure between a and b, coupled with the dimensions of the pi e, is a correct indication of the quantity of water flow- ing. In moving through the expanding pipe the velocity of the water diminishes, and its momentum is expended in re- storing the pressure. The pressure is the same at c as at a, except the slight loss due to friction. The action of this meter, whereby it furnishes an indica- tion of the quantity of water passing the pipe, is exceed- ingly simple. Its freedom from liability to derangement of every kind is also manifest. As regards the registering of its indications, however, it is under a great disadvantage. Every other form of meter imparts a movement to some- thing whereby its indications may be registered through a train of wheel-work. The movement for registering the in- dications of this meter must be obtained from an independ- ent source actuated like the works of a clock. It is claimed that this difficulty has been overcome and a satisfactory registering mechanism perfected. J . P. FRIZELL. Water-mole : any one of the ORNITHORHYNCHIDZE (g. v.). See also DUCKBILL. Water-moulds : the Saproleyniaceoe ; a family of aquatic, saprophytic or parasitic plants, related to the Downy Mil- dews and belonging to the order Siphoneae of the class Ohlorophycece. They con- sist of non - septated, branching filaments which grow in and on the tissues of the host, eventually pro- ducing terminal, elongated zotisporangia, from which emerge myriads of bicili- ated zoiispores. The latter are the active agents of dispersion, and after a pe- riod of activity they be- come covered with a wall and are quiescent for a time; in some cases there is a second period of activ- ity, followed by a second period of rest; eventually they germinate and give rise to new plants. The sexual organs con- sist of globular or ellipsoid o6gones and slender an- therids, which are devel- oped upon the main branches of the plant. It is now generally believed that the antherids are impotent, and that the odspores develop without an actual fertilization; at least it is certain that this is so in many cases. After a pe- riod of rest the oiispore germinates by sending out a vege- tative filament, which finally develops into a plant similar to that upon which it was produced. Water-moulds “ are found more or less commonly in all A, a fly attacked by water-moulds ; B, end of a filament, produc- ing zotispores; C, portion of a filament with antherids and oiigones. Highly magnified. WATER—POWER fresh waters, but prefer such as are pure and clear. They occur most abundantly and develop most luxuriantly in such waters as contain and favor the growth of the pure- water algae ” (Humphrey). In such situations they live upon dead woody or herbaceous parts of plants, or the bed- ies of dead insects, crustacea, fishes, etc. They may attack the eggs of animals, as of fishes, and in certain cases they attack living animals, as the young fishes in fish-hatcheries, and more rarely the large fishes in streams. The salmon in certain rivers in England and Scotland suffered greatly from the attack of a species known as Saproleynia ferazv. All told, there are about sixty known species of water- moulds, belonging to eight or ten genera, of which the most important are Saprolegnia, Achlya, Dictynehns, and Lepto- mitas. LI'rERATURE.——Berlese and de Toni, in Saccardo’s Sylloge Fnngoram, vol. vii. (1888) ; Fischer, in Rabenhorst’s Krypto- gamenflora von Dentschland, Oesterreich and cler Schweiz. (1892); Humphrey’s Saprolegniacew of the United States, with Notes on other Species (1892); Schrbter, in Engler and Prantl’s N atilrliehe Pflanzenfamilien (1893). CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Water-oats: See RIcE, INDIAN. Water-ouzel: a kind of bird also called dipper. DIPPERS. Water-plantain Family: the Alismacew; asmall group1 (sixty-five species) of mostly aquatic monocotyledons, wit hermaphrodite or diclinous flowers; stamens mostly six; pistils six or more, free and superior; ovules one to many; seeds without endosperm. The members of this family may well be regarded as representing the primitive me- See A, flower of Alisma plantago ; B, vertical section of flower. nocotyledonous structure approaching that of the CRow- FOOT (q. v.) in the dicotyledons. Probably in these two families there is the nearest relationship between monocoty- ledons and dicotyledons. From fifteen to twenty species occur in North America. Alisma plantago, the water-plan- tain, is very common in shallow ponds and ditches. The numerous species of arrowheads, of the genus Sagittaria, are well known from the arrow-like shape of their large leaves. CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Water-plants: See AQUATIC PLANTS. Water-pores: openings in the epidermis of higher plants structurally identical with the breathing-pores (see STO- MATE), but serving as exits for excreted water-drops and not as air-passages. Their guard cells are not movable, hence the pores remain open. They occur at the ends of fibro- vascular bundles, usually at the margins of leaves. In the fuchsia they occur upon the summits of the teeth, into each of which a reduced bundle penetrates. The water exuded by these pores in many cases contains calcium carbonate, which is deposited as evaporation takes place. A full ac- count of these structures is given in de Bary’s Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of Phaneroyams and Ferns (English edition, 1884). CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Water-power: power derived from water falling through a certain height whereby its energy is converted by means of hydraulic motors into useful work. Water-privileges, as they are commonly called, exist on nearly all streams of any considerable magnitude. and in settled countries, where they have become developed or util- ized by the construction of dams or otherwise, they are regarded as a kind of property having special valuc._de- pending on the quantity of ‘water available and the height of fall. The quantity of water which flows yearly through a stream at a given point depends on the drainage area of the stream above that point and the yearly rainfall over this area. Inasmuch as the rainfall is seldom the same in any two years, and is never distributed through the year in the same proportions in any two years, the quantity of flow of all streams varies not only iI1 diflerent days, weeks, and WATER-POWER months of the same year, but also varies greatly in differ- ent years. It will be found generally that the total amount which flows away from a watershed is $0 to 70 per cent. of the rainfall for the year, while the minimum daily flow for a month is many times less than the average, and l3h6.II]'&Xl- mum many times greater. On account of these variations of flow a storage reservoir is necessary for water-powers, and a certain proportion between the capacity of such a reservoir and the number of square miles in the watershed is necessary if the full average daily flow for the year is to be secured. This proportion is seldom realized, on account of the expense attending the establishment of reservoirs; and the consequence is that a vast ma]ority of the improved water-powers of the world are subyect to great fluctuations of supply. In wet seasons a large quantity of water runs to waste over the dams, and in dry seasons the supply is deficient, often requiring the stopping of_ mill machinery: The quantity of power which any privilege can furnish depends not only on the quantity of water, but also directly on the available fall. When the available_head and the quantity of water which flows are determined, the total theoretical energy of the water for a given time is found by multiplying the number of pounds of water that_fiows during this time by the number of feet of fall. . This Wlll give the energy expended in foot-pounds. If the time be one minute, and the number thus obtained be divided by 33,000, the theoretical horse-power of the waterfall will be given. Since no motor can realize a perfect etficiency, however, the actual horse-power is less than the theoretical. If we sup- pose the motor to utilize 75 per cent. of the available en- ergy, the horse-power will be found bydividing the product of the height and weight of water which fiows_ in one min- ute (in feet and pounds) by 41,000. It is very diificult, how- ever, to estimate the horse-power of a water-privilege with exactness, as it must vary with the varying flow of water; nothing, in fact, being fixed but the fall. The motors employed in connection with water-powers are known as water-wheels and water-engines; the latter being used, however, only to a limited extent for small powers. Water-wheels are classed as overshot wheels, breast wheels, undershot wheels, and turbines, the latter forming a distinct class of modern development which has superseded to a great extent the other classes. See TURBINE and WHER- WHEELS. The great water-powers of Holyoke, Lowell. Lawrence, Birmingham, and Minneapolis, in the U. S., may be referred to as illustrative on a grand scale of the value of improved water-powers, while the mills scattered thr_oughout nearly every populous district of civilized communities furnish ex- amples on smaller scales. Yet a great many unoccupied and unimproved sites for valuable water-powers still remain. _It has been estimated that the rivers of the U. S. can furnish about 200,000,000 horse-power, while the amount utilized is only about 1,500,000 horse-power. The possibilities for the future are hence very great, and when coal becomes high iii price water-power is sure to take the place of steam. In addition an enormous amount of available power is wasted twice every day by the energy expended in the fall of the tides, and only the expense of deriving power from this source prevents its utilization. _ o _ Water-power is often sold by the “ mill-power,” which in any particular case is defined by a certain quantity of water under a given head. At Holyoke a mill-power is 38 cubic feet a second under 20 feet head, or 86 theoretic horse- powers. At Minneapolis it is 30 cubic feet a second under 22 feet head, or '75 theoretic horse-power. At Holyoke the cost of one mill-power for sixteen hours a day is $300 a car. The. possibility of transforming power into electric energy by means of dynamos and of transmitting it to consider- able distances has given a marked impetus to the develop- ment of water-power. Many cities are lighted and many lines of electric railway are operated by power thus trans- mitted through distances of from 5 to 20 miles, while in one or two special cases the distance is over 100 miles. The utilization of the power of Niagara Falls is an example. The mean discharge of the Niagara river above the falls, as determined in 1892 by the U. S. Cor s of Engineers, is 230,000 cubic feet a second. A vertical escent of 160 feet occurs at the falls. The theoretic power of the falls is then about 4,000,000 horse-power, nearly equal to all the power, both water and steam, used in the U. S. The possibility of utilizing a portion of this has long been discussed, and a number of mills on ‘the U. S. side below the falls have been WATERSHED 655 erected to which water is led by canals from points above. In 1892 the construction of a very large power-plant was begun by the Cataract Construction Company on the U. S. side of the river about ll miles above the city of NIAGARA FALLS (q. 11.). The water is led from the river by means of a canal 1,260 feet long to the wheel-pits, passes down through steel penstocks 7%; feet in diameter to turbines, which are placed 136 feet below the head-water level. After leaving the turbines the water falls to the bottom of the wheel-pit and is carried by a tunnel, over 7,000 feet long, to the river below the American fall. The wheel-pits are designed for ten turbines, which in total can furnish 50,000 horse-power, converted into electrical energy by means of dynamos. The work was partly completed and the first power delivered in 1895. See TURBINE and TUNNELs AND TUNNELING. Surveys and plans of other companies on both sides of the Niagara river have been undertaken with the intention of erecting other large power-plants. As all of these can scarcely utilize more than 5 per cent. of the total available power, the quantity of water passing over the falls can not be materially diminished. The cost of water-power, when produced under favorable conditions, varies from one-eighth to one-fourth of that of steam-power. See HYDRAULICS and WATER-WHEEL. MANSFIELD IVIERRIMAN. Vvatergiroofing‘ : the art of rendering textile fabrics, paper, an other substances impervious to water. This re- sult is usually obtained either by applying an insoluble coating upon the surface, or by causing the formation of a compound that exerts a repellent action toward water in the pores of the article, often by means of double decompo- sition. One of the most important branches of this art is the application of India-rubber in the preparation of mack- intoshes and other water-proof wearing apparel. (See INDIA- RUBBER.) Woolen and other goods may be rendered water- proof by first saturating them with a solution of soap, then with a solution of alum, or by successive immersions in solu- tions of gelatin and galls (tannic acid), whereby the same com- pound that is formed in the tanning of leather is produced. Paper is rendered impervious to grease and water by im- mersing it, when unsized, in a solution of shellac in borax. The product obtained in this manner somewhat resembles parchment paper. The Japanese and Chinese are said to prepare water-proof paper for the manufacture of umbrellas, water-buckets, rain-coats, etc., by treating it separately with solutions of potassium dichromate and glue, the gelatin be- ing thus rendered insoluble. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Water-ram: See HYDRAULIC RAM. Water-rat, or Beaver-rat: the Hydronzys ehrysogaster of Tasmania ; an animal resembling the muskrat in many par- ticulars, and deriving its scientific name from the golden- yellow color of its belly; the back is of a dark rich brown. It is an expert swimmer, frequents both salt and fresh water, is nocturnal in habits, and when eating supports itself upon the hind legs and tail. Water-rice: See RICE, INDIAN. Watershed [water + shed, a parting < O. Eng. seéadan : Germ. se7zee'den, part, separate] : a geographical term of some- what ambiguous meaning, as it has been used in difierent senses by various writers. Some apply the term to the slopes of the land from which water is shed to a river, thus making every valley consist of two watersheds which unite along the stream-line. Others, with the support of etymol- ogy and better usage, mean by it the line of water-parting that separates the slopes on the two sides of a height of land. In the U. S. the word divide has come into general use; this lends itself better to derivative terms, such as “ subdivides,” the name for the numerous subordinate water-partings be- tween the minor streams of a river system; “ undivided” areas, meaning the plain surfaces which are not yet dissected by streams, and from which the rainfall is disposed of more by penetration into the soil or by evaporation than by run- off. These are by no means rare. It is a serious error to suppose that watersheds are necessarily well defined. They may be very indefinite, being areas rather than lines, as be- tween the branches of the Missouri and the Saskatchewan on the undivided plains of the Rocky Mountains. Wlienever one side of a divide is eroded more rapidly than the other, the watershed will be shifted toward the side of slower wast- ing. (For such “ migration of divides.” see RIVERS.) In some cases divides are altered by movements of the land. The former discharge of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay across the province of Ontario to the lake of that name has 656 VVATER—SPANIEL been changed by a general uplift of the land to the N. E. ; thus a divide now crosses the former path of the lake outlet. (See NIAGARA.) The former presence of a great ice-sheet over Canada and some of the Northern U. S. greatly Inter- fered with the discharge of rivers in accordance with land watersheds; thus many of the great lakes were for a_ time drained by southward overflows when the ice stood In the way of their present northeastward discharge. The former channels of these temporary overflows are easily traceable at several points; for example, along the path of the canal now in construction by which Lake Michigan 1s agam to be in part drained southward ; and between the head waters of the Maumee and Wabash in Northern Ohio, where Lake Erie once ran over to the Mississippi system. It occasion- ally happens that a lake has two or more outlets, several such lakes being known in Canada. The line of the water- shed between the outflowing streams is then practically interrupted on the lake surface. IV. M. DAVIS. Water-spaniel : any one of several breeds of the spaniel, distinguished by fondness for swimming. They have rather long, curled hair, which has an oily feel and turns water very well. They are largely used by sportsmen for the pur- pose of fetching out of the water the game which they have shot, or of swimming to the opposite bank of _a river or to an island and starting therefrom the various birds that love such moist localities. The Irish water-spaniel, one of the best-known breeds, is a dark brown, frequently with a white spot on the breast. F. A. L. Waterspout: a secondary storm closely allied in forma- tion to the tornado, hail-storm, thunder-squall, and white squall. Under certain conditions the broad, thin “sinks ” of revolving air called cyclones develop in the southern and southeastern octant, small secondary depressions which are called, according to their formation, intensity, and appear- ance, tornadoes, hail-storms, thunder-storms, and waterspouts. Two prime conditions must exist for the occurrence of these vorticular storms; first, a condition of unstable equilibrium of the air; and, second, a gyratory motion. The axis of such storms is not necessarily vertical, and hence in a water- spout the dark spout portion may writhe and twist in a man- ner similar to the funnel-shaped cloud of the tornado. The whirling is counter-clockwise. The beginning of a water- spout is generally a pendent cloud on the under surface of a large cloud-layer. The tapering whirl apparently de- scends and the sea-water immediately below appears to rise and meet it. What really occurs, however, is cloud con- densation, and but little sea-water is carried aloft. Ships have sailed into waterspouts in process of formation with the barometer remaining unaffected until the spout itself was almost reached. At the center of the spout the dimi- nution of pressure is marked, and objects there experience not only strong in-flowing, whirling, and out-throwing forces, but also the explosive force due to a rapid expan- sion of confined air. I/Vaterspouts are most frequently seen in tropical seas, but are by no means rare in higher latitudes. As many as twenty spouts have been seen within an hour, from five to seven at the same time. It is generally believed that the firing of a cannon or any violent concussion of the air will dissipate waterspouts, but cannon have been dis- charged directly at spouts without such results, and there is no known reason for such a result. ALEXANDER MCADIE. Water-supply: See WATER. Water-tiger: See DYTISCIDZE. Watertown : t-own (incorporated in 1630) ; Middlesex co., Mass. ; on the Charles river, and the Fitchburg Railroad; 8 miles W. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2—H). It contains the villages of Watertown, Mt. Au- burn, and Bemis; has seven churches, high school, seven dis- trict schools, public library, electric railway to Boston, the noted Mt. Auburn Cemetery, an important U. S. arsenal where a large amount of modern ordnance-work is being done, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a savings- bank, and a weekly newspaper: and is principally engaged in ordnance-work and the manufacture of woolen goods, starch, needles, stockings, cardigan jackets, paper bags, etc. In 1894 it had an assessed valuation of $8,251,400. Pop. (1880) 5,426; (1890) 7,073; (1895) estimated, 8,000. EDIToR or “ENTERPRISE.” Watertown: city (settled in 1800, incorporated as a city in 1869): capital of Jefferson co., N. Y. ; on the Black river, 8 miles above its mouth in Black River Bay, Lake Ontario, and on the Rome, Watertown and Ogdens. Railroad; 71 WATER VALLEY miles N. of Syracuse, 90 miles N. W. of Utica (see map of New York, ref. 2—G). It is within an hour’s ride of the Thou- sand Islands and but 12 miles from historic Sacket Harbor. The business portion centers around a beautiful public square containing two small parks and a handsome fountain; the manufacturing establishments extend along the river for 3 miles; the residence portion spreads from both banks of the river and out from the business center in every direction. Small triangular parks with fountains are scattered through- out the city. Electric street-railways extend from the city to neighboring villages. Among the notable buildings are the post--office, State armory, opera-house, J efferson County Savings-bank, Henry Keep Home for the Aged, the county buildings, and several fine church edifices. There are 20 church societies: Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, Prot- estant Episcopal and Roman Catholic, 3 each; and Uni- versalist, Baptist, Congregational, Disciples, Free Methodist, African Methodist Episcopal Zion, Spiritualist, and Jewish, 1 each. The public schools number 9. with graded system, high school, and night-school. The enrollment is 3,000, number of teachers 80, annual cost $47,000. Other educa- tional institutions are a private day-school for girls, kinder- garten, business college, Convent of the Immaculate Heart, St. J oseph’s parochial and apostolic schools, and St. Joachim Academy and kindergarten. The city has a bureau of chari- ties and active societies for the prevention of cruelty to children and animals, city hospital, orphans’ home, county jail, and 2 daily, 2 semi-weekly, and 4 weekly newspapers. The annual city receipts are $150,918; expenditures, $109,- 430; debt, $103,000; and property valuation, $8,549,230. There are 5 national banks with combined capital of $571,- 240, and 2 savings-banks with aggregate deposits of $2,150,- 000. The principal business interests are allied with agri- culture and manufacturing. There are 4 carriage and wagon works, 10 paper-mills, 4 roller flour-mills, 3 machine- works and foundries, planing-mills, air and vacuum brake- works, marble-finishing works, corn-canning factories, steam- engine works, and manufactories of furniture, electrical ma- chinery, aper-mill machinery, printing-presses, thermom- eters, un erwear, and tools and locks, brass goods, spirit- levels, lamps, tinware and peddlers’ supplies, boats, agri- cultural implements, etc. Manufacturing is promoted by water-power derived from the rapids and falls of Black river within the city boundaries. The city owns its own water-works, which cost $300,000. Pop. (1880) 7,883 ; (1890) 14,725; (1895) estimated, 20,000. CHARLES E. COLE, “ WATERTowN DAILY TIMES.” Watertmvn: city (founded in 1881); capital of Coding- ton co., S. D.; on the Big Sioux river, and the Burl., Ced. Rap. and N., the Chi. and N. W., the Gt. North., and the Minn. and St. L. railways; 70 miles N. E. of Huron, 93 miles W. of Benson (for location, see map of South Dakota, ref. 5-G). It is in a wheat-growing and stock-raising region, 3 miles from Lake Kampeska, the most beautiful lake in the State, and has 8 churches, graded public schools, 3 national banks with combined capital of $150,000, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1890) 2,672 ; (1895) estimated, 3,000. EDIToR or “J OURNAL.” Watertownz city (settled in 1836); Dodge and Jefferson cos., Wis.; on the Rock river, and the Chi. and N. VV. Rail- way; 39 miles E. by N. of Madison. 44 miles W. by N. of Milwaukee (for location, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 7—E). It is bisected by the river, which furnishes valuable water- power for manufacturing; is surrounded by a thickly set- tled and highly cultivated agricultural region; contains the Northwestern University (Lutheran), College of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic), public high and graded schools, a national bank with capital of $50,000, and 2 State banks with combined capital of $125,000; and has 4 weekly newspapers. It is an important cheese and barley market. Pop. (1880) 7,883; (1890) 8,755; (1895) estimated, 10,000. EDITOR OF “ GAZETTE.” Water Valley: city; Yalobusha co., Miss.; on the Ill. Cent. Railroad; 17 miles S. of Oxford, 28 miles N. N. E. of Granada (for location, see map of Mississippi, ref. 5-G). It is in an agricultural and dairying region, with extensive forests of valuable timber in the vicinity, and has 11 churches, public schools for white and colored children, 2 State banks with combined capital of $49,125, cotton and broom factories, large railway, machine, and ear shops, and a monthly and 4 weekly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 2,220; (1890) 2,832; (1895) estimated, 5,200. EDITOR or “ NQRTII MISSISSIPPI HERALD.” WATERVILLE Waterville: city; Kennebec co., Me.; on the Kennebec river, and the Maine Cent. Railroad; 18 miles N. by E. of Augusta, 80 miles N. E. of Portland (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 9—C). It was settled about 1650, was formerly a part of Winslow, was incorporated as a town In 1802, had West Waterville set off from it in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1888. It derives excellent power for manufac- turing from Ticonic and other falls, and has 2 cotton-m1l_ls running 90,000 spindles, 2 iron-foundries, 2 tanneries, r_aIl- way construction and repair shops, saw and gr1st m1lls, 2 brick-yards, slate-quarries, and shovel-handle factory. The city is the site of COLBY UNIVERSITY (q. 1).), and of Co- burn Classical Institute, and has 8 churches, a high school, convent, parochial school, 3 national banks with combined capital of $400,000, a trust and deposit company with capi- tal of $100,000, a savings-bank, 2 building and loan asso- ciations, and 3 weekly, a semi-monthly, and 2 monthly pen- odicals. Pop. (1880) 4,672; (1890) 7,107; (1895) estimated, 8,500. EDITDRS or “ MAIL.” Waterville: village (named in 1807, incorporated in 1870); Oneida co., N. Y.; on the Del., Lack. and West. Railroad ; 22 miles S. W. of Utica, the county-seat (for loca- tion, see map of New York, ref. 4-H). It 1s_ m a hop-grow- ing region, and has 6 churches, graded ungon school .W1l3h library, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a private bank, 2 steam grist-mills, shoe, paint, and wood-workmg fac- tories, race-track and agricultural fair-grounds, Y. C. A., Granger, and Masonic halls, a crematory, and a sem1-weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,184; (1890) 2,024; (1895) 1,875. EDITOR or “ TIMES-REFLEX AND HOP REPORTER.” Water-violet: See FEATEERFoIL. Watervliet Arsenal: See WEST Taov. Water-wheels: wheels for utilizing the energy of a water- fall, the water entering the wheel only u on a portion of the circumference. Water-wheels are usua ly vertical, turning upon horizontal axes. When ~\\\\\ the water enters around the \ entire circumference the wheel K is called a turbme; these are , usually horizontal, revolving on vertical axes. Turbine wheels are more extensively used than all other kinds of hydraulic motors; they are de- scribed in the article TURBINE. The overshot wheel is an old form especially adapted to high falls. The water from the reservoir is led through a feeding canal to the upper part of the wheel, where it falls into buckets. The action of the water is then almost en- tirely that of weight, and the work performed is closely e ual to the weight of water multiplied by its fall in the wheel. The overshot wheel revolves slowly, but its efiiciency is high, from 80 to 90 per cent. of the theoretic work being utilized. On account of its large size and the liability to become clogged with ice in the winter time it has been mostly su erseded by turbines. One of the largest overshot wheels is t at at Laxey, on the Isle of Man ; it is 72% feet in diameter, and develops about 150 horse-power. The breast wheel is similar to the overshot wheel in gen- eral appearance, but it receives the water near the middle of its height instead of near the top. The water acts mainly by weight, but also to a certain degree by impulse, at the point of entrance. Its efiiciency is from 70 to 80 per cent. of the theoretic work. Undershot wheels in great variety have been constructed. Those with plane radial vanes are used in running streams, and are of low efficiency. The form devised by Poncelet has a curved sill and guide by which the water is directed tangentially against the vanes, and its etficiency is from 60 to 70 per cent. In these wheels the water acts almost en- tirely by its impulse, and the advantageous velocity of revolution is one-half that of the velocity of the entering water. Vertical impulse wheels, which are driven by a stream of water issuing from a nozzle under high pressure, have been developed since 1880, and are highly advantageous on ac- count of their small size and consequent portability. The water is brought to the wheel through a pipe or hose, and I 1' I m A} J - \’-E “Him rm , , M i\.uu|nm|~ llliillll I nllllllillillllllll WATER-WORKS 657 delivered tangentially against a series of small buckets on the circumference. The velocity of revolution is rapid. A \ I - - 9/ .4 N L FIG. 2.—Poncelet‘s undershot wheel. Pelton wheel at the Sutro tunnel, in Nevada, 36 inches in diameter, is driven under a head of 2,100 feet, and makes 1,150 revolutions a minute, a stream of water from a noz- zle -3- inch in diameter furnishing nearly 100 horse-power. With buckets properly curved, so that the water is turned back contrary to its original direction, this form of wheel has been found to have an efiiciency of 83 per cent. The principles of the design of water-wheels may be sum- marize by saying that the water should enter the wheel without shock and leave without velocity. When the vanes are so designed that the water enters upon them tangen- tially, shock, together with the consequent losses in eddies and foams, is avoided. When the water leaves the wheel without velocity all its available energy has been expended. It is not possible to realize either of these conditions fully, and in addition frictional resistances consume from 5 to 10 per cent. of the total work, so that efficiencies of over 90 per cent. are rarely obtained. A water-wheel is tested by means of a friction-brake or dynamometer attached to a pulley on its axis. All the work of the wheel is then expended in producing friction, and this is balanced by weights acting at the end of a lever. From the load thus balanced, the length of the lever, and the number of revolutions of the wheel per minute, the ac- tual work of the wheel is computed, while the theoretic work is found by finding the weight of water expended per minute and its effective head. Thus both the power and the effi- ciency of the wheel are ascertained, and by running it at different speeds the velocity which gives the maximum efficiency is also determined. See Weisbach’s H3/d'FGU/Z'iC8 and Hydraulic llfozfors (New York, 1877); Bj6rling's Wafer or Hg/drauZz'c lllotors (Lon- don, 1894); and also the works mentioned in the article TURBINE. MANSFIELD MERRIMAN. Waterwitch : See GREBE. Water-works; constructions and appliances for the col- lection, preservation, and distribution of water for the supply of communities. For the supply of large communi- ties ‘aceess to streams of a size sufficient to furnish the re- quired quantity at all times can not usually be had; and when possible the stream is ordinarily exposed to contami- nation, which makes its use objectionable. The most suit- able sources of supply are small streams in sparsely in- habited districts. The flow of such streams is enormously variable, being sometimes as much in an hour as at other times in a month. They can furnish no constant supply 439 658 of any magnitude without the aid of storage-reservoirs. The most that is ordinarily attempted is to utilize a quan- tity equal to the fiow of the driest year. Experience has shown that to accomplish this the reservoirs must be ca- pable of containing about four months’ supply. That is, if the minimum yield for a suificiently long series of years is 14-68 inches of water, which is equivalent to about 700,000 gal. a day to the square mile, the reservoirs should be suf- ficient to deliver 700,000 gal. a day for each square mile of drainage-ground during a period of about four months. This is a reservoir capacity of 85,000,000 gal. per square mile of drainage-ground. In some European systems of water- works an attempt is made to economize the flow of the three driest known consecutive years. For this purpose the reser- voir capacity must be equal to about six months’ supply. The average rainfall of the three driest consecutive years of a long series is usually represented very closely by the general average rainfall diminished by one-sixth. Where, for in- stance, the average rainfall of a series of years, thirty or more, is 48 inches, the average of the three driest consec- utive years will be about 40 inches. Assuming 20 inches collectible, this would be about 952,000 gal. daily per square mile. The reservoirs must be sufficient to contain six months’ supply at this rate—viz., about 174,000,000 gal. per square mile of drainage-ground. To economize the total yield of the drainage-ground there would be required a reservoir capacity equal to the average flow of from nine to eighteen months—-that is, in the case just supposed, from 260,000,000 to 520,000,000 gal. per square mile of drainage-ground. The gallon spoken of here, unless otherwise stated, is the U. S. standard gallon, 231 cubic inches, being 58,373 troy grains at the maximum density. A cubic foot contains 7'48 gal. The imperial gallon contains 10 lb. of water at a tempera- ture of 62° F., so that a cubic foot contains very nearly 6} imperial gallons. Considerable quantities of water are often obtained by pumping from deep wells. This term is used in distinction from shallow wells, which in all countries are the chief source of water-supply for isolated dwellings. The geological for- mations composing the earth’s crust are always saturated to within a few yards of the surface with water. The quantity of water contained by different materials varies greatly. Sand, gravel, and chalk contain from 2 to 2% gal. a cubic foot ; magnesian limestone, about 2 gal.; building-sandstone, about three-fourths of a gallon ; granite, one-fifth of a gal- lon. A square mile of sandstone formation 500 yards deep contains water sufficient for nine months’ supply of New York city. But such a region, once exhausted of water and depending on rainfall for its replenishment, would require more than 200 years to fill up again. Water drawn from such formations by deep wells forms the supply of many Eu- ropean towns, though this mode of obtaining water is but little practiced in America. The city of Liverpool, Eng- land, with a total supply of 20,000,000 imperial gal. a day, derives 6,250,000 from wells in the new red sandstone under- lying the region. The wells are from 100 to 250 feet deep, and are supplemented by bore-holes reaching 200 to 500 feet deeper. There are four such wells in use, furnishing from 830,000 to 2,900,000 imperial gal. a day each. The city com- pleted in 1891 a system of water-works on a stupendous scale, consisting of a reservoir on the head-waters of the Severn, in Wales, to hold 10,000,000,000 or 12,000,000,000 imperial gal., and an aqueduct 68 miles in length to the service reservoirs of the city, at a cost for the entire sys- tem of $10,000,000. Birkenhead, near Liverpool, contain- ing 99,184 people in 1891, derives its entire supply from wells and borings in the sandstone. The Kent Company, one of the companies supplying London, pumps daily about 8,000,000 imperial gal. from wells reaching the chalk formation; the New River Company has the capacity to draw about 9,000,- 000 gal. a day from the same source. The excessive pump- ing in London has resulted in a progressive lowering of the level to which water will rise in deep wells, amounting to more than 100 feet since the beginning of the nineteenth century. Among places of minor importance in England, probably not less than one-half draw their supply of water from deep wells. Deep wells have not been much used in the U. S., except for special purposes, as obtaining a supply of pure water for paper-mills, breweries, etc. Some towns in Texas obtain domestic supplies from this source. Galves- ton, on the Gulf coast, has a system of this kind. Many towns have adopted systems of driven wells, consisting of pipes carrying strainers, driven into beds of gravel or sand, and have thus obtained limited supplies of very pure water. WATER—WORKS Oonsumptz'on.—The purposes to which the water-supply of towns is applied may be embraced under three general heads: 1, domestic supply; 2, trade supply; 3, watering. The first includes the manifold uses and waste of water in dwellings; the second, its use in various manufacturing es- tablishments, as bleacheries, dye-works, laundries, sugar- refineries, breweries, distilleries, the working of elevators and supply of steam-boilers, and in some cases for mechan- ical power; the third includes watering streets and grounds. extinguishing fires, flushing sewers, etc. In London the domestic supply amounts to about 82 er cent. of the total, which is probably about the average or commercial cities. In manufacturing towns not using water-power the second item is more important, amounting sometimes to one-third or more of the total. The third item is not more than 5 per cent. on an average, being next to nothing in the winter, and sometimes reaching as high as 20 per cent. in hot weather and in suburban districts. The following table of water-works data for twenty cities in the U. S. is obtained from the Engvineeflag News’s Manual of Water-works for 1890-91 : No Daily consumption, gal. CITIES. Population N 0. of No. of of h§_ supphed. taps. meters. chants‘ Total‘ h1e>ae(1;' 1:; New York *.. . . . 1,515,301 108,884 22,072 8,576 121,000,000 79 1,111 Chicago . . . . . . . . 1,085,000 . . .. 3,924 11,836 152,000,000 140 . Philadelphia . .. 1,040,000 170,911 522 7,749 138,000,000 132 806 Brooklyn . . . . . . . 806,343 93,225 2,263 4,251 55,000,000 72 616 St. Louis . . . . . .. 451,770 38,183 3,115 3,515 32,500,000 72 851 Boston '1' . . . . . . . . 527,606 80,238 4,018 6,532 42,000,000 80 525 Baltimore . . . . . . 434,439 74,728 913 1,815 41,000,000 94 548 San Francisco. . 298,997 30,200 12,505 1,670 18,000,000 61 608 Cincinnati . . . . . . 302,581 35,439 1,451 . . . . . 34,000,000 112 959 Cleveland . . . . . . 270,055 30,938 1,794 3,561 28,000,000 103 898 Buffalo . . . . . . . . . 255,664 40,331 2,589 47,500,000 186 1,178 New Orleans . . . 242,039 4,450 20 1,208 9,000,000 37 2,017 Pittsburg . . . . . .. 238,617 32,851 57 1,532 47,500,000 146 . . . . Washington. . . . 230,392 35,404 98 1,080 36,500,000 153 1,033 Detroit . . . . . . . . . 205,876 40,351 856 1,828 33,000,000 161 823 Milwaukee . . . . . 204,468 18,422 5,876 1,532 22,500,000 110 1,215 Newark . . . . . . . . 185,317 21,532 520 1,460 14,000,000 76 654 Minneapolis. . . . 164,738 9,990 633 1,996 12,500,000 75 1,243 Jersey City. . . . . 197,438 20,456 240 1,738 19,300,000 97 . . . . Louisville . . . . . . 161,129 13,512 792 620 12,000,000 74 879 1 7*(')I‘he municipal census of New York for 1890 gave the population , 1 ,"'15. +Bhston supplies Somerville, Chelsea, and Everett, with a total population of 79,129. The following data concerning consumption of U. S. cities are taken from the Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health on metropolitan water-supply. The table shows the average daily consumption of water per inhabitant in various cities; it will be noticed that the amount has large- ly increased. DAILY CONSUMPTION Daily consumption CITIES’ per inhabitant Year No. of gals. in 1893, in gals. Boston (Cochituate district) . . . . . . . .. 1850 42 107 Boston (Mystic district) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865 27 86 Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1860 43 147 Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1860 36 150 Brooklyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . ./ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865 29 86 St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872 45 96 Cincinnati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850 20 124 Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1860 14 130 Detroit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855 44 148 Milwaukee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1875 29 108 Louisville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865 18 75 Providence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877 24 63 Lowell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1875 24 79 Fall River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 187 12 27 Cambridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1870 44 80 Lynn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1873 41 54 In 1894 the daily rate of consumption per inhabitant in Washington, D. O., was 187 gal. The table on the next page is from Vfirterworks Engineer- ing, by Turner and Brightmore (London, 1893). The most striking feature of these tables is the difference in consumption between cities in Europe and those in the U. S., the highest consumption of the latter being about equal to the lowest of the former. This is due in some de- gree to the general wasteful habits of Americans, but more especially to the fact that in European towns consumers of water are usually under some control and restraint in its use. In the U. S. such restraint is rarely exercised, and reckless and wanton wastefulness prevails. The evil is con- stantly growing, and the above figures for Buffalo, Chi- VVATER—WORKS WATER-SUPPLY OF CERTAIN TOWNS IN GREAT BRITAIN. SUPPLY PER HEAD PER DAY. TOWNS. EsuT:.ted _'—-—"'—-— Nature of the source of supply. POP“ hon‘ Imperial U. S. gallons. gallons. London . . . . . . . . 5,240,000 33 39% Rivers, springs, and wells. Manchester. . . . 950,000 22 26 Catchment. Glasgow . . . . . . . 850,000 50 60 “ Liverpool . . . . .. 770,000 26 31 Catchment and wells. Birmingham. . . 640,000 22 26 Rivers and wells. Bradford . . . .. 400,000 25 30 Catchment. Edinburgh. . . . . 350,000 40 48 “ Nottingham . .. 240,000 18 22 Wells. Brighton . . . . . . . 180,000 33 39.} “ St. Helens . . . .. 70,000 20 24 “_ Bath . . . . . . . . . . . 60,000 20 24 Sprmgs. Torquay . . . . .. 45,000 30 36 ' “ Chester . . . . . . . . 40,000 28 34 River. Exeter . . . . . . . . . 40,000 38 46 “. Scarborough... 30,000 23 28 Sprmgs and wells. Leamington . .. 25,000 19 23 Wells. cago, Washington, etc., show that it is impossible to assign any limits to the consumption under such a system. _ The simplest mode of restraining waste is by means of an inter- mittent supply, each consumer having a reservoir fitted with a self-closing cock. Water is turned on once a day long enough to fill all reservoirs, and then shut off. This method has been, and still is, much practiced in English towns. It is chiefly objectionable as regards fires. With constant sup- ply the best means of restraining waste hitherto adopted consists in a system of inspection to detect defective fittings, pipes, and appliances and enforce remedies. In the city of Norwich, England, the consumption was reduced from 40 to 15 gal. by such means. A very complete system of this kind has been in force for a number of years in Liverpool, and to this is due the low consumption there. The city has been divided into a number of districts, in each of which the aggregate consumption is measured by meters. The nightly indications of these meters show which dis- stricts are most in need of inspection. No premises are en- tered unless waste is observed. Inspections to detect waste are made at night after all legitimate consumption has ceased. The inspector applies his wrench or key to the street stop-cock controlling the service-pipe which supplies the premises, and nearly closes the cock. Then, applying his ear to the key, the passage of a very minute quantity of water can be detected. If waste is observed, the house is entered in the daytime, the fittings carefully inspected, and defects pointed out, which the owner is required to remedy. Previous to the adoption of these measures the city had been on intermittent service. At one time in 1865 water was furnished for only three hours a day. Constant service was restored for a short time in 1873 as an experiment. It appeared that its maintenance would require a daily supply of 33% imperial gal. a head. The results of these inspec- tions were surprising. In a large district the consumption was reduced to 12 imperial gal. a head. In a district con- taining 2,134 persons it was reduced to 6 or 7. In 1875 the constant service had been restored to nearly the entire town, with a consumption much less than had formerly been re- uired with intermittent service. It is conceded that only t e most stringent legal provisions, and the most ample au- thority on the part of oflicers for their enforcement, can avail to restrain the wasteful tendencies of consumers. A department of inspection and waste was organized about 1883 by the city of Boston on the same general plan as for Liverpool, so far as the nature of the appliances in use would permit, Boston not being furnished with sidewalk stop- cocks. The oificial report for 1884 claimed a reduction of the daily consumption from 91 to '70 gal. a head. Later these good results seem to have disappeared. The daily consumption rose in 1893 to over 100 gal. a head. These results show that a material diminution of waste may be effected by simply pressing the matter upon the at- tention of consumers. Nevertheless, the only remedy that will go to the root of the evil is a system of charges based upon the quantity of water actually drawn by each con- sumer. The difliculty in the way of this result has hitherto been the want of a reliable water-meter at a reasonable cost. (See WATER-METER.) Mechanical skill may be said to have fairly supplied this want, and the question is now presented to the taxpayers in great cities whether, instead of spending great sums of money to provide additional supplies of water, it may not be judicious to undertake the task of enforcing a proper use of the supply already at hand. 659 Constmctions.—The multifarious applications of water in a city require a considerable pressure in the distributing- pipes. This is secured in two ways: (1) by adopting a nat- ural source of water at a suificient elevation: (2) by pump- ing. The most obvious classification of the systems‘ of water-supply is that of gravitation systems and pumpmg systems. The configuration of the ground is rarely such as to furnish a source suffi ciently elevated and sufficiently near, capable of supplying the requisite quantity at all seasons of the year. The principal elements of a gravitation system are—(1) the drainage-grounds; (2) the storage reservoirs; (3) the conduit; (4) the distributing or service reservoirs; (5) the distributing-pipes. The pumping system.comm.only lacks the feature of storage reservoirs, and has in addition the pumping establishment and force main, and ordinarily arrangements for filtering or otherwise purifying the water. There are, however, pumping systems with storage reser- voirs, of which Brooklyn, N. Y., is an example, and there are gravitation systems in which the water is subjected to filtration, as in the case of Dublin, Ireland. The conduit or aqueduct conveys the water from the source to the distributing reservoir in or near the city. In extensive works it is ordinarily of masonry, not being in- tended to sustain any pressure. It is built to a nearly level grade, having only suificient inclination to give motion to the water. Intervening ridges are cut down or pierced by tunnels. Valleys are crossed by embankments of earth or earth and masonry combined, or by rows of arches. In crossing deep valleys or rivers the masonry of the aqueduct is sometimes interrupted, and the water fiows in iron pipes, which descend into the valley and rise and re-enter the aqueduct on the opposite side. In the ancient aqueducts, where, from the limited knowledge of iron-working, such expedients could not be adopted, these crossings required ranges of arches supported by piers of enormous height, constituting the most remarkable monuments of ancient civilization. (See AQUEDUCTS.) Small conduits are often made of earthenware pipe. The best earthenware pipes, and particularly the celebrated Scotch pipes, are made from very pure clay mined at great depths, the clays found near the surface of the ground not being found so suitable. The pieces are moulded by hydraulic pressure, and are covered with a vitreous glazing which renders them impermeable to water. These pipes are made in lengths of 2 or 3 feet. The smaller sizes are put together with sockets. Each piece has an enlargement at one end into which the next piece enters, and the joint is made tight by hydraulic cement. The larger sizes are put together with sleeves, which are narrow rings encircling the pipe at each joint, the space between the inside of the sleeve and the outside of the pipe being filled with hydraulic cement. The thickness of earthenware pipes should be about one-twelfth of the diameter. Such pipes have been made as large as 48 inches in diameter. Conduits have been made of wood, but such are not to be recommended. For the first year or two they impart a dis- agreeable taste to the water, and if not entirely filled with water at all times they decay rapidly. -The portions of a conduit subjected to pressure are sometimes made of wrought iron lined with brickwork or cement. The use of wrought-iron pipes without any protection other than a coating of tar or mineral paint originated in California, and has latterly been coming into favor in other parts of the U. S. It may be safely adopted in the case of waters which do not act with energy upon iron. The East Jersey Water Company has laid down a steel-riveted pipe, 48 inches in diameter and 21 miles long, to convey the waters of the Pe- quannock river to supply municipalities in the vicinity of New York city. A long and large aqueduct should be provided with gates and discharge-sluices at intervals of a few miles. in order that any section may be emptied for repairs without wasting the entire contents of the aqueduct. The inside of a con- duit should be cleaned once or twice a year. This is done with brooms after drawing down the water. A pumping system usually has a conduit, not essentially different in construction from that required in a gravitation supply, though it ordinarily forms a much less important feature of the system. Its purpose is to convey the water from the source to the pump-well, which can usually be lo- cated so as not to require a great length of conduit. In water-works for cities located on the shores of the Great Lakes, and drawing their supply therefrom, the conduit forms a very important feature. The water can not be taken from any point near the shore, as it is liable to be contaminated 660 by sewage and turbid on account of the action of waves. To procure water free from the latter source of impurity, the conduit must extend a long distance into the lake. as it is only in water of considerable depth that the waves cease to act upon the bottom. A solid structure built into the lake would require the strength and solidity of a breakwater, and even in that case would not be sulficiently permanent and free from settlement to serve as the foundation of an aque- duct. The method adopted at Chicago and other lake cities has been to extend a tunnel under the bottom of the lake to the desired point. The first tunnel built in the U. S. for the supply of water was the one at Chicago, made in 1864-67, under the direction of E. S. Chesbrough, the engineer for the city, who may be regarded as the originator of this method of procuring a supply of water from lakes. This tunnel is about 2 miles long and 5 feet in diameter. A second tunnel, 7 feet in diameter, was built parallel to it in 1872-74. A third, 10 feet in diameter and extending 4 miles into the lake, was brought into use in 1892. Cleveland built a tun- nel of this kind over a mile long and 5 feet in inside diame- ter in 1869-74. See TUNNELS AND TUNNELING. Distributing or Service Reservoirs.-The supply of water is liable to too many contingencies to be intrusted to a pipe or conduit reaching from the source of supply to the point of consumption. It is always considered judicious, where the topographical conformation admits of it, to provide a reservoir at an elevation corresponding to the pressure re- quired in the distributing-pipes. An elevation of from 100 to 150 feet is usually sufficient for all purposes of domestic supply, and a greater height than 150 feet is not desirable, unless all fittings are made to conform to the increased pressure, as the leakage is increased, and the velocity with which the water moves in the service-pipes often causes them to burst when outlets are suddenly closed. Where fire-en- gines are to be dispensed with a greater elevation is neces- sary, as will be noticed further on. Many towns situated on undulating ground have more than one reservoir—a low one for the lower districts, and a high one for the higher. The town of Brighton, England, has four “zones of distribution,” with a reservoir for each, the highest being 480 feet above the level of the sea. In localities where land is not too expensive, reservoirs are usually built entirely of earth. The most suitable site for the construction of a reservoir is an eminence composed of gravel containing such a proportion of clay as to admit of being consolidated by pressure. This is called “ binding gravel.” The embankments forming the sides of the reser- voir are formed of this material very carefully compacted by heavy rollers and by the wheels of vehicles. Such em- bankments ought to have a slope of 2 base to 1 perpendicular, so that an embankment 25 feet high, assuming it to be 15 feet wide on the top, should be 115 feet wide at the bottom. They are further secured from filtration by a central core or an inner lining of puddle, which is an artificially prepared mixture of clay and gravel in such proportions as to be im- permeable to water without being liable to crack when dry. Ledges and abandoned stone quarries have sometimes been chosen as sites for reservoirs, with usually very unsatisfac- tory results. The rock should always be covered with a thick layer of puddle. The inner slopes of the embankments are usually paved with heavy stone resting on a layer of pebbles or broken stone. This is necessary on account of the waves to which all bodies of water are liable, which would otherwise injure the banks and render the water tur- bid. Reservoirs in thickly settled parts of towns are gen- erally built of masonry, and are sometimes covered to pre- vent contamination of the water by dust and smoke. All reservoirs in London within 5 miles of St. Paul’s are required by law to be covered, unless the water is subjected to filtra- tion after leaving the reservoir. In open reservoirs the water should not be less than 20 feet deep when full, as vegetation is active at a depth much less than this when exposed to the sun. Modern practice, in fact, calls for much greater depths. Impurities sometimes affect the surface, while the water re- mains good at the bottom, and vice versa, for which reason engineers are accustomed to construct reservoirs so that the water can be drawn from the bottom or otherwise at pleasure. They should also be so arranged that the water will have a circulation through the whole extent of the reservoir, the outlet being at the opposite side from the inlet. In a pumping system the pipe leading from the pumps to the reservoir is called the force-main. It is usually made a little stronger than other pipes sustaining the same pressure, under the impression that it is liable to greater shocks from WATER-WORKS the pulsations due to the action of the pumps, thou h, in reality, the pulsations to which the force-main is liab e are probably less violent than is the case with any other part of the system of pipes, especially where, as is the universal practice, it is in free communication with an air-chamber. Where, from lack of a suitable eminence or from econom- ical considerations, no reservoir is constructed and the water passes from the pump directly into the distributing-pipes, a stand-pipe is often employed to prevent the pulsations due to the action of the pumps from extending to all parts of the distributing system. A stand-pipe is simply a vertical pipe communicating with the force-main, and rising to a height greater than that corresponding to the pressure in the distributing-pipes. It sometimes consists of two pi es communicating with one another at their summits. In t is case the pump acts under a constant pressure, the water be- ing all raised to the same height and flowing from one pipe to the other at their summits. In the case of a single pipe the water oscillates according to the varying consumption and the speed of the pumps. A great many small towns have recently adopted stand-pipes which serve, to some extent, the purpose of reservoirs—viz., circular tanks of plate iron 20 feet or more in diameter. These have reservoir capacity sufficient for any sudden emergency, and greatly diminish the difficulty of regulating the speed of the pumps, allowing the latter to stop for longer or shorter periods without in- terrupting the supply. The Holly system of water-works has neither reservoir nor stand-pipe. The pumps work directly into the distrib- uting-pipes, and when the pumps stop the supply ceases. An automatic device controls the speed of the pumping ma- chinery according to the pressure in the mains. It is claimed that this system maintains a pressure sufficient for domestic purposes at all times, and on the occurrence of a fire the pressure can in a few minutes be raised to a point which will enable the latter to be controlled by streams from the hy- drants without the use of fire-engines. In fact, many towns, upon the adoption of this system, have disposed of their movable engines and rely altogether upon hydrants for con- trolling fires. A fire-alarm, to give notice at the pump-house of the occurrence of a fire, is a part of the system. It is claimed for the Holly system, as an advantage over reser- voirs sulficiently elevated to deal with fires, that it works under the high pressure only so long as the fire lasts, while for ordinary purposes it works under a very moderate pres- sure. This would certainly be a substantial advantage if the pumps worked with the same relative economy in the one case as in the other. This system recommends itself by its low first cost as compared with a reservoir system, but the necessity of keeping the machinery in readiness for fires at all hours of the day and night, with the requisite number of men in attendance, makes the pumping much more ex- pensive than in the reservoir system. Purification of Water.—For various methods of purify- ing the water-supply, see WATER. The distributing system embraces the network of pipes through which the water is conveyed from the reservoir or other central point to all parts of the town. The pi es lying in the common streets and thoroughfares are cal ed mains; those leading from the latter to the premises of consumers are called service-pipes. Distributing mains of wood, lead, stone, earthenware, and asphaltum have been used at various times. The water of London was once dis- tributed in wooden and lead pipes. The water from Jamaica Pond was distributed in Boston in wooden pipes before the introduction of the supply from Lake Cochituate. Wooden pipes, formed of the trunks of straight trees, are still em- ployed for conveying water under slight pressure, as in the supply of farm-buildings. Pipes formed of natural stone, artificially hollowed out, were laid down in considerable uantity in London, and also in Manchester, England, in the early part of the nineteenth century. The result in each case was a disastrous failure. A pipe of sheet iron, coated internally and externally with hydraulic cement, has been extensively used in the U. S. The cement, while it remains intact, very effectually preserves the iron from rusting. These pipes are joined together by means of sleeves of the same material, the void spaces being filled with cement. The cement used in these joints gives such a de- gree of rigidity to the line of pipes that any settlement of the ground causes cracks. The separation of the cement from the iron at any point is followed by a rapid corrosion of the pipe. This kind of pipe has, in many cases, given satisfaction, though it has frequently failed in connection WATER-WORKS with the Holly system of pumping, and is at present little used, on account of the great reduction in the price of cast iron, which, notwithstanding its grave defects, is by far the most reliable and satisfactory material. The most serious defect of cast-iron pipe is the facility with which the metal is acted on by water. The inner surface becomes covered with tubercles or protuberances, sometimes of such size as to diminish the effective diameter of the pipe by as much as 1-}, or even 2 inches. In small pipes t is action sometimes goes to the extent of closing them entirely. A 3-inch pipe is often so choked that one can not see through it from end to end. Wrought iron is attacked more ener- getically than cast. The gray variety of cast iron is 1nore readily oxidized than the white. A large proportion of car- bon or graphite in the iron accelerates the action. The de- velopment of tubercles proceeds most rapidly in the softest and purest waters, the Boston pipes being more rapidly fouled than those of Philadelphia or New York. No method of preventing this action has been discovered, but it may be delayed for many years by a process commonly ascribed to Dr. R. Angus Smith, of Manchester, England. This con- sists in immersing the pipe in a bath of coal-tar, both the pipe and tar being heated to a ‘temperature of from 300 to 500° F. The pipe remains in the tar some thirty minutes, and on being removed and allowed to cool a very fine coat- ing is formed on the surface of the pipe. This resists the action of the water for a long time, but the tubercles usually appear in the course of ten or twelve years, sometimes much sooner. Pipe thus prepared imparts a slightly tarry taste to the water at first, but it disappears in a year or two. Cast-iron pipes are also liable to another kind of deteriora- tion in certain soils, arising from the action of matters con- tained in the soil upon the exterior of the pipe. The iron undergoes a remarkable change, being reduced to a sub- stance resembling graphite. The mud of salt-water marshes has this action upon iron in a remarkable degree. Long lines of pipe laid in this material in Boston have been en- tirely destroyed in the course of fifteen or twenty years. In some places a crowbar, or even a knife, could be thrust through the pipe, and it could be cut with a knife. The pitch coating is thought to be a protection against this kind of decay, but for greater security the pipe should be im- bedded in and covered with unobjectionable material. Cast- iron pipes are made in lengths of from 9 to 12 feet. For the purpose of joining them together, one end of each pipe has an enlargement called the bell; the unenlarged end is called the spigot. The inside diameter of the bell is some three-fourths of an inch greater than the outside diameter of the spigot. The spigot of each pipe enters the bell of the preceding pipe to the depth of 3 or 4 inches, and the void space is filled with lead. Pipes are usually cast in vertical moulds with the bell downward. A more uniform thickness is thus secured than by casting them horizontally. Pieces of peculiar form, called branches, are required where two lines of pipe com- municate with one another. Curved pieces are required for changes of direction in a line of pipe, though straight lengths of pi e may be laid to a curve of 400 feet radius. Pipes usual y communicate at all street-crossings. This intercom- munication gives a great number of routes by which the water may approach any point in case of fire. Hydrants are inserted at intervals of some 200 feet in the more compact parts of towns, 300 or 400 feet in the more sparsely peopled districts. Valves or stop-gates are introduced, so as to divide the whole system into a great number of small sec- tions, any one of which can be isolated from the rest for the purpose of repairs without interrupting the supply to other districts. Rivers and other bodies of water are crossed by pipes provided with a sort of ball-and-socket joint, by means of which the pipe adapts itself to the inequalities of the bottom. Lines of pipe which cross summits of ground are provided at such points with air-cocks, to allow the air inclosed at the summit to escape. Air lodges at such points when the pipe is filled after having been emptied for any cause. Air is also, under some circumstances, disengaged from the water itself, and accumulates at the summits of pipes. The depth to which pipes are covered varies with the cli- mate. In different parts of England from 2 to 3 feet is considered to afford sufficient protection from frost. In St. Paul, Minn., '7 and 7% feet are found sutficient. In the adjacent city of Minneapolis, which has a very loose gravel- ly soil, the pipes are laid 8 feet deep, and give great trouble from freezing. In Montreal the authorities are content with WATKINS 661 a depth of 6 feet, though much trouble is experienced from frost. In Quebec the pipes are laid 8 and 10 feet deep. Service-pipes are generally from -1 to 111; inches in diameter. They are most commonly composed of lead, or of wrought iron prepared in various ways to resist corrosion. From a mechanical point of view lead pipe has peculiar fitness for this use. It is procurable in any desired length, easily at- tached to mains and fittings, easily divided and bent to suit the various situations. These advantages have led to its em- ployment for service-pipes more than any other material, notwithstanding the fact that it is liable to impart poison- ous qualities to the water. (See WATER.) A service-pipe of wrought iron, lined internally with hydraulic cement, has been much used, and appears to be eminently well fitted for the purpose. The most important precaution to be observed in the introduction of service-pipes is to secure protection from frost. The pipe usually passes from the main directly into the cellar. In houses having open areas, it is hardly possible to secure sufficient depth. The pipe is usually pro- vided with a cock just inside the cellar wall, by which the water can be shut ofi and discharged from the portion with- in the cellar, as city cellars are rarely frost-proof. Freezing usually takes place at or near the cellar wall. For this rea- son the pipe is often so made that it can be separated at this point and thawed out by injecting hot water through a long small pipe. A service-pipe should,by preference, enter at the sunny side of a house, as the ground freezes less deeply there. See also Aonnnncrs, PLUMBING, and SEWERAGE. Cost of Pumping.-—The unit of cost of pumping water is the cost of pumping 1,000,000 gal. 1 foot high. The per- formance of a steam pumping-engine, or what is called its “ duty,” is the weight of water that it can raise to a height of 1 foot with 100 lb. of coal. Many recent engines have shown an experimental duty of 100,000,000 lb. It is doubt- less practicable to work permanently with a duty of 75,000,- 000, which is equivalent to raising 9,000,000 gal. of water to a height of 1 foot, or, what is the same thing, 1,000,000 to a height of 9 feet. At this rate, with coal at 25 cents per 100 1b., the cost of coal to raise 1,000,000 gal. 1 foot high would be a little less than 3 cents. The other items of cost are the expense of attendance, oil, waste, kindling-wood, etc. Where the engine works to one-third, one-fifth, or one- tenth its full capacity, the cost of attendance and repairs cuts a large figure in the cost of each million gallons pumped. In a cheap and poorly constructed engine, the cost of re- pairs often is very great. The most economical results are obtained with a first-class engine working to its full capac- ity. Suppose such an engine pumps 5,000,000 gal. a day to a height of 200 feet. The total cost for attendance and in- cidentals would not exceed $10 a day, being 1 cent a million gallons raised 1 foot. Adding 1 cent for ordinary repairs, the total cost of raising 1,000,000 gal. 1 foot is 5 cents. It is very seldom that this degree of economy is attained. Six cents is a first-class result, and 10 is probably not above the average, where interest and depreciation are considered. In pumping by water-power 2 cents is about the average cost. - J . P. FRIZELL. Watkin, Sir EDWARD WILLIAM, M. P.: b. in Manchester, England, about 1815; was trained to the mercantile busi- ness by his father, with whom he became a partner ; became one of the directors of the Manchester Athenaeum in 1839, organized its celebrated literary soirées in Free Trade Hall, and in 1843 led in the inauguration of the Saturday half-holi- day; became director and manager of several important railways, especially the Intercolonial of Canada ; visited the U. S. and Canada on railway business 1851 and 1861 ; was for some time president of the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada; was influential in securing the confederation of British North America. for which he was knighted 1868; and has been prominent in Parliament as a supporter of re- forms in financial legislation. He promoted and accom- plished the extension of the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lin- colnshire lines, giving a new entrance into London. In 1890 he laid out a site at Wembley Park, near London, where he proposed to build a tower that would surpass the Eiffel Tower. The first story was built. but the work was suspend- ed in 1894 for want of funds. He is an ardent supporter of the project of tunneling under the English channel, and has accomplished a considerable amount of work in that di- rection, but has been unable to obtain sanction for its com- pletion from the Government. Watkins: village; capital of Schuyler co., N. Y.; on Seneca Lake, and the North Cent. and the Fall Brook rail- 662 WATKINS GLEN ‘ways; 22 miles N. of Elmira (for location, see map of New York, ref. 5—F). It is in an agricultural and grape-growing region; is chiefly noted for its famous Glen (see WATKINS GLEN); and has several mineral springs, the Glen Springs Sanitarium, one of the largest salt-making plants in the State, an academy, 2 public libraries, 2 private banks, 3 weekly newspapers, several iron-foundries, carriage-factories, and flour and saw mills. Pop. (1880) 2,716; (1890) not reported; (1895) estimated, 3,000. EDITOR or “EXPRESS.” Watkins Glen: a picturesque ravine in western central New York, near the head of Seneca Lake. Its beautiful scenery attracts thousands of visitors annually. The lake region of Western New York is underlain by a_ great body of shale belonging to the Devonian system. During the Pleistocene period the face of the country was much modi- fied through erosion by glacial ice, and some of the north- south valleys were converted into deep troughs with smooth, steep sides. After the melting of the ice a new drainage system was established, and many small streams flowing down the sides of the troughs carved out deep, narrow ra- vines, sharply contrasted in character with the troughs. They are barely wide enough to hold the streams which flow through them in time of fiood; their walls are precipitous, and they contain many cataracts. Of these Watkins Glen is the most celebrated. G. K. G. VVatling"s Island: a small island of the Bahamas, E. S. E. of Cat island, and a little outside of the line formed by most of the group; crossed by lat. 23° 56’ N. and lon. 74° 28’ W. It is fertile, but has few inhabitants. In the center there is a lagoon. Most prominent authorities are now agreed that this was Guanahani, the first American island seen by Columbus and called by him San Salvador. When the explorer’s track is traced back from Cuba, the position of Watling’s agrees better with that sought than does Cat island or any other, and a lagoon as mentioned in the nar- rative is found only here. Among those who have accepted Watling’s island as the probable landfall are Mufioz, Capt. Becher, Peschel, Richard H. Major, Lieut. J. B. Murdoch, and Markham. In 1891 an expedition led by Walter Well- man, in the interests of the Chicago Herald, visited the waters of the West Indies in order to determine exactly where the first landfall made by Columbus was. After care- fully following in his track as laid down in Las Casas’s abridgment of ,Columbus’s Journal or log-book, Wellman decided in favor of Watling’s island, and there placed a tablet with this inscription: “On this spot Christopher Columbus first set foot u on the soil of the New World. Erected by the Chicago erald, June 15, 1891.” H. H. S. Watse’ka: city; capi al of Iroquois co., Ill.; on the Iro- quois river, and the To ., Peoria and West. and the Chi. and E. Ill. railways; 75 miles S. of Chicago, 100 miles E. of Peoria (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 4—G). It is in an agricultural region, and has 6 churches. 3 public-school buildings, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a private bank, 3 weekly papers, 3 tile-factories, 2 grist and flour- mills, knitting-mill, and planing-mill. Pop. (1880) 1,507; (1890) 2,017; (1895) 3,135. EDITOR or “ REPUBLICAN.” Watson, HEWETT CoTTRELL, F. L. S.: botanist; b. at Firbeck, England, in May, 1804; son of a magistrate; edu- cated at the University of Edinburgh; author of Outlines of the Geographical Distribution of British Plants (1832; new ed. 1835); The New Botanist’s Guide to the Localities of the Rarer Plants of Great Britain (2 vols., 1835-37); The London Catalogue of British Plants (6th ed. 1867); Cybele Britannica, or British Plants and their Geograph- ical Relations (4 vols., 1847-60), and of a Supplement (1863) and a Compendium (1870) of the same work. D. at Thames Ditton, July 27, 1881. Revised by CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Watson, JAMES CRAIG, LL. D.: astronomer; b. in Elgin County, Ontario, Canada, J an. 28, 1838, of American parents, who soon afterward settled in Michigan; graduated, at the University of Michigan 1857 ; became teacher of mathe- maticsthere, and assistant at the observatory; was appoint- ed Professor of Astronomy 1859, of Physics and Mathematics 1860; became director of the observatory in 1863 ; discovered twenty-three asteroids; went to Iowa in 1869, and to Sicily in 1870, to observe the eclipses of the sun, and in 1874 was the head of the very successful American expedition which observed the transit of Venus at Peking, China. In 1867 he was elected a member of the National Academy of Sci- ences. For his discovery of six asteroids in one year he was in 1870 awarded the Lalande gold medal of the French WATSON Academy of Sciences. He contributed to many scientific journals, prepared various astronomical charts, and was au- thor of A Popular Treatise on Comets (1860) and Theoreti- cal Astronomy, relating‘to the Illotions of the Heavenly Bodies revolving around the Sun (1868). D. at Madison, Wis., N ov. 23, 1880. Watson, JOHN, M. A., LL. D.: professor of philosophy; b. in Glasgow, Scotland, Feb. 25,1847. He was educated in Glasgow University, and was appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy in Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada, in 1872. His principal works are Kant and his English Critics (New York, 1881); Schelling’s Transcendental Idealism (Chicago, 1882); The Philosophy of Kant as contained in Erctracts from his own Writings (New York, 1888); Comte, Mill, and Spencer (New York, 1895). J . M. B. Watson, MUSGRAVE LEWTHWAITE: sculptor; b. at Hawk- dale, near Carlisle, England, 1804; educated at Raughton School; spent several years in a law-office; went to London 1824; studied sculpture in private, aided by the friendly counsel of Flaxman; spent several years (1825-28) in Rome; became an assistant to Chantrey, whom he soon left on ac- count of his haughty manners, and to Behnes, whom he aided in his statue of Dr. Babington; was employed by New College, Oxford, to execute from Chantrey’s models the fine group of Chancellors Eldon and Stowell now in the library of University College; made statues of Queen Elizabeth (for the Royal Exchange), Flaxman. Allan Cunningham, Nelson, Hebe and Iris, a-bas-relief of the Burial of Sarpedon, a statuette of Chaucer, and the model for the bas-relief of the battle of St. Vincent for the Nelson column in Trafal- gar Square, London. D. in London, Oct. 28, 1847. See his Life and Works (1866) by Dr. H. Lonsdale. Revised by RUSSELL S'.rUReIs. Watson, RICHARD: clergyman; b. at Barton-upon-Hum- ber, Lincolnshire, England, Feb. 22, 1781; printed at the age of nineteen an Apology for the People called Methodists; was ordained 1800; soon afterward joined the Methodists of the New Connection, but returned to the Wesleyan body 1812, and became secretary of its missionary society 1817. D. in London, Jan. 8,1833. He was for a time editor of the Liverpool Courier, and was author of Theological In- stitutes (6 parts, 1823—28); The Life of the Rev. John Wesley (1831); A Biblical and Theological Dictionary (1831); An Esvposition of the Gospels of llfatthew and Ilfarh (1833), and other theological treatises, collectively re- published, accompanied by Ilfemoirs of his Life and Writ- ings (13 vols., 1834-37) by Rev. Thomas Jackson. His Institutes, Dictionary, Sermons, Catechisms, and Life of Wesley have been edited with notes by Thomas O. Sum- mers, and the Institutes have been edited, with‘ an Analy- sis, by John McClintock. Revised by ALBERT OSBORN. Watson, SERENO, M. D., Ph. D.: botanist; b. at East Windsor I-Iill, Conn., Dec. 1, 1826; graduated at Yale Col- lege 1847, and at the medical department of the University of New York; was botanist to the geological exploration under Clarence King 1868—69; assistant in the Gray her- barium, Harvard College, 1871; curator Gray herbarium 1888—92. In 1889 he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. His principal publications are Botany (vol. v. of the U. S. Geol. Explor. of the 40th Parallel, 1871) ; Botany of California (vol. i. with Asa Gray and W. H. Brewer, 1876; vol. ii., 1880); Bibliographical Index to .North Amer- ican Botany (part i., Polypetalaa, 1878); Contributions to American Botany, i. to xviii. (mainly in Proceedings of Am. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, 1873-91). He edited Les- quereux and J ames’s Mosses of N orth America, and with J . M. Coulter revised and extended Gray’s lllanual of Botany (6th ed. 1890). D. at Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 9, 1892. CHARLES E. Bnssnr. Watson, THOMAS: poet; b. in London, England, about 1557; educated at Oxford University; studied law in Lon- don; spent some time in Paris with members of the Walsing- ham family; settled in London, and acquired a high re u- tation by his pastoral and amatory poems, which riva ed in popularity those of his friends Spenser and Sidney. D. in 1592. He was the author of a translation of Sophocles’s Antigone into Latin (1581); Ehatompathia, or Passionate Centuric of Love (1582); Jltelibceus, sire Ecloga in Obitum Domini Francisci Walsinghami (1590); The Tears of Fan- cie, or Love Disdained (1593) ; and many other poetical works, some of which have perished. The three last named were carefully edited by Edward Arber in his English Reprints WATSON (1870). Watson’s love sonnets, many of which were imita- tions of Ferrabosco, Ronsard, and other foreign poets, were artificial and frigid. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Watson, WILLIAM: poet; b. at Wharfedale, Yorkshire, England, in 1855; educated at private schools. In 1876 he contributed to the Liverpool Argus his first poems and a series of articles on German musicians. A year or two after this he removed to Southport. His first volume of poems, The Prince’s Quest (1880), attracted little attention. Epi- grams of Art (1884) was favorably reviewed. In 1885 he contributed to the National Review a series of sonnets, Ver tenebrosum, attacking the policy of the British Government in Egypt. His lVorclsworth’s Grave anal other Poems (1891) and his tribute to Tennyson entitled Lachrymce Musarum (1892) first gave full evidence of his powers, especially in elegiac poetry and in verse of a thoughtful, reflective char- acter on literary themes. His obituary poem on Tennyson came under the notice of Mr. Gladstone, and the poet re- ceived a civil pension from the Government of £200, which has since been increased. Among his other publications are Poems (1893); Ezzzcursions in Criticism (1893); The Eloping Angels (1893); and Odesa/ncl other Poems (1894). See Note on a New Poet, by Grant Allen, Fortnightly Review, lvi., 196. HENRY A. BEERS. WatS0nt0Wn: borough (incorporated in 1867); North- umberland co., Pa.; on the Susquehanna river, and the Cent. Pen.n. and W. and the Penn. railways; 9 miles N. of Lewis- burg, 23 miles S. of Williamsport (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 4-G). It is in an agricultural region; contains 5 churches, 9 graded schools, 2 national banks with combined capital of $110,000, a tannery, saw and planing mills, car-shops, 2 table and furniture works, and shoe and nail factories, and has a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,481; (1890) 2,157. Enrron or “ RECOED AND STAR.” Watsonvillez city; Santa Cruz co., Cal.; on the Pajaro river, and the Southern Pac. Railroad; 20 miles E. S. E. of Santa Cruz, and 5 miles from Monterey Bay, Pacific Ocean (for location, see map of California, ref. 8-C). It is in a sugar-beet and fruit-growing region, and has 6 churches, 4 State banks with combined capital of $170,000, a daily and 3 weekly newspapers, and a beet-sugar factory with beet- crushing capacity of over 1,000 tons and sugar-manufac- turing capacity of 200 tons a day. Pop. (1880) 1,799; (1890) 2,149 ; (1895) estimated, 3,000. Enrroa or “ PAJARONJLAN.” Watt, JAMES, LL. D., F. R. S.: inventor; b. at Greenock, Scotland, Jan. 19, 1736; manifested in childhood great me- chanical ingenuity, having constructed an electrical ma- chine at the age of fourteen; spent some time at Glasgow (1754-55), learning to make mathematical instruments; prac- ticed this trade at London 1755-56; returned to Glasgow; was appointed instrument-maker to the university; studied French, German, and music; constructed an organ ; ob- tained the friendship of Adam Smith and other eminent men; began about 1758 a series of experiments on steam as a motive power, along with his friend Robison, afterward Professor of Natural Philosophy in Glasgow; constructed a model high-pressure steam-engine 1761, a second much im- proved model 1765, a third 1768; took out a patent Jan., 769, 011 his separate condenser for steam-engines; occupied himself for some years with land-surveying, the engineering of the Forth and Clyde and the Caledonian Canals, building bridges, improving the navigation of the Clyde and the har- bors of Glasgow and Greenock; became in 1773 a partner with Matthew Boulton, founder of the famous Soho works, near Birmingham, where in 1775 they began the manufac- ture of steam-engines, which were rapidly improved by the addition of new features. He was also the inventor of vari- ous devices unconnected with the steam-engine. He retired from business in 1800, and died at Heathfield, Aug. 25,1819. He was buried beside Boulton in Handsworth church, a statue by Chantrey was erected in Westminster Abbey by national subscription, and a copy in bronze stands in front of the Manchester Infirmary. See J . P. Muirhead’s Origin and Progress of the Jlfechanical Inventions of James Watt (3 vols., 1854); Thurston’s History of the Growth of the Steam Engine (New York, 1879); and Lives by Muirhead (1858), Smiles, and Lord Brougham. Watt’s inventions in connection with the Newcomen en- gine, the improvements upon which constitute his claim for distinction, have made that machine the prime mover of the world. He adapted it to its original purpose, the pump- ing of water from mines, etc., gave it enormously greater economy in use of steam and fuel than it had in the hands WATTERSON 663 of Newcomen, and applied it to the rotation of a shaft, and thus made it applicable to the driving of every sort of ma- chinery, thereby making possible the steamship, the steam locomotive, the modern railway, and the whole system of manufacturing industries. These improvements consisted mainly in the invention of the separate condenser, the steam-jacket, and the double-acting engine. His first im- provements were directed toward the improvement of the engine by reducing its wastes of steam “by keeping the cylinder as hot as the steam which entered it,” as he stated his plan. This reduction of the internal wastes—the largest by far of all the losses of energy in the engine of his time- gave the world the modern “Cornish engine,” the most eco- nomical of its class and time, and only recently superseded by the compound pumping-engine. Watt proposed to adapt his engine to the propulsion of the steamboat and of the locomotive on the railway; but his time and thought and energies were completely taken up with the work of improv- ing and introducing the stationary engine in its various fields; and that work was left to other inventors. His patent of 1784 embodies a considerable number of inven- tions, accessories of the steam-engine proper, as the gov- ernor, steam-gauge, and water-gauge, which were essential to its successful use. Revised by R. H. Tnunsron. Watt, ROBERT: physician and bibliographer; b. in Ayr- shire, Scotland, May, 1774; was in early life a farm-laborer and cabinetmaker ; studied at Glasgow University 1793-97. and later studied medicine in Edinburgh; was licensed to practice surgery and pharmacy 1799; resided as a surgeon at Paisley 1799-1810; removed to Glasgow in the latter year, and lectured there on surgery with great success, becoming physician to the Glasgow Infirmary and president of the fac- ulty of physicians and surgeons of that city. D. at Glasgow Mar. 12, 1819. He was the author of several medical trea- tises, and of an important work, Bibliotheca Britannica. or a General Inclea: to British and Foreign Literature (Edin- burgh, 4 vols. 4to, 1821-24), published after his death by his sons John and James Watt, who had aided him in the work. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Watteau, Fr. pron. va”a’t6'. ANTOINE : painter; b. at Va- lenciennes, France, Oct. 10, 1684. He went to Paris in abso- lute destitution while a boy, and was employed by an artist named Métayer, then with Claude Gillot, a ‘scene-painter, and afterward with a far more able man, Claude Audran. Two pictures of military subjects, painted when he was about twenty-one years of age and preserved only in engravings, excited attention and enabled him to pursue his studies in a more formal way. About 1717 he was received into the Academy of Fine Arts, and as every person so received comes in as the representative of some particular branch of art, he was designated as Pez'ntre des Fétes Galantes, which might be translated a “painter of court pastorals.” This title was afterward given to other artists. He had early developed a most elaborate system of painting, which may be described as painting the whole picture in middle tints and then adding touches, sometimes of more vivid color and sometimes of high light. the ground painting showing be- tween the new touches and giving great harmony and the effect of brilliant color, while yet there is but little pure red, blue, etc. As a technical artist Watteau ranks very high, there are few more consummate workmen, and paint- ers generally love his pictures. As regards his subjects, he seldom abandoned the general one denoted by his Academy title. There are always parties of richly dressed women dis- tributed in groups in shaded groves, elegant picnics, country processions, masked balls. and courtly scenes of all sorts. In 1720 he went to England, where he lived for a year, but, his health failing, he returned to France and died July 18, 1721, at Nogent-sur-Seine. The Louvre has one large pic- ture, L’E'2nl)a2'quenzent pour Cythere (Embarkation for the Island of Cythera); and in the collection of La Caze, Gilles, l’Inclifi’érent, and Finette. There is nothing by him in the National Gallery, but in the Dulwich Gallery, near London, are two very beautiful pictures. He is represented also in Edinburgh National Gallery, the Berlin Museum, the Dres- den Gallery, and the Hermitage, near St. Petersburg. RUSSELL STURGIS. Wvatterson, HENRY : journalist ; b. in Washington, D. C., Feb. 16,1840. Owing to defective eyesight he was educated privately, but at the age of eighteen entered the profession of journalism in \Vashington, D. C., where he became con- nected with The Democratic Review and The States. In 1861 he went to Nashville, Tenn., and there edited The 664 WATTLE—BIRD Republican Banner. At the beginning of the civil war he entered the Confederate army, and served in various capaci- ties; performed staff duty 1861—63, and later was chief of scouts in Gen. Joseph E. Johnston’s army. After the war he resumed the editorship of the Banner; but he soon settled in Louisville, Ky., where in 1867 he became editor of The Louisville Journal, succeeding George D. Prentice. In 1868 the Journal was consolidated with The Louisville Times and The Louisville Courier to found The Louis- ville Oourier-Journal, of which he became part owner and editor-in-chief. He served as a Democratic member of Con- gress from Aug., 1876, till Mar., 1877, and has been a delegate to national Democratic conventions, presiding in 1876 over the one held in St. Louis, Me. As a public speaker, espe- cially on political subjects, he is well known. In addition to contributions to eriodieals he published Oddities of Southern Life and haracter (Boston, 1883). MARcUs BENJAMIN. Wattle-bil‘d : the Anthochoera carunculata, so named from the large wattles on its -neck. It is a native of South- ern Australia, of large size and bold, active habits, living on the honey and insects it obtains from the flowers of spe- cies of Banhsia, which cover the waste lands of that region. It has a loud, disagreeable note. It is about the size of a magpie, grayish brown above, each feather striped and bor- dered with white, the tail brown, long, wide, and graduated. It is hostile to other birds. The yellow wattle-bird, A. inauris, is a gregarious bird of Australia, of some impor- tance for the excellent oil which it abundantly affords. VVattle-turkey: a name sometimes applied to the brush-turkey or Talcgalla lathami of Australia. See BRUSH-TURKEY and lVIEeAPoDIDAv.. Wattmeters: instruments for measuring the power ex- pended in electric circuits. The unit of power in the C. G. S. system. is the watt. It is equal to 10" ergs per sec- ond. One horse-power is equivalent to 746 watts. A kilo- watt is 1,000 watts, and is equal to about 1-§- horse-power. If a direct current is measured in amperes, and the elec- tromotive force or electric pressure in volts, then the product of the two represents the power of the electrical current in watts. Thus an arc lamp requiring 10 amperes and 45 volts difference of potential between its terminals absorbs 450 watts of energy, or %ths of a horse-power. A 110- volt incandescent lamp, taking one-half an ampere, requires 55 watts to maintain it at normal candle-power. If it gives light e ual to 16 candles, it requires very nearly 35 watts per can le. With direct currents the power can be determined by measuring the current and the voltage and taking their product. But with alternating currents, in which the cur- rent and electromotive force do not arrive at their maxi- mum values at the same instant—in other words, where the two differ in phase—the power can not be measured in the same simple way. It is necessary to have an instrument which takes into account the product of the instantaneous values of the electric current and the electric pressure, and integrates or sums up all these products throughout a com- plete period of the alternating current. Wattmeters are either indicating or integrating. The former indicates the rate at which work is being done at any instant ; the latter registers the en- ergy consumed during any interval of time, as, for example, a month. Indicating lVattmeters.—The prin- ciple of the electro-dynamometer, illus- trated in Fig. 1, is employed i11 the wattmeter. It consists of two coils of wire, AB and CD, the first fixed and the second movable. When a current passes through the two in series the movable coil is displaced by the dy- namic action between parallel currents, and it turns in the direction of the arrow. It may be brought back to its zero position by turning the torsion head, T, or the deflection may be read by means of an attached pointer. _ When the same current traverses both cells, the force of deflection is proportional to the square of the current, since the doubling of the current in either coil doubles the force. If new the fixed coil be traversed by the main current FIG. 1. WATTMETERS and the suspended coil be separately connected as a pres- sure coil to the terminals of the resistance or translating device, in which the power expended is to be measured, then the mutual force between the two coils will be propor- tional at any instant to the product of the two currents-— that is, to the product of the working current and the elec- tric pressure. In Fig. 2 the fixed coil FF carries the entire current pass- ing through the trans- lating device T, such 0 as a lamp, while the T movable coil P is con- nected to the mains on opposite sides of T. The instrument can then be calibrated so that its scale shall read directly in watts or kilowatts. In the dia- gram the pressure cur- rent is also carried round the field coil, but in a direction op- posite to the main cur- rent. The object is to make a correction for the current passing through the pressure coil, for this also passes through the field coil in addition to the cur- rent actually required to operate the electri- cal device T. The third terminal I is employed only for calibrating purposes with currents from independent sources. An instrument operating on this principle can be used either with direct or alternating currents, since the forces tending to turn the movable system are the same whether the currents both go in one direction through the coils or in the other. If only one of the currents be reversed, the couple tending to turn the system is also reversed. This is as It should be, since the instrument then takes account of the fact that when an alternating current and electro- motive force differ in phase, during a part of each period the circuit is absorbing power from the source, and during the remainder of the period it is returning power to the source, since the direction of the electromotive force rela- tive to the current is then reversed. When the two are in the same direction the source is giving energy to the cir- cuit, but when they are in opposite directions the circuit is returning energy to the source. The same relations exist in a flywheel, in which there is a give and take of energy as the speed changes. During an increase of speed the fly- wheel absorbs energy, but during a decrease of speed it gives out energy .to run the system or to aid the source. The deflection of the wattmeter will be due to the difference of these two 0 posite actions. Recording l/)Vattmeters.—Recording wattmeters give the integrated energy expended during any period of time. They are strictly energy-meters. The principle may be ex- plained by a description of the Thomson wattmeter, which received the highest prize at Paris in competition with all others. It consists of a vertical shaft resting in a jeweled bearing and carrying near its up er end an armature of several coils without an iron core. T Iese coils are connected to the bars of a small commutator near the upper bearing of the shaft, and on this commutator rest two light springs. The coils are wound with many turns of fine wire, and in series with them is a high non-inductive resistance at the back of the instrument (Fig. 3). The field coils of this motor are the two large coils clearly shown in the figure. An endless screw on the shaft engages with a wheel in the registry- train, and the rotations of the armature are thus recorded on the dials. On the lower part of the shaft is mounted a copper disk which rotates between the poles of three permanent mag- nets. Currents are generated in the disk by its motion, and the device constitutes a magnetic damper for the re ulation of the rotation so as to make the speed proportiona to the energy to be registered. The armature is connected to the circuit as a pressure coil, and the field coils are in series with the translating FIG. 2. WATTS device. The torque operating the motor is made up con- jointly of the two magnetic fields, due to the current in the field-coil on the one hand and the current proportional to the electric pressure on the other. The speed of rotation V‘:- __,__-—'—_="-P N’ _ - '1\H"t ||' .5, linnwvvmlww I III‘ 1|‘ ‘H U‘ ‘ I , ¢I H-——'—____ :9‘. ‘* . \ E ,1 _.__’_§___ 1 ~' -4 1"" "in 1 |. fig, '/F tllllluullllullhflralfl-5 /ummllllllllllllllllllillllillilllll .a;i;‘.:i; .. :. 'M'5‘ -M , M > ._ M . E- iiiilll P r~iiu|1|mii_iinn1i1llll‘_|E£j:=-. __lllllllllll_(l|lllII_ll_ll it 2 2'11"? 1‘ ' ‘ - ‘llllllllllilllllil - E .. Z: * §i§::; >74: \'—v— __ .: ‘II 5 '1*"*1'W "- “‘llllll1ll\lll" ' l1nmi=| " 11.1.1.1 L _ nl \---u I FL :_-_I .ll. >\ \ ——_-7 , __= _m _’ {E . |||\'mfl'|'|\'l|| _ t,;_‘,/ ____\\/ . _ ~‘ "*‘-_""‘_____4 \ ' 11;. v_'-it / _; : _ l I} _: L H ‘ 1|lluu|iinu|in|mi'miiuTMil Mi" ‘"“ ,____P-4 0 ' 1 ~\ '. FROM GENERATOR ( - -; 0 ' .'¢¢"§o~’*‘: FIG. 3.—Two-wire meter (low capacity). therefore takes into account not only the variations of the current in the mains, but those of the electric pressure as well. In an ordinary electric motor the speed decreases as the field is made stronger, but in this motor the speed in- creases directly with the field strength. This difierence is explained by the fact that the counter electromotive force is very small in comparison with the resistance of the arma- ture circuit, so that the current through the armature is not affected by the speed, which therefore increases with the field current, as in the case of a series motor on a constant- current circuit. The efficiency of the device as a motor is sacrificed to secure the qualities required in a registering meter. In this instrument, as in the indicating wattmeter, a re- versal of either current with respect to the other reverses the torque on the armature. This wattmeter therefore takes account of both the absorption and the restoration of the energy, or registers the difference between the output and the intake of energy. The Aron wattmeter, which has been used to some extent in Germany, operates in a very different manner. Two clocks, adjusted to run normally at the same rate, are mounted in the same case. The pendulum of one ends in a coil of fine wire carried by a suitable fork, in such a man- ner that it can oscillate back and forth along the axis of another larger fixed coil. The movable coil is connected as a pressure coil, and the fixed coil as a main circuit coil. The rate of this clock is therefore determined by the mutual action of the two coils, and its variation is proportional to the product of the electric pressure and the main current. The gain of the measuring pendulum is then a measure of the energy which has been absorbed. Both clocks act on the same dial train, so that the dials register numbers which a constant of the instrument converts into watt-hours. HENRY S. CARHART. Watts, ALARIc ALEXANDER: journalist;_b. in London, England, Mar. 16, 1799; became a teacher at Putney and at Manchester; published a successful volume of Poetical Sketches (1822); was successively editor of the Leeds 1n- telligencer, the Manchester Courier, and the London Stand- ard; founded and conducted for ten years the United Service Gazette 1833-43; consumed his property by six chancery suits with his partner in that enterprise ; edited a Series of annual volumes, The Literary Souvenir (1825-35) ; 665 published his selected poems, Lyrics of the Heart (1851); and received in 1853 a pension of £100 a year. D. at Ken- sington, Apr. 5, 1864. See the Life by his son (2 vols., 1884). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Watts, GEORGE FREDERICK, D. C. L., LL.D: figure and portrait painter; b. in London in 1817; studied at the Royal Academy (where he first exhibited in 1837), and later in Florence, and in 1847 won a prize of £500 in London for a cartoon representing Alfred Inciting the Saxons to Prevent the Landing of the Danes, which is now in one of the committee-rooms of the Houses of Parliament; has painted important frescoes in Lincoln’s Inn and other buildings in London; is also a sculptor. He is, however, known chiefly as a portrait painter, some forty of the most distinguished men in Great Britain having sat to him, and by his imaginative compositions, one of which, Lore and Mfe, exhibited at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, was presented to the U. S. Government and is now on exhibition in Washington. He was elected a Royal Acade- mician in 1868, received first-class medals at the Paris Ex- position of 1878, and at that of Antwerp in 1885; received the decoration of the Legion of Honor in 1878. A collection of his works was exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum, New York, in 1884-85, and attracted considerable attention. Studio in London. WILLIAM A. COFEIN. Watts, HENRY, F. R. S.: chemist; b. in London, Eng- land, Jan. 20, 1815; received a thorough scientific educa- tion, and became a teacher, but, owing to an incurable im- pediment in his speech, was unable to obtain a professorship and became editor of the journal of the Chemical Society in 1850 and librarian in 1861; translated Gmelin’s Hand- book of Chemistry (18 vols., 1848-55) for the Cavendish So- ciety. His best claim to distinction is his Dictionary of Chemistry (5 vols., 1863-68; Supplements in 1872, 1875, 1881; new edition by Morley and Muir, 4 vols., 1889-94). D. in London, June 30, 1884. Watts, IsAAo: hymn-writer; b. at Southampton, Eng- land, July 14, 1674; son of a Nonconformist schoolmaster, by whom his early education was directed; studied at the Southampton free school and at Rev. Thomas Rowe’s Dis- senting academy in London; became a private tutor at Stoke N ewington in 1696; became in 1698 assistant minister and in 1702 pastor of the Mark Lane Independent congrega- tion, London ; was forced by ill health in 1712 to retire from the active work of the ministry, and having gone on a visit to his friend Sir Thomas Abney, at Theobald’s, N ewington. was persuaded to remain there indefinitely as a guest, and so continued for thirty-six years, until his death N ov. 25, 1748. He was buried in Bunhill Fields. Watts was of diminutive size and somewhat deformed in person, and was never married. He had a high reputation as a preacher, and was much beloved for his cheerfulness, his wit, and his truly philosophical traits of character. He was the author of Logic, or the Right Use of Reason in the Inquiry after Trath (172@, The Improvement of the Jlfind (1741), and many volumes of religious and educational treatises, but is best remembered by his Psalms and Hymns, which has ever since contributed largely to the services of song in nearly all branches of English-speaking Protestant denominations. Monuments have been erected to his memory in Abney Park and Westminster Abbey, a statue by Chantrey was dedicated at Southampton in 1861, and the foundation of a memorial hall was laid there May 6, 1875. His Complete IVor7rs were edited by Drs. Jennings and Doddridge (6 vols., 1754), and biographical sketches have been written by Dr. J olmson, Milner, and Southey. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Watts. ROBERT, D. D. : Irish Presbyterian minister, pro- fessor, and author ; b. at Moneylane, County Down, Ireland, July 10, 1820: educated at the Royal Academical Institution of Belfast, Lafayette College, Pennsylvania, \Vashington College, Virginia, and Princeton Seminary; was founder and pastor of Westminster church, Philadelphia, 1852-63; assistant secretary of the Presbyterian board of education, Philadelphia, 1860-63; pastor of Gloucester Street church, Dublin, 1863-66; and since 1866 Professor of Systematic Theology in the Assembly’s College, Belfast. Besides con- tributing frequently to theological and scientific reviews, Dr. Watts has published Calvin and Cah~inism (Edinburgh, 1866); Utilitarianism (Belfast, 1868); What is Presby- terianism .9 (1870); Prelatic De-Jyartnres from Reforrnation Principles (Edinburgh, 1871); Arminian Departures from Reformation Principles (Edinburgh, 1871); Atomism (Bel- fast, 1874); Herbert Spencer’s Biological Hypotliesis (1875); 666 wATTs The Doctrine of Eternal Punishment (Belfast, 1877); The New Apologetic (Edinburgh, 1879; revised ed. 1890); The N ewer Criticism (Edinburgh, 1882) ; The Rule of Faith and the Doctrine of Inspiration (London, 1885); The Reign of Causality (Edinburgh, 1888); Dr. Briggs’s Theology Traced to its Organific Principle (1891) ; and Drioer’s Introduction Examined (1892). C. K. Hovr. Watts, THOMAS HILL: Governor of Alabama; b. in But- ler co.. Ala., Jan. 3, 1820; graduated at the University of Virginia 1840, and began the practice of law at Greenville, Butler co., 1841 ; was member of the State Legislature 1842— 45; moved to the city of Montgomery, and was again elect- ed to the Legislature in 1849, becoming a member of the State Senate in 1853; was strongly opposed to the policy of secession, but cast his fortunes with his State; first en- tered the Confederate military service as colonel of a regi- ment, but after the battle of Shiloh (Apr., 1862), where he greatly distinguished himself, resigned to take the position of Attorney-General in President Davis’s cabinet. He be- came Governor of Alabama in 1863, but was deposed from this oifice under the reconstruction policy of the Federal Government. He afterward continued the practice of law ‘in Montgomery. D. in that city Sept. 16, 1892. Wat Tyler: the leader of the peasants’ revolt in the reign of Richard II., King of England. For many years the discontent of the peasants had been gathering. The Statute of Labourers (1349) fixing the maximum of wages, the teachings of Wycliffe and of the itinerant preacher John Ball, arousing hostility to the clergy and discontent with existing social conditions, and the attempts to force the emancipated workingmen to return to the condition of vil- leins, had combined to develop in the peasantry a spirit of revolt. Finally, the expenses of the lingering war with France having exhausted the ordinary revenues, the Par- liament assembled at Northampton imposed a poll or capi- tation tax (Nov., 1380) on each male or female above the age of fifteen years. This was rigorously enforced, and became the occasion of disturbances in several places. At Dartford, in Kent, a laboring man, one Walter or Wat, known as “the Tiler” from his occupation, struck dead a tax-collector, whom he accused of gross insult to his daugh- ter, early in June, 1381, and calling his neighbors to shield him from punishment, soon found himself at the head of a considerable multitude; and the excitement spreading over the nine southeastern counties, a march against London was determined on for the redress of grievances. A vast mob, usually said to have numbered 100,000, marched on London, and took possession of the southern portion of the city. The king met one division of this force, composed chiefly of the Essex peasantry, at Mile End on June 14, 1381, and by fair promises induced them to return home. The other body, composed of the men of Kent, burned the Duke of Lancaster’s palace, plundered a portion of the city, seized the Tower, put to death the lord treasurer, Sir Robert Hales, and the Archbishop of Canterbury, destroyed the Savoy Palace, the archbishop’s palace, and the priory of St. J ohn’s, Clerkenwell, and advanced to Smithfield (June 15), where they were met by some of the authorities, with the young king at their head. In the parley which ensued the arrogance of Wat was so great that Sir William Walworth, the lord mayor of London, rushed upon him and killed him on the spot. Richard declared to the excited mob that he would be their leader himself, and actually conducted them out of the city. On the following day they were attacked by Sir William Knollys, dispersed, and their leaders merci- lessly punished. Seven thousand are said to have been killed in fight or executed after the revolt was suppressed, and as the king was false to his premises the movement failed of its immediate object. F. M. COLBY. Waugh, EDWIN: dialect-writer; b. at Rochdale, Lanca- shire, England, Jan. 29, 1817; educated at the commercial academy of that place; was apprenticed to a bookseller and printer; worked at his trade as a journeyman nearly ten years; was then appointed secretary to the Lancashire pub- lic school association for the promotion of a national plan of secular education; filled that post five years, and then de- voted himself entirely to literature, having by his cultiva- tion of the dialect of his native county won the designation of the Lancashire poet. He was the author of Sketches of Lancashire Life and Localities (1855; 4th ed. 1869); Poems and Lancashire Songs (1859; new ed. 1870); Rambles in the Lake Country and its Borders (1862); Tufts of Heatlier from the Lancashire Moors (1864); Irish Sketches ; Home WAUSAU Life of the Lancashire Factory-Fol/0 (1866); Sancho’s Wallet, a series of northern anecdotes; The Chimney Cor- ner, a series of country tales (1879); Roads out of ]lIanches- ter; The Limping Pilgrim; and other works. In 1882 he received a pension of £90 from the civil list. D. at New Brighton, Cheshire, Apr. 30, 1890. A selection from his poems appeared under the title Poesies frome a Country Garden (2 vols., 1865). A complete edition of his writings in ten volumes was issued at Manchester in 1881-83. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wauke’gan: city; capital of Lake co., Ill.; on Lake Michigan, and the Chi. and N. W., and the Elgin, J oliet and East. (Belt Line) railways; 36 miles N. of Chicago, 50 miles S. of Milwaukee, Wis. (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 1-G). It is on a bluff 80 feet above and overlooking the lake, has a deep, improved harbor and a fine beach, and is a ship- ping point for iron, lumber, salt, and coal. Many Chicago business men have summer and permanent residences here. The city is in an agricultural region: has a public park, improved water-works, paved streets, high school, public li- brary, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a State bank with capital of $50,000, and a daily and three weekly news- papers; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of railway supplies, barbed wire, plumbers’ hardware, zinc ox- ide, feather dusters, builders’ hardware, starch, carriages and wagons, leather, and machinery. Pop. (1880) 4,012; (1890) 4,915. F. T. RADEOKE, CITY EDITOR or “ REeIsTER.” Waukesha, waw'ke“e-shaw: village; capital of Waukesha co.,Wis.: on the Fox river, 5 miles from its source (Pewaukee Lake), and on the Chi. and N. W., the Chi., Mil. and St. P., and the Wis. Cent. railways; 20 miles W. of Milwaukee, 98 miles N. of Chicago (for location, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 7-F). It is one of the principal health resorts in the State, has magnesian springs that are recommended for kidney and liver diseases, and is connected with Pewaukee Lake by electric railway. The village has gas and electric-light plants, water-works, county, town, and village buildings, 9 churches, 5 public schools, Roman Catholic and Lutheran parochial schools, Carroll Academy (a classical and scientific school), the Wisconsin Industrial School for boys, 2 national banks with combined capital of $200,000, and 3 weekly newspapers. There are quarries of dolomite building-stone, railway-car shops, several flour-mills, 2 breweries, malleable iron plant, and cast-iron works. Pop. (1880) 2,969; (1890) 6,321; (1895) State census, 7,211. THERON W. HAIGHT. Waukon' : town; capital of Allamakee co., Ia.; on the Chi., Mil. and St. P. Railway; 18 miles W. of the Missis- sippi river (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 2-J). It is in an agricultural and fruit-growing region; contains 7 churches, high school, convent school, business college, pub- lic library, a national bank with capital of $50,000, and 2 State banks with combined capital of $65,000; and has 2 newspapers, several flour-mills, wagon-factories, creamery, and canning-factory. The town is an important market for livestock. Pop. (1880) 1,350; (1890) 1,610; (1895) State cen- sus, 2,000. EDITOR or “ STANDARD.” Waupa’ca: city (chartered in 1875); ea ital of Wau aca co., Wis.; on the Waupaca river, and the is. Cent. ail- road; 40 miles N. W. of Oshkosh, 135 miles N. VV. of Mil- waukee (for location, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 5—E). It is in an agricultural region, has excellent water-power, con- tains the State Soldiers’ Home, and has 2 national banks with combined capital of $100,000, 2 weekly newspapers, sev- eral foundries and flour-mills, woolen-mill, and potato-starch factory. The city is a summer resort with many attractions, including a chain of picturesque lakes. Pop. (1880) 1,392; (1890) 2,127 ; (1895) estimated, 4,000, with suburbs, 5,400. EDITOR or “ REI>UBLIcAN.” Waupun' : city; Fond du Lac and Dodge cos., Wis.; on the Chi., Mil. and St. P. Railway; 18 miles S. W. of Fond du Lac., 68 miles N. W. of Milwaukee (for location, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 6—E). It is in an agricultural region; contains 9 churches, 2 public high schools, the State prison, and a national bank with capital of $50,000; and has 2 weekly newspapers, manufactories of carriages, pumps, windmills, cigars, umbrellas, cane goods, and, in the_pnson, shoes. Pop. (1880) 2,353; (1890) 2,757; (1895) estimated, 3,000. PRoI>RIEToRs or “LEADER.” Wausau, waw'saw: city; capital of Marathon co.. Wis.; on both sides of the Wisconsin river, and on the Chi. and N. W. and the Cl1i., Mil. and St. P. railways; 40 miles N. WAUSEON of Stevens Point, 180 miles N. W. of Milwaukee (for loca- tion, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 4-D). The surface has a gradual ascent from the river on both sides. The city is provided with numerous parks, paved streets, electric lights, and water-works with reservoir capacity of 3,000,000 gal. per day, and has 3 banks with combined capital of $260,000 and deposits exceeding $1,000,000, and a daily and 6 weekly newspapers. Among the notable buildings are the county courthouse (cost $100,000), the county insane asylum (cost $125,000), and the city-hall (cost $25,000). There are 19 churches, viz.: Methodist Episcopal, Roman Catholic, Ger- man Lutheran, and Presbyterian, 2 each; and German Methodist, Baptist, German Baptist, Norwegian Lutheran, Swedish Lutheran, Evangelical Lutheran, Evangelical, Apostolic Evangelical, German Reformed, Protestant Epis- copal, and Universalist, 1 each. The educational institu- tions comprise 10 public schools, with 48 teachers and 2,300 pupils, and 2 Roman Catholic and 3 Lutheran parochial schools, with a total enrollment of about 700. The annual tax levy is $65,000; receipts from water rent and licenses, $25,000; expenditures, $90,000; bonded debt, $165,000; and assessed valuation, $3,530,000. Business interests in- clude about 40 manufacturing plants, which employ about 1,800 people. There are 6 large sawmills, 2 flour-mills, 3 box-factories. several planing-mills, 2 quartz sand-mills, 2 tanneries, 7 cigar-factories, extensive granite quarries, furni- ture-factory, wood-novelty works, boiler-works, and other lants. Wausau was settled in 1842; was first known as Big Bull Falls, because of the falls in the river here; and was first iven railwa accommodations in 1874. Pop. (1880) 4,277; (1890) 9,253 ; (1895) State census, 11,013. EDITDR or “ CENTRAL WIScoNSIN.” Wau'Se0n: village; capital of Fulton co., O.; on the Lake Shore and Mich. S. Railway; 12 miles N. of Napoleon, 33 miles W. by S. of Toledo (for location, see map of Ohio, ref.1—D). It is in an agricultural region, 12 miles from the Maumee river; is an important trade center; and has electric lights, large public school, 2 private banks, 2 large flour-mills, public library, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,905; (1890) 2,060; (1895) estimated, 2,400. EDITOR or “ REPUBLIGAN.” Wauters, e6’térz, EMILE: historical and portrait painter; b. in Brussels, Nov. 29, 1846; pupil of Portaiéls in Brussels, and of Gér6me in Paris; received second-class medals at the Salons of 1875 and 1876, and medals of honor at the Paris Expositions of 1878 and 1889 ; received the decoration of the Legion of Honor (1878), and of the Orders of Leopold of Belgium and Francis Joseph of Austria; member of Brus- sels, Vienna, and Madrid Academies. Madness of Hitgli Van der Goes is in the museum, and Citizens of Brussels de- manding the Constitution of Duke John IV. in the city-hall at Brussels. His studio is in Brussels. W. A. C. Wave-lengths: See WAVES. Wavellite: a mineral, a hydrous aluminium phosphate, named after Dr. Wavell (d. 1829), who discovered it in Corn- wall, England. It occurs near Bellows Falls, N. H. ; at the Washington mine, Davidson co., N. C.; and in York and Chester cos., Pa. It is found usually in radiated spheroidal masses of white or yellow-green or brown color, translucent, harder than calcite, approaching fluor; crystal-system, right- r ombic. Wave-motion : See WAVES. Wave-0fi'erings: in the Hebrew ritual, those offerings which were borne by the oiferer upon his hands before the priest and were wowed by the priest moving the ofi°erer’s hands in a horizontal direction. Most commonly, doubt- less, this ceremony took place at the offering of private peace-offerings (Lev. vii. 29-34), but it also occurred in con- nection with the oiferings enjoined at the consecration of priests (Ex. xxix. 24, 26), the dedication of Nazarites (Num. vi. 20), the jealousy-offering (Num. v. 25), the tres- pass-offering of the leper (Lev. xiv. 12), and at the offering of the sheaf of new grain at the Passover (Lev. xxiii. 11), and the loaves of first ripe grain and peace-offering lambs at the Feast of Weeks (Lev. xxiii. 17-20). The meaning of the rite is plain when it is noticed that the parts waved were almost exclusively those parts of the sacrifices which were allotted to the priests as a gift from Jehovah. The swinging forward meant the presentation to God, the swing- ing backward God’s return of the gift for the use of his priest (0ehler). SAMUEL MAcAULEY J AcKsoN. Waverley Novels: See SCOTT, SIR WALTER. WAVES 657 Waverly: village (founded in 1836); Morgan co., Ill.; on the J acksonv., Louisv. and St. L. and the St. L., Chi. and St. P. railways; 19 miles E. S. E. of Jacksonville, the county- seat, and 25 miles S. W. of Springfield (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 7—C). It is in an agricultural and dairying region, and has 8 churches, graded schools, 3 private banks, a weekly newspaper, creamery, tile-works, and several flour- mills and grain elevators. Pop. (1880) 1,124; (1890) 1,337 ; (1895) estimated, 1,800. EDITOR or “ J DURNAL.” Waverly: city; capital of Bremer co., Ia.; on the Cedar river, and the Burl., Ced. Rap. and N ., the Chi. Gt. \VeSt., and the Ill. Cent. railways; 12 miles N. of Cedar Falls, 28 miles S. E. of Charles City (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 3-1). It is in a dairying and stock-raising region, con- tains Wartburg College (Lutheran), and has 6 churches, graded public schools, 20 creameries and cheese-factories, creamery-supply factory, furniture-factory, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a State bank with capital of $50,- 000, a loan and trust company with capital of $25,000, and 4 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,345; (1890) 2,346: (1895) estimated, 2,950. EDITOR or “INDEPENDENT.” Waverly: village; Tioga co., N. Y.; on the Chemung river, and the Del., Lack. and W. and the Erie railways; 18 miles E. S. E. of Elmira, 19 miles W. S. W. of Owego (for location, see map of New York, ref. 6—F). It is the shipping- point for a large agricultural and dairying region; has electric lights and electric railways connecting the city with Sayre and Athens, Pa.; and has a union school, several grammar and primary schools, 5 churches, town-hall, opera- house, a national bank (capital $50,000,) a State bank (capi- tal $50,000), and 3 weekly papers. Pop. (1880) 2.767; (1890) 4,123; (1895) estimated, 7,000. EDITOR or “TRIBUNE.” Waverly : village (laid out in 1829); capital of Pike co., 0.; on the Scioto river, the Ohio Canal, and the Norfolk and West. and the Ohio S. railways; 16 miles S. of Chilli- cothe, 29 miles N. of Portsmouth (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 7-E). It is in an agricultural, tobacco-growing, and stock-raising region, and has a private bank, 3 weekly newspapers, union school, saw, flour, and planing mills, furniture-factories, tannery, and distilleries. Pop. (1880) 1,539; (1890) 1,567. Waves deriv. of the verb wave < O. Eng. wafian, waver, hesitate : cel. coifa, vibrate]: the forms assumed by parts of an elastic medium whose particles are in a state of oscil- lation—that is, move to and fro within certain limits. In certain kinds of waves the particles move in the direction in which the wave is propagated. Of this kind are sound- waves in the air, water, etc. (See AGOUSTIGS.) In waves of light, radiant heat. and electro-magnetic vibrations which take place in the ether, the oscillations are transverse to the line of propagation. (See LIGHT.) This article is divided into two parts, the first treating of waves in ether, and more especially of light-waves and their lengths, and the second of the different kinds of waves on the surface of sheets of water. I. WAvEs IN ETEER. The sensation of light is, in general, produced as the con- sequence of some phenomenon going on at a distance, e. g. a candle burning or a gas heated to incandescence. The process by which this effect is carried across the interven- ing space is now known to be a succession or train of waves. This is perfectly analogous to the result produced on the shores of a pond of water when waves are caused by the drop- ping of pebbles into the middle of the pond, or to a sound being heard by means of waves in the air, which are sent out by a distant horn. In all wave-motions the individual particles of the medium through which the waves are pass- ing merely vibrate to and fro; the form alone advances. In the case of light we know, further, that the waves are not in ordinary matter like air or glass, but are in a medium called ether, which permeates all space, and which is present between the smallest portions of ordinary matter. Mole- cules of matter act like so many obstacles in the ether, load- ing it and hindering the free passage of the ether-waves. All waves are characterized by certain properties. The length of a wave is the distance between two consecutive points where the state of the motion is identically the same, or, as ordinarily expressed, it is the distance from crest to crest or from hollow to hollow. The frequency or wave- number is the number of “ crests" which pass by any fixed point in one second of time. When a train of waves passes from the free ether into the ether which has ordinary 668 matter immersed in it—e. g. when light passes from a vac- uum into air or glass, or when it passes from one kind of matter into another—-the wave-length is changed, owing to the influence of the molecules of matter; but the frequency remains unchanged. So the frequency is the permanent characteristic of a train of waves. The length of the wave is characteristic only for a given medium under definite conditions. The frequency, however, can not be measured directly, whereas the wave-length can; but in expressing the values for wave-lengths care must be taken always to define the conditions under which they are measured. These ether-waves may be produced in many ways. Every portion of matter is sending them out as the result of mo- lecular vibrations, which can be increased or decreased by the application or withdrawal of heat. Any oscillating electric charge or current also causes them. It is found by experiment that these waves may have various lengths, ranging from 1-T,—[,1¢,5(,—wths of a centimeter to a distance meas- ured in kilometers, and that different effects are produced by different waves. If they have lengths lying between To-0%,Qo—5Uths and H-Gfiaqmfiths of a centimeter-i. e. if they are about Wth of an inch long, they produce on the retina of the eye the sensation of light. The shortest visible waves give rise to the sensation violet; the longest, the sensation red ; those of intermediate length, the sensations blue, green, yellow, etc. Waves slightly longer than these visible ones may be detected by their heating effect or by their influ- ence on phosphorescent bodies. Waves much longer may be measured by electrical appliances. VVaves shorter than the visible ones produce certain chemical reactions, and may be measured by photographic means. Apart from purely theoretical reasons, the chief interest in the determination and knowledge of wave-lengths of ether-waves depends upon two facts. 1. A luminescent vapor or gas is emitting trains of waves of definite frequencies, which are characteristic of the sub- stance in a given condition. And since the frequencies are definite, so are the wave-lengths for any specified me- dium. The light coming from any source, when analyzed into separate trains of waves by a prism or grating, is said to form its spectrum. Thus copper vapor has a character- istic spectrum; hydrogen, another, etc. 2. A vapor can absorb—-i. e. prevent passing—waves hav- ing the same frequencies as those it would emit if it were more incandescent. So, if on the examination of any light certain waves which are characteristic of some known vapor are shown to be wanting, it is evident that the light must somewhere on its course have passed through a compara- tively cool layer of this vapor. Owing to the importance of these facts, measurements have been made of the wave-lengths in the spectra of all known substances; and the spectra of all possible sources of light, such as the sun, comets, etc., have been carefully studied to see whether certain waves are present. With the apparatus and methods in use great accuracy can be ob- tained, and the information thus acquired is of great use. The purity of any chemical element may be tested by heat- ing it or otherwise rendering its vapor luminescent, because the smallest trace of impurity would make itself known by emitting its characteristic waves. The composition of many chemical substances can be easily learned by a study of the spectra emitted. New elements or substances may be dis- covered, or the existence of new compounds proved, if spectra are observed which are not characteristic of other substances. Much can be learned about the constitution of the sun, the planets, and many of the stars. If the light is examined which comes from the sun, it is found that many waves are absent, whereas if the sun were simply a white-hot solid mass there would be none missing within certain limits. Further, experiments prove that, almost without exception, all these waves which are absent are exactly those which would be emitted by incandescent vapors of certain known sub- stances. This proves, then, that these vapors must form an atmosphere around the immensely hot nucleus of the sun, and thus demonstrates the existence in the sun of the sub- stances producing the vapors. A further study of the solar spectrum, and a comparison of it with the spectra of known elements under known conditions, furnishes considerable information about the temperature of the sun, and about the successive layers of vapors which surround the nucleus. Similarly, a study of the spectra of the stars, planets, comets. and nebulae supplies accurate information about their history, their temperature, and condition. In certain cases there are slight differences between the wave-lengths of the vapors as WAVES known here on the earth and those which appear due to the same vapors in the spectra of the stars or planets. These discrepancies may be due to two causes: One is a possible difference between the pressure or temperature of the vapor on the star or planet and that of the vapor as produced on the earth. The other is the possible motion of the star or planet toward the earth, or away from it. If it is approach- ing the earth, more waves are crowded into a given space than would naturally be there, and so the distance between two crests—i. e. the wave-length-—is lessened by a certain amount. Similarly, if the star is receding from the earth. the wave-length will be increased. These changes in the wave-length can be measured, and, as a rule, it is not diffi- cult to determine their exact cause. See SPECTRUM, SUN, and STARS. A noted application of the properties of waves and their lengths has been made by Prof. Albert A. Michelson, of Chicago, in comparing the international standard of length, the centimeter, with the wave-length of a particular kind of light. The centimeter is the nlmth portion of the length of a certain metal rod which is kept in Paris, when the rod is at the temperature of melting ice. This is a per- fectly arbitrary length, and the bar is liable to accident and to slight changes. So far as is known the frequency of any train of waves sent out by a definite vapor under definite conditions is a fixed, unalterable quantity. Conse- quently the wave-length of these waves when passing through any definite medium is also a fixed quantity, and thus aflords a fixed standard of length which is liable to no change and which can easily be measured anywhere on the earth’s surface and at any epoch of time. Prof. Michelson has made a comparison of the length of the standard bar in Paris with the wave-length of a certain train of waves emitted by cadmium vapor, the external conditions being, of course, accurately determined and noted, so that, even if the standard bar be destroyed or injured, the centimeter can be accurately constructed and restored by laying off a definite number of wave-lengths of light. It is found that wave-lengths may be measured to a de- gree of accuracy that limits the error to less than one part in 200,000. The method in universal use is to compare the wave-lengths of the spectrum under investigation with those previously observed and measured. By determining the differences between these wave-lengths and using a method of interpolation, the desired quantities can be found. In order to have certain wave-lengths which can be used as standards, many observations and measurements have been made and recorded. The most reliable method in use is one which depends upon the knowledge of some one standard wave-length, and upon the comparison of the others with this one by means of micrometric measurements. This method is due to Prof. Henry A. Rowland, of Baltimore, and is based upon the use of a concave grating, the proper- ties of which were discovered by him. The standard wave-length now universally adopted is that of 5896156 ngstr6m units (such a unit being -1—0—W%;—,;w;;th of a centi- meter) for that one of the waves due to sodium vapor which is called D1 when the vapor is in the condition it is on the sun and when the wave-length is measured in air at 20° C. and a pressure of 76 cm. of mercury. The scale of wave-lengths which is based u on this standard is ordinarily known as Rowland’s scale. he most accurate measure- ments of wave-lengths have been made by Rowland, work- ing in Baltimore, and by Kayser and Runge, in Hanover, Germany. Rowland has given especial attention to the wave-lengths in the solar spectrum and in the spectra of certain elements. Kayser and Runge have made no observa- tions on the solar spectrum, but have made a most careful study of the spectra of the elements. They have measured with the greatest care the wave-lengths characteristic of each element, and have sought to find mathematical relations be- tween the waves of any one spectrum, and also between the waves of the spectra of different elements. Their investiga- tions show that a careful comparison of wave-lengths throws considerable light upon the structure of molecules and upon their modes of vibration. There are two classes of spectra. which even a superficial inspection shows to be subject to some simple mathematical law. One is the so-called fluted or band spectrum, which is illustrated by the spectra of car- bon, nitrogen, water-vapor, and a great many compound substances. The other is the line spectrum of hydrogen or others similar to it. Groups of waves like the hydrogen series are common to sodium, zinc, cadmium, and other elements. The wave-lengths of the waves forming a band WAVES spectrum obey an exceedingly simple mathematical law, which can be thus expressed: -1-I-:a+ b7?/2, where A is the wave-length; a and b are constant numbers for any one band; and n is each one in turn of the series of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. This law was discovered almost simultaneously by several physicists who were engaged on spectrum-work, but it was first published by Deslandres, and is sometimes called by his name. It can, however, be regarded as only a first approximation, for Kayser ahd Runge have shown that the law which best expresses the wave-lengths of certain bands is %= a + be” sin chwfi, where a, b, c, d, e are constants; and n is in turn each one of the integer numbers. _ The wave-lengths of the waves forming the hydrogen spectrum obey a law which is quite different. It was dis- covered by Balmer in 1885, and is sometimes called Bal- mer’s law. It may be expressed thus: 7/I/2 A Z-' 7&0 M? where A is the wave-length; A0 is a certain constant; and n is in succession each one of the numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. It was noticed by many observers that there were several sub- stances whose spectra bore a close resemblance to that of hydrogen, but Kayser and Runge were the first to make any systematic study of them. They succeeded in finding a simple modification of Balmer’s formula, which would quite well express the law of distribution for the wave- lengths of all these spectra which have groups or series analogous to the hydrogen one. Their law may be written : 1 X-: A + Ba‘2 + Ca“ where A is the wave-length; A, B, and 0 are constants characteristic of any one series of wave-lengths; and n is in turn each one of a series of integer numbers. Besides this simple arrangement of waves in bands or 'series there are many other mathematical relations which have been discovered and elaborated, notably by Kayser and Runge and Rydberg. If the spectrum of any sub- stance—e. g. carbon or nitrogen—-contains several bands, not alone do the individual wave-lengths of each band obey Deslandres’s formula, but the bands themselves are also dis- tributed according to the same law. In the spectra of many elements which contain series like the hydrogen one, the waves which form the members of the series are double or triple. (The sodium spectrum contains a series of doubles; the zinc spectrum, a series of triples, etc.) It has been shown that for any one series the difference between the frequencies of the two (or three) waves forming the double (or triple) is a constant quantity. Further, applying Kayser and Runge’s formula—— %=A + Ba-‘~’ + 07?/'4 ——to the spectra of the elements which form a group of allied chemical substances, such as zinc, cadmium, and mercury, or magnesium, calci- , . , um, and strontium, it ____-=-.-_-—___~l-E1‘-=__=__.. is found that the ' _ constants A, B, and N§ § 669 this mobility that a disturbance communicated to particles of water at any point becomes the occasion of disturbance to contiguous particles, and through these to particles more remote, propagating itself in this manner to great distances in the form of oscillatory movements called waves. The physical characters of waves are familiar to all. A stone dropped into standing water is followed by a series of circular ridges, spreading till they reach the shore or be- come so indistinct as to escape observation. Upon the great ocean the phenomenon presents itself on a grander scale. The crests of waves attain at times a height of 30 feet and move with the velocity of a railway passenger-train. During a first sea-voyage, upon observing such liquid hills approach- ing the vessel with such a velocity, it is ditficult to divest one’s self of the impression that the latter is in danger of being shattered to fragments. Yet it receives but a moderate shock, and is lifted with a movement which, to the voyager who is accustomed to it, is not even unpleasant. Were the mass of water moving with the velocity of the wave, the effect upon vessels would be disastrous, as is readily seen in the rapidity with which a stranded vessel is broken up when exposed to the full force of the waves. The character of the wave is here so changed by the shelving ground that the water has a rapid movement. In a body of water the movement of any particle is con- trolled by the proximity of other particles. No particle can move without occasioning a movement of other parti- cles, and it can move only in such a manner as is consistent with the movement of the entire mass. Each particle moves in a closed orbit around its position of rest, returning to the same position at regular intervals. This fact can be verified by observation. If the effect of waves upon a small body fioating in the water is noted, it will be seen that the latter is not carried along by the wave. When the crest of the wave passes the body it moves a short distance in the di- rection of the wave-motion; when it is in the hollow of the wave it moves slightly in the opposite direction. If a float which gradually sinks in the water is watched, it will be found that these movements are not confined to the sur- face. but extend as deep as the observation reaches. The particles of water move forward rising and sinking, and return sinking and rising, describing a closed orbit, but whether this orbit is circular or elliptical can not be learned by observation. Mathematicians who have investigated this subject find that in water of very great depth the orbit of each elementary particle is an exact circle whose center is in the position occupied by the particle when at rest. These circular orbits are greatest at the surface of the water, be- ing there equal i11 diameter to the height of the wave. They diminish rapidly farther down, so that when the water at the surface has a movement of 20 feet, causing waves 20 feet high from trough to crest, it has at a depth of 50 feet a movement of only '7 feet, and at a depth of 200 feet a movement of not more than 4 inches. The figure below shows how the circular movements of the diiferent particles of water combine to produce the undula- tions of the surface which we call waves. A B is the surface of the water when at rest. The circles are the orbits of the particles at the surface, which for a wave moving leftward are supposed to be in motion in a direction opposite that of the hands of a clock. The particle h’, whose position of rest is h, is at the highest point of its orbit; the next particle to the right, to’, whose position of rest is 7:, is slightly past the 0' follow certain gen- eral numerical laws. It is interesting to note that by the use of these mathemati- cal relations Kayser and Runge and Rydberg have been able to predict the existence of certain waves in the spectra of certain elements; and these predictions are all being gradually verified. Their chief importance, though, lies in the fact that by means of them some knowledge of the struc- ture of molecules may perhaps be finally obtained. J osnrn S. Anus. II. WAVES IN WATER. Water is distinguished from solid bodies by its mobility -—that 1s, by the freedom with which its elementary parti- cles move with reference to one another. It results from §§§ ~A / / / “§l§,\\.\\_ _ Q 1) a \ \ 9 = Waves. summit of its orbit, and farther to the right each particle is in a little more advanced position than the one preceding. The particle a’, whose position of rest is a, is at the lowest point of its orbit. The surface of the water at the instant under consideration is represented by the curved line C D, it’ being the highest point or crest of the wave. a’ the lowest point or trough of the wave. The motion continuing, the crest advances toward the left, and when the particle it’ has reached the lowest point of its orbit that point becomes the trough of the wave, and a’, having then reached the highest point of its orbit, is the crest of the succeeding wave. The horizontal distance between the crests of two consecutive 670 waves is called the length of the wave. The particles of water which when at rest lie all in the same vertical line, constituting a vertical filament.of water, all arrive during wave-motion at the summits of their orbits at the same instant. The orbits diminish in diameter downward, so that at a depth of a few hundred feet the movement prac- tically ceases. The lower part of the filament remains im- movable and its upper part bends like a stalk of wheat in a field under the action of the wind. When the crest of the wave coincides with the filament, the latter is erect and elongated. It then bends in the direction of the wave’s motion and returns to its erect position when the trough of the wave passes. It is then shortened and thickened. It then bends in the direction opposite to that of the wave’s motion, and so on. The form of the wave is cycloidal, but it is not the com- mon cycloid, which is a curve traced by a point on the cir- cumference of a circle rolling upon a straight line. Were this the case, the height of the wave would hear the same proportion to its length that the diameter of a circle bears to its circumference; whereas there is not necessarily any definite relation between the height and length of the wave. In the same system of waves the same relation between the height and the length will always be found; but a slight change in the direction or intensity of the wind gives rise to a different system in which a different relation exists. Dif- ferent systems of waves often occur at the same time. It is a matter of common observation at the seashore that at in- tervals a wave occurs much higher than the preceding. This arises from the coincidence of two waves belonging to dif- ferent systems. To the same cause is due the “ seas” which break over the decks of vessels during storms, carrying away everything not securely fastened. The velocity of a wave depends upon its length. To find this velocity when the length is known, the radius of a cir- cle whose circumference is the length of the wave is first found. Designating this radius by r, the velocity is the same that a heavy body would acquire in falling freely through a height equal to one-half r. To find the radius of the orbit of a particle at a given depth below the surface, divide the given depth by r, and find the number of which this quotient is the natural logarithm. Divide r by this number, and the quotient will be the radius sought. Waves in deep water usually arise from the action of the wind, and their motion when unobstructed is in the same direction as the wind to which they owe their origin. How powerfully the wind acts in acceleration of the molecular movements to which waves are due will appear upon a little reflection. The elevated part of the wave is fully exposed to the action of the wind, and here the particles of water are moving in the same direction as the wind. The trough of the wave, in which the particles are moving in the opposite direction, is mainly screened from the action of the wind by the neigh- boring crest. When the wind begins to blow while the water is smooth, it might appear diflicult to understand how it can originate waves, since the wind would seem to exert a uniform pressure upon all parts of the surface. The wind, however, never acts with a perfectly uniform and steady pressure. There is always enough of inequality to cause a ruffling of the surface, and the minute waves, once formed so as to present a surface to the direct action of the wind, are rapidly increased in magnitude. They continue to increase until they have attained a velocity nearly equal to that of the wind. The tendency of waves is to form in long lines at right angles to the direction of the wind. This tendency is the more marked in proportion as the expanse of water is un- limited and the wind unvarying in force and direction. It is rare, however, that an opportunity is obtained to observe the phenomenon of waves in its entire simplicity. Under the most favorable circumstances the eye can follow the wave longitudinally but a very short distance. Neither, if one fixes the eye upon the crest of a wave and endeavors to follow its movement, can it be traced to any great distance before it disappears and a new wave arises. The more com- mon case is a system of waves caused by alocal wind, crossed in different directions by other systems originating in dis- tant parts of the ocean, and by waves reflected from the shore, the whole often forming a tumultuous commotion of waters, in which scarcely any law of movement can be rec- ognized. This shows that different simple movements of the elementary particles may coincide and superpose themselves upon one another in all conceivable ways. The preceding refers to waves in deep water-that is, water WAVES so deep that the bottom exerts no influence upon the move- ments of the elementary particles. These move in precisely the same manner as though the depth were infinite. Hence the preceding is called, for distinction, the theory of waves in water of infinite depth. In water of moderate depth the proximity of the bottom exerts an influence the more marked in proportion as the depth is less. Where the depth is con- siderable, this influence manifests itself in a slight horizon- tal movement of the water at the bottom. As the depth di- minishes, this horizontal movement increases, until finally, at slight depths, the particles have the same horizontal move- ment at the bottom as at the surface, while the vertical move- ment is greatest at the surface and diminishes to nothing at the bottom. The particles thus move in orbits which are often nearly circular at the surface, and become more and more flattened toward the bottom, where they are simply straight horizontal lines. The most important difference be- tween waves in infinite depth and those in finite depth is that in the former the velocity with which the wave travels appears to have no relation to the depth, depending solely upon the magnitude of the wave; whereas in the latter the velocity depends upon the depth, being, according to the most trustworthy observations, equal to that velocity which a heavy body acquires by falling freely through a height equal to half the depth, measured from the top of the wave. J . Scott Russell, an English marine engineer, made very extended and valuable researches upon the subject of waves. These researches were undertaken at the instance of the Brit- ish Association for the Advancement of Science, and the re- sults are detailed in a provisional report made to the asso- ciation in 1837, and published in its Transactions for 1837, and a more complete report in 1844. The following are some of the conclusions arrived at: (1) The existence of a great primary wave of fluid, differing in its origin, its phenomena, and its laws from the undulatory and oscillatory waves which alone had been investigated previous to the researches of Mr. Russell, has‘ been confirmed and established. (2) The veloc- ity of this wave in channels of uniform depth is independent of the breadth of the fluid, and equal to the velocity acquired by a heavy body falling freely by gravity through a height equal to half the depth of the fluid, reckoned from the top of the wave to the bottom of the channel. (3) The velocity of this primary wave is not affected by the velocity of im- pulse with which the wave has been originally generated ; neither does its form or velocity appear to be derived in any way from the form of the generating body. (4) This wave has been found to differ from every other species of wave in the motion which is given to the individual particles of fluid through which the wave is iprqpagated. By the transit of the wave the particles of the ui are raised from their places, transferred forward in the direction of the motion of the wave, and permanently deposited at rest in a new place at a considerable distance from their original position. There is no retrogradation, no oscillation: the motion is all in the same direction, and the extent of the transference is equal throughout the whole depth. Hence this wave may be de- scriptively designated the great primary /wave of translation. The motion of translation begins when the anterior surface of the wave is vertically over a given series of articles; it increases in velocity until the crest of the wave ias come to be vertically above them ; and from this moment the motion of translation is retarded, and the particles are left in a con- dition of perfect rest at the instant when the posterior sur- face of the wave has terminated its transit through the ver- tical plane in which they lie. This phenomenon has been verified up to depths of 5 feet. (5) The elementary form of the wave is cycloidal; when the height of the wave is small in proportion to its length, the curve is the prolate cy- cloid ; and as the height of the wave increases, the form ap- proaches that of the common cycloid, becoming more and more cusped until at last it becomes exactly that of the com- mon cycloid with a cusped summit; and if by any means the height be increased beyond this, the curve becomes the cur- tate cycloid, the summit assumes a form of unstable e ui- librium, the summit totters, and, falling over on one side, forms a crested wave or breaking surge. (6) A wave is pos- sible in forms of channel where the depth is not uniform throughout the whole breadth. . . . In the sloping or tri- angular channel the velocity is that due to one-third of the greatest depth. In a parabolic channel the velocity is that due to three-eighths or three-tenths of the greatest de th, according as the channel is convex or concave. (7) he height of a wave may be indefinitely increased by propaga-. tion into a channel which becomes narrower in the form of WAVES a wedge, the increased height being nearly in the inverse ratio of the square root of the breadth. (8) If waves be propagated in a channel whose depth diminishes uniformly, the waves will break when their height above the surface of the level fluid becomes equal to the depth at the bottom be- low the surface. In Russell’s completed report, published in the report of the British Association for 1844, he states that he had in the interim extended his inquiries to what he calls the neg- ative wave of translation, being a wave which is propagated not as a ridge, but as a cavity in the surface of the water. He gives the following summary of his conclusions on this subject: “The characteristics of this species of wave of the first order are—-(1) that it is negative or wholly below the level of repose. (2) That it is a wave of translation, the direction of which is opposite to the direction of transmission. In other words, the movement of the fluid particles is in one direction, that of the wave in another. (3) That its anterior form is that of the positive wave reversed. (4) That the path of translation is nearly that of the positive wave re- versed. (5) That its velocity is, in considerable depths, sensi- bly less than that due by gravity to half the depth reckoned from the lowest point, or the velocity of a positive wave hav- ing the same total height. (6) That it is not solitary, but always carries a train of secondary waves. “It is important to notice that the positive and negative waves do not stand to each other in the relation of compan- ion phenomena. They can not be considered in any case as the positive and negative portions of the same phenomena, for the following reasons: (1) If an attempt be made to gen- erate or propagate them in such a manner that the one shall be companion to the other. they will not continue together, but immediately and spontaneously separate. (2) If a posi- tive wave be generated in a given channel and a negative wave behind it, the positive wave, moving with the greater velocity, rapidly separates itself from the other, leaving it far behind. (3) If a positive wave be generated and trans- mitted behind a negative wave it will overtake and pass it. (4) Waves of the secondary class, which consist of companion halves, one part positive and the other negative, have this peculiarity, that the positive and negative parts may be transmitted across and over each other without preventing in any way their permanence or their continued propagation. It is not so with the positive and negative waves of the first order. (5) If a positive and negative wave of equal volume meet in opposite directions they neutralize each other, and both cease to exist. (6) If a positive wave overtake a nega- tive wave of equal volume they also neutralize each other and cease to exist. (7) If either be larger, the remainder is propagated as a wave of the larger class. (8) Thus it is no- where to be observed that the positive and negative wave coexist as companion phenomena. “ These observations are of importance for this reason, that it has been supposed by a distinguished philosopher that the positive and negative waves might be corresponding halves of some given or supposed wave.” J . Scott Russell’s researches were undertaken mainly with reference to navigation on canals. He concludes that the most economical velocity for a boat on a canal is that of the wave of translation which it causes—that is to say, the ve- locity due to one-half the depth. A boat moving with this velocity remains constantly on the crest of the wave, where- as a boat moving with a greater or less velocity is constantly generating new waves, which precede or follow it, and these waves are created at the expense of the motive power. Un- fortunately this conclusion is of little practical value, as, in an ordinary canal of 5 feet depth, it would require a velocity of something over 9 miles an hour, which can not be at- tained with horses. The great primary wave of translation occurs in canals, rivers, and estuaries. It does not occur on the open sea ex- cept in the form of a tide. This is a wave corres onding in all respects to the great primary wave of trans ation. It moves with a velocity very near that due to one-half the depth of water, and it affects the water through its entire depth. The fact noted by Russell that the height of a wave may be indefinitely increased by propagation into a narrow- ing channel, accounts for the enormously high tides ob- served on some coasts. For instance, in the Bay of Fundy the tide rises to a height of 60 feet, while it is not over 12 feet on the coasts of New England. Also in the Bristol Channel there is a tide of about 18 feet at the entrance, while at Chepstow it attains the height of 50 or 60 feet. 671 These phenomena result from the concentration of the en- ergy of a moving wave of water into a narrowing space. A series of experiments upon waves was made in 1859 by Bazin, an officer of the French Corps of Engineers. He had a perfectly straight and regular channel about 6?; feet wide, the bottom of which was inclined at the rate of about 1% feet in 1,000, which gave him an opportunity of observing the effect of the diminishing depth upon the velocity and form of the wave. For the case of isolated waves, stations were established at distances of 60 to 65 feet, at which the time of the passage of the wave was noted. A few results of these observations are given below. They refer to posi- tive waves—that is, to those which are wholly above the general water-level. These were generated by the sudden admission of a certain volume of water into the canal. N f Depth of wa- VELOCITY OF THE i:;: f ter before the Height of WAVE, FEET PER }:;serv:_ passage of the wave, sECOND- Remarks. tion the wave, feet. ' feet. Observed. Calculated. 1 2 24 0'39 .. . . . . . . 2 2'16 0'30 8'70 9'04 3 2'04 0'30 8'88 8'77 4 1'95 0'30 8'26 8'58 5 1'85 0'33 8'67 8'44 6 1'75 036 8'68 8'30 7 1'64 0'36 8'32 8'13 8 1'55 0'36 8'12 7'93 9 1'46 0'39 7'80 7'78 The wave did not 10 1'35 0'39 7'85 7'60 break until a lit- 11 1'45 0'39 7'54 7'59 tle past the 13th 12 1'12 0'43 7'46 7 '38 point of observa- 13 0'80 0'52 6'69 6'80 tion. 1 2'08 0'39 2 2'00 0'46 8'81 8'90 3 1'88 0'52 8'64 8'84 4 1'79 0'62 9'43 8'80 5 1'69 0'62 8'04 8'73 6 1'59 0'62 7'62 8'53 7 1'48 0'62 9'00 8'33 8 1'39 0'62 7'65 8'13 9 1'30 0'62 7'99 7'95 10 1'19 0'62 7'57 7'74 The wave broke 11 1'29 0'56 7 '46 7'66 between the 12th 12 0'96 0'62 7'46 7'41 and 13th points 13 0'64 0'36 7'13 6'51 of observation. The wave traveled about 100 feet before passing the first point of observation. Here it moved as a perfectly sym- metrical undulation, unaccompanied by any other wave. As the depth diminished the height of the wave increased and its velocity diminished as indicated by the figures; the front of the wave became steeper. till finally it broke into a mass of foam, and, resolving itself into a number of smaller waves, pursued its course. It generally broke before the depth became equal to the height of the wave, not fully verifying Russell’s law in that respect. The velocity of the wave is computed according to the law announced by Rus- sell, and agrees very well with observation. If too much water was admitted the entire mass did not continue to- gether as a single wave. The superfluous water was thrown off, and formed one or more separate waves. Experiments were made upon negative waves, generated by suddenly withdrawing a quantity of water from the channel. This difiered from the positive wave in this respect-—it could not be generated singly. It was always accompanied by a series of oscillatory waves. Its velocity, however, contrary to the view expressed by Russell, was very nearly the same as that acquired by a heavy body in falling freely a height equal to one-half the depth of water reckoned from the lowest point of the wave. Bazin found that these waves were propagated according to the same law in moving as in still wat-er, due allowance being made for the velocity of the current. The negative wave diminishes and decays much more rapidly in still water than the positive wave; which latter has. ac- cording to Russell, a remarkable longevity. This observer found that a wave of this description 6 inches in height was diminished only 1 inch by traveling 700 feet. Another, starting with a height of 6 inches, was 2 inches high after a journey of 3,200 feet. Both the negative and positive waves diminish much more rapidly in moving than in still water. The brea7m'ng of a wave occurs when the conditions under which it finds itself do not admit of the necessary move- ments of the fluid particles. The movement of a wave in water of diminishing depth is the most common case. An- other is the case above noticed of the solitary wave, which, when formed of a magnitude greater than corresponds to 672 the depth of the channel, spontaneously separates itself into two or more smaller waves. hen a wave originating in deep water rolls toward a shoaling beach the water consti- tuting the top of the wave is moving, at any given instant, toward the shore——that at the bottom in the opposite direc- tion. This results from the circular movement of the fluid particles. This movement ceases at the instant of breaking, and the upper part of the wave moves forward toward the shore, while the lower part moves backward. This move- ment extends nearly to the shore, the great volume of water set in motion by the breaking waves moving toward the shore upon the surface and returning at the bottom. This action constitutes the under-tow which often proves dangerous to surf-bathers. Waves always approach the shore in a direction nearly at right angles to the general line of the shore, whatever be the direction of the wind. This arises from the fact that if the wave approach in a direction inclined to the shore, the end nearest to the shore moving in shallow water is re- tarded, tending to swing the wave round into a direction at right angles to the shore. At a distance of 2 or 3 miles from the shore the waves usually move in the direction of the wind. When the shore rises perpendicularly out of deep water, the waves do not break. They simply oscillate, rising a little higher at the shore than elsewhere, and are reflected, form- ing a new system of waves running in the opposite direction. It is said that vessels can lie olf such a shore in the heaviest storms without danger. This fact is sometimes turned to account in the construction of breakwaters, which have lat- terly been made as perpendicular walls. In water so deep that the waves do not break, this form is well calculated to withstand their action. In shallow water, or where, as some- times happens, the action of the waves and shore-currents is such as to deposit a bank of gravel or sand at the foot of the breakwater, causing the waves to break, their action is very destructive. Earthquakes are sometimes accompanied by waves of for- midable proportions, inundating shores ordinarily high above the reach of the tide. During the earthquake which de- stroyed the city of Lisbon in 1755 a wave 40 feet high rolled upon the shore. An Englishman residing there recorded in his journal that shortly after this wave ships at anchor in the deep river Tagus were observed resting on the ground. The wave was followed by two others of nearly the same height. A wave 60 feet in height reached Cadiz on the same occasion. The sea rose 20 feet in the Antilles, where the tide rarely exceeds 2 feet. Similar phenomena have been observed to accompany South American earthquakes. Hum- boldt relates that at Callao he saw a series of waves 10 or 14 feet high in the midst of a dead calm, which he supposed to originate in submarine earthquakes. The force of waves as they break upon a shelving beach, and the circular movement of the water is transformed into a forward movement, is terrific. Constructions designed to withstand the force of waves tax to the utmost the resources of engineering. Thomas Stevenson relates that during the construction of the lighthouse at Barra Head, one of the Hebrides islands, he saw the waves move a stone measuring 500 cubic feet. The breakwater at the French port of Cher- bourg is composed of an immense bank of loose stone, pro- tected in parts by blocks of concrete measuring 700 cubic feet each. The bank is surmounted by a wall about 20 feet high. During the storm of Dec. 25, 1836, stones weighing nearly 7,000 lb. were thrown over the top of this wall, while many of the enormous concrete blocks were moved, some of them as much as 60 feet, and two of them were turned over. Hagen relates that in the harbor of Cette, during the storm of Aug. 20, 1857, a block of concrete measuring 2,500 cu- bic feet, which must have weighed 125 tons, was moved upon its bed something over 3 feet. Thomas Stevenson con- structed an instrument for the direct measurement of the force of waves. He found that during the heaviest storms the force exerted by the waves of the Atlantic upon a solid surface exposed to their action is upon an average 611 lb. per square foot during the summer months, and 2,086 lb. during the winter months. The greatest pressure observed was 6,083 lb. per square foot. A remarkable phase of wave-movement, alluded to by J . Scott Russell as the “tidal bore,” is occasionally presented upon tidal rivers. The advent of the flood-tide is preceded and announced by a wave, sometimes of formidable dimen- sions, which runs up the river, announcing its advance by a great noise, and sweeping away all floating bodies which it WAVES encounters on its passage. It occurs in India on the Hugli, in South America on the Amazon, upon the Seine and the Dordogne in France. where it is known as the mascaret, and in many other places. It is also recognizable by close in- spection upon several smaller rivers. It occurs in consider- able force on the Severn in England. It has been observed with great interest upon the Seine by the French engineer officers. It occurs only at the period of high or spring tides. The first wave has a height of 7 or 8 feet. It is followed in rapid succession by four or five smaller waves, and after their passage the water is found to have risen 4 or 5 feet above low tide. Those who have studied the subject give the following explanation of this remarkable phenomenon: At the period of dead low water the river is very low, and is flowing rap- idly toward the sea. To better understand what occurs, we may conceive the rise of the tide to take place by a series of sudden jumps at regular intervals. That is, instead of sup- posing the tide to rise uniformly at the rate of say 1 foot in 12 minutes, let us consider what would take place if it were to rise suddenly 1 inch each minute. The first rise would move up the stream as a kind of wave, leaving a little deeper water behind than before it. The second would move a little faster than the first, both on account of the increased depth, and also by reason of the slightly diminished current. It ac- cordingly very soon joins the first, and both advance as a single wave. Every successive wave, for the same reason, moves a little faster than the preceding, and all join the initial wave. Now, though the rise of the tide does not take place by perceptible sudden jumps, as supposed, it nevertheless does consist of a great number of very small increments of depth, and the influence of each successive increment of depth moves up the river faster than that of the preceding, so that all are concentrated into one grand wave. Where there is suflicient depth for the development of wave-motion, the bore does not break. In shoal water it breaks continually, and it does not, like other waves, ex- haust itself by breaking, as its power is continually renewed. It has not been shown that the breaking wave follows the law of the great primary wave in moving with the velocity due to one-half the depth reckoned from the top of the wave. An ordinary flood moving down the channel of a river is an example of the great primary wave. Where the flood results from the sudden accession of a great volume of water to a shallow channel it moves with all the charac- ters of the tidal bore. Such a flood may result from the bursting of a reservoir or from the storms which occur in mountainous regions of warm countries. Thus far the undulatory wave has been considered, whose velocity depends on the wave-length, and the great primary wave whose velocity depends on the depth of water. There is a third class of waves distinguished from both the pre- ceding. This distinction results from the peculiar charac- ter of the surface of water. An exceedingly thin film at the surface appears to lose in some degree the character of a fluid, and to acquire a certain stiffness and coherence not possessed by the general mass. (See LIQUIDS.) Its action is seen in the bubbles which float on the surface of water where there is a slight fall. The falling water carries down masses of air into the standing water. These masses, on rising, do not escape into the atmosphere directly, but lift the coherent film of the surface and remain momentarily inclosed in little hemispherical cells. The tenacity of this film is so slight as to exert no appre- ciable influence upon ordinary undulatory waves; but the slight disturbances called ripples caused by a light puff of wind or by a stone dropped into still water are so strongly influenced by surface tension that they must be regarded as a distinct order of waves. The tension of the surface acts downward at the crest of the wave and upward at the trough. It increases the force with which the displaced particles tend to regain their positions. Its effect is to cause the wave to move faster than it would move under the action of gravity alone, just as an increase of the elastic force of a spring increases the rapidity of its vibrations. The subject of waves in water can not be regarded as com- plete in its practical aspect without considering the pulsa- tions which occur in closed pipes. An impulse communi- cated at any point to the water filling a closed pipe has the effect of putting the contiguous particles in a state of com- pression. This state of compression travels through the pipe with a velocity practically independent of the head or state of compression previously existing in the water. There is this analogy between the velocity of pulsations in pipes and waves in open channels: The latter move with the velocity WAVES which a heavy body would acquire in falling a distance equal to half the depth of water in the canal. The former move with the velocity which a heavy body acquires by falling through a height equal to half that of a column of water representing its elastic force. The elastic force of any substance is the ratio which any force applied to it bears to the change of volume occasioned by the same. A pressure of one atmosphere, represented roughly by a col- umn of water 34 feet high, diminishes the volume of water Wth part. The elastic force of water therefore is repre- sented by a column of water 680,000 feet high. A heavy body falling one-half this distance would acquire a velocity of 4,677 feet per second. Experiment shows the velocity of pulsations or sound-waves in water a little greater than this, viz., 4,708 feet. The force mains leading from the pumps in town water- works systems are constantly traversed by pulsations result- ing from the action of the pumps. Every stroke of the pump causes a momentary increase of pressure which travels through the force main and all connecting pipes with a velocity of 4,708 feet a second. Reaching the open end of the pipe the pressure is released, and a negative wave travels back toward the pu1np. A pressure-gauge communicating freely with such a pipe is in a constant state of violent movement. The subject of waves or pulsations in pipes is intimately connected with the impulse which occurs when the move- ment of water in the pipes is suddenly checked. To under- stand the nature and intensity of the force so generated a pipe of indefinite length, in which the water moves with a velocity of say 3 feet a second, may be selected as an illus- tration, and suppose this movement to be instantaneously arrested by the closing of a gate or valve. A great pressure is immediately developed at the valve, and this pressure is transmitted backward through the pipe with a velocity of 4,708 feet a second. That is to say, the water at a distance of 4,708 feet from the valve would come to rest in one sec- ond after the closing of the valve, and during that time would move 8 feet. The pressure developed by the ar- rest of motion is sufficient to diminish the length of a col- umn of water 4,708 feet long by 3 feet, which is '000637 of its entire length. Now a pressure of one atmosphere dimin- ishes the length of a column of water by ‘Q-O-'0L5'0‘l'/ll part, so that the above diminution of 000637 corresponds to 1?/75 atmospheres, or to a head of 1275 x 34 : 4355 feet. It re- sults from this mode of treating the question that the pres- sure resulting from an instantaneous arrest of movement does not depend upon the length of the pipe. For the convenience of those who would like to pursue the subject of waves further the following sources of infor- mation are indicated. The labors of_ Newton, Laplace, Ber- noulli, and Lagrange need not be particularized. They are interesting only as a part of the history of the subject. To Franz Gerstner is due the credit of having first solved the problem of wave-movement upon the assumption of a finite displacement of the fluid particles. His essay is con- tained in the Transactions of the Royal Bohemian Scien- tific Society (Abhandlangen der kgl. B6hm. Gesellschafz‘ der Wz'sscnsoha_ften) for 1802. It was also separately printed at Prague in 1804, and is likewise contained in Gilbert’s An- nalen, vol. xxxii., as well as in Webers’ VVeZlenZehre. This latter was published by the brothers Ernst Heinrich \Veber and Wilhelm Weber at Leipzig in 1825. It is entitled W el- Zenlehre auf Ea;pe1"2Iment gegmtndet (Theory of Waves founded upon Experiment). J. Scott Russell’s researches, as already mentioned, are contained in the Reports of the British Association for 1837 and 1844. The most complete theoretical exposition of the subject is Prof. G. B. Airy’s essay entitled Tides and Waves, contained in the Encyclo- pcedia Metro olitana, vol. v. of Mixed Sciences. It is here treated in a t oroughly scientific manner and in the utmost generality, presupposing very high mathematical attain- ments on the part of the reader. Prof. Airy afiirmed that his formulas agreed as well as could be expected with the re- sults of Scott Russell’s experiments. but this assertion was emphatically denied by the latter. Hagen’s researches upon this subject are contained in the Transa,ot'ions of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin (Ablzvrz/n-dlmz.gen der Kiinfgl. Altade-mt'e der lVz'ssenso7mflen zu Berlqln) for 1861. They are also embodied in substance in his great work, Hand- buoh der vWasserban/.¢1msIf (Handbook of Hydraulic Archi- tecture, Berlin, 1841-65), part 3, vol. i. He extends and veri- fies Franz Gerstner’s theory of waves in deep water, and presents a theory of his own for waves in shoal water. WAX 67 3 His conclusions as to waves in shallow water are somewhat at variance with those of Russell and other experimenters. The memoir of Bazin is contained in the A/lé’2no'1j/I*es]r1'ésentés par CZ‘it'67'8 Sarants ct Z’Ins!z'twf Impérial ale France (Paris, 1865). The work is in two parts, the first relating to the flow of water in channels, the second to waves. Later writers on this subject include Earnshaw, Kelland, and Greene. Stokes’s Reports on Hydrodynamics in the Transactions of the British Association are valuable, and rich in references. Prof. Greenhill has given the mathematics of the subject very fully in the American Journal of 11/Iafhemaiics. Prof. P. G. Tait’s article in the Enoy/olopcedqia Brz'z‘anm'ca is valu- able. J . P. FRIZELL. Wavre, oaav’r: town; province of Brabant, Belgium ; on the Dyle; 15 miles S. E. of Brussels by rail (see map of H01- land and Belgium, ref. 10—E). It has some breweries, tan- ner1es, paper-mills, and cotton-spinning factories, but is best known in connection with the WATERLOO (q. r.) cam- paign. The French under Grouchy being sent by Napoleon in pursuit of the Prussians after the battle of Ligny took the route to ‘Vavre, and arriving there on June 18, 1815, were unable to come to N apoleon’s aid at Waterloo. Pop. (1891) 7,575. Wax [O. Eng. weahs :0. H. Germ. ecahs (> Mod. Germ. zoac/ts) : Icel. cam; cf. Lith. rasz/cas : Russ. ’L'08li’iZ, which are possibly loan-words]: a generic term given to several sub- stances chemically unlike, but resembling each other in the physical properties familiar in the wax of bees—for exam- ple, animal wax and vegetable wax. The vegetable world furnishes numberless wax-like bodies, only a few of which have been carefully examined, almost every plant, in fact, secreting a wax-like substance, especia‘lly in the seeds or in the fruit. The animal kingdom furnishes (1) the typical beeswax; (2) a kind of insect wax from the Orinoco and Amazon valleys, known as Andaquies wax: (3) Chinese wax, formerly supposed to be of vegetable origin; and (4) SPER- MACETI (g. ’L'.). Beesaaa:.—This is the wax of which bees form their cells. (See BEE.) Common beeswax is yellow, has an agreeable and peculiar smell, feels a little greasy, but more sticky, and moulds readily under the warmth of the fingers. Light bleaches it if exposed in thin sheets. It then becomes white wax, and is somewhat less fusible than before. A mixture of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid also bleaches wax. Nitric acid and chlorine also bleach it, but the sub- stitution product formed by the action of chlorine gives off irritating vapors of hydrochloric acid in burning the candles formed of such wax. If wax is agitated with dilute sul- phuric acid—2 parts of water to 1 of acid——in presence of some fragments of nitrate of sodium. enough nitric acid is set free to destroy the feeble yellow color of the wax, and thus bleach it without injury. It is worth remembering. in this connection, that Gay-Lussac in his attempts to bleach wax by chlorine discovered one of the important laws of modern chemistry——that of subsz‘iz‘ut2'on—b_y virtue of which chlorine, etc., may replace hydrogen in the constitution of organic bodies without a change of the typical form. Bees- wax is freed from honey and adhering impurities by melting and stirring with water, which dissolves the traces of honev; the heavy solids fall to the bottom, and the wax formsda cake on the top of the water. Bleached wax fuses at about 145° F. It is insoluble in water. but dissolves readily in oils. fats, and essences. By Lewy’s analysis it contains carbon 802 per cent-., oxvgen 64 per cent., and hydrogen 134 per cent. It consists essen- tially of three substances, separable from each other by alco- hol—(1) my'rz‘cz'ne, insoluble in boiling alcohol. and consist- ing chiefly of myricyl pa-lmitate. C16H31(C‘3oH6,)O2; (2) c-erozfzfo acicl. C‘_>1H54O2; (3) ceroline, which remains in solu- tion in cold alcohol. The uses for wax are numerous and important. Its prop- erty of preserving tissues and preventing mould or mildew were well known to the ancients. who used cere-cloth for embalming, and wax for encaustic painting, as in the wall- pictures of Pompeii. Wax candles and tapers play an im- portant part in the processions and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church. Wax is used by the manufacturers of glazed ornamental and wall papers and on paper collars and cuffs for polishing the surfaces. It is used in varnishes and paints, and for the “stuffing” of wood which is to be pol- ished, as for pianos. coachwork, fine furniture, and parquette floors. Electrotypers use wax in forming their moulds. Wax is an important ingredient in preparations for covering sur- 440 674 WAX faces of polished iron and steel to prevent rust. Combined with tallow. it forms the coating of canvas and cordage to prevent mildew, as in sails, awnings, etc. Artificial flowers consume much wax, and its use appears to be extending. Wart OandZes.——To form these candles, wicks of twisted (not plaited) Turkey cotton are suspended from a ring or hook over a caldron of melted wax, and a workman pours over them a stream of wax from a ladle, revolving each in succession to equalize the flow of the wax over the surface, until about one-third the intended size is obtained, when, after cooling, the same operation is repeated until the can- dles are about half size. While still warm they are then removed from the hooks, and rolled between two marble slabs to give them a cylindrical form and straiglitness. The upper end of the candle is now formed by cuttmg down the wax to a metal tag which covered one end of the wick. The candles are then suspended again on the hook, changmg ends, and the operation of basting and rolling repeated un- til the desired size is attained. The lower ends are then cut off to an even length. Large wax candles, used at church altars, are formed up from thin slabs of wax by rolling them over the wick and finishing as before. Wax tapers are made by a sort of wire-drawing process, the wicks, wound on a drum, being drawn through the molten wax at a regu- lated temperature, passing through graduated holes to size the tapers, and thence to a cooling drum. _ _ Andaqnies wax (cera dc Zos Andagwws) 1s a pecuhar wax produced by a little bee called caveja by the Tamas Ind- ians, of the Rio Gaqueta on the plains of the Amazon, above the Magdalena river. These insects build on the same tree numerous combs, each of which yields from 100 ‘to 250 grammes of yellow wax, about 3 to 8 oz. troy, which, puri- fied by boiling water, has a slightly yellowish color and melts at about 170° F. Carnahnba wax is the product of a palm (Copernicia ceri- fera) growing in Northern Brazil, and especiallyin the prov- ince of Geara, forming a thin layer on the surface of the leaves. It scales off easily from the cut leaves when dried in the shade, and is readily fused and moulded into candles. It is soluble in boiling alcohol and in ether, and on cooling shows a crystalline structure. It melts at 185° F., and is very brittle and readily powdered. (See VEGETABLE VVAX.) Chinese or Insect wax is a dazzling white wax called by the Chinese PEH—LA (q. r.) or “ VVhite wax.” For a full account of its preparation see Hosie’s Three Years in Western China (London and New York, 1890), pp. 189—201. Fossil Wax (Oeresin).-Under the so-called fossil wax are several distinct mineral hydrocarbons of the general for- mula C,,H,,,, belonging to the ethylene series—one especially of which (ozokerite) is of considerable economic importance as a substitute for beeswax, which in many physical proper- ties it much resembles. The fossil paratfins are: (1) Urpe- thite, from Urpeth colliery (Johnston), melting at 102° F., sp. gr. '885, and soluble in cold ether; it adheres to the fin- gers and stains paper. (2) Hatchettitc, from Scotland (John- ston), a soft wax, sp. gr. -916-983, pearly, glistening, yellow- ish in color, greasy to the feel; melts at 115° F., dissolves very sparingly in cold ether and boiling alcohol, crystal- lizing as it cools from the hot ethereal solution. (3) 020- herite; the original mineral was from Slanik in Moldavia, and was wholly soluble in ether; that from Boryslav, in Ga- licia, is insoluble in cold ether, but largely so in hot ether. Its sp. gr. is '944, and melting-point 140° F. (4) Ziez‘risi- kite, like the last-named in nearly all physical characters; as hard as beeswax or harder; melts at 194° F., has a density of '9-946, and is distinctly separated from ozokerite by its al- most complete insolubility in ether. It occurs at Zietrisika, in Moldavia. in large masses. It is asserte by some chemists that this series of fossil wax does not afford paraffin, as found in nature, but that this body is a product of transformation of the native hy- drocarbons in the process of manufacture, just as petroleum is changed in part to paraffin during the process of distilla- tion of the crude oil. Ceresin is a trade-term applied to the purified ozokerite from Drohobicz and Boryslav, in Galicia, and from Gresten, in Austria. The crude product, freed by fusion from sand, clay, and other impurities, is of a deep-brown color, with a greenish tint, has a sp. gr. of '940 to '990, cxhales a naphtha- like odor, and ‘in hardness, fracture, and plasticity greatly resembles beeswax. It is very combustible, burning with a pure rich flame of high illuminating power. It dissolves with difficulty in oil of turpentine. It is purified and bleached by means of Nordhausen sulphuric acid, which attacks only WAY the foreign bodies in the ozokerite, leaving the colorless hy- drocarbon untouched. It is used for all purposes for which beeswax is employed, and by its higher melting-point is cap- able of uses to which the former is not adapted. It is said not only to retard, but entirely to prevent, rancidity in oint- ments-—a most valuable quality. Large deposits of ozokerite have been found in Utah, and in 1890 the product from this source was 350,000 lb. Revised by IRA REMSEN. WaX:1hacll’ie: town (founded in 1847); capital of Ellis co., Tex.; on the Hous. and Tex. C‘-ent. and the Mo., Kan. and Tex. railways ; 30 miles N. of Dallas, 180 miles N. E. of Austin (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 3-1). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and has a new county court-house (cost $150,000), 6 churches, a public and 4 pri- vate schools, 3 national banks with combined capital of $300,000, a private bank, 2 street-railway systems, electric- light plant, a daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 2 cotton- compresses, 2 flour-mills, and a $50,000 cottonseed-oil mill. In 1894-95 its cotton receipts aggregated‘ 60,000 bales. Pop. (1880) 1,354; (1890) 3,076; (1895) estimated, with suburbs, 6,000. EDITOR or “WEEKLY ENTERPRISE.” Wax-myrtle: See BAYBERRY. Wax—palm: a name given to various wax-producing palms, especially to Oopernicia cerifera (see OARNAHUBA PALM, PALM FAMILY, and WAX) and Oeroxylon a/ndicolnm of the Andes. Wax-plant: the Hoya carnosa, a climbing greenhouse shrub of the Asclepiadacece or milkweed family, a native of the East Indies, deriving its name from the wax-like appear- ance of its clustering white flowers. VV11XWil1g : a name applied to the birds of the passerine genus Ampelis because the inner wing-feathers and occa- sionally the tail-feathers are tipped with little appendages like flattened drops of red sealing-wax. These are borne by both sexes, and while they are usually best developed in old birds are found in the young as well. The waxwings are 7 or 8 inches in length, the plumage is thick, soft, and of a peculiar brownish ash above, ranging from ashy to almost cinnamon brown. There is a long pointed crest. There are three species, the well-known cedar bird, Ampelis cedro- ram of North America, the Asiatic, A. phoenicopierus, found in Northeastern Asia and Japan, and the Bohemian waxwing, A. garrnlus, which occurs in the northern part of Europe, Asia, and North America. They prefer fruit and berries, but also eat worms and insects. See OHATTERER. F. A. LUCAS. Waxworlu a plant. See BITTER-SWEET. Waxy Degeneration : a diseased condition of certain tissues of the living body, in which parts of organs are changed into the substance known as amyloid. Though an albuminoid, it has reactions somewhat like those of starch. It takes a deep-brown red from iodine, and on the further addi- tion of sulphuric acid becomes blue. Organs seriously affected by waxy degeneration, when out, have a half-transparent look. The spleen, liver, and kidneys are frequent seats of the disease, and it is prone to occur in syphilitic and tuber- culous persons and in those in whom there has been long- standing suppuration. Way [O. Eng. weg : Germ. weg : Goth. wigs; cf. Lat. via, way, 0. Eng. wegen, move, Lat. oe'here, carry, Sanskr. vah, carry]: in law, a right which a person or a community may have of passing at will, but in a given course, over the land of another. As thus employed the term is to be carefully distinguished from the sense attaching to it when used in, or as an equivalent for, the term highway. The latter always signifies a road—-that is, a defined strip of land dedicated to the use of the public at large and under the control of the public authorities, while a way is the right which one per- son may have to use the land of another person in a par- ticular manner, without reference to the course or path which may be taken or employed in the exercise of that right. Nevertheless, the right which each member of the community has to use the highway for legitimate purposes is not the less a right of way because it may be exercised in common by the whole body of the public. ' Ways may arise in a variety of modes and may attach to persons in several different relations. The most convenient classification of these rights, however, is that which is based on the circumstances and conditions under which they arise. As thus contemplated, four different forms or varieties of ways may be distinguished: 1. Ways that are easements. An easement may be defined as a privilege, without profit, WAY which the owner of one tenement has a right to enjoy in respect of that tenement in or over the tenement of another person, by reason whereof the latter is obliged to suffer some use of his tenement which would otherwise be unlaw- ful, or to refrain from some use of it which would other- wise be lawful. That way, then, is a true easement, which is claimed in respect of the tenement, or premises, of the person enjoying it, and which is therefore an appurtenance of such premises, passing with them and having no inde- pendent existence apart from them. Such a way is popularly described as belonging to the land in respect of which it is exercised, rather than to the owner for the time being of such land, and this popular description is fairly expressive of the real nature of the right. (See EASEMENT.) 2. Ways in gross. Rights sometimes called “ easements in gross ” are such as appertain to an individual, entirely without reference to any property belonging to him. Such rights not being enjoyed in respect of any tenement are not properly classified as easements, though, in the mode of their exercise and in the nature of the privilege enjoyed, there is no distinction be- tween them and easements proper. There is this radical difference, however-—a right in gross, being a merely per- sonal privilege, can not be transferred by the person who may for the time being be in the enjoyment of it, and it will of necessity die with him, whereas an easement has all of the vitality and perpetuity of the tenement, or estate, to which it pertains. -(See SERVITUDES.) 3. Customary ways. Though this phrase points to the mode in which these rights originate, rather than to the circumstances under which they may exist, the term comprehends a large and impor- tant class of privileges akin to easements, and yet diifering from them in important particulars. The English law pre- sents many cases of community rights over the land of in- dividuals. Thus the inhabitants of a certain village or the members of acertain trade may have the right to use the land of some individual for purposes of recreation, or of erecting booths and holding a fair, or of crossing it to go to church or to market. The right is regarded as the result of an immemorial custom, too ancient and too long acquiesced in to be disputed, and it covers the case of every person who belongs to the community or group enjoying the right, no matter how short or long his membership may be. Such rights are very common in England, but they can hardly be said to exist in the U. S., New Hampshire being the only State in which they have been recognized. In several of the States it has been expressly decided that rights claimed by custom can not exist in the U. S., as there can be no cus- toms of immemorial antiquity in a new country. 4. Pub- lic rights of way. A few simple and indispensable privi- leges with respect to the property of private individuals are recognized by the common law as vested in the whole body of citizens of the State, or in the public at large. The most familiar examples of these common rights are the rights of way in highways, in certain private streams (see Law of Rivers, under RIVERS), and upon the seashore (see RIPARIAN RIGHTS). These may also arise, like the customary rights above described, from immemorial user, but they are to be distinguished from the latter by their “common ”—- i. e. universal—character. A custom which extends through- out the kingdom, or state, ceases to be a custom: it is a part of the “ common ” law, and has no need to justify itself. Ways of this description exist equally in the U. S. and in England. In respect of the nature and extent of the use permitted, the Roman law distinguished three grades of the right under consideration: iter, for foot passengers only; actus, for passage either on foot or with horses, vehicles, or cattle; and via, which, in addition to the uses above specified, in- cluded also that of drawing heavy burdens. The term via, like our term highway, carried with it also the im lication of a defined path or roadway, though. unlike hig way, it comprehended private as well as public ways. Although there is in our law no classification of ways in accordance with these distinctions, the right may exist in these several degrees. The principal modes in which ways may be acquired are as follows: 1. By grant. This is the usual and character- istic way by which all easements come into existence. It is in effect an express gift or conveyance by an owner of land, by deed, of a right to use his land for the purpose of passing and repassing in a certain course. A person who, upon alienating a portion of his land, ex ressly retains or reserves out of the estate conveyed a rig t of way over it for the more convenient enjoyment of the unsold portion, 675 also acquires his easement by grant. 2. By implication. Where a conveyance is silent on the subject, but the situa- tion of the land and its past and present uses and modes of enjoyment seem to require such a construction of the deed, an easement may be implied in favor of the grantor or grantee, as the case may require. The best illustration of an easement by implication is afforded by the so-called way of necessity. A way of necessity arises when A, be- ing owner of land, conveys a portion thereof to B, so sur- rounded by other tracts that B is entirely cut off from access to any highway. Under such circumstances B has “ of necessity” a right of way appurtenant to his parcel over the remaining land of A to a convenient highway. al- though the deed makes no mention of such a right. The same result follows in favor of A if he retains the isolated tract, while selling all the lands by which it is surrounded. 3. By prescription. Long-continued user, dating back to time beyond legal memory, is the equivalent of a grant in establishing an easement of a way. The period during which such user must continue in order to ripen into a right has generally been fixed by statute or judicial de- cision at twenty years. See PRESCRIPTION. The foregoing methods of creating rights of way are ap- plicable only to such rights as are in the nature of ease- ments, as above described, and easements of way can origi- nate only in one or other of those methods. It remains to describe the several modes in which ways that are not ease- ments may arise, viz. : 4. By license. This is the usual and sufficient manner of creating or conferring the privileges known as rights in gross. The permission may be oral or written, but it is in any event, excepting when coupled with a valid interest or property right, revocable at the pleasure of the owner of the land over which the right is exercised. 5. By custom. This method of establishing the class of privileges known as customary rights, or more com- monly as rights by custom, has been explained above in describing the nature of those rights. A custom, in or- der to have the effect of justifying such an encroachment on private property rights, must not only be of great an- tiquity, but must also be reasonable and continuously ob- served. 6. By dedication. This term signifies the owner’s act in giving the public at large rights of way over his land, and the consequent creation of a highway. It may be evidenced by any formal or informal act, signifying the owner’s consent to such use, from the execution and re- cording of a deed to the silent acquiescence in the public use of his land for highway purposes. 7. By common law. The operation of a universal custom in imposing a public burden upon private property has been referred to above in connection with public rights of way. Rights of way, whether in the nature of easements or of personal rights, have the common characteristic that they must be exercised in strict conformity with the nature and extent of the right existing in the case in ques- tion. A right to pass and repass on foot can not be availed of to justify a way for cattle or wagons; a right which is appurtenant to an adjoining tenement can not be enjoyed by a stranger, nor for any and all purposes even by the owner of such tenement. The use of the latter must always be in connection with or with respect to such tene- ment. Otherwise, his use of the way is a trespass. More- over, there is in the U. S. no such thing as an unlimited right of way. A way always contemplates a definite course or route between certain fixed points, and no other course may be taken but the one so determined. The owner of the land over which the right of way exists may make any use of his property which is not inconsistent with the ordinary and reasonable exercise of the right by the person or persons enjoying it. He may, accordingly, erect a bridge or arch over the path, road, or area in which the way is exercised, provided he does not thereby materially impair its utility as a way of the kind in force. But he is under no obliga- tion to provide or keep in repair any path or road for the exercise of the way. It is the duty of the person claiming the right to make his own road and keep it in repair. For that purpose he may enter upon the land at all reasonable times, and do whatever is reasonably necessary to keep his path or road in condition for use. If the road becomes “ founderous ” or impassable, without the fault of the owner of the premises. the person having the right of way may not diverge and take another path even temporarily. The right, having once been fixed at and by a certain line, can not be changed without the consent of the owner of the burdened land. It is otherwise, of course, where the road has been 6,75‘ wavoaoss rendered impassable or inconvenient by the act of the tenant of the freehold. In the case of highways, however, the interests of the public have dictated a different rule. There, if the road becomes impassable from any cause, a traveler may go over the adjoining land, even though in so doing it becomes necessary for him to do damage to fences or crops. But, as is elsewhere explained (see HIGHWAY), the rights of the owner of the soil over which a highway has been laid out are in all essential particulars identical with those which the owner of a servient tenement, subject to a private right of way, retains in the land afiected by such right. His dominion over and his right to use and enjoy his land are aifected only so far as such right of way neces-_ sarily interferes with the same. Any unauthorized use of the highway is as much a trespass upon his rights as if com- mitted on any other portion of his lands. There are several satisfactory modern treatises on the law of easements in which the law of ways is adequately con- sidered. See especially works of Gale, Goddard, and Wash- burn on Easements; Leake on Uses and Profits of Land (part iii. of his Digest of the Law of Land); and Gray’s Cases on Property, vol. ii. GEORGE W. KIRCHWEY. Waycross: city; capital of Ware co., Ga. ; on the Bruns. and VVest., the Sav., Fla. and West., and the \Vayc. Air Line railways; 60 miles W. of Brunswick, 96 miles S. W. of Savannah (for location, see map of Georgia, ref. 7—I). It has a national bank with capital of $50,000, a State bank with capital of $50,000, and a daily, a monthly, and two weekly periodicals, and is principally engaged in the manu- fact-ure of lumber and naval stores. Pop. (1880) 628; (1890) 3.364; (1895) estimated, 6,500. EDITOR OF “ HERALD.” Wayland: town (incorporated in 1835); Middlesex co., Mass; on the Sudbury river, and the Boston and Maine Railroad; 15 miles W. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H). It contains the villages of Way- land and Cochituate, has 4 churches, high school, 7 district schools, and a public library (founded in 1850 and said to have been the first free library in the U. S.), and is princi- ally engaged in agriculture and the manufacture of shoes. n 1894 it had an assessed valuation of $1,500,000. Pop. (1880) 1,962; (1890) 2,060. Wayland, FRANCIS, D. D., LL. D.: educator; b. in New York, Mar. 11, 1796, of English parents; graduated at Union College 1813; studied medicine and began practice at Troy, but, having joined the Baptist church (1816), devoted himself to the ministry; studied theology one year at An- dover; was tutor in Union College 1817-21; pastor of the First Baptist church at Boston, Mass., 1821-26; became president of Brown University Feb., 1827, having previous- y filled for some months the professorship of Mathematics and Natural History in Union College; retired from the presidency in 1855, and was for fifteen months (1857-58) act- ing pastor of the First Baptist church at Providence, and was highly distinguished as a pulpit orator. D. at Provi- dence, R. I., Sept. 30, 1865. He was the author of several volumes of sermons and addresses; Elements o_f ftloral Sci- ence (1835): Elements of Political Economy (1837); Limi- tations of Human Reason (1840) ; Thoughts on the Collegi- ate System of the United States (1842); Elements of Intel- lectual Philosophy (1854); Life of Rev. Acloniram Judson, D. D. (2 vols., 1853); and other works. His Life was writ- ten by his sons Francis and H. L. Wayland (2 vols., 1867), also by Prof. J . 0. Murray, of Princeton (Boston, 1890). Revised by J . M. BALDWIN. Wayland, HEMAN LINCOLN, D. D.: educator and journalist; b. at Providence, R. I., Apr. 23, 1830; educated at Brown University, graduating 1849. and Newton Theological Insti- tution ; tutor in the University of Rochester 1852-54; pastor Main Street Baptist church, Worcester, 1854-61; chaplain Seventh Connecticut Regiment 1861-64; Professor of Rhet- oric and Logic, Kalamazoo College, Mich.. 1865-70: presi- dent of Franklin College, Indiana, 1870-72: editor Nation- al Baptist, Philadelphia, 1872-94; editor of The Examiner 1894; joint author with his brother Francis of Life and Labors of Francis Way/land (1867); author of Faith and W'orhs of Charles H. Spnrgeon (1892); and numerous pub- lic addresses and sermons. C. H. ’l‘I~IURBER. Wayland the Smith: a favorite Germanic hero both in modern folk-lore (his cave is pointed out in Berkshire) and in the ancient myths. As I/Veland he appears, with brief allusion to his legend, which found its best development among Low German traditions, in the oldest English lyric, WAYNE The Lay of Déor; and in King Alfred’s time he was selected as representative figure of the national past. “ Where,” asks the translator of Boethius, paraphrasing a verse of his original-—“ where are the bones of cunning Weland the Goldsmith, most famous of yore?” As Vo- lundr he is one of the best-known heroes of Eddie poetry. (See Vigfusson-Powell, (Jorpns Poeticnm Boreale, i., 169.) His father was I/Vade, a giant, whose “ boat ” is mentioned by Chaucer (llIerchant’s Tale, 1424), and who seems to have been a popular person in his own right: “ tale of Wade," says Chaucer (Troilas, iii., 614). Wayland himself is the deified smith of Germanic heathendom, founder of an art held in the highest possible repute. The best praise of a weapon was to call it “ \Vayland’s work ”—the phrase occurs in the Be0wu.lf and e1sewhere—-while, for the finer art of ornaments, I/Vayland is the goldsmith without a peer. A c- cording to the legend he owned “ seven hundred arm-rings.” The story of VVayland, particularly in the laming and fly- ing episodes, seems to have suffered contamination. Bugge goes so far as to declare (Stndier, pp. 22, note, 131) the myth to be an outright copy “ from Greek and Latin narra- tives,” and the name to be a corruption of Vulcanus. Nevertheless, we may accept Wayland as a Germanic hero and demigod. His name probably means " the skillful or artful one.” For his legend in detail, see P. E. Miiller, Sagabilzliothe/0, and W. Grimm, Iieldensage (3d ed.). FRANCIS B. GUMMERE. Wayne: village (platted as Derby’s Corners in 1834); Wayne co., Mich.; on a branch of the Rouge river, and on the Flint and Pere Marq. and the Mich. Cent. railways; 18 miles W. of Detroit, 26 miles N. of Monroe (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 8-K). It has 5 churches. graded public school, a State bank with capital of $25,000, a pri- vate bank, 2 weekly newspapers. and manufactories of cigars, carriages, brick, and peppermint oil. The first house was erected in 1824, and the village was incorporated in 1869 and 1877. Pop. (1880) 919; (1890) 1,226; (1894) State cen- sus, 1,555. EDI'roR OF “ W AYNE COUNTY REVIEW.” Wayne: city (founded in 1880): capital of Wayne co., Neb.; on the Chi., St. P., l\'linn., and Omaha Railway; 45 miles S. W. of Sioux City, Ia. (for location, see map of Ne- braska,‘ ref. 9-G). It is in an agricultural, sugar-beet grow- ing, and stock-raisin g region, contains the Nebraska Normal College, 2 public-school buildings, 2 national banks with combined capital of $125,000, and 2 State banks with capi- tal of $125,000, and has 4 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1890) 1,178; (1895) estimated, 2,000. EDITOR or “ HERALD.” Wayne: town (founded by G. W. Childs and A. J. Drexel in 1887); Delaware co., Pa.; on the Penn. Railroad; 14 miles W. of Philadelphia (for location, see map of Pennsyl- vania, ref. 6—J). It has 6 churches, a public school, 4 pri- vate schools, 2 public halls, 2 large summer boarding-houses, sewerage, steam-heating, and electric-light plants, water- works, a trust company, country and cricket clubs, and many handsome residences. It is a charming place of sub- urban residence. Pop. (1890) 997 ; (1895) estimated, 2,500. EDITOR or “ TIMES.” Wayne, ANTHONY : soldier; b. at East Town, Chester co., Pa., Jan. 1, 1745; educated at the Philadel hia Academy; became a surveyor and an intimate frien of Franklin; was agent of a land company in Nova Scotia 1765-66 : mar- ried and settled on a farm in Chester County 1767; was elected to various county offices; was a member of the Pennsylvania convention and of the Legislature of 1774; served on the committee of public safety 1775; soon after- ward raised a company of volunteers and became colonel of a regiment of Pennsylvania troops 1776; was wounded at the battle of Three Rivers ; was commissioned brigadier- general Feb. 21, 1777; joined \Vashington in New Jer- sey; commanded a division at the battle of Brandywine, Sept. 11, being stationed at Chadds Ford to oppose the passage of the river by Knyphausen; fought all day and effected a successful retreat at sunset; took command of a flying detachment of 1,500 men for the purpose of harass- ing the British rear, but was surprised at Paoli (close to his own homestead) by superior numbers on the night of Sept. 20, and lost fifty-three men; was acquitted of blame by a court martial held at his own request; led the right wing at the battle of Germantown Oct. 4; made a raid within the British lines in the winter of 1777-78, capturing nu- merous horses and cattle and abundance of forage; con- tributed by his skillful manoeuvers to the victory of Mon- mouth June 28, 1778; led the attack at the storming of WAYNE Stony Point on the night of July 15-16, 1779, considered the most brilliant feat of arms of the whole war; was wounded in the head; received from Congress a vote of thanks and a gold medal; acquired the name of “Mad Anthony Wayne,” and became the favorite popular hero; exhibited much address in suppressing a mutiny of the Pennsylvania line at Morristown J an.. 1781 ; joined La Fayette in Virginia J an. 7 ; made with a part of a brigade a daring attack upon the whole British army at Green Spring or Jamestown Ford July 6. and by a bayonet charge disconcerted a projected manoeuver against La Fayette; was present at the surrender of Cornwallis, after which _he was sent to join Gen. Nathanael Greene in the South; de- feated the Creek Indians June 23-24, 1782; took posses- sion of Charleston, S. C., after its evacuation Dec. 14; re- tired to his farm in Pennsylvania after the war; served in the Pennsylvania Assembly 1784-85, and in the convention that ratified the U. S. Constitution; became general-in-chief of the U. S. army with the rank of major-general Apr. 3, 1792, and took command of an expedition against the West- ern Indians, whom he defeated at Fallen Timbers, or Mau- mee Rapids, Aug. 20, 1794: concluded with them the treaty of Greenville 1795, and while on his return homeward died at Presque Isle (now Erie), Pa., Dec. 15, 1796. His remains were removed in 1809 to Radnor church, near Waynesburgh, Pa., where a monument was-erected by the Pennsylvania Society of the Cincinnati July 4, 1809. His Life, by Gen. John Armstrong, is in Sparks’s American Biography, and his Regzbnental Orderly B0075 was printed at Albany in 1859. Revised by F. M. COLBY. W'ayne, JAMES MooRE, LL.D.: jurist; b. at Savannah, Ga., in 1790; graduated at Princeton 1808; became a law- yer and politician at Savannah ; sat in the Legislature ; pre- sided over two constitutional conventions: was mayor of Savannah 1823, judge of the superior court of Georgia 1824- 29, member of Congress 1829-35; was an efiicient debater, an advocate of free trade, and an active supporter of the policy of President Jackson, by whom he was appointed an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S. J an. 9, 1835, and gave especial attention to admiralty jurisprudence. D. at Washington, D. C., July 5, 1867. Waynesboroz city (laid out as a town in 1783, incorpo- rated as a city in 1888); capital of Burke co., Ga.; on the Cent. Railroad of Ga.; 32 miles S. of Augusta, 100 miles N. W. of Savannah (for location, see map of Georgia, ref. 4-J). It has 7 churches—3 Baptist, 2 Methodist Episcopal, a Presbyterian, and a Protestant Episcopal—2 academies, 4 lower-grade schools, a State bank with capital of $50,000, and a weekly newspaper; contains manufactories of cotton- seed oil, guano, agricultural implements, and wagons; and was the scene of a battle in the war of the Revolution and of one in the civil war. Pop. (1880) 1,008; (1890) 1,711; (1895) 1921. EDITOR or “ TRUE CITIZEN.” Waynesboro : borough; Franklin co., Pa.; on the Mont Alto and the West. Md. railways; 14 miles S. E. of Cham- bersburg, 50 miles S. W. of Harrisburg (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6-E). It is near South Mountain and Antietam creek, and in the civil war the majority of the Confederate army passed through it on the way to Get- tysburg and on the following retreat. It has 8 churches, 2 public graded schools, Academy of Music, 2 national banks (combined capital, $125,000), several creameries, manufac- tories of ice-machines, engines, separators, steam-plows, grinders, tools, lathes, and agricultural im lements, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,888; (1850) 3.811; (1895) estimated, 4,500. EDITOR OF “ KEYSTONE GAZETTE.” Waynesbllrgz borough (laid out in 1796); capital of Greene co., Pa.; on Ten Mile creek, and the \Vaynes. and Wash. Railroad: 45 miles S. of Pittsburg (for location. see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6—A). It is in an agricultural, stock-raising, oil, and natural-gas region, contains \Vaynes- burg College (Cumberland Presbyterian), 2 national banks with combined capital of $225,000, several planing and flour mills, a carriage-factory, and a foundry, and has 4 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,208; (1890) 2,101. EDITOR or “INDEPENDENT.” _Waynflete, or Wainfleet, wan’fieet, VVILLIAM or, ‘other- wise called William Patten, or Barbour: bishop: b. at Waynfiete, Lincolnshire, England, about 1405 ; educated at Wmchester and at Oxford University ; became head master of Wykeham’s school at Winchester 1429; was appointed by King Henry VI. first master of his newly founded col- WEALTH 677 lege at Eton 1442; became provost of Eton Dec., 1443; suc- ceeded Cardinal Beaufort in the bishopric of VVinchester 1447; founded Magdalen Hall, Oxford, 1448; converted it into a college with a liberal endowment 1456 ; also founded a free school in his native town; was lord high chancellor to Henry VI. during the disastrous years 1456-60, resign- ing three days before the battle of Northampton, and was generously treated by the victorious Yorkists. D. Aug. 11, 1486, and was buried in a magnificent chapel in \Vinchester Cathedral. - Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wazan' (Rohlfs’s Wesan): a holy city of Morocco ; beau- tifully situated in a fertile region about 75 miles S. of the Straits of Gibraltar. It was founded toward the end of the ninth century by Muley Tayeb. a direct descendant of the Prophet. The sherif is superior in sanctity to the sultan himself. He is enormously rich, and the fact that he is a descendant of the Prophet makes him adored by all Mo- hammedans. The faithful throughout Morocco pay tribute to him, but a large part of the wealth coming to him is dis- bursed in charity and hospitality. Frequently hundreds, and sometimes thousands of pilgrims who come to kiss the hem of his robe of ofiice are entertained at his expense. The sultan is not regarded as fully installed in his exalted place until he has been officially recognized by the saint of Wazan. Fugitives from justice are safe within the town, and not even the sultan’s body-guard dare arrest a person who appears as a suppliant at the tomb of the founder of Wazan. In the mosque containing the tomb is a collection of about a thousand Arabic manuscripts. The religious authority of the present sherif (1895) has been greatly dimin- ished by his pronounced friendship for Europeans, his mar- riage with an English Christian, and his almost continuous absence from )Va.zan, where he is represented in his sacred character by one of his sons, while he spends most of his time in Tangier. Pop. perhaps 3,000. C. C. ADAMS. Weakfish: the Gym oscion regalis, also called sqzteieague; very common along the eastern coast of the U. S. It be- longs to the family Scz'(em'cZ(e, and has as associates several other species, mostly peculiar to the southern coast of the U. S. —viz., C. tlzalassinvmz. C. nozfhwm. and C. mac-ulatum. These species are all distinguished by their elongated shape, the prominence of the lower jaw, and the armature of the upper one with canine teeth; the dorsal fin has nine or ten spines, and the anal fin one small spine. The weakfish is distin- guished by its color, which above is pale brownish, with a decided greenish tinge, grading below into silvery; on the back and sides are irregular verm-icular blotches disposed in an oblique direction, tending forward and downward; the ventral and anal fins are yellowish, the others neutral. It generally averages between 1 and 2 feet in length. a11d is found along the entire eastern coast S. of Cape Cod, but is most common in the warmer waters. It does not ascend into the fresh waters. It is a rather voracious fish, and readily seizes the hook, but its mouth is easily torn, and to this characteristic (weakness of mouth) the name refers. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Wealden (weeld'en) Formation [zcealden is from the \/Veald, a district of Kent and Sussex, England; 0. Eng. weald, forest, wood]: a series of fresh-water strata of the Cretaceous period, first studied in the Weald. The forma- tion occurs also in Germany. Its animal fossils comprise the iguanodon, hyleeosaurus, pterodactyl, and numerous species of turtles. Its vegetable fossils consist chiefly of ferns and the gymnospermatous orders of conifers and cy- cads. The fruits of several species of both orders have been found. and in some places the rolled trunks of different species of coniferous wood occur in enormous quantities. Revised by G. K. GILBERT. Wealth [M. Eng. welthe, deriv. of weie, weal < 0. Eng. wela, weola, wealth. deriv. of we], well > Eng. well] : a term that is used in two distinct senses: (1) the national sense, in which it includes all things which contribute to the hap- piness of mankind; (2) the individual sense, in which it is confined to those things which command a price. By busi- ness men the word is commonly used in the latter sense; by political economists it is chiefly used in the former sense, even when they define it in the latter one. To avoid this confusion it has been proposed to substitute the term prop- erty for the individual sense of the word wealth. A large part of the modern science of POLITICAL EcoNoMY (q. 7).) deals with the relation between the individual acquisition of property and the growth of national wealth. The at- tempts to estimate the national wealth in dollars and cents, 678 WEARE as is often done, involves a confusion of the two senses of the word, and the result is misleading. A. T. HADLEY. Weare, MESHECH: b. at Hampton, N. H., June 16, 1713; graduated at Harvard 1735: studied and practiced law ; sat several years in the Legislature; was Speaker 1752; com- missioner to the Colonial Congress at Albany 1754; became a justice of the Supreme Court and chief justice 1777 ; was councilor from Rockingham County and chairman of the committee of safety 1775; was chosen president of the State 1776, and annually re-elected during the war, in which he rendered great services to the defense of the Northern colonies from Burgoyne’s invasion, raising and equipping the forces sent to the frontier under Gen. Stark; and was again chosen president under the new Constitution 1784. D. in Hampton Falls, N. H., Jan. 14, 1786. Wearing: See TAcKINe AND WEARING. Weasel [M. Eng. wesele < O. Eng. wesle : O. H. Germ. wisala > Germ. wieseZ]: any one of various small animals, species of the family Mustelidw, and especially of the genus Pater/ius. These are especially distinguished by the small number of molars, there being only thirty-four teeth in all, viz., M. 4;, P. M. %, C. -13 I. %; the lower sectorial molar tooth has no inner tubercle; the body is very slender and elon- gated, especially in the small species, and so much so as to have obtained the name vermiform; the tail is moderate; the feet are essentially digitigrade. Weasels are among the boldest and most bloodthirsty of carnivorous animals, and especially destructive to poultry, which they generally seize by the neck, proceeding to devour the carcasses leisurely after sucking their blood, or perhaps, leaving satisfied with quenching their thirst for blood alone. The species are mostly confined to cold and temperate regions. although a few extend into tropical countries. The generally recog- nized species in North America are the Patorius vuZgam's, or little weasel; the P. Zongieauda, nearly related to the former, found in the Upper Missouri and Platte countries; the P. frenata, or bridled weasel, of the southwestern U. S. ; P. eieogmmei ; and the common P. riehardsoni, which has come to be considered as distinct from the Old World er- mine, P. erminea, with which it was long confounded. In Europe and Northern Asia are found a number of other species more or less closely related to those of North America. See also ERMINE. Revised by F. A. LUcAs. Weather [(with change of cl to 2% under Scandinavian in- fluence) < O. Eng. weder : O. H. Germ. weiar (> Mod. Germ. wetter): Icel. veer, wind, air, weather]: the current or pass- ing state of the atmosphere, especially the conditions which affect man and his interests. It differs from climate, which represents the average of these conditions, or the average of all weathers. Climate changes slightly and slowly, but weather is constantly changing. The descriptive terms ap- plied to weather—as cold, warm, dry, damp, wet, calm, windy, rainy, snowy—do not require special definition, and are used in a relative sense. For instance, what would be called cool weather in Cuba might be very warm weather at Mt. Desert in Maine; and what would be called dry at Grey- town, Nicaragua, would be damp or wet at Santa Fé, New Mexico. By settled weather is meant a condition in which there is little intensity and little change in the meteorological elements from day to day. The opposite is variable weather. The weather of the Southern States and the Pacific coast is relatively settled ; the most variable weather in the U. S. is along the northern boundary from the Rocky Mountains eastward. A spell of weather is the continuation of one type, especially in regions of variable weather, and a change of weather is the change from one type to another. Weather is often named by a sort of metaphor referring to its effects. Thus fair weather is originally one suited to ordinary commercial operations, but it has been modified in its use by the U. S. Weather Bureau to indicate the absence of rain and of complete cloudiness. Foul weather is that un- suited for such operations, generally rainy and windy; dirty weather is that with low-flying clouds and slight driving rains; soft weather is that when the snow by melting, or the soil by rain, has softened and impedes travel. Again weather is bright. sharp, tonic, sweltering (or sultry) ac- cording to its physiologic, and dull, close, gloomy, ac- cording to its psychic effects. The weather preceding an approaching storm is especially noted for its effects in pro- ducing neuralgic and rheumatic pains, and this is, in large art, due to the increasing humidity. Indeed, changing umidity, by changing the rate -of evaporation of the sur- face of the skin, and consequently its temperature, pro- WEATHER-SIGNALS foundly affects the individual and contributes largely to his comfort or discomfort. It is this which makes the differ- ence between the bright and cheerful hot weather of arid regions (with temperature perhaps at 110° F.) and the muggy insufferable weather—close, moist, and sweltering though the thermometer may be at only 95° F.-which precedes summer thunder-storms in the Eastern States. The tem- perature of evaporation is substantiallythe temperature that is felt, and it is this that makes the hot weather of New Mexico quite as endurable as that of Ohio. See Harring- ton’s paper Sensible Tempemtures (Trans. Am. Clim. Assoc., 1893-94, 368-374). See CLIMATE, METEOROLOGY, and WEATHER BUREAU. MARK W. HARRINGTON. Weather Bureau: a branch of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, established July 1, 1891, to take charge of the meteorological work of the Government which had grown up since 1870 under the Signal Service of the Department of War. This bureau is intrusted with the forecast of the weather, storms, and floods, with the distribution of such warnings, and with the compilation and distribution of such climatic or meteorological data as are required by the pub- lic interest. The bureau has about 1,000 paid employees, the most of whom devote their entire time to its service. Its annual cost has been on the average $838,100, while the annual cost for the years 1882-91 of the Meteorological Service (under the army, but not including the cost of mili- tary signaling) was $924,700. The annual saving resulting from the work of the bureau can not be estimated with cer- tainty, but is undoubtedly many times the cost. The per- centage of correct forecasts varies, but the general average is four out of five. It is lowest in ordinary weather and highest in storms or severe weather of any sort. In hurri- canes from the West Indies it sometimes reaches five out of five, or 100 per cent. Under the U. S. Weather Bureau is a federal system of State Services which perform efficient aid in collecting information of a detailed character. The most of the civilized states now have weather services, all a de- velopment since 1870, but the function of weather forecasts attracts most attention in the U. S., Great Britain, France, Prussia, Saxony, and Russia. A special service in Hong- kong is devoted to the forecast of typhoons. MARK W. HARRINeToN. Weatherford: city; ca ital of Parker co., Tex.; on the Gulf, Colo. and S. Fé, the "ex. and Pac., and the Weather., Min. Wells and N. W. railways; 40 miles N. W. of Cle- burne, bout 66 miles W. of Dallas (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 2-H). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, contains Weatherford College (Methodist Episcopal South), the Texas Female Seminary (Cumberland Presbyte- rian), a ublic high school with library, and 3 national banks with capital of $500,000, and has 3 weekly news- papers. Pop. (1880) 2,046; (1890) 3,369. Weather-glass: an instrument for indicating the state of the atmosphere, as the BAROMETER and HYGROMETER (gg. v.). Weatherly: borough (incorporated in 1863); Carbon co., Pa.; on the Lehigh Valley Railroad; 10 miles E. of Hazleton, 14 miles N. W. of Mauch Chunk (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 4—I). It is in a coal-mining region, and has 6 churches, 12 schools, a building and loan association, a weekly paper, a large silk-mill, railway-shops, bicycle-factory, and brick-works. Pop. (1880) 1,977 ; (1890) 2,961 ; (1895) estimated, 3,500. EDITOR or “ HERALD.” Weathersfield: town; Windsor co.,Vt.; on the Con- necticut river; 3 miles W. of Claremont, N. H., 63 miles S. of Montpelier (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 8—C). It contains the villages of Weathersfield, Weathersfield Center, Weathersfield Bow, Amsden, Ascutneyville, Perkins- ville, and Felchville, and has a Baptist, a Protestant Epis- copal, 2 Congregational, and 2 Methodist Episcopal .ch urches, 2 hotels, and manufactories of apple-jelly, lime, lumber, butter-tubs, cider, soapstone sinks, shingles, carriages, and chair stock. Pop. (1880) 1,354; (1890) 1,174. Weather-signals: a code of signals, consisting of flags, cylinders, and cones, or whistles, adopted by the various national meteorological services to convey their forecasts of temperature, weather, and storms to the general public. The U. S. code consists of a series of flags for weather and temperature, a series of whistles from stationary en- gines for the same, and a series of flags for wind. The first two are used inland, the last at the ports. The flag signals for weather and temperature are seven in WEATHER-SIGNALS number: (1) A square white flag for clear or fair weather; (2) a square blue flag for rain or snow; (3) a square flag with the upper half white and the lower half blue for local storms; (4) a black triangular flag for temperature, above the others when the temperature is to rise, below when it IS to fall; (5) a white square flag with a black square in the center to forecast a cold wave ; (6) a red square flag with a black square center to forecast a severe storm; (7) a red ennant as an information signal at ports is also used in Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys in California to md1- cate the approach of a “hot norther.” Interpretation 0]‘ Displays. No. 1, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary tempera- ture. No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary tempera- ture. N 0. 3, alone, indicates local rain, stationary temperature. No. 1, with No. 4 above it, indicates fair weather, warmer. No. 1, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, colder. No. 2, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather, ram or snow. No. 2, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather, rain or snow. No. 3, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather with local rains. . No. 3, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather with local rains. No. 1, with No. 5 above it, indicates fair weather, cold wave. No. 2, with No. 5 above it, indicates wet weather, cold wave. These signals can be distinguished only within a radius of 2 or 3 miles (at the farthest), are invisible directly to windward or leeward, or in a calm, soon become too dis- colored to distinguish, and wear out rapidly. The whistle signals are in some respects better. They are blown at fixed hours, and to one listening for them can sometimes be made out at a distance of 10 miles. The first whistle to attract attention is a long blast of from fifteen to twenty seconds’ duration. After this warning signal has been sounded, long blasts (of from four to six seconds’ dura- tion) refer to weather, and short blasts (of from one to three seconds’ duration) refer to temperature, those for weather to be sounded first. Blasts. Indicate. One long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Fair weather. Two long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Rain or snow. Three long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Local rain. One short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Lower temperature. Two short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Higher temperature. Three short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cold wave. Interpretation of Combination Blasts. One long, alone . . . . . . . . . . . .Fair weather, stationary tem- perature. Two long, alone . . . . . . . . . . . . .Rain or snow, stationary tem- perature. One long and one short . . . . . .Fair weather, lower tempera- ture. Two long and two short.. . . .Rain or snow, higher tempera- ture. One long and three short.. . . .Fair weather, cold wave. Three long and two short.. . .Local rains, higher tempera- ture. - For the ports the storm-signal as above (square red with a black center) is combined with a pennant which indicates the direction of the wind. A red pennant above the storm- signal indicates N. E. winds ; below, S. E. A white pennant above, N. W. winds; below, S. W. winds. Two storm-sig- nals one above the other is'the forecast for a hurricane, or for the very severe and dangerous gales which sometimes pass the Great Lakes and North Atlantic coast. At some ports lights are used at night, a red light for easterly winds, and a white above a red for westerly. On European coasts the system of signals devised by Fitzroy is used with some modifications. It consists of a large cylinder and cone which can be suspended and which will appear the same from whatever point viewed. The cylinder indicates the storm and is below ; the cone, the di- rection of the wind—pointing upward for a northerlv di- rection (from N. W. through N. to S. E.); pointing down- ward, the opposite. The cylinder is now discontinued in WEAVING 679 Great Britain. At night lanterns are hung at each angle of the cone and (to represent the cylinder) at the four angles of a square. l\’lARK W. HARRINGTON. Weaver-bird: any member of the PLOCEID./E (g. 1).), a family of finch-like birds peculiar to Africa and parts of Southern Asia. They are named from their remarkable woven nests, which are constructed so as to protect the eggs and young from snakes and monkeys. Some are huge, heavy, and massive, clustered together in large numbers, and bearing down the branches with their weight. Others are light, delicate, and airy, woven so thinly as to permit the breeze to pass through their net-like interior, and dangling daintily from the extremity of some slender twig. Others, again, are so firmly built of flattened reeds and grass-blades that they can be detached from their branches and subjected to very rough handling without losing their shape, while others are so curiously formed of stiff grass-stalks that their exterior bristles with sharp points like the skin of a hedge- hog. Many of the weaver-birds are brightly marked. They feed on seeds and insects, especially beetles. See Nnsrs or BIRDS. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Weaving: the act or art of forming from threads or fila- ments any textile fabric. These fabrics are formed in the machine called a Loon (g. ’L’.), and in a general way may be said to be formed of two series of threads or filaments inter- laced at right angles, technically known as warp and filling. In the length of the fabric the threads are warp, and those which interlace with the warp are the filling threads. Not- withstanding the great variety of textile fabrics, there are but three underlying principal movements in their forma- tion—that is, in weaving: these may be arrived at in various manners and by many different mechanisms, but are, with- out exception, to be found in the following order: “shed- ding,” “ picking,” anc “beating up.” The warps may be arranged in the looms differently; they may be on a single warp-beam at the back, or on more than one; the warp- threads are drawn through the eyes of the various loom- harness and through the reed-—usually before the warp is placed in the loom—then fastened to the cloth-roll at the front, and the warp is ready to be woven. The first move- ment is to form a shed ; this is accomplished by raising some of the loom-harness and depressing others, thereby raising a part of the warp-threads and lowering the remainder; the space between these two parts of the divided warp is the shed. The second movement is to pass through this shed the filling, after which the third movement, to com lete the formation, is to beat up the filling-thread toward t e cloth- roll. Another shed is formed, as before, a new filling-thread picked—that is, thrown across and through the shed—this thread beaten up against the one which preceded it, and these three movements. continually repeated, produce the fabric and constitute the operation of weaving. Origin of the Art.—It is not known who were the first to practice weaving, when it was first practiced. or what fabric was first produced; yet the art is well classed as one of the earliest. The Chinese claim that they have certain docu- ments or records which show silk-weaving to have been practiced over twenty-five centuries before the Christian era. By some archaeologists Egypt is credited with being the mother of the invention. Joseph Strutt says in View of the Dress and Habits of the People of England, “The Egyptians put a shuttle in the hands of their goddess Isis to signify that she was the inventress of weaving.” Several references in the Bible narrative (Lev. xiii. 47-59, etc.) to “ warp and woof” show that in the fifteenth century before Christ the Israelites were familiar with the art. It is very evident that among the Hindus, Chinese, and Egyptians the art has been practiced for many centuries. The fact that several countries widely separated seem to have practiced weaving extensively as far back as history or tradition goes, and also that in principle the practice of weaving to-day is not difierent from that of the most remote methods re- ported, would help to substantiate the belief that mechan- isms for weaving may have been invented independently by several races. ' lVeaving in DuZia.—Even to the present time many Hindus hold to their primitive mode of making textiles, and cause much wonder by producing fabrics of great delicacy and beauty. They have acquired by their continued appli- cation to old customs patience, alacrity, and a great deli- cacy of touch, enabling them to equal, except in quantity, the output of some of the best modern looms. and all with the simplest of appliances. These are described in the I 680 Circle of ltIecham'c Arts by M artin, as follows: “The loom consists merely of two bamboo rollers, one for the warp and the other for the web” (woven cloth) “ and a pair of gears. ‘The shuttle performs the double oflice of shuttle and batten, and for this purpose is made like a huge netting-needle, and of a length somewhat exceeding the breadth of the cloth. This apparatus the tanty (weaver) carries to a tree, under which he digs a hole large enough to contain his legs and the lower part of the gear. He then stretches his warp by fastening his bamboo rollers at a due distance from each other on the turf by wooden pins. The balance of the gear he fastens to some convenient branch of the tree over his head. Two loops underneath the gear, in which he inserts his great toes, serve instead of treadles, and his long shuttle, which also performs the oflice of batten, draws the weft through the warp, and afterward strikes it up close to the web.” Grozwfh of the A’)?/‘.—History discloses the fact that the manufacture of fabrics kept moving westward from Egypt and Asia, as did civilization. Italy seems to have been the first European country to enter into woolen and cotton manufacturing, and it was from Italy that the other Euro- pean countries obtained a knowledge of the art. In the tenth century Flanders led in the manufacture of woolens. “The art of weaving seems to be a gift bestowed upon them by nature,” one author states in writing of the Flemings; and another, that “ all the world was clothed from English wool wrought in Flanders.” This was up to the eleventh century, and during that century, while William the Con- queror was King of England, the Flemings came into Eng- land in large numbers, and introduced wool-manufacturing. Later, in the early part of the twelfth century, in the reign of Henry I., many more immigrated into England, and the beginning of one of her principal industries was made. Just when cotton fabrics were first produced in England is not known, but early in the seventeenth century, Roberts, in Treaswcs of Trafiic, in speaking of Manchester, says, “they buy cotton wool in London that comes from Cyprus and Smyrna, and work the same into fustians, vermilions, and dimities, which they return to London.” The art may be said to have been introduced into America by the Puritan settlers of New England early in the seventeenth century. In the nineteenth century weaving as an industry has taken wonderful strides. This was and is due to the im- provements in the loom. Up to 1785 the power-loom was unknown, nor was it a success until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Hand-weaving had alone been prac- ticed, and the weaving was done by the operators in their own homes, they having in most cases spun their own yarns. The development of machinery for preparing yarns, be- ginning about the middle of the eighteenth century, was a step which greatly increased the demand for an improved loom, a loom that would automatically produce the move- ments then made by the hands and feet of the weaver. The hand-loom in use in the eighteenth century was still very simple, the first improvement of note being that of the shuttle motion. The shuttle, until the invention of the “ fly-shuttle ” by Kay in 1738, was thrown through the shed from,and by the hand of the weaver; by an arrangement of springs and straps, it was now driven from a box at one end of the batten or lathe through the shed, to a box at the opposite end; the propelling power was the hand still, but imparted to the shuttle through the strapping. Soon after this the rising and falling shuttle-box was introduced, which allowed the entrance of various colored filling-threads with- out stopping the loom. Even with this improvement, weav- ing was not an easy or rapid operation; the shed for all that had to be formed by the depressing of the treadles con- nected with the harness by the weaver, and the filling must be beaten up against the woven cloth by hand. ' Cartwright, in 1785, having never seen any one weave, and though not a mechanic, but a minister of the Church of England, conceived the idea of producing textile fabrics automatically, and after one or two attempts gave to the world a loom approaching very nearly in form as well as principle the modern plain loom. On the foundation thus laid other inventors have built, until to-day the loom com- bines some of the most wonderful mechanical inventions, and produces fabrics automatically and with rapidity, which equal if not excel the most beautiful made by hand. Re'bb0n-weam'ng.—As early as 1745 John Kay, with an associate. secured patents for a ribbon-loom which could be run by power; the loom was really only the “Dutch engine loom ” remodeled and improved; and from all available re- WEA VING ports the improved loom seems to have been very similar in construction to the ribbon-loom of to-day except that the speed was much slower and the movements of the various harness very limited. ‘ Ribbon-weaving is accomplished in a compound loom, having but one set of harness and one lathe or batten, yet a series of warp-beams and individual rollers for the woven ribbon, each warp also having its own shuttles. These shuttles work positively-—that is, are not thrown across, but are passed through the sheds of their respective warps by a rack-and-pinion arrangement, the shuttle passing through one warp taking the place of the shuttle which simultane- ously passes in the same direction through the shed of the next adjoining warp, and so back again as the shuttles move in the opposite direction. By this arrangement as many as thirty or forty ribbons or tapes may be woven at once in the same loom. The application of the Jacquard machine to the ribbon-loom, and the box-motion, allowing the use of five or six diiferent shuttles, have so developed ribbon-weaving that some of the most beautiful textiles are these narrow fabrics. The early application of power to the ribbon-loom seems to have had no connection with the development of the modern power-loom, however. Wecwz'ng by Power-—The application of power to the loom necessitated, among the many attachments, an arrangement whereby the loom would stop if the filling should become exhausted in the shuttle or should break; an attachment to wind up the cloth-roll automatically and keep the warp at an even tension; also a mechanism to stop the loom if the shuttle failed to reach its destination. Should the shuttle get caught in the shed, without something to stop the loom before the stroke of the lathe the warp would be broken out. After numerous improvements and many different inven- tions toward the same end, the weaver has reached a point where he has but little to do with a single loom. On plain white fabrics of cotton, as sheetings and shirtings, one weaver can run from six to eight looms, running from 180 to 250 picks a minute, and on heavy woolen or worsted suit- ings, woven on broad looms, one weaver can keep two run- ning with a speed of ninety to ninety-five picks. Compar- ing this speed and the increased production with the vary- ing production of the hand-loom, one weaver to a loom, the product of which was governed by his physical ability and endurance, the wonderful advance made during the nine- teenth century will be readily understood. F/illing Stop-motion.—While there are many diiferent stop-motions used by weavers and loom-builders, the descrip- tion of one may answer for all. The object being to stop the loom when the shuttle leaves no thread in the shed as it passes through, a “filling-fork” is arranged on the loom- lathe in connection with a series of levers which control the driving motion of the loom; this fork is held in such a position by the filling-thread that it can not touch the levers, but so soon as the shuttle passes without leaving a filling-thread, the fork, having nothing to hold it away from the levers, comes in contact with them and immediately stops the loom. For extremely fine fabrics this stop-motion must be very delicate and carefully adjusted. Shuttle P/rofector.—In 1796 an invention, still used, was made, called the “stop-rod motion,” designed to stop the loom when the shuttle fails to pass entirely through the shed. It consists of an iron rod which runs the width of the loom on the face of the lathe,‘ having a dagger pro- jecting toward the breast-beam at the front of the loom, and fitted with an arm at each end, these arms being in con- tact with certain fingers on the shuttle-boxes at either end of the lathe. When the shuttle enters the box the finger is pressed outward and the arm in contact with it gives a vi- brating motion to the rod just as the filling is being beaten up; should the shuttle not enter the box, however, the rod is left in such a position that the dagger strikes a lever so arranged as to immediately stop the loom and hold the lathe at a distance, so that none of the warp-thread may be broken, even in case thes huttle is in the shed at the time. Another means to prevent the breaking of the warp, used principally in silk-weaving, is the “loose reed.” The reed is hinged at the top and is held firmly as the lathe beats up so long as the shuttle is in the shuttle-box, but is released at the bottom and swings away from the cloth should the shuttle not reach the box, stopping the loom. Jacqunmcl Weam'ng.—l\’Iore than to any other invention the artistic quality of textiles is due to the Jacquard ma- chine (see Loom) and to its subsequent development. The machine may be attached to a great variety of looms, from WEBB those weaving narrow brocade ribbons to those immense looms weaving rugs, tapestries, art-squares, etc., some 8 or 10 yards broad. This class of weaving requires great skill in adjusting the mechanism of the loom and likewise great care and skill on the part of the weaver, though the machme has been brought to such a state of perfection that it may be handled with the ease of much simpler looms. _ Pile W'eavzJng.——Under this head would come the weavmg of all pile carpetings, velvets, plushes, etc. The general con- struction of each is similar; a body-warp and a pile-warp are bound together by a single filling which interlaces with the body-warp. A shed is formed with the warp thread for the pile raised, and a small wire rod 1s_1nserted and beaten up, the pile-warp is lowered, and the filhng interlaces again with the body-warp, binding the _p1le-warp mto the body of the fabric; this arrangement contmues, and after ten or twelve loops have been formed the wires, which have been left in the loops they have hel ed to form, are withdrawn one at a time, and again inserte in succeedmg sheds to form other loops. For the Brussels carpet and all loop-pile fabrics the wires are round, but for fabrics with a cut p1le they are fitted with a knife at one end which cuts the loop as the rod is withdrawn ; or the rods may be grooved on one side, as for velvet-weaving, and the cutting be done by run- ning a trivet——a small knife made for the purpose—along the groove in the rod and under the loops. Much of interest could be said of gauze-weaving, for which the warps are mounted specially in the loom, and are usually woven from more than one warp-beam, and terry- weaving—the production of Turkish towels—woven both on the pile-fabric principle and in specially arranged looms. The weaving of glass-cloth is particularly interesting. The fabric is formed as if it were silk, with each third'or fourth pick of spun glass ; the loom stops on the shed for the glass filling, and this is inserted by hand, the strand of spun glass being placed on a narrow flat strip of wood which is passed through the shed and deposits the glass strand between the warp-thread; the strip of wood is removed, the glass filling beaten up, three or four picks of silk inserted to bind it, an- other glass thread placed in its shed, and so on. There are also hair-cloth-weaving, upholstery-weaving, the weaving of wire-cloths, and the weaving of many specially constructed fabrics on looms built purposely to produce them, or by means of adjustments of the ordinary looms. See COTTON MANUEAoTUEEs, TEXTILE-DESIGNING, and TEXTILE FABRICS. Lours CLARK. Webb, ALEXANDER STEWART, LL. D.: soldier; son of James Watson Webb; b. in New York. Feb.15, 1835; grad- uated at the U. S. Military Academy 1855, and became sec- ond lieutenant of Second Artillery; served in Florida and on frontier duty 1855-57; as Assistant Professor of Mathe- matics at West Point 1857-61; was promoted first lieuten- ant April 28, 1861, captain Eleventh Infantry May 14, and major of the First Rhode Island Artillery Sept. 14. He was engaged in the battle of Bull Run July 21; served in the defenses of Washington, and with the Army of the Potomac in the Virginia Peninsula campaign; was chief of staff Fifth Corps until June 23, 1863, when he was commissioned a brigadier-general of volunteers and assigned to the Second Corps. At Gettysburg his brigade met the assault at the angle on the third day, where Gen. Webb was wounded. He received a bronze medal for his gallantry in this ac- tion. In the subsequent operations of the campaign he commanded a division (Second Corps), gaining the brevet of lieutenant-colonel for gallantry at Bristow Station Oct. 14, 1863. In the Richmond campaign of 1864 he led a brigade in the battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania. being severely wounded in the latter fight (May 12), and, disabled from active service, he served as chief of staff to Meade from J an., 1865, till the surrender of Lee, and subsequently, until Feb., 1866, as acting inspector-general of the military division of the Atlantic, having been mustered out of the volunteer service the month previous. In July, 1866, he was appointed lieutenant-colonel Forty-fourth Infantry, and served at West Point until 1868. He was in command of his regiment and on other duty thereafter until Dec. 2, 1870, when he was honorably discharged. In 1869 he accepted the presidency of the College of the City of New York. He was breveted major-general U. S. volunteers, and colonel, brigadier-general, and major-general U. S. A. He pub- lished The Pene'nsula .' Me Olellan’s Garrzpwign of 1862 (New York, 1882), and articles on the war in The Century maga- zme. G 681 Webb. CHARLES HENRY: humorist: b. at Rouse’s Point, N. Y., Jan. 24, 1834; ran away to sea when a boy, and, re- turning after three years, went into business in Chicago. From 1860 to 1863 he was on the staff of The New York Temes. In 1863 he went to California, and in the following year founded The (Jalz'fornz'an, which he edited till 1866; wrote for other San Francisco papers and for the Eastern magazines; became a well-known humorous correspondent of The New York Tribune and other papers under the signa- ture of John Paul, and traveled in Europe in that capacity 1876. He afterward became a banker and broker in New York. He is the inventor of an adding-machine, and au- thor of several burlesque dramas; also of John Paul’s Boole (187 4); Parodies, Prose and Verse (1876); and Vagrom Verse (1889). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Webb, GEOEGE JAMES: composer; b. in Wiltshire, Eng- land, June 24, 1803; removed to the U. S. in 1830; was for many years professor in the Boston Academy of Music ; in 1871 removed to New York; prepared, with. T. B. Hay- ward, The M'usz'cal Cabinet (1832), and with William Mason The Melodist; contributed to William Russell’s Orthophony (24th ed. 1864), and was author of The Arnerican Glee- Booh, The Common-School Songsfer, The Vocal Class-Book for Schools, The ll/[assaehusetts Collection of Psalmocly, and other musical works. D. at Orange, N. J ., Oct. 7, 1887. Webb, JAMES WATSON: journalist and diplomat; son of Gen. Samuel B. VVebb; b. at Claverack, N. Y., Feb. 8. 1802; entered the U. S. army as second lieutenant of artillery Aug., 1819 ; was promoted to a first lieutenancy in 1823, and the next year was made assistant com missary of subsistence; became adjutant Third Infantry 1826; was stationed in 1820 at Chicago, twelve years before the first house was erected there ; in 1827 resigned his commission and took charge of The illorning Courier, which had been established in New York in May of that year; in 1829 purchased The Enqzulrer and united the two under the name of The ]lIornz'ng Cou- rier and lVew York Engue'rer, and became sole editor, and the next year sole proprietor—positions he held for thirty- four years, until the absorption of the paper by the IVorltl. This journal was at an early period identified with the in- terests of the Whig party, and was an able advocate of its principles. In 1851 Gov. Hunt, of New York, appointed him engineer-in-chief of the State of New York, with the rank of major-general. In 1849 he was appointed min- ister to Austria. and in 1861 to Turkey, but did not accept either appointment. In 1861 he was appointed by President Lincoln envoy extraordinary and minister to Brazil, where he served two terms of four years each. Being in Paris in 1865. he negotiated a secret treaty with the Emperor Napoleon for the removal of the French troops from Mexico. Gen. Webb resigned the mission to Brazil in 1869, and afterward resided in New York city. He published Alz‘ou'an, or Inci- denis of Life and Aclzienliure in the Rocky .J[o'unz‘a'2'ns (2 vols., New York, 1846); Slavery; and Ifs .’l’endenez'es (VVash- ington. 1856); and a pamphlet on Nafional Currency (New York, 1875). D. in New York, June 7, 1884. Webb, SAMUEL BLATCHLEY: soldier; b. at Wethersfield, Conn., Dec. 15, 1753; joined the Revolutionary army, and took wart in the battle of Bunker‘s Hill, where he was wound- ed. e was soon appointed aide-de-camp to Gen. Putnam; became private secretary and aide-de-camp to Gen. Wash- ington, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, June 21, 1776; was engaged in the battles of Long Island and the Brandy- wine : was wounded at White Plains and at Trenton ; raised, and organized almost entirely with his own funds, the Third Connecticut Regiment, of which he took command 1777; was captured with his regiment by the British fleet in Gen. Parsons‘s unfortunate expedition to Long Island Dec. 16, 1777, and not exchanged until 1780, when he succeeded Baron Steuben in the command of the light infantry, with the brevet rank of brigadier-general; was an intimate and trusted friend of Washington throughout the war. and sub- sequently was one of the sixteen oflicers who founded the Society of Cincinnati at Newburg-on-the-Hudson June 19, 1783: and was selected to hold for Washington the Bible on which he took the oath of oflice as first President of the U. S. in New York city in 1789. In the same year he settled at Claverack, Columbia eo., N. Y., where he died Dec. 3, 1807. Webb. SIDNEY, LL.D.: social economist; b. in London, England, July 13, 1859 ; educated in Switzerland and Meek- lenburg-Schwerin : second Vilhewell scholar in international law and moral and political philosophy, Cambridge : Bacon scholar, Gray’s Inn; was awarded a studentship for Roman 682 WEBB OITY law and jurisprudence by the council of legal education, Trinity, 1883 ; called to the bar, Trinity, 1885; entered civil service Dec. 2, 1878; resigned 1891. He is the author of So- cialism in England (London, 1889); The Eight flours’ Day, in conjunction with Harold Cox (London, 1891); and The London Programme (London, 1892).-—His wife BEATRICE (Potter) is the author of The Co-operative AIovement in Great Britain. Webb City: city (founded in 1876) ; Jasper co., Mo.; on the Kan. City, Ft. Scott and Mem., the MO. Pac. and the St. L. and San Fran. railways; 9 miles S. by\V. of Carthage, the county-seat (for location, see map of Missouri, ref. 7-E). It is a lead and zinc mining center, with a weekly output val- ued at $25,000, and is surrounded by an agricultural and fruit-growing region. There are 8 churches, high-school building (cost $30,000), 2 ward schools (cost $10,000 and $6,000), 2 opera-houses, water-works system (cost $100,000), electric lights, electric railway connecting with Carthage and Centerville, a national bank with capital of $50,000, 2 State banks with combined capital of $50,000, and a weekly and 3 daily newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,588; (1890) 5,043; (1895) 7,480. EDITOR or “ REGISTER Webbe, WILLIAM: author; b. in England in the sixteenth century; received a university education; translated Vergil’s Georgics into English hexameters, and published A Dis- course of English Poetrie, together with the Author’s Judg- ment touching the Reformation of our English Verse (Lon- don, 1586), republished in vol. ii. of Haslewood’s Ancient Critical Essays upon English Poets and Poetry '(2 vols., 1811-15), and edited by Edward Arber in vol. xi. of his Eng- lish Reprints (1870). Webbe also wrote Tancred and Gis- mund, a Tragedy (1592). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Webber, CHARLES WILKINS: journalist and explorer; b. at Russellville, Ky., May 29, 1819; went in 1838 to Texas, then struggling forindependence; was for several years con- nected with the famous Texan Rangers, seeing much of wild and adventurous life on the frontier; returned to Kentucky and studied medicine; afterward entered Princeton Theo- logical Seminary with a view to the Presbyterian ministry, but abandoned that purpose, and settled in New York as a writer for literary periodicals, especially The New Wbrlcl, The Democratic Review, and The Sunday Despatch; was associate editor and joint proprietor of The Whig Review; projected, with the two sons of his friend Audubon the natu- ralist, a monthly magazine of mammoth size, to be illustrated with copper-plate colored engravings by Audubon, but pub- lished only the first number; was engaged in an unsuccess- ful attempt to lead an exploring and mining expedition to the region of the Colorado and Gila rivers 1849, and in 1855 went to Central America, where he joined the filibuster Walker in Nicaragua, and was killed in a skirmish on Apr. 11, 1856. He was the author of Old Hichs the Guide, or Adventures in the Comanche Country in Search of a Gold- Mine (1848) ; The Gold-Ilfines of the Gila (1849) ; The Hunter IVaturalist, etc. (1851), with 40 engravings from original drawings by Mrs. Webber; Wild Scenes and Song- Birds (1854), with 20 colored illustrations from drawings by Mrs. Webber; Tales of the Southern Border (1852); Spir- itual Vampirism (1853); Shot in the Eye, and Adventures with the Texan Rifle Rangers (1853), and other works. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Weber, va’ber, ERNST HEINRIOH: physiologist; b. at Wit- tenberg, Germany, June 24,1795 ; studied medicine at Leip- zig, and was appointed Professor of Comparative Anatomy there in 1818; in 1840 also of Physiology. His principal works are Anatomia Comparativa N ervi Sympathici (1817); De Aure et Auditu Hominis et Animalium (1820); Lehre vom Bau und von der Verrichtung der Geschlechtsorga/ne (1846); Der Tastsinn (in vol. iii. of Wagner’s I-IandwO'rter- buch der Physiologic); and a number of minor essays and monographs collected in 1851 under the title Annotationes Anatomicce et Physiologicce. D. in Leipzig, J an. 26, 1878. Weber. FRIEDRIOH ALBRECHT: Sanskrit scholar; b. at Breslau in Silesia, Feb. 17, 1825; educated at the Universi- ties of Breslau, Bonn, and Berlin, 1842-45 ; privat decent at Berlin 1848-56; assistant professor 1856-67; Professor of Sanskrit University of Berlin since 1867; member of the Royal Academy; editor or author of White I/ag'urveda (3 vols., London. 1849-59); Indische Studien (17 vols., Berlin, 1849-89); Indische Slcizzen (1857); Indische Streifen (3 vols., 1868-79); Vorlesnngen ilber ind. Literaturges-ch. (1852; 2d ed. 1876) ; Verzcichniss der Sanshr. Handschriften der lcgl. WEBER Bibliothelc (2 vols., 1853-92) ; Jllalavilca und Agnimitra ilbersetzt (1856); also various lesser works and contributions to the Abhandl. der hgl. Acad. d. Wissensch. B. I. W. Weber, GEORG: historian; b. at Bergzabern, in Rhenish Bavaria, Feb. 10, 1808 ; studied first theology, afterward his- tory and literature, at Erlangen; spent several years in Heidelberg as tutor in an English family ; visited Switzer- land, Italy, and France, and was appointed director of the normal school of Heidelberg. He published Lehrbuch der lVeltgeschichte (2 vols.) ; Geschichte der Deutschen Littora- tur; Allgemeine Weltgeschichte filr die gebildeten Stdnde (15 vols., 1857-80), and, with M. H. Holtzmann, a history of the Hebrew people and the origin of Christianity (2 vols., 1867). D. at Heidelberg, Aug. 10, 1888. Weber, KARL MARIA FRIEDRIOH ERNST, Baron von: com- poser; b. at Eutin, near Lubeck, Germany, Dec. 18,1786; early showed a talent for art, especially for music, but re- ceived a rather forced and desultory education, as his father -—successively a soldier, a financial agent, a chapel-master, and then the leader of a band of strolling actors—wished to make him a musical prodigy, such as Mozart had been. Wandering about from place to place, young Weber pub- lished in 1798 his first composition, six fughetti for the piano. and wrote his first opera, Die Maclzt der Liebe und des Weins. The result, however, did not answer his expec- tations, and fora couple of years father and son devoted themselves to the improvement of the recent invention of lithography by Senefelder. In 1800 their enthusiasm and means of subsistence were spent. Young Weber returned to his art, and produced the opera Das Waldmddchcn, which was performed at Chemnitz, and in the following year Peter Schmoll und seine .Nachbarn, which was performed in 1802 at Augsburg; neither of these works, however, produced any great effect. In 1803 he went to Vienna, where he studied under Abbé Vogler, a spirited and peculiarly gifted teacher of music, and by his recommendation he received in 1804 a lace as director of music at the theater of Breslau. Here 1e began to compose a great opera, Rilbezahl, which he never finished, and of which only the overture exists in a much altered form, Der Beherrscher der Geister; but the place did not agree with his tastes, and in 1806 he became private secretary to Duke Ludwig of Wiirtemberg. At this, the most dissolute court in Europe, he spent four years in idleness and dissipation. In 1810 he left Ludwigsburg morally and bed- ily impaired, in debt, and in disgrace. Once more he met with Abbé Vogler in Darmstadt, and under the influence of the atmosphere which he breathed here he again took up music, composed the cantata, Der erste Ton, several sonatas, overtures, etc., transformed the Waldmddchen into the Syl- vana, which was performed with some success at Frankfort, and wrote the operetta Abu Hassan. After traveling in Ger- many and Switzerland, he settled in 1813 in Prague as di- rector Of the opera, and remained there till 1816, doing good service and establishing for himself a wide reputation. He possessed great ability as an operatic manager, and his music (in 1814) to KOrner’s war-songs, among which were Liltzows wilde Jagd, Schwertlied, etc., and his great cantata Kampf und Sieg after the battle of Waterloo, were true revelations of his genius, and spread his fame all over Germany. In 1816 he went to Dresden as director of the royal opera. The place was not without difficulties. The Italian opera was the pet of the court, and the great work of Weber’s life was to drive the Italian opera out of Germany. Not one of his great operas was first brought on the stage in Dres- den. Preciosa and Der Ereischiltz were first performed at Berlin, Mar. 15 and June 18, 1821, Euryanthe at Vienna Oct. 25, 1823, and Oberon at London Apr. 12, 1826. The suc- cess Of Der Ereischidz, however, was instantaneous and very great. In Berlin it annihilated the influence of Spontini. It became a favorite on the operatic stage of Northern and Central Europe ; it exercised a decided influence on Marsch- ner and Mendelssohn, on Meyerbeer and Auber, on all mod- ern music, even on Richard Wagner ; and as it was the first, it is still one of the freshest musical embodiments of the re- mantic spirit. Weber conducted in person the first per- formance of Oberon, and died soon after, June 5, 1826, in London. He was buried in Moorfields chapel, but in 1844 his remains were taken to Dresden, where in 1860 a fine statue of him by Rietschel was raised in front of the theater. His Autobiography and other writings were edited in 1828 in 3 vols. by Theodor Hell. Revised by DUDLEY BUOK. Weber, WILI-IELM EDUARD: physicist; brother of ERNST HEINRICH WEBER; b. at Wittenberg, Oct. 24, 1804; studied WEBER RIVER natural science at Halle ; was appointed Professor of Phys- ics at Gtittingen in 1831, but dismissed in 1837 for political reasons; accepted a chair in 1843 at Leipzig, but returned in 1849 to Gtittingen, and died there, June 23, 1891. In con- nection with his brother. Ernst Heinrich, he published in 1825 Die Wellenlehre; in 1836, with his brother Eduard Friedrich (1801-71), Meohanl/0 der llfensehllehen Gehwerkzeage; and in 1840, in connection with Gauss, Resaltate aas den Beo- baehzfangen des magnetisohen Verelns, with an Atlas des E'rd- magnetlsmas. From 1846 to 1867 he also published a series of essays on the connection between electricity and magnet- ism under the title Eleletrodynam-lsehe Wlassbestlmmangen. Physical science is indebted to him for the demonstration by experiment of two fundamental laws concerning the working of the electro-dynamic force which had formerly been applied by Ampere as mere hypothetical inferences. Weber River: a river of Utah. It rises on the west slope of the Uinta Mountains, flows northwestward through a series of cafions connecting agricultural valleys for 175 miles, and empties into Great Salt Lake near the middle of its eastern shore. The wild gorge made by the river through the Vila- satch Mountains, known as Weber Canon, is traversed by the Union Pacific Railway between Echo and Ogden. The mean volume of the river at Ogden is estimated at 2,000 cubic feet per second. Its waters are extensively used for irrigation. At Ogden there is an immense delta built by the river in ancient Lake Bonneville. ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. Weber’s Law : See PSYCHO-PHYSICS. Webster: town (incorporated in 1832); Worcester co.- Mass. ; on the French river, and the Boston and Albany and the N. Y. and New Eng. railways; 16 miles S. of Worcester (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-F). It con- tains Chaubunagungamaug Lake of 1,225 acres; has 7 Prot- estant and 3 Roman Catholic churches, a high school, 13 graded schools, 3 parochial schools, public library, a nation- al bank with capital of $100,000, a savings-bank with deposits of over $1,000,000, and 2 weekly newspapers; and is prin- cipally engaged in the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods and shoes. It has a self-sustaining water-works sys- tem, electric lights, and 2 hotels, and in 1894 had a revenue of $53,000, expenditures of $48,000, assessed valuation of $3,124,707, and no debt. Pop. (1880) 5,696; (1890) 7,031; (1895) 7,788. REV. HENRY A. BLAKE. Webster, DANIEL: orator and statesman ; b. at Salisbury, N. H., Jan. 18, 1782; the son of Ebenezer Webster, an of- ficer in the Revolutionary army, and a descendant of Thomas Webster, who settled in New Hampshire about 1636. On account of feeble health Daniel was educated at home and by private tuition in his boyhood, but spent nine months at the Philli s Academy, Exeter, where he showed an extraordinary fon ness for reading, and great powers of memory. In 1797 he entered Dartmouth College, where, though he never became distinguished as a student, he ac- quired great reputation on account of his unusual gift for clear and forcible expression as a speaker. He was a great reader of history, and acquired considerable familiarity with the Latin authors. For one year he edited a weekly newspaper, and his fame as a speaker was such that when he was eighteen he delivered an oration at Hanover on July 4, 1800. In 1801 he began the study of law in an office at Salisbury, but was soon forced to interrupt his studies and teach school, in order to contribute to the support of his family. While teaching in Freiberg, Me., he increased his income by working as a copyist in the office of the Reg- ister of Deeds. During this period he delivered a Fourth of July oration which emphasized the necessity of strictly ad- hering to the Constitution, thus showing already the bent of his mind. After a year he returned to the study of law, and later entered the law office of Christopher Gore, in Bos- ton. Admitted to the bar in Mar., 1805, he began the practice of law in Boscawen, N. H., and on the death of his father, in 1807, assumed his debts and the support of the family. In the following year he removed to Portsmouth, and almost immediately rose to prominence at the bar. At this time of his life he profited greatly from the friendship and advice of Jeremiah Mason, the foremost lawyer of the State, and one of the greatest advocates of the time. Web- ster was not only admired for his abilities, but was person- ally popular for his social qualities. His income was now ample, but his tastes were not simple, and he had become so accustomed to debt that henceforth he almost seemed to regard it as the normal condition of mankind. Early attracted to politics, he showed his fitness for a po- WEBSTER 683 litical career by his occasional addresses and speeches. He had inherited strong views as a Federalist from his father, and the cast of his mind was peculiarly conservative. In 1804 he published a pamphlet entitled An Appeal to the Old Whegs; in 1805, a Fourth of July oration at Salisbury; in 1806, another at Concord; and in 1808, a pamphlet on the Embargo, in all of which the prominent thought is the im- portance of the Constitution and the republic. In 1809 he delivered a Phi Beta Kappa oration on The State of Our I/lteralare, but at this period he was chiefly absorbed in the practice of his profession. In his Fourth of July oration in 1812 he set forth his attitude toward the war. Maintain- ing that “maritime defense, commercial regulations, and national revenue” were the corner-stones of the Constitu- tion, he declared that these interests had been abused by the course of the Government, and he held that the navy had been neglected because the Federalists had advocated its improvement and increase. In one particular he departed from the policy of the New England Federalist. He said: “With respect to the war in which we are now involved, the course which our principles require us to pursue can not be doubtful. It is now the law of the land. and we cer- tainly are bound to regard it. Resistance and insurrection form no part of our creed. . . . If we are taxed to carry on this war, we shall disregard certain distinguished examples and shall pay. If our personal services are required, we shall yield them to the precise extent of our personal liabil- ity. At the same time the world may be assured that we know our rights and shall use them. Vile shall express our opinions on this, as on every measure of the Government-— I trust without passion, I am certain without fear. By the exercise of our constitutional right of suffrage. by the peace- able remedy of election. we shall seek to restore wisdom to our councils and peace to our country.” This shows his attitude toward an unpopular law. With him the only way to deal with it was to make it appear unwise by popular dis- cussion, and procure its repeal. This oration, so consonant with his subsequent attitude on the Fugitive Slave law, was widely circulated, and caused his election to the Thirteenth Congress, in which he took his seat in May, 1813. He was at once made a member of the committee on foreign rela- tions, and his speeches in the House soon made it clear that he was not only the foremost man of the party, but one of the ablest leaders in Congress. In the course of the discus- sion of the project for a national bank, he laid the founda- tion of his fame in financial matters. Opposing a measure which would have led to inflation, he declared himself the fee of irredeemable paper. The bill was lost by a single vote, but, moved by the entreaties of Calhoun, W'ebster consented to its reconsideration. and after its objectionable features were removed it was passed. In the Fourteenth Congress he introduced a resolution requiring all Govern- ment dues to be paid in coin, in treasury notes, or in notes of the Bank of the United States, and in a speech of great power showed the absolute necessity of a specie basis in all financial matters. His resolution brought about specie re- sumption, and established a sound currency. In 1816 he removed to Boston, and for the next seven years devoted himself to practice. When he began his career at Boston, at the age of thirty-four, he had become one of the leading lawyers in the land. and had established a reputation as one of the most powerful speakers in Congress, and one of the ablest statesmen in the country in matters of finance. He had already defined his position on the tarifi as a free- trader in principles, and a very moderate protectionist when protection was unavoidable; had opposed the war, but had kept himself entirely clear of the separatist move- ment in New England, which had found expression in the HARTFORD CoNvEN'rIoN (q. ’t'.). On Mar. 10, 1818, his ar- gument in the celebrated Dartmouth College case not only called to himself the admiration of the whole people, but, notwithstanding the adverse prepossessions of a majority of the judges, secured one of the most important decisions ever rendered by the Supreme Court. It has been estimated that gifts to educational and other beneficent institutions amounting to more than $500,000,000 have been protected from legislative interference by the decision thus secured. His oration of Dec. 22, 1820, on the two-hundredth anni- versary of the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, placed him at the very head of American orators, and in the opin- ion of many proved him the equal of the most eloquent speakers of England or the Continent. John Adams, who had been present at the trial of Hastings, declared that Burke was no longer entitled to be called the greatest of 684 modern orators. The profound impression made by the Plymouth oration was deepened by that on the laying of the corner-stone of Bunker Hill Monument in 1825, and by the eulogy on Adams and J eiferson one year later. These, the most important of his occasional addresses, were followed in the course of years by one on Science in Connection with the ./llechanic Arts; one on the Character of VVash- ington; one on the occasion of laying the corner-stone for the enlargement of the Capitol at Washington; and one on the death of Judge Story. He was re-elected to Congress from the Boston district in 1822, and took his seat in 1823, at the very time when the old party lines were breaking down. Within a few days of his appearance in the House, he delivered a remarkable speech in support of the motion which he had introduced to pro- vide for a commissioner to inquire into the affairs of Greece. VVhile deprecating any intermeddling on the part of the U. S. with European affairs, he showed that the country still had an important duty to perform in the exercise of a proper influence on the public opinion of the Old \/Vorld, and he discussed the great question of the future destiny of the U. S. in its relation to other nations. During the same session as chairman of the judiciary committee he defended with much dilficulty, but with final success, the Supreme Court against the attempts made to curtail its powers. At a later period he also carried through a measure for its re- organization and the increase of the number of judges. In the second session of this Congress he defined his position on the general subject of internal improvements by his great speech on the Cumberland Road, taking the ground that this line of policy must be carried out from the purest na- tional motives. He also defended the policy of selling pub- lic lands at a low price to encourage immigration. The speech was that of a national statesman, and it greatly en- hanced his reputation, especially throughout the \Vest. During this same period of his career he was prominent in debates on the tariff, and as a representative of the New England Federalists proposed the promotion of commer- cial interests by a moderate tariff which should lead to free trade. In one of his great speeches on the subject of protection, he said: “ It is the true policy of Government to suffer the different pursuits of society to take their own course, and not to give excessive bounties or encourage- ments to one over another. This also is the true spirit of the Constitution. It has not, in my opinion, conferred on the Government the power of changing the occupations of the people of different States and sections and of forcing them into other employments.” This passage is of great significance in showing his spirit before 1824; because when the tariff of that year, notwithstanding his opposition to it, was passed, he regarded the policy of the country as re- versed, and from that time forward was a supporter of what Henry Clay called “the American policy ” of protection. I111828 he defended his course by declaring that the country had adjusted itself to the new conditions, and that steadi- ness and permanency of policy were of the utmost impor- tance, but this new attitude subjected him at that time and ever afterward to severe criticism. While he was delivering his speech on the tariff of 1824, he was informed that the Supreme Court had called for the next morning the great case of Gibbons vs. Ogden, which involved the constitutional right of the State of New York to grant a monopoly of its tide-waters. Webster worked all night in preparation, and in the morning made a speech of five hours, which Judge Wayne said “released every creek and river, every lake and harbor in the country from the interference of monopolies.” Elected to the Senate by the Legislature of Massachu- setts in the year 1827, he was involved in the famous de- bate that arose from FooTE’s RESOLUTION (q. 1).), 1829, in regard to the methods of administering the public lands of the West. At this time the South was bitterly hostile to the tariff of 1828, and the nullification doctrines of 1798 and 1799 (see NULLIFICATION) were reasserted with great energy. The resolution led to a discussion of the question of the constitutional rights of the Federal Government and of the individual States. It also involved the question of the right of the individual States to nullify an act of the general Government, and withdraw from the Union. The most important characteristic of Webster’s political creed had ever been a spirit of nationalism as distinguished from the spirit of sectionalism. He was in consequence peculiar- ly well fitted by his political history to be the champion of the Union cause. As he himself said, his whole life had WEBSTER been a preparation for the reply to Hayne. His speech of J an. 26, 1830, proclaimed the doctrine of nationalism, and depicted the direful results of nullification with such elo- quence and power that the views expressed became an in- tegral part of the political creed of a vast majority of the people of the country. In the bank controversy of 1832, Webster criticised President J ackson’s position in assuming the right to pronounce upon the unconstitutionality of the banks charters, the Supreme Court having already pro- nounced upon them, and his speech revealed an extraor- dinary knowledge and grasp of financial subjects. The reputation thus gained was strengthened by his discussion of the President’s course in the following campaign. After the removal of the deposits, Webster delivered in Boston a powerful speech in which he predicted the results that came in the financial crash of 1837. Webster seemed a natural candidate for the presidency, but he had taken a prominent part in a great number of important matters, and had aroused opposition even in his own party. He supported the candidacy of Harrison, and became his Secretary of State. The great achievement of this period of his life was his negotiation of the Ashburton treaty, fixing the northeastern boundary-line between the U. S. and the British possessions. During Lord Palmer- ston’s administration the irritation arising from the bound- ary dispute was such that war seemed imminent. Webster agreed with the opinion expressed years before by the Gov- ernment of President Monroe, that the forty-ninth parallel would be a fair line of division in the Northwest; but the British had claimed a line as far S. as the Columbia river, while in the U. S. there had grown up a party whose watch- word was “ Fifty-four Forty or Fight.” The death of Har- rison, before the negotiations were concluded, obliged Web- ster to decide whether he would resign with his colleagues or remain in Tyler’s cabinet, in order to negotiate a treaty of so great importance. He decided to brave the unpopu- larity of taking the latter course, and in so doing rendered the country a most valuable service ; but although the treaty has since received the hearty approval of historical and diplomatic critics, it exposed Webster to considerable cen- sure both from the “jingo ” politicians of those days and from the equally numerous class that declared him a de- serter from the Whig party, on account of his refusal to join his colleagues in abandoning President Tyler. In May, 1842, feeling that the treaty was secure, he resigned the secretaryship. A speech in defense of the Ashburton treaty was delivered in the Senate on Apr. 6 and 7, 1846, and will be found in his published writings. Though the northwest- ern boundary was not settled by this treaty, it was a hint given by Webster that led Great Britain to propose the line that was subsequently adopted. The next two years he de- voted to his private affairs, and the practice of his profes- sion. He supported Clay’s candidacy in 1844, and on M ar. 4, 1845, returned to the Senate. In the next presidential campaign Webster was again spoken of as a candidate, but he had no prospect of success, and the party united on Gen. Taylor. Though opposed to the choice of a military candi- date, and distrusting Taylor on account of the uncertainty of his political views, Webster in his lVIarshfield speech, while admitting that the nomination was “one not fit to be made,” advised his friends to vote for Taylor, as a safer alternative than the Democratic candidate. On the accession of Taylor the first great problem to de- mand a solution was the organization of the territory ceded to the U. S. at the end of the Mexican war. During his whole career, Webster had taken a prominent part in op- posing not only the introduction of slavery into new terri- tories, but also the acquisition of new territory into which slavery might be introduced. He had opposed the annexa- tion of Texas, the Mexican war, and the treaty by which California and New Mexico had been ceded to the U. S., basing his opposition on the grounds, first, that the territory of the U. S. was already extensive enough, and, secondly, that the acquisition of new territory would involve at least the liability of the extension of slavery. Throughout his career his course in these matters had been vigorous, con- sistent, and well understood. When therefore the resolu- tions which made up what is known as the Clay compromise of 1850 were presented, many, not understanding the funda- mental articles of his political creed, looked to him as the natural leader of the opposition. In this expectation they were. of course, disappointed. After his great speech on The Constitution and the Union, Mar. 7, 1850, he was gross- ly charged with an abandonment of a lifelong policy in order WEBSTER to conciliate the South and secure its support two years later for the presidency. In judging his course at this time cer- tain fundamental peculiarities of his political philosophy should be constantly kept in mind. While he had always been the fee of the extension of slavery, he had always urged the faithful execution of the laws and of the Constitution, and had regarded the preservation and the strengthening of the Union as of paramount political importance. Moreover, he had observed with pain the widening breach between the North and the South, which if not arrested, would, in his opinion, lead inevitably to secession, and he held that peace- ‘able secession was impossible. It was but natural, therefore, that he should welcome any compromise not repugnant to his fundamental beliefs. It was to allay the prevailing excite- ment, to settle all questions in political dispute, and thus re- move the danger of threatening disunion, that Clay came forward with the compromise measures of 1850. Before doing so, he called upon I/Vebster and explained his purpose in detail. Webster at once gave his approval, and promised to support the compromise in the Senate. This he did in the masterly speech of Mar. 7, basing his action on the fol- lowing propositions : First, the country is in danger of dis- union; second, this danger has come from real grievances on both sides; third, these grievances must be removed by mutual concession, and by a just administration of the laws; fourth, the measures propose a just and reasonable solution of every political problem now disturbing the peace of the country; fifth, the failure to adopt these or similar measures may lead to secession, and peaceable secession is impossible. In arguing some of these points Webster gave great of- fense to many of his old friends in the North. For exam- ple, in regard to the abolition societies, he said: “ I do not think them useful. I think their operations for the last twenty years have produced nothing good or valuable.” Then, after showing how, in 1832, a debate occurred in the Virginia House of Delegates on a proposition for the grad- ual abolition of slavery, he pointed out that after the aboli- tion movement began in 1835, slavery everywhere "drew back and shut itself up in its castle. The bonds of slaves were bound more firmly than before. Their rivets were more strongly fastened.” He oifended a still larger num- ber by his refusal to sanction the application of the Wilmot proviso (see WILMOT, DAVID) to the newly acquired terri- tory. The ground, he urged, was the general fact that the new territory was of such a nature that slavery could never be introduced into it, and that consequently to insert the proviso would accomplish nothing, and at the same time would greatly irritate the South by a course which would be interpreted as indicating an unwillingness to abide by the terms of the Missouri compromise. California had al- ready applied for admission to the Union under a constitu- tion with slavery excluded, and from New Mexico slavery had been excluded by nature herself. He concluded this part of his argument by saying : “ Wherever there is a sub- stantial good to be done, wherever there is a foot of land to be prevented from becoming slave territory, I am ready to assert the principle of the exclusion of slavery. I am pledged to it from the year 1837, I have been ledged to it again and again, and I will perform these p edges; but I will not do a thing unnecessarily that wounds the feelings of others or that does discredit to my own understanding.” But perhaps he gave the most serious offense by his posi- tion in regard to the surrender of fugitive slaves. For him it was enough to stand by the plain requirement of the Fed- eral Constitution that fugitive slaves should be delivered up to their owners. During the first forty years of the history of the Government the propriety of this constitutional pro- vision had scarcely been questioned. Even now it was the fundamental law of the land, and could not be altered with- out a change in the Constitution. It was therefore as bind- ing as any other law. But there had grown up in the North a moral and religious sentiment to which this consti- tutional requirement was utterly abhorrent. This sentiment often went so far as to refuse obedience to this provision of the Constitution. Webster not only did not share that feeling, but he believed that it was fraught with the gravest. danger. He said plainlyto the North as well as to the South that every provision of the Constitution must be care- fully protected and enforced. including the clause providing for the extradition of fugitive slaves. He therefore was in favor of the enactment of a more perfect fugitive slave law. No speech in the history of the country ever made so profound an impression. He seemed to have spoken to 30,- 000,000 of people. His utterances were generally approved 685 by the South and by a considerable part of the North. By large numbers, however, they were received with sorrow, by many even with indignation. The flood-gates of vitupera- tion and calumny were opened, and Webster was foully charged with most revolting vices for the purpose of break- ing his influence. (See Swisshelm in Independent, Apr. 11, 1878, for curious evidence on this point.) The compromise measures, with some unimportant modifications, were passed, however, and secession, probably in consequence of their passage, was postponed to a time when the course of the Union was relatively very much stronger and consequently very much more sure of success. On the accession of President Fillmore, July 9, 1850, vveb” ster was persuaded a second time to take the position of Secretary of State. During the next two years he con- ducted the foreign affairs of the Government with tact, dig- nity, and good judgment, but his health was rapidly failing, and in July, 1852, he expressed a desire to the President to resign. Mr. Fillmore, however, persuaded him to retain his office. As the presidential nomination of 1852 drew near his friends made a concerted movement in his behalf: but the effort only showed that in the course of his career, and especially during the last two years. he had aroused the earnest opposition of the strenuous abolitionists in all parts of the country. Gen. Scott was nominated by the Whigs, but as the I/Vhigs were divided, and the Democrats were unanimously determined to resist all attempts to renew the slavery agitation, Webster advised his friends to vote for the Democratic candidate. In the course of the summer his health failed rapidly, and on Oct. 24, 1852, this mighty supporter and defender of the Union, whom history must ultimately recognize as one of the very greatest Americans, died at Marshfield as he was nearing the end of his seventy- first year. AUTHoRITIEs.—The six volumes of the lVorhs of Daniel VVebster contain what he i'egarded'as the most important of his speeches. and they are the most valuable of all sources of information concerning his views on many of the subjects on which he spoke; but a complete knowledge can not be obtained without frequent consultation of the records of Congress for speeches and utterances not contained in his collected works. Of biographical works, George Ticknor Curtis’s Life of Daniel Webster (2 vols. 8vo) is the stand- ard, and is by far the most important. Wilkinson's Web- ster, an Ode (1882), is important, and contains invaluable Notes and Illustrations in defense of Iilebster. Lodge’s Daniel lVebster, in the American Statesman Series, con- demns vigorously the course of Webster in 1850. Of the formal histories of the period, those of Schouler, Rhodes, and Von Holst are of importance. The speeches of Clay and Calhoun must be read for an adequate view of the sec- tional feelings during the later period of VVebster’s life. C. K. ADAMS. Webster, JOHN: dramatist; b. in England toward the close of the sixteenth century: was associated with Dekker, Chettle, Drayton, Marston, Rowley, Middleton, Munday, Heywood, and W'entworth Smith in writing some of their plays, and ultimately became an author on his own account. Of his personal history nothing is known. Among his dramas are The White Deril or Vittoria Corombona (1612); The Duchess of Jtlalfy (1623) ; A ppius and V/z"i'g'z'rz'z‘a. (1624); and The Deoil’s Law Case. VVebster‘s genius was exclu- sively tragic ; his diction is sometimes Shakespearean, but he exaggerated the terrible into the horrible. and the morbid gloom and ferocity of his pictures of life are unrelieved by Shakespeare’s sweetness, or by any humor. 'Webster‘s dra- matic works have been edited by Dyce (4 vols., 1830) and by Hazlitt (4 vols., 1857-58). Revised by H. A. Bunns. Webster, NOAH: lexicographer; b. at West Hartford, Conn., Oct. 16, 1758; graduated at Yale College 1778, serv- ing in the Continental army during a part of his college course; studied law while teaching school at Hartford; was admitted to the bar 1781; taught a classical school at Goshen, Orange co., N. Y., 1782-83; prepared there his spelling-book. grammar, and reader. printed under the title A Grammatical I nsz‘iz‘ute o_f the English Language. etc., in Three Parts (Hartford, 1783-85), a work so successful that the sale of the spelling-book has exceeded 60,000,000; printed an edition of Gov. Winthrop“s Journal; wrote po- litical articles for the Hartford Courant 178-l; published Sketches of American Policy (1785), advocating the forma- tion of a Federal Constitution: traveled in the Southern States the same year to petition their legislatures to favor a 686 WEBSTER copyright law; delivered a course of lectures on the Eng- lish language in the principal Atlantic cities 1786; taught an academy in Philadelphia 1787, in which year he issued a pamphlet, An Examination of the Leading Pri-nciples of the Federal Constitution; edited in New York Dec.. 1787, to Nov., 1788, the American Magazine, an unsuccessful en- terprise; practiced law at Hartford 1789-93; married a daughter of \Villiam Greenleaf of Boston 1789; returned to New York and in N ov., 1793, founded a daily paper, the Minerva; published in his paper, over the signature of Cur- tius, an elaborate defense of J ay's treaty; settled in New Haven 1798; published A Brief History of Epidemics (2 vols., 1799); Rights of Neutral Nations in Time of War (1802); a Compendious Dictionary of the English Language (1806) ; and a Philosophical and Practical Grammar of the English Language (1807); devoted himself thenceforth to the great labor of his life, the preparation of the American Dictionary of the English Language (2 vols. 4to, 1828). He resided at Amherst, Mass., 1812-22; was influential in the establishment of Amherst College, and was president of its first board of trustees; returned to New Haven 1822; visited Europe 1824-25, pursuing his philological studies at the Bibliotheque du Roi, Paris, and com leting his diction- ary by the aid of the libraries of the niversity of Carn- bridge, and devoted his leisure for the remainder of his life to the revision of that work and of his schoolbooks, and to the preparation of a series of intermediate dictionaries. D. in New Haven, May 28, 1843. He had superintended in 1840 the publication of the 2d edition of his Dictionary (1840-41), carefully revised and with the addition of several thousand words. A 3d edition was edited by his son-in- law, Prof. Chauncey A. Goodrich, D.D. (1847), as also the 4th edition (pictorial, 1859), the latter containing 99,798 words. A 5th edition, with 114,000 words, 3,000 illustra- tions, and extensive revisions in every branch, but especially in etymology, was brought out in 1864 by Prof. Noah Por- ter, D. D., afterward president of Yale College. The latest revision is that of 1890 (Webster’s International). Webster’s minor publications are very numerous. See Life of Noah VVebster, by Horace E. Scudder (Boston, 1882). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Webster, Sir RIoHARD EVERARD, Q. C. : jurist; b. in Eng- land, Dec. 22, 1842; educated at King’s College and Char- terhouse Schools and Trinity College, Cambridge; called to the bar 1868; queen’s counsel 1878; acquired one of the largest and most valuable law practices in England; Attor- ney-General in Lord Sa1isbury’s administration 1885-86, 1886-92, and 1895- ; in 1885 represented Launceston in Parliament; in the same year represented the Isle of Wight, and still represents that constituency. In 1893 he was one of the British representatives in the Bering Sea arbitration case. Webster City: city (founded in 1854) ; capital of Hamil- ton co., Ia. ; on the Boone river, and the Chi. and N. W., the Ill. Cent., and the ‘Neb. City and S. W. railways; 75 miles N. of Des Moines (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 4-G). It is in an agricultural and coal-mining region, and has pub- lic and German Lutheran schools, several iron furnaces, shoe- factory, manufactory of temperance drinks, and a daily, a monthly, and 4 weekly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 1,848; (1890) 2,829 ; (1895) State census, 4,730. EDITOR OF “ GRAPIIIO-HERALD.” Webster Groves: village; St. Louis co., Mo.; on the Mo. Pac. Railway; 10 miles S. W. of St. Louis (for location, see map of Missouri, ref. 4-J). It is the place of residence of many St. Louis business men, and has seven churches, public high school, separate district schools for white and colored children, private school for grammar and academic courses, and a kindergarten. Pop. (1890) 1,783; (1895) estimated, 2,500. W. P. HAZARD, SECRETARY OF BOARD OF EDUOATION. Wecker, LOUIS, de, M. D.: ophthalmologist; b. at Frank- fort-on-the-Main, Sept. 29, 1832; studied medicine at Wt1rz- burg, Berlin, Paris, and Vienna, graduating M. D. at Wiirz- burg in 1855 and at Paris in 1861. He had studied diseases of the eye under Arlt, von Graefe, J aeger, Desmarres, and Sichel, and after 1862 he practiced his specialty in Paris. Among his more important works are Traité des maladies des yeurc (Paris, 1863); Traite’ des maladies du fond de l’azil (Paris, 1870),; Thérapie oculaire (Paris, 1878); O’hirur- gie oculaire (Paris, 1879); Précis d’ophthalmoscopie cli- nique (Paris, 1881); Les Indications dc l’ewtraction simple ' (Paris, 1885); and with Landolt Traité complet d’ophthal- mologie (Paris, 1883-84). S. T. ARMSTRONG. WEDNESBURY Weddahs: another spelling of VEDDAHS (q. o.). Wedderburn, JAMES: psalmodist; b. at Dundee, Scotland, about 1500; edited with his brother Robert Ane Com- pendious Buihe of Godly and Spirituall Sangs, oolleetit out of Sundrie Partes of the Scripture, wyth sundric of uther Ballates changed out of Prophane Sangs, for aooyd- ing of Sinne and Harlotrie (printed at Edinburgh about 1548). This was the principal psalm-book used in Scotland. He was also the reputed author of The Com laynt of Scot- land (1548), “the only classic work in Old ‘cottish prose.” D. in England about 1564. Wedgwood, JOSIAH, F. R. S.: manufacturer of fine pot- tery; b. at Burslem, Staifordshire, England, July 12, 1730; was the younger son of a potter.in easy circumstances, and descended from a family identified for several generations with the ceramic art; was apprenticed to his brother Thomas in 1744; worked at the potter’s wheel several years; was lame from his sixteenth year as the result of a severe attack of smallpox; entered into business for himself with a part- ner named Harrison, at Stoke, in 1752, manufacturing the ordinary cheap wares then in demand, to which, however, his superintendence gave an artistic finish previously un- known; was from 1754 to 1759 partner of Thomas Wheil- don, the most eminent potter of his day; devoted himself for many months to a careful study of, and experiments upon, the fictile materials then in use, resulting in the in- vention of a green “ tortoise-shell ” earthenware, having the smoothness and brilliant appearance of glass, from which he made toilet-vessels, services of dessert, knife-handles, and articles of rertu; established himself in business at his na- tive place in 1759; perfected in 1761 a fine cream-colored ware, specimens of which, being presented to the queen, Charlotte of Mecklenburg, obtained him the title of queen’s potter and permission to entitle his new art-product “queensware.” He rapidly acquired a considerable fortune, of which he made a liberal use; married his cousin, Sarah Wedgwood, Jan. 25, 1764; was the most eflicient promoter of Brindley’s Grand Trunk Canal, to which he subscribed £1,000, and for which he cut the first sod at Burslem July 26, 1766; adapted the engine-lathe to the uses of his art; produced in 1766 his fine black “basaltes ” or “ Egyptian ” ware, and shortly afterward his celebrated jasper ware; formed a partnership in 1768 with Thomas Bentley, of Liver- pool, a man of fortune and artistic tastes; made experi- ments in the qualities of many kinds of clays, importing from the Cherokee district of South Carolina a fine porce- lain clay; opened his celebrated establishment near Burslem which he named Etruria June 13,1769; began about this time to produce copies of classical vases and other ancient masterpieces, chiefiy from the engravings in Sir William Hamilton’s Antiquities; opened in 1770, at Chelsea, a branch establishment for the painting and finishing of his wares; opened in London soon afterward a salesroom of his own, which became a fashionable resort of the nobility; received large orders from the Continent, especially from Catherine II. of Russia, for whom he executed a service of many hun- dreds of pieces, each representing a different English land- scape; was elected to the Royal Society and to the Society of Antiquaries; invented the pyrometer; employed Flax- man and other great artists as his modelers; executed mag- nificent copies of the famous Barberini or Portland Vase 1790. He was highly esteemed by the royal family, enjoyed the intimate friendship of the Duke of Bridgwater, Earl Gower, and other prominent noblemen, and was regarded by his contemporaries as the father of his art in modern times. D. at Etruria, Jan. 3. 1795.—His sons JOHN and J OSIAH, and their descendants, have continued his business to the present day. The naturalist Charles Darwin was the son of his daughter Susanna, and other descendants have been prominent in literature or science. His statue, by Davis, has been erected at Stoke-upon-Trent, and ‘a memo- rial institute was opened at Burslem Oct. 26, 1863. His biog- raphy has been written by Llewellyn J ewett (1865) and by Miss Eliza Meteyard (2 vols., 1865-66), who is also author of Ilfemorials of Wedgwood (1875) and Wedgwood Handbook (1875). See POTTERY AND POROELAIN. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Wedgwood Ware: See POTTERY AND POROELAIN. Wedlockz See MARRIAGE. Wednesbury, wenz'bI"1r-re"e : town of England; in Stafford- shire, near the sources of the Tame; 8 miles N. W. of Bir- mingham (see map of England, ref. 9-G). It is in the center WEDNESDAY of a rich iron and coal district, and has extensive manufac- tures of ironware of almost every description. The Perpen- dicular church, of St. Bartholomew is built on the site of a temple of Woden, whence the Old English name Wednes- beah. Pop. of the parliamentary borough, returning one member (1891), 69,083. Wednesday [M. Eng. wednesdai, wodnesdai < O. Eng. Wbdnes dceg, Woden’s day (used as translation of Lat. Mer- cu'rii dies, Wednesday, liter., Mercury’s day)]: the fourth day of the week; so named in consequence of an identifica- tion of the Northern god Woden or Odin with the Roman Mercurius. By the old superstition Wednesday was consid- ered not particularly lucky nor particularly dangerous. Weed, STEPHEN HINSDALE: soldier; b. in New York in 1834; graduated at the New York Free Academy 1850, and at the U. S. Military Academy July, 1854, when commissioned brevet second lieutenant of artillery; promoted first lieu- tenant 1856; served on the Texan frontier and in the Florida war 1855-57, and the Utah expedition 1858-61. Promoted captain in the Fifth Artillery May 14, 1861, he was engaged at regimental headquarters and on recrmtmg duty from August to November, and at Camp Greble, Pa., N ov., 1861, to Mar., 1862, when, joining the Army of the Potomac, he commanded his battery throughout the Peninsular cam- paign of 1862, and at Manassas, Antietam, and Chancellors- ville, in all of which battles he displayed great bravery. After Chancellorsville he was given command of the artillery brigade, Fifth Corps, and June 6 was appointed a brigadier- general of volunteers. At Gettysburg he commanded a brigade of artillery, Fifth Corps, and in the terrible struggle of July 2, 1863, for the possession of Little Round Top, he was instantly killed at the head of his command, on the spot now marked “ Weed‘s Hill.” Revised by JAMES MERCUR. Weed, THURLOW: journalist and party leader; b. at Cai- ro, Greene co., N. Y., Nov. 15, 1797; was cabin-boy on a Hudson river vessel when ten years of age; entered a print- ing-office at Catskill two years later; worked in several vil- lages in the interior of New York; was a volunteer on the northern frontier of New York in the war of 1812-15, serv- ing as quartermaster-sergeant; established in 1818 The Agri- oaltarist at Norwich, Chenango co., N. Y.; edited several other papers during the ensuing ten years, among which was The Anti-llfasonic Enquirer at Rochester 1826-27. He was twice elected to the New York Assembly 1826-30; con- tributed largely to the election of De Witt Clinton as Gov- ernor 1826; settled at Albany in 1830; founded there Z7ze Evening Journal, a newspaper established in the interests of the party then being formed in opposition equally to the administration of President Jackson, as represented by the “Albany Regency,” and to the nullification policy of Cal- houn; was an original leader of the Whig party; contrib- uted largely to the election of Gov. Seward in 1838 and 1840, to the nomination of Harrison in 1836 and 1840, and to his election on the latter occasion; became known as the most adroit of party managers, but declined to accept any public office; was active in promoting the nomination of Gen. Tay- lor in 1848 and of Gen. Scott in 1852; exerted his influence in 1856 and 1860 in favor of the nomination of William H. Seward, but rendered cordial support to Fremont and Lin- coln; was an advocate of the energetic prosecution of the war 1861-65; visited Europe at the request of President Lincoln Nov., 1861, remaining abroad until June, 1862, and exerted an important influence upon English opinion through his personal relations with leading statesmen ; withdrew from The Evening Journal in 1862; settled in New York city 1865, and was editor of The Commercial Advertiser 1867-68, after which he retired from active jour- nalism, but continued throughout the administration of President Grant, and especially during the grave constitu- tional crisis ensuing upon the election of 1876, to exert a powerful influence upon the counsels of his party, and was a frequent contributor over his own signature to the col- umns of the political journals. He published Letters from Europe and the West Indies (Albany, 1866). and some inter- esting Reminiscences in the Atlantic 1l[onz‘lzlg/ (1870) and in other periodicals, and prepared an autobiography which was edited by his daughter and published in 1882. D. in New York, Nov. 22, 1882. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Weeden, WILLIAM BABGOCK, A. M.: soldier and author; b. at Bristol, R. I., Sept. 1, 1834; son of John E. Weeden, M. D.; educated at Brown University; became a manufac- turer of woolen goods at Providence; in 1861 became sec- ond lieutenant in the first battery; enlisted in Rhode Island WEEKS 687 for three years’ service in the Union army; was promoted captain; chief of artillery of division commanded by Brig.- Gen. Morell ; was engaged at the siege of Yorktown, and in the battles of Hanover Court-house. Mechanicsville, Gaines’s Mill, and Malvern Hill ; resigned in Aug., 1862, and re- turned to business life; author of llforality of Prohibitory Liquor Laws (Boston, 1875) ; Social Law of Labor (Boston, 1882) ; Economic and Social History of Neui England 1620-1789 (2 vols., Boston, 1890). Weedsport: village; Cayuga co., N. Y. : on the Erie Canal, and the Lehigh Val., the N. Y. Cent. and Hud.. Riv., and the VV. Shore railways; 9 miles N. of Auburn, 22 miles W. of Syracuse (for location, see map of New York, ref. 4-F). It is in an agricultural region, and has 5 churches, Union pub- lic school, 2 private banks, 3 weekly newspapers, corset and casket factories, and agricultural-implement works. It is an important coal-shipping point. Pop. (1880) 1,411; (1890) 1,580. EDITOR or “ SENTINEL.” Wee’hawken: township; Hudson co., N. J . ; on the H ud- son river, and the N. Y., Ont. and West. and the West Shore railways (for location, see map of New Jersey, ref. 2-E). It has 2 churches, a public and a Roman Catholic school, 2 reservoirs of the Hackensack Water Company (reorgan- ized) with capacity of 15,176,000 and 29,760,000 gal. respec- tively, a high service-tower with capacity of 150,000 gal., a regulating-tank with capacity of 383,000 gal., and a lard- refinery. Weehawken is probably the largest coal dep6t in the U. S., having the coal docks of the Pennsylvania Coal Company, the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company. and the Erie Railroad Company, and also the freight sheds of the last. It is also noted as the Hamilton-Burr dueling- ground. Pop. (1880) 1,102; (1890) 1,943; (1895) State cen- sus, 3,500. GEORGE E. REYNoLDs, SURVEYOR. Week [O. Eng. weoca, wicn, wucn: O. H. Germ. wohha (wehha) > Mod. Germ. uroche : Icel. rilra : Goth. wiko]: a period of seven days, forming a subdivision of the lunar month, corresponding to the four quarters of the moon, or about 7-,} days. It was in common use among the ancient Hebrews, who, in Ex. xx. 11, referred its origin to the crea- tion of the world, and in Deut. v. 15 to the exodus from Egypt. It was not a Hebrew invention, however, as may be seen from Josephus, Philo Judmus, Clemens of Alexandria, and others. It was found as a civil institution in the very earliest times among the Hindus, Persians, Assyrians, and Egyptians. But the Jews were the only nation with which the week had a religious signification. With the Egyptians, Assyrians, etc., the seventh day was simply a day of recrea- tion; with the Jews it was the day of worship, the Sabbath. The Greeks divided the month into three periods of ten days (decades), and the Romans gathered the days into periods of eight days (nundinaz); with both, the first day of the period was the market-day, on which country people came to town and stirred up both business and public life. The period of seven days, the week proper, was introduced to the Romans and Greeks partly by Christianity (which may be inferred from the fact that the term sabbath was adopted), partly by the Egyptian astronomy and astrology. Among the Jews the days of the week had no names; they were simply counted. The Egyptians, however, named them after the seven planets then known, and in the following way: they arranged the planets according to their distance from the earth, beginning with the most distant; ascribed a planet to each hour, and named the day after the planet which reigned over its first hour. This method of appellation was adopted by the R0- mans, so that when Saturn presided over the first hour of the first day, which consequently became Saturday, the first hour of the second day would fall to the sun, etc. Weekes. HENRY, R. A.: sculptor; b. at Canterbury, Eng- land, in 1807; studied sculpture under Behnes and at the Royal Academy, where .he entered 1823; was many years the principal assistant of Chantrey, whom he succeeded in his studio at Pimlico 1841; was elected to the Academy 1863, and became Professor of Sculpture there May 16. 1873. He executed the first bust of Queen Victoria (1837 ). statues of Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, Wellesley, Bacon, Hunter, Harvey, Charles II., and many others, and gained a gold medal for the best treatise on the fine-art section of the Great Exhibition of 1851. D. May 29, 1877’. Weeks, EDWIN LORD: genre-painter; b. in Boston, Mass., in 1849; pupil of Bonnat and Gereme, Paris; honorable mention Paris Salon, 1884 ; third-class medal 1889 : first-class medal Paris Exposition, 1889. He paints principally scenes 638 WEEKS, FEAST or in India and other Eastern countries. The Last Voyage-— S0'wuen'z.'r of the Ganges and A Rajah of Jodh_yoore are two of his most important works. His studio is in Paris. 1 WILLIAM A. COFFIN. Weeks, Feast of : See PENTECOST. Weenix, JAN, the younger: painter; b. at Amsterdam, Holland, in 1640; pupil of his father, Jan Baptist \/Veenix. Although the son was only twenty when his father died, he had already so completely learned the latter’s method that it is often impossible to decide whether it was the father or the son who painted the picture. He painted figures, ani- mals, birds, landscapes, ruins, fruit, flowers, and portraits, but he is most famous for his hunting scenes and dead game. His coloring surpassed his father’s. Weenix was at Utrecht between 1664 to 1668, and at Bensburg near Co- logne from 1702 till 1712 in the employment of the Elector of the Palatinate. D. at Amsterdam, Sept. 20, 1719. Eng- land possesses many works by this master. He is well rep- resented also in Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Paris, Petersburg, and The Hague. W. J. S. Weenix, JAN BAPTIST: painter; b. at Amsterdam, Hol- land. in 1621. He studied under Hicker, Bloemart, and N. Moijart, after which he went to Italy and lived in Rome 1642-46. He returned to his native city, where he remained till 1649, when he went to Utrecht ; painted there till 1657. The remaining years of his life he spent at the Chateau de Ter Mey in the neighborhood. D. near Utrecht, Oct. 31, 1660. Pictures bearing a later date may be attributed to his son and pupil, Jan Weenix. J . B. Weenix painted land- scapes with figures, pictures of the seacoast, Italian ruins, scenes of everyday life, dead game, etc. He rarely at- tempted poetical or historical subjects. \V. J . S. Weeping: the act of shedding tears, accompanied, espe- cially in children, by facial distortion and involuntary mus- cular contractions in other parts of the body. For the pur- pose of secreting and conducting the tears there is a special apparatus placed within the orbit at itsupper part, consisting of a body called the lachrymal gland; of a reservoir, the lachrymal sac; of certain canals which collect the tears from the inner angle and convey them to the lachrymal sac ; and of a tube, the lachrymal duct, by which the secretion is car- ried from the sac into the nose. Aside from the office of the tears in expressing certain emotions, they serve to lubricate and keep moist the lining membrane of the eyelids and ex- ternal coat of the eyeball, the conjunctiva. The secretion of tears, whether for emotional or ordinary physiological pur- poses, is effected through the intermediation of the fifth pair of the cranial nerves and the sympathetic nerves. Sobbing, which is a species of weeping, appears to result in part from the attempt to restrain the emotions, and from a cause analogous to that which induces sighing—namely, the demand of the system for additional aeration of the blood—a process which intense emotion serves to disturb. Weeping Watel': city; Cass co., Neb. ; on the Weeping Water river, and the Mo. Pac. Railway; 30 miles E. of Lin- coln, 41 miles S. by W. of Omaha (for location, see map of Nebraska, ref. 10—H). It is in an agricultural, lime-burn- ing, and stock-trading region, contains Weeping Water Academy (Congregational), public high school, and a na- tional bank with capital of $50,000, and has a weekly news- paper. Pop. (1880) 817; (1890) 1,850. Weever: See TnAcHIN1D1E'and also GREAT WEEVER. Weevil [M. Eng. wiveZ< 0. Eng. zmI_feZ:O. I-I. Germ. wvlbil > Mod. Germ. wéebel; cf. Lith. eabalas, beetle, proba- bly connected with the word to weave]: a name properly applied to many snout-beetles (Carcaliomthe), but more articularly to the insects belonging to the genus Brachns, ormerl y included among the Rhync/tophora, but now placed in a family (Brachzdce) which connects the snout-beetles with the leaf-beetles (Ohrysomelvldce), and has greatest affini- ties with these last. The snout-beetles are characterized by the extension of the head into a snout or proboscis, at the tip of which the jaws are placed. By means of this snout the eggs are inserted where the larvae are destined to live. The larvae are, with few exceptions, footless, clumsy grubs, with a horny head, and live within the blossoms, fruits, seeds, stems, or roots of plants. Some few even live within leaves. There are over 400 described North American species of the (larcnlqlonidaa proper. The following are among the more notable in their larval habits: O'onotrache- Zas nenaphar, the plum-weevil (see CURCULIO), works, as larva, in the flesh of stone fruit, and transforms in the WEIGELA ground; 0. cratcegnl infests the pear and quince; Anthono- mus prantcida works in the stones of plums, and transforms therein; A. qaadrrlgibbas works in apples and other pip fruit; Cceliodes tnreqaalels works in grapes; Analcis fra- garice injures the crown and root of the strawberry; Bart'- dtas z.‘re'notatas bores the stems of the potato; lfhyceras novceboracensis breeds in the twigs of oaks; P/issodes strobz‘ burrows in the tips of pines; Hylobéas pales in the stems and roots of Pinas syZ'vestr'1.'s; .Zl:l'agcZaZts arm/t'c0ZZt's works under the bark of elms; Dorytom/as nwctdas breeds in the blossoms of cottonwoods and willows. Balantnas comprises species with very long snouts, and known as “ nut-weevils,” different species infesting different nuts, as caryaa, hickory nuts; sag/t, chestnuts; ant’formt's and qaercas, acorns. Rhynchophoras z/t'mmermannt', the largest species, breeds in the palmetto palm. Though the term weevil. when used alone, is often very loosely and incorrectly applied by farmers to several insects that affect wheat, and particularly to the wheat-midge (Ceetdomyia irt'te'm)——a little orange, dipterous maggot that affects the growing ear—-it strictly belongs to the grain- weevil (Calandra granarta), which is the greatest pest to stored grain, and frequently reduces a lot of wheat to mere husks before its presence is noticed. The beetle is about one-eighth of an inch long, of a deep chestnut-brown color, with nine deeply punctured strive along each elytron, and without wings. The female with her snout makes an ob- lique puncture just under the skin of the stored grain, and lays an egg therein, from which egg there hatches a whitish grub that devours the sub- stance of the kernel and un- dergoes its transformations within the hull. In from forty to fifty days from hatching the perfect weevil eats its way out. Several generations are pro- duced each year, and when once the insect is established it increases at an alarming rate, more particularly in warm climates. There is a closely allied form, known as the rice- weevil (Calandra oryzce). The habits of the two are simi- lar. Both infest most kinds of dry grain, including maize‘, and both are widespread over the world. The remedies used against weevils are principally kiln-drying, sulphur fumes, and sprinkling of air-slaked lime among the grain. The best antidote is cleanliness. All rubbish that can harbor weevils should be burned, cracks filled up, the walls whitewashed, and a general supervision had over the grain, which should be kept as cool as possible, and well aired. The Brachetke, or weevils proper, mostly breed in the seeds of leguminous plants; their larvae are fat, clumsy, wrinkled grubs, and in some instances are provided with short legs. Their eggs are glued to the outside of the pod. The new-born larva eats directly through the pod and into the seed, the hole of entrance closing up if the pod is yet green. The pea-weevil (Brachas pist) affects peas, one in- dividual appropriating the contents of one pea; the eggs are laid while the pod is forming. The bean-weev1l.(Bra- chas fabce) infests beans, several individuals developmg in the same bean. Revised by J . S. KINGSLEY. Wehrlite: See PER-IDOTITE. Weidner, REVERE FRANKLIN, D.D., LL. D.: theologian; b. at Centre Valley, Lchigh co., Pa., Nov. 22, 1851; gradu- ated at Muhlenberg College 1869, and Philadelphia Semi- nary 1873; pastor at Phillipshurg, N. J., 1873-78, and Phila- delphia 1878-82; Professor of Dogmatics and Exegesis, Augustana Theological Seminary, Rock Island, Ill.,1882- 91. Since 1891 he has been chairman of the faculty of the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Chicago, Ill. He is a voluminous author in almost all departments of theology. His works include The-oiogvlcal En.cycl0pccdt'a, S2facZz'es in the B0075, In1fr0cZncz,"L'0n to Dogmattc Theolo,qy, Introductory New Testament Greek rlfethod, System of C7e.rt'stt'an Ezfhvics, Com- mentary on ]lI(l/Fl»), etc. HENRY E. JACOBS. Weige/la [Mod. Lat., named from C. E. Weigel, a German naturalist]: a shrub found in China by the celebrated nat- a, Calandra granaria ; b, C. oryzoe. (The small out- lines show the natural size.) WEIGHING—MA(JHINES uralist Dr. Robert Fortune, by whom it was introduced into England and named W. rosea, but afterward found to be identical with Diervilla, a genus introduced into Europe from Canada in the eighteenth century. Its proper name is D. florida; other commonly cultivated species are D. japonica, D. gra/Iidijiora, and D. florilnmda. In the U. S.. where there are two indigenous species, it is known as “ bush honeysuckle.” C. E. BESSEY. Weighing-machines : machines or contrivances used to ascertain the heaviness of bodies. Weight is the result of the attraction of gravitation upon a body, and as the force of gravity is not the same at dif- ferent parts of the earth’s surface, so the weight of any piece or body, if by weight we mean the elfect of gravity upon it, difiers according to the place at which it is weighed. Thus a mass of iron which weighs 1,000 lb. at the equator would weigh 1,005 lb. at the pole; 500 lb. at a point 2,000 miles below the surface or 1,650 miles above it ; 2,600 lb. on the surface of Jupiter, and 28,000 lb. on the sur- face of the sun. As ordinarily used, however, weight does not mean the absolute heaviness of a body or the eifect of gravity upon it, but the relative heaviness—that is, its heavi- ness as compared with that of a certain piece of metal which is taken as a standard, and weighed at the same place and under the same conditions. For the standards of weight-—the pound and the kilogramme—see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. For the comparison of standard weights with each other, for governmental and scientific purposes, instruments of the utmost possible refinement, such as chemical balances, are required, so as to make the error of ascertainment of their relative weights as small as possible. For commercial pur- poses such refinement is not attempted, but it is desirable that the error of weighing be so small that it can create no dissatisfaction in the mind of either buyer or seller, or user of the weights for any purpose. In chemical analysis, the largest allowable error must be less than the limit of accu- racy of the process used by the chemist, say, T—6l0—6th of 1 per cent. The mechanical principles upon which weighing-machines are based are various, but in general they all have one idea in common, that of opposing to the force of gravitation, which acts upon the body to be weighed, some resistance the amount of which can be determined and expressed in weights of the accepted standard. The several mechanical principles which have been adopted or proposed for weigh- ing-machines are enumerated below, with examples of their application. 1. The Elasticity of Metal or other Su/bstances.—An il- lustration of this principle is seen in the simple weighing- machine shown in Fig. 1, consisting of a flexible steel strip, a, rigidly fastened at one end to a firm pedestal, b, and carrying at its outer end a pan, 0. A 1-lb. weight 0 placed in the pan, c, will bring the pointer down to the mark 1 on the grad- uated standard, 2 lb. brings it down to the mark 2, and so on. By finely graduating the index- plate, and by reading carefully the position of the pointer upon it after it ceases vibrating, a fairly accurate weighing- machine for a limited range of purposes is obtained. \Veighing on this machine is done by the method known as “ weighing by substitution,” which consists in substitut- ing for the substance on the scale-pan. whose weight is to be determined, standard weights s11fiicient to roduce ex- actly the same eifect on the scale. The sum of t 1e standard weights so used is the weight of the substance. This meth- od of. substitution is employed in the very finest weighing for scientific purposes, because it avoids many of the errors common to the ordinary methods of balancing a weight on one side of a scale-beam against a weight on the other. Another form of machine, using the flexibility of this same metal strip, might be made by fastening or support- mg the strip at each end and noting the deflection of the middle poigt. A railway bridge might thus be used as a 1 “*1 \.J ||[1[||r .-,,_ FIG. 1.—Elementary weighing device. 689 weighing-machine to weigh the trains that cross it; the heavier the train, the greater being the deflection. The most common illustration of the use of the principle of the elasticity of metals is seen in the ordinary spring-bal- ance, which consists simply of a spirally wound wire which is held at one end, the weight to be weighed being suspended from a hook at the other. These wire coils may be used either in compression or in extension. The common form of balance with a pointer rotating on a dial is just the same with the addition of a small rack and pinion to give the rotary motion. Instead of the elasticity of metal we may use that of other substances, such as cork, India-rubber, or even air. Suppose a blacksmith’s bellows, perfectly free from leaks and with its outlet closed. Place a pound weight on the upper plate of the bellows and it will be depressed slightly. Two pounds will depress it twice as much or nearly so. Thus an index scale of depressions corresponding to certain weights might be constructed and the bellows thus become a weighing- machine. ‘ The common gas-holder of the gas-works may be used as a weighing-machine. It consists of an inner tank inverted in an outside tank which is filled with water. Gas is intro- duced into the inner tank, raising it to a certain height. Weights are now placed on the top of the inner tank, de- pressing it in proportion to the amount of weight. The amount of the depression record- ing the pressure to which the con- tained gas is subjected is also a rm,-,m []gm‘m1rm- record of the weight applied. 2. The Buoyancy of Liqaids.— 3} The common hydrometer used for determining the density of liquids (Fig. 2) illustrates this principle. It may also be used to determine the weight of small bodies by the method of substitution, since equal weights placed in the pan at the top depress the instrument the same distance. On the same prin- ciple a boat or any vessel floating in water may be used as a weigh- I ;§,';’;.,‘Q= ing-machine. When the vessel is ;;';I ,_ unloaded, the water-line is at a ;;__ 3 certain mark. As the vessel is ' ' loaded, it sinks deeper and deeper in the water, and successive marks, showing the amount of water the vessel is drawing, also measure the weight of the cargo placed on board. 3. The Chain-balance. —What is called the 0 chain -balance is de- / a‘ b {I bi FIG. 2. —-Hydrometer. ja scribed in various works, but it is rarely if ever a used in practice. It consists simply of two upright posts, 0 d, Fig. 3, between which is 6 f loosely stretched a cord or chain, a b. To two points in this chain are attached the scale-pans, e f. When the scale- pans are unloaded, the chain will take a definite position, depending upon the position of the points of attachment of the scale-pans. If the pan f be loaded, that pan will iiallte tla loylver b osition, w i e 1e ot ier gne will rise, the chain C.,/O—— O changing to the position shown by the dotted line a’ b’. If an equal load a be placed in the other ' pan, the chain willire- turn to its original posi- tion. 4. The Pendulum or .B€7ti-Z6-T67‘ BaZance.— This is a balance which has had rather limited application hitherto, the most common form being a cheap and not very accurate letter balance, for weighing a few ounces. It consists in its FIG. 3.—Ohain-balance. l: FIG. 4.-—Bent-lever balance. 690 simplest form of a bent arm, a, Fig. 4, carrying at the end of the vertical portion a weight, 0, and at the end of the hori- zontal portion the scale-pan, d, suspended from a pivot, b. It is evident that as weights are placed in the scale-pan they will cause the weight, 0, to move outward from the support- ing pillar until the leverage of the arm and weight on one ' side of the pillar counterbalances the effect of the weight in the scale-pan. The balance may be made a standard by mark- ing on the graduated index the position at which the arm comes to rest under the ap- plication of succes- sive weights. 5. The Hydrostatic BaZance.—The most elementary form of this balance is shown in Fig. 5. It is based on the principle of the hydrostatic press or common hydraulic jack. There are two communicating cylinders, one very much larger than the other, each fitted with a piston. Leakage and friction being left out of the account, a weight placed on the piston of the smaller cylin- der will balance a weight on the piston of the larger cylin- der which is as many times greater as the area of the larger piston is greater than that of the smaller. By substituting for the pistons flexible metallic diaphragms, the objections of leakage and piston friction are avoided, and upon this principle is constructed the hydraulic weighing apparatus used in the Emery testing-machine. 6. The Even BaZance.—Weighing-machines based on the principles already referred to are of quite restricted appli- cation. The simplest, most ancient, and most universally used form of weighing-ma- chine is the even bal- ance, a crude form of which is shown in Fig. 6. It consists of a rigid beam of met- al, with three pivots, or “ knife - edges,” firmly inserted in it, so that their edges are in the same plane, and the end pivots exactly equidistant from the central pivot. The central knife-edge rests on a horizontal plate fastened in the upright support, and a bifurcated hanger rests on each of the end knife-edges, carrying the weighing- pans beneath. The principles of this balance are more fully described in the article BALANCE. The pivots and central plate, and also the portions of the hangers which rest on the end pivot, are usually made of hardened steel, but in some fine chemical balances agate knife-edges and plates are used. 7. The Lever or Steelyard Balance-—The even balance has one serious objection as a weighing-machine for heavy weights, viz.: the necessity of placing weights in one an of the balance equal to the weight of the substance w ich is being weighed in the other. For weights up to 10 or 20 lb. this is no great inconven- ience, but when we wish to weigh hun- dreds or thousands of pounds it becomes intolerable. This led to the adoption in very early times of the lever balance or, as it is sometimes called, the Roman steelyard, which is il- lustrated in the weighmaster’s scale, Fig. 7. The principle upon which this balance is based is that of the lever, namely, that a heavy weight suspended from the end of I I ‘I a FIG. 5.—-Hydrostatic balance. L [_______l FIG. 6.-Even balance. mlllllllllilluulululm I‘. § R FIG. 7.-Weighmastefis steelyard scale. WEIGHING—MACHINES the short arm of the lever may be balanced by a smaller weight suspended from the end of the long arm, the weights being inversely proportional to the lengths of the arms, or the product of the heavier weight multiplied by the length of the short arm being equal to the product of the lighter weight multiplied by the length of the long arm. In prac- tice the steelyard balance does not generally have a pan support or weight-holder attached to each end of the bal- ance, but only to the short end, while on the long arm there is a movable weight, which may be placed at any position required to balance the weight suspended from the short arm. Marks and nicks are laced upon the beam to indi- cate the positions at which the movable weight should be placed to counterbalance certain definite weights suspended from the short arm. 8. The Compound Lever BaZance.—This is merely an ex- tension of the principle of the steelyard, by using two or FIG. 8.--Compound lever balance. more steelyards linked together as shown in the sketch, Fig. 8. If a weight of 100 lb. is suspended from the short arm of a beam whose arms are to each other as 10 to 1, a force of 10 lb. applied at the end of the long arm will balance it, but this force may be applied by means of a second lever. If this second lever also has a ratio of lengths of arms of 10 to 1, 1 lb. applied at the end of the long arm of the second lever will balance 100 lb. at the end of the short arm of the first lever, the weights of the levers of course being first counterbalanced so as to remain in balance when unloaded. One form of a compound lever scale is shown in the Boston market scale, Fig. 9. The pan which holds the article to be weighed, in- stead of being attached di- rectly to the short arm of the lever, is connected by a secondary lever, an ad- justable counterpoise being arranged to balance the weight of the beam or long arm of the lever. 9. Scales wtth Pans sup- ported above the Beam.—-The even balances and lever balances heretofore discussed all have scale-pans suspended from the beams, but for many purposes suspended seale- pans are inconvenient and pans supported above the beam are desired. In order to make a successful upright-pan balance it is necessary to allow the pan supports to move on the end of pivots and at the same time to insure that they remain in a vertical position. no matter what devia- tion from the hori- zontal the beam may take in its os- cillation. This is accomplished by adding to the struc- ture a parallel mo- tion, shown in the sketch, Fig. 10, placing a second beam, more slender than the first, underneath the latter, and pinning each pan support near its lower end to this lower beam by a pin, so that while both beams oscillate together the pan supports, slightly rotating on the pins, preserve a parallel and vertical position. If a pound weight be placed on each pan, the scale will balance, and if either weight be moved to any side or corner of the pan it will still balance, eccentricity of loading having no elfect to disturb the equilibrium. This is the principle of all upright-pan pivot FIG. 9.—Boston market scale. T I FIG. 10.—Mode1 of upright-pan scale. WEIGHlNG—MACHIN ES balances. In ordinary knife-edge upright-pan scales, such as the one' shown in Fig. 11, an ordinary grocer’s counter scale, the lower beam is hidden in the casting, close to the The lower beam 1s in two table. sometimes made parts, being cut in half in the middle of its length, pivoted to the central sup- port. Each half of the lower beam is then called a radius arm. The balance shown in Fig. 11 is pro- vided at one end with a pan for holding the article to be weighed and at the other with a plate for holding the various weights. Such balances sometimes have besides the weight a graduated side beam attached to the lever or prin- cipal beam, with a movable poise upon this side beam. 10. The Platform /S'eaZe.—To obtain an elementary idea of the principle of the platform scale, let the reader refer back to Fig. 8 and imagine four equal steelyard levers like the one at the left of the cut, which carries 100 lb., so dis- osed at the corners of a rectangle that the ends of their onger arms nearly touch each other, and a double bifur- cated hanger extending from the pivots at these ends down- ward to the central pivot of the lever of the third order shown at the right of the cut. The relative lengths of all ‘':!‘'''''':;3f' ‘'1 Q . I ’;---:rilf1..i=l ‘-fl _. I-_:-1&2 . : ~‘ ¥__..__- ‘ —-—'-- J’-2‘-I->-=--1 ; /-.03.-,_>g. ,, ,, .:. FIG. 11.—Even balance with side beam. the levers remaining as before, 10 to 1, it is evident that 4 lb. placed in the small pan of the lower lever will balance 400 lb.—that is, 100 lb. on each of the four primary levers. Now substitute for the 400 lb. and the pans a rectangular platform placed above the four levers, and provided with ‘J i-»;‘,\Hgv glllsm 1-. ‘ I 1. MI‘: H _ ;,i;!; .' ‘ '-i ‘ ~!-1'7: l [Ill] lllllll ii: ¥ 5 "H D ' I “llllllllll“lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll W lhlll llle llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllIlilllliiilllllllllll four short feet which rest in the links hanging on the pivots of the short arms of the four levers, and load this platform so that the total load including the platform equals the weights of the pans and 400 lb. ; it is then evident that the machine thus constructed will be in equilibrium when 4 lb. are in the pan at the extremity of the lower lever. The upward force of 4 lb. acting at the outer pivot, instead of being thus counterbalanced, may be carried by a system of levers and links to any point at which it may be more convenient to counterbalance it by a weight in a pan, or by a weight sliding on a graduated beam. This is the general principle of all platform scales. In practice, the means of transmitting the weight of the platform and its load to the primary levers, and the form of the links, levers, etc., required for carrying the several forces developed to the point where the weight is to be registered, varv consid- erably. One of the methods of supporting the load on the rimary lever, used in the Fairbanks scale, invented by haddeus Fairbanks, of Vermont, patented June 13. 1831, is shown in Fig. 12. Each lever, F, is provided at its ex- tremity with knife- edged bearings placed in a stirrup depend- ing from the fixed frame timber, A, sur- rounding the pit in which the platform and its adjuncts are arranged. At a suit- able distance from the just - mentioned extremity of the lever are knife-edged bearings. G; an iron casting, D, extends downward from the platform, B. and, passing astride of the lever, F, rests on the knife-edges, G, at each side of the lever. each half being separately 691 If, now, the load to be weighed could be dropped vertically upon the platform, B, this arrangement would be sufficient; but in practice the load is drawn in wagons or cars, as the case may be, upon the platform, and on strik- ing the edge of the latter gives it a positive lateral movement which tends to make the casting, D, scrape upon the knife-edges, G; and this dulls the knife- edges and impairs the ac- curacy of the apparatus. In order to prevent this lateral movement of the platform, B, check-rods, E, . V are extended from the fixed FIG. 13.—Howe platform bearing. frame timber, A, to the platform, with the object of resisting the lateral strain. In the Howe scale the check-rods are dispensed with, and free- dom secured to the platform without involving the fric- tional movement or scraping of the casting, D, upon the knife-edge. This is done. as shown in the figures of Howe’s platform bearing (Fig. 13) and railroad scale (Fig. 14). by making the main levers, A, of elbow shape, their upper ends connecting by rods, C, with the center levers, E, from which, through a supplemental lever, F, and rods, G, motion is communicated to the beam. The lower ends of the elbow levers, A (the form of which is shown in the larger view), have knife-edges resting on chilled iron blocks, these knife- edges forming the fulcrums of the said levers. The short arms of these levers have knife-edges, which receive the bearings of the casting, N. In the upper side of the cast- ing, N, are two shallow cup-shaped recesses which receive the balls or spheres, K, and on these rest the cupped bear- ings, B, fastened to the timber of the platform. The center levers, E, of course, work on knife-edges. VVhen the load strikes the edge of the platform the movement of the latter simply causes it to sway slightly on the spheres, and this is immediately corrected by the gravity of the platform itself. 11. The FZe:1;ure-pz'@'0t BaZanee.—For over 2,000 years the knife-edge has been practically the only form of pivot used in even balances and steelyards, round pivots being rarely, if ever, used, on account of their excessive friction. The knife-edge itself. however, is open to objections from its lack of permanency, being susceptible to injury from bruising, crushing, and corrosion. The plates on which the pivots act are also subject to grooving, and the bearing-points of the plates on the hanging links suspended from the end pivots also are apt to change their position relative to the knife- edge, so that slight inaccu- racy is thus introduced in the weighing. These objections have been overcome by two kinds of fixed pivots, the fiexure pivot and the torsion pivot. The flexure pivot is simply a thin plate of steel, one end of which is clamped to the beam, and the other to the fixed support, as shown in the sketch. Fig. 15. An oscillation of the beam causes a slight fiexure of the steel ‘ plate. Balances on this prin- : ciple were patented by J . M. 1 Taurines, of Paris, in 1861, ; and by F. D. Artingstall, of “‘ll[n Wluallu mllmnlllilpi \ ‘iJllll]||hfi“UmlIm{];&%:gWnnMWflwlnjmnmfllnmggflwfl ‘ "ma “Win n\1“".vi>p/-¢*“”““". - . "lflw. llllllllllmlmmnmlll [Ill -1 -q"nnflflHniIi'-m“‘“‘mua,,m,mun“mUl gqflflum-flfmmwmn “‘"“'“"muwum““"""~"“nm'n“ir:::aww““ W WW%““ "r?’“““"~uWR mfllmmllmummm ‘mt.-Wiluafi I _.mflrn,mq"E.‘!!‘l~m..Il‘3u§nli|L‘¥u.umlm'u7Jk||~_ : I u 111 aw i - » I n4.‘ MI-I‘ . ... . ' llll | L »—= FIG. 14.-—Howe railroad scale. Manchester, England, in 1862, but into commercial use. they have not come In 1872, and also in 1883 and 1884, A. H. Emery obtained 692 WEIGHING—MAOHINES U. S. patents on weighing-machines in which are combined the principles of the flexure-pivoted beam and the hydro- static balance with flexible metallic diaphragms which has already been referred to. (“D In 1879 he completed, at a cost of over $100,000, his famous testing-machine on this combination of prin- ciples, which has since that date been in the service of the U. S. Government at the arsenal at \/Vatertown, Mass. It is used for testing the strength of metals and other materials of construction, and has a capacity of 800,000 lb., for strains of either tension or compression, and can test specimens of any length up to 30 feet. Attempts have been made to adapt the flexure- pivot system to ordinary scales and balances, but mechanical difficulties have thus far prevented their commercial success, although a number of testing - machines have been made under the Emery patents. 12. The Torsion Balance--Gauss and Weber, of the Uni- versity of Giittingen, experimented many years ago upon balances with a twisting wire for a pivot, but their experiments and those of some oth- ers who followed them were unsuc- cessful in produc- ing a commercial balance. One of the causes of the failure of the ear- lier experiments was the want of a FIG. 17.—Torsion-balance ounter scale. 001'1‘e0t way Of stretchingthewire. This was remedied in 1882 by Prof. Frederick Roeder, of Cincinnati, who stretched the wire in the form of a brazed -loop over a rigid metallic stretcher. A greater trouble, and one which seemed to be fa- tal to the hopes of the torsion balance, was the fact that as soon as the torsion Fro. 15.—Beam with fiexure pivot. FIG. 16.—Truss with flat wire for a torsion balance. -~“.__". -._:-L‘: _ '_ band or wire ggist‘s torsion~ba1ance counter was given SU.ffi- Scale- cient size to . make it strong enough to carry a desired weight the elasticity of the wire became so great as to destroy the sensitiveness of the bal- ance. Dr. Alfred Spring- er, Prof. Roeder’s associ- ate, discovered that the objectionable eifect of the elasticity of the wire could be entirely over- come by making the beam “top-heavy,” that is, by raising its center of gravity above the point of support or axis of oscillation. He thus used the force of gravity to overcome the resist- ance of the wire to being twisted. Numerous patents upon weighing-machines using torsion pivots were granted to FIG. 19.—Torsion-balance pescription scale. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Messrs. Roeder and Springer, L. M. Hosea, and the writer of this article, between 1882 and 1887. Many forms of balances upon the torsion principle are now in commercial use, while other forms, especially adapted to the automatic weighing of grain, are still in the experimental stage. Fig. 16 represents the form of truss used for ordinary grocers’ and druggists’ even-balance scales, with the flat wire stretched upon it. This being the middle truss, the beams, upper and lower, are rigidly attached to it at their middle points, their outer ends being attached to the wires of sim- ilar trusses, without the supporting feet, which carry the scale pans, thus forming a parallel motion. Fig. 17 shows a torsion scale made in 1884. The heavy ball, carried on a standard fastened to the lower beam, gives the necessary high center of gravity, and its vertical adjustment regulates the sensitiveness to any degree that may be desired. Figs. 18 and 19 show more modern forms of these balances, the first being a druggist’s counter scale of 10 lb. capacity, sen- sitive to 1} grain, and the second a prescription scale with a capacity of -5 lb., and sensitive to 6%; grain. These balances have shown a remarkable durability, on account of the en- tire absence of rubbing friction, and scales made upon this principle in 1882 are still (1895) in use with no apparent diminution of their original sensitiveness. WM. KENT. Weights and Measures: instrumental means employed for the exact determination of quantity. Such instrumen- talities are indispensable in science, in mechanical and or- namental art, and in all the variety of exchanges which con- stitute commerce. And as the usefulness of a system of weights and measures to those who employ it depends on the unvarying identity of its determinations, it has been a part of the public policy of every organized community, from the earliest period of civilization, to regulate such systems by law, defining the units which shall be used in measuring each species of quantity, with their multiples and sub-m ul- tiples, and providing carefully constructed standards to which the measures in actual use among the people shall be required to conform. The misfortune has been that, in past centuries, this kind of legislation has been left almost wholly in the hands of local magistracies, who have proceeded with- out any attempt at concert; so that in Europe, previously to 1800, scarcely a town of any commercial importance could be found, from one end of the Continent to the other, which had not its independent system of weights and meas- ures. The embarrassment to commerce growing out of this diversity of systems was enormous. Simply to learn them was a task which few attempted, and fewer accomplished. To transform values from one into another, resort was necessary to tables, or to arithmetical rules mechanically applied, involving a large expense of both time and labor. It is a rather curious fact that, while the mediaeval sys- tems of European weight and measure are so almost end- lessly various, the similarity of their nomenclature through- out would seem to indicate a common origin. All the way from Norway, for instance, to Spain, Italy, Greece, and the Mediterranean islands, the unit of length is called every- where the foot, and the unit of weight, the pound; and these terms, moreover, have been in use for more than 2,000 years, and have been handed down directly from the repub- lies of Greece and the Roman empire. The word pound is simply the Roman joonclus, a “Weight,” and the unit it originally represented was doubtless entirely arbitrary; but the word foot is significant, and points at once to an original prototype in nature. The foot, as a measure of length, made its first appearance in Greece. Tradition asserts that the Olympic foot (for there were several Grecian foot-measures) was derived from the foot of Hercules. As Hercules is a mythic character, this is only to say that, at some time, a unit of length of de- terminate value was adopted for general use, in order to re- move the uncertainties which necessarily existed when the human foot was the measure, and every man was at liberty to use his own. This determinate standard may very pos- sibly or probably have been the length of some particular foot—the foot of some chief or hero—but after its adoption it became practically arbitrary, and the unit of length could no longer have been a dimension of the human person, but must have had for its representative an invariable bar of wood or metal. In this example of the Grecian foot we have an illustra- tion of the manner in which, until the introduction of the modern metric system, all units of measure originated. They were not the creation of legislation. Legislative au- WEIGHTS AND MEASURES thorities have only interposed to regulate and secure uni- formity and permanence in systems found already in exist- ence. These systems have grown up in the rudest stages of society by a sort of social necessity. Without some standard of measurement, however imperfect, there can be no ex- change of commodities founded on the idea of equivalence of value. And even in isolation, the uncultivated savage is forced by the exigencies of his situation to adopt some ex- pedient by which to compare magnitudes of length, or bulk, or height, or distance. He will have need of measures in pro- viding for his immediate personal wants—in the construction of his rude dwelling, his garments, his implements of labor, and the weapons with which he pursues his game. These must, of course, bear some convenient proportion to the dimen- sions of the person whose use they are designed to subserve; and nothing is more natural than that the person itself, or some of its members, should, be directly employed as instru- ments of measurement in their construction. The same standards will then be naturally applied to other objects between which in the progress of time similar comparisons become necessary. In regard to measurements of distance, another idea sug- gests itself, equally growing out of the circumstances and habits of uncivilized man. Before man had learned to sub- jugate animals to his service, his only means of locomotion were such as he ossessed in common with these; and in esti- mating the mo erate distances from his dwelling to which his daily walks might extend, no expedient would be more likely to suggest itself than to count his steps. Thus arose the fundamental unit of itinerary measure, which is still more or less employed for rude determinations—i. e. the pace. The Romans employed this measure, and when the distances to be measured were such as to require a larger unit, they used the mille passaam, 1,000 paces, from which has been derived the mile of the present day. The nomenclature of the metrological systems of all na- tions furnishes abundant evidence of the original derivation of measures of length everywhere from the dimensions of the human person. The foot is a unit of comparatively modern origin. Long before Greece made any figure in history the Egyptians, the Assyrians, and the Babylonians, with whom the Israelites were contemporaneous, monopo- lized whatever of science and cultivation the world then ossessed; and among these the cubit, derived from the ength of the fore arm, of which it is the name, was the unit of linear measure, as it continues to be among their descendants to this day. With the Israelites, moreover, all the subdivisions of this unit purported to be dimensions of the person. The cubit contained two spans; the span, three palms; the palm, four digits. By a curious accident one of the identical original rules employed by Egyptian builders has been preserved to our time, and is now in the British Museum. It had been carelessly left in a hollow portion of the masonry of a temple at Karnak, and built up out of sight, was discovered among the ruins, and was brought to light uninjured after having been hidden 3,000 years. It is a two-cubit rule, and it measures exactly the breadth of the descending entrance-passage of the great pyramid of Ghizeh. Considering that the pyramid is some centuries older than the temple in which the rule was found, this accordance furnishes a striking evidence of the care bestowed on the preservation of standards of meas- urement in that early age. Other measures derived from the person, of which the origin or date is unknown, are the ell (ulna), derived, like the cubit, from the fore arm ; the Italian braocio, the Por- tuguese braea, the Swiss braehe, and the Spanish braza, all signifying the length of the arm; the English yard, from O. Eng. gyrdan, to “gird,” as signifying the girdle or measure of the body’s circumference; the English fathom, also from O. Eng. faabm, embrace, the length of two arms : to which may be added the hand, and perhaps the nail, in England, the poaoe, or thumb’s breadth, in France, and the palgada in Spain, and pollegada in Portugal, meaning the same thing. It is only for measures of length that the dimensions of the human person can furnish prototypes. For other de- scriptions of quantity the original units must have been chosen very much at random. Measures of capacity may have been derived from the content of some natural vessel, as, for instance, a gourd or the shell of a cocoanut. The homer, as a measure of dry capacity among the same peo- ple, signified a heap, and the gomer, a diminutive of this, and the hundredth part of a homer, signified a heap also. 693 These names indicate that the estimate of quantity must have been made by the eye alone, and must have been vague in the extreme. The use of weights implies some acquaintance with the balance, and therefore some degree of advancement in the arts of industry. Weights were therefore not introduced till some time after measures of length, capacity, and probably surface had become familiar. Measures of surface were naturally derived from those of length. These four classes —viz., measures of length, of surface, of volume, and of weight—are all that are commonly understood in speaking of weights and measures. But more or less intimately con- nected with these is the measure of value (see MONEY and COINAGE); besides which there are sundry measures belong- ing more properly to science, such as TIME (treated under that title and under CALENDAR); temperature (see THER- MOMETRY and THERMOMETER), and angular quantity (see TRIGONOMETRY). Though the descriptions of quantity to be measured re- quiring consideration here are only the four first above enu- merated, yet the numbers of systems of measurement which have been simultaneously in use in the same country and among the same peoples have been usually much greater. Thus, of measures of length there are at present among us one unit for carpentry and mechanics, the foot; another for textile fabrics, the yard; another for field-surveying, the chain; and another for road-measure, the mile. The foot is subdivided to inches and lines, or inches and binary sub- multiples; the yard, to quarters and nails; the chain, to links and decimals; and the mile, to furlongs and rods. The superficial measures, which are the squares of these units, are equally diverse. with the addition of the agrarian dimension of the acre. Of capacity-measures there are, for liquids, the gallon, quart, pint, and gill; for cereals and other dry substances, the bushel and peck ; and for firewood, the cord. Of weights there are, for ordinary commerce, the avoirdupois pound, with its sexdecimal subdivisions, and for large masses its irregular multiples of the quarter, hundred, and ton; for bullion, plate, and coin, the pound troy, irregularly subdivided; for drugs and medicines, the apotheearies’ pound, equal to the troy pound, but different- ly subdivided; and for gems, the carat. This multiplica- tion of systems, which is wholly unnecessary, has added much to the difliculty of dealing with problems relating to quantity. The earliest legislation of Great Britain in relation to the subject of weights and measures is contained in the 25th chapter of the reafiirmation of the Great Charter under Henry III. (9 Hen. III., A. D. 1225), which simply declares that they shall be uniform throughout the realm; and a more explicit statute of the following year founds the measures of capacity upon weight. A later statute of 1266 (51 Henry III.) founded measures of weight upon determi- nate numbers of wheat-corns. Moreover, in this early period, as among the ancients, the units of commercial weight were also units of coin-weight. Thus the statute referred to provided that “ an English penny, called a ster- ling. round and without any clipping, shall weigh thirty- two wheat-corns in the midst of the ear, and twenty pence do make an ounce, and twelve ounces one pound, and eight pounds do make a gallon of wine, and eight gallons of wine do make a London bushel, which is the eighth part of a quarter.” The pound thus determined, known as the tower pound, or the sterling or easterling pound, continued to regulate the metrological system of England down to 1496, when it was superseded for this purpose by the troy pound (12 Hen. VII.). being equal to 360 troy grains, or to three-quarters of a troy ounce; whence the weight of the penny sterling was only 22-2 grains troy. The grain-weight troy was not, therefore, the weight of a grain of wheat, as the word would seem to indicate. The grain of mare, used in France in the time of Charlemagne and later. was about four-fifths as heavy as the troy grain; and this, though still exceeding the grain of wheat, is nearer to it, and was probably derived from it. The easterling pound was the pound of the Eastern nations of Europe, and, as we may infer from Camden, was intro- duced into England in the time of Richard Coeur de Lion. It is matter of controversy at what period the troy and avoirdupois pounds were introduced into England. The earliest statute in which the troy pound is mentioned is one of 1414 (2 Hen. V.), intended to regulate the charges of goldsmiths for gilding silver late. In 1496, however, it was by statute of 12 Hen. V I. substituted for the ster- It was a pound of 15 ounces, each ounce ‘ 694 ling pound for the regulation of measures of capacity, the sterling pound continuing to be used at the mint: but by a subsequent statute of 1527 (18 Hen. VIII.). this last was definitely abolished. In the earliest statutes in which the word avoirdupois is used—viz., 9 Edw. III. (1335) and 27 Edw. III. (1353)—-it is applied not to a system of weights, but to the goods themselves which are to be weighed. The earliest legislation in regard to measures of length found in the British statute-book is of date 1324 (17 Edw. II.), and provides that the inch shall have the length of three barleycorns, round and dry, laid end to end; that 12 inches shall make a foot, and 3 feet a yard. Previously to the Conquest, the British yard, according to Prof. Wack- erbarth of the University of Upsala, Sweden, had about the length of 396 inches. It was reduced in length in 1101 by being adjusted to the arm of Henry I. ; but the artificial standards, deposited in the exchequer, were very ill cared for. and became soon untrustworthy; which may have per- haps suggested this reference to a new though exceedingly imperfect natural standard, the barleycorn. During the eighteenth century attention was drawn to this subject, and legislation was proposed, if not perfected, aim- ing at an exactness before unattempted. Careful compari- sons of the British, French, and Roman standards appear in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1736, 1742, and 1743. Graham, the eminent horologist, determined the length of the seconds pendulum in London to be 39'130 inches, afterward corrected to 3914 inches; and prepared for the society a standard yard in 1742. In 1818 a royal commission was appointed by a writ of the privy seal, with Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, as chair- man, which, after making a thorough investigation, made recommendations which were embodied in a statute which went into effect J an. 1, 1826. This en acted that “ the straight line or distance between the centres of the two points in the gold studs in the straight brass rod now in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons, whereon the words and figures ‘Standard Yard, 1760,’ are engraved, shall be, and the same is hereby declared to be, the original and genuine standard of that measure of length or linear exten- sion called a yard” ; and that the same distance, “the brass being at the temperature of sixty-two degrees by Fahren- heit’s thermometer, shall be, and is hereby denominated, the ‘Imperial Standard Yard,’ and shall be, and is hereby declared to be, the unit, or only measure of extension where- from or whereby all other measures of extension whatsoever, whether the same be linear, superficial, or solid, shall be derived, computed, and ascertained.” The act also pro- vided that in case such standard should be lost or injured it should be restored by reference to the length of “the pendu- lum vibrating seconds of mean time in the latitude of Lon- don in a vacuum at the level of the sea ”; which length was declared to be 391393 inches. In regard to weights, it de- clared a brass 1-lb. weight made in the year 1758, then in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons, to be authentic, and named it the“ imperial standard troy pound.” It further declared that the said standard pound should contain 12 oz. of 20 pennyweights, each pennyweight con- taining 24 grains, “ so that 5,760 such grains shall be a troy pound ; and that 7,000 such grains shall be, and are hereby declared to be, a pound avoirdupois.” For the case in which such pound should be lost or injured, provision was made in the original bill for its restoration by reference to the weight of a cubic inch of water, which, as weighed in a vacuum, “by brass weights also in a vacuum, at the tem- perature of 62° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer,” was declared to be “equal to 252724 grains.” Before its final passage, however, in 1824, the weight of the cubic inch of water weighed by brass weights in air (declared to be 252'458 grains at 62° F. and 30 inches barometric pressure), was sub- stituted for the weight in cacao. As to measures of capac- ity, it was enacted that the standard measure, whether for liquids or for dry goods, should be the gallon, containing, at the temperature of 62° F., with the barometer at 30 inches, 10 lbs. avoirdupois weight of distilled water weighed in the air; and the construction of such a measure of brass was ordered, which was to be called the “imperial standard gallon.” It is further declared that the standard gallon as- certained by this act is equal in bulk to 277274 cubic inches at the temperature of 62° F. ' In 1834 the houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire, and with them the “ original and genuine ” standards. Practical difficulties were found in the way of replacing the yard by the means prescribed in the act. A commission ap- WEIGHTS AND MEASURES pointed in 1838 under Airy, the astronomer-royal, reported against the pendulum method, and taking the best secon- dary evidence produced a standard bar of gun-metal, 38 inches long and 1 inch square, the distance between two lines on which, crossing two gold studs, is one yard, at 62° F. and 30 inches barometric pressure. The pound was re- produced from the copy in the mint. These standards were legalized by act of Parliament (18 and 19 Vict., cha . 72). The Weights and Measures Act of 1878 (41 and 42 ict., chap. 49) regulates the law, rendering all old and local weights and measures, other than imperial ones, illegal. Early in the colonial history of the U. S. the British ex- chequer standards of weights and measures had been legal- ized by many of the colonial legislatures. They were not always specified by name in the earlier acts, but were always implied, and in subsequent legislation were sometimes in- cidentally named. Thus in Virginia, an order of the Gen- eral Assembly of Mar. 5. 1623 “(N. s. 1624), directed that no weights or measures should be used, but such as should be sealed by oflicers appointed for the purpose. But by an act of Feb. 23, 1631-32, it was ordained “that a barrel of corn should be accounted five bushels of Winchester measure,” which was then the British bushel; and another act, of Oct. 5, 1646, provided that “no merchant or trader, whether English or Dutch, shall trade with other weights and meas- ures than according to the statute of Parliament in such cases provided.” In Massachusetts also an act of 1647 directed the treasurer of the commonwealth to “provide weights and measures of all sorts for continual standards.” Other statutes provided that casks should be “ of London assize.” In 1730 a set of brass and copper avoirdupois weights and measures was imported from the British ex- chequer, and in 1765 the treasurer was required to procure a balance"and a nest of troy weights. After the Revolution, by act of Feb. 26, 1800, the principal provisions of the colo- nial statutes in regard to weights and measures were con- firmed. New Hampshire and Vermont appear to have fol- lowed Massachusetts in their colonial legislation as to meas- ures of capacity, but in neither of them was there any dis- tinct recognition of troy weight. Rhode Island passed no statute on the subject at all. In Connecticut, after the Rev- olution, it was enacted (Oct., 1800) “that the brass meas- ures, the property of this State, kept at the treasury—that is to say, a half-bushel measure containing one thousand and ninety-nine cubic inches, very near, a peck measure, and a half-peck measure, when reduced to a just proportion--be the standard of the corn-measures of this State which are called by those names respectively; that the brass measures ordered to be provided by this Assembly—one of the capa- city of two hundred and twenty-four cubic inches, and the other of the capacity of two hundred and eighty-two cubic inches--shall be, when procured, the first of them the stand- ard of a wine-gallon, and the other the standard of the ale or beer gallon in this State; that the iron or brass rod or plate ordered by this Assembly to be provided——of one yard in length, to be divided into three equal parts for feet, in length, and one of those parts to be subdivided into twelve equal parts for inches-—shall be the standard of those meas- ures respectively ; and that the brass weights, the property of the State, kept at the treasury--of one, two, four, seven, fourteen, twenty-eight, and fifty-six pounds—sha1l be the standard of avoirdupois weight in this State.” By the colonial laws of the same State, it appears that there were public standards provided as early as 1670, and in 1752 the gallon of 231 cubic inches had been established. As this was the gallon of Queen Anne (1706), which continued from her time down to 1826 to be the standard-wine-gallon of England, and as the gallon of 224 cubic inches is the old gallon of Henry VII. (1496), it is diflicult to account for the enactment just cited. The half-bushel of 1,099 cubic inches was never at any time a British measure. Connecticut never by express law sanctioned the use of troy weights, but, in her tax-laws, silver plate is rated at $1.11 an ounce, by which a troy ounce must have been intended. The earliest legislation sanctioned the London assize of casks. The pro- vincial legislature of New York, on June 19, 1703, estab- lished all the British weights and measures for the province “according to the standards in the exchequer.” In 1829, however, in a revision of the statutes, a provision was em- bodied adopting the British imperial bushel, and a gallon measure capable of containing 8 lb. of distilled water at maximum ensity. In the same code it was also provided that the standard yard should bear to the pendulum beat- ing seconds at Columbia College, New York city, in mono, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES at the level of the sea, the proportion of 1,000,000 to 1,086,- 141. New Jersey in Aug., 1725, adopted the exchequer stand- ards of England. The same was done in Pennsylvania in 1700, in Delaware in 1705, and in Maryland in 1671. The colony of North Carolina prohibited the use of any weights and measures but such as should be constructed “ according to the standard in the English exchequer.” South Carolina in 1768 passed an act requiring the public treasurer to procure avoirdupois weights of brass or other metal, and also a bushel and other measures of capacity, “ according to the standard of London.” In Georgia no colonial legislation appears to have taken place upon this subject. After the Revolution, by act of Dec. 10, 1803, the standard of weights and measures estab- lished by the city corporations of Savannah and Augusta is declared to be the standard of the State till such time as the Congress of the U. S. shall have made a different provision. Of the States admitted to the Union since the adoption of the Constitution of 1787, some have passed laws similar to those above described, and some have not legislated at all. The case of Louisiana was peculiar. Before the acquisition of that territory by. the U. S. the weights and measures used in the province were those of the old standard of Paris. An act of the Legislature of Dec. 21, 1814, required the Gov- ernor to procure, at the expense of the State, weights and measures corresponding with those used by the revenue ofiicers of the U. S., to be deposited with the Secretary of State, and to serve as the general standard for the State. The condition of the matter of standards of measure in the U. S. is (1895) essentially as follows: Although the Con- stitution authorizes Congress to fix the standard of weights and measures, this power has never been definitely exer- cised, and comparatively little legislation has been enacted on the subject. Its importance was recognized by \Vash- ington, J eiferson, and Adams, and as early as 1790‘J efierson proposed to “reduce every branch to the decimal ratio al- ready established for coins, and thus bring the calculation of the principal affairs of life within the arithmetic of every man who can multiply and divide.” The failure on the part of Congress to exercise the powers conferred by the Constitution made it necessary for the executive branch of the Government to take action in the way of procuring standards for use in the collection of revenue, and other operations in which weights and measures were required. A brass scale by Troughton, of London, was obtained by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1814. It was 82 inches in length, and a part of it (from the 27th to the 63d inch line) was tentatively a.dopted as the unit of length. A platinum meter and kilogramme were procured by Gallatin in 1821, and a copy of the English troy pound was brought from London, also by Gallatin, in 1827. The latter became, by act of Congress 1828, the standard of mass for the mint of the U. S., and, although totally unfit for the purpose, it has since continued to be the legal standard for coinage purposes. In 1830 an examination of the standards of weight and measure used in the principal custom-houses -of the country disclosed large discrepancies, and led to the adoption by the Treasury Department of the Troughton scale as a standard of length and the avoirdupois pound de- rived from the troy pound of the mint as the unit of mass. At the same time, the department adopted the wine gallon vof 231 cubic inches for liquid measure, and the Winchester bushel of 2,150'42 cubic inches for dry measure. In the meantime most of the States had passed laws relating to weights and measures, as explained above, and the stand- ards adopted'were in many instances essentially difierent, so that the confusion which had prevailed during and since the colonial period promised to become greater rather than less. In order to encourage uniformity, the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized in 1886 to cause a complete :set of all weights and measures adopted as standards by the -department for the use of the custom-houses and for other purposes to be delivered to the Governor of each State in the Union for the use of the States respectively, thus fur- nishing material standards, the adoption of which would secure practical uniformity throughout the country. These -standards were generally adopted by action of the State au- thorities, and in this way the words pound and yard have come to have everywhere in t-he U. S. the same meaning as far as their practical use is concerned, although rigorously speaking the standards of no two States can agree exactly. There are still wide differences and great confusion in the legislation afiecting volume units, especially where it is at- tempted to relate volume to mass as in defining the number of pounds in a bushel of various grains, fruits, etc. WEI-HAI—WEI 695 The first and almost the only general legislation on the subject of weights and measures was the act of Congress of July 28, 1866, making the use of the metric system lawful throughout the U. S., and defining the weights and meas- ures in common use in terms of the units of that system. In 1875 an international metric convention was agreed upon by the principal governments of the world, including the U. S., at which it was undertaken to establish and maintain at common expense a permanent international bureau of weights and measures, the first object of which should be the preparation of a new international standard metre and a new international standard kilogramme. copies of which should be made for distribution among the con- tributing governments. This distribution was effected by lot in 1889, and the U. S. received metres Nos. 21 and 27 and kilogrammes Nos. 4 and 20. They are made of an alloy of platinum with 10 per cent. iridium. On Jan. 2, 1890, metre No. 27 and kilogramme No. 20 were adopted as the national prototype metre and kilogramme. The pound and yard, which, by reason of their adoption by the Treasury Department, had become the customary units throughout the country, were based upon standards copied from those in use in England in the early part of the nineteenth century, as explained above. After the destruc- tion of the latter at the burning of the Parliament House in 1834, it was the policy in the U. S. to make the yard and pound the exact equivalents of the new imperial stand- ards adopted by Great Britain, although these were derived from surviving copies of the old units, and unquestionably differ slightly from them. The earlier standards-—namely, the Troughton scale and the mint troy pound—were quite in- ferior in construction and unsuitable for standards of high precision. Accurate copies of the new imperial standards were received at the office of weights and measures in Washington, and became the prototypes for all refined com- parisons. This practice could not affect, however, the legal requirement that the troy pound should be the standard for coinage purposes. During recent years, and especially since the receipt of the national prototype metre and kilogramme, it has been the practice to make final reference to accepted metric standards. The law of 1866 had defined the yard in terms of the metre so accurately that the most recent and most carefully conducted comparisons do not show it to be in error, and the pound in terms of the kilogramme so as not to difier from the English pound avoirdupois by as much as 1 part in 100,000, and in view of these facts, and in the ab- sence of any material normal standards of customary weights and measures, the Secretary of the Treasury, on Apr. 5, 1893, formally approved the recommendation of the superintendent of weights and measures. that in the future the international prototype metre and kilogramme be re- garded as the fundamental standards of length and mass for the U. S. Government, and that the customary units, the yard and the pound, be derived from them in accordance with the act of July 28, 1866. The result of this action is that, as far as the jurisdiction of the Treasury Department extends in this matter, the yard is now defined as being of a metre, and the pound avoirdupois of a kilo- gramme, thus putting these standards in direct relation with those of other civilized nations, in all of which, with only one or two exceptions, the metric system is now in use. The only legislation on the subject of weights and measures by which the entire country is affected, except the act of 1866 above referred to, is an act establishing a gauge for sheet metal, and another approved July 12, 1894, in which Congress defined eight units for the measure of electrical quantity. These units are derived from the fundamental units of length, mass, and time of the metric system. They were agreed upon by an international congress of electri- cians which met in Chicago in 1893, and have been essen- tially acce ted by Great Britain and other foreign govern- ments. T ey are defined in the article on Unrrs (q. 22). ~ Revised by T. C. MENDENHALL. Weights, Atomic: See Cnnmsrnv. Wei-hai-wei, wa-hi-wa: a port on the north coast of the Shantung promontory, China; lat. 37° 30’ N.. lon. 122° 28' E. The harbor is large and well sheltered on all sides. an isl- and (Liu-kung-tao), in the mouth of the bay, on which the town stands, protecting it from the N. E. winds. For some years past the place has been the seat of an important ar- senal and strongly fortified, but was taken by the Japanese after a stubborn resistance in the early spring of 1895. 696 WEIL Weil. HENRI: classical scholar; b. at Frankfort-on-the Main, Germany, Aug. 26, 1818; studied in Bonn, Berlin, and Leipzig; took the degree of Doctor of Letters in Paris 1845; associate professor at the Faculty of Letters in Strass- burg in 1847 ; was naturalized in 1848, appointed professor at the Faculty of Letters at Besancon in 1849, and in 1876 called to Paris as Prgfessor of Greek at the Ecole normale supérieure and the Ecole des hautes études. Among his publications, chiefly devoted to Greek oratory and tragedy, are his editions of Eschylus (2d ed. 1884) ; seven plays of Euripides (2d ed. 1879) ; Les harangues de Démosthrine (2d ed. 1881) ; Les plaidoyers politigues de Démosthréne (2 vols., 1877-86): and his famous treatise, entitled De l’ordre des mots dans les langues anciennes comparées aua: langues mod- ernes (Paris, 1845 ; 3d ed. 1879). ALFRED GUDEMAN. Weilen, vi’len, JOSEPH, von : dramatist ; b. at Tetin, Bo- hemia, Dec. 28, 1828; studied at Prague and Vienna; served in the Austrian army in Hungary in 1848, and was appoint- ed Professor of History and Geography at the engineering academy of Znaim in 1854, Professor of the German Lan- guage and Literature at the military academy in Vienna, and custodian at the imperial library in 1861. His poems, Phantasien und Lieder (Vienna, 1853) and Ilfdnner vom Sohwerte (Vienna, 1855), attracted some attention, and sev- eral Of his dramas had still more success-Tristan (Breslau, 1860; 2d ed. 1872) ; Edda (Vienna, 1865); Drahomira (Vi- enna, 1867) ; Graf Horn (Leipzig, 1871); and Der neue Achilles (Leipzig, 1872). D. in Vienna, July 3, 1889. Revised by JULIUS GOEBEL. Weimar, vi’ma“ar: capital of the grand duchy of Saxo- Weimar: on the Ilm, and on the Prussian and Thuringian- Saxon railways (see map of German Empire, ref. 4-F). It is a quiet, neat, pleasant, and aristocratic place, contains few imposing edifices, and has hardly any trade or manufactures ; its population is 24,546 (1890). In 1547 it became the per- manent residence of the Ernestinian line (the Albertinian line reigns in Dresden), and was conspicuous during the sec- ond classical period of German literature, when Wieland, Herder, Goethe, Schiller, and many lesser authors at the court of Karl August filled the world with the fame of their classicism. The grand-ducal castle, rebuilt in 1774 after the great fire, is very rich in relics and memorials of that time. Other places of interest are a park established by Karl Au- gust and Goethe, the library with 180,000 vols. besides stat- ues and portraits, the state archive with rich historical treas- ures, the court theater, Goethe’s house (from 1782-1832) now opened as a Goethe museum, Schiller’s humble residence (from 1802-05), the permanent exposition of art and art in- dustry, containing also a Japanese museum, all these com- bining to make the “ German Athens ” a literary center which is visited by thousands from all civilized countries. In the grand-ducal burial vault Schiller and Goethe rest side by side. Within the old parish church are the tombs of Herder and Duke Bernhard of Weimar (see BERNHARD), the hero of the Thirty Years’ war. Beautiful statues of princes and poets adorn the city and the classical environs, where are the castles of Belvedere. Tiefurt, Ettersburg, and Oss- manstedt with Wieland’s grave. See Franke, l/Veimar und Umgebungen (Weimar, 1886). HERMANN SOHOENFELD. Weimar: town (founded in 1873); Colorado co., Tex.; on the S. Pac. Co.’s Railroad ; 16 miles W. of Columbus, the county-seat (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 5-I). It has 6 churches, a private and 2 public schools, 2 private banks, a weekly newspaper, electric lights, oil-mills, and manufac- tories of vinegar, blueing, sash and doors, corn and cotton planters, and post-hole diggers. Pop. (1880) 626 ; (1890) 1,443 ; (1895) estimated, 1,800. PUBLISHER or “ MERCURY.” Weimar, Duke of : See BERNHARD. Weinsberg, vinS’barch: small town ; 3 miles E. N. E. of I-Ieilbronn, in the kingdom of Wiirtemberg, Germany; for- merly a free imperial city; in the Neckar district, in the center of the densely populated Weinsberg valley: a station of the Wiirtemberg state railways (see map of German Em- pire, ref. 6-E). Pop. (1890) 2,313. It has a classical school and an interesting church built in the thirteenth century in the Roman style. Over the town are the picturesque ruins of the castle Weibertreu, so called in memory of the famous legend celebrated by‘Bi'Irger’s ballad. Emperor Conrad III., after the victory over Count Welf in 1140, besieged the re- bellious vassal in Weinsberg and, irritated by the desperate resistance of the besieged, he ordered—so the legend runs— that all the men in the town should be put to death, and WEISS only the women should leave the town with their most prec- ious property. On the day of surrender the women marched out carrying their husbands on their backs. The stratagem succeeded. See Dillenius, Chronih von Weinsberg (Stuttgart, 1860) ; Bernheim, Die Sage von den treuen Weibern zu Weins- berg (1875). HERMANN SOHOENFELD. Weir, weer : city: Cherokee co., Kan. ; on the Kan. City, Ft. Scott and Mom. and the St. L. and San Fran. railways; 31 miles E. of Parsons, 137 miles S. of Kansas City (for loca- tion, see map of Kansas, ref. 8-K). It is in a coal-mining region, and has a zinc-manufacturing plant with capacity of 78,000 lb. of spelter a day. There are 6 churches, 3 public schools, a State bank with capital of $7.000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 376; (1890) 2,138; (1895) estimated with suburbs, 5,000. EDITOR OF “ WEIR CITY TRIBUNE.” Weir, HARRISON WILLIAM: illustrator; b. at Lewes, Eng- land, May 5, 1824; was apprenticed to a wood-engraver at London; gave great attention to natural history and studied water-coloring painting; was one of the original members of the Society of Painters in Water-colors: became noted for his wood-engravings of animals in the Illustrated Lon- don News, the Children’s Friend, the Band-of-Hope Review, and other periodicals, and by his illustrations to several books on natural history. He is the author of The Poetry of Nature (1865) ; Funny Dogs with Funny Tales ; The Ad- ventures of a Bear; Bird Stories, Old and New ; Our Cats, and all about Them, and other works, some of which were illustrated by himself. ' Weir, JOHN FERGUSON : portrait and genre painter; b. at West Point, N. Y., Aug. 28, 1841; pupil of his father, R. W. \Veir ; visited Europe in 1868 ; National Academician 1866; director of the Yale School of Fine Arts, New Haven, 1869. He is also a sculptor. The Culprit Fae , Christmas Bell, Forging the Shaft, and The Confessional are among his principal works. His studio is in New Haven. W. A. C. Weir, JULIAN ALDEN: portrait, landscape, and genre painter; b. at West Point, N. Y., Aug. 30, 1852; pupil of his father, R. W. Weir, and of Gérdme in Paris; member Society of American Artists 1877; National Academician 1886; member of American Water-color Society; honor- able mention Paris Salon .1882; second-class medal Paris Exposition, 1889, and third-class medal for drawings. The works of his earlier period are somber in tone and possess depth of color and distinction of general aspect. Since 1887 he has followed the impressionist methods of painting and produced a number of landscapes that are notable for lumi- nous and atmospheric quality. His pictures, whatever their style or manner of painting, are marked by artistic treat- ment. His studio is in New York. WILLIAM A. COFFIN. Weir, ROBERT \/VALTER: historical and genre ainter; b. at New Rochelle, N. Y., June 18, 1803; upil of arvis; be- gan to paint portraits in 1821 : went to lorence in 1824 and studied with Benvenuti; National Academician 1829; Pro- fessor of Drawing at the U. S. Military Academy 1837-79. D. in New York, May 1,1889. His Embarhation of the Pil- grims is in the Capitol at Washington, D. C. VV. A. C. Weishaupt, vis’howpt, ADAM : the founder of the Society of the ILLUMINATI (q. v.). Weismann, vis’ma”an, AUGUST: naturalist; b. at Frank- fort-on-the-Main, Germany, Jan. 17, 1834; studied medicine at Gtittingen, and was for a time physician to the Archduke of Austria ; then turned to zotilogy, and for many years has been professor in the University of Freiburg in Baden. He has published numerous papers on the structure and de- velopment of insects and crustacea, and later has devoted himself to more philosophical questions. I-Iis writings have been the greatest stimulation to research of any since the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species. Among his most important works are Entwichelung der Diptercn (Leip- zig, 1863) ; Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Daphnoiden (Leipzig, 1876-80) ; Studies in the Theory of Descent (1880); Es- says on Heredity (1888-92); and Germ Plasm (1893). For his peculiar views, see HEREDITY. J . S. K. Weiss, wis, JOHN: author; b. in Boston, Mass., June 28, 1818 ; graduated at Harvard College in 1837 ; taught at Chauncy Hall and Jamaica Plain; entered the Cambridge Divinity School in 1840; passed the winter of 1842-43 in Heidelberg, Germany; graduated at the Harvard Divinity School, and settled in Watertown in 1843 ; withdrew on ac- count of strong anti-slavery opinions, and went in 1847 to New Bedford; left soon by reason of failing health; spent some years in repose, quiet study, and travel; was minister WEISSBRUN N a ain in Watertown 1859-70; retired in order to devote himself to literature; published in 1845 a translation of Schiller’s philosophical and aesthetic essays, Esthetic Prose; Life and Correspondence of Theodore Parker (2 vols, New York, 1864) ; Americcm Religion (Boston, 1871) ; Wet, Humor, and Slia/eespere (Boston, 1876) ; The Immortal Life (Boston, 1880). Weiss was one of the leading disciples of the Transcendental philosophy, an ardent abolitionist, _a zealous champion in the cause of woman’s political emanci- ation, and an apostle of rationalism in religion. D. in Boston, Mass., Mar. 9, 1879. Revised by J . W. CHADWICK. Weissbrunn: See VESZPRIM. Weissenfels, ois'en-fels: a city in the Prussian province of Saxony; station of two Prussian state railways: on the Saale, 18% miles S. W. of Leipzig (see map of German Em- pire, ref. 4-F). It has considerable trade in wood and grain, and several cotton spinning and weaving factories, and manufactures leather goods, paper, porcelains, and ar- ticles of gold and silver. Sandstone and coal are worked in the vicinity. Weissenfels has a spacious market-place, three fine churches, a teachers’ seminary, a deaf-mute in- stitute, and a pro-gymnasium. Pop. (1890) 23,779. H. S. Weit'spekan Indians: a family of North American Indians of Northeastern California. They take their name from Weitspele, a village at the junction of the Trinity and Klamath rivers. The family has also been called Yurok, a Karok (Quoratean) word signifying down or below. The area occupied by the family includes the territory from the junction of the Trinity and Klamath rivers to the Pacific, extending northward a short distance beyond the mouth of the Klamath and Little and Mad rivers. It is therefore mainly within the limits of Humboldt co., Cali- fornia. The tribes were separated into two divisions—the Yurok, inhabiting Klamath river and the coast from a few miles above the mouth of the latter river southward to Gold Bluff; and the Chilula, extending from the latter point to the southern boundary of the family, particularly along Redwood creek. The latter, however, were long ago removed to the reservation of the Hupa, by which tribe they were absorbed. The Yurok are physically inferior to the Karok, their eastern neighbors. On the coast the natives are inclined to be udgy, while the inland inhabitants of the Klamath are of finer form. They are also much darker than the Karok, and have lower foreheads and more projecting chins. Both the Yurok and Chilula, like nearly all the Californian tribes, were divided into a number of petty villages, each with a political head of only nominal authority. The Yurok recognized also a tribal chief. The houses of the Yurok are similar to the Karok habi- tations. They are squarely constructed of split poles or puncheons planted erect in the ground and covered with a fiattish puncheon roof. Sometimes this cabin is erected on the level ground; more frequently, however, it is built over a circular cellar 12 or 15 feet in diameter. They depend for their livelihood largely upon their own labor, being em- loyed by neighboring miners, and as pack-train drivers, arm hands, etc. They make and sell canoes of redwood (the capacity of some being 5 tons) and transport passengers and merchandise on the river. The women weave from willow twigs and pine roots large round mats, hats, and water-tight baskets of various shapes and designs for house- hold use. The Yurok cling to the use of the bow and arrow, although in the latter points of metal have succeeded the primitive stone arrowheads. They continue to use fiint and jasper knives in cleaning and cutting salmon. This fish forms their principal food, and large quantities are obtained by means of nets woven of pine roots or grass, as well as by the spear and line. Being strictly a maritime people, the Yurok are rather inferior hunters, but expert and fearless watermen. They are monogamists; marriage is practically by purchase. the purchase price being returned to the husband by the wife’s father in event of divorce, which is easily obtained. The dead are buried in a recumbent posture, and a fire is made on certain nights in the vicinity of the grave, presumably to guide the departed soul on its darksomc journey. They believe in the transmigration of the soul, and that the wicked return in the form of weak animals, to be harried and devoured. They now recognize the existence of a Su- preme Being, known to them as “ Gard,” which would seem to denote Christian influence. At the time of the advent of the whites into their country the Yurok are said to have wELcH 697 numbered about 5,000. In 1870 the population was about 2,700, which number has considerably decreased. See IND- IANS or NoR'rH AMERICA. J . W. POWELL. Weitzel, GoDFREY; soldier; b. in Cincinnati, 0., Nov. 1, 1835; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy July, 1855, and became second lieutenant of engineers; served in the construction and repairs of fortifications about New Orleans until 1859, when he was transferred to West Point as Assist- ant Professor of Engineering. In the early part of the civil war he served in the defense of Fort Pickens Apr.—Sept., 1861, and was chief engineer in the department of the Ohio Oct.-Dec., 1861. On the organization of Gen. Butler’s ex- pedition to New Orleans Weitzel was selected as chief engi- neer. He planned the capture of New Orleans, and on its fall was appointed acting military commander and mayor of the city. Commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers Aug. 29, 1862, he drove the Confederates from the La Fourche district, the battle of Labadieville occurring Oct. 27. He commanded the district until Apr., 1863, when he joined his force to that besieging Port Hudson. and, upon its surrender, was given the first division of the Nineteenth Corps; engaged in the expedition to Sabine Pass. In Apr., 1864, he was ordered to Virginia, and was chief engineer of the Army of the James (May-Sept., 1864), constructing the defenses of Bermuda Hundred and Deep Bottom, and in command of second division of Eighteenth Corps was en- gaged in the various operations of that army, including the actions near Drury’s Bluff. In Nov., 1864, he was promoted major-general, and in December was given the Twenty-fifth Corps. He accompanied Butler’s unsuccessful expedition to Fort Fisher as second in command. The troops N. of the Appomattox were assigned to him in Mar., 1865, and on the morning of Apr. 3 he took possession of Richmond. He commanded a military district in Texas Apr., 1865, to Mar., 1866, when he was mustered out of volunteer service. He received the brevets of major, lieutenant-colonel, colonel, brigadier and major general in the regular army. Return- ing to duty with his corps, in which he was made major in Aug., 1866, he was afterward engaged on engineering work in connection with the Louisville and Portland Canal, St. Mary’s Falls Canal. improvement of the falls of the Ohio, etc., and on lighthouse construction, and was promoted lieu- tenant-colonel of engineers 1882. D. in Philadelphia, Mar. 19, 1884. Revised by JAMES MERCUR. Weizsiicker, oits’sek-er, KARL HEINRICH, von, Ph. D., D. D.: Protestant theologian; b. at Oehringen, VViirtem- berg, Germany, Dec. 11, 1822; became privat docent of theology at Tiibingen 1847; professor there, in succession to Baur, 1861; and chancellor of the university in 1890. In 1848 he became preacher at Stuttgart, in 1851 court chaplain, in 1859 was made a member of the superior con- sistory. Of his numerous publications may be mentioned Zur Ifritik des Barnabasbrief aus dem Codex Sinaiticns (Tiibingen, 1863); U71Z‘87'8'll0]l/l£'lZg€'7L iiber die erangelische Geschichte. and den Gang ihrer Entwicl.'elang (Gotha, 1864; 2d ed. Freiburg im Br., 1891); Lehrer and Unterricht an der evangelisch-theologischen Facnltdt der U1iii*ersi'tdt T il- bingen /von der Reformation bis zar Gegenu-art (Tiibingen, 1877); Das aioostolische Zeitalter der christlichen Kirche (Freiburg im Br., 1886: 2d ed. 1892; Eng. trans., The Apos- tolic Age of the Christian Ohnrch, London and New York, 1894); and especially his much admired translation of the New Testament, which is one of the best productions of the kind (Tiibingen, 1875 ; 7th ed. Freiburg im Br., 1894). SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON. Welch. ASHBEL: civil engineer: b. at Nelson, N. Y., Dec. 4, 1809. In 1827 he began engineering work on the Lehigh Canal. In 1835 he was appointed chief engineer of the Delaware and Raritan Canal, and later he located and built the Belvidere and Delaware Railroad. In 1853 he prepared the plans for the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal. After 1862 he was manager, and later president of the Penn- sylvania Railway lines in New Jersey. He was the first to introduce in the U. S. the block system of operating trains. He was the author of papers on railway engineering and economies. In 1881 he was elected president of the Amer- ican Society of Civil Engineers. D. at Lambertville. N. J ., Sept. 25, 1882. MANsEIELD MERRIMAN. Welch. PHILIP HENRY: humorist; b. at Angelica, N. Y., Mar. 1, 1849. He was engaged in mercantile business till 1882, when he became connected with the Rochester, N. Y., Post-E./rpress. In 1884 he joined the staff of the New York San, furnishing its columns with jokes and short humorous 698 WELGH dialogues which became famous. These he turned off in exhaustless profusion, many of them from his sick-bed, dur- ing a long and painful illness. D. in Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 24, 1889. He was the author of The Tailor-made Girl (1888) and Said in Fun (1889). HENRY A. BEERS. Welch, WILLIAM HENRY, M. D., LL. D.: pathologist; b. at Norfolk, Conn., Apr. 8, 1850; graduated at Yale College 1870, and at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, 1875 ; studied pathology at the Universities of Strass- burg, Leipzig, Breslau, and Berlin; was demonstrator of Anatomy and Professor of Pathological Anatomy 111 Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York, 1878-83; In 1884 was elected Professor of Pathology in Johns Hopkins University, and has been pathologist to Johns Hopkins Hospital, Balt1- more, since its opening in 1889. He was president of the Med- ical and Chirurgical Faculty of the State of Maryland 111 1891-92. He is the author of the sections on pathology and pathological anatomy in the fifth (1881) and sixth (1886)ed1- tions of Flint’s Theory and Practice of Jlledicyne; of the chapter on Organic Diseases of the Stomach In Pepper’s System of llfedicine (1885); of the chapter on General Gon- siderations concerning the Biology of Bacteria, Injection and Immunity in Pepper’s Text-boo/mo_f the Theory and Practice of ll’[edicine (1894); of the Cartwright lectures on the General Pathology of Fever (1888); and of_ numerous papers on pathological and histological subjects In German and American medical journals. S. T. ARMSTRONG. Welcker, cel’ker, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB: Greek scholar and archaeologist; b. at Griinberg, Hesse, Germany, Nov. 4, 1784; studied at Giessen; was tutor in the home of Wilhelm von Humboldt in Rome (1806-09); called to the chair of Archaeology at Giessen; took part in the French campaign (1814); professor at Gdttingen in 1816, at Bonn 1819; de- posed for political reasons in 1832, but soon reinstated. Owing to failing eyesight, however, he retired in 1861. D. at Bonn, Dec. 17, 1868. Welcker was one of the greatest classical scholars of the nineteenth century, and his numer- ous writings on Greek literature, mythology, and art possess a permanent value. Only a few of the most famous can be mentioned here: Alte Denhmdler (5 vols., Gtittingen, 1849-64); Griechische Gdtierlehre (3 vols., Gtittingen, 1863); Die griechische Tragiidie mit Rilchsicht auf den epischen Oyclus geordnet (3 vols., Bonn, 1841), an epoch-making work; Der epische Gyclus (3 vols., Bonn, 1835-49; 2d ed. 1865-82); Aeschyleische Trilogie (Darmstadt, 1824; sup- plement, Frankfort, 1826). Editions of Alcman, Hippo- nax, Philostratus’s Imagines, Theognis, Hesiod’s Theogony; Kleine Schrifien, 6 vols., among which the treatises on Sappho and Prodicus are especially noteworthy. See the biography by Reinhold Kekulé (Leipzig, 1880). ALFRED GUDEMAN. Weld, W0ld, or Dyer’s Weed: the Reseda luteola, an annual herbaceous plant which is a native of the southern parts of Europe, but has been naturalized in the U. S. It contains a yellow coloring-matter termed luteoline which is highly esteemed for its durability, and ranks among vege- table dyes next to the Persian berry. Luteoline is extract- ed from the plant by treatment with boiling water; it is more soluble in alcohol and in ether; when heated it sub- limes and condenses in yellow needles; it furnishes yellow lakes with lead acetate, alum, and tin chloride, and is ex- tensively used for imparting a gold color to silks and for paper-staining. The entire plant is also employed for dye- ing purposes in Europe, including England, but its consump- tion has greatly diminished since the introduction of quer- citron. In preparing baths from weld the exhausted plant should be removed from the liquid, and the latter used as soon as possible, as its decoetion speedily undergoes decom- position on exposure to the air. Welde, THOMAS : clergyman; b. in England about 1590; studied at Trinity College, Cambridge; graduated 1613; took orders in the Church of England ; was for some years minister of a church at Farling, Essex; being molested as a Puritan by the ecclesiastical authorities, emigrated to New England; arrived at Boston June 5, 1632; was ordained the following month as first minister of the church of Roxbury; received in November as a colleague John Eliot ; took part at the trial of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson as an opponent of her peculiar doctrines 1637 ; was associated with Eliot and Richard Mather in 1639 in making the translation of the Psalms known as the “ Bay Psalm-book ” ( The Whole Boole of Psalms faithfully lra/nslated into English Illetre, Cam- bridge, 1640), which was the first volume printed in New WELLAND CANAL England; was sent with Hugh Peters to England in 1641 as agent for the colony—-a post he filled until 1646, when he was dismissed and requested to return, but remained in England; was afterward pastor of a church at Gateshead, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne; accompanied Lord Forbes to Ireland, and resided there some time; subsequently re- turned to England, and was ejected from his living for non- conformity 1662. D. Mar. 23, 1662. He published A Short Story of the Rise, Reign, and Ruin of the Anlinomians, Familists, and Libertines that infected the Churches of New England (London, 1644; 2d ed. 1692), a celebrated tract of which another shorter version, Antinomians and Familists condemned, etc. (1644), appeared about the same time, leaving it doubtful which is the original edition, and whether Gov. John Winthrop may not have been the chief author, as maintained by several antiquaries. It was answered by Rev. John Wheelwright in his Jtlercurius Americanus, etc. (1645). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Welding [cf. Dan. cdlde, boil, gush : Swed. cdlla, weld : Germ. wellen, boil, well up, weld]: a term applied to a phe- nomenon exhibited by iron, platinum, and probably some other metals, consisting in the assumption at a certain tem- perature of a glutinous cohesion between surfaces, accom- panied, in the case of iron, with a considerable degree of plasticity and viscosity. It is doubtful whether this char- acter as manifested in iron differs in nature from the same character as assumed by semi-fused shellac or sealing-wax. It is one of the most important properties, in a practical sense, of both iron and platinum, for without it neither of these valuable metals could be readily or cheaply obtained in large homogeneous masses. The process of puddling iron is founded on the welding cohesiveness produced at the heat of the puddling-hearth as the iron gradually loses its car- bon and other contaminating impurities. The tool of the operative causes the particles of iron, as they gradually “ come to nature,” to cohere together gradually into a ball. The same remark applies to the processes of obtaining soft iron direct from the ore in bloomeries or Catalan forges. Platinum is obtained in masses by forming it into sponge by chemical means, then compressing this into a cylinder, which, when heated highly and hammered, welds into a compact homogeneity. See also ELEcTRIc WELDING. Revised by R. H. THURsToN. Weldon: town; Halifax co., N. C.; on the Roanoke river, and the Atl. Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line railways ; 80 miles S. of Richmond, Va., and 97 miles E. of Raleigh (for location, see map of North Carolina, ref. 2-1). It is in an agricultural region, with excellent water-power, and has 6 churches, 2 public and 2 private schools, a State bank with capital of $10,000, a weekly newspaper, large winery, and several mills in its vicinity. Pop. (1880) 932; (1890) 1,286; (1895) 1,800. EDITOR or “ ROANOKE Nnws.” Welhaven, cel-haa’fen, J OHAN SEBASTIAN CAMMERMEYER: oet; b. at Bergen, Norway, Dec. 22,1807; studied at the llniversity of Christiania; began to lecture on philosophy in 1840 ; was ap ointed professor in 1846. In 1832 he pub- lished Henrik ergelands Diglehunst og Charahter, and thereby opened that memorable controversy which forms the introduction to modern Norwegian literature. (See NORWEGIAN LITERATURE.) In 1833 he founded Vidar, a weekly paper, which in 1836 was transformed into a daily paper, the Constitutionelle, and in 1834 he published the book which became the center of the whole contest, lVorges Docmring (Norway’s Twilight), a collection of sonnets, in which he attacked with merciless sarcasm the prejudices and narrow tendencies of the awakening national spirit, and un- folded his own wider views and loftier ideas. Another col-' lection of poems, without any polemic tendency, appeared in 1851, and a third in 1863. D. in Chr1'stiania, Oct. 21, 1873. His collected works were published in 8 vols. in Copenha- gen (1868). Revised by D. K. DODGE. Welland: river of Ontario, Canada; an affluent of the Niagara, which it joins above the falls after a course of about 60 miles. It forms part of the VVelland Canal, which connects Lake Erie with Lake Ontario. Welland, formerly called Jllerrilzfsoillez post-village; capital of Welland County, Ontario. Canada; on Welland river, Railway, and Canal, and on Canada Southern Rail- way; 12 miles S. of St. Catharine’s (see map of Ontario, ref. 5-E). It has a fine water-power. Pop. (1891) 2,035. Welland Canal: a canal connecting Lakes Ontario and Erie on the Canadian side of the Niagara river. It was con- WELLDON structed in 1833 and enlarged in 1871, the present length be- ing 26?; miles; number of lift locks, 25; total rise of lock- age, 327 feet; size of locks, 270 by 45 feet; width of canal, 100 feet; depth on sills, 14 feet. The total cost up to June 30, 1890, was $27,264,802, and the amount of tolls annually collected on freight, passengers, and vessels is about $220,- 000. It is open on an average for 241 days in the year. MANSFIELD MEREIMAN. Welldon, JAMES EDWARD COWELL : educator and author; b. at Tonbridge, England, Apr. 25, 1854; educated at Eton and at Kings College, Cambridge, of which he afterward became a fellow and tutor, and graduated senior classic in 1877. He was made head master of Dulwich College in 1883, and head master of Harrow School in 1885. He is the author of Sermons preached to flarrow Boys, The Spiritual Life and other Sermons, and of standard translations of Aristotle’s Politics, Rhetoric, and .Nioomaohean Ethics. Well-drilling or Well-boring: the operations by which deep holes of comparatively small diameter are sunk into the earth for the purpose of obtaining water or other sub- stances, such as petroleum or gas. Similar holes are drilled in the search for coal, iron ore, salt, and other minerals, and although in this case water is not the object in view, yet work of this character can properly be considered as well- drilling. The principal feature of well drilling or boring-— that which distinguishes it from the digging of ordinary water-wells or the sinking of a shaft of a mine—is that all of the operations are conducted from the surface, the hole being generally from 3 to 6 inches in diameter. Two distinct methods of well-sinking are commonly in- cluded under the terms well-drilling and well-boring, viz., the grinding with pressure, by which a hole is made, and the pounding or shattering of the rocks by a heavy chisel- pointed bar. The two methods and the machinery adapted to their application are represented in their highest develop- ment on the one hand by the diamond drill (see BLASTING), and on the other by the rope drill or ordinary oil-well ap- paratus. The first cuts or bores a hole, either cylindrical or annular, and in any desired direction; the other pounds and shatters a hole by its own weight, descending vertically. The advantages possessed by one over the other result from the foregoing facts; the diamond drill can be made to pene- trate any rock hard enough to stay in place, while the per- cussion drill, more simple in construction and operation, is cheaper, requires labor less skilled, and rapidly pierces the softer, horizontally bedded rocks. The pounding 01' percussion drill is in common use for sinking deep wells either for fresh water, brine, petroleum, or gas, while the diamond drill, occasionally employed for this purpose, is of greatest utility in exploring the harder, inclined rocks for coal, iron ore, and the precious metals. Although both, strictly speaking, are mining tools, the latter is more commonly identified with the discovery of metals. An iron bar tipped with steel drawn to a blunt cutting edge, if repeatedly raised a few inches and dropped upon a rock, cuts a depression. By slightly turning the bar each time it is raised and causing the chisel edge to strike across the mark left by the preceding blow the depression becomes a nearly circular hole. If the bar is repeatedly raised, turned, and let fall the hole deepens until the powdered rock prevents further progress. If water is now put into the hole the rock dust becomes soft mud and can be readily drawn out, allowing the drilling to go on again for a time. This is a common method in use in many quarries, To make a deep well the same principle is employed; the tools are made larger, heavier, and longer, and are generally sus- pended from ropes. To manipulate these it is necessary to employ machinery more or less complicated, but in all cases the operations are essentially the same as that just described. The first step in the development of deep-drilling ma- chinery from the simple bar is the use of a spring pole to raise the drill. A small tree of suitable elasticity is cut and trimmed into a long pole, the butt firmly fastened to the ground and the top inclined upward at an angle of about 30 degrees to the horizon. From the tip the drilling-rod is suspended. By pulling the end of the pole down the drill strikes its blow and then is lifted by the tendency of the pole to become straight again. In this way the labor is greatly reduced, since it is far easier to pull down the drill- ing-rod than to lift it. The mud is removed from the hole by means of a suitable bucket of small diameter or other device lowered and raised when the hole is deep by a rope WELL-DRILLING 699 and windlass. Wells of from 2 to 3 inches in diameter and 100 feet or even more in depth are frequently drilled in this manner, two men working at a time and making a progress of about 15 feet a day, or more or less according to the hardness of the rocks encountered. The second degree of development is the use of horse- power to raise the drill, suitable devices being employed, such that rotary motion from a treadmill or capstan is con- verted into a rapid vertical lift and fall. From this it is but a short step to the use of steam-power, by which the largest results are accomplished. With horse-power wells of from 3 to 4 inches in diameter are often drilled to depths of from 100 to 300 feet or more, while with steam depths of 4,000 feet are not rare. By far the greater number of deep wells are now drilled by steam, hand-power and horses be- ing used in putting down shallow wells in localities where machinery is expensive and labor cheap. Wells, ranging generally from 1,000 to 2,000 feet in depth, are being drilled in the U. S. at the rate of about 300 a month. These are mainly in the oil and gas regions of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. The machinery in com- mon use throughout the country for the purpose of deep drilling, whether for water or oil, has been developed and brought to its present state of perfection in these oil-fields, where certain standard sizes and patterns have been adopted after years of trial and change. The various tools, engines, pipes, etc., made in these localities are used not only through- out the U. S., but in foreign countries as well. A descrip- tion therefore of the apparatus employed in drilling an oil- well applies to the machinery used for prob- ably nine-tenths of the artesian or other deep wells of the U. S. The most prominent object about a deep- drilling well is the derrick or rig, a frame- work tower 20 feet square at bottom, taper- \ ing to 4 feet at top, and usually 72 feet high. This tower is for the purpose of car- rying two pulleys, the crown pulley in the center and the block through which the ,*r§'r' sand-line runs. Over the crown pulley runs the cable by which the drill- 41%, ing tools are sus- F557‘, pended andraised 4-’-15‘-I or lowered, while the sand-line is a ; smaller rope used 5 to draw out the '~i5;l:'-"‘—‘“' sand - pump or bailer, by which the hole is cleaned at short intervals during the drill- ing. At one side of the rig are the bull - wheels or windlass upon which the cable is wound, and at the other the walking- beam, a heavy timber 20 feet long hung in the center so that it can oscillate up and down. One end comes directly over the hole, and the other can be attached by a pitman to a crank driven by the band-wheel, which in turn is belted to the engine. This large band-wheel can also be made to run the sand-reel or long windlass carrying the sand-line, one end of the reel being drawn when in use by a powerful lever against the band-wheel. The band-wheel imparts motion in a third way, viz., by means of an endless bull-rope turning the bull-wheels which wind or unwind the cable. Without moving from his position on the floor of the derrick, the driller can start, stop, or reverse his engine, run the sand- line or cable in or out of the hole, or control the motion of the walking-beam, and in short, by a few simple mechanical devices can perform all the operations of putting the drill- ing tools in or out, cleaning the hole, and drilling. A “ string” of drilling tools consists of a bit 4 feet long, weighing 150 lb.; an auger-stem about 40 feet long. and weighing 1,300 lb.; the jars, 6 feet or more long, weighing 300 lb. ; the sinker-bar. 16 feet long, weighing 600 lb.; and the rope socket of 75 lb. on top. The total length of the string of tools is 60 feet, and when suspended from the crown pulley by means of the cable, 1-} inches in diameter, the tools swing inside the derrick, and when necessary can be stood up out of the way. When in use the tools are lowered into FIG. 1.—Machinery and derrick used in well- drilling : On the extreme left is the boiler for generating steam, and next to it is the engine, above which is a wooden tank for holding water for the boiler. To the right of this. and in the center of the pic- ture, is the band-wheel, and dia onally above this the walking-beam. n the lower part of the derrick. and at the ex- treme right, are the bull-wheels. 700 WELL-DRILLING the hole by means of the bull-wheels, then are raised a few inches, and the rope is securely clamped to the temper-screw hanging to the end of the walking-beam, the rope above the * .§llllil_l'._‘ FIG. 2.-—Principal drilling tools: 1, 8-inch bit; 2, 55-inch bit; 3, au- ger-stem; 4, jars; 5, sinker-bar; 6, rope-socket; 7, one of a pair of wrenches used in screwing tools together ; 8, drilling cable held by clamps and hung from temper-screw above; 9, gauge used when dressing 8-inch bit. point of attachment being allowed to hang freely. By means of the temper-screw the tools can be gradually low- ered as drilling progresses, the screw running down 5 feet. The bit or cutting tool is pointed with steel, has an obtuse cutting edge, usually either 8 inches or 5% inches across, according to the size of hole to be made. Bits as large as 12 or even 14 inches across are used in starting the hole in clays or unconsolidated rocks. The auger-stem is to give weight to the bit and efficiency to the blow. The jars con- sist of two long fiat links, faced on the inside with steel, playing into each other and allowing a vertical movement of about 9 inches. They divide the string of tools into two parts, acting in a degree independently of each other. Above the jars is the sinker-bar, whose purpose is to give eificiency to the upward blow of the upper half of the jars. The jars are used mainly to loosen the tools if the lower part becomes wedged or stuck in the hole. In such cases a direct pull is of little effect and may result in breaking the cable, while a series of sharp upward blows given by the rapid pulling open of the links of the jars generally starts the wedged tools. The jars are not made for giving a downward blow, and may be broken if thus used. After drilling has progressed the length of a “ screw”— viz., 5 feet—the tools are hoisted out, and water thrown in if the hole is dry. The sand-pump or bailer, a tube 16 feet or more long with a valve in the bottom, is then run in on the end of the sand-line, and when full of mud and water is drawn out and emptied, the operation being repeated until the hole is free from mud. Then a new bit, sharpened and of full width, is put on the end of the tools; they are run in. and drilling goes on again. The rope is constantly turned at the surface, first in one direction and then in the other, thus causing the bit slowly to revolve and cut a round hole. Drilling and sand-pumping alternate with each other as WELLES rapidly as possible, the operations continuing day and night by twelve-hour shifts until the work is done. In Canada and a few localities in the U. S. drilling is done by means of wooden rods instead of a rope. These extend from the jars to the top of the hole, being screwed together end to end by iron joints. There are certain advantages, in that the tools are under better control, but the time con- sumed in unjointing a long string of rods and putting them together again each time the drill is changed is a serious drawback, and there is always danger of breaking or un- screwing the rods when in use. It is necessary that at least the upper part of the well, where the rocks are soft or unconsolidated, be lined with casing. This not only keeps the walls from falling in, but also, if properly set, keeps out surface or other waters. It is usual to drill the hole as rapidly as possible, and then slip the casing in, its diameter being less than that of the drill. Sometimes this can not be done on account of the instability of the walls, and then it is necessary to adopt some modifi- cation, as, for instance, drilling ahead a short distance, and then driving the casing down. The devices employed to overcome difficulties of this kind are very numerous, each being adapted to a special need. The casing is usually of wrought iron, put together by means of screw joints and collars, and will stand a pressure of from 1,000 to 3,000 lb. per square inch. Near the top of the well sometimes as much as 100 feet or more of arge wooden casing is used. This not being water-tight serves merely to keep loose earth from falling in. Some of the shallower wells have been cased with spirally jointed sheet-iron casing, but this has not always been satisfactory on account of the difficulty of making tight joints. The cost of drilling varies greatly according to the 10- cality and character of rock penetrated. The minimum is in the oil regions, where hundreds of wells are being drilled, and where manufactories of tools are near at hand. Away from these headquarters the cost may be two, three, or even four times as much. Under the most favorable circum- stances a 1,500-foot well can be drilled and cased through surface rocks for $2,000, and one 2,000 feet deep for $2,300. Usually, however, the expenses will be far greater. Wells of from 500 to 1,000 feet in depth are relatively more expensive than those of from 1,200 to 2,000 feet, since the cost of preparation is about the same in all cases. The total outlay may be from $1,200 to $1,800. Also holes of great depth- of 3,000 feet and upward—are more costly in proportion to the depth, as the machinery and tools must be larger and heavier. In the western part of the U. S. the contract cost of completing artesian wells to depths of 1,000 feet or more is as high as $4 or even $5 per foot. Owing to the small size of the hole and the great depths at which work is done, there is constant danger of delay or ob- struction by accidents to the drilling tools. These may be deflected by cross bedding of the rocks or by jointing planes, and the hole must be straightened before they can do effec- tive work ; or they may become wedged by bits of rock fall- ing in, or by the new bit sticking in the bottom of the hole made by the old worn bit so that it can not be jarred loose. A more serious matter, however, is where the tools or rope break, leaving a mass of iron and steel to be removed. All of these and other mishaps are usually successfully overcome by the use of innumerable ingenious devices. Almost any- thing from a bolt to a complete string of tools and rope can be recovered from a hole by the use of proper “ fishing tools.” These are designed to grasp objects, either of rope, wood, or metal, and to tighten their hold as they are with- drawn. Rope can be cut by an arrangement of knife-edges, and the smooth ends of broken tools can be caught by “slip- sockets,” whose grip is so tenacious that jarring may go on for hours. All of this work often takes place in a hole 5% inches in diameter and from 1,000 to 2,000 feet or more below the surface. F. H. NEWELL. Welles, GIDEON: cabinet oflicer; b. at Glastonbury, Conn., July 1, 1802; educated at Norwich University, Vt.; studied law; was editor and proprietor of the Hartford Ttmes, a Democratic paper, 1826-36, and continued to contribute to its editorial columns till 1854; supported the candidacy of Gen. Jackson for the presidency; was a member of the State Legislature 1827-35; was chosen State comptroller in 1835, and was elected to that office in 1842 and 1843, having in the meanwhile been for several years postmaster of Hart- ford. From 1846 to 1849 he was chief of a bureau in the U. S. Navy Department. He was an original member of the WELLESLEY Republican party, and as chairman of the Connecticut dele- gation at the Chicago convention was influential in secur- ing the nomination of Lincoln for the presidency; was Secretary of the Navy through the administrations of Lin- coln and Johnson, and through his energy the strength and elficiency of the navy were greatly increased, though at such great expense as to provoke hostile criticism. He was iden- tified with several important reform movements, notably the agitation for the abolition of imprisonment for debt, and was pronounced in his anti-slavery views. D. In Hartford, Conn., Feb. 11, 1878. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wellesley, welz'l€e: town (incorporated in 1881); Nor- folk co., Mass. ; on the Boston and Albany Railroad; 3 miles E. of Natick, 15 miles W. by S. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 5-1). It contains the villages of Wellesley, Wellesley Hills, Wellesley Farms, Wellesley Falls, and Unionville; is the seat of WELLESLEY COLLEGE (q. /u.); and has 4 churches, high school (new building cost $40,000), 13 district schools, Dana Hall, several private schools, water- works, electric lights, electric railway to Natick and New- ton, 2 hotels, and a weekly and a monthly periodical. The town also contains the celebrated Italian gardens of H. H. Hunnewell, who has presented the town with a fine hall, a park of 10 acres, and a public library with 10,000 volumes. In 1894 Wellesley had an assessed valuation of $7,500,000 and a debt of $100,000. Pop. (1885) 3,013; (1890) 3,600. EDITOR or “ COURANT.” Wellesley, ARTHUR: See WELLINGTON. Wellesley, Rrcnxnn COLLEY, Marquis Wellesley, K.G., D. C. L., and Earl of Mornington: soldier and statesman; brother of the first Duke of Wellington; b. at Dublin, Ire- land, June 20, 1760: educated at Oxford; succeeded to the titles of Viscount Wellesley and Earl of Mornington, and took his seat in the Irish House of Peers; was elected to the British House of Commons for Beeralston 1785, and for Saltash 1786, but was unseated in the latter year; advocated in the Irish Parliament, during the regency debate of 1789, the restriction of the powers of the prince during the mal- ady of the king; became, in consequence, a favorite of George III.; obtained an election from Windsor; was made one of the Lords of the Treasury; was raised to the House of Lords as Baron Wellesley, and appointed Governor-Gen- eral of India Oct. 4, 1797; arrived at Calcutta May, 1798; found the native powers of India ripe for a struggle against the British rule; sent a small British force into the terri- tories of the nizam, ordering him to disband his levies and to surrender 124 French officers; dispatched an army under Gen. Harris against the capital of Mysore Feb. 3, 1799, com- ing himself to Madras to superintend the operations, which resulted in the storming of Seringapatam May 4; divided the territories of Mysore with the nizam, and made his brother, Col. Arthur Wellesley, governor of Seringapatam July, 1799 ; was created Marquis \/Vellesley in the peerage of Ireland Dec. 2, 1799; received the thanks of Parliament, and re- fused £100,000 of prize-money ofiered by the East India Company; directed his attention with success to the com- mercial interests and the internal organization of the British Empire in India; sent in 1801 a force of 7,000 men up the Red Sea against the French in Egypt; -had a quarrel with the board of directors and tendered his resignation 1802, but was induced to withdraw it; engaged in a desperate but victorious struggle with the Mahrattas 1803-05; founded a college for the cultivation of Indian literature; inaugurated surveys of the coun- try and effected great financial reforms, making his ad- ministration the 1nost memorable in Anglo-Indian his- tory; returned to England Aug., 1805; was received with honor by the Government and the East India Company, which conferred upon him an annuity of £5,000; was am- bassador in Spain 1808-09: Secretary of State from Dec., 1809, to J a11.. 1812; was designated as Prime Minister in May, 1812, but was unable to form a cabinet; rendered in- valuable parliamentary support to his brother during the campaigns of the Peninsula and of Waterloo: accepted the office of Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland Dec., 1821 ; was recalled on the accession of his brother to the premiership, 1828, owing to a difference of opinion between them on the “Catholic question ”; and was lord chamberlain 1835, but re- signed from public life the same year on account of ad- vanced age and straitened circumstances, and was the recip- ient of a testimonial of £20,000 from the East India Com- pany. D. at Kingston House, Knightsbridge, London, Sept. 26,1842, and was buried in the vault at Eton College chapel. WELLINGTON 701 Statues have been erected in London and at Calcutta. He published several political pamphlets shortly ‘before his death, and privately printed a small volume of poems in English, Latin, and Greek, entitled Primltice et Religulw (1840; 2d issue 1841). His Dispatches, Minutes, and Cor- respondence, etc., during his administration in India (5 vols., 1836-37), and his Despatches and Correspondence during his mission to Spain (1838), were edited by R. Montgomery M ar- tm, and his lV[emoe'rs and Correspondence (3 vols., 1846) by Robert R. Pearce. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wellesley College: an institution of learning devoted exclusively to the higher education of women; in the village of Wellesley, on Lake W’aban, about 15 miles from Boston. The grounds comprise 300 acres, and for many vears before the establishment of the college had been cultivated as a gentleman’s country-seat. The main building is 475 feet long and five stories high. It is of brick trimmed with freestone. Since the opening of the college in 1875 three buildings for purposes of instruction have been added; the school of music in 1881, the Farnsworth school of art in 1889, and the chemistry building in 1894; also Stone Hall and 8 cottages for dormitories. The college is chartered by the State, and empowered to confer all collegiate and honor- ary degrees that are conferred by any Massachusetts college or umversity. There were in 1895-96 800 students and 98 teachers and other ofiicers. Julia J. Irvine, M. A., is the president. The standard of study is the same as that of the foremost colleges for young men. The library contains 46,000 volumes; the apparatus, cabinets, and laboratories are extensive. VVellfleet: town (incorporated in 1763); Barnstable eo., Mass; on the N. Y., N. H., and Hart. Railroad ; 14 miles S. E. of Provincetown (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 4-K). It contains the villages of \lVellfieet and South Wellfieet; has a Methodist Episcopal church, public high school, five district schools, and a public library; and is prin- cipally engaged in fishing. In 1894 it had an assessed property valuation of $611,063. Pop. (1880) 1,875; (1890) 1,291. Wellhausen, oel’how-zen, JULIUS: biblical critic; b. at Hameln-on-the-Weser, Germany, May 17, 1844;,studied at . Giittingen under Ewald 1862-65 ; became privat decent there in the theological faculty 1870: Ordinary Professor of Theology at Greifswald 1872; changed to the philosophical faculty at Halle 1882, because he was convinced that he was no longer even a Protestant; went in the same capacity to Marburg 1885, and to Giittingen 1892. He is a leader in the school of Old Testament criticism which denies historical value to the supernatural element in the Old Testament, and indeed sees nothing in the book but literature. whose author- ship and date, consequently, are in general not those tradi- tionally assigned to them. (See HEXATEUCH.) His principal works are Der Te./rt der Bilclrer Samuele's(G6tti1igen, 1871) ; Phare'sc'ier -und Sadduoéier (Greifswald, 1874); Prolegomena zur Gesclrichte Israels (Berlin, 187 8 ; 4th ed. 1895 ; Eng. trans, Hz'sz‘ory of Israel, Edinburgh and London, 1885); lllnlzanmiecl in li[eclz'na. Das isz‘ Valcz'd'is Kz'z‘ab al 1l'[agl2az2', in re-rkiilrzler deatschen Wiedergabe herausgegeben (Berlin, 1882) ; Sir/z'2zen'und l"orarbez'2fen (1884-92); Die Conzposition des H6336-l€TlCl28 -und der lrz'storz'sclzen Biicher des Allen Tes- zfamenz‘s (2d ed. 1889); Israelrltische and Jiidisclze Geschz'c7u‘e (1894). SAMUEL l\'lACAULEY J AC‘-KSON. Welling, Jxmns CLARKE, LL.D.: educator and editor; b. at Trenton, N. J .. July 14, 1825 ; graduated at Princeton College 1844; became associate principal of the New York Collegiate School 1848 ; editor of The .Natz'onal Intelligencer, Washington, D. C., 1856-65 ; clerk of U. S. court of claims 1862-67 ; president of St. John’s College, Annapolis, Md, 1867-70; Professor of Belles-Lettres in Princeton College 1870-71; president of Columbian University 1871-94. He also was president of the Philosophical Society of Washing- ton, president of the Anthropo ogical Society, regent of Smithsonian Institution, and chairman of the executive committee and president of the Corcoran Gallery of Art. D. at Hartford, Conn., Sept. 4, 1894. W. H. WHITSITT. Wel’lington: capital of New Zealand; on an inlet of Cook’s Strait, on the west shore of Port Nicholson. It is well built, has an excellent harbor, and is connected by railway with Auckland. It carries on a considerable trade. export- ing wool, tallow, and gum. It was founded in 1840, and became capital of the colony in 1865. Pop. (1891) 31,021; with suburbs, 33,224. M. W. H. 702 in ten: cit : ca ital of Sumner co., Kan.;.on the Slztreehleelg, and thejiitchl: Top. and S. Fé, and the Chi., Rock Id. and Pac. railways; 29 miles S. of Wiclnta, 270 miles S. W. of Kansas City (for location. see map of Kansas, ref. 8-_-G). . It is in an agricultural region, and has 3 national banks with combined capital of $200,000, a private bank, 2 loan and investment companies, public high school, and a daily and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,694; (1890) 4,391. ' 6‘ton : village; Lorain co., O.; on the Cleve., CllY?:e(l;/‘l11Il.1§IId St. L. arid the Wheeling and Lake Erie rail- ways; 10 miles S. of Auburn, 36 miles S. W. of Cleveland (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 2-G). _It is one of the principal markets for dairy products in Ohio, the shipment of cheese alone amounting to 6,000,000 lb. annually. It has 5 churches, public school with 10 departments, a national bank with capital of $100,000, 2 weekly newspapers, foundry, bending-works, flour-mills, and common lumber and hard- wood mills. Pop. (1880) 1,811 ; (1890) 2,069. EDITOR or “ ENTERPRISE.” Wellington, ARTHUR MELLEN: civil engineer; b. at Waltham, Mass., Dec. 20, 1847 ; was educated at the Boston Latin School, and later was an engineering student in the of- fice of John B. Henck. From 1867 to 1885 he was in active engineering practice and chief engineer of the location and construction of several railways. He located _the diflicult railway line from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. In 1887 he became editor of Engineering lVews, New York. He published Computation of Earthwork; (New York, 1874) ; Economic Theory of Railway Location (New York, 1876 ; greatly enlarged edition 1887); and edited the Oar-Builder s Dictionary (1884). D. in New York, May 16, 1895. M. M. Wellington, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, K. G., Duke of: soldier; b. at Dangan Castle, County Meath, Ireland, May 1, 1769; was the third son of Garrett Wellesley, first Viscount Welles- ley and Earl of Mornington (d. 1781), who at-tamed some distinction as a musical composer, and of Anne Hill Trevor, eldest daughter of Arthur, first Viscount Dungannon. He received his earlier education at Eton College. after which he spent six years in the military seminary at Angers, France, then under the direction of the celebrated engineer Pignerol. Having entered the army as ensign Mar. 7, 1787, he was rap- idly pushed by family influence through the lower grades of the service, and on Sept. 30, 1793, attained the rank of heu- tenant-colonel of the Thirty-third Foot. In the meanwhile, in the summer of 1790, he had been elected to the Irish Par- liament for the borough of Trim, where his family possessed preponderating influence, and in the following year he was appointed aide-de-camp to the Earl of Westmoreland, Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland. He saw his first field-service under the Duke of York in the Netherlands in 1794, when, having obtained through his brother’s influence the command of the Thirty-third regiment, he embarked at Cork for Ostend; joined the main body of the army at Antwerp, and com- manded three battalions during the disastrous retreat of the British army through Holland J an., 1795, conducting him- self with credit in several skirmishes with the French. Hav- ing been commissioned colonel in May, 1796, he embarked for India with his regiment in the same year, arriving at Calcutta Feb., 1797, and was placed in command of the sub- sidiary forces furnished by the nizam for the campaign against Tippu Sultan 1799. In the victory of Malvalh he bore a prominent part, and on May 4 commanded the re- serves in the trenches at the assault and capture of Sering- apatam. Having been appointed governor of Mysore by his brother, the governor-general (see WELLESLEY, RICHARD COLLEY), he waged a campaign against a celebrated Mah- ratta freebooter, Dhundia Wagh, self-styled the king of the two worlds, whom he defeated and killed Sept. 10, 1800. He was named second in command to the expedition sent to Egypt 1801, but was prevented by illness from embarking. Appointed major-general in Apr., 1802, he commanded the expedition against the Mahrattas, and restored the Peshwa Apr.—May, 1803; besieged and took AhmadnaganAug. 8- 12; entered Aurungabad Aug. 29; defeated Sindhia at the decisive battle of Assaye Sept. 23, and again at Argaum Nov. 29; took the great fort of Gawilghar in December, and concluded a treaty with Sindhia Dec. 30, imposing upon him stringent conditions. For these services he was knighted and received the thanks of the king and Parliament 1804. In Nov., 1805, he took part in Lord Cathcart’s expedition to Hanover. He married Lady Catharine Pakenhain, second daughter of the third Earl of Longford, Apr. 10, 1806, and was soon afterward elected to the British Parliament for WELLINGTON Newport, Isle of Wight. In Apr., 1807, he became Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond. Hold- ing a command under Lord Cathcart, he took part in the expedition against Copenhagen, and negotiated the capitu- lation of that city Sept. 7, 1807. In the summer of 1808 he was made commander-in-chief of the forces sent to the Pe- ninsula, and having landed at Corunna in July, oifered his aid to the Galicians for the expulsion of the French, but the offer being declined, he re-embarked; landed at Mon- dego Bay, Portugal, Aug. 1, and defeated Gen. Laborde at Rolica Aug. 17. On Aug. 20, 1808, he was superseded in the chief command by Sir Harry Burrard, but on the following day gained over J unot the brilliant victory of Vimeira, which again won him the thanks of Parliament. On Aug. 31 he signed the armistice which led to the convention of Cintra. Returning to England at the end of the year, he resumed his seat in Parliament Jan., 1809, but again took the field in the following spring, having been placed in the chief command of the Peninsula forces on the death of Sir John Moore. Passing the Douro in the face of the French army, he entered Oporto May 12, and was appointed by the prince regent marshal-general of the Portuguese army in the same month. On July 27—28 he defeated the French un- der Marshals Victor and Sebastiani in the battle of Talavera, but was compelled by the non-co-operation of the Spanish army to fall back on Badajoz, crossing the Tagus at Arzo- bispo Aug. 4. For the third time he received the thanks of Parliament, and was further rewarded by being created Baron Douro of Wellesley and Viscount Wellington of Tala- vera with a pension of £2,000 Sept. 4,1809. He now fortified his famous triple lines of intrenchments, 30 miles in length, between the Tagus and the Atlantic, at TORRES VEDRAS (q. 1).). Having repulsed Masséna at Busaco Se t. 27, 1810, he again occupied the lines of Torres Vedras ct. 10. On Apr. 11, 1811, he received the thanks of Parliament for the liberation of Portugal. In the following month he gained the victory of Fuentes de Onoro, took Almeida, and invested Badajoz, but retreated on June 10 within the frontiers of Por- tugal. He carried Ciudad Rodrigo by assault J an. 19, 1812, for which he was made by the Spanish regency Duke of Ciu-~ dad Rodrigo and a grandee of Spain, and by his own govern- ment created Earl of Wellington with a further pension of £2,000. Having taken Badajoz by storm Apr. 6, routed Marmont with great slaughter at Salamanca July 22, and occupied Madrid Aug. 12, he was made generalissimo of the Spanish armies, created Marquis of Wellington Oct. 3, and granted £100,000 by Parliament. In the spring of 1813 he entered Spain with 200,000 men in two columns; obtained a signal victory over King Joseph and Jourdan at Vitoria June 21, capturing 150 cannon and driving the French into the Pyrenees. On July 3 he was made field-marshal of Great Britain and Duke of Vitoria in Spain. Siege was now laid to San Sebastian and Pamplona, but at first without success. From July 27 to 31 Wellington gained a series of battles in the Pyrenees. On Aug. 31 he took San Sebastian by assault, and early in October crossed the river Bidassoa into France. Pamplona capitulated on Oct. 31, after which he took up his headquarters at St. Jean de Luz. On Dec. 10—18 he repulsed Soult, and leaving two divisions to block- ade Bayonne pursued him and defeated him at Orthez Feb. 27, 1814, and at Toulouse Apr. 10, occupying the latter place two days later. Learning of the occupation of Paris he went thither, and from there to London, where he arrived on June 23, having in the meanwhile been made Marquis of Douro and Duke of Wellington (May 11). In August he went to Paris as ambassador to the restored monarch, Louis XVIII.. attended the Congress of Vienna Jan., 1815, and took command of the British army in Flanders in April on the return of Napoleon from Elba. He repulsed Ney at Quatre Bras June 16, and two days later gained, with the Prussian marshal Bliicher, the decisive battle of VVATERLOO (q. 1).), after which he crossed the French frontier and marched upon Paris June 21. From 1815 to 1818 he was commander-in-chief of the allied army of occupation in France. For his services in the campaign he was richly re- warded. Sixty thousand pounds were awarded to him as Waterloo prize-money. The King of the Netherlands be- stowed on him the title of Prince of VVaterloo, and the Brit- ish nation presented him with the valuable estate of Strath- fieldsaye, Hampshire. He attended the Congress of Aix-la- Chapelle for the evacuation of France (1818), and in the _same year was created field-marshal of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Through his appointment as master-general of the ordnance, J an. 1, 1819, he secured a seat in the British WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA cabinet. He attended the Congress of Verona in 1822, and was afterward ambassador to Russia. From Jan. 8, 1828, to Nov. 15, 1830, he was Prime Minister in the Tory interest, steadily opposing Roman Catholic emancipation and all projects of parliamentary reform, on which account he was hooted in the streets of London, the windows of Apsley House were broken by the mob, and an attempt was made to burn his country residence June, 1832. ()n_J an. 29, 1834, he was appointed chancellor of Oxford University. He was Sec- retary of State for Foreign Affairs from Dec., 1834, to Apr. 8, 1835, and in 1841 he was a member of the cabinet without a portfolio. He gave a reluctant support to the free-trade measures of Sir Robert Peel. He was president of the privy council 1845-46, after which he declined further political honors on account of advanced age, though he continued to attend the House of Lords and was assiduous in the dis- charge of his duties at the court of the youthful Queen. He died of apoplexy at Walmer Castle, Kent, his offic1alres1— dence, as lord warden of Cinque Ports, Sept. 22, 1852; re- ceived a magnificent funeral, and was buried near the tomb of Nelson in the crypt of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, N ov. 9. In person he was of middle size, but strongly built, and his capacity for enduring fatigue gave him the familiar title of “ the Iron Duke.” His leading characteristics as a soldier were invincible resolution and singleness of purpose, com- bined with a full measure of caution. His political, social, religious, and literary instincts were pre-eminently conserv- ative—a fact which brought him into unpopularity during the agitations for reform, but did not detract from the af- fectionate pride and veneration with which he was regarded by his countrymen during the protracted evening of his life. Numerous statues and memorials have been erected to his memory, and works illustrative of his military exploits are naturally abundant. The most notable personal biographies are those of Maxwell (3 vols., 1839-41), Stocqueler (2 vols., 1852-53), Brialmont (3 vols., 1856-57), Yonge (2 vols., 1860), and Hooper (1 vol., 1889). His Dispatches (33 vols. 8vo, 1852- 80) and his Supplementary Dispatches and Jlfemoranda, the first eight volumes edited by Col. John Gurwood, the others by his son Arthur Richard, the second duke (1807-84), ex- hibit him in a most favorable light, and constitute invalu- able materials for history. The present duke, who was born in 1846, is the eldest son of Lord Charles Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington’s second son, who succeeded his childless uncle in Aug., 1884. Revised by J AMES GRANT WILSON. Wellingto'nia gigan’tea: the name under which the Sequoia ge'gantea was first made known to the world. See Sncguorr. Wellington Island: See MAGALLANES. , Wells [M. Eng. welle < 0. Eng. /wella, wylla, deriv. of weallan, well up, surge, boil : Germ. /wellen. Cf. WELDING] : a term which was originally applied to natural flowing springs, but which has come to designate artificial excavations or shafts sunk in the ground to obtain supplies of water. Living springs were the only sources of drinkable water known to primitive man, and the construction of excavated wells dates from a time when social institutions were so far organized as to secure to individuals, or at least families or tribes, long enjoyment of the fields and the pastures of which they had taken possession. In Persia, at the present time, he who sinks a well in waste lands becomes the pro- prietor of the land irrigated by its waters, and it is supposed that this was the casein Palestine in ancient days, and that this accounts for the opposition encountered by Abraham and by Isaac in holding or digging wells (Gen. xxi., xxvi.). In pastoral life, and especially in the climates in which pas- toral industry appears to have been first largely practiced, water is the first requisite for the establishment of a camp or the temporary occupancy of feeding-grounds for cattle. The nomad Bedouins now rarely if ever dig wells. For their small herds the slender threads of living water found here and there in the desert. cisterns and pools accumulated from the winter rains, suffice, and in many of their habitual routes of travel they still find a supply of water in wells excavated, like those of Jacob and of Beersheba. in the patriarchal ages. Ancient writers speak of wells in the North African desert several hundred feet deep, and their accounts have been con- firmed by modern travelers; but in a large part of that waste a continuous sheet of water exists at depths so moderate as to be easily reached by cutting through the bed of indurated sand which overlies it. The wells of the Sahara are square excavations, not walled up with stone, but lined with a framework of palm-trunks, and they yield an abundant sup- WELLS 703 ply of water for cattle and for irrigating the small gardens which Arab industry finds it convenient to till. The water often rises to the surface and pours over like that in an ar- tesian boring, and the wells are choked in a few years by fine sand brought up by the flow. The removal of the sand is a diflicult and dangerous operation, as the work must be performed under water, and it is the special vocation of a sort of guild or corporation. In the East wells are generally round, and when not out through solid rock are generally stoned, as in Europe. In their present condition they are usually without a curb, the orifice being closed by a fiat stone, and they are unprovided with any apparatus for raising the water, the traveler being expected to furnish his own rope and bucket. In ancient times, as is apparent from the Scriptures (e. g. Gen. xxiv. 16-20), access to the water of some wells was had by descend- ing steps, and the water was dipped out with a vessel. The Greek and Roman wells were provided with curbs, and it appears that these were used long before the general employ- ment of sweeps or of pulleys for hoisting the bucket, for the edges of the most ancient curbs are everywhere cut into channels by the friction of the rope drawn over them, which would not be the case if the water-vessels had been attached to a sweep or to a rope passing over a pulley suspended from above. The shacloof, a rude structure resembling a well- sweep, is commonly used in the East to raise water from wells, reservoirs, and rivers. ' The economical and sanitary value of water, and the fre- quent difiiculty and expense of procuring it, gave wells great importance in the eyes of the ancient world, and those distinguished for purity or abundance of water were regarded with almost idolatrous reverence. Hence great care was bestowed upon their construction and preserva- tion, and they were often sumptuously decorated and pro- vided with many useful as well as ornamental accessories. Many ancient well-curbs of fine material and workmanship are found in museums of ancient art, and some of those in the Vatican—-particularly one of marble, thought to be Etruscan-—are among ~the most admirable works of soul - ture in that great museum. In India, too, valuable wel are considered and treated almost as temples. Of remark- able wells mention may be made of that in the_ citadel at Cairo, traditionally ascribed to the patriarch Joseph. This is several hundred feet in depth, and is surrounded by a double winding ramp by which beasts of burden can descend and bring up water. There is a very similar well, though not of very ancient construction, at Orvieto. In many parts of Europe, centuries after the introduction of Christianity, wells were believed to possess miraculous powers, and were resorted to by those who desired to avert misfortunes, to win the afiection of others, or. to bring calamity upon enemies, the end being gained by application of the water, often accompanied with the recital of a prayer or formula. or by casting pins, pebbles, or other articles into the wells. “ Wishing wells ” and “ cursing wells ” are not uncommon in Great Britain. The ingenious and simple method of obtaining water by driving a small iron tube, provided with a perforated hollow conical point of steel, a few feet into the ‘ground and apply- ing a hand-pump to the orifice. deserves special notice as an economical and speedy process which in many cases obviates the necessity of common wells altogether. See WATER, AR- TESIAN _WELLs, WELL—DRILLING, etc. Wells: an old city, and a municipal and parliamentary borough in Somersetshire, England; 20 miles S. W. of Bath (see map of England, ref. 13—G). It is said to have received its name from St. Andrew’s Well, which from its abundant sources sends small rivulets of running water through all the principal streets. The city is the see of a bishop. The cathedral was begun in 704, but much enlarged in 1138. It has a central tower 178 feet high, and its interior is richly decorated. Its western facade is ornamented with 300 statues. The bishop’s palace was founded 1088, and is surrounded with high walls and a moat. Pop. (1891) 4,822. Wells: town (settled about 1640, incorporated in 1653); York co., Me; on the Boston and Maine Railroad ; 28 miles S. VV. of Portland (for location, see map of Maine. ref. 11-A). It contains the villages of \Vells, \Vells Depot, \Vells Branch, Ogunquit, \Vebhannet, and Maryland Ridge, and has 7 churches, 2 public libraries, 5 summer hotels, and lumber, shingle, and grist mills. Pop. (1880) 2,450; (1890) 2,029. Wells: village; Faribault co., Minn.; on the Chi., Mil. and St. P. Railway ; 20 miles N. W. of Albert Lea, 38 miles . 661; (1890) 1,208; (1895)1,'702. 704, WELLS S. of Mankato (for location, see map of Minnesota, ref. 11-E). It is in an agricultural region, and has 9 churches, 2 public school buildings, railway repair-shops, 8 grain elevators, a 300-bbl. flour mill, large creamery interests, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a State bank with capital of $25,000, a rivate bank, and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) EDIToR or “ADVOCATE.” Wells, DAVID AMES: economist; b. at Springfield, Mass., June 17, 1828 ; graduated at Williams College 1847, and at Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge, 1851 ; assistant pro- fessor there 1851-52; was associated with Dr. A. A. Hayes as a chemist at Boston 1853-55; patented in 1856 several improvements in bleaching ; was a member of a publishing- house in New York 1857-58; settled at Norwich, Conn.; visited Europe on commissions of the U. S. Government 1862 and 1867 ; was U. S. special commissioner of the rev- enue 1866-70; produced on that subject fifteen important reports ; became university lecturer on political economy at Yale College 1872; visited Europe 1873; delivered in that year an address before the Cobden Club in London; was chosen a foreign associate of the French Academy of Polit- ical Sciences, in the place of John Stuart Mill, deceased, 1874; has been since 1867 a strong advocate of free trade ; has taken considerable part in the efforts for civil-service reform, and was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for Congress at the special election of Apr., 1876. He edited among other works the Annual of Scientific Discovery (Bos- ton, 16 vols., 1850-65). Among his earlier writings are Fa- miliar Scienoe (1856); The Science of Common Things (1857) ; Elements of iVatural Philosophy (1857) ; Principles and Applications of Chemistry (1858) ; First Principles of Geology (1861); and the extensively circulated political pamphlet Our Burden and our Strength (1864). He has been a voluminous writer on financial and economic subjects. In this class of his writings may be mentioned The Creed of the Free- Trader (1875) ; Production and Distribution of Wealth (1875); Robinson Crusoe’s Money (1876); The Sil- ver Question or the Dollar of the Fathers vs. the Dollar of the Sons (1878) ; Our llferchant Jlfarine, etc. (1882); A Primer of Tarifi’ Reform (1884); Practical Economics (1886) ; A Study of Mexico (1887) ; A Short and Simple Catechism (1888) ; and Relation of the Tarifi’ to Wages (1888). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wells, HORACE: dentist; b. at Hartford, Windsor co., Vt., Jan. 21, 1815 ; studied dentistry in Boston, and in 1836 be- gan the practice of his profession in Hartford, Conn. As early as 1840 he expressed his belief that nitrous oxide could be used to prevent the pain of dental and other operations, and four years later he ublicly demonstrated its efficacy as an anaesthetic. From this time on he daily extracted teeth under the influence of the gas, and other dentists in Hart- ford adopted the same practice with like success. Early in 1845 Wells went to Boston and communicated his discovery to Dr. W. T. G. Morton, his former pupil and partner, and to Dr. Charles T. Jackson, and others. At a lecture after- ward given before the class at the medical college his ex- periment failed through the carelessness of the operator. Wells was hooted at and hissed out of the amphitheater by the students, and he was pronounced a charlatan and his anaesthetic a humbug. On Oct. 27, 1846, Jackson and Mor- ton published to the world, by letters patent, the discovery of letheon as an anaesthetic, but this was seen at once to be nothing but pure sulphuric ether. Each claimed the honor of discovering anaesthesia by ether; but while they were sending bulletins to the Institute of France Wells sailed for Europe, in Dec., 1846, to lay his claims before that body as the real discoverer of anaesthesia. His mission was a failure, and he returned in Mar., 1847. Notwithstanding the suc- cessful use of nitrous oxide in Hartford as an anaesthetic in such important operations as the amputation of the thigh and the exsection of tumors, it was nevertheless supplanted by ether, and Wells’s claim to the discovery of anaesthesia was unrecognized. Later he went to New York to lay his claims before the profession of the great metropolis. Soon after his arrival he showed signs of mental aberration, and on J an. 14, 1848, in a fit of madness, he ended his life with his own hands. He was author of the pamphlet A His- tory of the Application of Nitrous Oxide Gas, Ether, and other Vapors to Surgical Operations (1847). A bronze statue of him stands in Bushnell Park, Hartford. He ranks as an independent discoverer of the principle of anaesthesia, for his claim antedates all but that of CRAWFORD W. LONG (q. 22.), who did not publish his discovery till 1849. WELSBY Wells, WILLIAM CHARLES, M. D., F. R. S.: scientist; b. at Charleston, S. C., in May, 1757; educated at Dumfries and at Edinburgh, Scotland ;* studied medicine at Charles- ton; was a surgeon in the British service in Holland; re- turned to Charleston early in 1781 ; practiced medicine there, and became a printer, bookseller, and merchant; went with the loyal troops to St. Augustine, Fla., Dec., 1782; published there the first weekly newspaper in that province, and was captain of loyal volunteers; went to England May, 1784; settled in London 1785 ; became physician to the Finsbury Dispensary 1790, and to St. Thomas’s Hos ital 1798; pub- lished his Essay on Single Vision with Two Eyes (1792) and his celebrated Essay on Dew (1814), for which he was awarded the gold and silver Rumford medals by the Royal Society 1816. Darwin states that in a paper read before the Royal Society in 1813 Wells recognized distinctly the prin- ciple of natural selection. D. in London, Sept. 18, 1817. His Autobiography was published in 1818, and a new edition of his Essay on Dew appeared in 1866. Wellsboroz borough; capital of Tioga co., Pa.; on the Fall Brook Railway; 81 miles N. of Williamsport (for loca- tion, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 2—F). It is in an agri- cultural and mining region, and has 2 national banks with combined capital of $150,000, 3 weekly newspapers, several saw and planing mills, tanneries, carriage-factories, and marble-works. Pop. (1880) 2,228; (1890) 2,961. EDITOR or “ ADvooATE.” Wellsburg: city (founded in 1790); capital of Brooke co., W. Va.; on the Ohio river, and the Pitts., Cin., Chi. and St. L. Railway; 16 miles N. of Wheeling (for location, see map of West Virginia, ref. 3-G). It is in an agricultural and wool-growing region, with natural gas and extensive coal mines in its vicinity, and has new city buildings, large public school, a national bank with capital of $100,000, 2 private banks, a weekly newspaper, 7 glass-factories, 2 paper- mills, a sack-factory, and several cigar-factories. Po . (1880) 1,815»; (1890) 2,235. ED1ToR or “ PAN-HANDLE Ews.” Wellstonz city (founded in 1876); Jackson co., O.; on the Balt. and O. S. W., the Cin., Ham. and Day., and the Ohio S. railways; 10 miles N. of Jackson, the county-seat, and 35 miles S. E. of Chillicothe (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 7—F). It is in a coal-mining region, and has 12 churches, 5 public-school buildings, several iron-foundries, machine-works, and mills, a national bank with capital of $50,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 952; (1890) 4,377; (1895) estimated, 7,500. EDITOR or “SENTINEL.” Wellsville: city; Montgomery co., Mo.; on the Wabash Railroad; 18 miles E. S. E. of Mexico, 90 miles W. of St. Louis (for location, see map of Missouri, ref. 4-1). It is in an agricultural region, and has 7 churches, 3 hotels, several flour-mills, grain elevators, and woolen-mills, tobacco-fac- tory, canning-factory, a State bank with capital of $25,000, and 3 weekly newspapers. Po . (1880) 867; (1890) 1,142; (1895) estimated, 1,700. 1DIT0R or “ OPTIC NEws.” Wellsville: village; Allegany co., N. Y.; on the Gene- see river, the Erie Railroad, and the Wells., Couder. and Pine Creek branch of the Bufi. and Susquehanna Railroad; 8 miles S. by W. of Belmont, 26 miles S. W. of Hornellsville (for location, see map of New York, ref. 6-D). It has 2 national banks with combined capital of $150,000, a high school, a free public library, a daily, a semi-weekly, and a weekly newspaper, and several foundries, machine-shops, and tanneries. It is the center for the Allegany oil-field, and has large dairying interests. Pop. (1880) 2,049; (1890) 3,435. E. W. BARNES, EDITOR or “REPORTER.” Wellsville: city (laid out in 1823); Columbiana co., O.; on the Ohio river, and the Penn Co.’s Railroad ; 20 miles N. of Steubenville, 48 miles N. W. of Pittsburg, Pa. (for loca- tion, see map of Ohio, ref. 3-J). It is in an agricultural and coal-mining region, and has 9 churches and chapels, a pa- rochial, a private, and 3 public schools, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a private bank, 4 ‘foundries and machine-shops, 4 brick-works, 3 potteries, 2 sewer-pipe and terra-cotta works, railway-shops, rolling-mill, boiler-works, soap-factory, and a weekly, a quarterly, and 2 daily period- icals. The massacre of the family of Logan, the cele- brated Mingo chief, took lace 2 miles below Wellsville in 1774. Pop. (1880) 3,377; (1890) 5,247 ; (1895) estimated, 6,000. EDITOR or “ UNIoN.” Wellwood, Sir HENRY MONGREIEF: See MoNcREIEE. Welshy, WILLIAM NEWLAND: law writer and editor; b. at Acton, Cheshire, England, 1803; studied at a private WELSH school in Oakham, and afterward entered Cambridge Uni- versity, graduating in 1823 ; studied law and was admitted to the bar in the Middle Temple in 1826, and after several years of successful practice on the Chester circuit was ap- ointed junior counsel to the Government; in July, 1841, liecame recorder of Chester, and held this position till he re- signed, shortly before his death at Chester, July 1, 1864. He published, with several associates, Reports of the Decisions of the Court of Exchequer, from 1836 to 1856 (27 vols.) ; edit- ed, either alone or with associates, Chitty’s Collection of Stat- utes of Practical Utility (4 vols., 1851-54) ; Archbold’s Criminal Pleading; Sir Christopher Rawlinson’s JL[unici- pal Corporation Acts (2d ed. 1849), besides other works; and was the author of Lives of Eminent English Judges of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (1846). See the Law Times, vol. xxxix., p. 418. F. STURGES ALLEN. Welsh, HERBERT : philanthropist; b. in Philadelphia, Dec. 4, 1851 ; son of John VVelsh, minister to Great Britain 1877-79; graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1871, and afterward spent two years in Europe, devoting a portion of that time to the study of art in Paris. On his return he gave his attention to philanthropic projects, and after a visit to the Sioux reservation in 1882 became a zeal- ous champion of the rights of the Indians, striving to induce the Government to adopt a more humane and consistent policy in its dealings with them. With this end in view he founded the Indian Rights Association, which has succeeded in carrying through several reform measures, and has ex- posed and defeated schemes to defraud the Indians. The holding of land in severalty, which was for a long time ad- vocated by him, was finally introduced by the passage of the Dawes Bill. Other reforms that he has sought to carry out are the education of Indian children and the extension of law to the reservation. Among his writings are Four Weeks among some of the Siourc Tribes of Dalootah and Nebraska in 188:? and Report of a Visit to the 1Vavajo, Pueblo, and Hualapais Indians of New Mexico and Ari- zona in 1884. Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church. in Wales and the U. S. See Mnrnomsn and PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. Welsh or Cymric Language [Welsh is from O. Eng. waelisc, welisc, deriv. of wealh, foreigner, Celt (see WALES); Cymric is from Welsh Cymraeg, Welsh, deriv. of Cymry, Welshmen]: the language of the people of Wales (and of Monmouthshire, England), who, after the end of the R0- man occupation, were united under the name of the Cymry (land associates). They are entirely distinct from the “ Cim- merians ” of the ancients. \Velsh is a Celtic language, and is most closely related to the Bretonic of Basse-Bretagne, and with the now extinct Cornish of Cornwall. Though up to the eighteenth century it was, like all the Celtic dialects of the British isles, steadily yielding to the English, it received at the end of that century, through the efforts of certain enthusiastic patriots, a new impulse, so that since then the number of those who speak Welsh has rather increased than declined. In imitation of a mediseval usage there is now held yearly an EISTEDDFOD (q. u), or competitive exhibition, at which the best productions in Welsh poetry and music are awarded prizes. The successful poets are again called bards, and receive special bard-names. Furthermore, the Welsh language receives support from the Nonconformist sects, whose preaching services and Sunday-schools are con- ducted in Welsh, and whose religious books are published in the same language. There are published also over a score of newspapers in \Velsh, several among the \Velsh in the U. S. On the other hand, the number of those who speak only Welsh and not English is in constant decline. Certain Ogam inscriptions (see IRISH LANGUAGE) upon tombstones were long regarded as the oldest monuments of the Welsh language. These have now proved, however, to be Irish: after the withdrawal of the Romans Irish chiefs held sway from time to time in Wales. Leaving out of account a few glosses in manuscripts from the eighth century on, the literary monuments of the \Velsh first begin to appear in fuller compass in manuscripts of the twelfth century, though the texts themselves are often older. The most important literary work of ancient Wales, the collec- tion of laws, dates back inits substance to King Howe], or Hywel Da, of the tenth century. See WELSH LITERATURE. See also Walter’s Das alte Wales (1859) ; Rhys, Lectures on Welsh Philology (2d ed. 1879); and Zeuss, Grammatica Cel- tica (2d ed. by Ebel, 1871). The modern Welsh period begins with the Reformation WELSH LITERATURE 705 in the sixteenth century. The language then used in the Bible translations and other religious writings is the basis and standard for the literary language of to-day. The Welsh of the newspapers is less strict and admits many Anglicisms. The language of poetry mixes the old with the new. The present colloquial Welsh diverges strongly from the literary language, and differs widely according to locality. The two main groups are the North-Welsh and the South-I/Velsh dia- lects. The best modern grammars are those of Spurrell (1848) and of Rowlands (1853); dictionaries, those of Owen Pughe (3d ed. 1866) and Silvan Evans (1887 if, incomplete). See CELTIc LANGUAGES, R. Tnunnsvsnx. Translated by BENJ. I. WHEELER. Welsh Literature: the literature written in the Welsh or Cymric language. The earliest names which occur in the history of VVelsh literature are those of the four bards Aneurin, Taliessin, Llywarch Hén, and Myrddin, called in Welsh y C3/nfeirdd or the First Bards; but the date and authenticity of the poems ascribed to them, and even the existence of the bards themselves, have been called in question. Sharon Turner, in his History of the Anglo-Saar 0728, which appeared in 1799, treated these poems as his- torical documents; and in reply to the criticisms of John Pinkerton and Malcolm Laing, who disputed the claims of the poems to be considered authentic. he published in 1803 his Vindication of the Genuineness of the Ancient British Poems of Aneurin, Taliessin, Llyunrch Hen, and Myrddin, in which, however, he argued for the genuineness of only a few of the poems of Taliessin. ,In 1849 Thomas Ste- phens published his Literature of the Ifymry, in which he subjects the poems to a critical analysis, and admits the Gododin of Aneurin, and twelve out of the seventy-seven poems attributed to Taliessin to be genuine and as old as the sixth century. D. W. Nash, in his Taliesin, or the Bards and Druids of Britain, published in 1858, limits his inquiry to the Taliessin poems, and attempts to prove that none of the poems is older than the twelfth century. Mat- thew Arnold, in his Study of Celtic Literature, shows how Nash has suppressed the facts which tell against his con- tention; and W. F. Skene, in his Four Ancient Boolcs of Wales, calls Nash’s work “a very clever piece of special leading.” Prof. Rhys (Hibbert Lectures, 1886) regards Iyrddin and Taliessin as mythical personages; Myrddin is the Merlin of the romances, and the second element of Taliessin’s name is identical with Ossin, or Ossian, the name of the mythic poet of the Gaels. The oldest versions of the works of the Cynfeirdd are given in Skene’s Four Ancient Boolrs of lVales; they are taken from the Black Book of Car*marthen, which was written in the twelfth century, and is, with the exception of two fragments of the ninth cen- tury, the oldest W’elsh MS. extant. The Boole of Aneurin, the Book of Taliessin, two MSS. of the thirteenth century, and the Red Boole of .Hergest, a MS. of the fourteenth cen- tury. In these texts several of the poems are irregular in metre, and have faulty rhymes; but no philologist seems to have tested the effect on rhyme and scansion of transform- ing the words into their known or hypothetical sixth cen- tury forms. On the whole, the poems which seem to lay most claim to this early date are the Gododin of Aneurin, _ the poems of Llywarch H611, and a few of the poems at- tributed to Taliessin. The Godod/in is a poem of 939 lines, commemorating the battle of Cattraeth, which was fought between the Strathclyde Britons and the Saxons of Deira and Bernicia about the year 567. It relates the prowess of the British warriors, and contains numerous instances of the feeling for color and the clear perception of nature which distinguish the poetry of the Celts. The fall of the British at Cattraeth is attributed to their over-indulgence in the wine and mead cups—“ wine and mead from golden vessels was their drink,” " mead was their liquor and it proved their bane.” The principal works of Llywarch Hén are his Song in Praise of Urien, his Elegy on Cynddylan, his Ode to his Old Age and Lament for his Sons. Matthew Arnold, in his Study of Celtic Literature, instances in the poems of Lly- warch I-leu the fierce, passionate melancholy, which he calls the “ Titanism of the Celt ” : “ O my crutch! is it not the first day of May‘? The fur- rows, are they not shining; the young corn, is it not spring- ing “? Ah! the sight of thy handle makes me wroth . . . “How evil was the lot allotted to Llywarch, the night when he was brought forth! sorrows without end and no deliverance from his burden." 442 706 Mrs. I-Iemans has paraphrased part of Llywarch’s lament and four stanzas of the Elegy on Cynddylan: The Hall of Cynddylan is gloomy to-night, . Since he is departed whose smile made It bright 1 I mourn : but the sigh of my soul shall be brief, The pathway is short to the grave of my chief. But Mrs. Hemans’s versions give no indications of the terseness of Llywarch’s style; as when, discoursmg on the helplessness of old age and on the shortness of man S hfe, he introduces, suddenly and without preface, the followmg triplet: _ This leaf, tossed to and fro by the wind, Woe to it its fate ! Old, it was born but this year ; and proceeds with his reflections, leaving to his reader the application of the simile. Nearly all the poetry of Llywarch Hen consists of rhymed triplets, of which the first two l'1l‘16S are usually of the peculiar form called paladr englyn. lhe first line of a paladr contains from mne to twelve syllables, the second line usually five or SIX. The last word of the first line comes after the rhyme of the line and alhterate_s or rhymes with a word at the beginnmg of the second line; thus: Kyt delei gymry ac elyfiu oloeger Allawer 0 bell tu. The twelve triplets contained in the ninth century frag- ments above alluded to are of exactly this form ; and Prof. Rhys has detected a perfect paladr in an inscription of the fifth or sixth century. (Rhys’s Arthurian Legend, p. 385.) This discovery shows that the metre is old enough to satisfy all the claims of age made on behalf of the poems; but it does not prove those claims, for the paladr, as an essential part of an englyn, is to this day one of the most widely prac- ticed of Welsh metres. Taliessin was anciently styled Pen Beirdd, that is, Chief of Bards; but the merit of the few indisputably early Ta- liessin poems does not bear out this description of him, and indeed falls far short of that of the works of Aneurin and Llywarch Hen. It is possible that these poems were written by a real Taliessin, who in later times was confused with a mythical Taliessin celebrated by tradition as Pen Beirdd, and to be equated with the Gaelic Ossian. Myrddin’s name is purely mythical, and all his poetry was written for him by twelfth century bards. There are not many poems which claim to have been written during the period between the sixth and twelfth centuries. A few attributed to Cuhelyn, Elaeth, and Mei- gant are found in the Black Boole of Carmarthen, and one to Tyssilio in the Red Book of IIergest; but, as Skene re- marks, “the number of such poems is so small that, if the poems attributed to the bards of the sixth century really belong to that period, there is an interval of several centu- ries, during which such a literature either never existed or has perished.” In prose, however, the period is represented by the famous laws of Howel Dda, which were composed in the tenth century. The twelfth century witnessed a great revival of Welsh lit- erature. The Illabinogion and older Arthurian tales, which had been handed down by oral tradition, were now com- mitted to writing. Geoffrey of Monmouth in 1145 wrote in Latin the legendary history of Britain, and in twenty years’ time Arthur and his knights were household names through- out Europe (Nutt’s IIoly Grail, p. 229.) The continental Arthurian tales found their way to Vllales, and formed the basis of the later Welsh romances. The Red Boole of IIer- gest contains eleven 'Welsh tales and romances, which were published, with an English translation, by Lady Charlotte Guest, in 1849, under the title of The Itlabinogion, from the Llyfr Coch 0 Hergest. Of the eleven, four only are entitled to the name ./llabwwgion; and these, with three other tales, form the older group, and are of purely Welsh origin; the remaining four, though all the proper names in them are Welsh, bear marks of foreign influence. Of the older tales, two only relate to Arthur, one of which, the tale of Kulhwch and Olwen bears the stamp of the most remote antiquity; the other five, including the four Ilfabinogion proper, con- tain no mention of Arthur’s name. The later romances are purely Arthurian; one of these furnished Tennyson with the materials for his Geraint and Enid. NO description can be attempted here of the magic beauty of these tales; it has deen described in glowing words by Matthew Arnold, and by John Richard Green in his Short II/istory of the English People, and the reader may form some estimate of it from the excellent translation of Lady Charlotte Guest. WELSH LITERATURE The other prose works of the twelfth and thirt-eentli cen- turies consist of Welsh histories, original and translated, the Welsh grammar of ‘Edeyrn Dafod Aur, and several works on theology. The poetry of this period is chiefly heroic. It be ins with a long ode by Meilir to the memory of Griffud ap Cynan, Prince of North Wales, who died in 1137. There also exists a fragment by Meilir referring to an event which took place in 1080; but the poem was not necessarily (as Stephens assumes) written at that date. Almost every line of Meilir’s poetry exhibits the echoing rhymes and allitera- tion which developed by degrees into the cynghanedd of the fourteenth century. Meilir was followed by his son Gwalclnnai, who wrote several odes in honor of Owain Gwynedd, son and successor of Gruffudd ap Cynan. One of these odes is given in the Specimens of the Rev. E. Evans, to whom Bishop Percy (editor of the Religues) wrote of it that it was “one continued fiery torrent of poetic flame, which, like the eruptions of IEtna, bears down all opposition.” This ode has been rendered into English verse by Gray, under the title of The Triumphs of Owen. But the most remarkable of Gwalchmai’s works is a poem entitled Cor- hofiedd Gwalehmai (Gwalchmai’s Boast), which contains the bard’s reflections in camp at dawn when he has been keep- ing watch all night. Gwalchmai was in his turn followed by his two Sons—-Meilir, who composed a quantity of devo- tional poetry, and Einion, whose most important work is An Elegy on Nest the daughter of Hywel, but who is best known as the hero of a famous fairy legend preserved in the Iolo MSS. The twelfth century is noted in the history of Welsh literature for its poet-princes, Owain Kyveiliog, the Prince of Powys, and Howel the son and successor of Ow-ain Gwy- nedd, mentioned above. Two poems of Owain Kyveiliog have come down to us, the more important being The Hirlos Llorn, a rendering of which will be found in Mrs. Hemans’s works. The extant works of the other poet-prince, I-Iowel ab Owain, consist of a fine patriotic ode and a series of ex- ceedingly beautiful love-lyrics. Kynddelw, at once the most difficult and the most volu- minous of mediaeval bards, flourished during the latter part of the twelfth century. His style is usually so involved and complicated that it is difficult to estimate his poetical merit. His younger contemporary, Llywarch ap Llywelyn, one of the bards of Llywelyn the Great, was a poet of very un- common power. The praises of the greatest of Welsh princes, Llywelyn ab Iorwerth, were also celebrated by other bards, among whom Dafydd Benvras, Einion ap Gwgawn, Elidir Sais, and Einion Wann deserve mention. The next generation of poets com- prises the bards of Llywelyn’s grandson, Llywelyn up Gruffu dd, the last Prince of Wales, who was killed in 1282. Llygad Gwr wrote a panegyrie i11 five parts upon this prince ; Bleddyn Vardd and Gruffudd ab yr Ynad Coch wrote elegies upon him, that of the latter being among the most impassioned and truly poetical verses in the language. (See Stephens, Literature of the Kymry.) )/Ve have been able to mention only a few bards of the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries, but some conception of the extent of the poetical literature of the period may be gathered from the fact that the 1lIyvyrian Archccology alone contains the works of twenty-eight bards who flourished during that time. The fourteenth century has been called “the golden age of Welsh poetry.” The tumult and perils of war no longer occu )'_Y the muse of the bards: with the exception of elegies, which the inherent melancholy of the Celt will at all times roduce, almost the only subjects of song are nature and ove. Perhaps the earliest of the new school of bards was Rhys Goch ap Rhiccert, who wrote a number of exquisite love-songs, of which a collection of twenty is preserved in the Iolo MSS. Stephens has discussed these poems at some length. The intrusting of a love-message to a bird or other crea- ture seems to have been introduced into \Velsl1 poetry by Rhys Goch, though Davydd ap Gwilym is usually credited with its introduction. The former has several of these love-messengers : A nightly companion am I to the nightingale, Let her quickly go with my vocal song . . . . And thou, lark, bard of morning dawn, Show to this maid my broken heart. Davydd ap Gwilym is considered by some critics to be the greatest of Welsh bards; he is also one of the few of whose history we have some little knowledge. He was born in 1300 and died in 1368. His father, Gwilym Gam, was dis- WELSH LITERATURE 707 inherited on account of his liaison with Ardudvul, Davydd’s mother. Davydd was brought up by his maternal uncle, Ivor the Generous, at Maesalec, in Monmouthshire; his bardic instructor was another uncle, Llywelyn ap Gwilym, of Dol Goch in Cardiganshire. He lived the life of a trouba- dour, and was a welcome guest at every mansion in the country. He fell in love with Morvudd, the daughtenof Madoc Lawgam, at Newborough, in Anglesey, and in- scribed to her seven score and seven odes. Morvudd was married against her will to Cynvrig Cynin, an ofiicer in Edward III.’s army. Davydd eloped with her; they were caught, and a heavy penalty was imposed upon the bard. which the men of Glamorgan paid for him. As a poet of nature Davydd ap Gwilym stands almost unrivaled. See an article by Prof. Lewis Jones in the Transactions of the Oymmrodorion (1893). The three eisteddfods called those of the Renaissance were held in Davydd ap Gwilym’s time, one at the house of each of Davydd’s uncles, and the other at the house of the three brothers of Marchwiail, in Flintshire. It was probably at these eisteddfods that the cynghanedd was perfected and made a sine qua non of Welsh poetry. The cynghanedd is of three kinds ; the first consists of a repetition of the same consonants in the same order at the two ends of the line, as in Davydd ap Gwilym’s Breuddwyd yw ebrwydded oes ; here the four consonants b, r, dd, d are repeated, but the repetition of only one consonant if properly placed will form a correct cynghanedd. The meaning of the above line is “ The swiftness of life is as a dream ”; thus it is seen that a practiced bard need not write jargon even when he uses the most elaborate cynghanedd. The second kind consists of a rhyme in the middle of the line, and a correspondence of consonants between the second rhyming word and the end of the line, thus: Gwull dolaa a geman gwydd. The third and simplest is a correspondence of sound be- tween the penultimate syllable of the line and some other syllable in the line, thus : Ac yng' nghyfnod dy fiodau. Ysgwyd lwyth 0 her ffwythydd. Nearly the whole of Davydd ap Gwilym’s poetry is written in a metre of seven syllables, every line of which contains one of the three kinds of cynghanedd. Each of the three takes an endless number of forms, according to the position of the consonants and rhyming syllables ; and as the accent is irregularly placed, poetry in oynghanedd is really less monotonous to read than in the regular feet of English poetry. The rudiments of the cynghanedd are found in the earliest Welsh poetry, and it practically continued to be the inseparable characteristic of all Welsh verse down to the last century, and is widely practised even now. Several other bards of note took part in the proceedings of the three eisteddfods of the Renaissance. Madog Benvras, one of the three brothers of Marchwiail, wrote an elegy on Davydd ap Gwilym, which is printed in the works of the latter, and which proves its author to have been a poet of no mean order. Sidn Cent, called in English Dr. John Kent, wrote a large number of religious odes, and became a follower of Wyclif ; many of his poems, including a scath- ing diatribe on the monks, are printed in the Iolo MSS. Rhys Goch Eryri and Iolo Goch are also mentioned in con- nection with these eisteddfods. Iolo Goch lived to see the insurrection under Owen Glendower, and wrote stirring odes of encouragement to the Welsh leader. \Ve have still to mention Gruifudd Gryg, who engaged with Davydd ap Gwilym in a poetical contention of considerable length, and Gruffudd ap Meredudd ap Davydd. whose Elegy on Gwenhwyrar of Anglesey is one of the finest things of its kind in the language. Two famous poems, the Ode on .7l'[y'van'wy Vyehan of Dinas Bran, by Howel ab Einion, and the Elegy on Llencn Llwyd. by Llywelyn Goch. must also be ascribed the former to the earlier half and the latter to the second half of the fourteenth century. The golden age of poetry seems to have produced very little prose literature. Davydd Ddu of Hiraddug wrote a treatise on poetry and metre; Gruifudd ab Adda ap Davydd composed a number of tales and fables; and a few works on geography and other branches of knowledge, contained in the Red Book of Hergest, were probably written during this period. After Iolo Goch we meet with few names of distinction until we come to the middle of the fifteenth century. At the great eisteddfod held at Caermarthen in 1451, Llawdden perfected the rules of cynghanecld, and Davydd ab Edmwnd arranged the twenty-four metres of Welsh poetry. The new rules of cynghanedd exhibit a remarkable insight into the phonological laws of the language, but the too rigid observance of those laws, and. more particularly, the limi- tation of all poetical composition to the twenty-four arbi- trary metres, had a crippling effect on the poetry of the succeeding age. Lewis Glyn Cothi, whose works were pub- lished in a volume of 510 pages at Oxford in 1837, flour- ished between 1450 and 1490. His works consist almost en- tirely of eulogy and elegy, and are interesting chiefly to the historian ; but they are not without occasional passages of some beauty, as when he contrasts “ the white shroud of Maredudd ” with “ the black gown of Morgan his father.” About this time flourished Ieuan Brydydd Hir, whose poem on Old Age is still well known; and Maredudd ap Rhys, whose Ode on Fishing, in which he compares himself to the famous fisherman Madoc the son of Owain Gwynedd, has been adduced in support of the theory that the latter discovered America before Columbus ! Ieuan Deulwyn and Lewis Morgannwg represent South Wales at this time ; and shortly afterward Guttun Owain. hard and historian, and disciple of Davydd ab Edmwnd, appears in the north. His fellow disciple, Tudur Aled, who was also a nephew of the master, flourished from 1480 till 1525. Tudur Aled is one of the most famous of Welsh bards, and some of his lines are still current among the proverbs of Vi/'ales, such as— Hysbys y dengys y dyn 0 ba radd y b0 ‘i wreiddvn. The objectiveness of Davydd ap Gwilym’s poetry, still re- flected in Davydd ab Edmwnd, now gives place to a sub- jectiveness which is very pronounced in Tudur Aled, and culminates in VVilliam Lleyn, a most eloquent bard who flourished about 1550, and in Si6n Tudur, who lived to wel- come the publication of Dr. Morgan‘s Bible in 1588. No great prose work seems to have been written between 1450 and 1550; and the historical works of Guttun Owain and Lewis Morgannwg have not been published. The first \/Velsh printed book appeared in 1546, and is of little interest from the literary point of view. It contains the alphabet, a calendar, the Creed, the Lord‘s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, etc. In 1567 Dr. Griffith Roberts pub- lished at Milan his VVelsh grammar, written in VVelsh, and exhibits a rare degree of literary merit. In the same year the first complete translation of the New Testament was pub- lished in \Velsh by VVilliam Salesbury (who had published a small Welsh and English vocabulary in 1547). In point of language Salesbury’s Testament and Roberts's grammar present a striking contrast. Dr. Roberts, by acknowledging the facts of sound-change in words borrowed from Latin, was enabled to discover several of the laws governing that change; Salesbury wished to ignore those facts, and at- tempted to restore every borrowed word into its original Latin form ; thus for dibynnn he wrote dependu. for eglzeys he wrote eccles, and so rendered his Testament unintelligible to the people for whom it was designed. The whole Bible, translated into natural and clear Y/Velsh by Dr. William Morgan, Bishop of St. Asaph, appeared in 1588. A new ver- sion, revised by Bishop Parry, with the assistance of Dr. John Davies, of Mallwyd, appeared in 1620, and isfwith a few orthographical modifications, the version of the Welsh Bible still in use. About the middle of the seventeenth century Morgan Llwyd published eight works in defense of the Puritans, of which The Book of the Three Birds is the most important. In 1671 Charles Edwards published his History of the Faith, an original work of great merit, which has gone through several editions since that date. Almost all other books published in \Velsh during the seventeenth century were translations of second-rate English theological works. In the early part of the century Edmund Prys com- posed his metrical version of the Psalms, which is sung in the chapels and churches of Wales to the present day. The only other poet of this period that need be mentioned is Hugh Morris. of Pontymeibion, who popularized the regu- larly accented song metres. though he continued the use of the cynghanedd even in these. I-Iugh Morris was the first, and perhaps the greatest, of the Welsh ballad-writers. He died in 1709 in his eighty-eighth year. Ellis VVynne published his Visions of the Slec;oing Bard in 1703. The work is not original in its conception. being based upon the Visions of the Spanish writer Quevedo. but it is generally admitted to be, with the exception of the Mabinogion, the finest Welsh prose ever written. In 1718 708 WELSH LITERATURE Theophilus Evans published his \Velsh history under the title of Drych y Prif Oesoedd. Historically the work is of no value; the argument is often puerile and the criticism contemptible; but it possesses a certain distinction of style, and relates the old legends with a certain charm, which won for it great popularity among successive generations of Vi/Telsh readers. Lewis Morris, of Anglesey, one of the most brilliant and versatile of \Nelshmen, was born in 1702. He was an able mathematician and mineralogist; he surveyed the coast of \/Vales for the admiralty, and superintended the working of the king’s mines. His skill in medicine and surgery brought the poor from all directionsto seek his help, which was never refused. A contemporary triad says of him that “he could build a ship and sail it, make a harp and play it, compose a cywydd and sing it.” In his leisure hours he applied himself to the study of Welsh literature and an- tiquities, and wrote a number of short poems in alight vein, which possess a sparkle almost unequaled in the whole range of Welsh poetry. But his indirect influence on the development of Welsh literature is not to be measured by his written works. He became the bardic instructor of the Rev. E. Evans (Ieuan Brydydd Hir, the younger), who, at the suggestion of Bishop Percy, published in 1764 the Speci- mens of Welsh Poetry alluded to above, and of Goronwy Owen, the greatest bard who had appeared since Tudur Aled. Goronwy was born in 1722, of poor parents, in a re- mote corner of Anglesey; he was educated, by the aid of Lewis Morris, at the Bangor Grammar School and Jesus College, Oxford ; he failed to obtain a curacy in I/Vales, and lamented his exiled lot in a series of poems which surpass the greatest elegiacs of Tudur Aled. His works furnished the models for all the best poetry in cynghanedd written in the nineteenth century. Lewis Morris also, together with his brother Richard Morris, was chiefly instrumental in founding the Welsh Society in London, which has done so much since for Welsh literature. The chief members of that society during the latter part of the eighteenth century were Owen Jones (Owain Myvyr) and William Owen (after- ward Dr. Owen Pughe), who jointly edited the works of Davydd ap Gwilym, published in 1789 in a thick octavo volume, and compiled, with the collaboration of Iolo Mor- gannwg, The Jtlycyrian Archaiology, published in three large volumes, 1803-08, at the expense of Owain Myvyr, who spent £2,000 on the publication. This work contains most of the extant works of the earliest bards up to the fourteenth century, the mediaeval historical romances, the Welsh laws, and other treasures of Welsh literature. Dr. Pughe also published in 1803~his Welsh dictionary, in which he refers every word to an imaginary VVelsh root, and unhesitatingly distorts it, if necessary, to suit his theory. Pughe’s efforts to promote the study of the old literature are laudable, but he produced a baneful effect upon the written Welsh of the nineteenth century. Iolo Morgannwg was the last of a school of Glamorganshire bards, who had rebelled against the decisions of the Caermarthen eisteddfod of 1451, and, to uphold their own authority, had invented a system of bard- ism, with bardic rites and a bardic congress or gorsedd, pro- claiming these to have been handed down from the time of the Druids. Iolo, the inheritor of their traditions, resusci- tated the eisteddfod, and grafted upon it their gorsedd, whicbcalled itself “ the Gorsedd of the Bards of the Isle of Britain.” It is to the eisteddfod that we owe some of the best works of the nineteenth century bards. Meanwhile a religious revival had taken place in Wales in the early part of the eighteenth century, and had produced the hymns of Williams of Panty celyn and of Anne Griffitlis. Griflith Jones, of Llanddowror, had founded his 3,000 schools, in which the people were taught to read the Welsh Bible; these had been followed by the foundation in 1780, by Thomas Charles, of the Sunday-schools, which in a short time found their way into every parish and village in the country, and literally converted the Welsh people into a nation of readers. The prose writings of the nineteenth century are chiefly theo- logical, deriving their inspiration from the religious move- ment, but also partly literary, deriving their inspiration from the eisteddfod. Of the more important literary works we may mention the histories of Carnhuanawc and Gweirydd ap Rhys; the critical essays of Gwallter Mechain and Dr. Lewis Edwards; the works of the brothers Roberts of Llan- brynmair; the life-sketches of Dr. William Rees; the novels of Mr. Daniel Owen; and the Welsh encyelopuedia of Messrs. Gee, of Denbigh, published in ten bulky volumes, and now passing through a second edition. The poets of this cen- tury are exceedingly numerous; the most eminent are Rob- WEN CESLAS ert ap Gwilym Ddu, the epigrammatist; Dcwi \Vyn, the author of the famous ode on Charity; Ieuan Glan Geirion- nydd, the most polished of Welsh hymn-writers; Eben Vardd, the author of The Fall of Jerusalem; Emrys, the poet of nature; Islwyn, the poet of melancholy; and Ceiriog. the Welsh Béranger. The production of fresh literature is in- creasing rather than declining, and the number of its read- ers may be gauged by the extent of Welsh periodical litera- ture. In 1828 there were, according to John Blackwell (Alun), 14 monthly periodicals published in VVelsh, to the pages of which the peasantry were almost the only contribu- tors. At the time of writing (1895) there are issued, of peri- odicals printed entirely in Welsh, 2 quarterlies, 2 bi-monthlies, about 20 monthlies,'and about 24 weekly papers; and VVelsh reading is given in 14 English papers circulating in Wales. See Stephens’s Literature of the Kym-ry (2d ed. 1876). J . MORRIS JONES. Welsh Onion Welsh:Germ. Walsch. See WALEs]: another name for t e CIBOL (g. 2).). Welwitsch, wel’wich, FREDERICK, M. D., F. L. S.; bota- nist; b. at Klagenfurt, Austria, Feb. 25, 1806; spent eigh- teen years in the Portuguese possessions of Western Africa, where he collected over 40,000 specimens of plants, which he brought to England, and published several works on Af- rican botany and on natural history. D. in London, Oct. 20, 1872. In 1863 he discovered at Mossamedes, West Africa, a remarkable plant which he named Tumboa. but which was subsequently named by Dr. J . D. Hooker VVelwiischia mirabilis. It is placed among the Gnetacecc, an order nearly allied to the conifers ; is never above a foot high, though its trunk is sometimes 6 feet in diameter; is found only in an elevated rainless, stony plateau; attains an estimated age of above a century; produces flower-stalks 12 inches high, cones 2 inches long, and two flat leaves 6 feet long, which lie prostrate upon the ground. Revised by C. E. BESSEY. Wemyss, FRANCIS Wunvss CHARTERIS DoUeLAss, Earl of: See ELci.-Io. Wen : a cystic tumor occurring upon the surface of the body, especially on the scalp. It originates by the occlu- sion of a follicle of the skin or scalp, and the subsequent slow accumulation of sebaceous matter secreted by the lining of the cyst. The tumor, therefore, is round and symmetrical, and, causing a distension of the overlying skin or scalp, is smooth and shiny. It may be soft, semi—solid, or indurated, according as its contained sebaceous matter is fluid, rich in pultaceous fatty granules, or has had its fluid elements ab- sorbed, leaving only inspissated and calcific substance. The wen is a harmless, non-malignant tumor. Whether single or present in large numbers, its removal is easy and harm- less. Wen'ceslas, or Wenzel: Emperor of Germany (1378- 1400); b. at Nuremberg, Feb. 20, 1361; a son of the Em- pcror Charles IV., of the house of Luxemburg. A violent and self-indulgent ruler, he was unable to cope with the ditficulties that the disordered state of the empire at that time presented. In Bohemia, which was his hereditary do- minion, and of which he had been crowned king when only three years old, he ruled with the highest degree of arbi- trariness and cruelty. He was unable to compose the diffi- culties between the princes and the free cities, and in his reign the foundation of Swiss independence was laid by the victory at Sempach over the house of Hapsburg. In 1393 he caused John Nepomuk to be tortured and thrown into the Moldau, and soon afterward the Bohemian nobles, who hated him for the partiality he showed toward the Germans, formed a conspiracy against him, headed by his own brother, Sigismund. King of Hungary, seized him, and held him a prisoner at Prague for several months. He was finally re- stored to liberty, but his power was thenceforth much cir- cumscribed in Bohemia. In Germany, where his influence never had been great, he finally lost all authority, and when he sold the duchy of Lombardy to one of the Visconti and allied himself with France for the purpose of ending the papal schism by deposing both Boniface IX. and Benedict XIII., the electors of Mentz, Cologne, Treves, and the Pa- latinate assembled at Oberlalmstein and formally deposed him (Aug. 20, 1400). Rupert of the Palatinate, who was elected emperor in his stead; was never generally acknowl- edged, but when, after the death of Rupert in 1410, Sigis- mund of Hungary was elected emperor, Wenceslas renounced his claims on the German crown, though he continued to bear the title till his death Aug. 16, 1419. See Lindner, WEND-ELL Gcschichte des Deutschen Reichs unter Kiinig Wenzel (1875- 76), and Reichstagsahten untcr Konig Wenzel (edited by Weizsttcker, 1868-77). F. M. C. Wendell, BARRETT: author; b. in Boston, Mass, Aug. 23,1855; graduated at Harvard College 1877 ; became in- structor in English at Harvard 1880, and assistant professor of that subject 1888 ; has published the works of fiction The Duchess Emilia (Boston, 1885) and Ranhell’s Remains; also English Composition (New York, 1891); and Cotton filather in Makers of America Series (1891). Wend Language : See SLAVIC LANGUAGES. Wends : originally a general designation of the Slavs by their Teutonic neighbors, the word being derived according to Safafik from a Slavonic root (Pol. uoda, Russ. coda, Lithuanian wandd, water), and thus designating the people dwelling about water. The Wends are supposed to have been the earliest dwellers on the Baltic coast, and to have been driven away by the Goths (the G-uttoncs of Pytheas) in the fourth century B. 0. (Cf. Bradley, The Story of the Goths.) At present by VVends are understood the Slavs of Upper and Lower Lusatia (Germ. Lausitz, derived from Slav. lug or luza, a low, marshy country), who are en- tirely surrounded by Germans and have no connection whatever with other Slavs. They call themselves Serbs (Serbjo), and were called Sorbs or Sorabi by the old Ger- man chroniclers. According to the earliest historical re- ports the l/Vendish country extended about from the Saale and Spree to the Bober, i. e. from the present site of Berlin to the Lusatian Mountains, or over Brandenburg, Saxony, and Lower Silesia. Their language belongs to the western branch of the Slavic family, is closest cognate to Czech, and divides itself into two strongly differing dialects: Upper Sorabish and Lower Sorabish. Mucke’s statistics, Statistiha taéishich Serbow (Bautzen, 1884-86), give the total number of the Wendish-speaking people at 173,469 (98,059 Upper Sorbs, 75,410 Lower Sorbs). The Wends are rapidly being Germanized. The people, mostly peasants, have a rather insignificant literary development, mostly of a religious character. The literary society Maéica serbsha (founded in 1847 at Bautzen) issues a periodical, Oasopis mac'ic_u serbs- /ceje, the chief depository of literary production in Wendish; also a weekly paper in Bautzen, Serbshe Noviny (Wendish News). There are several good grammars. The best for Up- per Wendish is Pfuhl’s Laut und Formenlehre der ober- lausitzisch-wendischen Sprache (Bautzen. 1867); also that by Liebsch (1884) ; the only one for Lower Wendish is Haupt- mann’s N iederlaasitzisch-wendische Grammatica (Liibben, 1761); Schmaler’s Vol/eslieder der Wenden, with a map of the Wendish language domain, and a translation of Wendish folk-songs is excellent (2 vols., Grimma, 1841-43); also see R. Andree, Wendische Wanderstndicn (Stuttgart, 1873); and Sprachgebiet der Zausitzer Wenolen (Prague, 1873). The Winds, a name given by the Germans to the Slovenes of Carinthia, Carniola, and Styria, are a different Slavic branch, to be carefully distinguished from the Wends. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Wendt, cent, HANS HINRICH, Ph.D., D.D.: Protestant theologian; b. in Hamburg, Germany. June 18,1853; be- came privat docent of theology at Giittingen 1877 ; profess- or extraordinary 1881; ordinary professor at Kiel 1883, at Heidelberg 1885, at Jena 1893. He wrote Die Begrifie Fleisch und Geist in biblischen Sprach-geZn'auch (Gotha, 1878) ; Die Ohristliche Lehre uon der menschlichen Vollhom- menheit (Giit-tingen,1882); Die Lehre Jesu (2 vols., 1886— 90; Eng. trans. of 2d vol., The Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1892); Die Aufgabe der systematischen Theo- logic, inaugural (Jena, 1893). S. M. J . Wener, Lake: the largest lake of the Scandinavian pe- ninsula; in the southern part of Sweden; 30 miles from the Cattegat, at an elevation of 144 feet; area, 2,150 sq. miles. It receives the Clara-elf, and sends its waters to the Catte- gat through the Giitha-elf. It is connected with Lake Wet- ter by canals, and thus an inland communication is estab- lished between the Baltic and the Cattegat. Wen0'na: city; Marshall co., Ill.; on the Chi. and Alton and the Ill. Cent. railways; 20 miles E. of Lacon, the coun- ty-seat, 20 miles S. of La Salle (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 4—E). It is an important grain center, and has bituminous coal mines, zinc-works, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a private bank, and a weekly news- paper. Pop. (1880) 911; (1890) 1,053; (1895) estimated, 1,600. EDITOR or “INDEX.” “ WERDER 709 Wens'leydale, J AuEs PARKE, Baron : jurist; b. at High- field, near Liverpool, England, Mar. 22, 1782; in 1799 en- tered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a pensioner, graduated in 1803. and became a fellow of Trinity in 1804. In 1813, after practicing for several years as a special pleader, he was called to the bar, at the Inner Temple, and, choosing the northern circuit, soon gained a large practice, hereby acquiring that familiarity with maritime law for which he was afterward noted as a judge. In 1820 he was chosen to assist the crown officers in the trial of Queen Caroline before the House of Lords, and in 1828, without any parliamentary or political interest, was appointed a puisne judge of the king’s bench. On the death of Baron Taunton he was trans- ferred to the exchequer, and made a member of the privy council, 1834. He retained his seat in the exchequer until,‘ resigning in Dec., 1855, he was created a life peer, and called to the House of Lords by Lord Palmerston. This gave rise to the discussion as to his right to sit and vote in Parlia- ment, which resulted in the rejection of the limited peerage scheme, and the grant to him of a new patent whereby he was made a hereditary peer with the title of Baron \Vensley- dale of W'alton; but as he died childless, the title became extinct. He was one of the last judges to deliver written judgments systematically, many of his being valuable as legal treatises. D. at Ampthill Park, Bedfordshire, Feb. 25, 1868. F. STURG ES ALLEN. Wentletrap [from Dutch uenteltrap : Germ. u¢endel- treppe, winding staircase, wentletrap: wenden, turn + ireppe, stair, stairs] : any shell of the family Scalaridce of gastero- pod mollusca. The shells are white, with the whorls orna- mented by transverse ribs. Some of the species are said to secrete a purple fluid. About 150 species are known, mostly from tropical seas, though several occur on the New Eng- land shores. A single specimen of the Chinese species (Sca- laria pretiosa) has been sold for $250, but now will bring not more than one or two dollars. J . S. K. Wentworth, BENNING : Governor of New Hampshire ; b. at Portsmouth, N. H., July 24, 1696 ; graduated at Harvard 1715; became a merchant; was frequently elected to the Assembly: was appointed a member of the council 1734; was royal Governor from 1741 to 1767 ; made grants of land in Southern Vermont, occasioning the famous conflict with New York concerning jurisdiction over the New Hamp- shire grants, and gave to Dartmouth College 500 acres of land, on which its buildings were erected. D. at Ports- mouth, Oct. 14, 1770. The town of Bennington, Vt., was named in his honor. Wentworth, CHARLES WATSON: See ROCKINGHAM, MAR- ours or. Wentworth, Sir JOHN, Bart., LL.D.: Governor of New Hampshire; nephew of Gov. Benning VVentworth : b. at Portsmouth, N. H., Aug. 9, 1737 ; graduated at Harvard 1755 ; went to England as agent of the province 1765 ; ob- tained through the Marquis of Rockingham the appoint- ments of surveyor of the king's woods in America and that of Governor of New Hampshire. which he held in 1767-75 ; gave its charter to Dartmouth College ; encouraged agricul- ture and promoted the settlement of the colony; went to Eng- land at the outbreak of the war of the Revolution (1775), and remained there until peace was declared. His property was confiscated; was Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia 1792-1808, and was created a baronet 1795. D. at Halifax, N. S., Apr. 8, 1820. Wentworth, THOMAS: See STR-AFFORD, EARL or. Wenzel: See \/VENCESLAS. Werdall, r€ir'dow: one of the chief manufacturing towns in the kingdom of Saxony; a central station of the Saxon state railways; 011 the Pleisse, about 40 miles S. of Leipzig (see map of German Empire, ref. 4—G). It manufactures cloth, yarn, and wool, has important dyeing establishments and machine-shops, furnishing especially spinning-machines, and electric-light machines. \Verdau was first mentioned as a town in 1304, and in 1398 it was purchased by the Mar- grave of Meissen. Pop. (1890) 16,253. H. S. Werder, r£tr'der, AUGUST, Count von : general; b. at Schlossberg, East Prussia, Sept. 12, 1808; entered the Prus- sian army in 1825; took part in the Russian campaigns in the Caucasus in 1842-43 ; became a member of the staff in 1846; was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general in 1866, and led the Third Division at Gitschin and K6nig- grittz in the campaign against Austria. In the war against France in 187 0 he was a member of the staff of the crown 710 WEREGILD prince, but soon received the command of the Baden-VViir- temberg Army-corps, which he led at Wtirth Aug. 6, 1870. He conducted the siege of Strassburg ; was made a general of infantry after the capitulation of the fortress; and re- pulsed victoriously (J an. 15-17, 1871) the attack of Bourbaki at Belfort, which success made him very popular in South- ern Germany. His statue was raised at Freiburg. In 1875 he was invested with the insignia of the order of the Black Eagle. In 1879 he was retired from the army and created . Count von Werder. I). at Schloss Griissow, Pomerania, Sept. 12. 1887. See von Conrady, Leben des Grafen August von Werder (1889). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Weregild, or Wergild: in old Teutonic law, a fine ex- acted of a murderer or perpetrator of other heinous crime against the person. In case of a murder the guilty party paid to the relatives of the deceased a certain sum varying with the rank of the victim, and thereby purchased immu- nity from their vengeance. Among the Anglo-Saxons the value of a man’s life was fixed according to his rank, and the fines for murders ranged from 2008. for killing a churl (eeorl) to 7,2008. for killing the king. Wergeland, var'ge-la“and, HENRIK ARNOLD THAULOW: poet; b. at Christiansand, Norway, June 17, 1808; studied theology at the University of Christiania; received in 1836 an appointment at the library; became keeper of the ar- chives of the state in 1840. D. Aug. 12, 1845. In 1830 he published Shabelsen, fllennes/set cg llfesstas (The Creation, Man, and the Messiah), a very long lyric poem, in which he gave expression to the religious and philosophical thoughts with which he was filled at that time. Besides many trage- dies, vaudevilles, farces, ete., he wrote Jiiden (The Jew) ; Jan van Haysams Blomsterstyhhe (Jan van Huysum’s Flow- er-piece); and Den Engelshe Lods (The English Pilot) (1845), the last being his most interesting poem. His influence on Norwegian literature and civilization can by no means be measured by the zesthetic worth of his works. (See NOR- WEGIAN LITERATURE.) A good selection of his works ap- peared in 1859 in 1 vol. His collected works (9 vols.) ap- peared at Christiania, 1852-57. See Lassen, Henrth Wergc- Zand cg hans Sarnttd (2d ed. Christiania, 1877). Revised by D. K. DODGE. VVerner, var’ner, ABRAHAM GorTLoB : geologist; b. Sept. 25, 1750, at Wehrau, Upper Lusatia. where his father was director of smelting-works; studied at the mining-school of Freiberg and at the University of Leipzig, and was appoint- ed Professor of Mineralogy in 1815 at Freiberg, Saxony, where he died June 30, 1817. His writings are not numer- ous, comprising only a few minor books, or pamphlets—— Ueber dte dassern Kennzetchen der Fosstlten (Leipzig, 1774 ; translated into English by Weaver, Edinburgh, 1849) ; Zfarze Klasstfihatton and Beschretbang der Gebtrgsarten (Dresden, 1787); and Nerve Theorte itber Entstehang der Gdngc (Freiberg, 1791 ; translated into English by Charles Anderson, Edinburgh, 1809). But by his lectures, to which students from all European countries gathered, he gained many disciples, and his theory, the so-called Neptunian, forms a most important chapter in the history of geology. In 1845 the 1/Vernerian Society was founded in Edinburgh by one of his disciples, Robert Jameson. Werner, FRIEDRIUI-I LUDWIG ZAcHARIAs: dramatist; b. at K6nigsberg, Germany, Nov. 18, 1768; studied law at the university there, and entered the Prussian civil service in 1793, holding office in Warsaw till 1805, then in Berlin. While in \/Varsaw he wrote in 1800 his first drama, S6hne des Thals. inspired by his enthusiasm for the Freemasons, and in 1804, the Kreaz an der Ostsee, to which Hoffmann composed the music. In Berlin he wrote Jlfarttn Lather, oder dte Wcthe der Kraft, and Der 24ste Febrnar. This last drama is known in the history of literature as one of the worst examples of the so-called Schtchsa-Zstragi}d'te in which Fate is made the absolute ruler of human destiny—— not the Mohammedan fate, which may fill the heart with fanatical enthusiasm, but a peculiar, mystic, and fantastic power, merely fit to strike the imagination with terror. The whole play is, like his other dramas, the outburst of an ill- regulatedimagination, though its author was not without dramatic and poetic talent. It made a great sensation, and called forth scores of imitations. In 1807 \/Verner resigned his office in the Prussian service; traveled in Germany, Switzerland, and France; visited Goethe at Weimar and Madame de Sta-el at Coppct; went in 1809 to Rome ; joined the Roman Catholic Church Apr. 19, 1811 ; was ordained a priest in 1814; preached in Vienna during the Congress, WESLEY and created a sensation by the peculiar blending, in his ser- mons, of coarseness and real power. He spent 1816-17 in Podolia in the house of Count Choloniewski, but in the lat- ter year he returned to Vienna, where he continued to preach with great effect till his death Jan. 17, 1823. His Sdmmtltche Werhe, with a biography by Schiitz, were pub- lished in 13 vols. (Grimma, 1839-41), and contain, besides the above dramas, the tragedies Attila, Wanda, Kancgande, and Die Jtfatter der Jl1'a/clcabder (1820), lyrical poems, hymns, sermons, etc. See Hitzig, Lebensabrtss Z. Werners (Berlin, 1823) ; H. Di'1nt-zer, Zwet Bekehrte (Leipzig, 1873) ; I. Minor, Dte Schz'chsaZstrag6dte (1883). Revised by JULIUS GQEBEL. Wernerius: See IRNERIUS. Wernigerode, var-ne‘e-gd-r5’de: district-town of Prussian Saxony, and chief place of the county belonging to the Stol- berg family; at the north base of the Hartz Mountains, about 12 miles S. W. of Halberstadt. It has manufactures of wood- en wares, cigars, woolen and linen fabrics, bricks and tiles. The castle of the Counts of Stolberg, ‘with a fine view over lél1;6él‘I€L1‘tZ, has a select library of 95,000 vols. Pop. (1390) , . H. . Wershetz: See VERSECZ. Wesel, va'zel: fortified town of Rhenish Prussia; at the confluence of the Rhine and the navigable Lippe, 46 miles S. NV. of Miinster (see map of German Empire, ref. 4-C). It is a station of the Rhenish railway system ; has considerable traffic by steamboats with Amsterdam; exports wood and fish, and manufactures metal goods, pianofortes, sugar, etc. A railway bridge and a bridge of boats cross the Rhine here, both of which are protected by Fort Blticher as the teAte-de-pent on the left bank. Wesel was once a member of the Hanseatic League, but lost its importance after the revolution of the Netherlands against Spain. A monument erected in 1835 commemorates the death of eleven of’ficers of Maj. Schill who were shot by order of Napoleon in 1809 after their unsuccessful attack on Stralsund. Pop. (1890) 20,724, more than one-half Roman Catholics. H. S. Wese1',va’zer : a river of Europe formed by the junction of the Fulda (which rises in the Rhtingebirge, on the frontiers of Prussia and Bavaria) and the Werra (which rises in the Thiiringerwald), at Miinden, H anover, whence it flows north- ward, and enters the North Sea after a course of 250 miles. It is navigable for small craft to Miinden, for vessels of con- siderable size to Bremen, but ships of the largest size ascend no farther than Bremerhaven, which is at its mouth, and was built for the accommodation of such vessels. This river is not of much consequence for traffic, though it com- municates with the Elbe by a canal. Wesley, CHARLES, M. A.; clergyman and poet; youngest son of the Rev. Samuel Wesley, rector of Epworth, Lin- colnshire; b. at Epworth, Dec. 18. 1708, o. s. (Dec. 29, N. s.). In 1716 he was sent to Westminster School, under his elder brother, SAMUEL WESLEY (q. v.). In 1721 Charles was ad- mitted king’s scholar at St. Peter’s College, Westminster; in 1726 entered Christ Church College, Oxford. While there he became so‘ serious, devout, and zealous that the wits at Oxford called him and his godly companions “ l\’lethodists,” a title which had been given derisively to rigidly religious persons a century before. When, with his brother J ohn, he was about to embark for America with Oglethorpe in 1735 he was ordained deacon, and soon after presbytcr. After preaching in Frederica, Ga., he returned to England, reach- ing there on Dec. 3, 1736. On Whitsunday, May 21, 1737, he experienced the “ witness of adoption,” by which he was raised to a higher plane in the divine life—an event com- memorated in his immortal hymn, “ O, for a thousand tongues to sing ! ” Being excluded from the churches of the Establishment because of his “l\'lelhodism,” he began at once to co-operate with his brother in his great work of evangelization. He traveled extensively in England and Wales, and was very successful as a preacher. But he is chiefly renowned as “ the poet of _l\’Iethodism.” He wrote more than 6,000 hymns on every religious theme, versify- ing large ortions of the Scriptures, including most of the Psalms. is hymns constitute the staple of the Methodist hymnals. D. in London, Mar. 29, 1788. Charles Wesley married in 1749 Sarah Gwynne, of Wales, by whom he had eight children. His eldest son, CHARLES, b. Sept. 1757, in- herited the musical genius of his parents, and in his third year learned from his mother to play on the harpsichord. A year later his father introduced him to Dr. Boyce, a lead- ing musician in London, where his astonishing preeocity in WESLEY music led to the proposal that he should be a chorister in the chapel royal, an offer his father declined. For half a century, till his death in 1834, he had no rival at the organ, unless it was his brother SAMUEL, b. Feb. 24, 1766, who at the age of three played “God save great George, our king ! ” Fischer’s 1nin uet, which he had caught from street organs. The best organists in London took pleasure in teaching the two brothers gratuitously, as they could learn anything and play the hardest music at sight. Samuel became the foremost composer and performer of his age. He composed a high mass for the chapel of Pope Pius VI., who thanked him in a Latin letter written to the apostolic vicar in London. D. in London, Oct. 11, 1837. One of his sons, SAMUEL SEBAS- TIAN WESLEY, Mus. Doc. (1810-76), became equally distin- guished as a musician. He was organist of several cathe- drals, director of the "Three Choirs Festivals,” and com- posed much important music. See Ltres of Charles Wesley by Jackson (1841-49) and Telford (1886), and Stevenson’s .Memom'als of the Wesley Family (1876). The poetical works of Charles and John Wesley were edited in a series of 13 vols., by Dr. George Osborn (London. 1868-72). Revised by J . F. HURST. Wesley, J OHN, A. M.: founder of Methodism; son of the Rev. SAMUEL WESLEY (q. 1:.) and Susannah (Annesley) Wes- ley; b. at Epworth, Lincolnshire, England, June 17, 1703, 0. s. (June 28, N. s.). When nearly six years of age he nar- rowly escaped burning to death in a fire which consumed the Epworth parsonage. He received his early training principally from his mother. At the age of eleven he was sent to the Charterhouse School, London, where he made great attainments; in 1720 was sent to Christ Church, Ox- ford. Here he acquired extraordinary proficiency in all kinds of learning, especially in the classics, logic, and the- ology. He was ordained deacon Sept. 19, 1725, and pres- byter Sept. 22, 1728; obtained a fellowship in Lincoln Col- lege, Oxford, Mar. 17,1726; during that year assisted his father at Epworth; was made Greek lecturer and mod- erator of the classics Nov. 7, 1726; took his M. A. degree in Feb., 1727, and in that year he became his father’s curate at Epworth and I/Vroote, but as it was necessary for him to reside at Oxford, he resigned the curacy and returned to Oxford Nov., 1729. He then became the head of the society at Oxford composed of Charles Wesley, and others, who were derisively called “ Methodists” because they were so methodical in their lives and strict in the performance of religious duties. In 1735 the two brothers accompanied Oglethorpe to Georgia-John to be a missionary to the Indians, and Charles to be secretary to the Governor and a clergyman in the colony. The way was not opened for the mission to the Indians; and as the colonists would not endure the rigid, ascetic discipline which the Wesleys wished to enforce (being then of the extreme High-Church party), they returned to England, Charles in 1736, and John ‘in 1738; but the first Sunday-school established in America is said to be the one organized by John Wesleyin Savannah. He was all the time a sincere and devout Christian, full of good works, but he had not a clear sense of pardon by the witness of the Spirit, as he subsequently had. He says: “ In the evening (of May 24, 1738) I went very ilnwillingly to a so- ciety m Aldersgate Street (London), where one was reading Luther’s preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a quarter before nine, while he was describing the change which he works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt that I did trust in Christ, Christ alone, for salvation; and an assurance was given me that he had taken away my sins, even mine. and saved me from the law of sin and death.” While he was seeking this exper1ence_—viz., May 1, 1738—he formed the first Methodist “ society,” In Fetter Lane, London. The following summer he visited Count Zinzendorf and the Moravians in Germany to study their discipline and to intensify his spiritual life. On his return from Germany, being excluded from the churches of the Estabhshment because of his “ Methodism,” he imitated W'lnteficld, preaching in the fields and in private houses, wherever occasion served. The foundation-st-one of his first chapel was laid in Bristol May 12, 1739. An old foundryin Moorfields, London, was purchased, and opened for preach- mg Nov. 11, 1739. Wesley says: “In the latter end of the year 1739 eight or ten persons came to me in London and desired that I would spend some time with them in prayer, and advise them how to flee from the wrath to come: this was the rise of the an/ltecl societg/.” From that period to the close of his life he was incessantly engaged in preach- 711 ing, forming societies, governing them, providing them spiritual help. As their members increased rapidly in various parts of the kingdom, and as few clergymen would co-operate with him, while some repelled his followers from their churches, he was led to employ laymen to preach, though not to administer the sacraments. In 1742 \Vesle_v instituted class-meetz'ngs-first at Bristol, where they were originated for the purpose of paying a debt on the chapel, but as they were found admirably adapted to maintain godly discipline and Christian fellowship, they became an impor- tant and permanent feature of Methodism. He held his first conference at the Foundry in London June 25, 1744, when there were present four clergymen, besides himself and his brother Charles, and four lay-preachers—ten in all. In Aug., 1744, he preached. his last sermon before the University of Oxford. At the next conference (Aug. 1, 1745) only one clergyman besides himself and brother was present, the other seven being lay-preachers. The third conference was held at Bristol May 12, 1746. It was attended by John and Charles Wesley, John Hodges, and six lay-preachers. The work was then systematically arranged and divided into “circuits,” and the call and qualifications of preachers were defined substantially as in the present Methodist Discipline. Twelve “assistants” were then recognized. Thus originated the Wesleyan system of itinerancy. In June, 1748, he opened Kingswood School, near Bristol, an institution designed for the education of preachers’ sons and others. This was the nucleus of the system of literary and theological institutions which now obtains among the Methodists. At the twenty- seventh conference, held Aug. 7, 1770, “minutes” were adopted which led to a more formal and permanent sepa- ration from the Calvinistic Methodists, who were in connec- tion with Whitefield and Lady Huntingdon. A sharp and prolonged controversy took place, in which the saintly Fletcher of Madeley came to the help of I/Vesley and de- fended his evangelical Arminianism against the fierce attacks of Toplady, Richard and Rowland Hill. and others. The VVesleyan Methodists have never since “leaned toward Cal- vinism.” Whcn he was fourscore years of age, he had " the Deed of Declaration ” executed, Feb. 24. 1784, by which the government of the connection was assigned legally to the conference. consisting of 100 preachers and their successors forever. This fixed the status of British Wesleya‘n M ethod- ism with regard to both doctrine and discipline. In 1766 two Irish local preachers. Philip Embury and Robert Straw- bridge, began to preach in New York and Maryland; and at the conference in 1769, \Yesley sent to America two travel- ing preachers, Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor, to take charge of the societies they had formed. In 1770 he set down in the appointments, “ No. 50, America.” In 1771 he sent over Francis Asbury and Richard Wright, and in 1773 Thomas Rankin and George Shadford. As the work increased so rapidly in America. as the colonial Church of England, to which the Methodists generally had looked for the sacraments (their own preachers not being empowered to administer them), was virtually extinct, as the English bishops would not ordain ministers for America, and as \Ves- ley had long before ceased “ to be theologically or ecclesias- tically a High Churchman,” and had repudiated the theory of prelatical succession, recognizing the parity of bishops and prcsbyters as to order, being importuned by the American societies, he provided them with an ordained ministry. In 1784 he ordained Richard \Vhatcoat and Thomas Vasey as elders, or prcsbyters, and the Rev. Thomas Coke, a clergy- man of the Church of England, as superintendent, or bishop. At a conference in Baltimore Dec., 1784, Bishop Coke, assisted by the Rev. Philip William Otterbein of the German Re- formed Church and others, consecrated Francis Asbury bish- op, and ordained others as elders. or prcsbyters, and deacons. Thus originated Methodist episcopacy. At first, W esley, be- ing intensely loyal, wrote against the American “ rebellion," but when he saw the hand of God in it, he wrote a powerful letter to Lord North, imploring the Government to stop the war. Wlien. therefore, the colonies had acquired their in- dependence, Wesley was fully prepared to take this impor- tant step. Speaking of the American brethren. he said: “ We judge it best that they should stand fast in that liberty wherewith God has so strangely made them free.” He abridged and modified the liturgy, offices, ordinal. and Arti- cles of the Church of England for the Methodist Episcopal Church in America, as, with some changes, they are used by that Church to this day. This was the crowning act of his life. He ordained a few ministers for special service in England and Scotland, and he would have ordained more of them, 712 WESLEY but he wished to keep his connection, as far as possible, within the pale of the national establishment. But for this he would have organized his societies in Great Britain and Ireland into an Episcopal Church, like the Methodist Episcopal Church in America. I/Vesley’s constant prayer was to lay down his body with his charge “and cease at once to work and live.” His prayer was answered, for he labored on to the last. It has been well said of him: ‘No man, perhaps, ever accomplished so much. He rode, chiefly on horseback, 5,000 miles, and preached 500 sermons every year for nearly fifty years; arranged and governed his socie- ties, which numbered before his death some 80,000 members; carried on an immense correspondence; read every work of note as it came from the press; wrote commentaries on the Bible, grammars of the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and French languages, works on logic and philosophy, controversial treatises, journals, sermons, etc., and abridged over 100 vol- umes for “A Christian Library.” His generosity was limited only by his means. In later life, though he realized £20,000 by his writings, his personal expenses did not average £100 a year, and he left nothing at his death. His life was often in danger from the fury of mobs. and his sensitive spirit felt keenly the contempt of the higher classes. his equals, yet he could say, “None of these things move me.” He lived in con- stant activity, cheerfulness, and trust in God. Like the rest of the \Vesley family, he was fond of music and poetry. He published several volumes of tunes for the organ and voice, and quite a library of hymns and poems. He wrote elegant hymns himself. and is accredited with the admirable trans- lations from the German, French, and Spanish found in his hymn-books. He was a keen and judicious critic, and many of the hymns of his brother Charles, Dr. \Vatts, Herbert, and others were greatly improved by his pruning and correction. He married in 1757, Mrs. Mary Vizelle, a woman of cultiva- tion and apparent piety, but she proved a very vixen. who did all in her power to ruin him. He bore her treatment with marvelous forbearance till she finally robbed him of important papers and left him forever, whereupon he calmly said, Non eam religai, non dimisi. non revocabo. He died in London, M ar. 2, 1791, surrounded by some of his preach- ers and other friends, exclaiming, “ The best of all is, God is with us.” He was buried Mar. 9 at City Road chapel, where a marble tablet commemorates his life and labors. On Mar. 30, 1876, a marble tablet to the memory of John and Charles \Vesley, showing their profiles, and also representing John \Veslcy preaching on his father’s tomb at Epworth, where he was excluded from the church, was unveiled in West- minster Abbey by Dean Stanley in the presence of the presi- dent of the conference, Di'. J obson, who designed the tablet, and others. See the Lives by Hampson, Whitehead, Southey (1820; new ed. 1889); Tyerman (1870; new ed. 1876); Rigg (1875); Watson, with notes by Summers, Telford (1886), Overton (1891); Isaac Taylor‘s Wesley anol Jklethoclism ; Journal of John Wesley, in his W'orhs, 7 vols. See METH- ODISM. Revised by J . F. HURST. Wesley, SAMUEL, Sr.: divine; grandson of Bartholomew Wesley, or Westley ; b. at Winterborn-Whitchurch, Dorset, 1662; educated at Exeter College, Oxford (B. A., 1688); soon afterward he married Susannah, daughter of Dr. Samuel Annesley, “the St. Paul of the Nonconformists.” In 1692 he was appointed to the parish of South Ormsby, in Lincolnshire, where he also acted as domestic chaplain to the Marquis of Normandy, who desired him to be raised to an Irish episcopate, but William and Mary and Arch- bishop Tillotson disapproved. Having dedicated his Life of Christ to Queen Mary, she presented him with the living of Epworth in Lincolnshire, of which he was rector thirty- nine years, and where he died Apr. 22, 1735. He was the father of nineteen children, had to assist poor relatives, met with many reverses, and never had more than £200 a year for his salary. He is frequently described as a Tory and a High Churchman, but he was no Jacobite or bigot. He was the eulogist of 'William and Mary and Tillotson, who headed the Low-Church party. He was a prolific author. His great works were The Life of Christ, an Tleroic Po- em; Dissertations on the Boole of Job, in Latin; and En- polis’s Hymn to the Creator. As an author he is best known by his two hymns. found in Methodist hymnals, “Behold the Saviour of mankind,” and “ O Thou who when I did com- plain.” See Life and Times of the Rev. Samuel Wesley, by Tyerman; A. Clarke’s Wesley Family; and the vari- ous Lives of John and Charles Wesley. Revised by ALBERT OSBORN. WESSEL Wesley, SAMUEL, J r., A. M.: eldest son of the Rev. Sam- uel Wesley and brother of John and Charles Wesley; b. in London. Feb. 10, 1690. In 1704 he was sent to Westmin- ster School, where he was‘ admitted in 1707. In 1711 he went to Christ Church, Oxford. After taking his A. M. de- gree he became usher in his old school at Westminster, and by the advice of his friend Bishop Atterbury entered into holy orders. In 1732 he became head master of Blundell’s free grammar school at Tiverton, where he remained till his death N ov. 6, 1739. He was one of the founders of the first infirmary set up at Westminster, new St. George’s Hos- pital. He belonged to the old High Church school, and did not co-operate with his Methodist brothers. He began writ- ing charity hymns when he was about twenty years of age. The first ‘edition of his poems was published in quarto in 1736; a second, with additions, was published in 1743, and an edition was published, with a Life of the author, by William Nichols, in 1862. He is best known by his hymns in the Methodist hymn-book. and a poem on the death of a young lady, “ The morning flowers display their sweets.” Revised by ALBERT OsBoRN. Wesleyans and Wesleyans, Primitive : See METiioDisiii. Wesleyali University: the oldest college under the con- trol of the Methodist Episcopal Church; located at Middle- town, Conn. In 1829 a joint committee, appointed by the New York and New England conferences, issued proposals inviting the towns within a specified region to compete for the location of the proposed college by the ofl'er of subscrip- tions. In response to these proposals two large stone build- ings in the city of Middletown, erected five years before for the American Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy, but recently vacated by the removal of that institution to N orwich. Vt., were offered to this committee as a gift, on the condition that an endowment fund of $40,000 should be raised for the college. This oifer, accompanied by a sub- scription of $18,000 from the citizens of Middletown, was at once accepted; the remainder of the $40,000 was raised, and the college organized and chartered under the name of the Wesleyan University. Its first class, numbering 6, was graduated in 1833. In the year 1895 the faculty comprised 32 professors and instructors; the students numbered 288. In 1872 the curriculum was revised and expanded by the introduction of a considerable number of elective studies; indeed, VVesleyan University was one of the first of New England colleges to adopt what may be called the modern college curriculum. The college now offers three courses of study of four years each. In 1872 the doors of the college were opened to women. VVithin the decade 1868-78 the material interests of the college were greatly advanced, three elegant buildings being erected—a library, the gift of Isaac Rich, Esq.; the memorial chapel, which commem- orates the eighteen alumni and students who fell in the civil war; and the Orange Judd hall of natural science, the gift of him whose name it bears. In 1894 a large modern gymnasium was erected. The total value of the buildings, grounds, and collections of the college, as given in the re- port of the treasurer made in 1894, was $650,000. The whole amount of its productive property in 1894 was about $1,126,000. The library numbers about 43.000 volumes; the observatory contains a 12-inch retracting telescope by Alvan Clark & Sons; well-appointed laboratories, with chemical and physical apparatus and cabinets, illustrating the departments of geology and natural history, furnish the undergraduate with facilities for the study of physical science. The presidents of the college have been Wilbur Fisk, D. D., 1831-39; Stephen Olin, D. D., LL.D., 1839-41; Nathan Bangs, D. D., 1841-42; Stephen Olin, D. D., LL. D., second term, 1842—51; Augustus William Smith. L.L. D., 1851-57; Joseph Cummings, D. I)., LL. D., 1857-75: Cyrus D. Foss, D. D., 1875-80; John W. Beach, D. D., LL. D., 1880-87 ; John M. Van Vlcck, LL. D. (acting). 1887-89; and Bradford P. Raymond, D. D.,_1889. C. T. WiNciiEsTER. Wessel, J OHAN HERMAN : poet: b. in the parish of Vestby, Norway. Oct. 6, 1742. In 1761 he entered the University of Copenhagen, but relinquished his academic studies the fol- lowing year. The rest of his life he spent at the Danish capital, supporting himself by giving private lessons in the modern languages and leading a purposeless existence. As a result partly of his poverty, partly of delicate health, he early lost his naturally cheerful temperament and sank into a deep melancholy. In 1772 he published anonymously his burlesque tragedy Kjoerlighed nclen Stremper (Love without Stockings), the most original Danish drama since Holberg. WESSEL While intended primarily to ridicule the prevailing taste for the artificial French tragedy, which had shortly before been imitated in Nordal Brun’s Zarine, Wessel‘s work sur- vived the occasion that gave it special point, as it is also a satire on national affectation in general. I-Iis later works, though often displaying keen wit, and occasionally real pathos, are of comparatively slight importance. Neglected by the French-infected court and conscious of the failure of his life, Wesscl died at Copenhagen, Dec. 29, 1785. His col- lected works, edited by J. Levin, appeared in 1862. D. K. Donen. Wesscl, ces’sel, J OHANN. also called Gansfort (the name of a village from which his family probably came): phi- losopher; b. at Grtiningen, Holland, about 1420; was edu- cated in the school at Deventer, then under the leadership of the celebrated Gerhard Groot, and enjoyed the friendship of Thomas a Kempis, who was sub-prior of the neighboring monastery of Mt. St. Agnes at Zwolle; went to Cologne, where he learned Greek and Hebrew, the Thomist theology, and studied Plato and Augustine; resided for many years at Paris, where he took part with great energy in the con- troversy between nominalism and realism, on the nominal- istic side; became renowned as a teacher, and had among his pupils Reuchlin and Agricola, then taught at Basel, and stayed for some time at Heidelberg, teaching philosophy, ‘ but turned more and more decidedly away from the whole scholastic method based on Aristotle, and began to be sus- pected of holding heretical views; retired finally to his na- tive city, and died there Oct. 4.1489. According to Ull- mann. he was pre-eminently the theological forerunner of the Reformation. Personally, he escaped persecutions, but his writings, by which he belongs to the Reformcrs before the Reformation, were partly burned by the monks. The remaining works were first published by Luther in 1522 un- der the title Farrago Rerum Theologicarnm; afterward by Johann Lydius (at Griiningen, 1617). His Life has been written by B. Biihring (Leipzig. 1846), and by J . Friedrich (Regensburg, 1862). See also C. Ullmann’s Reformatoren cor der Reformation, 2d vol. (1842; English translation 1855). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Wesseling, res'sel-ing, PETER: classical scholar; b. at Steinfurt, Westphalia, Jan. 7, 1692: studied at the Univer- sities of Leyden and Franeker; appointed Professor of Elo- uence at Franeker in 1723, at Utrecht in 1735; editor of iodorns (2 vols. folio, 1746), and of Herodotus (together with V alckenaer, 1763). He died at Utrecht, Nov. 9, 17 64. See I. G. Boot, De vita et scriptis Wesselingii (1874) ; Ruhn- ken, Eloginm Hcrnsterlznsii, p. 30. ALFRED GUDEMAN. Wessex: a kingdom founded by the West Saxons in the southern part of the island of Britain early in the sixth cen- tury and forming a part of the so-called H EPTAR-CHY (q. 12.). About 495 two Saxon chieftains, Cerdic and Cynric, led a band of colonists to the coast of what is now Hampshire, and founded there a settlement which in the course of the next twenty-five years became important enough to give its rulers the title of kings. Its dominion was extended west- ward, and included many of the native Britons as subjects. To the N., however, lay the powerful kingdom of Mercia, which checked the advance of the West Saxons in that di- rection, seized their possessions N. of the Thames, and at one time threatened them with the permanent loss of their independence: but with the decline of Mercia Wessex stood forth as the leading state in England. Its king, Egbert (800-836), established the “Test Saxon supremacv, andlafter him the kingship of Wessex carried with it the‘ rule of all England. F. M. Comsv. Wesson: town (founded i11 1866 by J . M. Wesson); Co- piah co., l\liss.; on the Illinois Cent. Railroad: 46 miles S. of Jackson, the State capital, 135 miles N. of New Orleans (for location, see map of Mississippi, ref. 8-F). It is a su1n- mer resort of citizens of New Orleans: is in an agricultural region; and has six churches, large high-school building, a State bank with capital of $30,000, a weekly newspaper. and a manufactory of cotton and woolen goods. having 1.400 operatives and a monthly pay-roll of $25,000. Pop. (1880) 1,707; (1890) 3,168; (1895) estimated. 4,000. ED1'roR or “MIRROR.” West, ANDREW FLEMING. Ph. D.: educator and author; b. at Allegheny. Pa-., May 17, 1853; educated at Princeton College ; classical fellow at Princeton 1874 : classical teacher in Hughes High School, Cincinnati, 0., 1875-81 ; principal of Morris Academy, Morristown, N. J ., 1881-83 ; since 1883 WESTBORO 713 Professor of Latin in Princeton College. He has published an edition of The Andria and Heanton Timornmenos of Terence (New York, 1888) ; The Philobibl ion of Richard de Bury (Grolier Club, New York, 1889); and Alcnin, and the Rise of the Clzristian Schools (New York, 1894). C. K. H. West, BENJAMIN: painter; b. at Springfield, Chester co., Pa.,Oct. 10, 1738. When a child he showed great disposi- tion for art, and although his parents were Quakers, he was allowed to follow his inclinations. One of his relations took him to Philadelphia, where he received some instruction from William Williams, an artist; then removed to Lancas- ter, Pa., where he attempted portraiture, and painted a Death of Socrates. At the age of eighteen he established himself as a portrait-painter in Philadelphia, but in 1758 removed to New York, and in 1760, through the liberality of merchants in New York and Philadelphia, he went to Rome, where he became known to Mengs and other painters of the time. He painted several pictures there, including a Cimon and Iphigenia and an Angelica and Jlfeclora. He went to England in 1763 and established himself in London, by the advice of Reynolds and Wilson. He painted several pictures for the Archbishop of York, and this brought him to the notice of George III., who made “lest his historical painter and gave him commissions that occupied the artist from 1769 to 1801. Among the works executed for the king were twenty-eight illustrating the progress of revealed re- ligion, many portraits of members of the royal family. and a Death of lVolfe. in which the figures are clothed in the cos- tume of the period, contrary to the practice of the classical school then dominant. In 1768 he aided in founding the Royal Academy of painting. sculpture, and architecture, and in 1792 succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as president of this in- stitution. He retained this ofiice almost uninterruptedly for twenty-three years. In 1802 he painted a picture of Christ healing the Sick in the Temple, a copy of which is in the Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadel Jhia. Vi/'est died in Lon- don, Mar. 11, 1820, and was burie in St. Paul’s Cathedral. Among his works owned in the U. S. are Death on the Pale Iforse, in the Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia; Penn‘s Treaty with the Indians, in Independence Hall. Philadel- phia; and King Lear, in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. A full-length portrait.of VVest, by Sir Thomas Laurence. is in the \Yadsworth Gallery, Hartford. Conn. See Galt, The Life, Studies. and lVorlss of Benjamin lVesz‘, P. R. A. (London, 1820); Dunlap, History of the Rise and Progress o_ f the Arts of Design in the United States (1834) ; Tuckerman, Book of the Artists (New York, 1867). \V. J . S. West, STEPHEN. D. D.: clergyman and author; b. at Tol- land, Conn., N ov. 13. 1735 ; graduated at Yale College 1755: studied theology while teaching school at Hatfield. Mass. ; became cha-plain of Hoosiek Fort 1757 : succeeded Jonathan Edwards as missionary to the Stockbridge, Mass., Indians 1758; was pastor of the Congregational church at Stock- bridge 1759-1818, having resigned the charge of the Indian mission 1770. at which date he adopted the I-lopkinsian theological opinions. having previously been an Arminian; was one of the original trustees of lVilliams College. He was the author of An Essay on l[oral Agency: Remarks on Eclu~arals's Enquiry on Freedom of the ll'ill (New Haven, 1772; enlarged 1794); The Duty and Obligation of Chris- tians to Jlfarry only in the Lord (177 9): An Essay on the S('ripture Doctrine of the Atonement (1785); An Inquiry into the Ground and Import of In_fant Baptism (1794); The Life of Rev. Samuel Hoplsins, D. D. (1805) ; and The Erzklences of the Divinity of Christ (1816). D. at Stock- bridge, May 15, 1819. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. West Bend: city; capital of \Vashington co., IVis.: on the Milwaukee river, and the Chi. and N. VV. Railway: 20 miles W’. of Ozaukee, 34 miles N. of Milwaukee (for location, see map of \Yisconsin. ref. 6-F). It is in an agricultural and dairying region, and has excellent water-power. There are 6 churches. a public and 2 parochial schools. a private bank, 3 weekly newspapers. foundry and machine-shops, grain elevators. grist-mill. brewery and malt-houses, and harness. pocket-book. and hub and spoke factories. Pop. (1880) 1,273; (1890) 1,296; (1895) estimated, 2.000. En1ToR or “ DE.\1ocR.i'r." Westborm town (incorporated in 1717): \Vorccster co., hlass.; on the Boston and Albany Railroad; 12 miles E. of Worcester, 32 miles \V. by S. of Boston (for location. see map of Massachusetts. ref. 3-F). It has 5 churches, high school, 10 common schools, public library. a State Hospital for.the Insane, the Lyman Reform School for boys, a na- 714 wEsT BOYLSTON tional bank with capital of $100,000, a savings-bank, 2 ho- tels, a weekly newspaper, and manufactures of boots and shoes, straw hats, bicycles, bicycle sundries, iron bedsteads, and sleighs. In 1894 it had an assessed valuation of nearly $3,000,000. Pop. (1880) 5,214; (1890) 5,195: (1895) 5,231. EDITOR or “ CIIRoNoTYI>E.” West Boylston : town (incorporated in 1808); Wor- cester co., Mass.; on the Boston and Maine Railway; 8 miles N. of Worcester, 40 miles \V. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-G). It contains the villages of West Boylston, Oakdale, Valley, Central, Old Common, .West Boylston Station, Lower Factory, and Harrisville; has 4 churches, high school, 15 district schools, public libra- ry, and 2 hotels: and is principally engaged in dairying and in the manufacture of cotton goods, boots and shoes, and church organs. In 1894 it had an assessed valuation of about $1,250,000. Pop. (1880) 2,994; (1890) 3,019. West Branch : village ; Ogemaw co., Mich. ; on the Mich. Cent. Railroad; 60 miles N. of Saginaw (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 5-J). It is in a lumbering region, and has 2 private banks and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 139; (1890) 1,302. West Bridgewater: town (incorporated in 1822); Plym- outh co., Mass.; on the N. Y., N. H., and Hart. Railway; 3 miles N. W. of Bridgewater, 25 miles S. of Boston (for lo- cation, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 4-1). It contains the villages of West Bridgewater, Cochesett, Matfield, \Vestdale, and Jerusalem ; has 2 churches, high school, 9 district schools, public library, and the Howard Seminary; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of boots, shoes, and machinery. In 1894 it had an assessed valuation of nearly $1,000,000. Pop. (1880) 1,665; (1890) 1,917. West Bromwich: town of England, in Staffordshire; 5% miles N. VV. of Birmingham, in the center of a rich coal and iron district (see map of England, ref. 10-G). It has large manufactures of glass, gas, and iron goods, firearms, swords, cutlery, and agricultural implements. The borough returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1891) 59,489. Westbrook: city; Cumberland co., Me.; on the Pre- sumpscot river, and branches of the Boston and Maine and the Maine Cent. railways; 6 miles N. \V. of Portland (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 10-B). The river is capable of developing 9,000 horse-power, and more than half of this amount is utilized in the manufacture of paper, dress silk, ginghams, cotton warp, hosiery, seamless bags, and other articles. The Stroudwater, which flows through the city, is capable of developing additional power. The city is con- nected with Portland by electric railway, and has 8 churches, full system of public schools, a parochial school, the VValker Memorial Library, a trust company with capital of $50,000, and a weekly newspaper. In 1894-95 the re.- ceipts and expenditures were $168,746, and the bonded debt was $127,400. Pop. (1880) 3.981 ; (1890) 6,632. EDITOR or “ CuRoNIcLE.” West Brookfieldz town (incorporated in 1848); Wor- cester co., Mass.; on the Boston and Albany Railroad; 29 miles E. N. E. of Springfield, 69 miles VV. by S. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-F). It is drained by the Chicopee and Ware rivers; contains 2 churches, 9 district schools, and a public library; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of shoes and cor- sets. Pop. (1880) 1,917; (1890) 1,592. Westbury, RIcIIARD BETIIELL, Baron: statesman and judge; b. at Bradford, \/Viltshire, England, June 30, 1800; graduated at Oxford 1818; became a fellow of _\/Vadham College, studied law, and was admitted (1833) to the bar at the Middle Temple; became distinguished as an equity lawyer; was returned to Parliament in 1832; was made queen’s counsel 1840; knighted and appointed Solicitor- General Dec., 1852 ; carried through the House of Lords the Succession Duty Bill, the Oxford University Reform Bill, the bill for the abolition of ecclesiastical courts, and other important measures; was Attorney-General under Lord Pal- merston Nov., 1856, to Feb., 1858: carried, against great opposition, measures for the abolition of the ecclesiastical testamentary courts and for the establishment of the divorce and probate courts, the judgeship of which latter was of- fered to him, but declined ; was a second time Attorney-Gen- eral, from June, 1859, to June, 1861, when he was raised to the peerage, and became Lord Chancellor under the title of Baron Wcstbury; assisted in carrying important measures of law reform relating to bankruptcy, landed estates, and WESTERLY professional education; resigned the great seal July 4, 1865, He did much by his decisions as chancellor to mould the de- velopment of English equity jurisprudence, and especial- ly in patent law, joint-stock‘ company law, and ecclesiastical appeals. D. July 20, 1873. He left no printed works of any note, except his decisions. F. STURGES ALLEN. West Chester: borough; capital of Chester co., Pa. ; on the Penn., and the Phila., Wilm. and Balt. railways 16 miles N. of Wilmington, Del., and 27 miles W'. of Philadel- phia (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6-1). It is in an agricultural and mineral region, and contains a State Normal School (building cost $400,000), the Chester County Hospital, the county prison, 3 national banks with com- bined capital of $525,000, 6 private banks, and a savings- bank. There are 2 Friends’ meeting-houses, and a Roman Catholic, 3 Methodist Episcopal. 2 Baptist, and 2 Protestant Episcopal churches, 4 public-school buildings, 2 Friends’ schools, a parochial and many private schools, a public li- brary, law library, 2 theaters, and a monthly, 2 daily, and 5 weekly periodicals. Marshall Square contains a unique arboretum, a soldiers’ monument, and one of the three hand- some fountains which adorn the borough. The industrial establishments include a creamery, cold-storage and ice plants, printery, steam laundry, and manufactories of stock- ings, separators, carriages, spokes and wheels, umbrella tags, and sash and doors. The borough had an assessed valuation in 1895 of over $6,300,000. Chester County was divided in 1786, when Turk’s Head became vWest Chester, the county- seat of the remaining part of Chester County, and the new county of Delaware retained the old county-seat of Chester. Pop. (1880) 7,046; (1890) 8,028; (1895) estimated, 10,000. DANIEL W. I-IDWARD. Westcott, BROOKE Foss, D. D.: bishop and author: b. near Birmingham, England, J an. 12, 1825; fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated 1848 with honors both in classics and mathematics; took orders in the Church of England 1851; was assistant master of Harrow School 1852-69; became preacher to the University of Cambridge 1859; examining chaplain to the Bishop of Peterborough 1868, canon of Peterborough Cathedral 1869, Begins Pro- fessor of Divinity at Cambridge Nov. 1, 1870, and honorary chaplain to the Queen Apr., 1875. Bishop of Durham 1890. He is the author of Elements of the Gospel Ilarmony (1851), being the N orrisian prize essay for the previous year; A lfistory of the Canon of the New Testament during the first Four Centuries (1855; 5th ed. 1881); Characteristics of the Gospel Jlfiracles, being sermons preached before the Uni- versity of Cambridge (1859); An Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, with Ifistorical and Explanatory Notes (1860; 6th ed. 1882); The Bible in the Church, a Popular Account of the Collection and Reception of the Holy Scrip- tures in the Christian Churches (1864; 9th ed. 1885); The Gospel of the Resurrection, Thoughts on its Relation to Reason and History (1866; 5th ed. 1884); A General View of the History of the English Bible (1868; 2d ed. 1879); commentaries on John’s Gospel (Speaker’s Commentary), John’s Epistles (1883; 2d ed. 1886), and Hebrews (1889); and several volumes of sermons and minor works. With Dr. Hort he edited the monumental edition of the Greek N ew Testament from the oldest authorities (2 vols., 1881). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. West Duluth: village; St. Louis co., 1\Iinn.; on St. Louis Bay, and the St. P. and Duluth and the Duluth Transfer railways; 4 miles S. W. of Duluth (for location, see map of Minnesota, ref. 6-G). It has a State bank with capital of $50,000, a weekly newspaper, and a number of factories. Pop. (1890) 3,368. Westerly : town; VVashington co., R. I.; on the Pawca- tuck river, and the N. Y.. N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 5 miles N. of Long Island Sound (for location, see map of Rhode Island, ref. 11—L). It contains the villages of Westerly, White Rock, Potter I-lill, Niantic, and Avondale, each hav- ing a post-office, and the sunnncr resorts of Watch Hill and N oyes’s Beach. The town was originally known by the Ind- ian name Misquamicut; was incorporated May 14, 1669, as the fourth town in the colony and under its present name; and had its name changed to Havcrsham in 1686 and again to Westerly in 1689. The principal industries are granite- quarrying. for which the town is widely noted, and the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods. Pop. (1880) 6,104; (1890) 6,813; (1895) State census, 7,647. WEsTERLY.—Principal village in town of the same name ; 5 miles from the mouth of the P-awcatuck river, which di- WESTERMANN vides the States of Rhode Island and Connecticut; partly in each State; 44 miles S. W. of Providence. It has water- works, gas, electric-light, and electric street-railway plants, 10 churches, public library in Soldiers’ Memorial building, 4 hotels, 4 national banks, 4 savings-banks, cotton, woolen, thread, silk, and planing mills, machine-shop, printing-press factory, numerous granite quarries, and a weekly and 2 daily newspapers. Pop. (1895) estimated, 9,000. GEORGE H. UTTER, EDITOR or “ DAILY SUN.” Westei-mann, ANTON: classical scholar; b. in Leipzig, Germany, June 18, 1806; studied at the university; privat docent 1830, professor extraordinary 1833, ordinary 1834; resigned 1865. D. in Leipzig, Nov. 24, 1869. He was a learned and prolific writer. His chief works are Geschichte der Beredsamleeit in Griechenland und Rom (2 vols., 1835); Paradozvographi (1839); llfythographi (1843); Biographi Grceci (1845); edited Pseudo Plutarch’s Vitce X Oratorum; Stephanus Byzantius; Heracliti Epistolce; I/ysias; selected Orations of Demosthenes (often re-edited). He also wrote Qurestiones Demosthenicce (4 pts., 1837); Untersuchungen itber die in die attischen Reden eingelegten Urlcunden (1850); Index Grcecitatis lgyperidew (1864); re-edited Ves- sius's De historicis Grcecis; and translated Leake, The Demes ofAttica. See Bursian, Geschichte der lslassischen Philologie in Deutschland, pp. 890-894. ALFRED GUDEMAN. Western Australia: the westernmost of the seven Aus- tralasian colonies, the first in area and last in population; comprising the whole of Australia W. of the meridian of 129° E., which separates it from South Australia; area esti- mated at 975,876 sq. miles, or about one-third of the Aus- tralian continent. The coasts are estimated at 3,000 miles in length, but good harbors are few. The inhabitable part of the colony is confined to the coast, and on the S., on the Great Australian Bight, even this is uninhabitable. The interior is a desert, incapable of supporting agriculture or grazing, but sometimes possessing considerable wealth in minerals. The settlements are chiefly in the southwest, along the coast, where the temperature is mild, the an- nual rainfall reaches 40 inches, and the climate is salubri- ous.' The extreme northern part of the colony, called the Kimberley district, is of tropical character; is rich in min- erals; and the interior appears less arid. The rivers of the entire colony are short, and not suitable for navigation. Agri- culture is possible over a small fraction of the colony, and in 1893 only 276 sq. miles were under cultivation, or about one part in 3,500. The live stock in 1893 consisted of 45,- 747 horses,’173,747 horned cattle, and 2,220,642 sheep. It is estimated that in the north there are are 20,000,000 acres of fairly watered pasture-land affording good grazing. Gold is worked in the north and in the southwest, and is found in many other parts of the colony. The export of gold in 1893 amounted to 110,890 oz., valued at £421,385, and the production has greatly increased of late years. There are also mines of silver, copper, lead, and tin, and the prospec- tive mineral wealth is very great. The chief export is wool; then come gold,,pearls and pearl-shell, timber and sandal- wood, and skins. The total value of the exports in 1893 was £918,147, and of the imports £1,494,438. There were 1,184 miles of railway open for trafiic at the end of 1894, and a scheme is on foot to connect this colony with South Australia by rail, as it has already been connected by tele- graph. There are 3,578 miles of telegraph line, with 4,303 miles of wire. The legislative power rests in an elective parliament of two houses, and the executive in a governor appointed by the British crown and assisted by a responsible ministry. It became a self-governing colony in 1890, and both houses became fully elective in 1893. The entire pop- ulation in 1891 was 49,782—29,807 males and 19,975 fe- males. These figures do not include the aborigines, whose total number can not be estimated with any approach to accuracy. There were 5,670 of them employed as servants in 1891. At the end of 1893 the po ulation was estimated at 65,064, of whom 12,424 were in erth, the capital, and 8.000 at Fremantle, its port. See Hart, lVestern Australia in 18.93 (1894) ; Menncll, The Coming Colony (1894). MARK W. HARRINGTON. Western College: an institution under the control of the United Brethren in Christ; founded in 1856. It was located in Western, Linn co., Ia., and was removed to Toledo, Tama co., Ia., in 1881. It is supported by six co-operating confer- cnces. These are in Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, and Colorado. The main college is 150 by 80 feet, three stories high, with a basement. It contains recitation-rooms, WEST FARNHAM 715 society-rooms, lecture-room, library. and laboratories. The college has two boarding-halls and the Bright memorial con- servatory building. The faculty, headed by L. Bookwalter, A. M., D. D., as president, consists of six professors. assisted by resident lecturers, tutors, and instructors. There are six courses of study, with subordinate departments of music, business, elocution, and art. Both sexes are admitted on equal terms. In 1893 there were 15 instructors, 410 students, and 5,000 volumes in the library. L. BOOKWALTER. Western Dwina : See DWINA. Western Empire: aname sometimes applied to the west- ern provinces of the Roman empire between the years 395 and 476. The term is misleading, for, while in this period there were two emperors, one of whom resided in Italy and had direct control over the western provinces, the empire remained in theory one, and the acts of each emperor were binding through the whole empire. C. H. H. Western Islands: See AzoREs. Western Reserve University: an institution founded in Cleveland, O., in 1884. This step was taken by the trus- tees of Adelbert College, and most of the trustees of the col- lege are also trustees of the university. The object of the organization was to effect a confederation of several institu- tions either already existing or to be erected, under one gen- eral management and control. The university now em- braces the following departments : 1. Adelbert College, the academical department, under its old charter, but operated in unison with the methods and aims of the university. See ADELBERT COLLEGE. 2. The college for women, organized in 1888 by the uni- versity, and in full operation, with thirteen professors and instructors, and a course of study on the same grade as that of Adelbert. It has $172,000 endowment, and grounds and buildings worth $120,000 more. 3. The college of medicine, formerly known as the Cleve- land Medical College, organized in 1844 as the medical de- partment of \Vestern Reserve College. and transferred to the university in 1884. It has twenty-four professors and in- structors, a four-years’ graded course: occupies a building erected for it by John L. \Voods, at a cost of about 8250.000. It has also a permanent fund amounting to $150,000, and operates a dispensary with $50,000 endowment. 4. The college of dentistry, established in 1892. This has nine professors and instructors, and a constantly growing body of students. 5. The college of law, opened in 1892. It has ten pro- fessors and instructors, with the support and co-operation of the Cleveland bar. 6. The graduate department, opened in 1892. Under the direction of the faculties of Adelbert College and the col- lege for women. 7. The Western Reserve Academy, at Hudson. O., prepar- atory and classical school, belonging to Adelbert College. All these departments have courses of study leading to degrees. The whole number of students in 1894-95 was 535. The president of the university is Rev. Charles F. Thwing, D. D., LL. D. E. BUSHNELL, SECRETARY AND TREASURER. Westerville : village (platted in 1854) ; Franklin co., O.; on the Alum creek, and the Cleve.. Akron and Col. Railway; 12 miles N. of Columbus, with which it is connected by elec- tric railway (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 5—E). It is in an agricultural region; has 6 churches, several public schools, a private bank, and a weekly and 2 monthly pc- riodicals; and contains saw, planing, and flour mills, large broom-factories, brick and tile works, and manufactories of wagons and stump-pullers. \Vesterville is the seat of Otter- bcin University (United Brethren, opened in 1847), which in 1894 had 18 instructors. 274 students, and 6,000 volumes in its library. Pop. (1880) 1,148: (1890) 1.329: (1895) estimated with suburbs, 1,800. PUBLISHERS or “ PUBLIC OPINION.” West Farnham. or Farnham: an important railway center on the Canadian Pacific and Central Vermont rail- ways; near the junction of the two main branches of the Ya- maska river, Canada; about 39 miles from Montreal (see map of Quebec, ref. 6—B). The water-power is excellent though not fully utilized. The place has a fine railway station. a model school, Church of England and M cthodist churches, and a Roman Catholic church with a convent and college. An iron bridge spans the river. There is an extensive build- ing for the manufacture of beet-root sugar. The local trade is kept active by the export of agricultural products and the railway machine-shops. Pop. (1891) 2,822. J. M. llAr.1>ER. _ culture. 716 - WESTFIELD Westfield: town (old Indian name, Woronoco); Hamp- den co., Mass. ; on the \/Vestfield river, and the Boston and Albany and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. railways; 9 miles W. of Springfield, 108 miles IV. by S. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-D). It lies in a picturesque valley, is laid out with broad streets and avenues, and has a large public park, W'oronoco, possessing many natural ad- vantages. There are 8 churches, one of the largest public high-school buildings in the State, a State normal school (building cost $150,000), several district schools, kindergarten and primary schools connected with the normal school, and public library of over 15,000 volumes. 2 national banks with combined capital of $400,000, 2 savings-banks with com- bined deposits of over $2,250,000, and 3 weekly newspapers. The public-school system costs $40,000 annually. The town l1as an excellent water-supply, obtained from Montgomery Mountain, 7 miles distant. The plant was completed in 187 4 at a cost of nearly $250,000. It also has an extensive sewerage system. VVestfield is noted as a manufacturing place, particularly of whips. Other important manufactures are organs, steam-heaters, cigars, paper, thread, and brick. In 1894 the town receipts were $278,737; expenditures, $227,349: net debt, $289,200; and assessed valuation, nearly $8,000,000. Pop. (1880) 7,587; (1890) 9,805; (1895) estimated, 11,000. ° M. L. CLARK. Westfield: village; Union co., N. J .: on the Cent. Rail- road of N. J. ; 7 miles W. of Elizabeth, the county-seat, and 19 miles S. \V. of New York (for location, see map of New Jersey, ref. 3-D). It is attractively laid out on an elevated site as a residential place, and has a Netherwood water sys- tem, electric lights, and macadamized roads. There are Baptist, Congregational, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, Protestant Episcopal, and Roman Catholic churches, 2 pub- lic and 2 private schools, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a building and loan association, an athletic club- house, and 2 weekly papers. Pop. (1880) 2,216; (1890) 2,739; (1895) 3,713. Enrroa or “ Urnon COUNTY S'rAi\'DARn.” Westfiehl: village (incorporated in 1833); Chautauqua co., N. Y.; on the Chautauqua creek, and the Lake Shore and Mich. S. and the N. Y., Chi. and St. L. railways; 17 miles S. W. of Dunkirk, 59 miles \V. of Buffalo (for loca- tion, see map of New York, ref. 6—B). It has 6 churches, a union school and academy with two endowed scholarships, gravity water system and electric-light plant (both owned by the village), public library founded by Hannah Patterson with $100,000, railway-shops, a national bank with capital of $50,000, and a weekly and a monthly periodical. The sur- rounding country is devoted almost exclusively to grape- Pop. (1880) 1,924; (1890) 1,983; (1895) estimated, 2,300. Enrroa or *‘ REPUBLICAN.” Westfleld: borough; Tioga co., Pa.; on the Cowanesque river, and the Fall Brook and the Addison and Penn. rail- ways; 26 miles N. by W. of Wellsboro, the county-seat, and 58 miles N. of Lock Haven (for location, see map of Penn- sylvania, ref. 2—F). It is in an agricultural and dairying region, and has a private bank and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 579; (1890) 1,128. Ivestfield River: a river that rises by three branches (the north, middle, and west branch) in the Green Moun- tains and their foothills in Berkshire and Hampshire cos., Mass. The main stream begins at Huntington, Mass. Throughout most of its course it is turbulent, affording good water-power. It finally runs southeastward and joins the Connecticut opposite Springfield, Mass. In its lower course it is often called the Agawam. Westford: town (incorporated in 1729); Middlesex co., Mass. ; on the Boston and Maine and the Concord and Hon- treal railways ; 6 miles S. W. of Lowell (for location of coun- ty, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H). It contains the vil- lages of Wcstford, Central Village, Graniteville, Forge, Brookside, I/Vestford Corner, and Parkerville; has 4 church- cs, 15 district schools, and public library ; and is principally engaged in agriculture, granite-quarrying, and the manu- facture of machinery and woolen goods. In 1894 it had an assessed property valuation of $1,146,688. Pop. (1880) 2,147 ; (1890) 2,250. West Grove : village; Chester co., Pa.: on the Phil., Wil. and Balt. Railroad: 40 miles S. W. of Philadelphia (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6—I). It has ex- tensive rose-nurseries, casket and knitting factories, a na- tional bank with capital of $50,000, and a weekly and a monthly periodical. Pop. (1880) 269; (1890) 1,521. WEST IN DIES West Hartford : town (incorporated in 1854) ; Hartford co., Conn.; on the north and south forks of Park river, and the N. Y. and New Eng. Railroad; 5 miles W. oi’ I-Iartford (for location, see map of Comiecticut, ref. 8—G). It was set off from the town of I-Iartford ; contains the villages of West Hartford and Elmwood; and has four churches, a public library, high school, electric railway connecting with Hart- ford, Farmington, and Unionville, and pipe-bending and brick and pottery works. In 1894 the grand list was $2,752,- 626. Pop. (1880) 1,828; (1890) 1,930. C. W. l\IAN\VARIl\‘G. West I-I0b0ken: town; 1-Iudson co., N. J. ; 160 feet above tide-water; 1%; miles \V. of I-Ioboken ferry on the Hudson river, directly opposite New York (for location, see map of New Jersey, ref. 2—E). It has 5 churches, 4 public schools, Roman Catholic school, a monastery of the Passionist Fathers, convent of the Sisters of St. Dominic, Masonic hall, a trust and savings institution with capital of $125,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. It is principally engaged in the manufacture of silk goods, for which there are five plants. Pop. (1880) 5,441; (1890) 11,665: (1895) State census, 18,296. Gnonen E. Rnvnonns, suavnroa. West India Company, Dutch: See Ducrcu Wrzsr INDIA COMPANY. West Indies: an archipelago forming a curved chain from Florida and Yucatan to the northern coast of South America, framing the Caribbean Sea on the N. and E., and separating it from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic. The islands fall naturally into four groups—the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, the Caribbean chain, and the Venezue- lan or Leeward group. The Bahamas are clustered irregu- larly along a line beginning E. of Southern Florida (sepa- rated by the Florida Channel) and extending southeastward almost to the coast of Santo Domingo. They include some twelve or fifteen larger and a multitude of smaller islands, generally connected with each other by shallows or “banks.” Some of them have hills of no great height, but portions of all are formed of consolidated shell and coral sand. The group is, in fact, a reef formation gathered about a skeleton of older land; it may be regarded as an outlying portion of the Florida peninsula. The Bahamas lie partly to the N. of the tropic, but the Gulf Stream sweeps past and through them on its way to the Atlantic, warming the air, so that the climate and productions of all are essentially tropical. The name Greater Antilles is commonly used to distinguish Cuba, Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica, the largest of the West Indian islands; physically the group also in- cludes some smaller islands near these—Mona, Isle of Pines, Tortuga, the Caymans, etc. They are essentially different in character from the Bahamas, being formed in great part of mountain chains. In some places—-especially in Santo Domingo—the mountains rise in splendid precipiees from the sea: elsewhere they slope back through verdant valleys to interior ranges 8,000 to 10,000 feet high. It is said that an English admiral, to illustrate the appearance of Santo Domingo, crumpled a sheet of paper in his hand and threw it on a table; and the figure would be equally apt for Cuba or Jamaica. Two principal east and west chains may be traced-——one running through Cuba and along the northern side of Santo Domingo, and the other on the southern side of Santo Domingo, reappearing in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica. The significant fact was first noticed by l-lum- boldt, that the northern chain is on a line with the east and west Anahuac range of Mexico, which embraces the highest peaks and nearly all the volcanoes of that country. Con- tinued still farther W. the line strikes the volcanic Revilla- gigedo islands in the Pacific. (See MEXICO.) It should be noted. however, that the Greater Antilles contain no active nor recent volcanoes, though the frequency of earthquakes shows that they are on a line of volcanic disturbance. ln Puerto Rico the mountainous character is much less marked, and E. of it the scattered group called the Virgin islands is rocky and precipitous, but of no great height; it may bein- cluded either in the Greater Antilles or in the Caribbean chain. The latter (called also the Lesser Antilles or Wind- ward islands) departs abruptly from the east and west trend of the Greater Antilles, and belongs, in fact, to a different mountain system. The islands are small but generally high ——2,500 to 4.000 feet——lforming a very regular. slightly curved north and south line on the eastern side of the Caribbean Sea; nearly every one contains an active, quiescent, or ex- tinct volcano. The group is, in fact, a chain of volcanic mountains, partially submerged, so'that the islands are fre- quently separated by very deep channels. Barbados alone " 1 1 \ LUCAYOS OB ' + .... ___ 1 _ {BAHAMA -I ’“ = _ 1. | . . ‘ 7 V_ if ’ .---—--'’‘ '~é’W“h“*§.>£M§2ui”;§*2,";£*,";;,-S"1“A"*>* _ ,_,,r N ' I J//—*, " B410 la,£0/unto sang) ’ b . V \ ~ . 7 .¢ _' ‘ ¢' » - \ \ - . ‘ -Y I ' 0 k “ l awww‘ j,.~F(U"’. ' ocqyofiymd,‘ - - ‘ - 30 _ . . I ' » ,; . ‘ I I Y ' , Q . ‘ zAOHY~§o:14.- u1,5_ V . ‘ 4 ~ ' P i §°"¢-_ £ 6‘ ‘\ \, . ’;'3!°. I J xv? “d M‘ \ ' :r‘!)'dlYIb'l.\/n'.o . ~ L". 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(II‘lL° _(\l‘fuI~&¥T“ WEST IN DIES is outlying, to the E.; it is comparatively fiat, and probably belongs to the fourth group, or that formmg an east and west line off the coast of Venezuela. Its islands are proper- ly outlying portions of the South American continent. Trinidad and Tobago, as well as Barbados, are generally classed with the Caribbean group, but by their animals and plants as well as by their physical characters, they are clear- ly South American. The remaining islands--M_arganta, Curacoa, Oruba. etc.—are sometimes called collectively the Leeward islands, though this name is more commonly ap- plied to a British colony forming a portion of the Caribbean group. Nearly all the West Indian Islands are fertile, abundantly watered (except a few of the smaller and low ones), and well adapted for the culture of sugar-cane, tobac- co, coffee, and cacao, which form the staple products and exports. Beyond a little gold in the Greater Antilles, copper in Cuba, and asphalt in Trinidad, they have no mmeral wealth, but their forests are rich in cabinet woods and drugs. The climate -of all is essentially the same—-tropical. but free from extreme heat even in the summer months, and generally salubrious except in a few coast towns where yel- low fever is endemic. The warm and rainy season is from June to October, and this is the time of hurricanes, to which all but the most southerly islands are occasionally subject. During the winter months the \Vest Indies are deservedly popular resorts for tourists and invalids. .FItstory.-Colmnbus, seeking a westward route to Asia, first saw the land of the New World in one of the Bahamas (Oct., 1492). Subsequently he discovered all of the Greater Antilles, and many of the smaller islands. As they were then supposed to be outlying portions of Asia or “ The Ind- ies,” they were called West Indies—i. e. those which had been reached by sailing westward, in contradistinction to the East Indies which soon after were reached by an east- wardly route around the Cape of Good Hope. The first Spanish settlement in the New World was on the island of Santo Domingo (1493), and from it, directly or indirectly, nearly all the other Spanish conquests radiated. The Spaniards also settled Cuba, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico, and they had a small colony 011 Trinidad; but from the first they despised the smaller islands, and after the rich discoveries in Mexico and Peru the West Indies were neglected and par- tially depopulated. During the seventeenth century vari- ous French, English, and Dutch adventurers settled in the Caribbean islands and the Bahamas, and the Spaniards made only feeble attempts to dislodge them. In 1640 the sugar- cane began to be planted systematically. and led to wonder- ful prosperity, which attracted crowds of immigrants, 50.000 British subjects arriving in Barbados alone in one year. Jamaica was seized in 1655 by the English, who have held it ever since. Bands of adventurers and freebooters, drawn together by their common hatred of the Spaniards, at length formed the roughly organized body called the buccaneers, with their principal stronghold in Tortuga; thence they rav- aged the towns of the Greater Antilles and the Spanish Main, eventually crossing the Isthmus of Panama to the Pa- cific. French buecaneers from Tortuga passed over to the western part of Santo Domingo, which was soon recognized as a French colony. (See the article BUCCANEER.) In 1660 a division of the islands was agreed upon between England and France, but this arrangement was of little avail to pre- vent frequent violent changes of ownership resulting. from European wars. Subsequent events, growing out of the French Revolution, led to the independence of Santo Do- mingo, and it is now divided between the republic of HAITI and the DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (qq.v.). The Bahamas were settled and retained by the English. During the wars of the eighteenth a.nd early part of the nineteenth centuries the Caribbean islands frequently changed hands, either by conquest or treaty; the greater part now belong to Great Britain. France holds Martinique, Guadeloupe, and some smaller islands; Denmark has three islands in the Virgin group ; the Netherlands retain Curacoa and some neighbor- ing islets, with a settlement in the Caribbean group; and Venezuela holds l\/Iargarita and some of the other islands near her coast. Of all the possessions of Spain in the New World she now retains only Cuba, Puerto Rico, and some neighboring islets. African slaves were early introduced in most of the islands, and their (freed) descendants of Negro or mixed blood form a large proportion of the population. Of the Carib and other Indian tribes which occupied the islands before the Spanish conquest only insignificant rem- nants survive. Some of the islands under British dominion have imported large numbers of Hindu coolies as workmen. WESTMINSTER 717 The following table exhibits the approximate areas and the populations (1890 or 1891) of the various political divisions: NATIONALITIES. Islands and dependencies. Area. in Population. sq. miles. I l S anish } Cuba and dependencies . . . . . .. 43,220 1.631.687 P ------ - - 1 Puerto Rico and dependencies. 3,714 I scares (Bahamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,-150 48.000 ‘I Jamaica and dependencies . . . 4.492 648.498 British J Leeward islands . . . . . . . .. .. 701 127.723 ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' " ‘l Windward islands. . . . . . .. . . .. 507 137.824 , Barbados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166 182.322 L'1‘ri1}1dhad aérndT’lk‘1obago. . . .d . . . .. 1,868 218,415 Danish I _ _ . _ __ )St.. 0 n, t. omas. an San-; ‘ ' ' ' 1 La. Cruz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..= 12” 32,786 Dutch . . . . . . . . . . .. Curacoa and dependencies... .' 403 _45,i62 French _l Martmique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 177.000 ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' " 1 Guadeloupe and dependencies 722 165.899 ;\)7cnezuelan . . . . .. Margarita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 450 40.000 ominican . . . . . . . j - ) 18.045 610,000 Haitian ........ .. lsanto Dommgo ---------- -- 1 , 10.204 572,000 Total of West Indies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,450 5,445,024 AUTHoRITIEs.—For history, the works of Bryan Edwards. T. Southey, and T. Coke. For geography, Reclus, The Earth and its ]nhaZn'tants, and references given under articles on the various islands. HERBERT H. SMITH. West Liberty: city (founded in 1855); Muscatine co., Ia.; on the Burl., Cedar Rap. and N. and the Chi., Rock Isl. and Pac. railways; 16 miles S. II. of Iowa City, 38 miles VV. by N. of Davenport (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 6-K). It is in an agricultural, dairying, and stock-raising region ; has four churches, high and primary schools, a State bank with capital of 850,000, a private bank, and a weekly newspaper; and contains a creamery, carriage-fac- tory, and brick and tile works. It is an important shipping- oint for choice stock, horses, cattle, and hogs. Pop. (1880) 1,141; (1890) 1,268; (1895) 1,470. EnIToR or “ INDEX.” West Liberty : village ; Liberty township, Logan co.. O. ; on the Mad river, and the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L. Rail- way; 8 miles S. of Bellefontaine, 10 miles N. of Urbana (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 4-D). It has good water- power, several flour-mills and machine-shops, public high school, an incorporated bank with capital of $15,000, a ri- vate bank, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 715; (1890) 1,200. West’macott, Sir RICHARD. R. A. : sculptor; b. in Lon- don, England, in 1775, son of a sculptor, from whom he learned the rudiments of his art; studied under Canova at Rome 1793-97 : obtained the first premium from the Academy of Florence 1794; became an associate of the Royal Acad- emy 1805, and an Academician 1816; succeeded Flaxman as Professor of Sculpture at the Royal Academy 1827, and was knighted 1837. Among his most noted statues are those of Addison. Pitt, Fox, Erskine, N elson, the Dukes of Bedford and York, that of Achilles in Hyde Park and of George III. at ‘Vindsor, and those of Cupid and Psyche in the possession of the Duke of Bedford. Other works are an alto-rilievo, The Dream of Horace, numerous monuments in St. Paul’s Cathedral and \Vestminster Abbey, and the groups of sculpture on the marble arch at Cumberland Gate and the pediment of the British Museum. D. in Lon- don, Sept. 1, 1856. Revised by RUssELL STUReIs. Westmacott. RICHARD, R. A., F. R. S.: sculptor; son of Sir Richard Westlnacott; b. in London, England, in 1799; studied sculpture under his father; was in Italy 1820-26; was in general an imitator of his father’s style, but with a preference for mythological and religious compositions; was elected associate 1838, and Academician 1849, and succeeded his father as Professor of Sculpture 1857. D. in London, Apr. 19, 1872. West'meath: an inland county of Ireland, province of Leinster, bordering on the Shannon. Area. 708 sq. miles. The surface is hilly, especially in the northern part, and much diversified by lakes, rivers. and forests. The soil is fertile, but only a small part of it is under tillage. Cats and potatoes are the common crops, and breeding and fat- tening of cattle is the principal occupation. Pop. (1891) 65,028. Chief towns, Mullingar and Athlone. West'minster: city; capital of Carroll co., Md; on the \Vestern Md. Railroad; 34 miles N. IV. of Baltimore (for location, see map of l\Iaryland, ref. 1-E). It has 7 churches, several public and private schools, 3 national banks with combined capital of $275,000, a savings-bank with capital 71 8 NVESTMINSTER of 810,000, a private bank. a monthly and 2 weekly period- icals, gas and electric light plants, steam flour-mills, phos- phate-works, and machine-shops. The city 1s the seat of \Vestern l\laryland College (Methodist Protestant), which in 1894 had 16 instructors, 254 students, and 3,000 volumes in its library. Pop. (1880) 2,507 ; (1890) 2,903. EDITOR or “ AMERICAN SENTINEL.” Westminster, HUGH LUPUS GRosvENoR, First Duke\and _ Third Marquis of : son of Richard, the second marquis, and his wife, Elizabeth Mary, daughter of the first Duke of Sutherland: b. in London, England, Oct. 13, 1825; was member of Parliament for Chester 1847-69; succeeded to the marquisate on the death of his father Oct. 31, 1869, and was created a duke 1874. He married his cousin, Lady Constance Leveson-Gower, daughter of the second Duke of Sutherland, in 1852, and in 1882 Katherine, daughter of Baron Chesham. He is reputed the wealthiest nobleman in Europe. WeStn1insteI' Abbey: a conventual church in West- minster, a district included in the modern town of London. The monastery and church were dedicated to St. Peter, but as the sovereigns of England have been crowned In the ab- bey church for the last 1,000 years, and as it Is the place where persons of celebrity have been buried for nearly as long, the church building itself has a special repute although the monastery has disappeared. Arcltt'tectare.—-Long before any portion of the present building was in existence there stood upon the same spot a Saxon church. That church. built within what was called Thorney Isle, from its being covered with brushwood, was connected long before the Conquest with a monastic body of the Benedictine order, who named the place of their abode the Western Monastery, or Westminster, to distinguish it, some say, from St. Paul’s in London, which was called East Minsteri The first church here of which, architecturally considered, we possess any knowledge was that built by Edward the Confessor, and consecrated Dec. 28, Holy Inno- cents’ Day, 1065. Though built by a Saxon king, it was in the Norman style, cruciform in shape, and exceeding in mag- nificence any sacred building at that time in England; and there still remains, under what is called the pyx-house, a noble crypt pertaining to the Norman structure. Henry III. rebuilt the greater part of the abbey church in the style denominated Early English; and it is his work that is seen in the transepts and the choir. He had previously raised a Lady chapel at the east end; and then, when he erected the choir and transepts, he transferred the high altar to the place it now occupies, and reared behind—between it and the Lady chapel—a lofty shrine, to which he removed the body of Edward the Confessor. That shrine, somewhat mutilated, still remains. The nave was built under the Ed- wards, and the west front and its grand window, as well as the completion of the nave and aisles, belong to the lat- ter part of the fifteenth century. Henry VII. pulled down the Lady chapel, and built that which now bears his name, a charming specimen of the florid architecture of the pe- riod—i. e. Late Perpendicular-with richly mullioned win- dows and roof in fan-vaulting. The gates are beautiful specimens of metal-work. Sir Christopher Wren was the architect of the upper part of the western towers, which are by no means in keeping with the rest of the church. The extreme length of the whole is 531 feet, and the width across the transepts 203. The width of the nave and aisles is 79 feet ; of the choir, 38 : and of Henry VII.’s chapel, 70. The height of the roof is 102 feet, an unusual elevation in England. The present cloisters were built in the thir- teenth and fourteenth centuries. The chapter-house is an architectural gem of about 1250, restored after long neg- lect. 1-Yistory.-The historical associations of the abbey can best be studied in Dean Stanley’s ililernortals. The corona- tion-stone brought from Scotland by Edward I. may be seen under the coronation-chair used by Richard II., which ever since, there is reason to believe, has been occupied by the English sovereigns during the solemnity of their inaug- uration. The funerals of kings and queens have also taken place in the minster. The remains of Oliver Cromwell, who never were the crown, were for a time in a vault under Henry VII.’s chapel, having been deposited there with a pomp which royalty could not exceed. In the chapter-house the Commons met when that body became an assembly dis- tinct from the Lords, and repeated their sittings there as late as the end of the reign of Henry VIII. The history of I/VESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY the abbey is interwoven with that of the English Reforma- tion. One of the Protestant martyrs, Thomas Bilney, was arraigned before Cardinal Wolsey in the Westminster chap- ter-house. The abbey fell at ‘the time of the dissolution of the monasteries, and the abbot was succeeded by a dean. In Queen Mary’s time it was restored. but after Elizabeth’s accession the present institution of dean and chapter were established. Convocations were transferred to Westminster in the time of Henry VI II. The convocation that acknowl- edged the royal supremacy was held here. In the time of Elizabeth the bishops met in Henry VIl.’s chapel. In the Jerusalem chamber the bishops debated the final alterations made in the Book of Common Prayer in 1662; and after- ward some of the most exciting scenes connected with the history of Convocation in the reigns of William III. and Anne occurred in the chamber itself, or in that part of the abbey where the lower house had been convened. The for- tunes of the abbey have followed those of the nation. The Westminster Assembly was held in the Jerusalem chamber, and when, during the civil wars and Commonwealth, Epis- copalian worship was interrupted, Presbyterians and Inde- pendents occupied the pulpit; while with the restoration of Charles II. worship resumed its former character. \Vhile Dr. Stanley was dean (1863-81), proceedings occurred in the abbey of national interest. Sermons on Sunday evenings have been preached here to vast audiences; and for a num- ber of years-—on the evening of St. Andrew’s Day, Nov. 30, set apart for intercession on behalf of missions-a layman professor, Max Miiller, a Presbyterian clergyman, Dr. John Caird, and a Congregational missionary, Dr. Robert Moifat, delivered lectures from the lectern in the center of the nave; also, celebrations by Roman Catholics have been held within its walls since 1890. 1l[onaments.—The tombs and monuments in the abbey are exeedingly numerous, and the life-stories of those who are buried under the pavement or commemorated on the walls would almost form a national biography. Some of the principal are grouped together according to the grounds on which history builds their fame. Sovereigns and members of royal families have graves and tombs in the chapels of Edward the Confessor and Henry VII. Edward himself lies under the shrine which bears his name, and which is curious as a work of art belonging to the age of Henry III., who is buried on the north side. And next to him lies Ed- ward I. On the south side lie Edward III. and Richard 11., and to the E. Henry V. in the beautiful chantry named after him. In the center of Henry VII.’s chapel the founder and his wife repose side by side ; at the west end is the sep- ulcher of Edward VI. In the north aisle are Queen Eliza- beth and her sister Mary; in the opposite aisle is Mary Queen of Scots. Close to the tomb of Henry VII. we meet with the grave of King James ; Charles II. is buried at the east end of the north aisle. His grave is unmarked; so is that of William III. Queen Anne was laid next her sister Mary in the southern aisle. George II. was the last of the kings interred in the abbey. The interment was in H enry’s chapel. The north transept is distinguished as the resting- place of eminent statesmen—Pitt, Fox, \Vilberforce, Can- ning, Peel, Palmerston. In the south transept is “ Poets Corner.” I-Iere lie Chaucer, Spenser, Beaumont, Ben Jon- son, Cowley, Dryden, Addison, Tennyson ; also hard by are monuments to Shakspeare, Milton, Isaac Watts, Goldsmith, and Johnson. Numbers of generals, admira-ls, courtiers, divines, men of letters, etc., are covered by the marble pave- ment or have memorials by the pillars or on the walls. Two slabs on the central floor of the nave mark the last home of George Stephenson and David Livingstone. See 1Uemorz'als of lVesz"m.t'nster, by Dean Stanley (London, 1868; supple- ment 1869). Revised by RUssELL STURcIs. Westminster Assembly: an assembly which convened in Westminster Abbey, London, in 1643, and which has ex- ercised a great and lasting influence on the history and de- velopment of Presbyterianism. After some unsuccessful at- tempts to obtain the sanction of the kin g, it was summoned by ordinance of the two houses of the English Parliament. It was intended that it should include among its members adherents of all the chief parties among English-speaking Protestants with the exception of that of Archbishop Laud. whose innovations and despotic tendencies had been one main cause of the troubles in Church and state. Almost all the clerical members were in episcopal orders, three or four were bishops. five afterward rose to be so, and several were known to be favorable to the continuance of episcopacy and VVESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY to side with the king rather than with the Parliament. Places were found for some of the ministers ofthe French churches in England, for one or two representatives of the Church of Ireland, and for some who had been pastors of the English churches in Holland; while invitations to send commission- ers were addressed to the Church of Scotland, and, it is said, also to the churches of New England. The Assembly. as originally constituted by the ordinance, consisted of 121 divines and of 30 lay assessors, of whom 10 were peers and 20 commoners. Additions were made from time to time, chiefly to supply the places of those who had failed to attend or had been removed by death. The purposes for which, according to the ordinance, the Assembly was convoked were to vindicate the doctrine of the Church of England from all calumnies and false aspersions, and to recommend such further reformation of her discipline, liturgy, and gov- ernment as might “be agreeable to God’s holy word, and most apt to procure and preserve the peace of the Church at home, and nearer agreement with the Church of Scotland and other Reformed churches abroad.” But when the Par- liament, feeling their need of Scottish aid, acceded to the Solemn League and Covenant and urged the Scotch to send deputies to the Assembly, its objects were extended; and to promote the covenanted uniformity it was empowered to prepare a new confession of faith and catechism, as well as directories for public worship and church government which might be adopted by the churches of the three kingdoms. It retained to the last, however, that advisory character which has made some question whether it was properly an ecclesiastical synod at all, though in this respect it only re- sembled an ordinary English convocation, and in these respects in which it differed from that body it may claim the benefit of what is said in chap. xxxi., sec. ii., of its Con- fession. It was on Saturday, July 1, 1643,that the divines, with the two Houses and a great congregation, met in Westminster Abbey, and after sermon by Rev. VVilliam Twisse, who had been named as prolocutor, the Assembly was constituted in the chapel of I-Ienry VII., in which only three years before Laud’s unfortunate convocation had been held. On the names being read over, it was found that “threescore and nine ” had obeyed the summons of the Parliament. Bishop Brownrigg sent an excuse for his absence; Bishop \Vest- field and a few other royalists and conformists were actually present, and by the retention of their canonical habits seemed, as Fuller says, "the only Nonconformists.” The most of the divines came not in canonicals, "but in black coat or cloak and bands, in imitation of the foreign Protes- tants,” and probably a more correct idea of the appearance of the Assembly may be formed from the plate of the French synod prefixed to the first volume of Quick’s Synoelicon than from the plate of the Assembly so common in England. The meetings continued to be held in the chapel of Henry VII. till after the arrival of the Scottish commissioners, and were chiefly occupied with the revision of the first fifteen of the English Articles. Soon after, the Covenant was sub- scribed by the Assembly and the House of Commons, and the last remaining royalist, Dr. Featley, of Lambeth, was expelled for opposing it, and for revealing the roceedings to Ussher, then in the king’s quarters at Oxfor . The As- sembly was now authorized by the houses to treat of the questions of Church government and worship; and about the same time, that it might have the benefit of a fire, it re- moved from Henry VII.’s chapel to the Jerusalem chamber, which since that time has generally been the meeting-place of the upper house of Convocation. The debates on the subject of Church government were keen and protracted, and unexpected obstacles arose which for a time retarded a settlement. Twisse, Gataker, Palmer. Temple, and several other learned divines who were cor- dially on the side of the Parliament were inclined toward what they termed primitive episcopacy, under which the presbyters and their president governed the churches in common. Ultimately they agreed to acquiesce in the Presby- terian system as affording the only chance of constituting a comprehensive national Church, with such reasonable powers of self-government as would revent the recurrence of the oppressive despotism under which they had so long groaned. The Scotch commissioners and their more thoroughgoing as- sociates, the Puritans of the school of Cartwright, had for the sake of union occasionally to forego the claim of a jus eli/vinum for the details of their polity. and to rest contented with the phrase “ lawful and agreeable to the word of God,” instead of “expressly instituted or commanded." The Iii- 719 dependents, though fewer in number than either of the other parties, yet, backed up by their political friends out- side, proved more unyielding, and in the end resolved rather to seek for toleration outside the national Church than for comprehension within it if it were not to be con- stituted more in accordance with their system than the majority of the Assembly were willing to allow. It was therefore agreed to lay aside the discussion of these topics for a time, and proceed to take up subjects on which there was likely to be a greater amount of harmony. The subjects on which least disagreement was expected were those relating to the form of public worship and the statement of doctrines. Early in 1644 the Assembly re- mitted each of these to a small committee to prepare mate- rials for the decision of them, and to bring these first be- fore the large committees, and then before the Assembly. In this way the Directory for Public IVorship was prepared in 1644, considerable progress was made with a practical Directory for Church Government in 1644-45, though the printing of it was delayed till 1647, and in 1645-46 the Confession of Faith was elaborated, and finally put into the shape in which it is still printed in Scotland. In the two following years the Assembly elaborated the Catech isms, and prepared the Scripture proofs for them as well as for the Confession of Faith. It spent part of the time also in attempting to complete its answers to the famous Erastian Queries of the House of Commons, and gave its sanction to certain papers in answer to the Independents, formally drawn up by its grand committee. These last appeared ultimately in the volume entitled The Grand Debate concerning Pres- bytery and Independency. The former were never com- pleted and published, but it is said that the substance of them is given in the preface to the Jus Regiminis Ecelesiastici Divinum, prepared by the London ministers. After 1648 the Assembly occupied itself almost exclusively with the examination of those appointed to ecclesiastical charges or desiring license as expectants or probationers. and it was only occasionally that the full quorum of forty could be brought together. The 1,163d session was held Feb. 22, 1649, when all its important labors had been fully concluded. The subsequent sessions are not numbered. but the last of which an entry is made in the minutes took place on Mar. 25, 1652. These minutes, which are pronounced by com- petent judges to be almost entirely in the handwriting of Adoniram Byfield. are still preserved. The whole of them were transcribed at the expense of the Church of Scot- land, and the more important portion of them has been published in Edinburgh. The Assembly was not formally dissolved, but. as Fuller says, “it dwindled by degrees.” and “vanished with the Parliament” which gave it birth. See WESTMINSTER- Sraxnxnns. Most divergent estimates have been formed of the merits of this Assembly from the time it met down to our own day. Clarendon has spoken of its members and their work with great contempt, and others have “ damned them with faint praise”; but Baxter, perhaps as competent as any among their contemporaries to give an impartial verdict, did not hesitate to affirm that, “ the divines there congregated were men of eminent learning and godliness, and ministerial abilities and fidelity; and being not worthy to be one of them myself, I may the more freely speak that truth which I know even in the face of malice and envy. that. as far as I am able to judge by the information of all history, . ._ . the Christian world since the days of the apostles had never a synod of more excellent divines." “ This,” as Dr. Stoughton, one of the most competent judges in our own day, observes, “ is high praise, but it comes nearer the truth than the con- denmatory verdicts pronounced by some others. The Westminster divines had learning. scriptural, patristic, scholastical, and modern, enough and to spare, all solid. substantial, and ready for use.” Hence their work has stood the test of time, and is still valued and honored. Almost all of them were graduates of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Several of them had been honored to suffer in defense of the truths they taught. and many of them had the courage afterward to brave suffering, insult. and poverty rather than renounce their creed or abandon their views of church polity and discipline. LITER.iTURE.——ll[inutes of the Sessions of the Il'estnzinster Assembly of Dirines. edited by Alexander F. Mitchell and John Struthers (Edinburgh, 1874); Lightfoot‘s Journal of the Proceedings of the Assembly of Dz'rz'nes. vol. xiii. of ll’orl:s (London, 1824): Gillcspie‘s lVotes of the Proceedings of the Assembly of Divines, in vol. ii. of ll'orlrs (Edinburgh, 720 WESTMINSTER CONFESSION OF FAITH 1844); Journals of the House of Lords and of the flouse of Commons from 1643 to 1649 (London); Baillie’s Letters; Rutherford’s Letters; I-Ianbury’s Iftstore'ca-l flfemor/tals of the Incle_pemleats; Rushworth’s H/tstortcal Collections; Whitlock’s Jlfemortalsz Fuller’s Church Iftstory and Worthtes of Enylancl; Clarendon’s and Collier’s Iftstortes ; Palmer‘s N0)l00ILf0)'77tl8l8’ Jlfemor/tal; Calamy’s and Syl- vester’s Life and Times of Baxter; Neal’s History of the Puritans; Price’s ]i'tstory of Protestant lVonconformtty; Brook’s Ltves of the Parttans; Reed’s Lives of the lVest- mtnster Dtvtnes; Smith’s Lives of Engltsh and Scottish Dtvtnes; Wood’s Athence Orcoatenses; I-Ietherington’s I-[ta tory of the Westminster Assembly; Marsden’s Early and Later Puritans; Stoughton’s Ecclesiastical Htstory of England; Lee and Cunningham’s Histories of the Church of Scotland; McCrie’s Annals of Engl/tsh Presbytery; Stanley’s Jlfemortals of lVestmtnster Abbey; Masson’s Life of Jlltlton. See Alexander F. Mitchell’s The lVestmtnster Assembly, its History and Standards, the Baird lecture for 1882. ' ALEX. F. Mrrei-IELL. Westminster Confession of Faith and Cateehisms: See WESTMINSTER STANDARDS. Westlllinstel‘ Hall : a large hall, all that remains of the ancient palace of Westminster. It is a very large room to have a roof unsupported by columns, being 68 feet wide in the clear, and covered by an open timber roof, the finest in existence, and which has remained perfect except for minor repairs since the close of the fourteenth century. In its present form it was built during the reign of Richard II. When the new \Vestminster palace was designed after the fire of 1834, it was proposed to make Westminster Hall a part of it, but Sir Charles Barry, who was successful in the competition among the architects, treated it as a vestibule or entrance hal ,which it remains. The public pass through the whole length of the hall from north to south, ascend the stairs at the southern end to St. Stephen’s porch, then turn to the east and enter the new building at St. Stephen’s Hall. Members of Parliament, on the other hand, may at their choice pass through a door half way up the hall in the mid- die of the east side or, skirting the hall on the east, may pass along a cloister on Star Chamber Court. The peers do not enter here at all, but by a separate entrance on old Pal- ace Yard. '\/Vestminster Hall has been the scene of many stirring events. Here Sir Thomas More and the Protector Somerset were tried and condemned. N ot to mention other trials, King Charles I. here appeared before the High Court of Justice, while the banners of N aseby hung over his head. Here the seven bishops just before the Revolution were ac- quitted, Dr. Sacheverell and the rebel lords of 1745 were convicted, and 'Warren Hastings passed through that ordeal which has been rendered so famous by the eloquence of Burke and Sheridan and by the most brilliant assemblage, perhaps, ever seen in a court of justice. It must be also mentioned that here Oliver Cromwell was inaugurated as Lord Protector of England. At the coronation of George IV., Westminster Hall witnessed a coronation banquet, and at the same time the challenge of the king’s champion on horseback in complete armor. ‘ Westminster Hall was long the center of the English law courts; abutting on it were the court of chancery, the court of king’s or queen’s bench, the court of common pleas, and the court of exchequer. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. “’eStl11inSte1' Palace: the great building fronting on the Thames in the southwestern part of London in which are the meeting-rooms of the Houses of Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland together with the libraries, committee- rooms, etc., necessary for parliamentary business. It takes its name from the Royal Palace which formerly stood on this site, but which was nearly abandoned at the time of Henry VIII. The Houses of Lords and Commons assem- bled within the old walls. The latter began to meet in St. Stephen’s chapel in the reign of Edward VI. St. Edward’s, or the Painted Chamber, was used by the Lords and Com- mons when they came together for conferences. In the year 1834 a terrible fire destroyed the whole pile, so long in- terwoven with the royal and national history of England. The new palace of Westminster occupies the site of the old one. It has four fronts. The cast, or river front, pre- sents a facade of 900 feet, divided into compartments, pan- eled with tracery, and decorated with statuary and coats- of-arms. The other fronts are in the same style, and ex- hibit the same profusion of ornament. Three principal towers adorn the edifice-—the Royal Victoria tower, the cen- 1 WESTMINSTER STANDARDS tral tower, and the clock tower. The first is 340. the second 300, and the third 320 feet in height. The present cham- bers occupied by the two houses are richly adorned with historical paintings, stainedglass, carving, and metal work. The royal entrance, the royal gallery, the central hall, the passages, and the libraries are all elaborately decorated. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Westminster School: one of the seven great public schools of England. As it now exists, it was founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1560, but there was an abbey school long before. The school-room was a dormitory of the abbey, and the college hall was the abbot’s refectory, built by Abbot Litlington under Edward III. The dormitory was built by the Earl of Burlington in 1722. According to an old custom, the boys at Christmas perform one of Terence's plays, with a prologue and epilogue written for the occasion and suited to the times. Westminster School can boast of distinguished men among its masters and pupils. Of the latter were Ben Jonson, George Herbert, Giles Fletcher, Cow- ley, Dryden, Prior, Churchhill, Cowper, Southey; the states- men Sir I-Iarry Vane, Halifax, Warren Hastings, Marquis of Lansdowne, Burdett, Graham, and Earl Russell; the warriors Marquis of Anglesey, Lord Combermere, Lord Raglan; and, among other celebrated men, Locke, South, Christopher Wren, Atterbury, Gibbon. Westlllillstel‘ Standards : a title under which are some- times comprehended all the church books drawn up by the Westminster Assembly, at others only those relating to doc- trine, and accordingly, though these were drawn up last, they will be treated of first in this article. (1) Coozfess'zIort of Fatth.—A committee was appointed by the Assembly “to prepare matter for a joint confession of faith ” as early as Aug. 20, 1644. It consisted of Drs. Gouge, Temple, and Hoyle, Messrs. Gataker, Arrowsmith, Burroughs, Burgess, Vines, and Goodwin, together with the Scotch commissioners. A fortnight later D1'. Smith and Messrs. Palmer, Newcomen, Herle, Reynolds, Wilson, Tuck- ney, Young, Ley, and Sedgewick were added to the commit- tee. In all probability the material afterward embodied in the Confession was, in part at least, prepared by this com- mittee. But the digesting of the matter into a formal “ draught” was, on May 12, 1645, intrusted to a small com- mittee consisting, apparently, of Drs. Temple and Hoyle, Messrs. Gataker, Harris, Burgess, Reynolds, I-lerle, and the Scotch commissioners. On July 7, 1645, Dr. Temple “made report of that part of the Confession of Faith touching the Scriptures,” and it was read and debated. The following day Messrs. Reynolds, Herle, and Newcomen (to whom were afterward added Messrs. Tuckney and Whitaker) were ap- pointed a committee to “take care of the wording of the Confession,” as its articles should be voted in the several sessions. On July 16 report was made from the committee of the heads of the Confession, and these were distributed among the three large committees of the Assembly, to be by them elaborated and prepared for more formal discus- sion. All were repeatedly read and debated, paragraph by paragraph, and sometimes word by word, in the Assembly. On Sept. 25, 1646, the first nineteen chapters, and on Dec. 4 of that year the whole Confession, were finally passed, and then presented to the Houses of Lords and Commons. They gave orders that 600 copies should be printed for the use of members of Parliament and of the Assembly, and that Scrip- ture proofs should be added to the Confession, which was accordingly done. In 1647 the Confession was approved by the Church of Scotland in the form in which it had passed the Assembly, and it was subsequently ratified by the Scot- tish Parliament. In 1648. under the title of “ Articles of Christian Religion,” and with certain changes, most of which were afterward adopted by the Savoy Conference, it was passed by the English Parliament. Sources and Character of the C0nfess1'ort.—It has been maintained that the Assembly’s confession was derived mainly from foreign sources, and even that it “bears un- mistakably the stamp of the Dutch theology in the sharp distinctions, logical forms, and juridical terms into which the reformed doctrine had gradually moulded itself under the red heat of the Arminian and Socinian controversies.” But there is conclusive evidence that in its general plan. and in the tenor and very words of its more important arti- cles, it was derived not from foreign but from native sources. It may confidently be traced up to these con- fessedly Calvinistic or Augustinian articles which are sup- posed to have been prepared by Ussher, and in 1615 were WESTMINSTER STANDARDS adopted by the convocation of the Irish Church. This was before the Synod of Dort had met, or the bitterness and heat which the debate of the Armini-an controversies occa- sioned had extended to Britain. In these articles we have the main sources of the Assembly’s Confession of Faith, and almost its exact prototype in its statement of all the more important and essential doctrines of Christianity. In the order and titles of many of its chapters, as well as in the language of whole sections or subdivisions of chapters, and in many single phrases, and ooces stgnalw occurrm g through- out their Confession, the Westminster divines followed very closely in the footsteps of Ussher and his Irish brethren. The minutes clearly show that the attempt to determine questions left open by the Synod of Dort was seldom made, and that when it was made it was strenuously resisted by the pupils and successors of the English divines, who claimed to have moderated the conclusions of that synod. With respect to the doctrine of the covenants, and the 'uridical phraseology which some assert were imported into lfngland through Cocceius (whose chief work on the sub- ject, however, was not published till after the Confession had been framed), there is nothing taught by the Westmin- ster divines which had not in substance been found by Rol- lock, in Scotland, and Cartwright, in England, half a cen- tury before, while there is an advance on what is taught in the Dutch Synopsis Pam'om's Theoloyice of 1642. In regard to the important chapters on “The Holy Scripture,” on “ God’s Eternal Decree,” on “Christ the Mediator,” and on “The Lord’s Supper,” which so largely determine the char- acter of the Confession, the resemblance to the Irish arti- cles, botl1 in language and arrangement, is so close that hardly a doubt can be entertained either of the sources from which it was derived, or of the design of its framers in following in the footsteps of Ussher. They meant their Confession to be in harmony with the consensus of the Re- formed churches; they desired it to be a bond of union, not a cause of strife, among those who adhere to the sum and substance of the doctrine of the Reformed churches. The Confession, under the title of The Humble Advice of the Assembly of I)im'nes now by anthom'ty of Parlzoonent sitting at W'eszfvnl/aster concerning a Confession of Faith, ete., was printed at London in Dec., 1646, without proofs. and in May, 1647, with proofs, for the use of the Houses of Parliament and the Assembly. A copy of this last edition was taken to Scotland by the commissioners, and from it 300 copies were printed for the use of the General Assembly there. After being approved by that body, it was published in Scotland with the title The Confession of Faizfh agreed upon by the Assembly of Divines, ete., and, to the indigna- tion of the House of Commons (which had not yet approved of it), this was reprinted by a London bookseller in 1648. In the same year it was, with the omission of part of chapters xx. and xxiv., and the whole of chapters xxx. and xxxi., and with some minute verbal alterations, approved by the two houses, and published under the title Articles of Ohm'stlan Religion, approved and passed by both .Houses of Parlz'a- ment after ad/zn'ee had with the Assembly of Dz'vz.'nes, etc. But in this instance the Assembly proved too strong for the Parliament, even though the Savoy Conference sided with the latter; and the Confession continues to be printed in Britain in the form in which it was drawn up by the Assem- bly and approved by the Church of Scotland. Under the title of TmlI.‘h’s Vletow over E'rro9', Dickson, Professor of Divinity in Edinburgh, published a brief catechetical expo- sition of the Confession in 1649. (2) Oa,teohlsms.—Tl1e catechisn1 which Baillie reports to have been drawn up and nearly agreed to in the end of 1644 was probably that which had been almost completed, and to a considerable extent had been passed, b_v the Assembly while still occupied with its Confession of Faith. But on J an. 14, 1646—47, upon a motion made by Mr. Vines, it was ordered, “ That the committee for the Catechism do prepare a draught of two catechisms, one more large, and another more brief, in which they are to have an eye to the Confes- sion of Faith and to the matter of the Catechism already begun.” The Larger Catechism was first proceeded with. This appears distinctly from the minutes of the Assembly, though the opposite view is still sometimes maintained. It may be admitted that the Shorter one at times embodies more of the materials of the original Catechism. and seems to be less directly drawn fron1 the Confession of Faith, but It was not cast into its present shape till after the Larger one was completed, and all the Scotch commissioners except Rutherford had left the Assembly. Tradition attributes to 721 Gillespie the answer given in it to the question, ‘What is God‘? but so far as can be ascertained from the minutes the answer to that question, even in the Larger Catechism, was not moulded into its present shape till after Gillespie re- turned to Scotland, but remained somewhat of the same form as it bears in the original draught and in the cate- chisms of Ussher and Cartwright. Some suppose that the Smaller Catechism of Cartwright was a good deal followed by the Assembly’s committee ; but no accurate comparison has yet been instituted between the Assembly’s catechisms and those which had previously appeared in England, espe- cially during the years immediately preceding. Tuckney had the chief share in digesting the Larger Catechism into its present form, and he was also convener of the committee which prepared the Shorter, though some think that in its more concise and severely logical answers they discern traces of the handiwork of Wallis, the mathematician. Both cate- chisms, as has been well observed by the younger M’Crie, “ are inimitable as theological summaries; though when it is considered that to comprehend them would imply an ac- quaintance with the whole circle of dogmatic and contro- versial divinity, it may be doubted whether either of them is adapted to the capacity of childhood. But if too little re- gard has been paid in former days to the e'nz‘elZ2Tgen2.‘ training of our youth in such catechisms, . . . experience has shown that few who have been carefully instructed in our Shorter Catechism have failed to discover the advantage of becom- ing acquainted in early life, even as a task, with that admir- able ‘ form of sound words.’ ” Ridgley’s Body of Dz'm'm'ly is virtually an exposition of the Larger Catechism. Alleine,Vincent, and Flavel in Eng- land, and Fisher, Willison, and several others in Scotland, have published expositions of the Shorter Catechism. (3) Directory of Public Worsht'p.—This occupied the at- tention of the Assembly during the greater part of the year 1644, and received the sanction of the English houses of Par- liament on J an. 3, 1644-45, though one or two alterations were made in March following to meet the views of the Scotch. It was approved by the Scotch General Assembly and Parliament in Feb., 1645, with one reservation. The first English edition bears the date of 1644. but was really published in what, according to our reckoning, would be Man, 1645. The first Scotch edition bears the date of 1645, and has been recently reprinted by the Messrs. Blackwood with an historical introduction and notes by Dr. Leishman, of Linton. From the preface, as well as from the testimony of those engaged in framing it, we may clearly infer that the Directory was not intended to form a new liturgy, the very words of which might be turned by the minister into a fixed and unvarying form of prayer. The meaning of its framers, as they themselves tell us, only was that there might be " a consent of all the churches in those things that contain the substance of the service and worship of God," and that the ministers might, “ if need be, have some help and _fn‘rn'zIz‘u,re, and yet so as they become not hereby slothful and negligent in stirring up the gifts of Christ in them. but that each, by taking heed to himself and the flock of God committed to him, and by wise observing the ways of Divine Providence, may be careful to furnish his lzea/2'1‘ and tongue with furl‘/zer or other material of prayer and exhortation as shall be need- ful on all occasions.” Its minuter directions have never been regarded as rigidly binding, but it were much to be wished that more heed were given to these wise and weighty coun- sels. (4) Church Got'e2'22menzf and Dlscz'_ph'ne.—Two treatises on these subjects proceeded from the Westminster Assembly. The preparation of the former, to which it set itself shortly after subscribing the Covenant, was attended with many dif- ficulties. It was entitled by its framers Proposz'1"z'ons con- eernzTn.g Church Govern mom‘, but it is now generally known as the Form of Church Goz-emnze/22f, and under this title it is still printed, along with Scotch editions of the Confession of Faith. The greater part of it had been drawn up before Feb., 1645. and the same month was presented apparently in manuscript to the Scotch Assembly, which approved of it as far as then completed. with certain reservations, and agreed to carry it out in practice as soon as it should be ratified without substantial alteration by the English Parliament. It never was so ratified. The best friends of Presbytery in England became satisfied that they must be contented to get the assent of their countrymen to their system as one that was lawful and agreeable to the word of God, and that could be justified by considerations of reason and expediency in many details for which divine warrant could not be claimed. 443 722 WESTMORELAND Urged by these and the friends of comprehension generally, the Assemblyr set itself in 1645 to prepare its Directory for Church Government and discipline. Henderson took spe- cial interest in the preparation of this, and furnished, in part at least, its materials, and all the Scotch commissioners as- sented to it. To a large extent it was adopted by the Eng- lish Parliament in 1648 in their Ordinance as to the Form of Church Government. It was printed in Scotland in 1647, and reprinted, along with Henderson’s Form and Order of the Government 0 f the Church of Scotland. in 1690, and use was made of it in drawing up the Form of Process in the Church of Scotland in 1707, but it was never formally ap- proved of, nor is it so well known as it deserves to be. ALEX. F. M1'reHELL. West’morland: northern county of England; area, 790 sq. miles. The surface is mountainous, the mountains, of which some rise over 3,000 feet, alternating with moorland, heath, and lakes. Useful minerals abound, and coal, lead, and copper mines are worked. Agriculture is in a back- ward state and of small consequence; the raising of sheep and geese is one of the principal occupations. Pop. (1891) 66,098. West Newbnry : town (incorporated in 1820); Essex co., 1\Iass.; on the Merrimac river; 8 miles S. E. of N ewbury- port, 32 miles N. of Boston (for location, see map of Massa- chusetts, ref.1-I). It contains a high school, 11 district schools. public library, and 2 churches, and is principally engaged in agriculture, and the manufacture of shoes and combs. In 1894 it had an assessed valuation of over $1,000,- 000. Pop. (1880) 1,989; (1890) 1,796. West Newton : borough ; Westmoreland co., Pa.; on the Youghiogheny river, and the Bait. and O. and the Pitts. and Lake Erie railways; 33 miles S. E. of Pittsburg (for loca- tion, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-B). It is in an agri- cultural region, and has a private bank, a weekly newspaper, and large coal, coke, limestone, and lumber interests. Pop. (1880) 1,475; (1890) 2,285. Weston: village; York County, Ontario, Canada; on the H umber river, and the Canadian Pac. and the Gr. Trunk railways; 85- miles N. W. of Toronto (for location, see map of Ontario, ref. 4-D). It is in an agricultural re- gion, and has flour, grist, and woolen mills, foundry, car- riage-factory, windmill, and ump-works, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1881) 1,000; (1891) 1,191. Weston: town (incorporated in 1712); Middlesex co., Mass.; on the Charles river, and the Boston and Maine and the Fitchburg railways; 13 miles WV. of Boston (for loca- tion, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H). It contains the villages of Weston and Kendall Green; has a high school, 6 district schools, public library, and 4 churches; and is principally engaged in agriculture. In 1894 it had an as- sessed valuation of over $3,000,000. Pop. (1880) 1,448 ; (1890) 1,664. Weston : town (founded about 1832); Platte co., Mo.; on the Missouri river, and the Kan. City, St. J 0.. and Council Bluffs Railroad: 9 miles N. of Leavenworth, Kan., and 32 miles N. W. of Kansas City (see map of Missouri, ref. 3-D). It has 9 churches, 2 public-school buildings, 2 private banks, 3 club-houses, a weekly newspaper, several saw-mills, roller flour-mill, distillery, brewery, carriage and wagon shops, and pork-packing establishments. Pop. (1880) 1,329; (1890) 1,127. Enrroa or “ CHRONICLE.” Weston: town; capital of Lewis co., W. Va.; on the W. Fork of the Monongahela river, and the W. Va. and Pitts. Railroad ; 70 miles S. E. of Parkersburg, 80 miles S. by E. of Wheeling (for location, see map of West Virginia, ref. 7-H). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region; contains the First State Hospital for the Insane, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a State bank with capital of $50,- 000, a saw-mill, a planing-mill, and a flour-mill; and has four weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,516: (1890) 2,143; (1895) estimated, 2,500. EDITOR OF " DEMOCRAT.” Weston, T HOMASZ adventurer; b. in England about 1575; became a merchant in London ; advanced £500 to the agents of the Leyden Pilgrims 1620 when fitting out the Mayflower expedition, but soon abandoned his connection with them as unprofitable, and personally began in 1622 an- other settlement at Wessagussett (now \/Veymouth) under a grant given by the king to Sir Ferdinando Gorges. His settlers were improvident, and soon-had to be supported by the Pilgrims at Plymouth, and most of them, like Weston himself, returned to England where he died after 1624. WEST PLAINS . Westphal, 1)est’fa”al, KARL FRIEDRICI-_I OTTO, M. D.: alien- 1st: b. in Berlin, Germany, Mar. 23,1833: studied at the Universities of Berlin, Heidelberg, and Zurich ; in 1857 was appomted assistant in the Charity Hospital, Berlin, at first havmg charge 01' the smallpox wards, but in 1858 being transferred to the wards for mental diseases ; in 1861 was a privat docent of psychiatry at the University of Berlin, becoming in 1869 professor extraordinary, and in 1874 Professor of Diseases of the Mind and Nervous System. Through his efforts the system of severity and restraint practiced in the insane wards was abolished. In 1868 he became associate editor and subsequently editor of the Ar- chw fitr Psych'tatr’te and .Neroenhranhhm'ten. D. of paresis, at Constance, J an. 27, 1890. S. T. ARMSTRONG. Westphal, RUDOLF: classical scholar; b. at Oberkirchen, Schaumburg, Germany, July 3, 1826; studied mathematics, chemistry, classical .and Oriental languages at Marburg; 1852 privat docent in Tiibingen; 1858-62 professor extraor- dinary in Breslau; retired to private life, but in 1873 ac- cepted a call to the University of Moscow, Russia. D. at Stadthagen, Germany, July 10, 1892. Westphal’s enduring fame rests upon his contributions to Greek music and versi- fication. His chief work was first published in 1865. The third edition, entirely rewritten, is entitled Theorte der mu- stschen Kilvwte bet den .£[6ZZ67L67?/I vol. i., Rhythmth (1885); vol. ii., G1'techt'sche Ifcmnomlc und Jllelopdte (1886) : vol. iii., part i., with the collaboration of H. Gleditsch, Allgemeine Theorte der grtecht'schen llfetmlh (1887) : part ii., by A. Ross- bach, G7-techz'sche Jlfetwth met besonderer RiZchsz'cht der Strojahengattvmgen (1888). His editions of Hephaestion; Pseudo-Plutarch’s De mustca; his treatise on Aristoxenus of Tarentum; 1lIetm'/0 wnd Rim thmth des Ztlasstsclteh Hel- Zenenthums (Leipzig, 1883); 11te_M/mic des g7"techt'schen Alterthums nach den alten Quelten neu bearllettet (Leipzig, 1883) must also be mentioned. The versatility of Westphal is shown by the following titles of works, all of which are indispensable to the student of the respective subjects: llfethodtsche Grammattlc der g/rt'ech'tsche’n, Sprache (2 vols., Jena, 1872); Prolegomena zu Aeschg/hts’s TTQQ5CZtG9% (1869); Theorte der neahochdeutschen Jlletmh (2 vols.); VergZetch- ende G'rcm'mtatt'h der tndogermam'schen Sprachen (1873, of which the first volume only, dealing with the verb, ap- peared); a translation of Oatullus, with introduction and notes (Breslau, 2d ed. 1869). See Bursian’s Geschtchte der hlassischcn Phe'lotogz'e in Deutschlaowl. ALFRED GUDEMAN. Westpha'lia: province of Prussia; bounded by the Rhine province, Holland, Hanover, Schaumburg-Lippe, and Lip- pe-Detmold, Brunswick, Hesse-Nassau, and Waldeck. It has existed in its present form since the Vienna Congress of 1815. Area, 7.892 sq. miles; pop. (1890) 2,428,661 Germans, with a dialect of their own tending toward the Low Ger- man or flattcleutsch. The surface of Westphalia is moun- tainous or hilly, except in the circuit of Miinster, which is a low plain. The Ems, the Vechte, and the Lippe are the natural waterways, so far as they are navigable. Manu- facturing and agriculture are the chief industries. The soil is barren in the north and northeast, but very fertile in the southern valleys. Westphalia’s chief wealth, however, is in its mineral treasures. Next to the Rhine province it is the richest province in iron; in zinc it is next to Silesia; in copper next to Saxony; and richest of all in coal, lead, sul- phur, antimony, also in marble, stones, slate, and salt de- posits. There are thirty-four mineral springs, some of them quite famous. Besides iron-working and stone-cutting, all kinds of textile industries have been carried on since the fourteenth century around the great center of Bielefeld. Grain and flax, hemp and hops are raised in large quanti- ties; the foremost commercial cities are Bielefeld, Iserlohn, Dortmund, and Minden, the port on the Weser. There is a great railway system with Hamm as its central station. The province is divided into the three circuits: Mt'mster, Minden, and Arnsberg. The seat of the highest provincial administration is in Munster, where there is a Roman Cath- olic theological and philosophical academy (university until 1818). HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Westphalia, Treaty of: See Tnnxrms. West Pittston: See Prrrsron. West Plains: city; capital of Howell co., Mo.; on the Kan. City, Ft. Scott and Memphis Railroad; 118 miles S. E. of Springfield, 130 miles S. of J efi°erson City (for location, see map of Missouri, ref. 8-H). It is in a fruit-growing region, particularly apples and grapes; has large farming, stock- WEST POINT raising, and lumbering interests, 2 State banks with com- bined capital of $55,000, and 2 daily and 3 weekly newspa- pers. Pop. (1880) 351 ; (1890) 2,080 ; (1895) estimated, 3,500. Enrron. or “GAZETTE.” West Point: city (laid out in 1828); Troup co.. Ga.; on the Chattahoochee river, and the Atlanta and West P. and the West. of Ala. railways; 16 miles S. W. of La Grange, 87 miles S. W. of Atlanta (for location, see map of Georgia, ref. 4-F). It contains 4 churches, large public school, an opera- house, 2 private banks, 3 cotton-factories with combined annual consumption of 24,000 bales, ginnery and cotton- seed-oil mill with annual output of 3,000 tons, and an iron- foundry with annual output valued at $50,000. Pop. (1880) 1,972; (1890) 1,254; (1895) estimated, 1,400, with a like num- ber in the suburb on the Alabama side of the State line. W. J . McKnnm, SUPERINTENDENT or PUBLIC scnoon West Point: town (founded in 1857); capital of Clay co., Miss.; on the Ill. Cent., the Mobile and Ohio, and the South. railways; 97 miles N. of Meridian, 150 miles S. E. of Memphis, Tenn. (for location, see map of Mississippi, ref. 5-H). It is in an agricultural and cotton-growing region; contains 6 churches, the Southern Female College, the West Point Military Academy, public graded schools, a national bank with capital of $75,000, and 2 weekly newspapers; and has machine-shops and foundries, manufactories of electric-light dynamos and engines, brick and tile factory, hard-wood and lumber mill, sash, door, and blind factory, milling and ginning establishment, box and ice factories, carriage and wagon shops, and other industries. Pop. (1880) 1,786; (1890) 2,762; (1895) estimated, 3,500. “ Foaun ” PUBLISHING COMPANY. West Point: town; capital of Cuming co., N eb.; on the Elkhorn river, and the Fre., Elk. and Mo. Val. Railroad; 38 miles N. W. of Fremont, 74 miles N. W. of Omaha (for loca- tion, see map of Nebraska, ref. 9-G). It is in a wheat and corn growing region; contains 2 national banks with com- bined capital of $100,000, a State bank with capital of $30,- 000, and 4 weekly newspapers; and has several woolen, grist, and paper mills, creamery, grain elevator, stockyards, brewery, and carriage and furniture factories. Pop. (1880) 1,009; (1890) 1,842. Emroa or “REPUBLICAN.” West Point: military post and seat of the U. S. Military Academy; Orange co., N. Y.; on the Hudson river, and the N. Y., Ont. and West., and the W. Shore railways ; 52 miles N. of New York, 94 miles S. of Albany (for location, see map of New York, ref. 7—J). The eastern side of the Point is a nearly straight, precipitous shore, while the northern side, curving so as to form a bay at its western extremity, has a comparatively gentle slope, and commands a fine view up the river. On the northwestern part of this slope is Camp Town, containing barracks for soldiers, storehouses, etc. Farther N., at the extremity of a plain called the German Flats, is the cemetery, the burial-place of many distinguished oificers of the army, and still a little to the N. is Washington’s Valley, where stood the house occu- pied by Washington in 1779. The Military Academy .'s situated on a level terrace 160 feet above the river, flanked on the W. by rocky heights; of these the one 011 which stand the ruins of Fort Putnam is the nearest a11d most promi- nent. On the S. the heights approach the river, leaving only room for a road southward, leading to the village of Highland Falls and to Forts Montgomery and Clinton. A road westward over the mountains leads to Newburg and the surrounding country. The principal buildings of the acad- emy are at the southern end of the terrace; the quarters of the otficers and professors are on the west side and along the roads leading southward and westward. In the north- ern angle of the bend, opposite the Point. is Constitution island, a rocky mass rising 130 feet above the river, con- nected by a broad marsh with the east bank. Just N. of the island are the ‘Nest Point Foundry and the village of Cold Spring; farther N. rises the lofty Bull Hill. with Breakneck in the distance. N. W. of the Point, on the west side of the river, are Crow Nest and Storm King, and be- yond is the town of N ewburg at the extremity of the upper reach of the river, which viewed from West Point appears like a mountain lake. The Government tract of land at \Vest Point contains about 2,330 acres, most of which was purchased in 1790 from the son of one of the original paten- tees; the rest was purchased in 1824 and 1889. Jurisdiction was ceded by New York to the U. S. over a part of the tract in 1826, and over the remainder in 1875 and 1889. The Government also purchased in 1879 a tract of land of about WEST STOCKBRIDGE 50 acres, including in this a small body of water, called Round Pond, used as an addition to the water-supply of the post, from which it is distant about 5 miles. In the war of the Revolution \Vest Point and other advantageous sites on the Hudson were fortified for the purpose of hold- ing control of the navigation of the river. A strong chain supported by a boom was stretched across the river to Con- stitution island, for the purpose of preventing the ascent of the river by the British war-vessels. For further informa- tion, see Boynton’s Hestoryrof West Point. See MILITARY ACADEMIES. Revised by J AMES MERCUR. West Point: town; King \Villiam co., Va.; at the con- fluence of the Pamunkey and Mata-pony rivers, and on the Southern Railway; 38 miles E. of Richmond (for location, see map of Virginia, ref. 6—I). It has regular steamship communication with Baltimore, New York, and Boston, a private bank, and a daily and two weekly newspapers; and is principally engaged in lumbering and oyster-packing. Pop. (1880) 557; (1890) 2,018. Westport: town (incorporated in 1835); Fairfield co., Conn. ; on Long Island Sound, the Saugatuck river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 45 miles N. E. of New York (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 12-D). It was set off from the towns of Fa-irfield, Norwalk, and Wes- ton; contains the villages of IVestport, Saugatuck, and Green’s Farms; is engaged in agriculture and the manufac- ture of morocco, cotton twine, satchels, planes, and buttons; and has a high school and a weekly newspaper. In 1894 it had a grand list of $2,217,567. Pop. (1880) 3,477; (1890) 3,715. J OHN S. J onus, nnnoa or “ Wnsrroarna-HERALD.” Ivestportz town (incorporated in 1787) ; Bristol co., Mass; partly on the Atlantic Ocean: 8 miles S. of Fall River (for location of county, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 5-I). It contains the villages of Westport, North W'estport, South IVestport, Westport Factory. Head of VVestport, Cen- tral Village, IVestport Point, and VVestport Harbor; has 3 summer hotels, 3 churches, high school, 19 district schools, and public library; and is engaged in agriculture, fishing, and manufacturing. In 1894 it had an assessed valuation of about $1,500.000. Pop. (1880) 2,894; (1890) 2,599. West Randolph: See RANDOLPH, VT. Westropp, Honnsn l\I1cHAEL: archaeologist; b. about 1825; graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 1847; studied art in Italy, giving especial attention to religious archaeol- ogy. D. at Ventnor, Isle of Wight, Apr., 1884. Among his works are Epoclzs of Pa infed Vases. an lm‘roductz'on to their Study (1856) ; A Harzdbooir of Archaeology, Egypzfian, Greek, E.*ruscan-, and Roman (1867): Izz_flzze/ace of the Pfiallic Idea in the Religiorzs of Am‘z'guiz‘y (1873) : Ifandbook of Pottery a/ad Porcelain; Prelz z'sz‘orz'c Phases; and Lectures on Rom an Arclzceologg/. originally delivered before the Archaeological Society of Rome. West Rutland : town (set off from Rutland and organized in 1887): Rutland co.,Vt.; on Otter creek, and the Del. and Hudson Railroad ; 4 miles ‘W. of R-utland, 54 miles S. \V. of Montpelier (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 7-B). By its separation from the former town of RUTLAND (q. *0.) the principal marble quarries, for which the region is noted, came within its area. It containsa Baptist, Congregational. Methodist Episcopal, Protestant Episcopal, and two Roman Catholic churcl1es. Its banking business is transacted in Rutland. Pop. (1890) 3,680. West Springfield: town (incorporated in 1774): Hamp- den co.. Mass; on the Connecticut and Agawam rivers. and the Boston and Albany Railroad; 2 miles IV. of Springfield (for location. see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-E). It con- tains the villages of \Vest Springfield, Mittineague, and Mer- rick; has 5 churches, high school, 30 district schools, public library, and 3 hotels; and is principally engaged in agri- culture and the manufacture of paper. In 1894 it had an assessed valuation of nearly $4,000,000. Pop. (1880) 4,149; (1890) 5,077. West Steckhridge: town (incorporated in 17 74): Berk- shire co., Mass.; on the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad ; 10 miles N. of Great Barrington (for location, see map of Mas- sachusetts, ref. 2—C). It contains the villages of “Test Stock- bridge, Centre, State Line, \Yilliamsville, and Rockdale Mills; has a Congregational, a Methodist Episcopal. and a Roman Catholic church, a public high school, eight district schools, and a public library; and is principally engaged in agriculture, iron-mining, and the manufacture of lime. Pop. (1880) 1.923; (1890) 1,492. 723' ' connected with Albany by steam and 7% wEsT TROY West Troy: village (incorporated in 1836); Albany co., N. Y. ; on the Hudson river, and the Del. and Hudson Rail- road ; directly opposite the city of Troy and 4 miles N. of Al- bany (for location, see map of New York, ref. 5-J). It is con- nected with Troy by an iron bridge across the river, accom- modating electric cars for passengers and freight, and also by three lines of steam-ferry, and is electric railways. It is at one of the entrances of the Erie and Champlain Canals into the Hudson river, at the head of river navigation, and con- nected by river and canals with Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Champlain. The village is in a noted manufacturing re- gion, is well laid out, and has streets paved with granite, thorough sewerage, improved water- works, and electric lights. There are 10 churches: Ro- man Catholic 3, Methodist Episcopal 2, Presbyterian 2, and Baptist, Protes- tant Episcopal, and Reformed, each 1; a parochial and 4 public schools, Union Free School library; a national bank with capital of $100,000; and a weekly newspaper. The industries comprise the manufacture of woolen goods, street-cars, bells, stoves, scales, car-journal bearings, harness-snaps, ladders, and sashes, doors, and blinds. The vil- lage receipts in 1894 were $69,533; the debt was $386,000 : and the assessed property valuation, $4,337,346. Pop. (1890) 12,967. Here in 1807 the U. S. Government established an arsenal, known as WATERVLIET ARSENAL, on a reservation of 109 acres of ground within the present limits of the village. It has one of the largest plants for the construction of field, coast defense, and siege ordnance in the U. S., and also fac- tories for the manufacture of shot and shell, gun-carriages, equipments for field and siege service, and small ammuni- tion. Other buildings include two large stone magazines for storing powder and ammunition. During the Mexican and civil wars from 1,000 to 1,500 men and women were em- ployed here day and night preparing materials of war, and since 1892 the foundry and construction-works have been kept busy on the great guns required for the army and for coast-defense works. The arsenal fronts the river and has a wharfage of about 1,000 feet. The reservation, through which the Erie Canal passes, has quarters for the officers, barracks for the soldiers and civilian employees, hospital, and tasteful gardens. T. I. HARDIN, EDITOR or “JOURNAL AND DEMOCRAT.” West Union: city (founded in 1849); capital of Fayette co., Ia. ; on the Burl., Ced. Ra . and N. and the Chi., Mil. and St. P. railways; 36 miles N. of Independence, 84 miles N. W. of Dubuque (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 3—J). It is in an agricultural and dairying region, and has 11 churches, water-works, a national bank with capital of $100,- 000, 2 State banks with combined capital of $109,500, 2 large creameries, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,551 ; (1890) 1,676; (1893) 2,164. EDITOR OF “ GAZETTE.” West Virginia: one of the U. S. of North America (South Atlantic group); the twenty-second State admitted into the Union; capital, Charleston. Location and Area.—It lies between lat. 37° 30’ and 40° 30’ N ., lon. 0° 45' and 5° 30’ W. of Washington; is bounded on the N. W. by Ohio, on the N., N. E., and E. N. E. by Pennsylvania and Maryland, on the E., S. E., and S. by Vir- ginia, and on the S. W. by Virginia and Kentucky; area by U. S. census, 24,780 sq. miles, of which 135 sq. miles are water surface. Phy/s1}cctlFeat'umes.—On the eastern border of the State are the Alleghany Mountains proper, lofty spurs of which trend northwe‘stward toward the Ohio. Three physical re- gions are clearly indicated : (1) The Eastern Plateau, on which is the loftiest mountain elevation in the State, and which embraces nine counties, viz., Mercer, Monroe, Greenbrier, Po- cahontas, Randolph, Tucker, Pendleton, Hardy, and Hamp- shire. (2) The Central Plateau, which stretches across the State from N. to S., having a mean elevation of about 1,000 feet, and an average width of about 25 miles. 011 its southern portion, a northern continuation of the Cumberland range, are lofty elevations, some of the peaks of which, in Raleigh and Wyoming Counties, are estimated at from 3,000 to 3,500 feet in height. (3) The Ohio Valley Plain, along the Ohio WEST VIRGINIA river and the entire northwestern border of the State, from Wayne to Hancock Counties, in which are twelve of the most populous counties of the State. Here the elevation is from 575 to 850 feet. In addition to these there is what is called the Potomac region, which is drained by the upper waters of the Potomac, and in which are eight counties—Jefferson, . Lia‘ ,' /3-=‘.’;‘ Seal of West Virginia. Morgan, Berkeley, Hampshire, Mineral, Hardy, Grant, and Pendleton. The lowest depression W. of the mountains is at Kenova, at the mouth of Big Sandy river, which is 575 feet above the Gulf. At Charleston the altitude is 601 feet; Wheeling, 645; Grafton, 967; Clarksburg, 1,035; Lewisburg, 1n Greenbrier County, 2,200; Bluefield, in Mercer County (2,555): the Fairfax Stone, in Tucker County, 2,300; Big Sewell Mountain, in Fayette County, 3,500; Keeney’s Knob, in Summers County, 3,700; Panther Knob, in Pendleton County, 4,000; Turkey Bone Mountain, in Randolph County, 4,210; and Spruce Knob, 4,860, which is the highest point of land in the State. In the Potomac region, E. of the moun- tains, the lowest depressions are at Harper’s Ferry, where the elevation is but 279 feet above tide-water at Washington, and at Martinsburg 391 feet. Soil and Pr'0du0iz'0ns.——Tl1ere are no transportation soils; all are native and come from the disintegration of limestones, sandstones, and various admixtures of shales and clays, forming, respectively, calcareous soil, sandy soil, and clayey soils and loams. These elements insure great fertility, and the lands are therefore productive to the very mountain- tops. Wheat, corn, and all the cereals yield abundantly. Almost all the fruits known to the temperate zone are grown, and fruit-culture is developing rapidly. The State lies central in the great Blue Grass region, which stretches from the banks of the Kentucky river to the lakes of West- ern New York. The following summary from the census reports of 1880 and 1890 shows the extent of farm operations in the State : FARMS, ETC. 1880. 1890. Per cent.* Total number of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62,674 72,773 161 Total acreage of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,193,779 10,321,326 1'3 Value of farms, including buildings and fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $133,147,175 $151,880,300 14'1 * Increase. The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of the principal crops in the calendar year 1894 : CROPS . Acreage. Yield. Value. Indian corn . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 681,728 12,611,968 bu. $7,188,882 Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 398,056 4,816,478 “ 2,889,887 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155,031 2,884,724 “ 1,125,042 Rye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 14,806 118,448 “ 67,515 Buckwheat... . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13,966 315,632 “ 195,602 Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 3,737’ 2,634,585 lb. 263,459 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32,018 1,664,936 bu. 949,014 Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546,260 557,185 tons 5,939,592 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,846,502 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 318,619,023 On J an. 1, 1895, the farm animals comprised 169.844 horses, value $6,581,572; 7,601 mules, value $373,084; 180,- 442 milch cows, value $3,509,597; 329,570 oxen and other cattle, value $4,932,221 ; 635,535 sheep, value $1,137,734; and 378,830 swine, value $1,480,317-total head, 1,701,822; total value $18,014,525. ...“. r ........ .. \ __=.i..§sm° . 5 ?;=:m¢ Eé -_%fi_#.m~ G; u N .-. u m? .=_>-= =55: <_J¢ozoz0S . 3-au.§.m.> :1.-m ¢ “...\‘ 1:4 2:. w:_|_.!|||mm|w.‘. 35. O 5% ‘ ._ . V... .2§m ocim U 5 .3 zorpumw zmuxhmaz ... V. {V .j..LLr fix. Zmzrii» 1. . Q .,...... ... . J F 3., wllunm KF/H _ .... . I 0 s. .4 . l .. A » .. :_ a..:“:_.t Hw@E$ ¢ . V ||N_n WEST VIRGINIA Mineral Resources.-The State has a coal area of 16,000 sq. miles, divided into five districts, viz., the Flat Top, Kan- awha, New River, Northern, and Upper Potomac, and in 1893 ranked fourth in production, the out ut being 10,708,- 578 short tons, valued at $8,251,170. T e same year the State ranked second in production of petroleum, having an output of 8,445,412 barrels, valued at $5,425,522. This petro- leum is identical with that of Pennsylvania, excepting a por- tion of that from the Volcano and Burning Springs districts, which yield a natural lubricating oil of high grade. The total production in the State to the close of 1893 was 20,- 481,855 barrels. The production of salt, of the common fine and common coarse grades, was 210,736 barrels ; value, $68,- 222. Quarry outputs were restricted by the business depres- sion showing sandstone to the value of $46,135 and limestone to that of $19,184. The value of the natural gas consumed was $123,000. There were seven mineral springs whose waters were bottled for commercial use, and twelve mineral spring resorts. The iron-ore production of Virginia and West Virginia together was 616,965 long tons, valued at $1,050,977. Climate.--The climate is salubrious and agreeable. The warm season is long, but the heat is not intense. At Mor- gantown, in the north, the mean temperature of winter ranges from 34° to 42°. and of summer from 70° to 75° and in the southern part of the State the range is from 2° to 5° higher. The mean annual temperature of the whole State is 564°, and the average rainfall 442 inches, Lewisburg, with an elevation of 2,200 feet, having 35-75 inches, and Kanawha Salines, elevation about 570 feet, 5584 inches. Diuisions.—Fo1' administrative purposes the State is divided into fifty-five counties, as follows : COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWNS, WITH POPULATION. eounrnzs. * Ref. 1122),‘. f8°9lZ,'_ COUNTY-TOWNS. f8°91:,' Barbour . . . . . . . 6-I 11,870 12,702 Philippi . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Berkeley . . . . . . . 5-M 17,380 18,702 Martinsburg . . . . . . 7,226 Boone . . . . . . . .. . . . . 5,824 6,885 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Braxton . . . . . . . 8-G 9,787 13,928 Sutton . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Brooke . . . . . . .. 3-I-I 6,013 6,660 Wellsburg . . . . . . . . . 2,235 Cabell . . . . . . . 9-D 13,744 23.595 Huntington . . . . . . . 10,108 Calhoun . . .9. .. 7-F 6,07~ 8,155 Grantsville . . . . . . . . . . . . lay . . . . . . . . . .. 8-F 3,460 4,659 Clay C.-H. 1: . . . . . . 1,091 Doddridge. . . .. 6-G 10,552 12,183 West Union . . . . . .. 312 Fayette . . . . . . .. 10-F 11,560 20,542 Fayettevillei . . . . .. 4,110 Gilmer . . . . . . . .. 7-G 7.108 9.746 Glenville . . . . . . . . . . 329 Grant . . . . . . . . . . 6-K 5,542 6.802 Petersburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . Greenbrier..... 10-H 15,060 18,034 Lewisburg . . . . . . .. 1,016 Hampshire 5-L 10,366 11,419 Romney . . . . . . . . . .. 451 Hancock . . . . . .. 2-G 4,882 6,414 New Cumberland. 2,305 Hardy _ _ _ _ , _ , . . 6-K 6,794 7,567 Moorefield . . . . . . . . 495 Harrison . . . . . . . 6-H 20,181 21,919 Clarksburg . . . . . . . . 3.008 Jackson . . . . .. 7-E 16,312 19,021 Jackson . . . . . . . . . .. 417 Jefferson . . . . .. 5-M 15,005 15,553 Charlestown 2.‘ 7 Kanawha. .. .. 9-13 32,466 42,756 Charleston§ . . . . . .. 6,742 Lewis . . . . . . . . . . 7-H 13,269 15,895 Weston . . . . . . . . . . . 2,143 Lincoln. . . . . 9-D 8,739 11,246 Hamlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lo an . . . . . . . . .. 10-D 7,329 11,101 Logani . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,746 Me owell. .. . .. 12-E 3,074 7,300 Welch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Marion . . . . . . . 5-H 17,198 20,721 Fairmont . . . . . . . . . 1,023 Marshall _ . . O _ _ _ 4_(;r 18,840 20,735 Moundsville . . . . . . 2,688 Mason . . . . . . . .. 7-D 22,293 22,863 Point Pleasant.... 1.853 Mercer . . . . . . . .. 11-F 7,467 16,002 Princeton . . . . . . . .. 320 Mineral . . . . . . .. 5-K 8,630 12,085 Keyser . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,165 Mingot . . . . . . .. 10-D . . _ . . _ . . . . .. Williamson . Monongalia. . . . 4-H 14,985 15,705 Morgantown . . . . . . 1,011 Monroe . . . . . . .. 11—H 11,501 12,429 Umon . . . . . . . . . . . .. 348 Morgan . . . . . . .. 5-L 5,777 6,744 Berkeley Springsi 1,529 Nicholas . . . . . . 9-G 7,223 9,309 Summersvillet. . . . 1,274 Ohio . . . . . . . . . .. 3-G 37,457 41,557 Wheeling . . . . . . . .. 34.522 Pendleton . . . . . . 8-J 8,022 8,7 Franklint . . . . . . . . 1,515 Pleasants.. 6-F 6,256 7,539 St. Mary‘s . . . . . . . .. 520 Pocahontas. . . . 9-I-I 5,591 6,814 Marlinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preston . . . . . . . 5-1 19,091 20,355 Kingwoodi . . . . . . . . 2,315 Putnam . . . . . . . . 8-D 11,37 14,342 Winfield . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Raleigh . . . . . . .. 10-F 7,367 9,597 Raleigh . . . . . . . . . . .. 158 Randolph . . . . . . 8-I 8,102 11,633 Beverly . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Ritchie . . . . . . . . 6-F 13,474 16,621 Ritchie . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Roane . . . . . . . . . 8-F 12,184 15,303 Spencer . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Summers... ..11-G 9,033 13,117 Hinton . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,570 Taylor. .. 6-1 11,455 12,147 Grafton . . . . . . . . .. 3,159 Tucker . . . . . . . . 6-J 3,151 6,459 Parsons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ T ler . . . . . . . .. 6-G 11,07‘ 11.962 Midd1ebournet.... 3,442 pshur . . . . . . . . 8-H 10,249 12,714 Buckhannon . . . . . . 1,403 Wayne. .. 9-D 14,739 18,652 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . .. 361 Webster . . . . . . . 8-H 3,207 4,783 Addison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wetzel . . . . . . .. 4-G 13.896 16,841 New Martinsville. 692 Wirt . . . . . . . . . . . 7-F 7,104 9,411 Elizabeth . . . . . . . . . 710 Wood . . . . . . . . . . 6-E 25,006 28.612 Parkersburg . . . . . . 8,408 Wyoming . . . . .. 11—E 4,322 6,2 7 Oeeanai; . . . . . . . . . .. 1,343 Total . . . . . . . 618,457 762,794 * Reference for location of counties, see map of West Virginia. t Formed since census of 1890._ _ _ t istriet. § Population in 1895, on extension of corporate limits, 12,500. . O 725 Prinoi_pal Cities and Towns, with Population for 18.90.-— Wheeling, 34,522; Huntington, 10,108; Parkersburg, 8,408; Martinsburg, 7,226; Charleston, 6,742; Grafton, 3,159; Clarksburg, 3,008; Benwood, 2,934; Moundsville, 2,688; Hinton, 2,570; New Cumberland, 2,305; Charlestown, 2,287 ; Wellsburg, 2,235; Keyser, 2,165: and Weston, 2,143. Population and Raccs.—ln 1860, 376,688; 1870, 442,014; 1880, 618,457; 1890, 762,794 (native, 743,911; foreign, 18,- 883; male, 390,285; female, 372,509; white, 730,077; colored, 32,717, including 32,690 persons of African descent). Indzzstrics and Business Interests.—-The census returns of 1890 showed that 2,376 manufacturing establishments re- ported. These had a combined capital of $28,118,030; em- ployed 21,969 persons, to whom $8,330,997 was paid in wages; used materials that cost-'$23,729,089; and had an output valued at $38,702,125. The principal industries, ac- cording to the value of output, were the manufacture of iron and steel, $7,490,934; lumber-mill products from logs or bolts, $5,239.340; flour and grist mill products, $3,902,- 994; nails and spikes, $3,140,931 ; refined petroleum, $1,171,- 374; coke, $1,130,762; glass, $945234; planing-mill prod- ucts, $910,640; tanned and curried leather, $896,120; malt liquors, $747,402; cigars and cigarettes, $562,060; and foundry and machine-shop products, $506,513. In 1893 there were 4 iron-furnaces, 6 rolling-mills and steel-works, 856 cut-nail machines, and a wire-nail works in operation. The production of pig iron was 81,591 long tons against 154,793 tons in 1892. The coke industry in 1893 had 75 establishments, with an aggregate of 7,354 ovens and 132 in process of building. During the year 1,745,757 short tons of coal were used. and 1,062,076 short tons of coke produced, valued at $1,716,907. Coal-mining held its place as the distinctive industry of the State. Finance-The State has no bonded debt. In 1894 the State receipts were $1,650,703; expenditures, $1,496,500; assessed valuations. real, $145,737,960; personal, $51,502,003 —total, $197,239,963. The State tax rate was 35 cents per $100. Banking and Insumnce.--In 1895 there were 26 national banks with combined capital of $3,076,000; 50 State banks with capital of $2,779,122; 4 private banks; and an incor- porated bank with capital of $30,000. Sixty-eight fire-in- surance companies were authorized to transact business in the State, of which 5 were State corporations. ' .Mca//is of Communication.-—In 1894 the State had 1,847 miles of railway, and the taxable value of all railway prop- erty was $21,299,486. Three great trunk lines cross the State from E. to W., connecting the commerce of the East with that of the Mississippi valley. These lines are the Baltimore and Ohio, the Chesapeake and Ohio, and the Nor- folk and VVestern. In addition to these there are several local lines of importance, including the Ohio River, the West Virginia Central and Pittsburg, the VVest Virginia and Pittsburg, and the Cumberland Valley and Martinsburg railways. Churches.—The census of 1890 gave the following statis- tics of the religious bodies having each a membership in the State of over 1,000: DENOMINATIONS 0’g““i"°' Ch“‘°h°° Members 7 lfiiifcif “ ‘ ' tions. and balls. 'I 11 Property. Methodist Episcopal North . . . . . . 827 822 48,925 $902,153 Baptist, Regular, North . . . . . . . . . . 458 459 34,154 381,200 Methodist Episcopal South . . . . . . . 482 410 25,064 382.250 Roman Catholic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 67 15,653 340,155 United Brethren in Christ . . . . . . . 259 254 12.242 140.645 Methodist Protestant. . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 222 10,652 153,545 Presbyterian in the U. S . . . . . . . . . 7 109 5,995 222.950 Disciples of Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85 83 5,807 92,292 Presb. in the U. S. of America . .. 44 41 4,275 308,200 Baptist, Regular, Colored . . . . . . . . . 7 7 4,233 59,090 Protestant Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 66 2,906 276,687 Baptist, Free-will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 31 1,668 34.000 Lutheran, United Synod in the So. 21 22 1.518 33,725 Lutheran, General Synod . . . . . . . .. 5 5 1,108 69,000 Schools. The public-school system embraces primary, graded, high, and normal schools, and a State University. The legal school age is from six to twenty-one years. In 1894 there were 282,770 children of school age, of whom 200,789 were enrolled in the public schools. There were 5,167 country and village schools, with 5,302 buildings val- ued at $2,376,386, in which 5,747 teachers were employed. The State Normal School-—l\larshall College—-is located at Huntington, with branches at Fairmount, Glenville, Shep- herdstown, West Liberty, and Concord. These schools had 726 WEST VIRGINIA 1,030 students. A Colored Institute is maintained at Farm. The State University, open to both sexes, at Morgantown, is one of the most thoroughly equipped institutions of its kind in the South, and in 1894 had 16 instructors, 247 students, and 7,047 volumes in its library. Libraries.—According to U. S. Government report on public libraries of 1,000 volumes and upward each in 1891, _West Virginia had 7 libraries, containing 36,980 bound volumes and 3,128 pamphlets. The libraries were classified as follows: General, 2; college, 2; and school, law, and his- torical, each 1. In 1894 a State museum was opened to the public in the Capitol. It contains the exhibit of the State at the World’s Exposition in Chicago and the collections of the State Historical and Antiquarian Society. Post-ofiices and Periodicals.—ln J an., 1895, there were 1,802 post-olfices, of which 30 were presidential (1 first-class, 4 second-class, and 25 third-class), and 1,772 fourth-class. Of the total 229 were money-order ofi°ices and 4 were limited money—order offices. There were 12 daily, 1 semi-weekly. 141 weekly, 1 bi-weekly, and 12 monthly periodicals—total, 167. Charitable, Reformatory, and Penal Institations.—These include a penitentiary, at Moundsville; Reform School for males, at Pruntytown; School for the Deaf and Blind, at Romney; First Hospital for the Insane, at Weston; and Sec- ond Hospital for the Insane, at Spencer. Political Organization.—The Governor, auditor, State superintendent of free schools, treasurer, and attorney-gen- eral, all elected for four years, constitute the executive de- partment, and. also compose the board of public works. The Legislature consists of a senate of 26 members, each elected for four years (half every two years), and a house of dele- gates of 71 members, each elected for two years. Sessions of the Legislature are held biennially, and limited to forty- five days. The judiciary department comprises the supreme court of appeals, circuit courts, corporation courts, and jus- tices of the peace. The supreme court of appeals is com- posed of four judges elected for twelve years, three of whom make a quorum. Three terms of the court are held annually, one each at Charleston, Wheeling, and Charlestown. There are -thirteen judicial circuit courts and fourteen circuit judges, each elected for eight years. A circuit court is held three times a year in each county, and special terms are authorized. A judge of any circuit may, upon request, hold court in any other circuit. Corporation courts, having spe- cial jurisdiction, are established in cities or towns. Criminal courts, having jurisdiction in criminal matters only, are es- tablished in counties and cities where required. Each coun- ty is divided into magisterial districts with not less than three nor more than ten in any county, and each district elects one justice, or if the population exceeds 1,200, two. These justices have jurisdiction in misdemeanor and civil cases to the extent of $300, but not in felonies. History.-The territory now embraced in West Virginia was first visited by a white man, John Lederer, in 1669-70, when he was in the service of Gov. Berkeley as an explorer. The same year Robert Chevalier La Salle saw the western part of the State when descending the Ohio river. The Knights of the Golden Horseshoe accompanied Gov. Spots- wood, of Virginia, over the Blue Ridge in 1716. John Van Metre traversed the valley of the south branch of the Poto- mac about 1725. The first white man to make a home with- in the present limits of the State was Morgan Morgan, who built his cabin in what is now Berkeley County, in 1727. The land grant of Lord Fairfax, for the “ Northern Neck” of Virginia, extended far into what is now West Virginia, and the Fairfax surveyors. on Oct. 17, 1746, planted the “ Fairfax Stone” at the head waters of the north branch of the Potomac to mark the western limit of the grant. France laid claim to all that part of the State W. of the mountains, basing her title upon the right of discovery, and when the English began to cross the mountains, France sent an ex- pedition from Canada to bury lcaden claim plates at the mouths of the principal tributaries of the Ohio. In the French and Indian war of 1755 Gen. Braddock marched through the eastern part of the State to the fatal field of Monongahela. The Shawnee Indians had numerous towns and villages in this region, but the title to all the territory included in the State appears to have been vest-ed in the Six Nations, for by them the land was ceded to the King of En g- land by the treaty of Fort Stanwix, now Rome, N. Y., in 1768. The Shawnees, Delawares, Mingoes, and other tribes N. of the Ohio, however, claimed that the territory thus ceded be- longed to them, andrefusing to yield it waged war along WETTSTEIN the Virginia border from the date of cession until the treaty of Greenville in 1795. In this period there were many bloody engagements on the soil of West Virginia, and at Point Pleasant, at the mouth of the Great Kanawha, on Oct. 10, 1'7 74, occurred the most desperate battle ever fought with the Indians in Virginia. When the Revolutionary war opened the pioneers of this region were the first troops from the south side of the Potomac that joined Washington at Boston. At the beginning of the war of 1861-65, when Virginia passed the ordinance of secession, a majority of the people W. of the mountains resolved to remain in the Union, and early set about the formation of a new State. Meetings were held in several counties, but the first one, the object of which was to secure united action, met at Clarksburg on Apr. 22, 1861. The first \Vheeli'ng convention was held in May following, and the second Wheeling convention, which met on June 11, provided for the organization of a new State. On June 20, 1863, West Virginia was admitted to the Union. The present constitution was adopted in 1871. Under an appropriation of $3,885,200 the U. S. Government is creat- ing slack-water navigation on the Big Kanawha river by means of locks and dams, from the Ohio river at Point Pleasant to a point near Kanawha Falls in Fayette County, a distance of 90 miles. GOVERNORS OF WEST VIRGINIA. Arthur I. Boreman . . . . . . . 1863-69 A. Brooks Fleming . . . . . .. 1890-93 Wilham E. Stevenson . . .. 1869-71 William A. MacCork1e . .. 1893- 1 John J . Jacobs . . . . . . . . . . . 871-77 Henry M. Mathews . . . . . .. 1877-81 Jacob B. Jackson . . . . . . .. 1881-85 E. Willis Wilson . . . . . . . . .. 1885-90 AUTHORITIES.-Lewis, History of West Virginia (Phila- delphia, 1889); Norris, History of the Lower Shenandoah Valley (Chicago, 1890); Brock, The Dinwiddie Papers (Richmond, 1883); Wiley, History of Monongalia County (Kingwood, 1883); Hale, Trans-Allegheny Pioneers (Cin- cinnati, 1886) ; Newton, History of the Pan-Handle (Wheel- ing, 1879); Maxwell, History of Tncher County (Kingwood, 1884); Michaux, Alleghany llfonntains (London, 1805); Fernow, The Ohio Valley in Colonial Days (Albany, 1890) ; Heckewelder, lllanners and Customs of the Indian Nations (Philadelphia, 1876); Withers, Chronicles of Border War- fare (Clarksburg, 1831); Chapman, The French in the Alle- ghany Valley (Cleveland, 1887); Calendar of Virginia State Papers (Richmond). VIRGIL A. LEWIS. West Virginia University: an institution established in 1867 with the proceeds of the congressional land grant of July 2, 1862. It is located at Morgantown, in the north- western portion of the State. It has property worth about $300,000, an endowment of $110,000, and receives from the U. S. Government $15,000 annually for agricultural experi- ment station work, and $20,000 from the Merrill fund. It has eight academic schools, five professional and technical schools, and several special courses. It offers seven courses for degrees. It has a faculty of twenty-two professors, besides the staff of the experiment station. It is finely equipped for work in its civil, mining, and mechanical engineering de- partments, and for agriculture and horticulture. Tuition is free to West Virginian students. For the session of 1894- 95 there were 283 students enrolled. P. B. REYNOLDS. Wethersfield : town (settled in 1635) ; Hartford eo., Conn. ; on the Connecticut river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 3 miles S. of Hartford (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 8-H). It contains the villages of Weth- ersfield and South Wethersfield; is connected with Hart- ford by electric railway and with Hartford and New York by a daily steamboat line in the open season ; has the State prison, a high school, public library, the Webb house where Washington and Rochambeau met in 1781, and a monthly periodical; and is engaged in agriculture, packing and shipping garden seeds, and the manufacture of copying- presses and mattresses. Pop. (1880) 2,173; (1890) 2,271. Wette, WILHELM MARTIN Imnuancnr, de : See DE WETTE. Wetter, oet'ter: the second largest lake of Sweden; 80 miles long, 13 miles broad; area, 733 sq. miles. It is 290 feet above the sea, and sends its surplus water to the Baltic throlligh the Motala. It is connected with Lake Wener by cana . Wettstein, oet’stin, J OHANN JACOB: New Testament critic; b. at Basel, Switzerland, Mar. 5, 1693 ; studied theology; was appointed field-preacher to a Swiss regiment in the Duthh service, and in 1717 deacon in the Reformed church of his native city. From this oflice he was dismissed in 1730 on P WEXFORD account of deviations from the accepted Reformed creed, and in 1733 became Professor of Church History in the Re- monstrants’ College in Amsterdam, where he died Mar. 22, 1754. His principal works are Prolegomena ad Nooi Testa- menti Grazci Editionem accuratissimam (1730; reprinted and re-edited by J . Semler, Halle, 1764) and a critical edi- tion of the New Testament (2 vols., Leyden, 1751-52), in‘ which “he did not venture to put new readings in the body of his page, but consigned those of them which he recom- mended to a place between the text and the full list of various readings. Beneath the latter he gave a commentary consisting principally of a mass of invaluable illustrations and parallels drawn from classical and rabbinical literature, which has formed a storehouse for all later commentators.” ‘Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wexford : county of Ireland, province of Leinster; bor- dering E. on St. George’s Channel and S. on the Atlantic. Area, 901 sq. miles. In the northern part the surface is elevated, and rises in Mt. Leinster and Blackstairs, but from this ridge it gradually slopes down into a level plain, which along the coast is frmged with swamps and marshes. The soil is fertile, and better cultivated than in most parts of Ireland. Good crops of wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes are gathered, and cattle-breeding, dairy-farming, and fish- ing are carried on with success. Pop. (1891) 111,778. Wexford: capital of the county of Wexford, Ireland; on the right bank of the Slaney, which here is lined with a handsome quay; 93 miles by rail S. of Dublin (see map of Ireland, ref. 12-I). Its harbor is shallow, and accessible only for small craft; still its export trade in agricultural and dairy produce is important. It was an early Danish settlement, and was also one of the earliest landing-places of the Anglo-Norman invaders. Pop. (1891) 11,541. Weyden, wi’den, ROGIER van der, also called ROUGELET DE LA PASTURE and ROGEREUS DE PAseiUs: painter; b. at Tournay, Belgium, about 1400. He was the founder of the Brabant school of painting, which had its center in Brus- sels. In 1426 he was apprenticed to Robert Camdin, of Tournay, to learn painting, but he may have practiced some other form of art previous to this. In 1432 he was enroll- ed as master in the Painters’ Guild at Tournay. In 1436 he was elected town painter of Brussels, and painted about this time the four subjects in the Golden Chamber of the H6tel de Ville illustrative of Justice, so much admired by contemporaries. These were destroyed by a fire which con- sumed part of the _ building during the _\ ,, French bombardment . I . ' '~ ‘ 0 in 1695. He went to Italy in 1449, proba- bly at the invitation , ‘ of Leonello d’Este, of “ - Ferrara, for whom he '4 worked. In 1450 he 5 ‘f , was at Rome during ‘T _‘"‘i the great jubilee held 1' '_i K by Pope Nicholas V. ' He painted for the great Italian atrons ‘f of art—the forzas. the Medici. and Alfon- ' so, of N aples—and he aided in spreading the northern method of oil-painting through Italy, where his work was extremely ad- mired. On his return to Brussels commis- .. ‘'9'’; ‘v _n-. .- _ _ s\_ ,,= _ .%_--...- 4- sions were unceasmg. - A-A-~I"" N ,_._i,,-A.\ .-;-A . Y ~~:.':__ U ;__: \-_~_ _ ::,;<,-0..-' \_. ‘X. - . He had married at _;‘\es ---- -1- * _ __AA..»-113--_-~". _ “\~=.-2---/"" “V*v- Y Tournay while young, and had several children, but in 1462 he and his wife entered a holy fraterni- ty. He died in Brussels, June 16, 1464, and was buried in the Church of St. Gudule. The chief pictures remaining of this artist are as follows: a Descent from the Cross. in the Madrid Gallery; a triptych in the Berlin Gallery, painted for the Carthusian convent of Miraflores. near Burgos, Spain ; also a triptych representing St. John the Baptist; a replica of the latter, in the Staedel Institute, at Frankfort- on-the-Main ; also a Madonna, with saints bearing the Medici arms ; a triptych in the Belvedere of Vienna; a VVHALEBACK STEAMERS 727 triptych representing The Last Judgment, in the hospital at Beaune; a Deposition in the Ufiizi, at Florence, sup- posed by Crowe and Cavalcaselle to be part of the triptych painted for Leonello d’Este; a triptych in Grosvenor House, London. The Seven Sacraments, at Antwerp, is not accepted by some authorities as Rogier’s work. The London National Gallery contains two works by this master. The influence of Rogier van der Weyden is recognizable in the works of Dietrick Bouts, Hans Memlinc, Martin Sch6n- gauer, and many other artists less known to fame. See Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Early Flemish Painters (1857 ; 3d ed. 1879); the monograph by Vilauters (Brussels, 1856); and Pinchart’s Roger de la Pasture, Bulletin des Commissions Royales d’Art et d’Archéologie, vol. xi., p. 408 (Brussels, 1867). W. J Weymouth, W5.'II1l1’Dh: town (settled -in 1623, incorpo- rated in 1635, Indian name VVessagansett); Norfolk co., Mass. ; on the Weymouth Fore river, and the N. Y., N. I'll and Hart. Railroad; 12 miles S. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-1). It has 7 villages, 16 churches, 2 high, 8 grammar, and several district schools. Tufts Library containing over 16,000 volumes, 2 national, 3 savings, and 2 co-operative banks, a weekly newspaper, and manufactories of boots and shoes, fireworks, hammocks, and phosphates. The town has a property valuation of over $6,- 700,000, and a water debt of $415,000. Pop. (1880) 10,570 ; (1890) 10,866; (1895) estimated, 11,000. REV. W. I. VVARD. Whale [M. Eng. whal < O. Eng. hwoel : Germ. wal, wal- fisch : Icel. h-valr. Cf. WALRUS]: any one of several large Cetaceans, representing several different families. and even different sub-orders. The only character shared in com- mon by them, independent of those characteristic of the order, is the large size. The families to which the forms thus distinguished belong are, of the whalebone whales or Mysticete, families Balcenopteridce and Balcenidce; and of the toothed whales, the families Physeteridce and Ziphiidce. The large species of Delphinidce are also known as whales— e. g. Delphinapter/us beluga, called the VVHITE VVHALE (g. r.), and the species of Globicephalus, generally designated as blackfish, etc. See WEALE-FISHERY and Wi1ALEBoNE WHALES. Whaleback Steamers: vessels in which the hull has a form roughly resembling the back of a whale. The designer was Alexander l\IcDougall, a sea-captain of Duluth, Minn., who brought them out about 1890. In two years he had con- structed, mainly for use on the Great Lakes of North Amer- .., _, .*,.~_-., -_;_ A whaleback steamer, the Christopher Columbus. ica, vessels of this class having an aggregate tonnage of 70,000. They proved to be very moderate in their demand for power, and were soon successful commercially. The section of the vessel is oval, the decks as well as the bilges are rounded. and, driven by steam-power solely. unham- pered by masts and sails, the steamers are both easy to propel and quiet in motion. The seas are taken over them without obstruction, and produce no effect upon the move- ment of the ship. It is also claimed that their form gives peculiar facilities for securing good workmanship, and a ~ ger-steamer between Chicago and Milwaukee. 7% WHALEBONE tightas well as singularly strong hull. l/Vhaleback steam- ers have been used mainly as grain-carriers, but the Chris- topher Columbus, a steamer of about 3,000 tons burden, was employed throughout the period of the World’s Columbian Exposition, in Chicago in 1894, to carry passengers between the city and the Exposition-grounds, and proved a very sat- isfactory vessel for that work. Later she plied as a passen- This ship is 362 feet over all, 42 feet beam, and 24 feet deep, driven by triple-expansion engines of 2,600 horse-power. Her average speed is nearly 20 miles an hour. The shipyard where these vessels are built is at West Superior, Wis. R. H. THURSTON. Whalebonez the horny, elastic lamina: obtained from whales of the sub-order flIyste'cete, although the best, and practically all that is used, comes from the right whale (Balcena mysttcetas). It is attached to either side of the upper jaw, with the fibrous portion in and unbroken edges out, thus forming a sort of filter through which the water passes as it is expelled from the jaws, the small fish, etc., which comprise the food of the animal. being thus retained. Its fibers have very little lateral cohesion, and can easily be removed in the form of long filaments; the blades, 300 of which are sometimes present on each side of the month, are arranged in parallel series, resembling somewhat the roof of a house in shape; they are usually about 8 to 12 feet in length, 10 to 12 inches in breadth, and -3; inch in thickness. In the manufacture of useful articles from whalebone the blade is first cut in parallel prismatic slips, which are then dried and leveled by planing, the shavings being sometimes utilized as a stuffing for mattresses. \Vhen heated by steam it softens, and can then be bent or moulded in forms which it retains if allowed to become cool under pressure. The essential constituent of whalebone appears to be albumen, its hardness being probably increased by the small propor- tion of calcium phosphate. Whalebone has been employed for the ribs of umbrellas and parasols, stifiening of stays, framework of hats, and in the manufacture of whips, canes, ramrods, archery bows, fans, screens, etc.; but steel rods have been substituted for it for several of these purposes with improved results. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Wllalebone Whales: whales distinguished by the pos- session of whalebone. This substance is a peculiar epider- mal development arising from each side of the median line of the roof of the mouth, and may be looked upon as modi- fied hair. Teeth are existent in a rudimentary condition in the foetus, but are not functionally developed, and are absorbed and disappear before birth; the supramaxillary bones are not extended backward over the frontal bones, but are produced outward in front of the orbits; the olfac- tory organ is distinctly developed, and the nasal bones pro- ject forward, and are not overlapped at their distal ends; the lower jaw has its rami bowed out, and connected at their simphyses by fibrous tissue, and not by suture. They are distinguished from the toothed whales chiefly in that the head is more depressed above toward the margin of the jaw, the eyes situated nearly above the angle of the mouth, and the lower jaw and throat more baglike. The forms thus combined exhibit two primary modifications of struc- ture, which by some are considered as of family value, but by others as indicative of only sub-family rank: (1) The typical whalebone whales (Balwntdre) have the skull greatly arched at the maxillary region, and the res- trum narrow and compressed at the base ; .the frontals have the orbital processes prolonged, and extremely narrow and rounded on the upper surface; the supramaxillary bones are entire at their posterior margins; the tympanic bones large and ovoid; the lower jaw has the coronoid processes almost obsolete; the cervical vertebrae are coalesced to- gether; and the manus is comparatively broad, and has five fully developed fingers. (2) The finback, humpback, and scragg whales (Balceno;o- tertclce) have the skull but slightly arched at the maxillary region; and the rostrum broad at the base, depressed, and gradually tapering; the frontals have the orbital processes moderately prolonged, broad, and flat on the upper surface ; the supramaxillary bones are deeply excavated at their pos- terior margins; the tympanic bones elongated and ovoid; the lower jaw has the coronoid processes more or less de- veloped; the cervical vertebrae in whole or in part sep- arated; and the manus is narrow, and only four digits are developed, the first being wanting. To the family Balzentclce belong the bowhead or Green- WHALE—FISHERY < land whale and several distantly related species inhabiting warmer and Antarctic waters, which have been differen- tiated, but probably on insutlicient grounds, into as many as six genera. The bowhead is the most valuable of all the whales from a commercial point of view, and is the species especially hunted by the whalemen fitted out for the Arctic seas. Although not the longest, it is the stoutest of known species; its head is proportionately larger and more un- gainly than any other of the sub-orders, and forms about one-third of the animal’s entire length. Individuals occa- sionally reach a length of 60 or 70 feet, although not often found much exceeding 50. In proportion to its size it is the richest in oil-giving characters; individuals have been known to yield nearly 300 barrels. Its whalebone, which is of a black color, and developed in strips gradually attenu- ated toward the end, is also the most esteemed, and 3,500 lbs. or more have been obtained from a single individual. It is a timid animal, and rarely turns upon its pursuers, as do some of the species of Balcenoptertdce. “ Sometimes, when engaged in feeding, it remains down for twenty-five minutes or more. The depth to which the animal descends when pursued is not accurately known, for, as a general rule, it has been captured‘ on soundings’ in the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea, as well as in the Sea of Okhotsk, where the depths in places do not exceed 100 fathoms, and from that to less than 50. Sometimes it has been taken in very shallow water; yet this animal when in deep water has been known to ‘sound out’ a line, in its descent and return, equal to a mile in length.” (Scammom) The species is now sought for chiefly in Bering Sea, and in the Arctic Ocean N. of it. According to Scammon, “the bowheads of the Arctic may be classed as follows: 1st class—the largest whales, of a brown color; average yield of oil, 200 barrels; 2d class—smaller, color black; yield of oil, 100 barrels; 8d class—the smallest, color black; yield of oil, '75 barrels. Those belonging to the last- named class are generally found among the broken flees, the first of the season, and they have been known to break through ice three inches in thickness, that had been formed over water between the flees. They do this by coming up under and striking it with the arched portion of their heads.” Hence they have been called ice-breakers. The whalers strive to be on their hunting-grounds in the early summer, and they frequently reach the latitude of 72° N., and sometimes, in open seas, even beyond. The family of Balcenoptertdee is much richer in forms and decided contrasts than the Balcentdce. There are three primary types. In the Balcenoptertnce the throat is longi- tudinally plicated; a high, erect, and more or less falcate dorsal fin exists; the frontal bones have orbital processes nearly as broad at the outer extremity as the base, and somewhat narrowed; the manus is moderate, and has four digits, none of which have more than six phalanges. These are mostly very large whales, which have been grouped under the generic names Balamoptera, Physalas, Sz'bbal- dtas, and .Rudolphe'us. The Mega tertme have also the throat longitudinally plicated, but t re dorsal fin developed as a mere hump; the manus is very long, and the digits are segmented into many phalanges: these are the humpback whales, which have been grouped under the genera .Megap- tera, Poescopta, and E'schre'chttas. Finally, the Agapheltnce are characterized by the plications of the throat being obso- lete, and not more than two in number, and by the dorsal fins being entirely undeveloped. To this group belong the genera Agaphelas of the Atlantic Ocean, and Rhachtanectes of the Pacific. The most gigantic of known cetaccans be- long to the family and to the genera Physalus and Sv.bbal- alias. The Stbbaldqhas s'u,lfure'as of the western coast of America has been reported to reach an equally great length. The body in these animals is relatively slender, and they are capable of great speed. Fourteen species have been cred- ited to the American coasts. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Whale-fishery: the capture of whales for commercial purposes. It is an industry of long standing, the first re- corded whale-fishery having been carried on along the Basque coasts of France and Spain, where, as early as the tenth century the southern right whale, Balcena btscayensts, was pursued in the Bay of Biscay. About the end of the sixteenth century the supply of these whales began to fail, and a little later the species was all but exterminated on the coast of Euro e. At this time, however, the Greenland or right whale, alrena mysttcetus, a larger animal with more oil and better whalebone, was discovered, and the whale- fishery was promptly transferred to the Arctic Ocean in the ‘eighty-six whales having been taken in that year. WHALE—FISHERY vicinity of Spitzbergen, where the Dutch established a vil- lage by the name of Smeerenberg for trying out the oil. After the extermination of the whales in that vicinity the fishery was carried on along the shores of Greenland; Smeerenberg was abandoned, and the blubber taken to Hol- land. At this period the Dutch led in the whale-fishery, and in 1680 260 ships and 14,000 sailors were engaged in the industry. The Dutch and French fisheries were destroyed by the wars at the close of the eighteenth century, during Which England held possession of the North Sea, and from that time on the English have stood first in Europe, reach- ing the highest point about 1815, when 154 vessels were em- ployed in whaling. Since then the business has declined, and at present Dundee and Peterhead are the only two whaling-ports in the United Kingdom. The American whale—fishery may be said to date from the settlement of New York and New England, one of the arguments for settling on Cape Cod being the presence of large whales of the best kind for oil and bone. At its inception whaling seems to have been carried on in a somewhat desultory manner, by boats from shore, or by small vessels, and, judg- ing from the number of laws on the subject, and the impor- tance attached to whales picked up adrift, it would appear that whales were frequently killed, or mortally wounded and then left to wash ashore or to be secured later. In 1644 the town of Southampton, L. I., was systematically divided into wards to watch for whales which might come ashore, and by 1669 the whale-fishery was actively prose- cuted in that locality, twelve whales- having been taken by the end of March. By 1700 Nantucket, or Sherburne, as it was then called, had advanced to the first rank as a whaling- port, and in 1726 shore-whaling reached its highest mark, New Bedford, which now stands first in the whale-fishery, did not engage in that industry until 1760 or thereabouts. In 1846, 722 whaling vessels, aggregating 231,406 tons, hailed from the U. S., and the catch of that year was worth $21,000,000. In 1854 the value of oil and bone had fallen to $10,766,521, and in 1880 to $2,659,725. Statistics for 1894 show that the U. S. had but eighty-five vessels engaged in whaling, and that during the year they took 272,300 lb. of whalebone, worth $803,285 ; 339,223 gal. of sperm oil, worth $189,965 ; and 273,105 gal. of whale oil, valued at $88,759 : a total of $982,009. While the final decline of the whale- fishery is due to the growing scarcity of whales and the in- troduction of mineral oils and substitutes for whalebone, the American fishery has been particularlyunfortunate in other ways. The war of the Revolution put an end to all whaling save that carried on by Nantucket, and even this was almost destroyed. Then came a revival, followed by the war of 1812, and finally during the civil war the Arctic whaling fleet was burned by the Confederate privateer Shenandoah. After all this came the loss of thirty-three out of forty ves- sels which were crushed by the ice in 1871. The right whale or bowhead, Balwna mystieetas, is com- mercially the most important, on account of the whalebone, the oil being a secondary consideration, and this species is taken in the Arctic Ocean and Davis Strait, usually in the vicinity of ice. The southern right whales, Balzena biscay- ensis. japonica, anstralis, and antipodaram are taken re- spectively in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Antarc- tic seas, but have become scarce, and their capture forms a comparatively unimportant branch of the whale-fishery, although the pursuit of the first-named species gave rise to the whale-fishery. These species frequent the vicinity of land to bring forth their young, and this fact, coupled with regard for their offspring, has led almost to their extermina- tion. since it was the habit of whalers, especially those of Australia and New Zealand, to kill the young and then take the mother. The finbacks, Balzenoptera, and humpbacks, .Megaptera, yield comparatively little oil, and their bone is almost worthless; still, in spite of their size and power, the .introduction of steamers, bomb-lances, and harpoon-guns has rendered their capture practicable and profitable in many places, notably on the coast of Norway. These ani- mals are often killed in shallow water, as in Massachusetts Bay, where they sink, but rise in a few days and are towed ashore. The sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalas, fur- nishes the best grade of oil; it is taken in the warmer parts of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The bottlenose, I:_lyperoodon rostratam, a relative of the sperm whale, fur- nishes a good oil, and, although of comparatively small size, is taken from steamers in the North Sea in considerable numbers. - . WHARF AND WHARFING 729 The early harpoon was that with a V-shaped point, and the lance had a leaf-shaped point, or one much like the blade of a putty-knife. A great improvement was effected when the head of the harpoon was made with a single long barb, so pivoted to the shaft as to set at right angles to it when a strain was put upon the line attached to the har- poon. Though many patterns of harpoons have been de- vised, this is still the favorite for throwing by hand. Cer- tain styles of harpoons are shot from heavy swivel-guns, mounted either on the bow of a boat or on the forward part of a steamer, and these are employed in the finback and bottlenose fisheries of the North Sea. Still other harpoons are fired on the principle of a rocket, and are so constructed that while the head fastens to the whale, a bursting charge, contained in the rear portion, explodes and kills the crea- ture, while in another piece of apparatus thrown by hand a bomb-lance, attached to the handle, is fired as soon as the harpoon has entered a certain depth. The use of the bomb- lance has rendered the killing of whales safer and more ex- peditious; this “ lance” consists of a hollow cylinder, 12 to 20 inches long, pointed at one end, feathered at the other to make it fiy straight. The lance is filled with powder, fired from a short, heavy gun from the shoulder, and so timed as to explode in the body of the whale. Whaling was originally carried on in boats from stations on _the shore, and the whales when discovered were pursued, harpooned, and when tired out killed by means of long lances thrust by hand. Next came the employment of sloops and other small sailing craft which ventured but a short distance from shore, and these were superseded by larger vessels as the whales became scarcer, until barks and ships were the standard whalers, and a voyage lasted three years or more. The best whaling-vessels are bark- rigged auxiliary screw steamers, that is, sailing-vessels equipped with an engine of moderate power and a propel- ler which can be raised when the breeze is favorable. Owing to the increasing scarceness of whales some of the British and American steam whalers have of late years wintered in Arctic seas, the former in Davis Strait, the latter at the mouth of Mackenzie river, where they awaited the coming of the whales at the breaking up of the ice in spring. These measures were successful in 1893, when 294 bowheads were taken by the U. S. Arctic fieet, one vessel, the N arwhal, capturing forty-eight whales worth $180,000. In 1894 the whaling was poor, probably as a result of the former season’s catch, and it seems as if profitable whaling were drawing toward a close. It had been hoped that the Antarctic seas might contain profitable grounds, but steamers dispatched there met with small success, and it is probable that the whales once reported there were simply those which in the winter sought the vicinity of Australia and New Zealand, where they were exterminated. See Scammon, ./liar-ine Jtlammals of the 1Vorthwestern Coast of iVorth America (1874); Starbuck, _History of the Amer- ican Whale Fishery, in Report of Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1875-76 (1878); Fisheries and Fishery In- dustries of the United States, see. v., vol. (1887), better known as quarto Fishery Report. F. A. LUCAS. Whale Oil : the liquid portion of the fat of the common whale, differing from that obtained from the Physete-r ma- crocephalus (sperm oil) in possessing a darker color and more disagreeable odor. It possesses a sp. gr. of '927, con- tains small quantities of spermaceti, and does not become solid above 32° F.. while sperm oil has a sp. gr. of '868_. and remains semi-solid at 446° F. Wliale oil can be deodorized by agitation with bleaching—powder. Whang‘-hai : an old spelling _of Hwang-hai, the YELLOW SEA (q. v.). Wharf and Wlla1'fing [wharf < 0. Eng. hwerf, a bank or dam to keep out water] : A wharf is a broad plain space or surface resting upon the shore of a harbor or a navigable stream. and generally projecting out beyond the lowest ebb of the tide, so that vessels may moor at its sides or end. Its purpose is to afford a convenient place at which vessels may lead and unload—that is, on which goods may be deposited when taken out of a ship or preparatory to being put on board a ship. In the U. S. wharves are generally constructed by driving piles into the bed of the harbor or river, and cov- ering them with a flooring of timber-work and plank: but they are sometimes built of stone upon abutments and piers. It is plain that a wharf must necessarily abut upon the space where the tide ebbs and flows, and that it may extend be- yond that space. It is a settled doctrine of the common 730 WHARNCLIFFE law that this portion of land between high and low tide, called the “ shore,” belongs to the government, and that the harbor or river beyond the lowest ebb is under the exclusive control of the government. A wharf, therefore, built with- out governmental authority would be a public nuisance. In Great Britain the crown, in the U. S. the several States, hold the power to authorize and regulate the construction and use of wharves. As a matter of fact, this authority has been frequently ceded away, either to municipal cor- porations or to private persons. The State of New York, for example, has granted the shore of Manhattan Island to New York city, and that city owns the wharves which fringe its territory, and which it leases to individual occupants. In other States the shore and the right to construct wharves thereon have often been conveyed to the proprietors of the adjacent uplands. WHARFING is the business carried on by the occupant of a wharf, either owner or lessee, who is termed a wharfinger. He is a bailee for hire, for he receives and keeps the goods placed in his custody. He is entitled to demand a compen- sation, called wharfage, for the privilege of mooring a ves- sel at his wharf, and there receiving or discharging her cargo, and for the storage of goods. The amount of these fees, since the business is one of a quasi-‘public nature, is often regulated by statute. (See, e. g., the New York Con- solidation Act (Laws of 1882, chap. 410), secs. 716, 798-802.) The wharfinger is bound to exercise ordinary care and dili- gence in respect of the goods placed in his custody—that is, deposited on his wharf—and is responsible for losses caused by ordinary negligence. Unlike the warehouseman and most other bailees, he has a general lien on the goods of a customer for any balance due him on account. See LIEN. Revised by GEORGE W. KIRCHWEY. Wharncliffe, JAMES ARCHIBALD STUART-WORTLEY Mae- KENZIE, Baron: b. in England, Oct. 6, 1776; served in the army 1791-1801 ; entered Parliament 1797 ; was created Baron Wharncliife July 12, 1826; was Lord Privy Seal Dec. 15, 1834, to Apr., 1835, and became president of the council 1841. D. in London, Dec. 19, 1845. He was a great-grand- son of the celebrated Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, whose Letters and Works (5 vols., 1837) he edited. He was the originator of that standing order of the House of Lords known as the Wharncliife order. A similar order has been adopted by the House of Commons, and the meetings held in conformity with this order have since their introduction been popularly known as “ Wharncliffe meetings.” Wharton, FRANCIS, D. D., LL. D.: jurist; b. in Philadel- phia, Pa., Mar. 7, 1820; graduated at Yale in 1839; studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1843; and in 1845 be- came assistant district attorney in Philadelphia, where he practiced for many years; in 1856 he went to Kenyon Col- lege, Ohio, as Professor of Logic and Rhetoric, and remained there until about 1863, and then went abroad ; returned to the U. S. and was ordained in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and became rector of St. Paul’s church, Brookline, Mass., also holding at the same time professorship of Canon Law, Polity, and Apologetics in the Divinity School at Cam- bridge, Mass., and of International Law in the Boston Law .School; in Mar., 1885, he was appointed by the President of the U. S. counsel to the State Department at Washing- ton, D.C., in matters of international law; and in 1888, under a resolution of Congress, was made editor of the Revo- lutionary diplomatic correspondence of the U. S. D. at Washington, D. C., Feb. 21, 1889. He was a man of ex- tremely varied attainments, and remarkable rather for the breadth of his knowledge than for minute accuracy in schol- arship. His best-known work is a Treatise on the Criminal Law of the United States (1846), which is a standard work, and has passed through many editions, besides which he also wrote many others, including State Trials of the United States during the Administrations of Washington and Adams (1849); Precedents of Indictments and Pleas (1849); Treatise on the Law of Homicide in the United States (1855) ; Treatise on Theism and lllodern Sleeptical Theories (1859) ; The Silence of Scripture, a Series of Lectures (1867) ; Treatise on the Conflict of Laws, or Private Inter- national Law (1872); The Law of Agency and Agents (1876) ; Commentary on the Law of Evidence and Civil Is- sues (1877); Commentary on the Law of Contracts (1882): Commentary on Law (1884); Digest of the International Law of the United States (1886); Treatise on the Law of Evidence and Criminal Issues (8th ed. 1880). F. S. A. Wharton, Gaxen and PHILIP: See Tnonson, KATHARINE. WHATELY Wharton, PHILIP, Duke of: politician; son of Thomas, the first marquis; b. in Dec., 1698; made a secret marriage at the age of sixteen; succeeded to the marquisate Apr., 1715; studied under a strict Calvinistic tutor at Geneva 1716, but ran away to Avignon, where he recognized the Pretender and is said to have received from him the title of Duke of Northumberland; proceeded to Paris; soon after- ward took a seat in the Irish House of Peers 1716; distin- guished himself in debate; was made Duke of Wharton in the English peerage Jan. 28, 1718; entered the British House of Lords 1720; distinguished himself against the ministry; soon impoverished himself by his extravagance; edited a semi-weekly paper, The True Briton, 1723-24; went to Vienna, and thence to Madrid, 1726; took service under the Pretender; was aide-de-camp to the Count of Torres at the siege of Gibraltar; was made colonel of an Irish regi- ment in the Spanish service; was attainted of treason in England, and his property was confiscated; visited Rome. Paris, and other parts of Europe, and died in poverty at Tarragona, Spain, May 31, 1731. His Life and Writings ap- peared in the following year (2 vols., 1732). His Poems had been published in 1727. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wharton, THOMAS, Marquis of: Whig statesman; b. in England about 1640; eldest son of Philip, fourth Baron Wharton; entered Parliament soon after the Restoration; took a prominent part in the opposition to Charles II. ; was sent to the Tower for joining in the complaint against the long prorogation of Parliament Feb. 17, 1677; was one of the first to join the Prince of Orange 1688; was appointed comptroller of the royal household and privy councilor Feb.,1689; succeeded to the family title 1696; fought a duel with Viscount Cheyney 1697 ; was commissioner to ne- gotiate the union with Scotland, for which service he was rewarded with the titles of Viscount Winchenden and Earl Wharton Dec. 23, 1706; was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland 1708-10, with Addison for his secretary, and became Privy Seal on the accession of George I., Sept., 1714, and Marquis of Wharton and Malmesbury Feb. 15, 1715, having been a zealous Whig and supporter of the Hanoverian succession, and a skillful party manager, though notorious for licen- tiousness. D. in London, Apr. 12, 1715. He was the re- puted author of the famous Irish ballad Lillibullero. What Cheer: city; Keokuk co., Ia. ; on Coal creek, and the Burl., Cedar Rap. and N. and the Chi. and N. W. rail- ways ; 12 miles N. W. of Sigourney, the county-seat, and 70 miles S. E. of Des Moines (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 6-I). It is in a coal-mining and agricultural region, and has 6 churches, 3 public-school buildings, a national bank with capital of $50,000, a State bank with capital of $30,000, 3 weekly newspapers. and district fair-grounds. Pop. (1880) 719; (1890) 3,246; (1895) estimated, 2,700. EDITOR or “ PATRIOT.” Whatcom, New: city; capital of Whatcom co., Wash.; on Bellingham Bay, and the Bell. Bay and Brit. Col., the Gr. North., and the N. Pac. railways; 125 miles N. of Seat- tle (for location, see map of Washington, ref. 1-C). It is in an agricultural, lumber, and mineral region, and has large commercial interests that are promoted by exceptional facil- ities for transportation by rail and water. The harbor is nearly landlocked, about 7 miles in diameter, and with 5 to 13 fathoms of water. A State road is being constructed from the city over the Cascade Mountains, across the celebrated Mt. Baker pass, to the gold and silver mines, the grazing- lands, and the Columbia river. The city contains a State normal school, and has a court-house built of native stone, new city-hall, gravity water-works supplied from Lake What- com, 4 miles distant, the noted Cornwall coal mine, improved sewerage, electric-lighting and street-railway plants, 2 na- tional banks with combined capital of $110,000, a private bank, and a daily, a tri-weekly, and 2 weekly newspapers. The former city of \Vhatcom and the town of Sehome were consolidated under the name of New Whatcom in Dec., 1890. Pop. (1880) not in census; (1890) Whatcom, 4,059 ;' Sehome, 2,700—total, 6,759 ; (1895) estimated, 7,500. Enrroa or “ REVEILLE.” Whately, Rrcnxnn, D.D.: Archbishop of Dublin; b. in London, England, Feb. 1, 1787; studied at Oriel College, Oxford ; took a double second-class in honors 1808 ; became a fellow of Oriel 1811 ; took orders in the Church of Eng- land; was intimately associated at Oriel with Keble, Ar- nold, Pusey, John Henry Newman, and others destined to become innovators in British theology; was noted for his wit, his freedom of thought and action, and fondness for WHEAT debate ; was Bampton lecturer 1822 ; rector of Halesworth, Sussex, 1822-25 ; principal of St. Albans Hall, Oxford, 1825-30; Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford 1830—31, and was appointed by Earl Grey Arch- bishop of Dublin 1831, in which capacity he was charged with the ditflcult task of carrying out, in the details of so- cial, political, and religious life, the principles embodied in the Roman Catholic Relief Act. He was for twenty years the leading member of the Irish national board of educa- tion, for which he wrote several educational books; en- dowed the professorship of political economy in the Uni- versity of Dublin; promoted the extension of the “ national system ” of unsectarian education in Ireland ; won the con- fidence and co-operation of the Roman Catholic Archbishop Murray, but resigned his seat at the board in 1853 from in- ability to work in harmony with Archbishop (afterward car- dinal) Cullen, and from the covert opposition of illiberal clergymen of the Church of England. He filled the posts of Bishop of Kildare, visitor of Trinity College, president of the Royal Irish Academy, and chancellor of the order of St. Patrick. Archbishop Whately was regarded as one of the founders of the “ Broad Church ” party, and was distin- guished for “large munificence, genial hospitality, ever- ready wit, and solid common sense.” D. in Dublin, Oct. 8, 1863. Among his numerous works are The Use and Abuse of Party Feeling in Ilfatters of Religion (Oxford, 1822), be- ing the Bampton lectures for that year ; Essays on some of the Peculiarities of the Christian Religion (1825); Elements of Logic (1826); Elements of Rhetoric (1828); Essays on some of the Difliculties in the Writings of the Apostle Paul, and in other Parts of the New Testament (1828) ; View of the Scripture Revelations concerning a Future State (1829); Introductory Lectures on Political Economy (1831); Essay on the Omission of Creeds, Liturgies, and Codes of Eccle- siastical Canons in the New Testament (1831); The King- dom of Christ delineated (1841); Introductory Lessons on Christian Evidences (1841); Introductory Lessons on the Study of St. Paul’s Epistles (1849); English Synonyms (1851); Cautions for the Times (1853); Bacon’s Essays, with Annotations (1856); Introductory Lessons on Jl[orals (new ed. 1860); Introductory Lessons on IVI ind (1859); In- troductory Lessons on the British Constitution (1859); Lee- tures on some of the Parables (1859); Lectures on Prayer (1860); A General View of the Rise, Progress, and Corrup- tions of Christianity (1860); and It[iscellaneous Lectures and Reviews (1861). His daughter, Miss E. Jane Whately, edited his .M/iscellaneous Remains (1864) and Earlier Re- mains (1864); and also published her father's Life and Corresyaondence (2 vols., 1866). Two volumes of llfemoirs (1864) were published by William J. Fitzpatrick. Revised by J . M. BALDWIN. Wheat [M. Eng. whete < 0. Eng. hwtete : O. H. Germ. weizzi (> Mod. Germ. weizen) : Icel. hveiti : Goth. hwaiteis: Lith. lswetys, wheat; of. white]: one of the most valuable of the cereals, the Triticum sativum (Lam.) of the family Graminece; distinguished by a spike bearing spikelets 011 op- posite sides of a hollow and jointed stem which rises zig- zag, and forms notches at each joint. The kernels have a longitudinal furrow on one side, and are inclosed by glumes or chaif which frequently bear awns. The plant is not now known in a wild state, but many botanists believe that it had its home iii the western part of Asia. The cultivation of wheat is as old as the history of man. Chinese records mention it at a date earlier than 2000 B. o. It is not known to have grown in America until after the discovery of that continent by Columbus. Two forms of wheat are cultivated for food: one in which the glumes are easily removed by the ordinary methods of threshing, the other, in which they adhere firmly to the kernel like barley, and is known as spelt. The former includes by far the greater part of the world’s crop. Spelt is chiefly grown in the mountainous districts of Europe. The varieties of wheat are classified by agriculturists as spring and winter, bearded and heard- less, and also according to the color of the grain, as red, amber, white, etc. Spring wheat is grown mostly in the colder latitudes, the seed being sown early in the spring, sometimes even before the frost is out of the ground. The grain ripens and is harvested the same season the seed is sown. Winter wheat is sown in the autumn, the grain maturing the following summer. This kind of wheat is grown mostly in latitudes where the rigor of winter is less severe than in the spring wheat districts. The terms bearded and beardless are used merely to indicate whether the glumes 731 bear awns or not-. The color of the kernel gives little indi- cation of productiveness or quality. The red varieties, as a rule, are more hardy than the lighter-colored grains. Climate and Cultivation.--The quality of the grain is in- fluenced by climate and soil, the principal change being in the proportion of gluten; the greater proportion of gluten the more valuable the grain for food. The varieties produc- ing the hardest kernels are most prized for flouring pur- poses. Soil, climate, and cultivation also have a great influ- ence on the character of the plant. It is clearly shown that by means of these winter wheat can be changed to spring wheat and vice versa, white to red, and the character of the awns also greatly changed. For the best results it is nec- essary that the wheat plant be given a chance to make its growth during cool weather, either in the early spring or late autumn in order to induce tillering. Under these con- ditions a much greater yield is secured than when the whole growth is made during warm weather. It is an exacting plant, and requires, thorough preparation. The best pre- pared soil is thoroughly compacted below, and finely pulver- ized at the surface. Whenever winter wheat follows a crop of spring grain, it is best to plow as early as possible after the spring crop is harvested, that plant food in the soil may , be liberated by cultivation, and the soil compacted before the wheat is sown. The time of sowing will vary with dif- ferent localities, the farther N. the earlier, and later the farther S. The best results are obtained by sowing with a grain-drill. Varieties that tiller well do not require so much seed. The size of the kernels and time of seeding governs to quite an extent the amount of seed sown, late seeding requiring more seed. As a rule, from 1 to 2 bush. an acre are usually sown. As wheat is usually harvested. it yields about two and a half times as much straw and chaff as grain. The greater the yield of grain to the acre, the greater the proportion of grain compared to the chaff and straw. Composition and FertiZz'zers.—-The cultivation of wheat is best suited to mixed husbandry, or where it can be grown in a rotation with other crops. Continued cultivation, by ordinary methods, without manure, so exhausts the land that the crop becomes unprofitable. In some of .the YVest- ern States of the U. S. large areas formerly given wholly to the cultivation of wheat are now used for other purposes on account of the exhaustion of the soil for this crop. Wheat removes from the soil a much larger amount of nitrogen than of either phosphoric acid or potash. The following table gives the percentage of the principal elements of plant food removed from the soil by wheat and its products. These percentages are the average of a large number of American analyses of wheat: D/Ioisture. Ash. Nitrogen. Phoasggoric: Potash. \Vheat (spring) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1'35 1 '57 2'36 0'7 0'3.) Wheat (winter) . . . . . . . . . . . . 14'75 . . . . 2'35 0'89 0'61 XVheat straw . . _ . . . . . . . . . .. 12'56 3'81 0'59 0'12 0'51 Wheat chafi . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8'05 7'18 0'79 0'70 0'42 Wheat bran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 '7 6'25 2'67’ 2'89 1'61 Wheat flour. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9'83 1'22 2'21 0'57 0'54 Wheat middlings . . .. 9'18 2'30 2'63 0'95 0'63 FODDER ANALYSES OF WHEAT AND ITS PRODUCTS GIVEN IN PER CENT. Protein. Crude fiber. fi_1:eit::'%::c’t Fat. Wheat (spring) . . . . . . . . . . . .. 125 1'8 71 '2 2'2 \Vheat (winter) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 '8 1 '8 720 2' 1 Wheat flour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10'8 0'2 75'0 1'1 Wheat bran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154 9'0 53'9 4'0 Wheat straw . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3'4 38' 1 434 1 '3 Harvesting and Threshing.——l\Iodern inventors have wrought great changes in the manner of harvesting. In the great wheat districts of America the grain is now wholly harvested by power machines, horses being generally used. On smaller farms the twine-binder is used. which cuts and binds the grain into bundles by means of horse-power. On more extended farms or ranches machines called headers are used, which gather the heads of grain with as little straw as possible. These machines are also constructed for threshing the grain as fast as it is out, leaving sacks filled with wheat scattered over the field. See REAPING AND Mowme I\l[AC‘HINES. Diseases.—Several fungus diseases attack this crop with more or less severit-y. Among the most disastrous are rusts, -732 WHEATEAR one of which, caused by the fungus Puccz'nz'a gramtnis, is the most prevalent. (See RUSTS.) Beardless and white varie- ties are more liable to be attacked than the bearded and red varieties. Hot, wet weather just before the wheat ripens is favorable to the growth of these fungus parasites. Early ripening varieties are more likely to escape than those which ripen later. All forms of rust attack the wheat after germination, and are not caused by the seed being contami- nated. Other forms of fungus cause diseases known as smut. See SMUTS. Insect Enemtes.—-One of the greatest enemies to the wheat plant in the U. S. is the Hessian fly (Cectdomye'_a de- structor), a small two-winged gnat somewhat resemblmg a mosquito. It produces two or three broods, the fly laymg its eggs in the autumn between the leaf and the mam stalk. The young passes the winter in this position in pupa form, known as the fiaxseed stage, which seed it very much re- sembles. In the spring the adult emerges and lays eggs be- tween the leaf and stalk farther from the ground. The stalks are weakened and produce a poor quality of gram, many stalks breaking over and remaining ungathered _by the reaper. Late seeding is practiced to prevent or dimin- ish its ravages. Chinch bug (Bltssus leucopterus) has done great injuries in the States drained by the Mississippi river. It is a small insect, not more than one-sixth of an inch in length. The eggs are deposited beneath the ground, the young feed on the roots, then the leaves. Their numbers are often so great that whole crops are entirely destroyed. The most effective means of combating them has been by spreading a contagious disease among them by means of in- fected bugs. Spraying the fields with insecticides and burning the stubble are recommended. Wheat midge (Di- plosts trz'tz'cz'), a small gnat, deposits its eggs in the wheat blossoms. The young feeding on the undeveloped grain cause it to shrivel, and thus produce a worthless or inferior quality of berry. No remedy is known. Some varieties of wheat are less likely to be attacked than others. Varieties known as bearded and long berry red are most likely to es- cape ravages. White grubs, the larva of the genus Lach- nosterna (May beetles), frequently do considerable damage to young wheat in the fall by feeding upon the roots. Skunks and crews often come to the relief of the farmer at this time, and destroy large numbers of these insects. Wire worms, the larval form of click beetles or elaters, feed on the roots of wheat and frequently do considerable damage. No satisfactory remedy has been found, although thorough tillage and compacting the soil has proved beneficial. Produote'on.—The annual estimate of the Hungarian Gov- ernment of the world’s production in 1895 was as follows in bushels: IMPORTING COUNTRIES. EXPORTING COUNTRIES. France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301,573,000 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415,053,000 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 114,898,000 United States . . . . . . .. 400,017,000 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . 103,550,000 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237,456,000 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86,528,000 Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . 150,361,000 Great Britain . . . . . . .. 46,811,000 Asia, excluding Tur- Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,392,000 key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70,950,000 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,277,000 Roumania . . . . . . . . . . 62,414,000 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,376,000 Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . 60,995,000 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . 5,390,000 Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52,482,000 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,106,000 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51,066,000 Scandinavia . . . . . . . . . 5 106,000 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47,094,000 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . 3,404,000 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42,555,000 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,120,000 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . 35,746,000 ——-———— Servia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,511,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749,531,000 --—-__ Grand total . . . . . . .. 2,402,671,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,653,140,000 In the U. S. the average production in 1870-79 was 312,- 152,728 bush.; in 1880-89, 449,695,359 bush.; and in 1890- 94, 476,678,028 bush. The largest annual production since 1880 was in 1891-611,780,000 bush. In the calendar year 1894 the production was 460,267,416 bush., valued at 3225,- 902,025, from 34,882,436 acres. The following States yielded a product of 5,000,000 bush. and upward each: Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48,444,471 Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,005,963 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43,644,064 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,737,400 Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37,752,453 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,441,071 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,315,259 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,36 ,176 North Dakota . . . . . . . . .. 33,635,900 Washington . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,108,420 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33,312,370 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,754,900 California . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,376,705 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,313,201 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,353,920 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,995,249 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,232,058 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,893,150 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . .. 18,848,700 New York . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,297,400 South Dakota . . . . . . . . .. 15,934,255 Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,897,788 Wheatear, or Fallowchatz the Sac:/lcola oenanthe, a Gnonen C. WATSON. European bird of the family Turdtdoe, allied to the CHAT WHEATON (q. 5.), ranges from Africa in winter to the North of Europe in summer, is 61} inches in length, generally colored ash- brown and buff. marked with white and black, and is easily trapped as a delicacy for the table. It feeds on worms and insects, and the male sings well in confinement. F. A. L. Wheatley, HENRY BENJAMIN: philologist and bibliogra- pher; b. at Chelsea, England, May 2, 1838; clerk to the Royal Society 1861-79 ; aided in founding the Early English Text Society and was its honorary secretary until 1872 ; be- came assistant secretary to the Society of Arts 1879 ; is see- retary of the Topographical Society of London and of the Index Society; edited for the Text Society, from the original MS., Alexander Hume’s quaint treatise. Of the Orthographe'e and Conyrue'tz'e of the Bretan Tongue (1865); ]lIerle'n, or The Early He'story of King Arthur, a Prose Romance (part i., 1866): and Peter Levins’s Jtlantpulus Vocabulorum, aRhym- /ing D'tct'lonary (1868) ; compiled a General Index to the Works of Thomas ole Qutncey (1863) ; is author of a curious essay entitled Of Anagrams (Hertford, 1862) ; and of Round About Piccadilly and Pall Mall (1870); lVhat is an Index .9 (1878); Samuel Pepys and the lVorlcl he lived in (1880); Boohbz'ndz'ng (1882); Decorative Art (1884); How to Form a Library (1886) ; How to Catalogue a Library (1887) ; Lit- erary Blunders (1893); and other works; edited Wraxall’s .He'store'cal and Posthumous Jflemotrs (5 vols., 1884); and from the original MS. Pepys’ Diary (1894). Revised by HENRY A. BEERS. Wheatley, PHILLIS : See PETERs, PHILLIS. Wheat Midge: See WHEAT (Insect Enerntes). Wheat-moths: several lepidopterous insects which de- vour grain in the bin. Of these the best known is Ttneh granella, an insect closely allied to the ordinary clothes- moth. Its larva devours the flour out of the kernels of wheat. and covers the shells with its thick web. Thorough cleanli- ness, whitewashing, and the use of coal oil tend to prevent its ravages, and the grain should be frequently shoveled over. An open lamp will also allure many of the flying moths to their own destruction. The Angoumois grain- moth (Gelechrla cerealella) is another similar insect of the same family. Wheaten : city ; capital of Du Page co., Ill. ; on the Chi. and N. W. Railway; 25 miles WV. of Chicago (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 2-G). It is in an agricultural, dai- rying, and stock-raising region, and has 8 churches, 2 pub- lic schools, new water-works plant (cost $60,000), public library presented to the city by J . Q. Adams (cost $50,000), a private bank, and 4 weekly newspapers. It is the seat of Wheaton College (Congregational, founded as Illinois Insti- tute in 1853, chartered under its present name in 1860), which in 1894 had 16 professors and instructors, 287 students, $50,- 000 in productive funds, and $15,000 in total income. Pop. (1880) 1,160; (1890) 1,622 ; (1895) estimated, 2,500. Enrron or “ WHEATON lLL1NoIAN.” Wheaten, FRANK: soldier; b. in Providence, R. I., May 8, 1833 ; educated as a civil engineer at Brown University; employed as assistant on the U. S. and Mexican boundary survey and Government surveys 1850-55, when he became first lieutenant in the First U. S. Cavalry; became lieutenant- colonel of volunteers July 10, 1861 ; was promoted brigadier- general of volunteers from Nov. 29, 1862. and commanded a brigade Sixth Corps at the storming of Marye Heights and battle of Salem Heights, May 3-4, 1863; in command of a division at battle of Gettysburg; detached from the Army of the Potomac Dec. 30, 1863, to defense of Harper’s Ferry; _ rejoined that army Mar., 1864, and in command of brigade Sixth Corps from Wilderness battles to front of Petersburg; detached with his corps to defense of Washington July, 1864, participating in the Shenandoah campaign, and in command of a division from Sept. 20 to close of the war; was breveted from lieutenant-colonel to major-general for gallantry in battle; mustered out of volunteer service Apr. 30, 1866; ap- pointed major Second Cavalry Nov. 5, 1863, and after pro- motion through the regular grades became a brigadier-gen- eral Apr. 18, 1892. Wheaten, HENRY, LL. D.: jurist and author; b. at Prov- idence, R. I., Nov.27,1785 ; graduated at Rhode Island Col- lege (now Brown University) 1802; studied law; was ad- mitted to the bar 1805; spent eighteen months at the law school at Poitiers, France, 1805-06: studied some months in London 1807 : practiced law at Providence 1807-12; set- tled in New York in 1812; edited theQNate'onal Advocate, the organ of the administration party, 1812-15, in which he WHEATSTONE published some notable articles on the question of neutral rights in connection with the existing war with Great Brit- ain; became division judge-advocate of the army Oct. 26, 1814; was justice of the marine court of the city of New York May, 1815-July, 1819 ; reporter of the Supreme Court of the U. S. 1816-27 ; delegate to the convention for form- ing a new constitution for New York 1821 ; member of the New York Assembly 1823 ; was associated with Benjamin F. Butler and John Duer in a commission for revising the stat- ute law of New York 1825; was U. S. chargé d’afi”aires to Denmark 1825-37; displayed great diplomatic skill in the settlement of the vexed question of the Sound dues: was ap- pointed minister resident at the court of Prussia 1835, and was soon (1837) made minister plenipotentiary, filling that post until 1846, during which period he exercised a general superintendence over the relations of the U. S. with Euro- pean continental governments, and became distinguished by his writings on international law, and by his settlement of the questions relating to the Scheldt dues, the tolls on the Elbe, and the rights of naturalized citizens of the U. S.; was chosen a corresponding member of the French Institute 1843, and a foreign member of the Royal Academy of Science at Berlin 1846 ; signed an important treaty with Germany (1844), which was rejected by the U. S. Senate for political reasons, but has served as the basis of later treaties, and was requested to resign in 1846 by President Polk, much to the “ astonishment and indignation of both parties at home and all parties abroad ” ; was complimented with public dinners in New York and Philadelphia on his return to the U. S. 1847. and was immediately chosen lecturer on International Law at Harvard University. D. at Roxbury, Mass., Mar. 11, 1848. He was the author of A Digest of the Law of llIari- time Captures and Prizes (1815) ; Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged in the Supreme Court of the United States 1816-27 (New York and Philadelphia, 12 vols., 1826-27); A Digest of the Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States from its Establishment in 1789 to 18:20 (2 vols., 1820- 29); The Life of lVilliam Pinloney (1826); A History of the Northmen, or Danes and Alormans, from the Earliest Times to the Conquest of England by ‘William of IVor- mandy (London, 1831) ; The Elements of International Law, with a Sketch of the History of the Science (Philadel- phia, 1836 ; London, 2 vols., 1836) ; Histoire du Progres du Droit des Gens en Europe depuis la Paiw de lVestphalie _7'usqu’au Congres dc Vienne, avec un Précis historique du Droit des Gens européen auant la Pain: de IVestphalie (Leip- zig, 1841), written in unsuccessful competition for a prize offered by the French Institute, and translated into English by VVilliam B. Lawrence under the title A History of the Law of Nations in Europe and America from the Earliest Times to the Treaty of Washington (New York, 1845) ; An Inquiry into the Validity of the British Claim to a Right of Visitation and Search of American Vessels suspected to be engaged in the Slave-trade (1842); contributed to Dr. An- drew Crichton’s History of Scandinavia (1838); and pub- lished many articles in the North American Review and other periodicals, and numerous historical, political, and literary addresses or essays. His great work on Interna- tional Law has become a recognized standard in the Eng- lish language, and has been edited by rival commentators, William B. Lawrence (with a biography, 1855) and Richard H. Dana, Jr. (1866), and also in England by A. C. Boyd. Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Wheatstone, Sir CHARLES, F. R. S., LL. D.: physicist; b. at Gloucester, England, in Feb., 1802; was in early life a manufacturer of musical instruments; was led by his pro- fession to investigate the laws of sound and their applica- tion to music-subjects on which he published several pa- pers; became in 1834 Professor of Experimental Philosophy in King’s College, London; was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society 1836; read to that body his Contributions to the Physiology of Vision, as a consequence of which researches he soon afterward (1838) invented the stereoscope; began in June, 1836, with William F. Cooke, a series of successful ex- periments in electro-magnetism, with a view to the trans- mission of intelligence over copper wires; took out, along with Cooke, in May, 1837, a patent for a magnetic telegraph, which was not, however. practically operated until after that of Morse; invented also an electro-magnetic alarum and va- rious instruments for registering thermometrical and bare- metrical indications and transit observations in astronomy ; was one of the jurors in the class for health, light, and elec- tricity at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1855; received WHEEL 738 from Napoleon III. the decoration of the Legion of Honor; was knighted by Queen Victoria 1868 ; was a vice-president of the Royal Society and received its royal medal in 1840 and in 1868 its Copley medal for his researches in acoustics, op- tics, electricity, and magnetism; was made LL. D. by the University of Edinburgh Apr. 12, 1869, and elected foreign associate of the French Academy of Sciences June 30, 1873. D. in Paris, Oct. 19, 1875. A British oflicial commission, consisting of Sir Mark I. Brunel and John F. Daniell, de- clared under date of Apr. 27, 1841, that Wheatstone was the person to whose scientific-researches the practical applica- tion of the telegraph was due. His Scientific Papers were collected and published by the Physical Society of London in 1879. Revised by R. A. ROBERTS. Wheatstone’s Bridge : an ingenious device for compar- ing electrical resistances. It was introduced by Sir CHARLES WHEATSTONE (q. i.) (Philosophical Transactions, 1843, ii.. p. 323). A similar arrangement had been described by Christie, ten years earlier. In the diagram an electrical circuit is 0 D \——IHl—IH Wheatstone’s bridge. ____/ divided, between A and B, into two branches: Branch A C D contains two resistances, R1 and R2. Branch A DB contains two resistances also, RS and R4. \Vhenever C and D are at the same potential no current will flow through the galvanometer, the terminals of which connect those points. C and D will be at the same potential whenever R1 R8 — :: . When R2 and the ratio ——s are known, R1 is given R5; R4 R4 by the above equation. This arrangement is VVheatstone’s bridge. The method of procedure consists in “ balancing ” the bridge by a variation of the known resistances until no current flows through the galvanometer. Its convenience, accuracy, and adaptability are such that it has become the most widely used of all methods of measuring electrical conductivity. The bridge is sometimes called Y/Vheatstone’s balance. E. L. NIcHoLs. Whedon, DANIEL DENISON, D. D., LL. D.: educator and editor; b. at Onondaga, N. Y., Mar. 20, 1808 ; graduated at Hamilton College 1828; studied law; was Professor of An- cient Languages at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., 1832-43; became a preacher of the Methodist Episcopal Church 1836 ; was Professor of Rhetoric, Logic, and History at the University of Michigan 1845-53, and became editor in 1856 of the fl[ethodist Quarterly Rerieu~. which place he held until 1884, and general editor of the publications of the Methodist Book Concern. New York. He was the author of Public Addresses, Collegiate and Popular (Boston, 1856) : The Freedom of the Will as a Basis of Human Responsi- bility, etc. (1864); and a Commentary on the New Testament (5 vols., 1860-75, seq.) of a strongly anti-Calvinistic charac- ter. He supervised also a Commentary on the Old Testa- ment (7 vols., 1880-86; one volume yet to appear). D. at Atlantic Highlands, N. J ., June 8, 1885. Wheel : an instrument formerly used as a means of tor- ture and of execution in criminal proceeding. the torture or execution being called breaking on the ieheel. It is said to have been first used in Germany, where the criminal was laid on a cart--wheel and his extended limbs fractured with blows of an iron bar. In other countries a different form of frame was used, such as a St. Andrew’s cross. Breaking on the wheel was abolished in France at the Revolution, but was used in Germany as late as 1827. It is now obso- lete in all civilized countries. F. STURGES ALLEN. 734E WHEEL-AND-AXLE Wheel-and-axle: one of the so-called mechanical powers. It is an application of the principle of the lever. There are two cylinders with a common axis, with differing radn—the smaller being termed the axle, the larger the icheel. Sup- pose a cord is wound around the wheel in one direction, and another cord around the axle in the contrary direction. The condition of equilibrium of weights attached to these cords is that the product of each of the weights into their respec- tive radii should be equal. See WHEELWORK. Wheel-animalcule: See ROTIFERA. Wheeler, BENJAMIN IDE, Ph. D. : philologist; b. at Ran- dolph, Mass., July 15, 1854 ; studied at Colby Academy, New London, N. H., and Brown University, where he graduated in 1875. He then spent four years in Germany at Berlin, Leipzig, Jena, and Heidelberg. He taught in the Provi- dence High School and in Brown, Harvard, and Cornell Uni- versities. In 1886 he was given the chair of Comparative Philologv in Cornell, and in 1888 his professorship was ex- tended to include Greek. In 1895-96 he was director of the American School for Classical Studies in Athens, Greece. He is the author of The Greek .ZVoun-accent(Strassburg, 1885) ; Analogy and the Scope of its Influence in Language (1887); Introduction to the Stuoly of the History of Lan- guage (1890, joint author) ; and is a contributor to various magazines and journals ; associate editor of Johnson’s Uni- oersal Cyclopoeclia in charge of comparative philology and linguistics (1892-95). Wheeler, JOSEPH : soldier and legislator; b. at Augusta, Ga., Sept. 10, 1836; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy and appointed a brevet second lieutenant of dragoons in 1859; promoted second lieutenant Sept., 1860; resigned Apr. 22, 1861, and entered the Confederate service as lieutenant of artillery. He was rapidly promoted through the grades of colonel, brigadier, and major-general to lieutenant-gen- eral, and commanded the Cavalry Corps of the Western army from 1862 until the close of the civil war. He served with distinction at Shiloh, Corinth, Perryville, Murfreesboro, Chickamauga, and the many battles in Georgia under Johns- ton and Hood, and he was specially selected to cover the re- treat of the Confederate army from Shiloh, Corinth, and Perryville. He commanded the cavalry in Bragg’s Tulla- homa campaign and in Longstreet’s movement against and Bragg’s retreat from Knoxville. He opposed Sherman’s march to the sea, checking his advance at Waynesboro and Aiken. Gen. Wheeler was noted for his tireless energy and vigilance, which enabled him to make many captures of pris- oners and supplies. During the war he was wounded three times and had sixteen horses shot under him. He received the thanks of the Confederate Congress and of the State of South Carolina. Since 1881 he has been a member of Con- gress from Alabama. In 1888 he was appointed a regent of the Smithsonian Institution. J AMES Mnnoun. Wheeler, WILLIAM ADOLPHUS : lexicographer; b. at Leicester, Mass., Nov. 14, 1833 ; graduated at Bowdoin Col- lege 1853; was an assistant to Dr. Joseph E. Worcester in the preparation of his quarto Dictionary (1856-59); con- tributed to the new illustrated edition of Webster’s Dic- tionary (1864); published separately A Dictionary of the Noted Names of Fiction, etc. (Boston, 1865); edited Hole’s Brief Biogra;ohical Dictionary (New York, 1866), and a Dickens Dictionary (1873); began a Shahspearian Cyclo- pcedia; aided Richard Soulé, J r., in his manuals of spelling and reading; became in 1867 assistant superintendent of the Boston Public Library. D. at Roxbury, Oct. 28, 1875. He left unfinished an index to anonymous literature, entitled Who Wrote It .9 completed and edited by Charles G. Wheel- er (1881), and Familiar Allusions (1882). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wheeler, WILLIAM ALMON, LL. D. : Vice-President of the U. S.; b. in Malone, Franklin co., N. Y., June 30, 1819; studied for two years at the University of Vermont; was admitted to the bar in 1845, and rose rapidly in his profes- sion. He was for several years superintendent of schools for Franklin County. He was elected as a Whig member of the Assembly 1849—50, but joined the newly formed Re- publican party in 1856. He was a member of the Senate of New York in 1858 and 1859, and president pro tern. of that body; was a member and president of the New York constitutional convention in 1867-68 ; was elected a Repre- sentative in Congress to the 37th, 41st, 42d, 43d, and 44th Congresses. For several years he was much engaged in banking and railroad affairs. He was one of the organizers WHEELOCK of the bank of Malone, and held the position of cashier and chief managing director. In the political complications which arose in Louisiana during the session of the Forty- third Congress, Mr. Wheeler was conspicuous, having been chairman of the special committee of the House of Repre- sentatives that visited Louisiana, and finally adjusted the difficulties existing there on the basis of " the Wheeler com- promise.” He was Vice-President of the U. S. from 1877 to 1881, after which he lived in retirement. D. at Malone, N. Y., June 4, 1887. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wheeling: city and port of entry, and the capital of Ohio co., \V.Va.; on the Ohio river, and the Balt. and O., the Ohio River, the Pitts., Cin. and St. L., the Wheel. and Elm Gr., the Wheel. and Lake Erie, the Cleve., Lorain and \Vheel., and the VVheel. Bridge and Term. railways; 63 miles W. of Pittsburg, 141 miles E. of Columbus, O. (for location, see map of West Virginia, ref. 3—G). The city is divided into eight wards, one—the seventh—being Zane’s island, more than a mile long, containing 400 acres, and connected with the mainland by a suspension bridge of 1,010 feet span, and a steel bridge over which pass electric railways, running to neighboring towns in Ohio. The principal streets run paral- lel to the river several miles, intersected by cross streets ex- tending back to the large hills on the E. Steamboats carry freight to all points on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. ' There are two large parks outside the city limits, none within. The most notable buildings are the city-hall and court-house, U. S. custom-house and post-oflice, Fourth Street M. E. church, St. Matthew’s P. E. church, City Bank of Wheeling, Rogers Block, and the public schools. Churches, Schools, and Charities.—Methodist Episcopal churches, 10; Roman Catholic, 3, including a cathedral; Protestant Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Lutheran. 3 each; German Independent, Christian, Baptist, and Mission, 2 each; United Presbyterian, 1, besides a Jewish synagogue. The public schools number 8, one in each ward; are modern in character and equipment, have an enrollment of 4,834 pupils, and cost annually $86,529 ; 13 parochial schools have an enrollment of 1,540; and 6 academic and private schools an enrollment of nearly 300. The charitable insti- tutions are 5, for the aged, friendless. and orphans, a Roman Catholic hospital, and a Protestant hospital. , Finances and Banhing.—The municipal receipts are $387,775; expenditures, $378,798; net debt, $724,277; and property valuation, $22,553,124. Banking facilities are sup- plied by a national bank with capital of $200,000, and 7 State and 4 savings banks. Business Interests.——Wheeling is principally a manufac- turing city. The large deposits of bituminous coal and the natural gas in the surrounding country furnish afuel of such cheapness and facility in use as to give an exceptional advantage over many other points. There are 4 steel and iron plants with 9 blast furnaces, capacity 2,060 tons Bes- semer pig daily; 4 steel-works, each having two 5-ton con- verters, capacity 2,100 tons daily; 2 large glass-factories ; 4 potteries, annual output valued at $750,000; a steel tube and casing works, 4 tobacco and 46 cigar factories, 4 foun- dries and stove-works, 2 boiler-works, 6 breweries, 4 ice plants, 3 machine-shops, brass foundry, 4 planing-mills, 3 carriage and wagon factories, 2 axle-factories, hinge-factory, etc. Histo1'y.—Tlie first settlement of Wheeling was made by Col. Ebenezer Zane in 1769. In consequence of Indian hos- tilities a stockade fort——Fort Henry—-was built at Wheeling to protect the border in 1774. On Sept. 1, 1777. this fort was beset by about 300 Indians, who killed fifteen of the settlers. lt sustained another attack in 1781, and again Sept. 11, 1782, was besieged by a British captain and forty regular soldiers and 260 Indians for two days, but they were repulsed by Col. Zane and his little garrison, without loss. The town was laid out by Col. Zane in 1793: was first incorporated in 1806 ; incorporated as a city in 1836 ; made the capital of the “restored government of Virginia” in 1861 ; was the meeting-place of the convention which formed the State of West Virginia in 1863 ; and was the capi- tal of the State in 1863-70 and 1875-85. Pop. (1880) 30,- 757; (1890) 34,522; (1895) estimated, 40,000. WILBUR C. Bnocxunmn. Wheelock, ELEAZAR, D.D.: educator; b. at Windham, Conn., Apr. 22, 1711; graduated at Yale College 1733; was ordained pastor of the Second Congregational church at Lebanon, Conn., Mar., 1735, remaining there thirty-five years; established a school 1754; had as a pupil an Indian WHEELOCK boy, Samson Occom (see Occon, SAMSON), whose proficiency led to the establishment of Moor’s Indian Charity School, which grew into DAR/1‘MOU'1‘H COLLEGE (q. 1).), for which he obtained a large tract of land in New Hampshire and re- moved thither as first president of the college Aug., 1770. One of his pupils at Lebanon was the celebrated Indian chief Joseph Brant. He published several Narratives of the Indian Charity School (1762-75), together with an abstract of McClure and Frisbie’s mission to the Delaware Indians W. of the Ohio. D at Hanover, N. H., Apr. 24, 1779. A Memoir by Rev. Drs. Elijah Parish and David McClure ap- peared in 1810. Revised by GEORGE P. FISHER. Wheelock, JOHN, D. D., LL. D.: educator; son of Dr. Eleazar Wheelock ; b. at Lebanon, Conn., J an. 28, 1754; en- tered Yale College 1767; went to Hanover, N. H., with his father 1770, and graduated with the first class at Dartmouth College 1771 ; was tutor there 1772-74; represented Hanover in the Legislature 1775; served as major and lieutenant- colonel in the army of the Revolution, and was a member of Gen. Gates’s staff; was chosen successor to his father as president of Dartmouth College 1779, though only twenty- five years of age; was given the chair of Civil and Ecclesi- astical History in 1782 ; visited England to raise funds 1783 ; was partially successful, but lost the money and papers by shipwreck off Cape Cod; was removed from office 1815 in consequence of an ecclesiastical controversy, but restored 1817. D. at Hanover, Apr. 4, 1817, leaving half his estate to Princeton Seminary. Wheelwork, or Gearing: a train of wheels, usually toothed, by means of which continuous rotation is com- municated from one revolving axis to another. Frictional gearing, however, is that kind of wheelwork in which mo- tion is transmitted fro1n one wheel to another by the mere contact of the rims of the wheels. In this system it is con- venient to have one of the contact surfaces (preferably that of the driver) covered by some softer material than the con- tact surface of the other. If the latter is of cast iron, the former will be either of wood, leather, rubber, or paper. In frictional gearing it is necessary that the smooth faces of the wheels shall be constantly pressed together. Circular V-shaped grooves and projections have been often turned upon the faces of cast-iron wheels to make the friction more elfective. Teeth are generally provided, however, which, by interlocking, render the slipping of one circumference upon another impossible. Wheelwork usually receives a special designation, depending on the relative positions of the axes of the wheels. When the axes are parallel, it is called spur- gea/ring; when the axes intersect, bevel-gearing; and when the axes are not parallel and do not intersect, shew-berel and screw-gearing. One of the most important requirements in wheelwork is that smooth and continuous motion shall be communicated from the driver to the follower. In frictional gearing this always takes place, but in toothed gearing a constant ratio of the angular velocities of the two wheels in gear, without shocks, can be attained only by special forms of teeth; the investigations for the development of these forms of teeth have occupied geometricians for a long period. The forms of cross-section which have been found to produce a con- stant ratio of the angular motions are found generally by the rolling of curves on the pitch-circles of the wheels, tracing points in the rolling curves producing epicycloidal forms of teeth, which remain in contact with a limited amount of sliding between the curved faces of the teeth. These forms are also often involutes of the circles which form the bases of the teeth; the difference between involute teeth and epicycloidal teeth being that the curves of the former are single continuous curves forming the entire sides of the teeth, while in epicycloidal teeth the curve of a tooth is made up of two separate curves joined at the pitch-circle. In common gearing, where great accuracy is not required, the curves of the teeth are often composed of arcs of cir- cles drawn according to special geometric rules, these re- sulting curves being a sufficient approximation to the epi- cycloids which are traced in the more exact construct-ions. Instruments to facilitate this drawing of approximate pro- files are called odontographs. The ratio of the angular velocities in spur and bevel gearing is always inversely pro- portional to the radii of the pitch-circles of the wheels or to the numbers of teeth in the wheels. In skew-bevel gearing this ratio is inversely proportioned to the radii at the threats or smallest parts of the hyperboloids which form the bases WHELK 735 of the wheels; and in screw-gearing the angular velocities are inversely proportional to the number of threads. In two wheels which work continuously together during a com- plete revolution the pitch of the teeth (or the distance be- tween the same points of two teeth, measured on the pitch- line) in both wheels must be the same. The pitch must also be an aliquot part of the circumference of each; hence the ratio of the numbers of revolutions in a given time must be expressible in whole numbers. To be interchangeable, epicycloidal teeth of wheels must have their profiles all drawn with the same rolling circle, and an effort has been made to fix this by agreement as the circle whose diameter is one-half the pitch-diameter of the wheel of twelve teeth in that pitch. In screw-gearing the normal pitch, i. e. the pitch as measured on a helix of the screw cylinder which cuts the teeth at right angles--must be the same in both wheels. The screw and worm wheel is an example of screw- gearing in which the axes are at right angles, the diameter of the screw being much smaller than that of the wheel. In a train of wheelwork where spur-wheels are employed and the axes parallel, the ratio of the numbers of revolu- tions of the first and last wheels may be found by multi- plying the numbers of teeth in all the drivers for a numer- ator, and of all the followers for a denominator. The re- sulting ratio will be that of the number of revolutions of the first wheel divided by the number of revolutions of the last wheel. The subject of wheelwork is fully developed in Willis’s Principles of Jllechanism, in Rankine’s lllachinery and Jlfillworlc, and in other works on mechanism. Revised by F. R. Hurrox. Wheelwright, JOHN: clergyman; b. in Lincolnshire, England, about 1592; graduated at Cambridge, where he was a classmate of Oliver Cromwell 1614; took orders in the Church of England; was vicar of Bilsby, near Alford, 1623-31; was silenced for nonconformity by Archbishop Laud ; went to Massachusetts 1636 ; was chosen pastor of a church at Braintree ; was a brother-in-law of the celebrated Anne Hutchinson, whose religious opinions he defended; preached a sermon at Boston on Fast Day, 1637, which was declared seditious by the General Court; was banished from Massachusetts 1638; removed with his partisans to New Hampshire; founded Exeter on the Squamscott, organizing a church there, but that territory being subsequently claimed by Massachusetts, removed with a part of his church to Wells, Me., 1643; was allowed to return to Massachusetts 1646; resided at Hampton 1646-54; was in England 1657-60 ; was settled in 1662 as pastor at Salisbury, N. H., where he died Nov. 15, 1679. He published, in answer to Thomas Weld, Jllercurius Americanus, or Obserrations on a Paper entitled Of the Rise, Reign, and Ruin of the Familists, Libertines, etc., in Nezo England (London, 1645); and a Vindication (1654). See Savage’s edition of VVinthrop‘s History, also the volume of Wheelwright‘s IVritings with memoir edited by Charles H. Bell (Boston, 1876). Revised by Gsoaen P. FISHER. Whelan, RICHARD VINCENT, D. D.: bishop; b. at Balti- more, Md., J an. 29, 1809; educated at Mt. St. Mary‘s Col- lege, Emmitsburg, Md., where he became a teacher and was “prefect of studies”; graduated in theology and philosophy at the seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris, 1831; was ordained to the priesthood at Versailles the same year; was professor at St. Mary’s College 1832-35: performed mission work at Harper’s Ferry, Martinsburg, and in other towns of Virginia and Maryland 1835-40; was consecrated Bishop of Rich- mond Mar., 1840; took the title of Bishop of \Vheeling on the division of the diocese in 1851; settled at Wheeliiig, where he built up a seminary for young ladies and a con- vent at Mt. de Chantal; was a member of the Vatican Coun- cil of 1869-70, and was opposed to defining the dogma of papal infallibility, but gave in his adhesion after its pro- mulgation. D. at VVheeling, July 7, 1874. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Whelk [M. Eng. welh. wilh < O. Eng. wiloc, ueoloc, mice]: a name popularly applied in a vague manner to species of gasteropod molluscs belonging principally to the families Buccin-ial(e and Jlluriciclrr, but more especially to the for- mer, the type of that family (Buccinum unclatum) being the common whelk of England. The species of the two families agree in having shells whose body-whorls are inflated, whose spire is moderately exserted, while the aperture is notched and produced forward or canaliculated. The animals have elongated filiform tentacles; the eyes placed outside the 786 WHEWELL tentacles ; the odontophore or lingual ribbon long and straight, and armed with three longitudinal rows ofteeth; and the foot comparatively short. The representatives of the two families are distinguished by difierences in the den- tition of the odontophore. Of the species mentioned below only the last Purpara lapillus belongs to the jlfuricidce. Buccinum undatum and some related species are very common in the colder seas, and form one of the chief ele- ments of the food of the codfishes. In England whelks are sometimes used as an article of food, but their principal value is as bait. The shell of the almond or red whelk (Chrysodomus antiquas) of the market is used in the Shet- land islands and some other places for a lamp, being sus- pended, mouth upward, by a string around the middle or toward the ends, from a nail in the wall or roof. The spe- cies of Fulgur and Sycotypus are common to the Atlantic shores of North America, and are the common large univalve shells of the coasts. Purpura lapillus is a very abundant species in the northern seas, and may be found in large num- bers clinging to the rocks between tidemarks, as well as lower down, and especially where seaweed is abundant. It secretes a white fiuid, which turns blue on exposure to the air. Revised by E. A. BIRGE. Whewell, hyi'1’el, WILLIAM, D.D., F. R. S.: educator and author; b. in Lancaster, England, May 24, 1794; studied at Trinity College, Cambridge ; graduated 1816 ; became a fel- low there ; took orders in the Church of England; was Profes- sor of Mineralogy 1828-32, of Moral Theology or Casuistry 1838-55: was master of Trinity College from 1841, and vice- chancellor of Cambridge University from 1855 to his death, at Cambridge, Mar. 5, 1866. He long enjoyed the reputation of possessing 1nore universal information than any other man in England. He was the author of several text-books on mathe- matics, mechanics, and dynamics; Astronomy and General Physics considered with Reference to Natural Theology (1833), being the third Bridgewater treatise; A History of the Inductive Sciences from the Earliest to the Present Time (3 vols., 1837 : 3d ed. 1857) ; The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (2 vols., 1849); remodeled in 3 parts. 1858-60); Lectures on the History of flloral Philosophy in England (1852) ; Of the Plurality of Worlds, an Essay (1853); Lee- tures on Political Economy (1863); and The Platonic Dia- logues for English Readers (3 vols., 1859-61), besides many minor papers. An account of his writings, with selections from his correspondence, by Isaac Todhunter, appeared in 1876, and a Life by Mrs. Stair Douglas in 1881. Whey [O. Eng. hwceg : Dutch wei]: the serum of MILK (q.v.), obtained when the casein of milk is coagulated by means of rennet or acids, as in the manufacture of CHEESE (q. 1).). It forms a clear, straw-colored liquid, and contains the water and sugar (lactose) of the milk. The whey pro- duced in cheese-making is usually fed to swine, although good butter can be made from it. Whicheot, BENJAMIN, D.D.: clergyman; b. in Shrop- shire, England, Mar. 11, 1610; entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 1626 ; became a fellow there 1633 ; became dis- tinguished as a tutor; took orders in the Church of Eng- land 1636; was appointed Sunday lecturer at Trinity church and preacher to the university; became incumbent of North Cadbury, Somersetshire, 1643, provost of King's College 1644, and rector of Milton, Cambridgeshire, 1649; favored the Puritans during the great rebellion and the protectorate: was deprived of his provostship at the Restoration 1661, but obtained the living of St. Anne’s, Blackfriars, 1662, and the vicarage of St. Lawrence, Jewry, 1668. D. at Cambridge in May, 1683. He was regarded as “ one of the heads, if not the chief founder, of the latitudinarian school of English divines,” and enjoyed great fame as a preacher, and was one of the Cambridge Platonists. He published nothing, but his friend, the Earl of Shaftesbury, whose genius was kin- dred to his own, edited his Observations and Apophthcgms (1688) and his Sermons (1698) ; and Dr. John J eifery edited his Jlloral and Religious Aphorisms (repub. in enlarged ed. 1753) and his Discourses (3 vols., 1701-03), to which Dr. Samuel Clarke added a 4th (1707). An edition of Sermons (4 vols., 1751) was accompanied by a Life by Drs. Campbell and Gerard, who also edited the best edition of his complete works (4 vols., Aberdeen, 1751). Whidaw-finch : See WIDOW-BIRD. Whiif, Sail-fluke. Marysole, or Carter: the Lepido- rhombus megastoma, a fish of the fiatfish family (Pleuroncc- tidce), related to the turbot of the northern European coasts. WHIG The body is rather elongated, the height being contained two and two-thirds times in the total length, without including caudal; the scales are small and pectinated; the lateral line describes a semicircular curve above the pectoral ; the eyes are on the left side, and close together ; the teeth in a band on the jaws, and present also on the vomer, but not on the palatines ; the dorsal commences on the snout in advance of the eyes; the ventrals have a long base, but are free from the anal. The whiff does not seem to be a very abundant fish anywhere, although it is “ well known to the Cornish fishermen, who apply the name of ‘ carter’ to it. It keeps on sandy ground at no great distance from land, and takes a bait, so that it is caught as often as any of the salt-water fiatfishes, but is not so highly esteemed for the table, chiefly from being so thin.” Its nearest representative on the American coast is the Citharichthys microstomus of the sandy shores of the Middle States. Whig [clip-form of. the Scottish term /whiggamore, a horse-driver ; from the so-called “ whiggamore raid ” in 1648]: a party designation employed in the past both in Great Britain and in the U. S. In the former country it first came into use about 1648, when it was applied to the Scotch Presbyterians who had rebelled against the crown, and it was used in 1679 in the course of the debates on the Exclu- sion Bill in the British Parliament as the name of the coun- try party with the intention of stigmatizing the members of that party as rebels. From this time it was the accepted designation of the more progressive party in British poli- tics—the party opposed to the Tories-but after the passage of the Reform Bill, in 1832, it was gradually superseded by the term Liberal. For a description of the general charac- ter of the Whig party in Great Britain, see the article Po- LITICAL PARTIES, and for some account of the part it played in history, see GREAT BRITAIN (History). In the American colonies of Great Britain it was applied to those who favored independence of the mother country, while supporters of the crown were called Tories; but a more important and more lasting use of the name was to designate the party that arose at the close of the so-called “ era of good feeling,” and was composed of those members of the Democratic-Republican party who favored a national bank, a protective, tariff, a system of internal im rovements, and in general held to a loose construction of t ie Constitu- tion. Toward the end of J . Q. Adams’s administration those who held these views assumed the name of National Republicans, as opposed to the Democratic Republicans. The former voted for Adams in the election of 1828 and the latter for Jackson. From this time the line of division is clear, and in 1834 the new party was termed Whig, imply- ing opposition to executive encroachment, Jackson having seemed to his opponents guilty of a gross usurpation of power in the removal of the deposits from the U. S. Bank in the preceding year (Oct. 1, 1833). The VVhigs agreed in lit- tle else than hostility to Jackson and the Democrats, and generally betrayed a willingness to sacrifice definiteness of purpose to numerical strength. Their programme was there- fore often illogical or vague, and their presidential candi- dates were often men of ambiguous political principles. Not till 1840 did they win the presidency, and then by the selection of candidates of whom one held doubtful political views and the other afterward turned against the party that had elected him. The representatives of the old National Republicanism were passed by. The death of Harrison and succession of Tyler weakened the party, which was soon at variance with the executive. Nevertheless, in the campaign of 1844 the Whigs ventured to nominate Clay and adopt a definite policy, which may be summed up in the following words of the platform: “ A well-regulated national cur- rency; a tariff for revenue to defray the necessary expenses of the Government, and discriminating with special refer- ence to the protection of the domestic labor of the coun try; the distribution of the proceeds from the sales of the public lands; a single term for the presidency; a reform of execu- tive usurpations; and generally such an administration of the affairs of the country as shall impart to every branch of the public service the greatest practicable efficiency, controlled by a well-regulated and wise economy.” The doubtful attitude of Clay on the question of the annex- ation of Texas cost his party the Southern vote without gaining for it the support of the Abolitionists, and the Whigs were defeated at the polls. As sectional interests became more potent in forming party lines, it was evident that the Northern and the Southern Whigs could not be WI-IIMBREL held together. The rupture took place on the question forced upon the country by the Wilmot proviso (see WIL- MOT, DAVID) to prevent the extension of slavery to States formed out of the territory acquired from Mexico. Taylor, the Whig candidate for the presidency, was elected in 1848, but soon after his accession a body of Southern Whigs with- drew and refused to act further with their party, and on the questions that arose during the year 1850 the Southern Whigs voted generally with the Democrats. At the same time the Northern Whigs were losing ground on account of their half-hearted policy on the slavery question, and were fast subdividing into factions. At last, in 1852, the South- ern members of the party tried to force upon it the recog- nition of the compromise of 1850 as a finality. The North-' ern Whig leaders accepted this, but it caused such defections at the polls as to cost them the election and ruin the party as a national organization. The Southern \Vhigs drifted into the ranks of the DEMOCRATIC PARTY (q. 0.), while the Northern wing was ultimately absorbed in the REPUBLICAN PARTY (q. v.). See also the article UNITED STATES (H istory). F. M. COLBY. Whimbrel [from whz'mper] : a wading bird of the genus Nunzenizas (IV. phceoplras), related to the common curlew (N. arqaazfa), but considerably smaller, and hence also called half-curlew and jack-curlew in England. It is found not only in Europe, but also, in the winter season of the north- ern hemisphere, in Africa and Asia. Whin : See DYERS’ BROOM. Wllillcllat, or Furzechat [whinchat is from whin, furze + chat, a kind of bird] : the Sa:1;z'e0Za(o1' P)'C6If/1: neola) rabetra, a little European bird of the family Tu/rdz'dre. It consider- ably resembles the stonechat, but is smaller, and is also con- siderably less than the wheatear. Like the latter, it is highly prized for the table, and is trapped in great numbers in the autumn, when fat. It is an excellent song-bird in confine- ment. See CHAT. Wvllipping‘-post: a post to which a person is tied to be whipped. The phrase is used, however. to designate the in- stitution of whipping as a means of punishment or torture, and specifically as a means of punishing for crime. As a means of torture, whipping or flogging has been in use among all nations in those stages where torture was in- flicted, and consequently more or less in use also as a form of criminal punishment. Until recent years its use, practic- ally unlimited short of death, by shipmasters at sea to en- force discipline among their crews, has been universal, but its abuse and the excessive cruelties practiced have led to its restriction or abolishment by statute in Great Britain and the U. S., as well as in some other countries. As a form of criminal punishment it was in use among the Romans. and at the common law whipping was inflicted on persons of in- ferior condition guilty of petty larceny ‘or other minor otfenses; but in the earliest times it appears not to have been inflicted on gentlemen. In Great Britain as well as in the U. S. whipping as a punishment for crime remained legal for some time after its general use became almost en- tirely obsolete. Thus in the U. S. in the early years of the nineteenth century whipping had been abolished or became disused in most of the States, except as to slaves, who were subject to it until the extinction of slavery. In the U. S. the Constitution of the U. S., as well as the constitutions of most of the individual States, contains a clause forbidding cruel or unusual punishments. and nu- merous attempts have been made to establish -as a legal proposition that this punishment is of such a nature as to come within this exclusion. But at the time these words. “ cruel ” and “ unusual,” were so incorporated in the Consti- tution of the U. S. and of the early States. the Legislatures have acted upon the assumption that whipping was not cruel or unusual within the meaning of those clauses, and the courts, botl1 Federal and State, have held that the au- thors of the constitutions could not have intended to in- clude whipping in the meaning of those terms (2 Curtis‘s Reports, 194). At present whipping is authorized by statute in only a few of the U. S.; but its use is constantly being advocated as a punishment for certain brutal crimes, such as wifo-beat- ing, in the States where it does not exist, and is by many persons believed to be the only effectual remedy for these forms of crime. So late as the fall of 1895 a grand jury in the District of Columbia recommended that it be used in such cases. The provisions of the various States with regard to it WHIPPLE 737 vary too much, and are subject to too much change to be here given in detail; but the provisions of the law of Great Britain may be given in effect, and afford a good example of the modern conservative use of this form of punishment as a preventive of crime. The old laws of Great Britain allowed the whipping of women as well as men ; but now by 1 Geo. IV., c. 57. no fe- male may be whipped. The Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 1861, with subsequent statutes, authorize the punish- ment of whipping to be inflicted upon males below sixteen years of age who have been convicted of any one of various offenses, such as malicious injury to property, larceny, em- bezzlement by servants or clerks, accusing of infamous crimes, etc., and except where no special provisions have been made as to the punishment of whipping, so that the common law remains in force, the court must specify the number of strokes and the instrument to be used. In the case of an offender whose age does not exceed fourteen years, the number of strokes inflicted must not ex- ceed twelve in number, and the instrument must be a birch rod. In the case of an offender not over sixteen years of age, the number of strokes must not exceed twenty-five, and the instrument must be a birch rod ; and in the case of any other offender the number of strokes must not exceed fifty. In no case can the whipping be inflicted after the ex- piration of six months from the passing of the sentence. In Scotland no offender older than sixteen years of age may be whipped for theft or crimes against the person or against property. In countries other than Great Britain and the U. S., whipping is still generally comparatively common as a form of criminal or political punishment. F. STURGES ALLEN. Whipple. ABRAHAM: naval officer; b. at Providence, R. I., Sept. 16, 1733; in early life commanded a merchant-vessel in the \Vest Indies trade; was captain of the privateer Game Cock during the French war 1759-60, capturing in a single cruise twenty-three French prizes : headed in June, 17 7 2, the expedition which burned the British revenue-schooner Gaspe in Narragansett Bay; was made commodore of two armed vessels fitted out by the colonyr of Rhode Island June, 1775 ; became commander of the Columbus Dec., 17 75, and after- ward of the schooner Providence. which captured more Brit- ish prizes than any other vessel, but was itself finally taken by the British ; was placed in command of the light frigate Providence, with which he adroitly escaped from the block- ade of Narragansett Bay; captured eight richly laden vessels from the Jamaica fleet 1779, and attempted with a squadron to relieve Charleston. S. C., when besieged by the British, but was captured and held a prisoner until the close of the war. He was subsequently a farmer at Cranston, R. I., until 1788, when he became connected with the Ohio Company, and settled at Harietta, 0., where he died May 29. 1819. Wlli ple, EDWIN PERCY: literary critic; b. at Gloucester, Mass., 1' ar. 8, 1819 ; educated in the public schools of Salem ; was for some time a clerk in a bank at Salem; en- tered a Boston banking-house 1837; and was superintendent of the reading-room of the Merchants’ Exchange from its foundation in 1837 until 1880, from which time he devoted himself exclusively to literature. He became a frequent contributor to the principal reviews and magazines, and a popular lecturer before lyceums and collegiate literary so- cieties. He published Essays and Reriews (2 vols., New York, 1848—-49); Lec2t’u.-res on Sulgjecfs eonnecz‘ed with Lil‘- erature and Life (1849) ; Characz‘er and C7zaracferz'stz'c ]l[en (1867); The Lz'zfe?'a!ure of the Age of Elizabeth (1869); Success and its C0'ndz'zfz'0'ns (1871). A complete edition of his works appeared in 6 vols. (1871). D. in Boston, June 16, 1886. Recollections of Emq'nenz‘ fllen (18L 7). A'me'rz'can Liz‘- erature and other Papers (1887), and Outlooks on Society, Lz'z‘eraz‘are, and Pol ifics (1888) were published posthumously. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Whip le, HENRY BENJAMIN, D. D., LL. D.: bishop: b. at Adams, eiferson co., N. Y., Feb. 15. 1822; prepared for col- lege, but, owing to ill health. went into business; in 1847 became a candidate for holy orders. and pursued theological studies privately: was ordained deacon 1849, in Trinity church. Geneva, N. Y., by Bishop de Lancey: took charge of Zion church. Rome. N. Y., Dec. 1, 18-19: was ordained priest July 16, 1850, in Sackett‘s I-Iarbor by Bishop de Lan- eey; became rector of the Church of the Holy Communion, Chicago, Easter, 1857 ; was chosen Bishop of Minnesota June 30, 1859: and was consecrated in St. James’s church. Rich- mond, Va., Oct. 18, 1859. In 1860 Bishop Whipple, with. 444 7 38 WHIPPLE others, organized the Bishop Seabury Mission, out of which y has grown the Cathedral of Our Merciful Saviour, the Sea- bury Divinity School, Shattuck School, and St. Mary’s Hall, which have made Faribault one of the educational centers of the Northwest. The bishop is known as the “ apostle” of the North American Indians, among whom he has planted suc- cessful missions. In 1888, as the senior bishop present of the American Church at the third Lambeth Conference, he received from the University of Cambridge the degree of LL. D. He has published a number of occasional sermons and addresses, and several of his discourses have appeared in volume form. Revised by ‘W. S. PERRY. Wl1ipple, SQUIREZ civil engineer ; b. at Hardwick, Mass., Mar. 24, 1804; graduated at Union College 1830; was en- gaged in the surveying of several canal and railway routes. In 1840 he patented an iron bridge truss of the bowstrmg type, of which several were built over the Erie Canal. In 1847 he issued a small theoretical and practical work on bridge-building, which contained the first exact analysis of stresses in trusses and of the principles of economic design, published in the U. S. Soon after 1852 he erected several bridges of the "Whipple trapezoidal type," a form which subsequently was extensively adopted. He also patented _a lift drawbridge. He was the author of The Way to Happi- ness (Utica, 1847); A Work on Bridge-building (1847: en- larged ed. 1869); and The Doctrine of Central Forces (1866). He was made an honorary member of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1868. D. at Albany, N. Y., Mar. 15, 1888. MANSFIELD LIEERIAIAN. Whipple, WILLIAM: signer of the Declaration of Inde- pendence; b. at Kittery, Me., Jan. 14, 1730; was in early life a sea-captain in the West India trade; subsequently a merchant at Portsmouth, N. H., where he acquired a con- siderable fortune; was a member of the provincial con- gress 1775, of the Continental Congress 1776; signed the Declaration of Independence; was brigadier-general of New Hampshire troops at Saratoga 1777 ; co-operated with Sulli- van at the siege of Newport 1778; and was a member of Congress 1778-79, financial receiver of the State of New Hampshire 1782-84, and judge of the superior court from 1782 to his death, at Portsmouth, N ov. 28, 1785. Whip-p001‘-Will [named in imitation of its cry]: the common designation in the U. S. of species of birds of the genus Antrostomas of the family Caprimnlgiclee. These are characterized by the bill being very small; the nostrils shortly tubular; the gape furnished with long, stifi, and sometimes pectinated bristles, which project beyond the end of the bill; the wings broad, rounded, and with the first quill shorter than the third; the tail broad and rounded ; and the tarsi moderate and partly feathered above. The chief distinctive characters, in contrast with the night- hawks, are found in the bristled gape and the form of the tail, and in this respect, as well as others, the species agree with those of the genus Capriznulgns, or the typical goat- suckers of the Old World, to which they are, indeed, very closely related. “The common species, and presumably the others, are nocturnal in their habits, remaining silent and keeping within the shady recesses of the forests during the daytime. As soon as the sun has disappeared and the night-insects are in motion” they leave their retreats for exercise and in search of food. In the early part of the evening, and then for only a brief period, they emit their peculiar cry, the notes repeated with great rapidity, but with clearness and power, six or seven times in as many seconds. They are to be heard chiefly in clear weather. In the daytime their haunts are deep ravines, shady swamps, and extensive pine-groves. They lay their eggs upon the ground, generally among fallen leaves, and make no regular nest. Their eggs are two in number, and are white and somewhat spotted. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Whirlwilld : air in spiral inflowing motion, the analogue of a whirlpool in water. Whirling motions are common to all fluids, and are the rule in the atmosphere. When the conditions causing the whirling motion are symmetrical, a complete whirl results, and is called a whirlwind. This may be of any size, from the eddy at a street corner or the whirlwind over a dusty road on a hot afternoon to a hurri- cane a thousand miles in diameter. In the former case the observer can see the entire whirl, in the latter he sees but a small part, and the wind at the point of observation is so slightly curved that it seems to be straight-lined. The re- tation of the earth gives a uniform direction to all whirls large enough to make itstwist clfeetive—-from right to left l WHISKY in the northern hemisphere and opposite to this in the southern. See ll/IETEOROLOGY, CvcLoNEs, HURRICANES, and WINDS. I. W. H. Vvllisky, or Whiskey [from Irish-Gaelic /aisge, water, as clip-form of the compound word aisyebeatha (whence Eng. usquebaugh), literally, water of life, can ale oie] : the spiritu- ous liquor obtained by distilling fermented infusions of barley, rye, wheat, corn, oats, etc. According to some authorities, the art of distillation was first introduced in England in the reign of Henry II., but it is 1nore probable that it was known and practiced in Ireland previous to this date. Directions for preparing nisge-beatha or aqua eitce are contained in the Reel Boole of Ossory, compiled over 500 years ago, at which time it was chiefly used as a medicine, being considered a panacea for all diseases. Spirits that contain over 60 per cent. of alcohol are termed “high-wines” or common spirits; those containing 90 per cent. of alcohol are known as “ cologne spirits,” the name whisky being usually given to the product of a former distillation con- taining about 50 per cent. by weight of alcohol. In Great Britain the largest amount of whisky is made in Scotland ; large amounts are made in Ireland, chiefly in Dublin; in the U. S. the principal supply comes from Kentucky (termed Bourbon whisky, from Bourbon co., Ky.), Pennsylvania (Mo- nongahela County), Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Maryland; large quantities of whisky are also made in Canada. The grains used vary greatly in composition. In Scotland and Ireland malted barley is extensively employed, but a mix- ture of malted barley with raw grains (oats, etc.) is also very largely used. In the preparation of Bourbon whisky a mixture of 50 to 60 percent. of Indian corn with 40 to 50 per cent. of small grain (containing about 10 per cent. malt, the balance being rye) is taken; for Monongahela whisky only rye is used, it being mixed with 10 per cent. of malt; while in Canada a mixture of rye, wheat, or corn with 5 per cent. of malted barley is chiefly employed. The quantity of alcohol afforded by the different grains is influenced by the propor- tion of starch, including the small amount of sugar, they contain ; 2 lb. of starch will give a quart of spirit contain- ing 30 per cent. of alcohol, or 100 lb. of starch will give 35 lb. of alcohol, equal to 4375 imperial gal. One hundred pounds of the following grains afford the following quanti- ties of a spirit containing 45 per cent. of alcohol: Wheat, 40 to 45 lb.; rye, 36 to 42 lb. ; barley, 40 lb. ; cats, 36 lb. ; buckwheat, 40 1b.; maize, 40 lb. In the manufacture of whisky the starch of the grain is first changed into dextrin and glucose in the process of mashing, chiefly by the action of the cliastase (a peculiar nitrogenous substance formed by the germination of the grain), which, although it exists in malt only in the very small proportion of 0003 per cent., must be present in order that the conversion shall take place rapidly. Yeast is next added to the saccharine liquid to induce fermentation, by which the sugar is converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide; and the alcohol is finally concentrated by distillation. The essential features of the process of whisky-making are therefore the preparation of the vinons mash and the distillation of the alcohol. Preparation of the ]l[ash.—-A quantity of water of a tem- perature of 150° F. is first run into the mash-tub, which is best made of circular cast-iron plates, and then the ground mixture of malt and grain is added, and the whole is thoroughly mixed. The malt used should be lightly kiln- dried by the heat of steam to avoid imparting an cmpyreu- matic smell to the product, although this flavor is agreeable to some persons, and was formerly purposely given to whisky (notably to the famous “ poteen whisky ” of Ire- land) by drying the malt by means of burning turf. Dur- ing the process of mashing, the liquid gradually acquires a sweet taste and a greater specific gravity. When it has attained its maximum density it is drawn off, and more water, of a temperature of 190° F., added to the residual grain and allowed to infuse with it for one to two hours. This second wort is added to the first, and a third quantity of boiling water poured over the remaining mixture, which is afterward used for the first liquor in the mashing of fresh meal and malt. In beer-making (see BEER) the brewer does not require complete saccharification, some dextrin being necessary; but the distiller desires to obtain the greatest amount of sugar possible. The mash is next cooled down to the proper temperature for fermentation (70° F.) by passing it through a series of pipes surrounded by cold water, and it is then introduced into the fermentation-vat. Formerly 4 per .ccnt. of yeast was added to the wort, but at WHISKY present not over 1 to 1% per cent. is used, three-fourths of which is added directly, the remainder only after the second day of the process. As fermentation advances the temperature of the wort increases about 20° F., but it should not be allowed to attain to over 95° F., in order to avoid acetification, which can be detected by an increased density of the wort and by the odor of acetic acid. The time oc- cupied in the process of fermentation varies from three to nine days. Owing to the disappearance of the sugar and the formation of carbon dioxide and alcohol, the specific gravity of the liquid decreases, the operation being considered fin- ished when the greatest degree of attenuation has been reached. Distillers strive to reduce the density of the wort to that of water, but even then a considerable quantity of sugar remains undecomposed, sometimes amounting to one- fifth of the entire saccharine matter. This difficulty is due to the fact that the alcohol first formed tends to prevent the further decomposition of the remaining wort into sugar, and can be remedied by removing the alcohol as soon as it is produced by diminishing the pressure in the fermenta- tion-vat with an air-pum , which enables the alcohol to be distilled off at 125° F. hen, instead of a mixture of raw grain and malt, only the latter is taken, the process em- ployed is slightly different. Five hundred bushels of the ground malt are first mashed with 9,000 gal. of water hav- ing a temperature of 160° F., and as soon as saccharification has taken place, 6,000 gal. of the wort are drawn off and cooled to 60° F., after which it is run into the fermentation- vat and a mixture of London-porter yeast and quick Scotch barm added. The fermentation is usually completed at the end of two or three days, when 1 lb. of soap is added for every 100 gal. of the mash, and the mixture introduced into the still. In malt--whisky distilleries 1 bush. of malt should yield 2 to 2% gal. of proof spirits. In localities where potatoes abound, this root is occasionally employed for the preparation of a vinous mash. The dry substances of potatoes constitute about 28 per cent., three-fourths of which is starch. The conversion of this starch into glucose can be efiected either by the action of malt or by that of dilute sulphuric acid. In the former case the potatoes, after cleansing, are cut into small pieces and thoroughly incor- porated with boiling water, malt (generally a mixture of malted rye and barley) then being added, and the proc- ess of mashing and cooling conducted as described above. The proportion of malt used is variable, but 5 per cent. is the average amount employed. In the preparation of the mash by the use of sulphuric acid, the raw potatoes are first converted into a pulp, which is thrown into a large vat containing water. When the starch has settled to the bottom of the vessel the supernatant liquid, which contains the albumen of the potatoes, is removed by means of a siphon, and the residue transformed into glucose by boiling with a very diluted sulphuric acid for about five hours, the point of complete conversion of the starch being as- certained by the iodine test. The fluid is next run through a wooden strainer, in order to remove the cellular tissue present, and the free acid is neutralized by the addition of chalk. The precipitated gypsum is then allowed to settle, the clear liquid being now ready for the fermentation-vat. The fermentation of potato-mash is carried on in a manner similar to that employed with malt, 4 per cent. of yeast being added, and from sixty to seventy hours required for the operation. One hundred pounds of potatoes afford about 16 lb. by measure of proof spirits. In Germany and Holland, where the sugar-beet is extensively cultivated, the poorer grades of a crop are often converted into spirits by fermentation and distillation, the process of mashing being omitted, as the sugar exists ready formed in the beet-root. Spirits can also be obtained from horse-chest- nuts, acorns, ete., by proper treatment; 100 lb. of the former can be made to yield 34 lb.. of a spirit containing 36 per cent. of alcohol. In the preparation of alcohol from this source the addition of 10 per cent. of barley malt is ad- visable. During the ferlnentation of the mash i-n the pre- ceding operations it is customary to expose the vats to the action of the atmosphere for the first few days, after which time they are tightly closed in order to prevent the escape of the ca_rbonic acid and the formation of acetic acid. The products of the fermentationof saccharine solutions include. in addition to carbon dioxide and alcohol, small proportions of glycerin and succinie acid. Distillation of the Mash-—The fermented wort consists of volatile and non-volatile substances, the former com- prising water, alcohol, fusel oil (a mixt.ure of axnylic, bu- 739 tylic, and propylic alcohols), small amounts of acetic acid, ete., the latter being vegetable fiber, decomposed and unde- composed yeast, malt, grain, salts, and small quantities of lactic and succinic acids and glycerin. Upon heating it to boiling in a still (see DISTILLATION) these bodies are sepa- rated, the vapors given off consisting essentially of alcohol and water. The boiling-point of the mixture is intermediate between that of alcohol and water (173° and 212° F.), but as distillation advances it becomes higher and the proportion of water carried over increases. The first distillate is termed " low-wines ” or “ singlings ” which on redistillation consti- tute the “faints,” the term whisky being usually applied to the spirit obtained by the distillation of the “faints,” al- though diversity exists in the method of separating, puri- fying, and naming the difierent grades of spirit. It is not possible by simple distillation to separate the water from the alcohol completely. the purest spirit that can be ob- tained in this way still containing 11 per cent. of water. By carrying on the distillation to the furthest point, in order to obtain the greatest possible quantity of alcohol, a danger of promoting the formation of fusel oil is incurred, as this mixture boils at a much higher temperature than alcohol. Fusel oil has an unpleasant fiery and nauseous flavor, which is communicated to spirits containing it. Its complete re- moval can be effected by diluting the contaminated alcohol with water and redistilling, only the first part of the distil- late being collected; but owing to the great expense thus incurred this is seldom resorted to. Fusel oil is chiefly con- tained in spirits prepared from potatoes, although it is also often present in that obtained from grain, especially when the solid substances introduced into the still have been allowed to become strongly heated, and undergo destructive distillation. The very numerous improved stills employed at present in the manufacture of spirits effect the separation of the alcohol and water either by causing the mixtures of alcoholic and aqueous vapors to pass through the alcohol at first distilled, by which process heat is generated and a sec- ondary evaporation of the alcohol induced. or by cooling the mixed vapors to such a degree that only the water and fusel oil are condensed and returned to the body of the liquid. The nauseous smell and taste of bad whisky are often re- moved by filtration through, or distillation from‘, charcoal. Fusel oil can also be removed by oxidation with manganic acid (Attwood‘s process), by agitating the contaminated spirit with olive oil, or by distilling it from “ gray salt” (potassium or sodium hydroxide) and “ white salt” (potas- sium carbonate) ; likewise by agitating 665 parts of the spirit with 1 part_of bleaching-powder, when a flavor re- sembling that of brandy is imparted to the product. A very large proportion of the whisky consumed in the U. S. and elsewhere is artificially prepared by reducing the raw prod- ucts of the distillation of malt or potato spirits with water and adding certain substances to give a desired flavor. Creosote, for instance, is sometimes added to impart a whisky flavor to inferior grades of spirit; methyl alcohol is also used, but probably to a less extent. The presence of fusel oil in a liquor will often become apparent on simply removing the alcohol by evaporation; it is also detected by distilling the sample and adding sulphuric acid to the por- tion that distills between 230° and 240° F., when a red color will be produced ; or by treating_this portion of the distillate with sulphuric and acetic acids. when amylic acetate will be evolved; likewise by oxidation with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, by which the characteristic odor of va- lerianic acid will be engendered. If a small quantity of sil- ver nitrate is added to a spirit containing fusel oil. this lat- ter compound separates in the form of a black powder on allowing the mixture to stand exposed to the sunlight for a short time. The presence of creosote can often be detected by its imparting a blue color to ferric chloride_. Pure whis- ky, when recently prepared, is nearly colorless. but if pre- served in casks it gradually acquires a brownish color. It contains minute quantities of acetic, butyric, and valerianic acids, and, if distilled from a copper still, traces of this metal may also be present. It has a specific gravity ranging be- tween 0922 and 0'94, and should contain from 48 to 56 per cent. (by weight) of absolute alcohol. In Great Britain and in the U. S. the excise on whisky has for many years been so great a source of revenue to the Gov- ernment that there is no doubt of the fact of this and other spirits being consumed in a much larger quantity than is consistent with health and morality. In the U. S. an excise was first imposed. on spirits in 1791. This was removed shortly afterward, but was again restored in 1812. Since 740 WI-IISKY REBELLION then the amount of tax has varied greatly; in 1862 it was 20 cents per proof gallon ; in 1864 it ranged from 60 cents to $2; in 1868'it was 50 cents; in 1872, 70 cents; 1n_1886 It was 90 cents; and in 1895 it was $1.10, under provisions of the Tariff Act of 1894. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, the total amount of whisky produced and deposited in distillery warehouses was: Bourbon, 15,518,349 taxable gal.; rye, 10,026.544; other (wheat, corn, malt, copper, and potato), 14,439,336: total, 39,979,229 gal. The total of dis- tilled spirits was 90,535,781 gal., and the total revenue re- ceipts thereon were $85,259,252. The followmg table shows the production of whisky by States in the fiscal year 1893- 94 in taxable gallons: STATES. Bourbon. Rye Other Aggregate. Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,734 13,734 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,143 80,592 82,735 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,144 . . . . . . . . . 15,144 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 584 Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . 2 .. ~ Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 278,689 219,469 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,265 29,266 3,557,826 3,617,351 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404,020 11,116 3,077,345 3,492,481 Kentucky . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. 14,591,178 1 426,162 1,178,132 17,195,472 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 064.422 179,435 2,243,857 Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,136 13,020 26,947 76.103 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.121 4,248 82,292 260,661 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,750 7,707 92,471 106,928 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 311,601 . . . . . . . .. 311,601 New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,222 3,013 9,093 132,328 North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,990 654.383 657,373 hio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147,142 340,781 4 379,056 4,866,979 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,12 3,120 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,414,479 42,832 5,457,311 South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,327 45,327 Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571,502 571,502 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.653 30,653 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104.780 62,258 167,038 West Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . 5,962 187,288 . . . . . . . . . 193,250 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32,553 57,600 68,065 158,218 Totals, 1894 . . . . . . . . . . 15,518,349 10,026,544 14,434,336 39.979,229 Totals, 1893 . . . . . . . . . . 40,835,873 16.702,240 17,305,773 74,843,836 Decrease, 1894 . . . . . . . 25,317,524 6,675,696 2,871,437 34.864,657 The internal revenue receipts on the manufacture of dis- tilled spirits in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, were $79,862,627. Revised by IRA Rnusnn. Whisky Rebellion: the name applied to the popular resistance to the excise laws in the four western counties of Pennsylvania in 1794. The assumption by the Federal Government of the right to levy an excise met with serious opposition on political grounds as dangerous to the liberty of the individual, but in Western Pennsylvania in addition to political opposition there was a strong feeling that the tax was an unfair discrimination against the people of that region. There whisky was the staple product and in such general demand that, like tobacco in colonial times, it served as a medium of exchange. The usual price being a shilling a gallon, a tax of 7 cents a gallon, as by the act of May, 1792, seemed excessive, and the law was further ob- jectionable on account of the official inspection of private property which it entailed. Attempts to enforce the law met with violent resistance and those who conformed to its provisions were visited with insults and abuse. Those who took part in these outrages took the name of Ton1 the Tinker, and threatening posters over this signature ap- peared throughout the disaffected region. In July, 1794, an attempt to serve writs on the violators of the law pro- voked an attack on the house of the inspector which. re- sulted in the killing of one of the rioters; and on the fol- lowing night blood was again shed in an encounter with the marshal and his men. The mail was robbed at the in- stigation of David Bradford, one of the ringleaders, who afterward induced the insurgents to call out the militia, seeking thereby to involve so many in the crime of resist- ing legal authority that the Government could not inflict the full measure of punishment. Pittsburg. some of whose inhabitants had given offense to the “ Whisky Boys,” as they were called, was threatened with destruction and obliged to expel the offending persons from the town. In Western Pennsylvania the movement was fast becoming an open re- bellion, and the spirit of revolt was spreading in the neigh- boring counties of Virginia and Maryland. Governor Milliin of Pennsylvania hesitated to take decided action, and would not at first call out the militia. The President, however, acted with vigor and made a requisition for about 13,000 militia from the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey. Virginia, and Maryland. They were ordered to be ready WI-IIST to move by Sept. 1, but before that date commissioners were dispatched by the President and the Governor of Pennsylvania to oifer amnesty to the insurgents on con- dition of complete submission. At a meeting of the mal- contents at Parkinson’s Ferry some fiery speeches were made, but it was nevertheless agreed to send a committee to treat with the commissioners. One of the delegates at this meeting was Albert Gallatin, who favored a moderate policy and at a subsequent conference prevailed on his as- soeiates to accept the terms offered by the commissioners. The attitude of the people in the four counties, however, was still threatening, and it was not till the troops had actu- ally begun their westward march that the insurgents lost courage. On the approach of the troops in October, com- missioners from the insurgents met them with assurances of peace, but these not being regarded as suflicient the army kept on and entered Parkinson’s Ferry. Many arrests were made and two of the prisoners were convicted of treason, but they were afterward pardoned by the President. At the first show of force the insurrection subsided at once. So far as immediate results were concerned it was of slight importance. Its chief significance lies in the fact that it was the first attempt forcibly to resist the Federal Govern- ment, that it decided the question whether the militia of one State would invade the soil of another at the call of the President, and that the precedent of a Federal excise was successfully established. See James Carnahan, The Pennsylvania Insurrection of 17.94, in Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society (vol. vi., 1851-53) ; also J . B. McMaster, History of the People of the United States (vol. ii., 1885). F. M. COLBY. Whist [etymology unknown; generally considered as a deriv. of whist ./ silence ! sh! so called because the game re- quires silence and attention]: a game of cards, played by four persons, two being partners against the other two. The game is chiefly remarkable from the fact that it is the only one in which it is not only permitted but expected that the partners shall inform each other of the various com- binations of cards that they hold ; and this not by word of mouth, but by the order in which they play them under varying conditions of the game and score. To such an ex- tent has this been carried that it is a task of no mean dif- ficulty to master the many conventionalities in use by ex- perts at the present day, and yet without this knowledge one can not be considered a fine player, no matter how shrewd he may be in other respects. Elements.-—The elements of the game are comparatively simple. A full pack of fifty-two cards is used. They are dealt one at a time to each player in rotation. and the last one is turned up, the suit to which it belongs being the trump for that deal. The player to the left of the dealer begins by leading any card he pleases, and the others must follow suit if they can; not to do so when able is called “revoking.” Should any player have none of the suit led, he can either trump it or throw away a card of another suit, which is called “ discarding.” If none of the four cards played is a trump, the highest card of the suit led wins the trick, the rank of the cards being ace, king, queen, knave, ten, nine, eight, seven, six, five, four, three, two. Trumps win against all other suits, the highest trump played taking the trick. Whoever‘ wins the trick has the lead for the next one. When more than six tricks have been gained by one side, it is usual to lay apart all those above six, as they are the only ones that count. For instance, if after the whole thirteen have been played, one side has gained five and the other eight, the latter counts two by cards, the former noth- ing. The ace, king, queen, and knave of trumps are called honors, and if honors are counted, the partners are entitled to claim one point for each honor that they hold more than their adversaries. The side first making five points, or under the American laws seven, is the winner of the game, and the side winning two out of three games wins the rubber. If the first two games are won by the same partners, the third is not played. lllodern Whist.—A careful examination of the rather ex- tensive literature of whist will show that it is a popular fal- lacy to suppose that the leading principles of whist strategy are modern. - Nothing is more common than the claim that the original lead of the longest suit is the peculiar feature of modern whist. There is no evidence that it was ever con- sidered good play to lead singletons. The essential differ- ence between modern whist and the style of game which we call old-fashioned lies in the recognition of the principle in WHIST stated by Clay: “It is of more importance to inform your partner than to deceive your adversary.” This is not um- versally true, and it might be qualified by saying that infor- mation is of more use to the strong hand than to the weak, for when the adversaries develop great strength, or a part- ner shows decided weakness, to give exact information would be very bad whist. The almost universal adoption of the information-giving mode of play required that there should be some generally understood method of communication, and a system was slowly elaborated by the best players and by writers on the game, which, while keeping in view the original purpose, trick-making. proceeded upon the principle that where any one of two or more cards would equally answer the purpose in view, the selection should be made in accordance with conventional rules for the purpose of giving information. For instance, a player with the lead, having the ace and king of a suit, might play either so far as trick-making was concerned, but for his partner’s information he should al- ways play the king. which, by its winning, would indicate the ace; therefore if a player first led the ace it would in- form his partner that he had not the king. Modern whist may then be divided into two parts: (1) The purely conventional rules, which must be learned from books or gathered from other players; (2) the strategy of the game, which depends on the shrewdness of the individ- ual, and the skillful use of the information afiorded by the conventional plays. One can become a fair player with the first without the second, but not with the second without the first. The combination of both makes the expert. Un- fortunately the tendency of latter-day whist is so to com- plicate the conventional part of it that most persons mis- take it for the entire matter, and never reach the second stage. All modern works on whist are devoted too much to conventionalities, only one, Foster’s Duplicate l/Vhist, being exclusively devoted to strategy. These conventional methods of communication, which every player should know by heart, may be divided into two classes, those used in attack and those required for de- fense. In attack the facts required to be known are: (1) The general strength or weakness of the hand and the best suit it contains—shown by the original lead. (2) Whether the suit is " established” or not, and if not how mucl1 establish- ing it needs—shown by always leading from certain combi- nations of cards in certain ways under similar conditions. (3) The assistance that can be given t.o the partner——shown by the return leads and the management of trumps. (4) The number of trumps held—shown by leading them, by “calling ” for them, by “echoing,” by “passing,” and by “forcing.” In defense the partners require to know: (1) What chance there is of sto ping the adverse suits—shown by the second-hand play. an by the last player winning the trick with the lowest possible card. (2) The suits which are best protected. (3) The suits which it is desirable to have led; and (4) the suits which it is necessary to avoid—all shown by the discard. The details of this system are briefly as follows: In Attael;.——1. The strongest suit is usually selected for the original lead. It may be strong numerically, as five or six cards, or intrinsically strong by reason of high cards. If there is a choice the numerically strong suit should be se- lected, the high cards in the other being kept as cards of re- entry. The point to which the manoeuvers of all good players tend is to establish and bring in their long suit. It is useless to play for this unless the suit is accompanied by some card of re-entry, and the holder or his partner has probably sufficient trump strength to defend it. VVhen a player has no good suit, or a long weak suit without any card of re-entry, it is better to lead some card, even from a short suit, which will warn the partner at once that the hand is weak. Such leads are called “ forced.” If the hand contains five trumps it is usually best to lead them, regardless of the remainder of the hand. Four trumps should be led from if the leader 01' his partner has an estab- lished suit, with a probable card of re-entry. Three, or even less, may be led from if the rest of the hand is unusually strong. or if it is desirable to stop the adversaries from trumping. 2. Leads.—-The condition of the suit led from is shown by the card selected from each of the various combinations. The king is led if it is accompanied by either the ace or the queen, or both. The ace is led if there are five or more cards in the suit, or if it is accompanied by both the queen and knave, with or without other cards. The queen is led 741 if accompanied by the knave and ten and there is no higher card in the suit. The knave instead of the king is led from the sequence of king, queen, knave, and not less than five cards in the suit. The ten is led if accompanied by the knave and the king. Having none of these combinations, the fourth-best card is selected to inform the partner that three higher remain in the hand, but that they do not form any of the combinations from which a high card would be led. When a weak suit of only three cards is led from, the highest is played, unless it is an ace. king, or queen. Queen may be led if the knave is present. Trumps maybe led differently when the object is not to exhaust them imme- diately, but simply to play them as the strongest suit. The fourth-best may be led, even with ace and king. or king and queen, or ace and four or more others. Holding the four honors, or ace, king, and queen. the lowest of the winning cards is first played. Other combinations are led from as in plain suits. On the second round of a suit the player leads the best card of the suit if held, or holding two or more equally the best, the lowest that will win the trick. Holding second and third best, such as queen and knave, after the ace has been played he leads the queen if three of the suit remain; the knave if four or more. If a card which is not the best wins, such as a king led from king and queen, the partner may be assumed to have the best, and a small card be led to him. A queen led is followed by the knave if three cards remain. by the ten if four or more. A fourth-best is fol- lowed by the best if held. or by another small one. American Leads.—A system of leading in which an at- tempt is made to show the number in the suit as well as the combination of high cards has lately been advocated by Hamilton, Fisher Ames. and “ Cavendish ” in his twentieth edition. The idea is old, and has been several times unsuc- cessfully advocated during the nineteenth century. The key ' to it is that the king is not led if there are more than four cards in the suit. From ace, king, the ace is led; from ace, king, queen, the queen ; from the four court cards, the knave. The system has been on trial for several years, but is still condemned by a number of those recognized as players of the first class. also by such writers as Drayson, Pembridge, Hogul, and Foster. The chief objection to it ‘is that on the first round these leads may mean anything, and on the second they seldom convey more than the leads in general use. Of the nine principal combinations from which court cards are first played. it is usual to lead the king from five, the ace from two, and the queen and knave from one each. The new system. by rejecting the king. has to make the ace, queen, and knave each represent three of these nine com- binations. which often leads to confusion. The new leads are very attractive to those who think giving information is the chief object in whist, and winning the game a secondary consideration. When opposed to mere book players they do little harm, but they put weapons into the hands of a shrewd adversary, and are particularly weak when opposed to false cards judiciously played. 3. Partners Dutics.—A systematic method of leading enables the partner to estimate the probable contents of the leader's hand. If an ace is led the leader may be credited with at least four more of the suit. or both queen and knave, but not the king. If king is led he has either ace or queen, perhaps both. If queen is led he has neit ier ace nor king. but probably both knave and ten. If ten is led he has probably both knave and king. If a knave is led he has either king and queen, with a long suit, or he has a very weak hand. When a small card is led it is probably the best suit. and the partner does his best to win the trick, but as cheaply as possible. Holding ace and king, the king wins it the most cheaply. Holding ace and queen, the queen may be " finessed." When the partner of the original leader wins the first trick he may do any one of four things : 1st. Lead trumps, if he has five or more, or four with an established suit and a card of re-entry. 2d. Lead back the best card of the leader’s suit. if he holds it, before introducing his own. 3d. Lead his own suit, if it is worth trying to establish. 4th. Return the leader’s suit, with the lowest if he has three or more remaining: with the higher if only two, no matter what they are. When the original lead is a trump the partner should always return it if he has one. 4. Trump-signals.—Connting the trumps is very im- portant. Leading them at the right moment decides many a game. A player not having the lead, but wanting trumps out, can “call” for them if he has two cards such as the 742 five and three of a suit led, by playing the five first, then the three. The best players are divided in opinion as to the value of this artifice, some thinking it an unmixed evil. It is very useful to the beginner, as by its use a more experienced partner can direct him. When a player leads trumps his partner can show four or more by “calling” in the trump suit. This is known as the “echo.” The absence of the echo shows he has not four. A player may show four trumps by “ passing ” a doubtful trick ; as when he is second player to a small card led of a suit of which he has none. A player leading a suit with the evident intention of “ forcing ” his partner to trump it shows strcngthin trumps, as it is usually bad play to do so with a weak trump hand. \/Vhen an adversary leads trumps it is always well to “force” him to use his trumps for rufiing. Many fine hands are ruined by being forced. The usual rule is: “Always force the strong, sel- dom the weak, never both.” In Defense.—1. The second player to an adverse lead of a small card should playa high card if he has any combina- tion from which he would lead a high one. If he holds king, knave, ten. and a small card, he should play the ten second hand; or holding king and queen, with others, the queen. This will indicate to his partner that he holds cer- tain combinations of high cards in the adverse suits. The fourth player may win a trick with a knave, showing his partner that he holds still higher cards, as the leader could not have held both ace and king, or king and queen, or all three of them, and the third player could not hold any of them. 2. When the adversaries play a strong attacking game, as by leading trumps, or when a player is weak in trumps, he must keep guard on the adversaries’ suits, and discard from his own or his partner’s. When a player can not follow suit to an adverse lead of trumps he usually discards from his best-protected suit. 3. It must not always be assumed that a player on the defensive wants the suit led from which he discards. If he has no trumps, and if he “ calls” in his discards, the suit in which he calls should be led to him by his partner at the first opportunity. The discard of the best of a suit will also show the command of it. 4. When a player on the defensive discards the lowest of a suit, it is not wise to lead that suit to him. When he discards the second-best of a suit he does so to show that he has not the best, and can not win a trick in that suit. When a player wins the first trick of an adversary’s original lead he must be guided by his position at the table. If he is second player he must open another suit; but if fourth player it is usually better to lead back the same suit than to open a weak one of his own. Many of the stratagems in use by experts can be learned only by long practice at the whist-table. These are such as finessing, underplay, placing the lead, false cards, making tcnaces, holding up winning cards, refusing to win tricks, and delusive discards. A most important thing is judg- ment of character, and no one can play his best among strangers. Duplicate Whtst.-—For the purposes of match play there has lately come into use the form of whist known as “ dupli- cate,” caller “rejoué ” in Foster’s Duplicate Whist. The cards are dealt as usual, but each player lays the one he plays in front of him on the table, the winner of the trick taking a counter from thirteen previously placed there. The cards of each of the players are kept separate, and are preserved by some one of the many mechanical devices in- vented for the purpose. Each deal is called a “ hand,” and a new pack is required for every deal, until an agreed num- ber have been played, usually 12, 16, 20, or 24. The original hands are then. one at a time, placed on the table again, face down, and taken up and replayed ; but the cards originally held by one pair of partners are now given to the other. Each side should make thirteen tricks in the orig- inal and the duplicate play taken together; if they fail to do so the number is the measure of their loss. If one pair, having the lead, make eight tricks out of thirteen on the original play, and the other pair with the lead make only seven on the duplicate play of the same cards, the latter have lost a trick. It is usual to have four players on each side, arranged at two tables, the hands played at one table being taken to the other for the overplay, to prevent any chance of the hands being memorized. This form of whist i-' supposed to eliminate luck. It does not do so entirely, but it is the nearest approach. to it yet suggested. WH IST Dummy and Double Dummy-—In dummy two are part- ners against one, who turns face up on the table his dummy partner’s cards, which he )lays to suit his own hand. The main point in the game is to lead up to dummy’s weak suits and through his strong ones. In double dummy two single players each turn up their dummy partner’s cards. This game is entirely analysis, like chess. There is only one work exclusively on dummy, Le W htst oi Trots, by Charles Lahure. It has never been translated. Laws of W'/ze'st.——Tl1ere are at present extant two codes of laws: the English, generally known as the “ Club Code,” given in full in Cavendish on lVhe'st, and the American Whist League Code, given in full in Foster’s W7n'st Jllanual. Their chief differences are as follows : In the English code the game is five points, honors are counted, and rubbers are played. The penalty for a revoke is the loss of three tricks, or the deduction of three points from the score of the revoking players, or the addition of three points to that of their adversaries. The last trick may be seen. In the American code the game is seven points, no honors are counted, and no rubbers played. The value of the game is determined by deducting the score of the losers from seven. The penalty for a revoke is the loss of two tricks. The last trick can not be seen. There are ninety-one laws in the English code, forty in the American. The following should be familiar to every player : In scoring games the penalty for a revoke counts first, tricks next, and honors last. When the players begin a hand at the score of four they can not count honors; they must make the odd trick to win the game. Honors, unless claimed before the trump card of the following deal is turned up, can not be scored. An erroneous score can be corrected at any time during the game in which it occurs. A misdeal loses the deal. The dealer may not count the cards he has dealt, nor the remainder of the pack. Exposed cards, such as cards played in error, two or more played at once, or a card dropped face upward on the table, must be left there, and can be called by the adversaries; but the adversaries can not prevent their being played when the opportunity oifers. If a player leads out of turn the adversaries may call a suit from the player in error or from his partner when it is next the turn of either of them to lead. If the other three liaévcz1 played before the error is discovered it can not be rec- ti e . A revoke is established after the trick in which it occurs is turned and quitted. The revoking players can not win the game that hand, no matter what they score. Any player may ask the others to indicate which of the cards on the table they played, provided the cards have not been touched for the purpose of gathering them. IItstory and Leterature.-—Tl1e origin of the game is a mystery, although some writers on the subject fancy they have solved it. The word “ whist,” so spelled, occurs for the first time, so far as known. in Hudibras the Second Part, published in 1663 : But what was this ? A game at whist. . . . Several attempts have been made to derive whist from the old French and Italian games of “triumph,” referred to by Rabelais and other writers early in the sixteenth century. This has now been abandoned by the best judges. The English game of “ ruff and honors” is sometimes put for- ward as the father of whist; but Charles Cotton, in the Compleat Games-ter, published in 1674, follows up his de- scription of the game ruff and honors by specifying whist as a different game. In both games only twelve cards were dealt to each player; but in ruff and honors the whole pack was used, the trump being turned from the remaining four, and these four were “rufl'ed,” or taken in by the holder of the ace of trumps. In whist the four deuces were thrown out of the pack, and the forty-eighth card was turned up for trump. A variation known as “ whisk and swabbers ” seems to have flourished about the same time, the “swabbers” being a parasite growth, resembling the “joker” in a euchre pack. In all these the game was nine points, honors were counted, and the players could “call” at eight. Early in the eighteenth century it became the custom to use the entire pack of fifty-two cards, thus intro- ducing the odd trick, and ten points became the game, honors being called at eight as formerly. I-1oylc.—-It does not appear that whist was originally in favor among the better classes of society, who devoted their WHIST time to piquet, ombre, and quadrille. Daines Barrington informs us that about 1728, a little whist school used to meet at the Crown Coffee-house in Bedford Row, London. Its leading spirit seems to have been the first Lord Folke- stone, and it is to be regretted that he did not anticipate the famous little whist school of 1860 by keeping some rec- ord of their studies and publishing the results. All that is known of their game is that they established, if they did not discover, the advantage of leading from strong suits, of studying their partner’s hand, and of playing to the score. It is more than probable that the famous Edmund Hoyle was a frequenter of the Crown, and, if not actually a mem- ber of the school, was familiar with its teachings, to Wll1Ch he added a number of calculations on odds and an artificial method of arranging the cards in the hand so as to_ass1st the memory. This fund of information he communicated to private pupils for the sum of one guinea, but in 1742-43 he published his laws under the name of the Short Treatise. The only copy known to be genuine of the first edition pf this remarkable book is in the Bodleian. The laws laid down by Hoyle were revised by the members of White’s and Saunders’s, and remained the authority for over a century. Hoyle died in 1769, yet for forty years after his death l1lS book was the standard work on whist. Paine’s Jlfaxims was published about 1770, and was re- garded as the authority about the beginning of the nine- teenth century. IlIatthe'ws.—About 1804 Thomas Matthews published his Advice to the Young lVhist Player. This rapidly became the authority, and is still regarded by experts as one of the best works on whist, most of the modern writers borrowing from it very freely. The author was regarded as the best player of his day, and there are many who believe that he and Deschapelles were the only two men that ever mastered the game. In the seventh edition (1813) short whist spoken of for the first time, and some notes on its influence on whist strategy. In 1822 Admiral Burney brought out his Treatise, largely plagiarized from Matthews, and in 1835 Matthews’s work was rewritten by Major A. Deschapelles.—-In 1839 a Frenchman, M. Deschapelles, who enjoys the reputation of being the finest whist player that ever lived, published his Traité du Whiste, a commen- tary on the then existing laws, and of no value to the mod- ern player. He was famous for his finesse, and all who played with him seem to have acknowledged his genius: yet not a single game of his is extant, and only one coup bears his name. “Coelebs,” in 1851, makes the first mention of the now universal trump-signal. Many other writers followed, such as Bob Short, Cam. and \Valker. All these followed the maxim system more or less closely, and their works suggest the idea of a collection of lectures delivered to stupid part- ners at the whist-table, hastily noted down at the time, and given to the printer without further revision. Cavendish.—In 1862, under the title of The Laws and Principles o_f Whist, a writer adopting the pseudonym of Cavendish made the first attempt to state the general prin- ciples of play, and for the first time published illustrative hands. This work is still the standard all over the world. In 1864 James Clay published his Short lVhist. He was one of the finest players of his day, but not so exact nor so logical a writer as Cavendish. The famous IVestmz'nster Papers were issued from 1868 to 1879, forming a most in- teresting collection of whist jottings and examples of the skill of famous players. Dr. Pole’s Theory of l/Vhist ap- peared in 187 0. It is ingenious, but considered unsound, as it fails to take into account the theory of weak leads. His Philosophy of W hist is an abstruse essay on the intellectual and scientific aspects of the game. Drayson.--In 1879 Maj.-Gen. Drayson published the Art of Practical Whist, in which the ante-penultimate leads were given for the first time. The principles of these leads has since been erroneously attributed to N. B. Trist, who suggested in a letter to the Field that they be called fourth- best leads. Drayson also introduced some radical changes in the management of trumps, and he is regarded as the au- thority on that subject. Proctor published in one volume the whist matter that had appeared in Knowledge from mouth to month. “ Pem- bridge,” a bitter opponent of the ultra refinements of the modern school, wrote Bumblepuppy and the Decline and Fall of W hist. two very bright essays on how not to play whist. In 1889 Foster’s Whist Jllanual was published, fol- WHITAKEE 743 lowing closely upon his invention of the “ self-playing whist cards.” In the Manual he collected the latest and best systems of play, and arranged them with a view solely to enabling the student to master them rapidly and easily. Systematic exercises with the cards were given for the first time, the play of the second hand was simplified, and his discovery of the eleventh rule was published. A second series of the self-playing cards followed, then a Poclret Guide to Modern Whist, Foster’s Duplicate Whist, and Whist Strat- egy, and IVhist Tactics. In the U. S. several authors have published works on whist. “G. W. P.” wrote American lVhist, 'Wh-ist Universal, and Whist in Diagrams. Instead of following the usual cus- tom and presenting the results of the experience of the best players up to his own time, this author insisted on certain theories of his own. Fisher Ames has published two works —A Practical Guide to lVhist and American Leads at IV/iist. They follow the new style of leading, and are writ- ten on the maxim system. C. D. P. Hamilton’s fllodern Sci- entific IVhz'st is the most voluminous work on the subject so far published. It contains 600 pages of exhaustive analysis, every possible position of the cards being illustrated in dia- gram. He advocates the informatory game, with the Amer- ican system of leads. R. F. FOSTER. Whistler, JAMES ABBOTT MCNEILL: figure, landscape, and portrait painter; b. in Lowell, Mass., in 1834; pupil of Gleyre in Paris ; settled in London in 1863; received a third- class medal at the Paris Salon of 1883, and a first-class medal at the Paris Exposition of 1889; became an offieer of the Le- gion of Honor 1891, and a member of the Society of Ameri- can Artists 1880. His works are individual in character, and are notable for subtle color-harmony. He is one of the greatest of modern etchers, and has painted some masterly portraits. His Portrait of my I/llother, painted in 187 2 and exhibited in New York at the Society of American Artists in 1882, was, in 1892, bought by the French Government for the Luxembourg Gallery. Paris. He published The Gentle Art of Ilfahing Enemies (1890; enlarged ed. 1892). His studio was in London for a number of years. but in 1892 he removed to Paris. \/VILLIAM A. Corrm. “'hist0n, WILLIAM: clergyman and mathematician: b. at Norton, Leicestershire. England, Dec. 9, 1667; educated at Tamworth School; entered Clare Hall, Cambridge; ob- tained a fellowship there 1693, and became a mathematical tutor; took orders in the Church of England 1693; was chaplain to the Bishop of Norwich 1694-98, and vicar of Lowestoft 1698-1701; became deputy to Sir Isaac Newton in the -Lucasian professorship of hi athematics at Cambridge 1701, and succeeded to that chair in 1703, but was deprived of it and expelled from the university Oct. 30, 1710, in con- sequence of having expressed Arian views in the Boyle lec- tures; was pronounced a heretic by the convocation of 1711; was pardoned by an " act of grace " 1715; removed to Lon- don, where he gave private lectures on astronomy and nat- ural philosophy; was an active writer on theological sub- jects; became a Baptist and a Millenarian, and gathered a congregation in his own house to which he expounded “primitive Christianity” and predicted the advent of the millennium and the restoration of the J cws to Palestine in 1766. He was the author of A New Theory of the Earth (1696). Of his many other works the best known are The Accomplishment of Scripture Prophecies (1708); Primitive Christianity Revived (5 vols., 1711-12) : The Primitive 1Ve~zc Testament (1745); and» his translation of the lVorlcs of J o- sephus (folio, 1737), which has been carefully revised by Rev. A. R. Shilleto, in Bohn's Library (1890). A curious and in- teresting account of his life is given in his lllemoirs (1749- 50). D. in London, Aug. 22, 1752. Revised by S. M. J AcxsoN. Whitaker, Rev. NATHANIEL, D. D.: b. on Long Island, N. Y., Feb. 1732; graduated at Princeton College in 17 52; entered the ministry. and took charge of a church at Chelsea, near Norwich. Conn., where he remained until 1761. when he was deputed by the Scotch Society for the Advancement of Learning (of which there was a branch in Connecticut) to visit Scotland. England. and \‘-Vales for the purpose of obtaining donations for the establishment of an institution of learning in America for the education and christianization of the North American Indians. He took with him Rev. SA.\Iso.\* Oc-con (q. r.). an educated Ind- ian, who had been licensed to preach by the Prcsbvterian denomination. The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland warmly sympa-thi'/.ed with their plans and pur- 74,4 WHITAKER poses. In England the mission also met with favor. (See Extracts of Several Sermons Preached in the City of Bris- tol by iVathaniel I/Vhitaher and Samson Cccom, Bristol, 1766.) The Earl of Dartmouth, then secretary of Ameri- can affairs, received the strangers with great kindness, and generously promoted their object by his benefactions. The king, George III., it is said, himself gave £400 to the cause. - From different sources there was contributed to the fund, during the two years of Dr. Whitaker's visit to Europe, the sum of £11,000, to which considerable additions were after- ward made before the outbreak of the American Revolu- tion. With an endowment so obtained, Dartmouth College at Hanover, N. H., was founded. On his return from Eu- rope, Dr. \Vhitaker formed a Presbyterian church at Salem, Mass., and ofiiciated there for a number of years. He after- ward removed to Maine and thence to Virginia. Many of his sermons were published and extensively circulated throughout New England. He was an ardent Whig, and zealously supported the cause of the colonies in their strug- gle for independence in 1776. D. at Woodbridge, V a., J an. 21, 1795. Revised by S. M. J iicicson. Whitaker, Ozi WILLIAM, D. D.: bishop; b at New Salem, l\lass., May 10, 1830; graduated at Middlebury College, Ver- mont 1856; was principal of the North Brookfield (Mass.) High School for four years ; graduatedat the General Theo- logical Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1863; was ordained deacon in Boston July 15, 1863, and priest Aug. 7 of the same year; was rector of St. J ohn’s church, Gold Hill, N ev., from Oct., 1863, to July, 1865; was rector of St. Paul’s, Englewood, N. J., from Oct., 1865, to Feb., 1867; became rector of St. Paul’s, Virginia City, Nov., in Apr., 1867; was elected missionary Bishop of Nevada and Arizona in 1868, and consecrated in New York Oct., 1869. Bishop Whitaker was elected assistant Bishop of Pennsyl- vania in 1886, and became the‘ diocesan on the decease of Bishop Stevens in June, 1887. Revised by ‘N. S. PERRY. Whitby: town; in the North Riding of Yorkshire, Eng- land; at the mouth of the Esk in the North Sea; 54 miles N. N. E. of York (see map of England, ref. 5—I). It has a good harbor, protected by two piers, 300 and 800 yards long, jutting out into the sea; drydocks for building and repair- ing ships; manufactures of sailcloth and cordage, and an extensive trade. J et, alum, and iron ores are exported. A monastery founded here in 657 by St. Hilda was burned by the Danes in 867, and was rebuilt in 1078 as a Benedictine abbey for monks. Pop. (1891) 13,274. Whitby: town of Ontario, Canada; capital of Ontario County; on the north shore of Lake Ontario; on the Grand Trunk Railway, 31 miles E. of Toronto (see map of Ontario, ref. 4-E). Its port is one of the best on the Cana- dian shore of Lake Ontario. Its original name was Wind- sor, but this was changed because of the Windsor on the Detroit river. Pop. (1891) 2,786. M. W. H. White, ANDREW DICKSON, LL. D., L. H. D. : educator; b. at Homer, N. Y., Nov. 7, 1832; removed in childhood to Syracuse ; graduated at Yale College 1853; traveled in Eu- rope; was several months an attaché of the U. S. legation in Russia; studied at the University of Berlin 1854-55; was Professor of History and English Literature at the Univer- sity of Michigan 1857-63; visited England 1863: returned to Syracuse; was State Senator 1863-66; introduced the bills which codified the school laws, created the new system of normal schools, and incorporated Cornell University; was chosen first president of that institution 1866; visited Eu- rope to purchase for it books and apparatus and to study modern educational methods ; has been a liberal contributor to the university, in which, besides the presidency, he filled the chair of Modern History until his resignation June 17, 1885; was one of the commissioners sent by President Grant to Santo Domingo to study the question of annexation 1871; was American minister to Germany 1879-81, and to Russia 1892-94; and has taken a considerable part as a Re- publican in the politics of his State and of the nation. He presented his historical library, comprising about 20,000 volumes, besides some 10,000 pamphlets and many rare manuscripts, to Cornell University, and has since enlarged the gift by continued benefactions. Author of Outlines of Lectures on llfedineoal and lllodern History (Detroit, ‘1861 ; Ithaca, 1872. etc.); A,Word from the Northwest (1863), in reply to Dr. W. H. Russell; The Plan of Organization for Cor- nell Unioersity (1868); The New Education (1868), being his inaugural address: a Report on the Co-education of the Sexes (1871); The Warfare of Science (1876 ; new and much WHITE enlarged edition, 1895); Paper Jlfoney Inflation in France (1876, 1882); A History of the Doctrine of Comets (1887); and many addresses and magazine articles, mainly on his- torical, political, and educational topics. Revised by GEORGE L. BURR. White, CHARLES ABIATHAR, A. M., M. D.: geologist; b. at North Dighton, Mass., J an. 26, 1826; removed to Iowa in 1839. and graduated at Rush Medical College, Chicago, 1863 ; was State geologist of Iowa 1866-70; Professor of Natural History in the Iowa State University 1867-73: from 1873-75 held a similar position at Bowdoin College, and since 1874 has been connecte_d with different national geological surveys. He was appointed geologist to the U. S. Survey 1882, and pale- ontologist 1883, which oflice he still holds in connection with honorary curatorship in U. S. National Museum. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences 1889. His principal works are Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Iowa (1870); Jllanual of the Physical Geography and Institutions of the State of Iowa (1873); Bibliography of NorthAmerican I nrertebrate Palaeontology, contributions to Inrertebrate Palaeontology, Nos. 1, 2, and 8 (1879-83) ; A Review of the iVon-ilfarine Fossil llfollusca 0 f North America (1883) ; A Review of the Cretaceous Forma- tions of North America (1891); The Texan Permian and its fllesozoic Types of Fossils (1891); and other scientific works, numbering in all nearly 200 titles. An Annotated Catalogue of his writings was published in VVashington, D. C., in 1885. Revised by C. H. THURBER. WVhite, GILBERT: clergyman and author; b. at Selborne, Hampshire, England, July 18, 1720; educated at Basing- stoke School and at Oriel College, Oxford; graduated 1743; became a fellow of Oriel 1744, retaining that place through life; became senior proctor of the university 1752; took orders in the Church of England, but declined ecclesiastical preferment, though ofiiciating as curate at his native village, where he spent most of his life upon his paternal estate, chiefly occupied in those minute observations in natural history on which his fame is based. D. at Selborne, June 20, 1793. He was the author of The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne in the County of Southampton (1789) and The Naturalist’s Calendar, with Obserrations in Various Branches of Natural History (1795), a post- humous work made up from his papers by Dr. John Aikin. Among the naturalists who have published annotated edi- tions of these two works (usually published together) may be mentioned Sir W. J ardine (1833), Capt. Thomas Brown (1835), Edward T. Bennett (1837), Blyth and Mudie (1850), Edward Jesse (1850), Rev. J . G. Wood (1854), Frank Buck- land (London, 1875). and Richard Jefferies (1887). The new- est edition (2 vols. New York 1895) has an Introduction by John Burroughs. A volume of his Letters was issued by J . E. Harting (1876). White, HENRY KIRKE: poet; b. at Nottingham, England, Mar. 21, 1785; was the son of a butcher; was apprenticed to a stocking-weaver, and afterward to an attorney, in whose office he found time to study the classics and several modern languages, as well as English literature, drawing, and music ; began to write verses for magazines in his fifteenth year; gained several prizes offered by publishers of periodicals; printed a volume, Clifton Grove, a Sketch in Verse, with other Poems (1803), which won for him the high regard of Southey and other men of letters, by whom he was encour- aged to study for the ministry; obtained a sizarship at St. J ohn’s College, Cambridge, 1804; was for two years at the head of his class, and became a tutor in mathematics, but destroyed his health by excessive study, and died of con- sumption at Cambridge, Oct. 19, 1806. His papers were placed in the hands of Southey, who published his Remains, etc., with an Account of his Life (2 vols., 1807; vol. iii., 1822), which obtained for him a permanent place in English literature. A republication of his Poetical W orhs was issued (London, 1869). Revised by H. A. BEERS. VVhite, HORACE, M. A. : journalist; b. at Colebrook, N. H., Aug. 10, 1834; graduated at Beloit College, 'Wis., in 1853. He was for many years connected with The Chicago Trib- une, and was its editor 1865-74. Since 1883 he has, con- jointly with E. L. Godkin, edited The Evening Post (New York). Besides editing other economical works, he is the author of Jlloney and Banking, Illustrated by American Ifistory (Boston, 1895). White, HUGH LAwsoN: jurist; b. in Iredell co., N. C., Oct. 30, 1773; son of Gen. James White (1759-1821), a pioneer WHITE settler of Knoxville, Tenn., where he removed 1786. The son served as a volunteer against the Cherokee Indians 1792; stud- icd at Philadelphia 1794-96; read law at Lancaster, Pa. ; began practice in Knoxville 1796; was judge of the State Supreme Court 1801-07 and 1809-15; became U. S. district attorney 1807, State Senator 1809 and 1817, president of the State Bank of Tennessee 1815, and commissioner of Spanish claims 1820; was U. S. Senator 1825-35 and 1836-39; presi- dent pro tem. of that body 1832; received the electoral votes of Georgia and Tennessee for President of the U. S. at the election of 1836; and resigned his seat in the Senate 1839, iii consequence of having received from the Legislature instruc- tions requiring him to vote contrary to his judgment. at Knoxville, Tenn., A pr. 10, 1840. A ilfcmoir, with Selections from his Speeches and Correspondence (Philadelphia, 1856), was prepared by Nancy N. Scott, one of his descendants. White, JOHN: clergyman; b. at Stanton, St. John, Ox- fordshire, England, in 1574; educated at Oxford; became perpetual fellow of New College 1595, and rector of Trinity church, Dorchcster, 1606; was one of the most efficient pro- moters of the colonization of New England, and especially of Dorchestcr and Gloucester, Mass., both by his pen and by his personal influence; was known as the patriarch of Dorchester, and was a member of the \/Vestminster Assembly of divines. D. at Dorchcster, England, July 21, 1648. He was the author of The Plantcr’s Plea, or the Grounds of Plantations Examined and Usual Objections Answered (London, 1630); The First Century of Scandalous, .h[alig- nant Priests Blade and Admitted into Bencficcs by the Pre- latcs (1643) ; A Commentary upon the Three First Chapters of Genesis (1656), etc. Revised by S. M. J AGKSON. White, J OHN WILLIAMS: Greek scholar; b. at Cincinnati, O., Mar. 5, 1849; graduated at Ohio Vilesleyan University, Delaware, 0., 1868; appointed Professor of Greek and Latin at Willoughby College, Ohio, 1868; at Baldwin University, Ohio, 1869; tutor of Greek in Harvard College 1874; assist- ant Professor 1877-84, when, upon the death of Prof. Sopho- clcs, he was elected to fill the vacant chair. He published numerous school-books and a number of archaeological pa- pers, and is one of the editors of Ginn’s College Series of Greek Authors. ALFRED GUDEMAN. White, JOSEPH BLANCO2 author; b. at Seville, Spain, July 11, 1775, of an Irish Catholic family settled in Spain; was known in Spain as J osE IVIARIA BLANCO Y CRESPO; was or- dained a priest 1799, but soon lost confidence in Roman Catholicism, though continuing in its priesthood until 1810, when, in consequence of the political crisis in Spain, he went to England; was tutor in Lord Holland’s family; conducted a monthly Spanish paper, El Espariol (1810-14), rendering services to the cause of Spanish independence, which were rewarded by the English Government with a life-pension of £250; took orders in the Church of England; resided in London as a man of letters, producing several works in Spanish and English; conducted (1822-25) another Spanish journal, Las Varicdadcs, and was editor of the short-lived London Review (1829); was tutor in the family of Arch- bishop Whately at Dublin 1832-35, after which he avowed himself a Unitarian; settled at Liverpool, where he died May 20, 1841. Among his publications were Letters from Spain, by Leocadio Doblado (1822); Practical and Internal Evidence against Catholicism (1825); The Poor ]l[an’s Prcservative against Popery (1825); Second Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a Religion (2 vols., 1833); and an instructive autobiography in the form of letters, addressed chiefly to Archbishop Whately, edited by Rev. J . H. Thom as a art of Life and Correspondence (3 vols., 1845). Blanco Vhite’s Night and Death was called by Coleridge the finest sonnet in the English language. White, PEREGRINE: the first child of English parentage born in New England; was the son of \Villiam White arid his wife Susanna, passengers in the lliayflower, and was born on that vessel in Cape Cod Bay on Nov. 20, 1620; be- came a citizen of Marshfield, where he was given 200 acres of land in “consideration of his birth ”; was “ vigorous and of a comely aspect”; filled various civil and military offices, and reached a good old age, dying at Marshfield, July 22, 1704. His father died during the first winter at Plymouth, and his mother married Gov. Edward Winslow, theirs being the first marriage in New England. White, R_ICHARD GRANT: Shakesperean scholar; b. in New York city, May 22, 1821 ; graduated at the University of New York 1839 ; studied medicine and law; was admit- 745 ted to the bar 1845; was associate editor of the New York Courier and Enquirer 1851-58; and subsequently, 1860-61, of the World; wrote largely for reviews and magazines, chiefly on music, Shakespeare, and social subjects, to which he added some essays on the English language; was the writer of the “Yankee Letters” in the London Spectator 1863-67, and for nearly twenty years was chief clerk of the U. S. revenue marine bureau in the district of New York, resigning in 1878. He was the author of Biographical and Critical Handbook of Christian Art (1853); Shalcespearcls Scholar (1854); The Authorship of the Three Parts of ffenry V]. (Cambridge, 1859); lVational Hymns, a Lyrical and lVational Study for the Times (New York, 1861) ; The New Gospel of Peace (4 parts, Cambridge, 1863-66); an anonymous political satire which acquired great celebrity; flfcmoirs of the Life of IVilliam Sha/ccspeare, with an Es- say toward the Expression of his Genius, etc. (Boston, 1865), an abridgment of which formed part of the first volume of his scholarly annotated edition of Shakespeare (12 vols., Boston, 1857-65); and Words and their Uses (New York, 1870). He appended notes to, but did not edit, Burton's Boole-hunter (1866), and collected and edited Poetry of the Civil War (1866). In 1880 he published Every-day Eng- lish, and also The American View of the Copyri_g/hz‘ Ques- tion; in 1881, England lVithout and li'ith in, which has been generally accepted byBritish critics as one of the most correct and impartial views of English character and Eng- lish life over presented; in 1883. The Riverside Shakes- peare, with biography, introductions, and notes (3 vols., Cambridge); in 1884, The Fate of I/llansjield Humphreys, a novel. He was the author of a series of articles on the failure of the public-school system in the U. S. (1881) which provoked much controversy. A volume of Studies in Shakes- peare, made up from his contributions to various period- icals and revised just before his death, was published in Boston in 1886. D. in New York city, Aug. 8, 1885. Revised by W. J . ROLFE. White, WILLIAM, D.D.: bishop; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Apr. 4, 1748, or according to some authorities, Mar. 24. 1747 or 1748; graduated at the College of Philadelphia 1765: studied theology in England; took orders in the Church of England 1770; was rector of Christ church and St. Peter’s in Philadelphia 1779-1836 : was chaplain to Congress when in session at York, Pa., 1777, and continued in his chap- laincy 1777-85 and 1789-1801; was a friend and pastor of Wasliiiigton; presided at the first Episcopal convention held in America, Sept. and Oct., 1785: wrote the constitution of the Church then adopted; was chosen bishop of the diocese of Pennsylvania 1786; proceeded to England with his fel- low bishop-elect (of New York). Dr. Samuel Provoost: was consecrated at Lambeth Palace chapel by the Archbishop of Canterbury Feb. 4, 1787, being the first American bishop in the line of succession from Canterbury; was president of the first Bible Society established in the U. S., and of several charitable institutions. and, with Bishop Seabury, of C011- necticut, as the first “ House of Bishops ” of the American Church, revised the Boole o_f Common Prayer for the use of the American Episcopal Church. Bishop White received holy baptism in Christ church, Philadelphia. May 25, 1748; there received his first communion; and there. May 28, 787, his first ordination took place. In this church Bishop White consecrated six bishops for various sees. D. in Philadelphia. July 17, 1836. He was the author of The Case of the Episcopal Churches in the U. S. considered (1782); Lectures on the Catechism (1813); Jlfemoirs of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States (1820; 3d ed. by Rev. B. F. De Costa, D. D., New York, 1880); and other works. A rlfemoir, by Rev. Dr. Bird Wilson. appeared in 1839. Revised by \V. S. PERRY. White, WILLIAM HENRY. C. B., LL. D., F. R. 8.: civil en- gineer and naval constructor; b. at Devonport, England, Feb. 2, 1845 ; educated at the Royal School of Naval Archi- tecture; graduated head of his class in 1867; until 1883 was employed in the construction department ; 1883-85 chief constructor Elswick works in charge of ship-building department; since 1885 director of naval construction to the admiralty and assistant controller of the navy ; designed the cruisers Blake and Blenheim ; fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh; vice-president of the Institute of Naval Architects; member of the Institution of Civil En- gineers and the Iron and Steel Institute. He has published a jllanual of Naval Architecture, a Treatise on Sh ip-build ing and numerous memoirs and papers. \V. R. HU'1".roN. 7&6‘ WHITE ANTS White Ants: See TERMITES. Whitebait: a name given in England to small fishes which were long supposed to belong to a peculiar species (Clapea alba), and even to a special generic type (Rogenia) of the Clupeidce, but which are now known to be merely the young of the common herring (Clupea harenyus) and the sprat (Clapea sprattus). The differences in physiognomy and in dentition between the young and old of the Clupece are sufficient to have afforded some reasons for a distinc- tion originally, especially in connection with the differ- ences of habits. The name whitebait is limited to fishes which are under 6 inches in length and whose sides are al- most uniformly white. Such fishes begin to make their appearance in the river Thames in England about the end of l\Iarch or early in April, and during the summer months are caught in immense quantities. White Bear : See BEAR and URSID./E. White Bear Lake: village; Ramsey eo., Minn. ; on the White Bear Lake, and the St. Paul and Duluth Railroad ; 12 miles N. by E.‘ of St. Paul, 15 miles N. E. of Minneapolis (for location, see map of Minnesota, ref. 9-F). It is a sum- mer resort, 920 feet above sea-level, in an agricultural and stock-raising region, does its banking in Minneapolis and St. Paul, and has a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 435; (1890) 1,356. White Copper: an alloy, commercially called Packfong. See NIcxEL and Psxroxe. Whitefield: town; Coos eo., N. H.; on the Concord and Montreal and the Maine Cent. railways ; 11 miles S. of Lane- aster, 125 miles N. of Concord (for location, see map of New Hampshire, ref. 4—E). It contains the villages of White- field and I-Iazen’s, and has 4 churches, high school, paro- chial school, public library, 5 hotels, a banking and trust company, several lumber-mills, an overall and shirt factory, tub and box factories, a bobbin-factory, a large fancy stock farm, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,828; (1890) 2,041. E. H. Wnsrox, EnI'roR or “N Ews.” Whitefield, GEORGE: preacher; b. at Gloucester, Eng- land, Dec. 16, 1714; son of an innkeeper, but the grandson and great-grandson of clergymen; in St. Mary’s grammar school acquired the rudiments of learning, and there gave indications of extraordinary talent for public speaking. He entered the University of Oxford in his eighteenth year as a Pembroke servitor. Having become intimate with the Ox- ford Methodists, as certain pious students were called, and having undergone a great moral change, he resolved to de- vote himself to the ministry; was ordained June 20, 173 , in the choir of Gloucester Cathedral, and the following week he preached his first sermon there. He went to London, at first to read prayers in the Tower chapel, but, having begun to preach at Bishopsgate church, his fame soon spread over the city, and shortly he was en- gaged four times on a single Sunday in addressing audi- ences of enormous magnitude. Having addressed multi- tudes in other parts of his native county, he spent some weeks in Bristol. His friends, the Wesleys, urged him to go to America, and in 1738 he visited Georgia, but re- turned the same year to raise funds for the needy colonists and to receive priest’s orders. When again in the city of Bristol, he pondered what had been said to him there some time before—“ \Vhat need of going abroad? Have we not Indians enough at home? If you have a mind to convert Indians, there are colliers enough in Kingswood.” I-Ie hasted to Kingswood, as he says, and preached before immense au- diences with such power that “hundreds and hundreds of them were soon brought under deep conviction, which, as the event proved, ended in a sound and thorough conver- sion.” Then he visited Wales with Howell Harris, and, be- ginning at Cardiff, proceeded from town to town, laboring in every place with all his accustomed ardor. The effects produced were very striking, and an excitable people, as were the inhabitants of the principality, yielded to the force of the preacher’s appeal and to the power of those divine truths which he proclaimed. In Aug., 1739, he sailed again for America, preached at Philadelphia, New York, and other places ; established an orphanage at Savannah; and in 1740 visited New England, where his preaching was highly suc- cessful, but met with bitter opposition from some of the clergy. In 1741 he returned to England. At length a dispute arose between WVhitefield and Wes- ley. The tide for a time turned against the former, “and at Kennington Common,” he says, “ I had not above a hun- VVHITEFRIA RS dred to hear me.” He had to begin his work afresh, and was encouraged by Beza’s words : “Calvin is turned out of Geneva, but, behold, a new Church arises I ” On a common near Braintree he preached to 10,000. Then he went to Scotland, but the churches would not hold the congrega- tions. He continued preaching, always twice, often thrice. and once seven times, a day. We find him in Gloucester- shire, and again in \/Vales, and once more in London. He returned to Scotland, caused a wonderful revival at Cam- buslang, and then reappeared in London, having traversed the kingdom, preaching wherever he went. In 1744 Whitefield sailed to America for the third time. In 1748 he recrossed the Atlantic, and was sent for by the Countess of Huntingdon to preach in her drawing-room to the nobility, among whom were Chesterfield and Boling- broke. Scotland was revisited; so was the west of Eng- land. From Bristol he writes: “ Yesterday God brought me here after having carried me a circuit of about 800 miles, and enabled me to preach to upward of 100,000 souls.” Immense consternation was caused in London by an earth- quake in Mar., 1750; people thought the world was coming to an end. I/Vhitefield addressed a multitude in Hyde Park, telling them God's true prophecy of the world’s end. After- ward he visited Ireland and Scotland, and then a fourth time crossed the ocean. We find him in England again before the year’s end, and, after preaching there, hasting once more to the other side of the Tweed. The Tabernacle and Tottenham Court chapels were built in 1753 and 1756, and there he gathered crowded congregations. Again and again he repeated his visits to Scotland, filling up the inter- vals with home engagements. He went to America a fifth, a sixth, and a seventh time. He preached every day at Bos- ton from Sept. 17 to 20,1770; then traveled to Ncwburyport, preaching two hours at Exeter, N. H., Sept. 29, on the way. He went that evening to N ewburyport, Mass., where he died the next day (Sunday), Sept. 30, 1770. I/Vhitefield’s intellectual powers were not of a high order, but he had an abundance of that ready talent which makes the popular preacher; and beyond all natural endowments there was in his ministry the power of evangelical truth, and, as his converts believed, the presence of the Spirit of God. His voice was marvelously varied, and he ever had it at command-an organ, a flute, a harp, all in one. His works, with a memoir, by J. Gillies, have been pub- lished in 7 vols. (London, 1771-72). Among the Lives are those by Philip (1837), Andrews (1864), and Tyerman (2 vols., London, 1876-77; 2d ed. 1890). The best description of Whitefield’s personal peculiarities is in Rev. W. J ay’s Alem- oirs of Cornelius Winter. Revised by J . F. HURST. Whitefish : any fish of the family Salmonidre and genus Coregonus. These have the form essentially similar to that of the salmons and trouts, although less graceful, and with a stouter tail ; the scales are also larger, but are of moder- ate size; the month has a narrow cleft, and the upper jaw projects more or less beyond it, or is truncated; the max- illary bones are short and broad ; the teeth are wanting or extremely minute ; the suborbital bones are well developed; the dorsal fin has thirteen to fifteen rays, the anal thirteen to sixteen ; the adipose dorsal fin is moderately developed ; the stomach recalls a horseshoe by its form; the pyloric appendages are very numerous. The species are generally distributed in the colder waters of the northern hemisphere, especially affect the still waters of lakes and ponds, and are rather local in their distribution. About thirty species are known, distributed between Europe, Asia, and North America. Among the most notable of the American spe- cies is the Coregonus albus, or common whitefish of the lakes, one of the most important of the economical fishes of the great system of northern lakes. Extensive warehouses exist for its storage in and near the large cities and towns on the lake borders. See Fisi-IERIES. White Flux: a mixture of potassium carbonate, nitrite, and nitrate. See FLUX. Whitefriars: an ancient precinct in London, between Fleet Street and the Thames, deriving its name from the church of the Carmelite monks, or “ White Friars,” founded by Sir Richard Grey in 1241. It also bore the cant name of Alsatia. Salisbury Court, I/Vhitefriars, enjoyed for cen- turies the privileges of a sanctuary-at first for criminals, and subsequently for debtors only-—until 1697. Whitefriars theater was a flourishing institution during most of the dramatic career of Shakespeare (1580-1613), but was pulled down at the latter date. WHITE HALL White Hall: city; Greene co., Ill.; on the Burlington Route and the Chi. and Alton railways; 24 miles S. by W. of Jacksonville, 65 miles N. of St. Louis (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 7-C). It is in an agricultural region, with an abundance of coal and potter’s clay in the vicinity, and has Baptist, Christian. Methodist Episcopal, Presbyte- rian, and Roman Catholic churches, high school, school prop- erty valued at $25,000, 2 private banks, a daily and 2 weekly papers, electric-light plant, and manufactories of stoneware, sewer-pipe, flour, and machinery. It is an important sh1p- ping-point for live stock. Pop. (1880) 1,716; (1890) 1,961; (1895) 2,203. EDITOR or “EVENING REPUBLICAN.” Wllitellallz village (incorporated in 1867); Muskegon co., Mich.; on White Lake, and the Chi. and W. Mich. Railway; 5 miles from Lake Michigan, 16 miles N. W. of Muskegon, the county-seat (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 7-H). It is in an agricultural and lumbering region : is a popular summer resort; contains a graded public school, a savings- bank with capital of $25,000, tannery, several shingle and lath mills, bicycle-factory, wagon-factory, and many sum- mer residences of Chicago and Grand Rapids business men; and has a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,724; (1890) 1,903. EDITOR or “ Foaum.” Whitehall: village; Washington co., N. Y.; on Lake Champlain. Poultney river, the Champlain Canal, and the Del. and Hud. Railroad; 24 miles W. by S. of Rutland, Vt., 76 miles N. by E. of Albany (for location, see map of New York, ref. 3-K). It is in a ravine at the foot of Skene’s Mountain; has a union free school with library, 2 national banks with capital of $150,000, gas and electric-light plants, and 2 weekly newspapers; and has excellent water-power, several shipyards, silk and knitting mills, grist-mills, saw and moulding mills, railway-shops, and minor industries. The village has a large lumber trade. Pop. (1880) 4,270; (1890) 4,434; (1895) 5,556. EDITOR OF “ CHRoxIcLE.” Whitellavellz town: county of Cumberland, England; on the Irish Sea, near the entrance of the Solway Frith; 41 miles S. W. of Carlisle (see map of England, ref. 4-E). It is well built, finely situated, and has a good harbor, with a wet dock of 5 acres, two piers, each over 300 yards long, and a lighthouse. It has manufactures of sailcloth, soap, earthenware, and cordage, iron-smelting works and found- ries. and exports large quantities of coal from the rich col- lieries in its neighborhood. Whitehaven returns one mem- ber to Parliament. Pop. (1891) 18,044. White Haven: borough (founded about 1825, incorpo- rated in 1843); Luzerne co., Pa.; on the Lehigh river, and the Lehigl1 Val. and the Cent. of N. J . railways; 25 miles N. of Mauch Chunk, 30 miles S. E. of 'Wilkesbarre (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 3-H). It has seven churches, complete system of graded public schools, Roman Catholic parochial school, a State bank with capital of $25,000, and a weekly newspaper. It was for many years, and till the tim- ber was exhausted, the principal seat of the vast Lehigh lumber interests; now it is principally engaged in agricul- ture and manufacturing. Pop. (1880) 1,408; (1890) 1,634; (1895) estimated in corporate limits, 1,800; including sub- urbs, 3,500. EDITOR OF “ JOURNAL.” Whitehead, WILLIAM: poet: b. at Cambridge, England, in 1715; educated at Winchester School and at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he became fellow 1742; wrote the trage- dies The Roman Fathers (1750) and Creusa, Queen of Athens (1754); a comedy, .Thc School for Lorers (1762); a farce, The Tr/tp to Scotland (1770), and a number of minor poems, which procured him the honor of being appointed poet- laureate on the death of Cibber (1757). He resided many years in the family of Lord and Lady Jersey, first as tutor to their son, whom he accompanied 1754-56 on a European tour, and obtained in 1755, through Lady Jersey, the post of secretary and registrar of the order of the Bath. D. Apr. 14, 1785. Revised by H. A. BEERs. White House: the residence of the President of the U. S. See WAsIIINeToN. White Lead: See LEAD. Whitelocke, BULSTRODE: politician ; b. in London, Eng- land, Aug. 2, 1605; studied at St. Jolm’s College, Oxford; sat in the Parliament of 1626 and was called to the bar i11 that year. He was elected to the Long Parliament 1640, and acted with the Parliamentary party. but always so pru- dently as to guarantee his safety if the Cavaliers should tri- umph. Hc was chairman of the committee for conducting WHITE RIVER 74.7 the impeachment of the Earl of Strafford 1640-41, but tried to avert civil war, and was one of the Parliamentary com- missioners to treat with Charles I. at Oxford. He opposed the Self-Denying ordinance; was_ a commissioner of admi- ralty 1645; was a member of the commission sent to Ux- bridge to negotiate a treaty of peace 1645; was one of the commissioners of the great seal 1649, but refused to take part in the trial of the king, which he disapproved; was ap- pointed ambassador to negotiate a treaty with Queen Chris- tina of Sweden Sept., 1653: became a commissioner of the treasury 1655. and Speaker of the House of Commons 1656; was commissioner of the great seal to Richard Cromwell, and president of the council of state during the interrog- num. He accepted the Restoration and was included in the Act of Oblivion, but afterward took no active part in pol- itics. D. at Chilton, Wiltshire, in 1675. He left in MS. an autobiography and several other Works, among which are his Jlfernorzials of English A_fi”a/lrs, or an fle'store'cal Account of what passed from the Beginning of the Reign of Iftng Charles I. to the Restoration of Ifing Charles II. (1682; reprinted in 1732 and 1852) and a Journal of the Embassy to Sweden (1772; edited by H. Reeve, 1855). Wllite Mountains: a group of peaks in Northeastern New Hampshire, usually regarded as forming a part of the Appalachian system. They rise boldly from a deeply eroded plateau and are drained by several clear, swift streams. Of these the most important are the Saco, flowing S. E. across the southern portion of Maine to the Atlantic. and the Pemi- gewasset and Ammonoosuc, which find their way westward to Connecticut river. Several of the higher peaks in the east- ern portion of the-range have been named in honor of Presi- dents of the U. S. For this reason the name Presidential Range is applied to them. The western portion of the group is known as the FRANCONIAN MoUivTAIi\'s (g. 1-.). The White Mountains culminate in Mt. Washington which, as deter- mined by the U. S. Signal Service, has an elevation of 6.286 feet, and with the exception of Mt. Mitchell, North Caro- lina, 6,688 feet high, is the highest point in the U. S. east of the Mississippi. The heights of several splendid peaks grouped about Mt. Washington have been ascertained by the Appalachian Club. The 1nore prominent of these are Mt. Adams, 5,819 feet; Mt. Jefferson. 5,736 feet;'Mt. Madi- son, 5,381 feet; Mt. Clay, 5,554 feet; Mt. Monroe. 5,396 feet. There are, besides. many peaks of less prominence, all of which are forest-covered, rugged, and picturesque. Of the Franconian group the only one exceeding 5,000 feet is Mt. Lafayette. 5.269 feet high. The area of the entire group may be taken at about 800 sq. miles. A station of the U. S. XVeather Bureau has been maintained on the summit of Mt. Washington since 1871. Since early in the nineteenth century the \Vhite Moun- tains have been much visited by tourists and seekers after health. For many years access was had to them by means of stage-coaches, but in time the railway came, and a through line from Portland extends through Crawford Notch, bisect- ing the range and connecting on the west with several trunk railways. Not the least remarkable of the sights of this region is the railway by which a locomotive with cars at- tached climbs Mt. Washington, rising 3.625 feet in 3 miles. See T. Starr King. The IWI-ite Hills. their Legenols, Land- scape, and Poetry (Boston, 1839; new ed. 1887): and Julius H. \Vard, The lVhz'te Jllountartns (New York, 1890), with a bibliography. IsRAEL C. R-UssELL. White Nun : See Snnw. White Plains: village; capital of ‘Vestchester co., N. Y.; on the N. Y. Cent. and Hud. River Railroad ; miles N. E. of New York (for location. see map of New York, ref. 8—J). It is the new seat of the Bloomingdale Asylum for the In- sane (cost $2.000.000. opened in 1894). and contains the county court-house, new Hall of Records, Alexander Insti- tute (Presbyterian, opened in 1845). Institute, Lyceum. and Westchester County Law Libraries, 2 public-school buildings, 2 private schools, 2 State banks with combined capital of $150,000. and a savings-bank. There are 3 weekly newspa- pers. The village was the scene of a battle Oct. 28, 1776. in which the British under Gen. Howe drove the Americans from Chatterton Hill, \V. of Bronx river. with a loss to the latter of 180 killed, wounded, and prisoners. Pop. (1880) 2,381; (1890) 4,042; (1895) estimated. 6.000: with suburbs, 7,000. ED1ToR or “ WEsTc1-IEsTER N Ews." White River : a stream that rises by several heads in the Ozark Hills 111 Northwestern Arkansas, takes a circuit of 100 743 WHITE RIVER miles in Missouri, returns to Arkansas, and after a course of some 900 miles reaches the Mississippi river at a point 15 miles above the mouth of the Arkansas, into which a part of its waters are discharged. It is navigable by large steam- boats to Batesville, Ark., 380 miles. White River: a stream in Indiana that rises by two forks. The cast or Driftwood fork (called also Blue river), flowing ' from Henry County, is 250 miles long, and is navigated to Rockford. The west fork, the longer arm, rises in Randolph County, and crosses the State. It is 300 miles long, and is navigable at high water 150 miles to Martinsville. The main stream is 50 miles long, and flows into the Wabash. White River Junction : village : Hartford town, Wind- sor co., Vt. ; at the confluence of the Connecticut and VVhite rivers, and on the Boston and Maine, the Cent. V t., and the Woodstock railways ; 14 miles E. of Woodstock, 64 miles S. by E. of Montpelier (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 7-C). It is an important commercial distributing point, and has a public high school. national bank with capital of $100,- 000, a savings-bank, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 763 ; (1894) estimated, 1,500. lVhiteSh01'0: town (founded in 1848); Grayson co., Tex.; on the Me., Kan. and Tex. and the Tex. and Pac. railways ; 70 miles N. of Fort l/Vorth (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 2-I). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and has 5 churches, graded public school with over 400 pu- pils, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 773 ; (1890) 1,170 ; (1895) estimated, 2,000. EDITOR or “ Nnws.” White Sea: a large inlet of the Arctic Ocean, penetrat- ing into European Russia for a distance of 380 miles, with a breadth of from 30 to 150 miles. It is frozen from Octo- ber to May, and is rich in herring and codfish. Whitestone: village: Queens co., N. Y.; on Long Island Sound, and the Long Island Railroad; 2 miles N. E. of Flusl1ing, 11 miles N. E. of New York (for location, see map of New York, ref. 8-K). It has an excellent harbor, several summer hotels and boarding-houses, two weekly newspapers, and a number of tiuware and other factories. Near by are Fort Schuyler, on Throgg’s Neck, and the U. S. military post at WILLE'r’s POINT (q. 1).), commanding the eastern entrance to New York harbor. Facilities for boating have made the village a popular summer resort. Pop. (1880) 2.520 ; (1890) 2,808 ; (1895) estimated, 3,200. Ernroa or “ HERALD.” White Sulphur Springs: city; capital of Meagher co., Mont.; on a stage line, 40 miles E. of the North. Pac. Rail- road; 65 miles E. by S. of Helena, the State capital (for lo- cation, see map of Montana, ref. 6—F). It is in an agricul- tural, stock-raising, and gold, silver, copper, and_coal mining region; is a health resort, with thermal springs long noted for their curative properties; and has 3 churches, large graded school, a national bank with capital of $200,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1890) 640; (1895) estimated, 1,400. Enrroa or “ ROCKY Mounranv HUSBANDMAN.” White Sulphur Springs : See Currrnnaueo SPRINGS. White Sulphur Springs: noted health resort in Green- brier co., W. Va.; on the line of the Ches. and Ohio Rail- way; 91 miles ‘W. of St-aunt-on and 227 miles W. by'N. of Richmond (for location, see map of \Vest Virginia, ref. 10-H). It has a beautiful location. is within from 20 to 40 miles of the Hot, Sweet, Red, Salt, and Blue Sulphur Springs, and has been visited by whites since 1778. The temperature of the water is 62°, and the principal substances found in solution are nitrogen, oxygen, carbonic acid gas, hydrosulphuric acid, sulphates of calcium and magnesium, and carbonate of calcium. and the effect is alterative and stimulant. There are large swimming-baths and numerous mud-baths. The locality is one of the most popular health and summer resorts in the South, and has large hotel and cottage accommodations. White Swelling: the popular name for a chronic in- flammation of the joints. The disease is now recognized as a form of tuberculosis of the joints. Whitethroat: the S'_z/Zeta andata, or Ourraca etnerea, a very abundant European warbler whose song is rather sweet and very energetic. It is a favorite cage-bird. 59; inches in length, colored reddish and whitish brown, with a throat of pure white. There are several other warblers called white- throat in Great Britain. White Walnut : See BUTTERNUT. Wllitewzlsll : a preparation of slaked lime, thinned to a milky consistence, and used for whitening walls. Skimmed WHITFIELD milk. glue, zinc sulphate, tallow, and various pigments are sometimes added. Some of them form msoluble compounds with lime, and thus add to the permanency of the wash. Whitewater: city (incorporated in 1885); 'Walworth co., \Vis. ; on the ‘Whitewater river, and the Chi., Mil. and St. P. Railway ; 45 miles S. E. of Madison, 51 miles S. W. of Mil- waukee (for location, see map of Wisconsin. ref. 7-E). It is in an agricultural, dairying, and stock-raising region ; con- tains a State Normal School, a collegiate institute, a national bank (capital $125,000), and a State bank (capital $75,000). and has two weekly newspapers, several cheese-factories, furniture, sash, and door factories, paper-mill, wagon-fac- tory, and other industries. Pop. (1880) 3,617; (1890) 4,359 ; (1895) estimated, 4,500. Enrroa or “ REGISTER.” lvhitewater River: a stream in Indiana; formed by two forks (the east and west), which unite at Brookville. The stream enters Ohio, and joins the Great Miami 6 miles from its mouth. Length to source, 100 miles. Wllitewatel‘ River: a river in the S. E. of Missouri and the N. E. of Arkansas. It rises in St. Francis County, flows southward, receiving in Scott County an East Fork which rises in Cape Girardeau County. and joins the complicated lake and river system of the S. E. of Missouri. After a course of 250 miles its waters are for the most part dis- charged into St. Francis river in Arkansas. White Whale: a small eetacean, the Delpltinczjaterns leucas, belonging to the family Delp7m'm'dce, common to all the northern seas, and on the eastern coast of North America extending southward at least as far as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where it is quite abundant. The form is es- sentially similar to that of the common porpoise, but the head is rounded forward and the cervical region has some- what of a contraction; no dorsal fin is developed, and hence the name Delphe'napteras—i. e. porpoise without a fin ; the color is a spotless white. These whales sometimes attain a length of 20 feet, or even more, but the average is perhaps about 13 feet. They frequently ascend a consider- able distance up large rivers (e. g. the St. Lawrence). They often associate together in troops, but are also observed “ in lines of seldom more than two or three abreast, or more fre- quently in single file, spouting irregularly,” and showing little of the form above water. They are captured with harpoons and lances, as in ordinary whaling, as well as in nets. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Whitewood : a name given in the U. S. to the wood of the TULIP-TREE (q. 1).). The bark of Canella alba (see CA- NELLA ALBA) is called whitewood bark. Other whitewoods are P’ttt0bj)07‘7l77Z bteolor, of Australia, etc., Oreodaplme leu- eormylon, Lagunarta pattersomi, Tabelmta leucoaylon, and many other trees, mostly tropical. Whitfield, HENRY : clergyman; b. in England in 1597; son of an eminent lawyer: received a university education, and studied law; took orders in the Church of England; was minister of Ockley, Surrey, where he sheltered a number of Puritan ministers during the persecution of Archbishop Laud, from which he ultimately suffered himself, in conse- quence of his refusal to read in church the Boole of Lawful Sunday Sports; emigrated to New England with many of his old parishioners 1637 ; was one of the founders of Guil- ford, Conn. (1639), where his house. built in that year. and one of the oldest in the U. S., is still standing ; made a lib- eral use of a handsome fortune, and was esteemed one of the chief founders of New Haven colony ; returned to England 1650, and became minister at VVinchester, where he died in 1658. He was the author of Helps to Stir up to Chre'st/tan Duttes (London, 1634) ; The Light _/tppearr.'ng more and more towartls the Perfect Day, or A Farther Discovery of the Present State of the Inclrlans in New England, etc. (1651; new ed. New York, 1865); and Strength out of Weahness, or A Glorious ]V[a,nt_festat'ton of the Farther Progresse of the Gospel among the Jndtans /tn _New Ilnglancl (1652 ; new‘ ed. New York, 1865). Whitfield, Romnrr PARR, M. A. : paleontologist and ge- ologist; b. near New Hartford, Oneida co., N. Y., of English parents, May 27, 1828 ; in 1835 went with his family to Eng- land, returning to the U. S. in 1841; learned the trade of spindle-making; had charge of the instrument department of a telegraph and philosophical instrument establishment, U tiea, N. Y., for about eight years ; assistant to James Hall, State geologist of New York, on the paleontological work of the State natural history survey 1856-77: teacher and afterward Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the WHITGIFT Rcnsselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y., 1872-77; curator of the geological department of the American Mu- seum of Natural Ilistory, New York city, fro1n 1877. His paleontologic work has consisted largely in the descrip- tion and characterization of species, genera, and higher groups. Its chief results appear in the following publica- tions: Nataral History of New Yor/a State, Reports on Palaeontology (issued since 1856) ; United States Survey of Fortiet/i Parallel (under Clarence King, vol. iv., part ii., in connection with Prof. Hall, 1877); Palaeontology, in vol. ii. Geological Survey State of Ohio, several papers in asso- ciation with Prof. Hall (published in 1875); Geology of Wisconsin, in vol. iv. Palaeontological Report (prepared in 1877 and 1878 ; published in 1882) ; The Black Llilts of Da- laota, Palaeontology (published 1880); Geology of the State of New Jersey, vol. i. Palaeontology; Cretaceous Fossils of New Jersey (1885; issued by U. S. Geological Survey with 0co-operation of State of New Jersey); and Balletms of the American Mzaseam of Natural History, which are edited by him. Revised by G. K. GILBERT. Whitgift, JOHN, D. D.: archbishop; b. at Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire, England, about 1530; educated at Queen’s College and at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, under Ridley and Bradford; was chosen a fellow of Peterhouse 1555; took orders in the Church of England; became chaplain to the Bishop of Ely, and rector of Feversham, Cambridge- shire, 1560 ; was appointed Lady Margaret Professor of Di- vinity 1563, Regius Professor of Divinity, master of Pembroke Hall and of Trinity College, Cambridge, all in 1567; became chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, prebendary of Ely 1568, vice- chancellor of Cambridge 1570, dean of Lincoln 1571, prebend- ary of Lincoln 1572, Bishop of Worcester and vice-presi- dent of the Marches of Wales 1577; succeeded Edmund Grindall as Archbishop of Canterbury 1583; showed himself intolerant both of Roman Catholicism and of Puritanism, managing the Star-Chamber prosecutions with great rigor; obtained a decree against liberty of printing June, 1585; became privy councilor 1586 ; founded a hospital and gram- mar school at Croydon 1595, and took part in the confer- ences at Hampton Court J an., 1604. D. at Lambeth Palace, Feb. 29, 1604. His theological IVorlas were edited for the Parker Society (Cambridge, 3 vols., 1851-54) by Rev. John Ayre. His Life was written by Sir George Paule (1612), by John Strype (1718), and in Hook’s Lives of the Arch- bisliops of Ganterlmry. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wvllitingz the Jlferlangas valgaris, a European fish of the family Gadulae and related to the true codfishes. As in them, the body is moderately elongated and covered with small scales; the head conic; the mouth deeply cleft; the upper jaw longest ; the teeth in bands in the upper and lower jaw and on the vomer, but absent on the palatines; the dorsals three and the anals two; it differs from the true codfishes especially in that no barbel is developed at the chin; the color above is very dark and almost black, and below gray- ish; a black spot is developed in the axil of the pectoral fin. The species is esteemed for the excellence of its flesh, which is said to surpass in delicacy that of any other representa- tive of the family. The whiteness of its flaky muscles, added to its lightness as an article of food, recommends it particu- larly to invalids. It is quite common in the seas of Northern Europe, and is fished for throughout almost the entire year, but is more abundant in winter, when it approaches the shore—it is believed, to spawn. Its average size is about 12 or 16 inches, with a weight of 1% lb., although it sometimes attains a weight of 3 or 4 lb. It is a voracious fish, and seizes indiscriminately any of the Mollusca, worms, small Crustaceaa, and young fishes. It appears to prefer sandy banks, but shifts its ground frequently in the pursuit of the various fry of other fishes, upon which it subsists. Al- though repeatedly claimed to be an inhabitant of the At- lantic coast, it l1as not yet been found thereon, the hake (1l[erlzacias bilinearis) having been mistaken for it. On some parts of the coast the name “ whiting " is also applied to the Jlfenticirrus nelnaloszas, more generally known as the KINGFISII (q. o.).' Whiting‘ : town; Lake co., Ind.; on Lake Michigan, and the Penn. Co.’s Railroad; 17 miles S. E. of Chicago (for lo- cation, see map of Indiana, ref. 1-13). It has a fine harbor, 5 churches, public and German Lutheran parochial schools, large oil refinery, a private bank. and 2 weekly newspapers, and is rincipally engaged in refining and shipping petro- leum. Jop.(1880)115; (1890)1,408; (1895) estimated, 5,000. EDITOR or “ DE.\IoeR.~vr." WHITMAN 749 Whiting, WILLIAM HENRY CHASE: soldier; b. in Missis- sippi 1825; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy at the head of his class July 1, 1845, when appointed second lieu- tenant in the Corps of Engineers. Until 1853 he served in the construction of the defenses of Pensacola harbor. Florida, and Baltimore, Md, and in the improvement of rivers and harbors in Texas, of the defenses of San Francisco 1853-55; was in charge of the construction and repair of fortifications on the South Atlantic coast, and the improvement of vari- ous rivers and harbors in that section, including Cape Fear and Savannah rivers, 1856-61. He resigned his commission of captain of engineers Feb. 20, 1861, to join the Confeder- ate service, in which he became a major-general, and com- manded a division in 1863. Fort Fisher, at the mouth of Cape Fear river, was planned and constructed by him, and he was given command of it in 1864. He successfully de- fended it against the first attack under Gen. Benjamin F. Butler, but succumbed to Gen. Alfred H. Terry in Jan., 1865, when he was severely wounded and taken prisoner; was removed to Governor’s island, New York harbor, where he died Mar. 10, 1865. Whiting Pout: See BIB. Whitling : See BULL-TROUT. Whitlow, better known as FELON: a painful inflamma- tion, ending in suppuration. of the tissues surrounding the phalangeal bones of the hands and feet. The last joint of the fingers is the most frequent situation. The immediate cause is probably always some injury, but certain forms of deterioration of the blood and general health predispose. The exact nature of the disease in question is abscess for- mation beneath the periosteum, the fibrous sheath surround- ing the bone. There results from this a tense swelling of the finger or toe, with redness and local heat, and intense pain of a throbbing and later boring character. The in- tensity of the pain is due to the fact that the collection of pus is confined beneath the periosteum. In unfavorable cases, where no escape of the pus occurs spontaneously or as a result of incision, death of the bone, necrosis, may take place, and a loss of one or more joints not infrequently results. The treatment of felons should be early incision down to the bone. Poultices and anodyne lotions are poor substitutes for the radical procedure. WILLI.-\..\I PEPPER. “’hitn1an: town (incorporated in 1886); Plymouth co., Mass.; on the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad: 16 miles N. W. of Plymouth (for location, see map of l\Iassachusetts, ref. 3-1). It contains the villages of Whitman, East Whit- man (or South Abington Station). and Auburnville: has a high school. 19 district schools. public library, 6 churches. a savings-bank, and a weekly newspaper; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of boots, shoes, tacks, eyelets. wire nails, and boxes. The assessed valuation in 1894 was $3,342,560. Pop. (1880) 3,024: (1890) 4,441: (1895) 5,7 47. EDITOR or “ TIMES AND COURIER." Whitman, CHARLES OTIS, LL. D.: naturalist; b. at Wood- stock, Oxford co., Me, Dec. 14, 1842; graduated at Bowdoin College 1868; studied at Leipzig, receiving the degree of Ph.D. in 1878, and in the same year was appointed Pro- fessor of Zo6logy in the Imperial University of Tokio. He returned to Europe in 1880, and studied at the Naples Zo6logical Station. Returning to the U. S. be served as as- sistant in zoiilogy at Harvard University, carrying on with Alexander Agassiz some splendid researches upon the early development of the bony fishes. The years 1886-89 were spent i11 Milwaukee as director of a laboratory for the study of inland waters. In 1889 he was called to the head of the department of zoology in the Clark University, and in 1892 was given the head professorship of Zoiilogy in the University of Chicago. Dr. Whitman has been the director of the M a- rine Biological Laboratory at YVoods Holl, Mass, since its foundation in 1888. His writings are largely upon the structure and development of worms, and the development of the vertebrates. He l1as published Jl[ethods of Rcscarclz. in I/llicroscopical Anatomy and Embryology (Boston, 1885); has been editor of the microscopical department of the limer- ican 1Va2‘u/ralz'st since 1883; and established in 1887 the Joarna-l of Jlforphology, the leading zoiilogica-l periodical in America. J . S. KINGSLEY. Whitman, SARAH HELEN (Power): poet: b. at Provi- dence, R. I., in 1803; married in 1828 John \Vinslow “hit- man, a lawyer at Boston, who died in 1833, after which she resided at Providence. She was the author of Hours of Life, and other Poems (1853); Edgar Allan Poe and his 750 WHITMAN Cm‘/tes (1860); and, with her sister, ANNA MARSH Pownn, of a volume of Fairy Ballads (revised ed. 1867-68). D. at Providence, June 27,1878. A volume of her Poems was posthumously issued (Boston, 1879). She is best remem- bered for her friendship with Poe, to whom she was at one time engaged to be married. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Whitman, WALT: poet; b. at )/Vest Hills, Long Island, N. Y., May 31, 1819. He was a son of Walter Whitman and Louisa Van Velsor. The father was of English, the mother of Dutch descent. While the poet was yet a child the family moved to Brooklyn, where the father worked at his trade of carpentering, and where young Whitman attended common school till he was thirteen years old. He then went into a printing-office and learned to set type. At the age of sixteen or seventeen, he taught a country school on Long Island, and began writing for newspapers and maga- zines. In 1839 and 1840 he edited and published at Hunt- ington The Long Islander, a weekly newspaper. For the next ten or twelve‘ years he was mainly employed in print- ing-offices as compositor, with an occasional contribution to periodical literature. It is during this period that he began studying the life of New York and Brooklyn, and familiar- izing himself with all classes and conditions of men, and with all trades and occupations, going freely, as he says in his poems, “ with powerful uneducated persons,” making friends among working men, and giving full swing to his democratic proclivities. He occasionally a peared as a speaker at political mass-meetings both in l\ew York and on Long Island, and was much liked. He made friends with pilots and stage-drivers, and spent much of his leisure time on the Brooklyn ferryboats and Broadway omnibuses. It is reported of him that about this period he drove a Broadway stage one whole winter that a disabled driver might lie off without starving his family. In 1846—47 he became editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle newspa er, and was an occasional contributor to the Demo- cratic evtew. He also at this time wrote several novels, one of them called Frank Evans. \Vhen thirty years of age he set out on an extended tour through the Middle, Southern, and \Vestern States, fetching up finally in New Orleans, where he tarried a year or more, finding employment as editorial writer on the Crescent. He returned to Brook- lyn, and in 1850 started The Freeman newspaper as an or- gan of the Free-soilers, doing most of the writing himself. From 1851 to 1854 he worked at his father’s trade of car- pentering, building and selling moderate-sized houses. The conception of his Leaves began to shape itself in his mind during this period. He frequently stopped work to write his poems. In the spring of 1855 the first issue of the Leaves appeared, a small quarto of ninety-four pages. A second issue, with many additions, appeared in 1856. The third edition was published in 1860 in Boston. In 1862 Vllhitman left Brooklyn and became a volunteer nurse in the army hospitals in Washington and in Virginia, continu- ing his services till the close of the war and later, support- ing himself at first by writing letters to The New York Ttmes. He is said to have personally visited and minis- tered to over 100,000 sick and wounded Union and Confed- erate soldiers. From 1865 to 1873 he found employment as a Government clerk in Washington. His war poems, Dram Taps, appeared in 1866. His services in the army hospitals impaired his health, and in the beginning of 1873 he sufiered a light stroke of paralysis. He shortly after- ward moved to Camden, N. J ., where he continued to live, health seriously impaired, till his death Mar. 26, 1892. He never married: he accumulated but little property. and was most of the time his own publisher. In person Whitman was over 6 feet in height, and of fine physical proportions. As a man he inspired very strong attachment among all classes. He is buried in a granite tomb of his own designing in a cemetery near Camden. His Leaves of Grass, the title un- der which he at last included all his poems, has probably excited more discussion and called forth more hostile criti- cism than any other literary production of the time in which its author lived. It is an unrhymed, unmeasured work of over 10,000 lines, in its form aiming only to follow the law of the innate forms of organic nature, and in its substance celebrating life, sex, comradeship, democracy, America, as they are illustrated by the poet’s own personality and envi- ronment. Whitman’s ambition was not merely to be a sweet and popular singer, his scheme looked to much more than that: he would be a prophet and law-giver of his country and time,; he would rival in his day and land the VVHITNEY character and oflice of the ancient teachers and seers. He deprecates any study of his work merely as literature or art, his final purpose being ethical and religious. His work has won high approval in Europe, but has been generally neglected or condemned by his own countrymen on account of its outspokenness, which in Massachusetts resulted in the authorities objecting to the sale of his Leaves of Grass “ on the ground of immorality.” Portions of Leaves of Grass have been translated into various European languages. Since his death three books have appeared in England mainly devoted to him, to wit, IV alt W’/vzitman, by William Clarke; Brown- ing and W71/ttman. a St/acly of Democracy, by Oscar L. Triggs; and l/Valt l'Vh'ttma.n, a Stucly, by John Addington Symonds. In 1883 a Life of Whitman was published by Dr. R-. M. Bucke, of London, Canada. Various editions of his Leaves have appeared from time to time since 1870; the final edition, being prepared by the author a few weeks be- tore his death, was published in Philadelphia in 1893. Whitman’s prose works are included in a volume called S;oeetmen Days and Collect, published in 1883. His Demo- eratte Vestas and .Hos_pe'tal _Memorancla are in this volume. J onn Bun.aoueus. Whitney, ADELINE DUTTON (Trae'n): author; b. at Bos- ton, Mass., Sept. 15, 1824; married at the age of nineteen to Seth D. Whitney, of Milton, M ass., where she has since re- sided; has long been a favorite contributor to magazines, especially those for the young. She is the author of Foot- steps on the Seas, a Poem (Boston, 1857); Jllother Goose for Grown Folks (New York, 1860; revised eds. Boston, 1870, 1882) ; The Boys at Cheqaasset (Boston, 1862); Faith Gart- ney’s Gtrlhoocl (1863); The Gayworthys, a Story of Threads and Thrnms (1865); A Summer in Leslie Golclth/a'ae'te’s Life (1866); Patience Strong’s Outings (1868); I-h'tlz.erto. a Story of Yesterday (1869); Real Folks (1872): Pamstes, verse (1872); The Other Girls (1873); Sights and Insights (1876); Bonnyborough (1885); ffomespvn Yarns (1887); Bird Talk, verse (1887); Daflocltls, verse (1887); and other works. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Whitney, ASA: manufacturer and inventor; b.in Towns- end, Mass., Dec. 1, 1791. After working in his father‘s blacksmith-shop and learning the trade he worked in Swan- sea, N. H., on cotton-mill machinery for two years or more; in 1813 removed to Brattleboro, Vt-., and engaged in the same business, but was burned out and lost all his savings; removed to Brownsville, Jefferson co., N. Y., and for the next twelve years, in company with U. Walton, manufac- tured cotton machinery, nails, etc.; in 1826—30 made the machinery for a cotton-mill and engaged in the manufac- ture of cotton goods, but was unsuccessful; in 1830 was ap- pointed in aster-machinist in the Mohawk and Hudson Rail- way shops, and in 1833 became superintendent of the road. In 1839 he was appointed a canal commissioner of the State of New York, and served two years, having charge of the Champlain Canal and the eastern division of the Erie Ca- nal. In 1842 he removed to Philadelphia, and beca1ne a partner with Matthew Baldwin in the manufacture of lo- comotives; four years later devoted his energies to the work of perfecting car-wheels by a new process, and in 1848 be- gan their manufacture on a large scale. Using only the best qualities of iron, testing the wheels at every stage, and annealing them thoroughly by a process of his own inven- tion, it was soon found that these car-wheels were not liable to breakage, and were practicallyindestructible. The manu- facture constantly increased, and for some years previous to his death about 75,000 wheels were produced annually. D. in Philadelphia, June 4, 1874. He was a man of great be- nevolence, and at his death left $50,000 to found a chair of dynamical engineering in the University of Pennsylvania. Whitney, ELI: inventor; b. in West-boro, Mass., Dec. 8, 1765; graduated at Yale College 1792; went to Georgia; studied law while residing in the family of the widow of Gen. Nathanael Greene, by whom he was stimulated to de- vise a machine for cleaning seed-cotton, in which he suc- ceeded, having invented the cotton-gin ; suffered much from violence and fraud, the idea of his invention having been stolen by others, but formed a partnership with a Mr. Mill- er and commenced the manufacture of the machines near the town of Washington. Ga., in 1795; was voted by the Legislature of South Carolina a sum of $50,000 for his in- vention, which he succeeded in collecting only after many years of litigation; received a percentage for five years upon the use of his gins from the State of North Carolina, and was promised the same by Tennessee, but without WHITNEY results; turned his attention to the manufacture of firearms, entering into a contract with the U. S. Government 1798, and reaped a fortune from his various improvements in their manufacture. which rapidly increased and became the origin of the flourishing village of Whitneyville, Conn. D. at New Haven, Conn., Jan. 8, 1825. Whitney, Janus AMAZIA1-I, M. A., LL. D.: lawyer and author; b. at Rochester, N. Y., June 30, 1839; received a common school education; in 1868 became editor of a weekly publication, the American Artisan, and was elected the first president of the New York Society of Practical Engineering; in 1870 became Professor of Agricultural Chemistry in the American Institute. In 1872 he estab- lished himself as a solicitor of U. S. and foreign patents, and in 1876 was admitted to practice in the U. S. circuit courts. His writings have related largely to the law of patents for inventions, to questions of public policy, and to international law. In addition he has published The Chinese and the Chinese Question (1880; enlarged ed. 1888), in which he advocated the exclusion of the Chinese; lVotes of Travel in Western Europe; and several volumes of poems. A collective edition of his poetical works was issued in 1886. Whitney, JOSIAH DWIGHT, LL. D.: geologist; brother of Prof. William D. VVhitney; b. at Northampton, Mass., Nov. 23,1819; graduated at Yale College 1839; was for many years employed on State and national geological surveys, including Ohio, the Lake Superior region, Mississippi, and California, where he was (1860-74) State geologist; has been since 1865 Sturgis-Hooper Professor of Geology in Harvard University, and is a prominent member of the American Association and of the National Academy of Sci- ences. He is the author of The _/I./etallie IVealth of the United States (Philadelphia. 1854) ; A Report on the Upper Jlfississippi Lead Region (1862); The Geological Survey of California (1864-70); and The Yosemite Guicle-booh (1869); translated Berzelius on the Blowpipe (1845); was joint author with Prof. John W. Foster of a Report on the Geology of the Lake Superior Lancl District (1851-52), and with Prof. James Hall of a Geological Report on Ohio (1858). Mt. NVhitney, the highest mountain in the U. S., was named in his honor. Revised by C. H. THURBER. Whitney, WILLIAM GQLLINS, LL. D.: lawyer; b. at Con- way, Mass., July 5, 1841; graduated at Yale College in 1863 and at the Harvard Law School in 1864, and soon af- ter began the practice of law in New York city. He was made inspector of the city schools in 1872, and in the same year failed of election as the candidate of the Reformed Democracy for district attorney; was appointed corpora- tion counsel in 1875, and reappointed in 1876 and 1880, re- sign_ing in 1882; U. S. Secretary of the Navy 1885-89, his administration being marked by the completion of several vessels that formed the nucleus of a modern U. S. navy. Whitney, WILLIAM DWIGHT: philologist; b. at North- ampton, Mass., Feb. 9. 1827; entered the sophomore class of Williams College in 1842; graduated 1845 ; teller in a bank at Northampton 1845-49, devoting his leisure time chiefly to amateur studies in natural history; during the summer of 1849 was assistant of the U. S. Geological Survey; in the autumn of 1849 went to Yale College to pursue, under the instruction of Prof. E. E. Salisbury, the study of Sanskrit, which he had begun by himself in the preceding year. I11 1850-53 he spent three winter semesters at the University of Berlin, studying with Weber, Bopp, and Lepsius. and two summer semesters with Roth at Tiibingen. In 1851 he be- gan, in association with Roth, preparations for an edition of the Atharvavecla, the first volume of which appeared in 1855-56. The second volume, with which the last years of his life were occupied, was nearly completed at the time of his death, and will receive final revision at the hands of his pupil, Prof. C. Lanman. He was appointed in 1854 Pro- fessor of Sanskrit in Yale College, and retained this position down to the time of his death, coupling with it during most of his life instruction in comparative philology and in Ger- man. From 1857 to 1884 he was corresponding secretary of the American Oriental Society. and from 1884 to 1890 its president; during all this time he was its chief spirit and the leading contributor to its Journal. He was also the first president of the American Philological Association (1869-70), and was represented by an article in nearly every one of the first sixteen volumes of the Transactions of the society. His work is clia-racterized by rigid faithfulness to facts, a clearness and simplicity of statement that comes. _Universalist churches in WHITTIER 751 from a complete mastery of the material, and a sobriety of Judgment and general good sense that have their basis in perfect sanity of mind. His greatest achievement was in the field of Sanskrit. Here, beside the above-mentioned edition of the At/iarocirecla, his leading works are Sanshrit Grammar (1879; Germ. trans. 1879; 2d ed. 1889); Supple- ment to Sanslrrit Grammar: the Roots, Verb-fornzs, and Prrrnary Derivatives (1885); Alphahelisehes I/'erzez'ehniss der I/e/rsanfclnge der Atharea-Samhita (1857); Atharoa- oecla-Pratiga/;/zya (text, trans, notes, 1862); TcUttiriya- Pratigahhya (1871)—for this awarded the Bopp premium by Berlin Academy: Index Verborum to Atharrarecla (1881). Among his contributions to the general science of language may be mentioned Language and the Study of Language (1867); Life and Growth of Language (1875): Oriental and Linguistic Studies (2 vols., 1873-74). He was editor-in-chief of The Century Dictionary, and prepared or supervised the preparation of a number of books intended for school use, such as a German dictionary, grammar, and reader, French grammar, etc., and Essentials of English Gramnz_ar (1877), which last has been of great service in dislodgmg the erroneous conceptions of language implied in the statements of the traditional grammar. D. at New Haven, June 7, 1894. For a sketch of his life, see Atlantic flfonthly, March, 1895. BENJ. Inn WHEELER. _Whitney, Mount: a mountain in Southeastern Califor- nia, has an elevation of 14,522 feet, and is the highest peak 111 the U. S., not including Alaska. Its eastern slope is ex- ceedingly precipitous, and rises nearly 11,000 feet above Owens valley, which skirts its base. The summit was occu- pied by Prof. S. P. Langley in 1881 for the purpose of mak- ing observations on solar heat. ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. Whitsunday, or Whitsuntide : See Pnsrncosr. ' W_l1ittaker, JAMES Tnonas, M. D., LL. D. : clinician ; b. in Cincinnati, O., Mar. 3. 1843 ; graduated l\I.D. at the Med- ical College of Ohio in 1865; in the same year was appointed acting assistant surgeon in the U. S. navy: was Professor of Physiology in his alma mater from 187 0-80. and Profes- sor of Theory and Practice of Medicine from 1880-94; was lecturer on pathology to the Good Samaritan Hospital, Cin- cinnati. from 1870 to 1880, and on clinical medicine 1880-92. His principal works are Lectures on Physiology (187 9) ; His- tory of Tuberculosis (1887) ; Theory and Practice of rl[edi- cine (Philadelphia, 1893). S. T. ARMSTRONG. Whittemore, Tnonas, D. D.: editor and author: b. in Boston, Mass., Jan. 1, 1800; was successively apprenticed to a morocco-dresser, a brass-founder, and a boot-maker‘ studied theology under Rev. Hosea Ballou: preached td Milford 1821 and Cambridgeport 1822-31; settled at Cambridge; was joint editor bf the Unuersalist rlfagazine, sole editor and proprietor for nearly thirty years from 1828 of its successor. The Trumpet- sat repeatedly in the Massachusetts Legislature. and was, president of the Vermont and Massachusetts Railroad. D. at Cambridge. Mar. 21,1861. He was the author of The Jlfodern History of Z'ni'z'ersalis2n(Boston.1830; enlawed ed. 1860); .Notes and lllustrations of the Parables oftthe New Testament (1832); Songs of Zion (1886): A ‘Com- mentary on the Revelation of St. John (1838) ; A Plain Guide to Unirersalism (1839); The Gospel Harmon ist (1841); C'_onferenee Ilynzns (1842); Sunrlaiy-school Choir (1844) ; Lzfe of IVa-Zter Balfour (1853) ; Life of Rev. Hosea Ballou (4 vols., 1s54-55>; an Autobiography (1859); and tracts in favor of Universalism. He edited Dr. Southwood Smith’s Illustrations of the Divine Government (1831). with an A_ppezulza. Revised by J . W. CHADWICK. Whittier, JOHN GREENLEAFI poet; b. in East Parish of Hav_erhill, Mass., Dec. 17. 1807, of Quaker parentage. He received a common school education, spending his boyhood on a far1n. He was eighteen years of age when his first poem was published in \Villiam Lloyd Garr\ison's Free Press He wrote the ode sung at the dedication of Haverhill Acad- emy in 1827, and was thereafter a pupil in that institution for two terms, earning the means to pay for books and tuition in part by making slippers. At this time he wrote many verses for The Ila/rerhill Gazette and other periodicals few of which are preserved in any collection of his works.’ In J an.. 1829, he was called to Boston to edit The American Jllanufaeturer. a political newspaper, and in August of the same year returned to Haverhill on account of ‘the failine~ health of his father. He was editor of The Harerh ill Ga >ett% for the first six months of 1830. In July, 1830, he becaine 752 WHITTIER editor of the New England Review, a political paper of Hartford, Conn. While editing this journal he made a small collection of his poems and prose sketches which was pub- lished in Hartford J an., 1831, entitled The Legends of 1Vew England. His principal ambition at this period was in the direction of political preferment, and he favored the policy of Henry Clay. He was appointed delegate from Connecti- cut to the national convention at Baltimore, called to nom- inate Clay for the presidency. Serious illness prevented his attending the convention and compelled him to resign the editorship of the Review in J an., 1832. For several years thereafter he lived upon his Haverhill farm, a part of the time editing the Gazette. His poem Moll Pitcher was published anonymously in 1832. Early in 1833 he wrote an anti-slavery pamphlet, Justice and Eazpediencg, and in December of that year was a delegate to the national anti- slavery convention in Philadelphia. He was secretary of the convention and on the committee with Garrison to draw up the“ declaration of sentiments,” which was the formal opening of the war upon the institution of slavery. He represented his native town in the Legislature of Massa- chusetts in 1835, and was re-elected to the next Legislature, but declined to serve on account of ill health. In 1836 he sold his farm and removed with his mother and sister to Amesbury, Mass, where he resided to the close of his life. His poem flfogg Megone was published in a miniature volume in 1836, this being the first book exclusively of verse that appeared with his name upon its title-page. In 1837 a collection was made of his anti-slavery poems, en- titled Poems written during the Progress of the Abolition Question in the United States between the Years 1830 and 1838. He spent a few months in 1837 in New York, acting as one of the secretaries of the American Anti-Slavery So- ciety. In 1838—40 he was editing the Pennsylvania Free- man in Philadelphia. His office was sacked and burned by a mob in May, 1838. A collection of his poems was published in Philadelphia by Joseph Healy in the same year. He returned to his Amesbury home in 1840, and in addition to the spirited lyrics with which for several years he endeavored to arouse the conscience of the people of the U. S. in the matter of slavery, he occasionally sent out ballads. exquisitely sweet and simple, illustrating many phases of New England life and character. These ballads were collected in 1843 in a volume entitled Lays of my f-Iome, published in Boston, and this collection was the first book from which he derived any pecuniary benefit. He was on several occasions candidate for Congress of the Liberty party, but declined the position in 1843, when there seemed to be a prospect of being elected. In 1844-45 he edited The Zlfiddleseas Standard. Lowell, Mass, and for this paper wrote a series of prose articles which were in 1845 published in Boston under the title of The Stranger in Lowell. In 1846 a collection of his anti-slavery poems, Voices of Freedom, was published in Philadelphia. He was corresponding editor of The lVational Era, published in Washington, for thirteen years (1847-60), contributing to it many poems and prose articles. Several volumes were compiled from these writings——viz., Leaves from Jlfargaret S/nith’s Journal, an imaginary description of New Eng- land in early times (Boston, 1849) ; ()ld Portraits and lied- ern Sketches (Boston, 1850); Literary Recreations and .Miscellanies (Boston, 1854) ; Songs of Labor (Boston, 1850). A little volume entitled The Supernatnralism of blow Eng- land, dealing with the superstitious beliefs of the people, was published in New York in 1847, and republished in the same year in London. Other works of this period were Poems, a complete collection, illustrated by H. Billings (Boston, 1849): A Sabbath Scene, satirizing the fugitive- slave law, illustrated (Boston, 1853 ; The Panorama (Bos- ton, 1856); Poetical W'orhs, blue-and-gold edition (2 vols., Boston, 1857); Home Ballads, Poems, and Lyrics (Boston, 1860); In War Time (Boston, 1863). When The Atlantic Jlfonthlg was started in 1857 he became one of its principal contributors, and thereafter to the end of his life much of his best work appeared in that periodical. In 1866 was published his poem Snow Bound. a graphic picture of an isolated New England homestead in winter, in which are many fine touches delineating each member of the family in which his youth was spent. The great popularity of this poem gave him at once a pecuniary independence he had not before enjoyed. Then followed The Tent on the Beach (1867); Among the Hills (1869); _M/iriam (1871); The Pennsg//i'a2iia Pilgrim (1872); fllabel M'artin (1874); Hazel Blossoms, including poems by his sister (1875); WHITTINGTON Vision of Echard (1878) ; The King’s Jtlission (1881) ; The Bag of Seven Islands (1883); St. Gregory/’s Guest (1886); At Sundown (1892). Assisted by Lucy Larcom, he edited a collection of poems entitled Child Life (1871): Child Life in Prose (1874) ; and an anthology, Songs of Three Centuries (1876). During all his life he had a deep interest in public affairs, and took pains to make his influence felt in shaping the policy of his party. He was a member of the electoral college of Massacliusetts in 1860 and 1864. He was never married. After the death of his sister, in 1864, a niece had charge of his household until her marriage in 1876. He then spent some 1nonths of each year, for the remainder of his life, with relatives at Oak Knoll. Danvers. retaining, however, his residence at Amesbury. He*died at Hampton Falls, N. H., Sept. 7, 1892. A complete collection of his writings in prose and verse, which had received his careful revision and annotation, was published in Boston in 1888. It comprises four volumes of poems and three of prose, and is known as the “ Riverside ” edition. He will be longest re- membered, perhaps, for his descriptions of natural scenery, touching the heart by the simplicity and tenderness with which he recounted the scenes and friendships of his youth, and quickened the religious spirit by giving poetical expres- sion to the highest and holiest aspirations. The catholicity of this Quaker’s faith is illustrated by the fact that his verses fill a large place in the collections of hymns for public wor- ship in use in many different Christian denominations. In 1895 his complete poetical works were published in a single volume known as the “ Cambridge ” edition, and this volume includes all his latest verses, besides some fragments found among his papers. The same matter is arranged in a Handy Volume edition of four volumes. Wl1ittie1"s biographies have the following titles and dates : John Greenleaf Whittier: his Life, Genius. and Writings, by ‘W. Sloane Kennedy (Boston, 1882) ; John Grecnleaf W'hittier, a Biography, by Francis H. Underwood (Boston, 1884) ; John G. Whittier, the Poet of Freedom, by VV. Sloane Kennedy, in “ American Reformers ” Series (Boston, 1892); A flfemorial of John G. Whittier, from’ his Native City, published by authority of the city council of Haver- hill (1893) ; Life of John Greenleaf W'hitt/ier, by W. J . Linton (London, 1893); Whittier: lVotes of his Life'and his Friendships, by Mrs. James T. Fields (New York, 1893); Personal Recollections of John G. VVhittier, by Mary B. Clafiin (New York, 1893) ; Life and Letters of John Green- leaf Whittier, by Samuel T. Pickard, in two volumes, illus- trated (Boston, 1894). SAMUEL T. PICKARD. hvllittingtoll, Sir RICHARD: b. at Pauntley, Gloucester- shire, England, about 1350 ; younger son of Sir William de Whityngdon, lord of the manor of Pauntley, who died 1360. Richard was obliged to seek his living, and, according to a well-known legend, walked to London and was apprenticed there to a merchant. At one time, however, he started to run away, but while seated at the foot of I-lighgate Hill, seemed to hear in the chime of Bow Bells— Turn again, Whittington, Thrice lord mayor of London. He then returned, and later married Alice Fitzwarren, daughter of his employer; became a wealthyr merchant, his first capital having been derived from the sale of a cat in an Eastern market ; was lord mayor of London 1397, 1406, and 1419; carried on the business of a mercer; made loans to Henry IV. and Henry V.; bought on the Continent the wedding trousseaux for the Princesses Blanche and Philippa, of which the invoices are still in existence and died in 1423. Having no children, he left his large estate to public or charitable objects, among which were the rebuilding of Newgate prison, the founding of a college and of the libra- ries at Guildhall and of the Grey Friars, and the repair of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. He shared with Richard Har- weden the expense of rebuilding the nave of Westminster Abbey, and during his magistracy ordered‘the compilation of a sort of directory of the city of London, containing curious accounts of its mediaeval customs and privileges. This work, called the Libcr Albus (or White Book), was written in 1419, in Latin and Anglo-Norman, by John Car- penter, common clerk of the city, and was first translated by Henry T. Riley 1862. Interesting particulars respect-ing \Vhittington are given by Mr. Riley in the preface to the above work, and his memory as an historical character has been vindicated by Rev. Samuel Lysons in his book, The ill odel Jlferch ant of the Jlfiddlc Ages, ereem;oli/Zed in the Story of W'hittington and his Cat (Ijondon, 1860). WHITTLESEY Whittlesey, CHARLES: geologist, mining engineer, and archaeologist; b. at Southington, Conn., Oct. 4, 1808; re- moved to Ohio in 1813; graduated at West Point 1831; served one year as lieutenant and then resigned to study and practice law; editor of the Clevelancl Whig anal Herald 1836-37 ; assistant on first Geological Survey of Oh1O 1837- 30; from 1844 until the civil war gave principal attention to the geology and mineral resources of the northern por- tions of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, bemg con- nected at times with the surveys in charge of Owen and Foster and Whitney, and at other times with various mining companies. During the war he served as engineer, and was promoted to a colonelcy in 1861, but resigned on account of ill health in 1862. D. at Cleveland, O., Oct. 18, 1886. He was a pioneer in American archzeology, investigating Indian mounds, caves, and rock inscriptions in Ohio and about Lake Superior. The list of his minor writings is long, and they are scattered through many periodicals. Some _of them were collected by himself under the title F/agitwe Essays, and published at Hudson, O., in 1852. Among his more extended as well as more important papers are three printed as Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge: Flac- taations of Level in the Nort/i American Lakes (1860) ; An- cient Mining on the Shores of Lahe Superior (1863); The Fresh-water Glacial Drift of the iVorthwestern States (1866). G. K. GILBERT. Whitworth, Sir Josnrn, Bart., F. R. S., LL. D., D. C. L. : mechanic and engineer; b. at Stockport, England, 1803; became a tool-maker, and from 1833 to 1854 devoted him- self to the improvement and production of those machine tools which made his name known throughout the civil- ized world. He was the first to manufacture and intro- duce into general use standard gauges for mechanical work of such accuracy as to secure uniformity in the products of all shops using them. He also established the standard screw-threads now used in Great Britain, Russia. Italy, and Germany, and known throughout the world. In 1854 he also turned his attention to the manufacture of rifles, and in 1857 submitted for trial a small-arm far superior to any then existing, and embodying the principles upon which modern improvements have been based, viz., reduction of bore ('45 inch), an elongated projectile (3 to 3% calibers), m ore rapid twist (one turn in 20 inches), and extreme accuracy in manufacture. This rifle, after distancing all others in competition, was rejected by the British Ordnance Board as being of too small caliber for a military weapon. In the construction of cannon, he was equally successful in his products, and unsuccessful in their adoption, making in 1862 a rifled gun of high power, whose proportions were almost the same as those used to-day ; but this was rejected by the ordnance board, and the progress of improvement in ordnance retarded in Great Britain nearly twenty years by the adoption of the Woolwich patterns. To secure a gun- steel which would satisfy his requirements, he perfected the process of “ fluid compression,” now used for the manufac- ture of the highest grades of mild steel not only for guns, but also for steamer’s shafts, etc. Space will not allow a reference to his many other contributions to mechanical science and art. I11 addition to his degrees from Oxford and Dublin, he was appointed by Napoleon III. to the Legion of Honor in 1868, and made baronet in 1869. In 1869 he gave £100,000 to found scholarships for the promotion of mechanical science, from whic_h every year £3,000 is dis- tributed among the younger engineers of England. His writings include _/lfiscellaheoas Papers on ilfechanical Sab- jects (1858); Papers on Practical Subjects : Guns and Steel (1873); and Essays on Jlfechanical Subjects (1882). I). at Monte Carlo, Italy, J an. 22, 1887. J AMES MERCUR. Whitworth Guns : See ARTILLERY. Wll00])il1g‘ Cough: an infectious and epidemic disease, generally occurring but once in the life of an individual, and usually during infancy or childhood. ized by paroxysms of convulsive coughing, followed by a long ringing inspiration, whence the name. The duration of the disease varies from two to several months. It is the chin-cough of early -English physicians. the pertussis of Sydenham, and the eoqaeluche of French authorities, and was formerly confounded with the catarrhal affections, which it much resembles in its symptoms. The specific cause has not as yet been positively demonstrated, though it is claimed that a certain bacillus is the germ peculiar to the disease. The simple disease is seldom fatal, but when complicated with pulmonary disease is very dangerous. It is character-, WICHERN 753 Whortleberry, Hurtleberry, or Huckleberry: a well- known American edible berry. being the fruit of plants of the genera 6/aylassacia and VCt00‘l/'7?/’l/tit’)?/, constituting with Ch/iogenes a sub-order of the Ericacece, or I'IEATH FAMILY (q. 12.). Some of the species are known as blueberry and checkerberry in various parts of the U. S. See also BIL- BERRY and HUCKLEBERRY. Whydallz the chief port of Dahomey, Africa; on the Slave Coast, Gulf of Guinea (see map of Africa, ref. 5—C). Several European trading firms were established there, and \Vhyd ah was the chief center of foreign trade in Dahomey before the French practically acquired the country (1893). The best overland route from Abomey, the capital, to the sea reaches the coast at Whydah. Palm oil is the chief ar- ticle of export. C. C. A. Whydah-bird : See WIDOW-man. Whymper, EDWARD: traveler and wood-engraver; b. in London, England, Apr. 27, 1840: educated at Clarendon House School; became a draughtsman on wood; made aseries of journeys on the Continent, in one of which, in 1861, he ascended Mont Pelvoux, reputed the highest mountain in France; discovered from its summit another peak, the Pointe des Ecrins, 500 feet higher, which was subsequently ascended by him (1864); was chosen a member of the Al- pine Club 1861 ; made for several years a series of bold as- cents of Alpine summits before considered inaccessible, culminating in that of the Matterhorn July 14, 1865, when four of his companions lost their lives; traveled in North- west Greenland, collecting fossiliferous deposits for the Brit- ish Museum, and made a second visit to Greenland for a similar purpose in 1872: ascended the principal peaks of the Ecuadorian Andes in 1879-80. Author of Swiss Pictures, drawn uiith Pen and Pencil (1866); Scrambles among the Alps 1860-69 (London, 1871): and The Great Andes of the Equator (3 vols., 1891-92). His brother, FREDERICK W nrn- PER, b. in London, July 20. 1838, is author of Travel and Adventure in Alaska (1868) and The Heroes of the Arctic and their Aclverztares (1875). M. W. H. Whyte-Melville, GEORGE J onn: See l\.IELVILLE, GEORGE Jenn Wnvrn. Wice'lius, or Witzel. Gnonez theologian: b‘. at Vacha, Eisenaeh, on the IVerra. 1501; studied theology at Erfurt, and was ordained a priest. though in 1520 he had been’ in Wittenberg, and heard Luther and Melanchthon; was ap- pointed curate at Vaeha, where be embraced the Reforma- tion and married. He preached against ecclesiastical abuses and the oppression of the common people. From Vacha he went as parish priest at \Venigen-Lupnitz, in Thuringia, but was compelled to leave because he was suspected, unjustly, of sympathy with the peasants in the Peasants’ war. In 1525 he was appointed pastor of Niemegk, a town 27 miles S. S. \V. from Potsdam, on Lnther"s recommendation, but relapsed into homanism. attacked with great violence the Lutheran doctrines concerning good works and the Church, and had a falling out with the Lutheran leaders, and was expelled in 1530. He led a wandering life henceforth, never staying long in a place. For a time he was at Eisleben, then at Dresden; in 1540 was in Fulda. where he wrote his Querela pacis; in 155-1 removed to Mayence, where he lived in retirement till his death, 1573. His principal work was his T3/pus eceles/iasticus, 5 vols. (15-10-48). See G. L. Schmidt, Georg lVi2‘2el ein AZt7raJ7zoZih~ des 16. Jahrh'un.- derts (Vienna, 1876). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Wichern, t'ieh'crn, J OHAXN Hnmnrenz philanthropist; b. in Hamburg, Germany, Apr. 21, 1808: studied theology at Giittingen and Berlin: started, after his return home, a Sunday-school for the poorest and most abandoned children of the city, and ultimately had 500 pupils under his care; opened in 1833 at Horn, near Hamburg, the Rauhe Ha us, a reformatory for vagrant children, the miserable, often weak-minded, but often also wicked-minded, children who were received being portioned off into families of twelve, and placed under the charge of a young workman, who taught them a trade, the benetieent effects of which institu- tion were so great that it was soon imitated, not only in va- rious places in Germany. but also in Great Britain, France, and H olland. In 184.8 the Protestant Ecclesiastical Assem- bly at Wittenberg combined, for the purpose of united action, all the inner missions under one central committee, at the head of which Wichern was placed, and finally, in 1858, the Prussian Government appointed him superintend- ent of all penal and correctional institutions of the country. 445 754, WICHITA He published Die innere fllission (Hamburg, 1849; 3d ed. 1889); Die Behandlung der Verbrecher (Hamburg, 1853); Der Dienst der Frauen in der Kirche (Hamburg, 1858 ; 3d ed. 1880). From 1844 he issued the monthly Fliegende Bldtter des Rauhen Iiauses. D. in Hamburg, Apr. 7, 1881. His Life was written by Oldenburg (Hamburg, 2 vols., 1881- 86) and Krummacher (Gotha, 1882). Wichita, wish’i-taw: city (founded in 1870); capital of Sedgwick co., Kan.; on both sides of the Arkansas river, and on the Atch., Top. and S. Fé, the Clii., Rock Is. and Pac., the Mo. Pac.. the St. L. and San Fran., and the \Vich- ita and West. railways; 100 miles S. W. of Emporia, 161 miles S. \V. of Topeka (for location, see map of Kansas, ref. 7—G). It is thecenter of a great wheat-growing and stock- raisin region. and an important commercial shipping-point. The city is laid out regularly, has a mild and healthful cli- mate, and is provided with improved systems of water- works, sewerage, gas and electric street-lighting, and electric street-railways. Griswold, Linwood, and Riverside parks are conveniently situated and well adapted to public pur- poses. The public buildings include the U. S. Government building, county building, city-hall, city hospital, and the Carey hotel. There are 37 churches and other places of wor- ship, viz.: Methodist Episcopal, 8; Presbyterian, 7; Bap- tist, 5; Congregational, 4; Christian, 2; Lutheran, 2; R0- man Catholic, 2; and Protestant Episcopal, Unitarian, United Brethren, German Reformed, Friends, Adventist, and Scien- tist, each 1. The public schools have an enrollment of over 6,000 pupils, and cost about $71,000 per annum. Advanced instruction is afforded by Garfield University (Christian, chartered 1886), \Vichita University, Fairmount Institute, All Hallows’ Academy, Lewis Academy (Presbyterian), Southwestern Business College. and the Wichita Commer- cial College. There are 2 national banks with combined capital of $250,000, 2 State banks with combined capital of $250,000, a private bank, and 3 daily and 12 weekly news- papers. Among charitable institutions are 2 hospitals, 2 homes for children, and a home for reformed women. The business interests of the city comprise extensive stock- yards and meat-packing houses, wholesale houses in general merchandise, and manufactories of agricultural implements, chemicals, flour, sash and doors, wagons, spring beds and mattresses, brooms, hose-couplers, harness, bottled goods, trunks, soap, and ice. Pop. (1880) 4,911; (1890) 23,853; (1895) estimated, 25,000. CHARLES K. HATTON. lvicllita Falls: town; capital of \Vichita co., Tex.; on the Wichita river, and the Wichita Valley Railway ; 51 miles N. E. of Seymour, 113 miles N. W. of Fort VVorth (for loca- tion, see map of Texas, ref. 1—G). It is in an agricultural and grazing region, and has 2 national banks with com- bined capital of $150,000, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) not in census; (1890) 1,987. Wick: a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland; capital of the county of Caithness; at the mouth of the Wick; 161 miles by rail N. N. E. of Inverness and 263 miles N. of Edinburgh (see map of Scotland, ref. 4-H). It is at the head of a small bay, which affords good harbor accom- modation for vessels of light draught and the large fleets of fishing-boats engaged in the herring-fishery, of which this is a very important center. The town consists of Wick proper, on the northern bank of the river, and Pulteney, on the southern. Pop. (1891) 8,464. W ickliffe, J OHN2 See WYCLIF. Wicklow: county of Ireland, bordering E. on the Irish Sea; area. 781 sq. miles. The surface rises in the middle in a group of mountains 3,000 feet high, sometimes well wooded and picturesque, sometimes barren and wild. On the slopes of these mountains are good pastures and tracts of fertile soil. Crops of cats, potatoes, and wheat are grown, and there is some dairy farming. Pop. (1891) 61,934. Chief town, Wicklow; pop. 3,390. Wicksteed, PHILIP HENRY, M. A.: clergyman and au- thor: b. at Leeds, England, Oct. 25, 1844; educated chiefly at University College, London, Manchester New College, and Leyden University; pastor successively of Mary Street chapel. Taunton, Old chapel, Dunkinfield, and Little Port- land Street chapel, London; university extension lecturer in London: lecturer on sociology, Oxford; warden of Uni- versity H all, London. He is the author of Dante, Six Ser- mons (1880); Alphabet of Economic Science (1888); I-Ienrih Ibsen, Four Lectures (1892) ; and has published translations from the Dutch as follows: Ort and I-Iooykaas’s Bible for \/VIEDERSHEIM Young People (6 vols., 1873-79); Kuenen’s National Relig- ions and Universal Religions (1882) and Pentateuch (1886); and from the French. Reville?s Native Religions of Jlfeaico and Peru (1884) ; and d’Alviella’s Origin and Growth of the Conception of God (1892). Wiclif : See Wvcmr. Wicopyz See LEATHER-WOOD. Widdin: town; in Bulgaria; on the Danube, near the Servian frontier ; surrounded by morasses and strongly for- tified (see map of Turkey, ref. 2—C). Large vessels can as- cend the Danube to its harbor, and an important trade is carried on in wool, skins, furs, tallow, salt fish. and wheat. The Russians were defeated here in 1828. Pop. (1893) 14,551. E. A. G. Widgeon, or Wigeon [from O. Fr. vigeon, vingeon, widgeon < Lat. vipio, vipio’nis, a kind of small crane]: any duck of the genus Jlfareca. The bill is shorter than the head (about equal to the claw of the inner toe), rather high, with its sides parallel nearly to its end, the end somewhat obtusely pointed, and the nail at the tip a third as bread as the bill itself; the tail is pointed, and less than half the length of the wings. Four species are known, two of which are inhabitants of the northern hemisphere, and two of the southern. The northern species are closely related, and are, on the whole, representatives of each other in their respective countries, but both wander sometimes beyond their natural limits. The European widgeon (1lI.penelope) has the head and neck reddish brown or cinnamon, with the feathers of the former slightly spotted with dusky, and those of the lat- ter nearly uniform ; the head is further diversified by cream color on the top, and by green in a band around the eye, and in a few spots behind it. The American widgeon (III. americana) is distinguished by the head and neck being in the main grayish, with the feathers of the former thickly spotted, and of the latter banded with black; the head is also relieved by white on the top, and by green in a broad and continuous patch around and behind the eye. The spe- cies remain farther to the southward than many of their kindred, the American widgeon breeding in Northern Dakota and Montana. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Widow: See DOWER. Widow-bird [(by analogy of widow) for whidah-bird, named from Whidah (or Whydah), in Dahomey, West Af- rica, where the bird abounds]: any species of Vidua and related genera belonging to the family Ploceidze. See ‘WEAVER-BIRDS. The species have the bill conic, but more or less arched, and advancing on the forehead in a point; the wings are moderate, “ with the first quill spurious; the second nearly as long as the third; the third, fourth, and fifth nearly equally long”; the tail is variable, but in the males some of the coverts and tail-feathers are usually great- ly developed: the tarsi are slender, shorter than the mid- dle toe, and covered in front with large plates ; the toes are rather slender, and the hind one especially so, being as long as the inner; the claws are all long and moderately curved, and the hindermost developed. The species are peculiar to Africa. They feed chiefly upon grains. The nest is gen- erally complex, and elaborately woven. The excessive de- velopment of the plumage, and especially the tail-feathers, of the males is peculiar to the breeding season. About six- teen or seventeen species are known, the most familiar of which are the Vidua principalis and V. paradisea. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Widukind : See Wrr'rEKii\*D. Wieck, CLARA: See SCHUMANN, ROBERT. Wiedersheim, vee’ders-him, ROBERT Ennsr EDWARD: anatomist; b. at Nurtingcn, in Wiirtemberg, Germany, Apr. 21, 1848; educated in the gymnasia of Stuttgart and Lausanne, and then studied medicine in the University of Tiibingen. During the Franco-German war he served in the German army as assistant surgeon. At the close of the war he returned to his studies, first at VVi'ii'zbui'g, then at Freiburg in Baden, and passed his final examination in Jan., 1872. He was then appointed prosector to Kiilliker at VViirzburg; in 1876 he went to Freiburg as Extraordinary Professor of Anatomy, and in 1881 was made ordinary pro- fessor. Most noticeable among his works are his two man- uals of comparative anatomy, and his papers on the skull of the Urodele Batrachia, the anatomy of the Caecilians, devel- opment of Proteus, and on the appendicular skeleton of the vertebrates. His work in completing Ecker’s monograph on the frog should also be mentioned. J . S. KiNesLEY. 'WIE LAND Wieland.'vee’1a"ant. Cimrsrorr-I Il/IARTIN2 poet; b. at Ober- holzheim, Wilrtemberg, Sept. 5, 1733; received a careful education from his father, in the school of Klosterbergen, near Magdeburg, and under a private tutor at Erfurt. He wrote Latin and German verses when only twelve years old. In 1750 he went to the University of Tiibingen for the purpose of studying law, but soon devoted himself ex- clusively to philology. philosophy, and literature. Follow- ing an invitation of Bodmer, whom he had sent his unfin- ished epic Ifermcmn, he went in 1752 to Ziirich, and remained for two years in the house of Bodmer as the latter’s guest and literary assistant. He then accepted a position as a private tutor at Berne, deeply engaged all the while in various kinds of literary production, though with- out any remarkable result. From 1760 to 1769 he lived at Biberach, a free imperial city not far from his birthplace, where he held an oflice in the civil service, and here, or rather at the residence of Count von Stadion in the neigh- boring Warthausen, he came in contact with the German nobility, whose life, half sentimental and half frivolous, greatly influenced him, and produced an entire change in his views and in his literary productions. In this period he wrote Don S3/lve'0 cle Rosalva (1764), Komisehe Erze'lhlzm- gen (1766), Agalhon (1767), all of a very captivating but rather doubtful character; the didactic poem lllusm-z'on (1768), very elegant in its form, and in those days very startling in its ideas; and a prose translation of Shakspeare in 8 vols. (1762-66), which was the first introduction of the English poet to the German public. In 1767 he received a chair of philosophy in Erfurt, and held it to 1772, in which year he published, among other things, Oombabus and Der neue Amacleis, a comic poem in 18 songs. In 1772 he was called to Weimar as tutor to the young duke, and he re- mained there till his death J an. 20, 1813, residing partly in the city itself, partly at his estate in the neighborhood, Osmannstedt, where he was buried in the garden. YVith Goethe, Schiller, and Herder he was on intimate terms, though the enormous literary activity which he developed followed other courses and sometimes occasioned collisions. He edited TeuL‘seher Jliercur (1773-95), Aflise/zes I/Museum (1796-1804), and Neues Alltsehes llluseum (1805-09); trans- lated and annotated the epistles and satires of Horace (1788-89), all the works of Lucian, and Cicero‘s letters (5 vols.,‘ 1808-12); wrote Oberon (1780), his best and most celebrated work, a romantic epic, translated into Eng- lish by W. Sotheby (London, 1826); iveue Go'1‘z‘ergesprc‘z'ehe and Geheime Geschz'ehzfe des Phllosophen Peregrlnus Pro- Ieus (1791), imitations of Lucian; Gesch-ichfe cler Abde- rlzfen (1774; translated into English by H. Christmas un- der the title The Republic of Fools. being the I;Tz'sl0r_2/ of the Slate and People of Abclera in Thrace, 2 vols., London, 1861); Arlste'yap and ee'm'ge seiner Zeilgenossen (1800-01), his last romance. The first collected edition of his works was published by himself in 42 vols. (1794-1802), the second by Gruber in 50 vols. (1818-28); subsequently several other more or less complete editions have appeared. Of his letters the most nnportant collections are Amgewctlzlte Brlefe (4 vols., 1815), Auszvahl clenhwiZrclz'ger Briefe (2 vols., 1815), and Brlefe an Sophie La-Roche (1820). Considered by themselves, simply as productions of art, IVieland‘s works have, with a few exceptions. lost somewhat of their interest. The frivolity of his humor, the sensuality of his imagination, are covered, but not always redeemed, by the sprightliness of his wit and by the quickness and compass of .his feeling. After Luther, he is the first great poet in the German literature to whom verse was a natural form of speech, and beneath the elegance and refinement of form, which he learned partly fro1n the French and partly from the Greek literature, there moves in all his works a native grace, a genuine spirit of sweetness and cheerfulness. He thus made German fiction attractive to the upper classes of German society, which had hitherto neglected it, and became an important element, the model of naturalness, in the educa- tion of Goethe. Many important issues in modern literature i11 Germany—the worship of Shakspeare. the enthusiasm for the Middle Ages, ctc.—-can be traced back to him as one of their sources or found in him one of their earliest and most effective supporters. I-Iis statue by Gasser was raised in Weimar Sept. 4, 1857. See Gruber, lVlelanrls Leben (1827); Liibell, Entwe'c,7.relzm.g der deuzisehen Poesle (Brunswick, 1858); Hallbe1'g,I'Ve'elcmcl (1869) : E. Ranke, Zwr Beu'rthe1Il'u/n_g Wie- lands (1885); Muncker, Wlelrmcls .Hermem/n, (1882); L. I-Iirzel, IVe'elcmd anal jl1m'1f2"n and Regula Kilaell ; Prtihle, Leasing, We'elaml, Heinse (1877). Revised by JULIUS GOEBEL. WIFFEN 755 Wieliczka, 'uye‘e-litch'ka”a: mining town in Austrian Ga- licia, 6 miles S. E. of Cracow (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 3-I-I); celebrated for the largest and richest salt mines in the world. The time of their discovery is unknown, but that they were known as early as the year 1044 is historically proven. King Casimir the Great of Poland was the first to work the mines, and Augustus II. improved their cultivation by the introduction of skilled Saxon miners. By the first partition of Poland in 1772 they fell to Austria. The mines now extend under the town from E. to W. 4,000 meters, from N. to S. 1,200 meters, and 386 meters in depth, and are worked by more than 1,000 men. They yield annually about 65,009 tons of salt. The strange labyrinth of under- ground streets, squares, and chambers with pillars, columns, statues, and candelabra, all hewn out in the salt, and the two lakes navigated by small boats, are unparalled else- where. Pop. of town about 6,280. ‘ Wien, veen : See VIENNA. Wiertz, eeertz, ANTOINE Josnrnz painter; b. at Dinant, Belgium, Feb. 22, 1806, in humble circumstances; was ad- mitted as a pupil in the art school of Antwerp in 1820; won the great prize in 1834; studied for some years in Rome, and settled after his return at Brussels. The first period of his artistic career (1834-48) is characterized by colossal representations of mythological or biblical subjects—Ccn- temllng for the Body of Pabroclus (1835), 20 by 30 feet; the Revolt of the Angels, the Flight from 1*/‘gg;792', the T2'z'u772]9h of Clzrist (1848), 50 by 30 feet—and by very fierce polemics against certain features of modern art-life. He refused to sell any of his pictures ; offered his Palroelus as a prize to him who could show thoroughly the mischievous influence of journalism on art; put his own name on a picture by Rubens, sent it to the committee of a Paris exhibition, and made the unfortunate judges the laughing-stock of Europe when they rejected it. In 1847 the Belgian Government built him a large studio after his own designs. and between 1848 and 1853 he succeeded in perfecting the discovery of a new method of painting. which he called jJee'm‘u're male, and which combines the qualities of fresco and oil painting. In the later period of his life (1853-65) his polemical temper developed into a grotesque humor, and his pictures became less pretentious in size and richer in conception: The Last Umz/non, A Second after Death, lVapoleon in Hell, Preez'pc'- late Inhumaz‘z'0n., Visions of (t Heezcl cm.‘ 017’, etc. Devoting himself almost wholly to these quaint and gloomy subjects, he allowed the artistic qualities of his pictures to be inferior to what his great abilities might have made them, though he kept to the end some of the vigor and the freshness of his prototype, Rubens. He bequeathed all his pictures to the state, and they are now exhibited in the sp-called IViertz Museum, his former studio. He also wrote Eloge cle Rubens (1840) and L‘Ec0le flrmzancle cle Pefntzrre (1863), both of which were crowned by the Belgian Academy. D. at Brus- sels, June 18, 1865. See Labarre. Anz‘oz'ne II'z'erz‘z (Brussels, 1866). ' Revised by RUSSELL Srcners. Wiesbadell,eees'baa-den: town: province of Hesse-Nae san, Prussia; beautifully situated at the foot of Mt. Taunus, on the Salzbach. an affluent of the Rhine (see map of German Empire, ref. 5-D). It is neatly built, and one of the most popular watering-places of Germany. It contains fourteen hot saline springs, of which the principal has a temperature of 156°, and is very copious. These springs, which are con- sidered efticacious in cases of gout and rheumatism, were known to the Romans (Agzuc l/l[(zfz‘2'ace(e), and they are now generally used by about 80,000 persons each season. Pop. (1890) 64,670. Revised by M. IV. l-L\RRI.\'GTQ.\Z Wife: See l\IARRIED Women. “’ifl"e1l.BE.\*Jl\MIN BARRON: editor; b. near Woburn, Bed- fordshire. England. in 1794. of a Quaker family; devoted himself to the study of Spanish literature, and especially of the Spanish Reformers of the sixteenth century, whose numerous writings he rescued from long neglect by the pub- lication. with the assistance of Don Luis de Uroz y Rios, of Rcformisz‘as A'ntz'gu0s Espaholes. or the W'orhs of Spanish Refwmers /re_;m'2?n-z‘ecl and erlz'z‘ed (29 vols., 1848-69), with bio- graphical and bibliographical notices. His collections are now in the library of WVadham College, Oxford. D. Mar. 18, 1867. See Robertson’s The I'V2:fi"e2z, Brozfhers. “riffen, JEREMIAH HOLMES: poet and translator: brother of Benjamin Barron \Vitfen; b. at \Voburn, England, in 17 92; was for a number of years a schoolmaster, and subse- quently librarian to the Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey, 756 WIGAN retaining that position until his death May 2, 1836. He pub- ' lished poetical translations of Garcilaso de la Vega (1823), and of Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered (2 vols., 1824—25), and H istorical I/lfemoirs of the House of Russell from the‘I\’or- man Conquest (2 vols., 1833), besides several volumes of original verse. He contributed poems to the annuals, and made some translations from the Welsh Triads. Wigan: town; in Lancashire, England; on the Douglas; 18 miles W. N. WV. of Manchester (see map of England, ref. 7-E). It is in the center of a rich coal-field, and has iron and brass foundries, paper-mills, cotton-spinning factories, and manufactures of cotton goods, nails, edge tools, and chemicals. Wigan returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1891) 55,013. Wigeon: See Wrnenox. Wig‘g'leSW01‘tll, MIOHAEL: clergyman; b. probably in Yorkshire, England, Oct. 18, 1631; was taken to Charles- town, Mass, by his father 1638, and thence in the same year to New Haven, Conn.; graduated at Harvard 1651; became tutor and fellow there; studied divinity; was or- dained minister of the church at Maiden 1656; had some skill as a physician, and was offered the presidency of Harvard 1684, but declined on account of ill health, being “ a little feeble shadow of a man.” He preached the elec- tion sermon 1686, and the artillery election sermon 1696. D. at Maiden, June 10, 1705. Author of The Day of Doom, or a Poetical Description of the Great and Last Judg- ment, rwith a Short Discourse on Eternity (1662), which went through two editions in England, and was long one of the most popular books in New England (6tl1 ed. 1715). In it occurs the famous passage assigning to non- elect deceased infants “the easiest room in hell” (verse clxxxi. . Another small volume, “intended for poetry” (Allibone), was entitled Afeat out of the Eater, or Jlfedita- tions concerning the N ecessity/, End, and Usefulness of Ajj’tic- tions unto God’s Children, all tending to Prepare them for and Comfort them under the Cross (1669; 6th ed. 1770). He left in MS. a poem entitled God’s Controversy with Nero England, printed in the Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1871. An edition of his Day of Doom, with the addition of other poems and a Ilfemoir, Autobiog- raphy, and Sketch of his Funeral Sermon by Rev. Cotton Jlfather, has been issued by \/Villiam H. Burr (New York, 1867), and John \Vard Dean published a Sketch of his Life, with a Fragment of his A-utobiography, some of his Letters, and a Catalogue of his Library (Albany, 1863; new ed. 1871). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wight, wit, ORLANDO WILLrAMs: author; b. at Centre- ville, N. Y., Feb. 19, 1824; educated at I/Vestfield Academy and at Rochester Collegiate Institute; ordained to the Univer- salist ministry; settled as a literary man at Brooklyn, N. Y. ; subsequently studied medicine, and practiced in Wisconsin; appointed State geologist and surgeon-general 1874; health commissioner of Milwaukee 1878-80; health ofiicer of De- troit. He was the author of Lines and Letters of Abelard and Heloise (1853; new ed. 1861); edited The Philosophy of Sir William Hamilton (1853) ; twelve volumes of Stand- ard French Classics (1859, seq.); and The Household Li- brary (18 vols., 1859, scq.); translated, with Frederick W. Ricord, Victor Cousin’s Course of the History of ilfodcrn Philosophy (2 vols., 1852); and Lectures on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good (1854); flfarcims of Public Ifealth (1884); and People and Countries, travels (1888); and aided Miss Mary L. Booth in her translation of Henri Martin’s IIistory of France (4 vols., 1863). D. at Detroit, l\'Iich., Oct. 19, 1888. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wigl1t, Isle of: an island in the English Channel, be- onging to the county of Hampshire, England, from which it is separated by the roadstcad of Spithead. Area, 145 sq. miles. It is traversed from E. to W. by a range of chalk downs rising between 600 and 700 feet, which presents a great variety of fine scenery. The soil is very fertile, and the climate remarkably mild and equable. Wheat, vegeta- bles, and fruits are extensively cultivated, and a fine breed of sheep is reared on the downs. The island is much re- sorted to as a bathing-place and by eonsumptives. The isl- and was known as insula Vcctis by the Romans, who con- quered it in the reign of Vespasian, and there are many evidences of the Roman occupation. Near the town of Cowes is Osborne House, where Charles I. was imprisoned for a short time, and which is a favorite residence of Queen Victoria. Pop. (1891) 78,718. WILBERFORCE Wigram, Sir J AMES: jurist; b. at Walthamstow, Eng- land, in 1793, of Irish descent; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge; graduated in 1815, and became a fellow of Trinity in 1817; was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn 1819; took up chancery practice, and was made king’s coun- sel in 1834; entered Parliament for Leominster 1841; va- cated his seat, and was knighted and made second vice- chancellor Oct., 1841 : held this oflice until 1850, when, after becoming totally blind, he retired, and was granted a pen- sion of £3,500. D. July 29, 1866. He is the author of An Examination of the Rules of Law respecting the Admission of Ezvtrinsic Er/iclence in Aid of the Interpretation of lVills (2d ed. 1835), of which the second American edition was an- notated by Theodore W. Dwight, LL. D., and of Points in the Law of Discovery (2d ed. 1840). F. STURGES ALLEN. W igton, or Wigtmvn: county of Scotland, occupying the southwestern corner of the country, and bordering S. on the Irish Sea and \V. on the North Channel: comprises the western district of the ancient province of Galloway, Loch Ryan, and Luce Bay, which almost intersect the county from the peninsula, 28 miles long, which is known as the Rhinns of Galloway. The surface is undulating, and gradually rises toward the N. to a height of 1,500 feet. It consists to a great extent of moorland, interspersed with small lakes, but it contains some fine pastures where an excellent breed of cattle is reared, and some tracts of good soil highly cul- tivated. Pop. (1891) 36,062. The chief towns are Stranraer, Wigtown, Newton-Stewart. VVhithorn, Glenluce, and Port- patrick. Wigtown, the county-town, is a royal burgh with a population of 1,509. It is 126 miles S. W. of Edinburgh. Here on May 11, 1685, an old woman and a girl were tied to stakes and drowned by the incoming tide because of their refusal to take the Abjuration Oath. Wijnants: See I/VYNANTS. Wilamowitz-Mollendorf, ULRICH, von : classical scholar; b. in Markowitz, Posen, Germany, Dec. 22, 1848; studied in Bonn and Berlin; privat decent in Berlin 1874; pro- fessor ordinarius in Greifswald 1876; since 1883 in G6ttin- gen. His chief works are: Analecta Euripidea (1875); Callimachus (1882); _/Eschylus’s Agamemnon (1885) and Euripides’s Hippolytus (1891), translated into German verse; Aristotle's Athenian Constitution (with Kaibel, 1891); Euripides’s fleracles (2 vols., 1889; 2d ed. 1895), with introduction and commentary; Aus Kydathen in Philologische Untersuchungen (vol. i.,1880); Antigonos o. Karystos in vol. iv. (1881); Homerische Untersuchungen in vol. vii. (1884); Isyllos eon Epidauros in vol. ix. (1886); Aristotcles und Athen (2 vols., 1894) ; Die Thucydideslegende (1877) ; Die Bilhne des Aeschylus (1886) ; Die sieben Thore Thcbens (1891), etc. Editor of M. Haupt’s Opuscula (3 vols., Leipzig, 1876). ALFRED Gunnman. Wilber: village (founded in 1873); capital of Saline eo., Neb.; on the Big Blue river, and the Burl. and Mo. River Railroad; 31 miles S. W. of Lincoln (for location, see map of Nebraska. ref. 11—G). It is in an agricultural region; has 6 churches, court-house, high school, 2 State banks with combined capital of $75,000, and 3 weekly newspa- pers; and has 2 large flour-mills, steam grain elevators, and cigar-factories. Pop. (1880) 710; (1890) 1,226; (1895) estimated, 1,600. PUBLISHER or “REPUBLICAN.” Wilberforce, ROBERT Isaac: clergyman and author; son of William ; b. at Bloomfield House, near Clapham Common, England, Dec. 19, 1802; graduated at Oxford 1823 ; became fellow, tutor, and examiner at Oriel College; took orders in the Church of England; was for some years vicar of East Farleigh, Kent, and of Burton Agnes 1840; became arch- deacon of the East Riding of Yorkshire J an. 14, 1841, and prebendary of York Feb. 8 of the same year; resigned these preferments 1854 on being received into the Roman Catho- lic Church at Paris, and entered an ecclesiastical academy at Rome with a view to the priesthood. He was a joint author of his father’s‘Li_fe, and author of The Fire Em- pires, an Outline of Ancient History (1840) ; Rutilius and Lucius, or Stories of the Third Age (1842) ; Church Courts and Church Discipline (1843); The Doctrine of the Incar- nation (1848); The Doctrine of Holy Baptism (1849); A Sketch of the ]~Iistory of Erastianism (1851) ; The Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist (1853) ; 2 vols. of Sermons (1850-54); and An Inquiry into the Principles of Church Authority, or Reasons for Recalling my Subscription to the Royal Su- premacy (1854). D. at Albano, near Rome, Feb. 3, 1857. Revised by J . J . KEANE. WILBERFORCE Wilberforce, SAMUEL, D. D. : bishop; third son of Will- iam; b. at Clapham, England, Sept. 7, 1805; educated at Oriel College, Oxford, and graduated 1826; took orders In the Church of England; became curate of Checkendon, Oxford- shire, 1828; rector of Brixton (Brightstone), Isle of Wight, 1830; select preacher before the University of Oxford 1837 and again 1845 ; archdeacon of Surrey 1839 ; rector of Alver- stoke, Hampshire, 1840; canon of Winchester Cathedral 1840; chaplain to Prince Albert 1841; sub-almoner to the Queen 1844; dean of Westminster Mar., 1845 ; Bishop of Ox- ford and ea;-oflicio chancellor of the order of the Garter N ov., 1845; lord high almoner to the Queen Nov., 1847; and Bishop of Winchester Oct., 1869. He was a leader of the High Church party, but an opponent of ritualism; was dis- tinguished for eloquence and wit, for his efficiency as.a bishop, and for his skill as a debater in convocation and 1n the House of Lords. The versatility of his opinions earned him the sobriquet of “ Soapy Sam,” by which he was popu- larly known, because, as he wittily explained, “ he was al- ways in hot water. and always came out of it with clean hands.” He was killed by a fall from his horse, near Dork- ing, July 19, 1873. He was author of lVote-Boole of a Country Clergyman (1833); Encharistica (1839); Sermons preached before the University of Oxford (2 series, 1839-62) ; of several other volumes of sermons; The Rocky Island, and other Parables (1840; 14th ed. 1870; new ed. 1892); A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America (1844); Heroes of Hebrew History (1870; new ed. 1892); Speeches on Jlfzssions (1874); and many miscellaneous pub- lications. See his Life. by Canon A. R. Ashwell and his son Reginald Gaston Wilberforce (3 vols., 1881-82; con- densed by the son, 1888) ; cf. G. W. Daniell, Bishop Wilber- force (1891). Revised by S. M. JAcKsox. Wilberforce, WILLIAM: philanthrophist; b. at Hull, England, Aug. 24, 1759. As early as 1773 he published in a newspaper a letter “in condemnation of the odious traffic in human flesh.” At the age of nine he was sent to the grammar school of Hull, and in 1776 he entered St. John’s College, Cambridge. and being the master of an independ- ent fortune, of a genial temper, self-indulgent, playful, and witty, and thrown without restraint into the society of “ as licentious a set of men as could well be conceived" (to use his own words), the risk to his health. his morals, and his general welfare was extreme. Notwithstanding his temp- tations to idleness, he became a good classic and creditably passed the college examinations. At Cambridge he formed an acquaintance with William Pitt, which afterward ripened into intimacy. Having determined to enter public life, he offered himself for Hull (in 1780), and after a sharp con- test was elected to Parliament. In 1784 he was elected to represent the county of York, a success which seemed to open before him the most gratifying prospects. The years 1785- 86 witnessed a change in his religious convictions which modified the whole course of his future life. The result of this was that he began in 1787 a series of efforts for the reformation of manners, and especially for abolish- ing the African slave-trade. The latter subject was brought into Parliament, and after overcoming many obstacles he opened the debate against the traffic on May 12, 1789, in a speech of great beauty and power. In this philanthropic effort he was supported by Burke, Pitt. and Fox. Although defeated, he renewed the effort whenever there seemed a chance of success, and finally, in 1807. after a struggle of nearly twenty years, had the joy of seeing the bill making it illegal for a British citizen to carry on the slave tratfic passed by both houses. It received the royal assent on Mar. 25, and became the law of the land. In 1797 Wilberforce published his book entitled A Practical View of the Pre- vailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Jlfiddle Classes of this country, contrasted with Real Christianity. In 1825 Wilberforce retired from Par- liament after a continuous service of nearly forty-six years, during which his labors had been conspicuous and uncea- sing for every measure, public or private, tending to ameli- orate suffering, to relieve the oppressed, and to elevate the moral and religious condition of the kingdom. Among the most important of these were his efforts in behalf of the Bible and missionary societies, for Roman Catholic emanci- pation, against the war with America, for christianizing In- dia, and for abolishing the slave-trade and slavery. After leaving Parliament. he retired almost altogether from public life, and went to live upon a small estate at Highwood near London. This, however, on account of a wILcox 757 loss of property, he was obliged to relinquish in 1831, after which he lived with his sons in Kent and the Isle of Wight. Three days before his death he had the intense pleasure of learning that the House of Commons had passed to its sec- ond reading the bill for the abolition of slavery, and he thanked God he had lived to see England spend $320,000,000 sterling in such a cause. He died in Cadogan Place, London, July 29, 1833, and, in accordance with the wishes of the na- tion, was buried in Westminster Abbey, “side by side with Canning, at the feet of Pitt, and within two steps of Fox and Grattan.” The Life of W'illiam lVilberforce, 5 vols. 8vo, was written by his sons Robert Isaac and Samuel (1838; new ed., abridged, 1843); his Correspondence (edited by the same, in 2 vols.) appeared in 1840. Revised by SAMUEL MACAULEY J ACKSON. Wil'braham-: town (incorporated in 1763); Hampden co., Mass.; on the Chicopee river, and the Boston and Al- bany Railroad; 9 miles E. of Springfield (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3—E). It contains the villages of YVilbraham and North Wilbraham; has 3 churches, 9 dis- trict schools, and a public library; is noted as the seat of Wesleyan Academy (Methodist Episcopal, chartered in 1824); and is principally engaged in agriculture and the manufacture of paper. The town had an assessed valua- tion in 1894 of $744,601. Pop. (1880) 1,628; (1890) 1,814. Wilbrandt, reVel’bra‘ant, ADOLPH: poet; b. at Rostock, Germany, Aug. 24, 1837; studied in his native city, in Ber- lin, and in Munich, where for some time he edited a daily paper; visited Italy and France, and settled in 1871 in Vienna, where in 1881 he was made director of the Hofburg theater. In 1889 he resigned this position, and has since been living at Rostock, devoting himself entirely to literary pursuits. He has written a number of dramas which have been acted with success on all the principal stages of Ger- many; the tragedies Graf Zfammerstein (1870): Gracchus (1872) ; Arria rand Jlfessalina (1874) ; Giordano Bruno (1874); Nero (1876); Kriemhild (1877): and the comedies Jugendliebe (1872) ; IYa-talie (1878). In the novels, Adams Siihne (1890), Hermann Ifinger (1892). and Der Dornewweg (1894), he has treated skillfully the great social and literary questions of the day. Revised by J . GOEBEL. W'ilbI1l', J onx : preacher of the Society of Friends ; b. at Hopkinton, R. I., July 17, 1774; opposed the introduction of religious views at variance with the original doctrines of that society; was accused in 1838 by several members of Rhode Island yearly meeting of circulating in his conversa- tion and writings opinions and statements derogatoryr to the character of the celebrated Joseph John Gurney, then (1837-40) visiting the U. S. ; was sustained by a large majority in his own monthly meeting (that of South Kings- ton), but that body having been dissolved and its members added to the Greenwich meeting. he was formally disowned by the latter body J an.. 1843, and its action was‘ confirmed by the quarterly meeting and the Rhode Island yearly meeting. His supporters were, however. siifiicientlv nu- merous in Rhode Island and other parts of New En glzind to form an independent yearly meeting. the members df which were known as VVilburites. They are very conservative and not aggressive. The census of 1890 gives them 4,329 members. D. at Hopkinton, May 1,1856. He published some polemical pamphlets, and his Journal and C orresporzd- ence (Providence, 1859) have appeared since his death. See the History of the Society of Friends in America, by A. C. and R. H. Thomas (New York. 1894). pp. 266, seq. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wilcox. CADMUS MARcELLUs: soldier; b. in Wayne co., N. C., May 29, 1826 ; graduated at the U. S. Military Acad- emy, and was commissioned brevet second lieuteiiant of in- fantry July, 1846 : served in the war with Mexico. In J ulv, 1861, he was commissioned colonel of the Ninth Alabania Regiment. and in October appointed a brigadier-general in the Confederate army. In Virginia he com manded a brigade in Longst-reet’s corps. was at the second battle of Bull Run, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Salem Heights. Gettys- burg, etc.; promoted to be major-general Aug. 1863.aI1d commanded a division in the Mine Run campaign and throughout the campaign of 1864-65, ending with the sur- render at Appomattox Court-house; chief of division of railroads, general land offiee, Washington. 1888-89. D. in \/Vashington, D. C., Dec. 2, 1890. Author of Rifles and Rifle PI‘a@"t'@<’ (Nvw York, 1859) : a translation of A'ustria'n Infantry Erobutions of the Line (1860); and History of the llfexican War. Revised by JAMES MERCUR. _ appeared in 1885. 758 WILCOX Wilcox. ELLA (lVheeler): poet; b. at Johnstown, \Vis., about 1845; educated at the University of Wisconsin. In 1884 she was married to Robert M. ‘Nilcox, of Meriden, Conn., to which place she removed, and subsequently to New York city. Her published volumes of verse include flfanrine (Milwaukee, 1882); Poems of Passion (Chicago, 1883); and Poems of Pleasure (1888). A novel, Mgl J1_[0i§Zé0, . 1 . . Wild, HEINRICH: meteorologist and physicist; b. in Us- ter, canton of Zurich, Switzerland, Dec. 17, 1833. He was educated in Zurich at the gymnasium and the university until 1854, after which he studied physics in Kiinigsberg. In 1857 he took the degree of Ph. D. in Zurich, and then worked for some time with Kirchhoff and Bunsen in Heidel- berg. At Easter, 1858, he accepted the position of privat- docent in physics at the University in Zurich and at the Federal Polytechnic, and was in the same year called to Berne as Professor of Physics and director of the astronom- ical observatory or “ Sternwarte,” which he expanded into a meteorological Centralanstalt for the canton of Berne, and a meteorological observatory with self-registerin g apparatus. An inspection of the Swiss system of weights and meas- ures, confided to him by the Bundesrath, led to the es- tablishment of a “Federal Normal-Eichstatte,” a reform which he carried out and completed by 1867. In May, 1868, he was called to St. Petersburg as a member of the Im- perial Academy of Sciences and director of the Central Physical Observatory, where at his initiative and under his direction there resulted a complete reorganization and ex- tension of this latter institution and of the system’ of me- teorological observations in Russia connected with it; and the establishment in 1876 of a special meteorological and magnetic observatory in Pavlosk. Wild‘s scientific achieve- ments have been more particularly in the domain of optics, metrology, electricity, meteorology, and terrestrial magnet- ism. The “polaristrobometer” (optical saccharimeter) in- vented by him is universally known; he also invented a polarization photometer (generally known as photometer and uranophotometer). ‘Metrology is indebted to him for a new optical method for the interc-omparison of line-to- line with end-to-end measures of length and for other im- provements in methods of weights and measures that were proposed and carried out by him since 1870. In the field of electricity we owe to \Vild not only the discovery of the thermo-electric streams in fiuids and investigations into the laws of tension in electrolytes, but also, i11 more recent times, his precise determination of the absolute unit of re- sistance (the ohm). Of the numerous works by Wild in the field of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, a small pro- portion are contained in the publications of the lVatnr- forschende Gesellschaft, of Switzerland, but the greater part are to be found in the Annalen des physihalischen Central-Obserratorinms filr Rnssland, edited by him since 1865, and in the new Repertorinm filr Jlfeteorologie, also published under his direction by the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg. M. W. H. Wild Animals (in law) : See FERZE NATURE. Wildbad, oilt’ba“at : a small town of Wilrtemberg, in the Black Forest; noted for its thermal springs and baths, the alkaline water of which ranges from 90° to 100° F. in tem- erature, considered useful in gout and rheumatism. Pop. (1890) 3,446. Wildcat: a popular name for any one of several species of the genera Felis or Lynx. See CAT and LYNX. Wild Cherry: the Prnnns serotina (Ehrhart); a very common tree throughout North America, growing in all parts of the U. S. In the \Vestern States it attains a height of from 80 to 100 feet, but in the Atlantic States it is usu- ally much smaller. The fruit is small, about the size of a large pea, and when ripe is of a shining blackish-purple color. The wood of the wild cherry is much prized by cabinet-makers for its fine grain, handsome tint, and suscep- tibility to high polish. The inner bark, taken from all parts of the tree, furnishes the drug known as wild cherry. By a mistake the Latin official designation of this ‘drug is Prnnns oirginiana, which is properly the botanical name of the choke-cherry, a different tree. Wild cherry bark is in pieces of various sizes, without epidermis, and of a light- cinnamon color. It has the odor of peach-leaves and an agreeable aromatic taste. with a flavor of bitter almonds. V“ ihe important ingredients of the bark are tannin, and the pccuhar principles arnygdahn and emnlsin, which by mutual WILDER reaction in the presence of water develop a volatile oil con- taining a small percentage of hydrocyanic acid. Prepara- tions of wild cherry bark are rprineipally employed for the purposes of a mild and agreeable st-omachic tonic, a gentle calmative in bronchial affections with an irritative cough, and to impart a pleasant fiavor to compound medicinal preparations. Revised by H. A. HARE. Wilde, OSCAR FINGAL O’FLAHERTIE2 author; b. in Dub- lin, Ireland, 1856; son of Sir William Robert Wills Wilde, a surgeon, and of Jane Francesca, Lady Wilde, a woman of letters ; studied at Portora Royal School, Enniskillen, then entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he obtained the Berkeley gold medal for Greek; took the Newdigate prize for English verse at Oxford 1874; studied at Magdalen College; graduated 1877; went to London 1879; became the apostle of the aesthetic movement, and was satirized under the name of “ Postlethwaite ” in Pnnch; lectured on art subjects in the U. S. 1882, and subsequently in England and Paris; was condemned in 1895 to penal servitude for two years for infamous conduct. Among his works are Poems (1880) ; The Picture of Dorian Grar, a novel; The Happy Prince and other Tales (1888); Intentions, essays (1891); Lord Arthur Saoile’s Crime and other Stories (1891); the tragedies Guido Ferranti (1890) and The Dach- ess of Padua; and a number of comedies, including Lady Winderrnere’s Fan, A IVoman of No Irnportance, and The Importance of being Earnest. These were played in Eng- land and the U. S., and were cleverly epigrammatic in dia- logue, but wanting in dramatic interest, and distinguished by a cheap cynicism and an affectation of smartness. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wilde, RICHARD HENRY : author; b. in Dublin, Ireland, Sept. 24, 1789. His parents removed to the U. S. in 1797, and settled in Baltimore, and when he was thirteen his mother moved to Augusta. Ga. Under many difficulties he studied law; was admitted to the bar, and soon rose to high distinction in his profession. He was at different times at- torney-general of Georgia and U. S. representative from the same State. He wrote a number of poems, including the famous lyric Jlly Life is Lihe the Summer Rose, and pub- lished in 1842 Conjectures and Researches Concerning the Love, Jlfadness, and Irnprisonnzent of Torqnato Tasso. VVhile studying in Italy he discovered Giotto’s portrait of Dante. A posthumous poem, Hesperia, was published at Boston in 1867. On retiring from Congress in 1835 he vis- ited Europe, and spent several years in literary pursuits. After his return from Europe in 1843 he moved to New Or- leans, where he renewed the practice of law with unusual success, and was elected Professor of Constitutional Law in the University of Louisiana. D. of yellow fever in New Orleans, Sept. 10, 1847. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wilde, Tnouas : See TRURO, BARON. Wildebeest: See GNU. Wildenbrueh, oild’en-bro"och, ERNST, von: dramatist; b. at Beyrout, Syria, Feb. 3, 1845; son of the Prussian con- sul-general; went to Germany 1857; entered the Prussian army and fought as an officer in the campaigns of 1866 and 1870 ; studied law at the University of Berlin ; entered the civil service. He is one of the most talented of the younger German dramatists, and his plays—Die Karolinger (4th ed. 1887); Iiarold (4th ed. 1884; translated into English by V. Heller, Philadelphia, 1891); Der Jllenonit (3d ed. 1886); Vilter and S6hne (1882); Christoph Jllarlow (1884); Die Qnitzows (1888); Der nene I-[err (1891)——have been per- formed with great success in most German cities. He has also published a number of short stories and novels, of which Der lli/eister eon Tanagra (1880) is the best. His Lieder and Gesdnge (1877) and Dichtnngen and Balladen (1884) contain many powerful ballads and hymns, the most popu- lar of which is Das I-Iervenlied. JULIUS GOEBEL. Wilder, ALEXANDER, M. D.: physician and author; b. at Verona, Oneida co., N. Y., May 13, 1823; graduated at the College of Medicine of Syracuse University 1850; was a teacher and editor; practiced as an eclectic physician, and became in 1867 president of the Eclectic Medical College of the city of New York; lecturer on physiology and physio- logical medicine 1873-77; held successively the chairs of Physiology and Psychological Science in the U. S. Medical College; author of numerous monographs, including The Interrnarriage of Kindred (New York, 1870); The Worship of the Serpent (1877); and The Ganglionic N eroons System (1887); edited Wcstropp’s Ancient Syrnhol- Worship (New WILDER York, 1873); Taylor’s Eleasinian and Bacchic Mysteries (1875); and R. Payne Knight’s Symbolical Language of Ancient Art anal Jlfythology (1876); and has prepared a translation of Iamblichus On the Mysteries. Revised by S. T. Annsrnoxe. Wilder, BURT GREEN, B. S., M. D.: comparative anato- mist; b. in Boston, Mass., Aug. 11, 1841 ; graduated at the Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard University, 1862; in 1863 became a licentiate of the Massachusetts Medical So- ciety, and was appointed assistant surgeon of the Fifty-fifth Massachusetts Infantry (Negro); later served as surgeon until the regiment was discharged in 1865; after a course of medical study at Dartmouth College entered the medical department of Harvard, graduating in 1866. In the same year he became assistant in comparative anatomy in the Museum of Comparative zoology at Harvard. He also served a year as curator of herpetology in the Boston Society of Nat- ural History and in the winter of 1867-68 gave a course of university lectures on the morphological value and relations of the human hand. In 1867 he was elected Professor of zotilogy in Cornell University; was also Professor in the Medical School of Maine (Bowdoin College) 1874-84, and in 1876-77 lectured on zoiilogy in the medical department of the University of Michigan. In 1885 he was chosen presi- dent of the American Neurological Association. Since 1880 he has given much time to the simplification of anatomical nomenclature, mainly along lines indicated by Barclay and Owen. With Prof. Simon H. Gage he is author of Anatom- ical Tcchnology as Applieal to the Domestic Cat (1882—86, 1892). His own contributions to periodical literature are numerous. The close of his twenty-fifth year of service in Cornell University was signalized by the publication of The Wilder Quarter-Century Book, acollection of papers by some of his former pupils. Wilderness, Battles of the : contests between the U. S. and Confederate armies in Northern Virginia, May 6-7, 1864. The general character of the region in which they took place is that of a wilderness, by which name it is locally known. In this locality thickets of pine, scrub oak, and other trees occupied a soil composed of sand and clay, unfavorable to agriculture and very swampy when wet. Two good roads pass through this region from Orange Court- house to Fredericksburg, uniting at the place called Chan- cellorsville. During the winter of 1863-64 the U. S. forces, under command of Gen. Meade, were encamped near the Orange and Alexandria Railroad, between the Rappahan- neck and the Rapidan, the Fifth Corps guarding the rail- road back to Bristoe’s Station. The opposing army, under Gen. Lee, occupied a strong line, partly intrenched, on the south bank of the Rapidan, extending from Mine Run west- ward to Orange Court-house and Gordonsville, covering Richmond, and threatening \Vashington if the Union army uncovered it by a flank movement. In Mar., 1864, Gen. Grant, then commander of all the Union armies, took up his headquarters with Gen. Meade’s army. Gen. Meade broke camp at midnight May 3-4, and began moving toward the Rapidan, the right, consisting of the Fifth Corps (War- ren’s) and the Sixth Corps (Sedgwick‘s), to cross at German- na Ford; the left, comprising the cavalry (Sheridan’s) and the Second Corps (Hancock’s), to cross at Ely‘s Ford, 6 miles below. Before sunset Meade’s army was established with but slight opposition in the Wilderness, with the Fifth Corps and a division of cavalry on the right, next the ene- my. Gen. Grant, at 6 P. M. on the 4th, ordered an advance toward Lee next morning. Lee, however, had determined to give battle in the Wilderness, which, familiar to his sol- diers, was but partially known to their opponents, and had also set his army in motion to meet his adversary. Ac- cordingly, on the morning of May 5, the Fifth Corps and the advance of Lee’s army met, a fierce encounter between some 25,000 men opening this bloody campaign. At inter- vals during the day others of the opposing columns met, and engaged with much valor and loss of life on both sides. The evening of May 5 found both armies face to face, and an inevitable and momentous conflict impending on the morrow. The Ninth Corps (Burnside's) and that of Long- street on the Confederate side had not yet reached the field, toward which they marched that night. At dawn on May 6 the battle was renewed along all the opposing lines, and con- tinued with unceasing movements and attacks, with much less of life, until dark. The day closed with the two armies holding substantially the positions of the night before. On the morning of May 7 both armies were behind intrenched WILEY 759 lines, each too much exhausted to renew the fight. Gen. Grant then determined to move to his left, thus covering a new line of communication with Washington either by Fred- ericksburg and the railroad or by Port Royal, the Rappa- hannock, and the Potomac. and threatening Lee’s communi- cations with Richmond. This was begun after dark on the 7th, the Fifth Corps having the advance toward Spottsyl- vania Court-house. Gen. Lee, however, anticipated this, and having a shorter read, his main force reached there first, and the battles of Spottsylvania followed, which for convenience are herewith described, although the “ Wilderness ” battles lgyoper are considered to have ended with the movement of ' ay 7. SPOTTSYLVANIA, BATTLES or, May 8-21.—The advance cav- alry of the Union army occupied this place early in the morn- ing of May 8, but were compelled to withdraw before their enemy’s advancing infantry. The Fifth Corps forced the enemy back until it found itself confronting the corps of Longstreet, and severe fighting followed. During the day the Sixth Corps joined the Fifth, and a combined attack was made by them at dark, but without result. The other corps of both armies continued to arrive and take up positions, at- tended with constant fighting and severe loss of life. May 9,10, and 11 were passed in movements and bloody conflicts, without being decisive. These actions include the fights at Laurel Hill—a name borne upon the records of many regi- ments—and near this Gen. Sedgwick was killed, and the command of the Sixth Corps was assigned to Gen. \Yright. Early on the morning of the 12th a general assault was made by Gen. Grant upon Lee’s position. The Second Corps (Han- cock’s) carried a salient, capturing a division and twenty cannon, but the subsequent resistance was so obstinate that no decisive result was obtained. The 13th to the 18th was spent in demonstrations, conflicts, and reorganization while awaiting re-enforcements. Unable to force the position at Spottsylvania, Gen. Grant issued orders for a movement to- ward North Anna river, around the right of Gen. Lee. The latter delayed this movement until the 21st by moving out a heavy force on the afternoon of the 19th, which attacked Gen. Grant’s right, but after a sharp conflict it was driven back. Lee began to move as soon as his adversary did, and established his forces on the south bank of the North Anna, where the battles were again renewed. ' N ORTH ANNA, BATTLES or, May 23-26.—-The Fifth Corps reached the North Anna on the afternoon of the 23d, closely followed by the Sixth Corps, the Second and Ninth coming up about the same time. Gen. Warren effected a crossing the same afternoon without much opposition. Soon after getting into position he was violently attacked, but repulsed the enemy with great loss. Hancock on the left effected a crossing after some fighting. On the 24th the Sixth Corps crossed, taking position on \Varren’s right. The attempt of Burnside, on the center, was repulsed. Finding the enemy’s position on the North Anna stronger than either of his pre- vious ones, Gen. Grant withdrew on the night of the 26th to the north bank, and moved to turn the right of the enemy’s position. The battle of COLD HARBOR (q. r.) was the next serious engagement between the two armies, and following this the movement to the James river was made. The Union losses between May 5 and June 15 were, killed. 7,620 ; wound- ed, 38,342; missing, 8,967—total, 54,929. The Confederate loss is not officially reported. but, though large, was much less than that sustained by Gen. Grant, probably not reach- ing beyond one-half of it. See Humphrey’s The I'z'rginia Campaign of 1864-65 ; Scribner‘s ‘War Series; The Battles anol Leaders of the Civil IVar; and The Ojficial Record. Revised by J AMES MERCUR. Wild Goose : See CANADA Goosn. Wild Ipecac : See FEVER-WORT. Wild Pumpkin : See Gocnn FAMILY. Wild Service: See SORB-TREE. Wiley, HARVEY Wasnnxerou, Ph. D., LL.D.: chemist; b. near Kent, Jeflerson co., Ind., Oct. 18, 1844 ; educated at Hanover College (A. B. 1867), Indiana Medical College (M.D. 1871), Harvard University (B. S. 1873), a11d Univer- sity of Berlin (1878); Professor of Latin and Greek (1868- 71), and of Chemistry (1873-74) at Butler University, Indi- anapolis, Ind.; Professor of Chemistry, Indiana Medical College, 1873-77, and in Purdue University 1874-83. Dur- ing 1881-83 he was also State chemist of Indiana, and in 1883 became chief of the division of chemistry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. He is connected with various 760 WILFRID scientific societies, among them the American Chemical Society, of which he was president in 1893 and 1894. He has published a large number of scientific papers. govern- ment reports, and bulletins, etc., besides Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis (3 vols.). VVilf1‘i(l, or W'ilfred: saint; b. in the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria about 634, of a noble family; studied at the , monastery of Lindisfarne, where he became a monk ; trav- eled in France and Italy, residing some time at Rome ; built a monastery at Ripon 663: was commissioned by King Alcfrid to regulate the usages of the Northumbrian Church upon the time of celebrating Easter, on which subject a fa- mous council was held at '\/Vhitby (664) in the royal presence; was appointed by the king Bishop of York, and consecrated as such at Paris, but was opposed by Ceadda (St. Chad), who had taken possession of the see in his absence ; retired to his monastery for three years; was put in possession of the bish- opric 669; was ejected by King Egfrid, who divided the die- cese into three bishoprics; visited Rome for redress, and ob- tained the papal decision in his favor, but was imprisoned nine months on his return, and never recovered possession of his see. D. at the monastery of Oundle, Apr. 24, 709. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Wilhead: See WILLEEAD. Wilhelm: the German form of WILLIAM (g. v.). Wilhelm, vil'helm, KARL: composer; b. at Smalcald, Prussian province of Hesse, Sept. 5, 1815 ; son of an organ- ist; studied at Frankfort and under Spohr at Cassel ; was a teacher of music in Crefeld and director of the Liedertafel 1840-65. In 1854 he composed the music to Die Wae/it am Rhein, and when this song became immensely popular dur- ing the Franco-German war the Prussian Government gave him a pension. D. at Smalcald, Aug. 26, 1873. A menu- ment to his memory was erected at Crefeld. Wilhelmina, vil-hel-mee’na”a, HELENE PAULINE MARIE: Queen of the Netherlands; only child of King William III. of Holland by Queen Emma his second wife: b. at La Haye, Aug. 31, 1880; succeeded to the throne on the death of her father 1890, her mother being regent. Wilhelmite: See WILLEMITE. Wilhelmshaven, vil'helms-haa-fen,: a fortified seaport of Germany, on the Jade Bay of the North Sea (see map of German Empire, ref. 2-D). In 1853 Prussia bought the coast district from Oldenburg for 500,000 thalers, and it has since spent much labor and great expense in order to transform the bay into a good naval harbor. Basins, of which the largest is 420 meters long and 260 meters broad, were dug in the muddy ground of the marsh and then separated from the bay by a dam. The new harbor was first used by the navy at the beginning of the war with France. On the west- ern side of the principal basin are three parallel dry docks, 160 meters long, which, as well as the basin, are walled with granite. To the E. this basin is connected with the bay by a canal walled with granite and provided with sluices. Be- sides the naval harbor there is a commercial harbor, which, however, is rather insignificant; it is not walled. has no sluiced canal, and is separated from the bay only by an earthen dam. The whole harbor is surrounded by fortifica- tions, strongest where they face the sea, and provided with ordnance of the heaviest caliber. Since the war with France immense sums have been spent on these fortifications. The town of Wilhelmshaven has grown up since the harbor was built ; it is chiefly a military colony, and has excellent bar- racks. Pop. 15,471. Wilhelmshtihe: See CAssEL. Wil'ib1‘01'(l, or Willibrod : saint: called “the apostle of the Frisians”; b. in the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria about 658, his father’s name being WILGIS; was placed in childhood in the monastery of Ripon, then governed by (Saint) Wilfrid; embraced the monastic profession while very young; spent twelve years in Ireland, studying under the care of (Saint) Egbert and the monk Wybert or Wigbert, who had preached in Friesland; was ordained a priest about 689; went to Friesland in 690, landing near Utrecht, and was joined there by (Saint) Swidbert and ten or eleven other English monks; was well received by Pepin the Big, the Franconian ruler of Friesland ; is said to have visited Den- mark; made a visit to Rome 692; obtained ecclesiastical au- thority from Pope Sergius, and during a second visit (696) was ordained Bishop of the Frisians under the name of CLEMENS; converted large numbers of the natives by his preaching, enjoying the patronage of Charles Martel; is WILKES claimed as founder of the see of Utrecht, where he built the Church of Saint Saviour, and spent his last years at a men- astery he had established (698) at Echternaeh, near Treves, where he died ‘Nov. 7, 739. His festival is celebrated Nov. 6. Considerable uncertainty exists respecting the events of his career. His Life was written by Alcuin (d. 804) in two forms, the one in prose (13 fol. pp.), the other in verse (4 pp.); reprint by Jaffe, Bil). rev. germ., vi., 39, seg.; Eng. trans. (London, 1877); cf. P. P. M. A. Thijm, Der heilige lVilZi- brord (Miinster, 1863). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Wilk : See WHELK. Wilkes, CHARLES: rear-admiral U. S. navy; b. in New York, Apr. 3, 1798; entered the naval service of the U. S. as midshipman J an. 1, 1818. He conducted the U. S. expedi- tion (1838—42) to explore the Southern and Pacific Oceans, a narrative of which he published (abridged ed. New York, 1851), and to the detailed report of the expedition, giving the scientific results obtained, he contributed the volumes on meteorology and hydrography. In 1861 he was ordered to the West Indies in command of the frigate San J acinto to search for the Confederate cruiser Sumter. Learning that the Confederate commissioners Slidell and Mason were on their way to Europe in the British mail-steamer Trent, he intercepted that vessel and took from her the commissioners, whom he conveyed to Boston. This act met the approval of his department and of Congress, and the commissioners were for a time held as prisoners in Fort Warren, but subse- quently surrendered by the U. S. Government to Great Britain. In 1862 he was placed in command of the Potomac flotilla to co-operate with the Army of the Potomac, but on the withdrawal of that army from the Virginia peninsula, was ordered to command the flying squadron organized for the purpose of breaking up blockade-running between the Southern States and the West Indies. Many captures were made. In July, 1866, he was promoted rear-admiral, and soon after placed on the retired list. Among his published works, other than those above mentioned, are Western Amer- ica, including Oalifornia and Oregon (Philadelphia, 1849) and The Theory of the Wind, with maps and charts (New York, 1856), etc. The London Geographical Society award- ed him its gold medal in 1848. D. in Washington, I). C., Feb. 8, 1877. Revised by C. BELKNAP. Wilkes, J OHN: political agitator; b. at Clerkenwell, London, England, Oct. 17, 1727 ; educated at Hertford and Aylesbury schools and at the University of Leyden; traveled on the Continent; married in 1749 Miss Mead, a lady of fortune ten years his senior, from whom he was separated after the birth of a daughter; became colonel of the militia and high sheriff of Buckinghamshire; was elected to Parlia- ment from Aylesbury in 1757; began in June, 1762, the publication of a weekly paper, The North Briton, in oppo- sition to the administration of Lord Bute; printed in his No. 45 (Apr. 23, 1763) some comments on the king’s speech on summoning Parliament which led to the issue of a gen- eral warrant for his arrest and the seizure of his papers; was committed to the Tower Apr. 30, but was soon released by order of Chief J ustiee Pratt of the common pleas, who decided that general warrants were “unconstitutional, il- legal, and also absolutely void.” The House of Commons, however, declared No. 45 of The North Briton to be a “seditious libel,” caused it to be burned by the hangman Nov., 1763, notwithstanding a popular commotion, and passed a special law for the prosecution of its author. Wilkes meanwhile won a suit against the Under-Secretary of State for seizure of his papers, being awarded £1,000 damages, but was expelled from the House of Commons Jan. 19, 1764; was prosecuted at the instance of the House of Peers before Lord Mansfield on the charge of republish- ing N 0. 45, and also for printing and publishing an obscene poem called An Essay on Woman, and was found guilty of both charges by the court of king’s bench Feb. 21, 1764, when, having previously fled to France, he was outlawed; returned to England in 1768; was chosen to Parliament for the county of Middlesex (including the city of London); surrendered himself to the court of king’s bench; was re- arrested, rescued by the mob, but went voluntarily into confinement; was the occasion, on the meeting of Parlia- ment, of a riot in St. George’s Fields May 10, 1768, in which several lives were lost. and was sentenced for his former offense to pay £1,000 fine and to imprisonment for twenty- two months. His outlawry was reversed by Lord Mansfield, but he was expelled from the House of Commons for the new offense of libeling Lord Weymouth, but was returned WILKESBARRE without opposition at the new election. Though declared by Parliament incapable of a seat, he was three times chosen by his constituency, until, on the ground of illegality of votes cast for him, an opponent who had received but few votes was declared elected. These events caused great com- motion in England; Wilkes became the idol of the people at large, being considered a martyr to the cause of liberty, received costly presents, extricated himself from bankruptcy by the aid of a subscription of £20,000, and was awarded £4,000 damages from Lord Hardwick for false imprison- ment (Nov., 1769). In Apr., 1770, he was set at liberty, was chosen alderman of London, and took his seat in Parliament, where a vain attempt was made to force him to appear at the bar in the capacity of alderman. He was elected sheriff of London 1771, lord mayor 1774, in which year he was re- elected to Parliament; had the resolutions of the House on the elections expunged May, 1782, and was chamberlain of, London from 1779 to his death, in that city Dec. 27, 1797. He published many political speeches and pamphlets, in- cluding a correspondence with “Junius,” edited Catullus (1788) and Theophrastus (1790), and left a large Correspond- ence, which was edited by Almon, with a Memoir (5 vols., 1805). The best of his numerous biographies are by J . S. Watson (1870), W. F. Rae (1870), and Fitzgerald, Life and Times of John Wilkes. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wilkesbarre, or Wilkes-Barre, wilks'ba’.r-rc”e: city; capital of Luzerne co., Pa. ; on the Susquehanna river, and the Cent. of N. J., the Del. and l-Ind., the Del._. Lack. and \V., the Lehigh Valley, the N. Y., Susq. and \V., and the Penn. railways; 18 miles S. WV. of Scranton, 144 miles N. by W. of Philadelphia (for location, see map of Pennsyl- vania. ref. 3-I-I). The city extends N. and S. 3-ZL miles and E. and 1V. 1% miles; is located in about the center of the celebrated \Vyoming valley, and has 75 miles of streets, of which 8 miles are paved with asphalt, and 13% with vitrified brick, wood, or stone, 31 miles of sewerage, steam-heating plant, mountain water-supply, paid fire department, and gas and electric street-lights. The public square, whereon is located the court-house and county oifices, contains 4 acres. Among the more notable public buildings are a fine city-hall, court-house, jail, hospital. two first-class theaters, a Grand Army Hall, Young Men’s Christian Association building, Historical Society, Ousterhout Free Library, and the ar- mory of the Ninth Regiment, N. G. P. The city contains 35 churches: 11 Methodist Episcopal, 7 Presbyterian, 4 Baptist, 4 Lutheran, 4 Roman Catholic, 2 Protestant Episcopal, 1 Congregational, 1 synagogue, 1 Salvation Army barracks. There are 17 brick and stone-trimmed public-school build- ings; 6,800 enrolled day pupils, 1,000 enrolled night-school pupils; annual expenditure from taxation, $100,000; from State appropriation, $40,000. There are 5 parochial schools with 4,000 pupils, 2 business colleges, an academy for boys, and a seminary for young ladies. The charitable institu- tions include a hospital, Home for Friendless Children, and Home for Aged Women. The city expenditures in 1894 were $311,900; the assessed valuation of property was $5,749,000; actual valuation, $35,000,000; net city debt, $311,450; and value of city real estate, $250,000._ In 1895 there were 3 national banks with combined capital of $975,- 000, 3 State banks with combined capital of $550,000, and a savings-bank with capital of $150,000. There are 2 large lace manufacturies, silk-mill, 4 foundries, axle-works, 3 locomo- tive and engine-shops, wire-rope works, gun-works, cutlery- works, 2 immense breweries, and many manufactories of iron, steel, wood, and leather. The mining and preparing of an- thracite coal for market, the business center of which is in the city, makes the greatest demand for labor, and is the foundation of the city's wealth, giving employment to 36.000 men and boys. The total annual output of coal here is 12,- 000,000 tons. The city as well as the whole valley of \Vyo- ming is underlain with seams of anthracite coal of an average aggregate thickness of 56 feet. \Vilkesbarre was settled mainly by people from Connecticut in 1769; incorporated as a borough in 1806; and chartered as a city in 1871. Pop. (1880) 23,339; (1890) 37,718; (1895) estimated, over 45,000, and including the near-by boroughs, all connected by steam and electric railroads with the city, 120,000. HARRY HAKES, M. D. Wilkie, Sir DAVID : painter; b. at Cults, Fifeshire, Scot- land, Nov. 18, 1785 ; studied painting in the Trustees’ Acad- emy, Edinburgh, and at the Royal Academy. London, where in 1806 he exhibited his celebrated Village Pol iticians, quick- ly followed by The Blind Fiddler (1807), The Card Players WILKINS 761 (1808), Rent Day (1809), and Village Festival (1811), which obtained him great popularity; was chosen an associate of the Royal Academy 1809, and an academician 1811 ; produced during the ensuing twelve years many notable pictures, in- cluding a group of Sir IV alter Scott and his Family (1817) and the Chelsea Pensioners reading the Gazette of the Battle of ll/aterloo (1822), executed for the Duke of Wellington, which is generally considered as the most perfect representa- tive of his genius. Subsequently he changed his style, sought to emulate the depth and richness of the coloring of the old masters, and chose elevated, and even heroic, subyects, to the height of which he could never fully raise himself. He spent three years (1825-28) on the Continent on account of ill health, visiting Italy and Spain. But though the quasi- high art of his later years left the public rather cool, he never lost his popularity. He was made painter in ordinary to George IV. J an., 1830; was knighted by \Villiam IV. 1836; made portraits of those sovereigns and of Queen Victoria; executed a fine painting of the First Council of Queen Vic- toria ; visited Palestine and Egypt in 1840. D. at sea near Gibraltar on his homeward voyage, June 1, 1841. He made a few very beautiful etchings and dry-points. Several vol- umes Of engravings of his best works have been issued. in- cluding Oriental Sketches (1843); The Wilhie Gallery (1850); and The Great IVorlrs of Sir David Wil/rie (1867), with a flfernoir by Mrs. C. Hea-ton. His Life, Journals, and Cor- respondence (3 vols., 1843) were published by his friend, Allan Cunningham. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Wilkie, WILLIAM: poet; b. at Dalmeny, ‘West Lothian, Scotland, Oct. 5, 1721 ; educated at the University of Edin- burgh; became a successful farmer; was ordained minister of the Scottish Kirk at Ratho 1753, and became Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of St. Andrews 1759. He was the author of The Epigoniad, a Poem in rVine Books (1747; 2d ed. 1759), an epic upon the taking of Thebes, which procured for its author the title of the Scottish Homer, and a volume of Fables (1768) after the manner of Gay. D. Oct. 10. 1772. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wilkins, JOHN, D. D. : theologian and scientist ; b. at Fawsley, Northamptonshire. England, in 1614: educated at New Inn and Magdalen Halls. Oxford, graduating in 1631 ; took orders in the Church of England 1635; was a zealous adherent of Parliament during the great rebellion, and signed the Solemn League and Covenant; was chiefly in- strumental in forming at London in 1645 the club of scien- tists which became the nucleus of the Royal Society; be- came warden of \Vadham College Apr. 13. 16-18 : married a sister of Oliver Cromwell 1656: was appointed by Richard Cromwell master of Trinity College, Cambridge, 1659; was ejected at the Restoration 1660; became prebendary of York 1660 ; obtained the favor of Charles II., who made him rec- tor of St. Lawrence, Jewry, London, 1662 ; became preacher to Gray's Inn ; was one of the charter members and coun- cilors of the Royal Society 1663, and became Bishop of Chester 1668. He was the inventor of the perambulator or measuring-wheel ; was a matheinatician and physicist, a skillful mechanician, untiring in his experiments, a philolo- gist of great erudition, and a noted theologian and pulpit orator. D. in London, Nov. 19, 1672. He was the author of Discovery of a Blew IVorld (1638, treating of the habitable- ness of the moon and the possibility of a passage thither); Jllercu-ry, or the Secret and Swift 1l[€88€’)l[/82', showing how a fifan may eoith Priraey and Speed eonrmunicate his Thoughts to a Friend at any Distance (1641) ; 1l[athematieal Jlfagich, or the Wonders that may be performed by 11[echan- ical Geometry (1651). His llfathematical and Philosophical IVorlrs were published in 1708 (new ed., 2 vols., 1802), with a Life of the Author and an Account of his Il'orlrs. Wilkins, llisnv ELEANOR : author; b. at Randolph, Mass. : was educated at Mt. Ilolyoke Seminary, and early removed to Brattleboro, Vt.. whence she returned to Randolph in 1883. Her magazine stories, faithful delineations of New England rural life, began to attract notice about 1886. She published collections of short stories, The Adrentures of Ann (1886); A Ifunnble Romance (1887): A New England Nun (1891); Young Lucretia (1892); Giles Cory, Yeoman, a play (1893); Jane Field, a novel (1893); and Pembroke, a novel (1894). hitherto her most powerful and sustained work, which has been received with high praise in England as well as in the U. S. for its dramatic presentation of the pride and obstinacy hereditary in the Puritan character. In 1895 her story, The Long Arm, won the prize of $2,000 offered by a firm of pub- lishers for the best detective story. H. A. B. 7 62 WILKINSBURG Wilkinsbli1'g: borough; Allegheny co., Pa.; on the Penn. Railroad; 7 miles E. of Pittsburg (for location, see map of Pennsylvania. ref. 5-A). It has a national bank with capital of $50,000, a Protestant Episcopal parish library, and a weekly newspaper, and is closely identified with the bus- iness interests of Pittsburg. Pop. (1880) 1,529; (1890) 4,662; (1895) estimated, 12,000. EDITOR or “ CALL.” “’ilki11so11, JAMES: soldier; b. in Maryland in 1757; joined the Revolutionary army and in J an., 1778, was ap- pointed secretary of the board of war, of which Gates was president. A quarrel arising with the latter at the time of the Conway cabal, Wilkinson resigned his secretaryship, and in July, 1779, was appointed clothier-general of the army. He settled in Kentucky after the peace, and engaged in mercantile affairs. He commanded an expedition against the Wabash Indians 1791-92; was promoted to be brigadier- general Mar., 1792, and commanded right wing of 'Wayne‘s army at Maumee Rapids. Dec. 15, 1796, to July 13, 1798, and June 15, 1800, to Jan 27, 1812, he was general-in-chief of the army, serving on the Western frontier; one of the commissioners to receive Louisiana from the French in 1803, he was Governor of that Territory 1805-06; ordered to command on the Mississippi Dec., 1808, he was recalled to I/Vashington in 1810, and tried by court martial in 1811 on charges of corruptly receiving money from Spain and being in complicity with Aaron Burr. The court acquitted him with credit, and he returned to the Southern department. In 1813 he was appointed major-general, and transferred to the Northern frontier. His plans for the occupation of Canada totally failed. He was superseded in command, but a court of inquiry ordered in 1815 acquitted him of all blame. On the reorganization of the army in 1815, he was discharged, and passed the later years of his life upon his estates in Mexico. He published Jlfemoirs of lily Own Times (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1816). D. near the city of Mexico, Dec. 28, 1825. See Gayarre’s Spanish Domination in Louisiana (New York, 1854) and Gilmore’s Advance Guard of lVestern Civilization (1887). Wilkinson, J EMIMA: religious leader; b. at Cumberland, R. I., about 1753; educated as a Quaker; recovered from a severe fever, attended by an apparent suspension of life, 1773, after which she asserted that she had been raised from the dead to instruct mankind; professed to work miracles, and made proselytes, with whom she settled (1789) on a tract of 14,000 acres in the present town of Torrey, Yates co., N. Y., where a village named Jerusalem was built. D. there July 1, 1819. At her death the sect was entirely broken up. See D. Hudson, History of Jemima Wilkinson, a Preacher- ess of the Eighteenth Century (Geneva, N. Y., 1821); and .Memoir of Jemima Wilkinson . . ., containing an Authen- tic Narrative of her Life and Character, and of the Rise, Progress, and Conclusion of her lid/inistry (Bath, N. Y., 1844). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Wilkinson, Sir Jenn GARDNER, F. R. S., D. C. L.: Egyp- tologist; b. at Haxendale, Westmoreland, England, Oct. 5, 1797; son of Rev. John Wilkinson. He was educated at Harrow School and Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1821 went to Alexandria. During a long residence in Egypt he made a complete survey of the country and became ac- quainted with its antiquities. The results of his labors were embodied in his various works, but principally in his Alan- ners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, which is still valuable for its numerous illustrations and archaeological material. It was reissued in a new and revised edition by Dr. Samuel Birch in 1879. Wilkinson was knighted in 1839. His collection of Egyptian, Greek, and other antiqui- ties, together with his collection of coins and medals, are pre- served at Harrow School. D. at Llandovery, Wales, Oct. 29, 1875. A list of his works includes the following titles: lilateria Hieroglyphica (Malta, 1828); The Topography of Thebes and General View of Egypt (1835); The fl1'anners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians (2 series, 6 vols., 1837-41; 3d ed., 5 vols., 1847); fllodern Egypt and Thebes (2 vols., 1843; 2d ed. 1844, republished as Murray’s IIand- book for Travelers in Egypt, 1847; new ed. 1857); Dal- matia and lllontenegro (2 vols., 1848); The Architecture of Ancient Egypt (1850); The Fragments of the Hieratic Papyrus at Turin (1851); A Popular Account of the An- cient Egyptians (2 vols., 1853) ; The Egyptians in the Time of the Pharaohs (1857); On Colour (1857); and contribu- tions to Rawlinson’s translation of Herodotus (4 vols., 1858-60; 3d ed. revised, 1876). A memoir was published by his widow in 1876. C. R. G. WILL Will: that function of the mind which manifests itself in action or conduct. The word voluntary is used only of acts which proceed from the will. The theory of the will is one of the most important divisions of human psychol- ogy; for according as human action is construed, its rela- tion to the mechanical processes of the brain (its so-called freedom), the influence of one person upon the conduct of another, etc., the whole philosophy of life with its responsi- bilities, duties, etc., takes on one form or another. History of the Theory.-The Greeks can not be said to have worked out a doctrine of the will before Aristotle. This great thinker, however, noticed facts and made distinctions which now rest at the basis of the most thoroughgoing analysis of the voluntary life. Aristotle divided the mental powers or faculties into two great classes-those which belong to the receptive side of the soul’s life, the cognitive; and those which manifest the soul in action, the motive, faculties. Under the latter head he included not only all that is cov- ered by the words will, volition, and the like. but also the emotional life, holding that it is the function of emotion to excite to action. Another important doctrine of Aristotle’s was his subtle distinction between will in its generic sense and volition in its special sense—a distinction which is new current in the psychologies. Aristotle was the first also to lay the basis of ethics distinctly in the psychology of the will, reaching a doctrine of the freedom of the will from which modern thinkers freely draw. In the Middle Ages philosophy was narrowly theological, and the will held a prominent place: this the more since the philosophy of Aristotle dominated all attempts at original thought. Controversy waged mainly about the problem whether the human soul had freedom “by nature” or only " by grace.” It was not until the awakening of philosophy in Descartes and the inductive thinkers in Britain that the actual nature of the mind began to be studied for itself. Even when philosophy became more independent and aware of her own problems, the start toward a theory of the mental life was extraordinarily mistaken. The theory of knowledge became, in all countries where philosophy sprang up, the one problem, so much so that the history of modern philosophy is largely a history of theories of knowledge. Kant asked the question, “ How is knowledge possible ‘i ” a uestion which had been asked for a hundred years both in ‘ngland and France; but the corresponding question, “ How is action possible?” was either not asked at all or answered by corollaries from some theory of knowledge. The truth of this statement may be seen by examining the table of contents of the great works on philosophy which have been produced even up to 1850. The neglect of the will has worked two mischievous results—-apart from the impoverishment both ofpphilosophy and of life—i. e. the will has been left to the more dogmatic treatment of the theolo- gians, who have found it necessary to bring to it certain theological presuppositions; and, in the second place, the breach between philosophy and theology has been widened since modern psychology has given to philosophy a more adequate theory of action than that 011 which theology has based some of her important doctrines. The endeavor to introduce the data of the active life into philosophy, however, did not come fro1n psychology, in the first instance, but from certain philosophers who were im- pressed with the lack of touch of the older intellectual schemes with the real problems of life. In Germany the attempt was made by Schopenhauer and his followers, es- pecially von Hartmann, to construct a philosophy, not upon the function of knowledge alone and its criticism, but upon the fundamental active tendencies of human nature. Will was made the one potency of animate life ; the very impulse to know, a manifestation of will; and the category of action, the final term of explanation. Before this there had been desultory attempts to find a place for will in the theory of the world; such were all these theories which held that in the consciousness of volition or effort we have immediate knowledge of the soul as an independent essence-the view of the French spiritualists, Royer-Collard, Maine de Biran, Jouffroy, etc., and the Scottish philosophers Reid, Brown (though these in less measure). But these attempts were too superficial or too eclectic to have permanent influence. It was therefore in part, at least, through the influence of the Schopenhauer philosophy that the will has become one of the leading topics and the point of freshest analysis in the whole range of modern psychology. It is also a leading task of philosophical theory to compromise with Schopen- hauer by making the notion of activity one of the basal WILL /-63 concepts of thought. The theism of the present is trying to incorporate into the traditional arguments considerations drawn from the psychology of the Will. Genesis of Volz'te'on.—The attempt to find the place of volition in the general theory of the rise and development of the child’s faculties has given rise to much discussion. Bain’s view may be taken as typical of the class of views which make volition an affair of relative complexity in the ordinary associative processes of consciousness. Certain kinds of action come to be associated with various pleasure- giving experiences; and the subsequent voluntary perform- ance of the same movements is secured by this association, and they are performed for the sake of the pleasure. So also Spencer and the later associationists generally. The sense of effort, on this view, is an incident of complexity of sensation. Other theories which account for volition in terms of compounded and associated sensations—i. e. Preyer’s—ditfer only in the details of the elements involved, and the order in which these elements take their rise in the infant’s consciousness. Another group of theories, holding equally to the genetic or “natural history ” view of volition, find the origin of this function on the active side of the mind. These men—i. e. James, l\’.[i'msterberg, Baldwin-— locate the first exhibition of volition in the attention, and reduce the problem to that of the rise of so-called “volun- tary attention.” On this view the will is a matter of success- ful synthesis of elements, sensational and other; and the analysis of the experiences of effort, etc., is largely a search for the elements, in any particular case, which enter into the synthesis of attention. The view which finds attention a matter of relatively constant tension or strain, therefore, thinks it has accounted for volition only when it has traced the rise of attention in the child, and also its place in the race history of mind. This class of views finds the fact of volition a case of the larger phenomenon of mental accom- modation, and so finds its genesis in the child in connection with those muscular experiences, i. e. random movements (in common with Bain, Preyer, etc.), suggestion (Guyau, Janet), imitation (Baldwin), by which accommodation in general proceeds. Another class of thinkers hold that the phenomenon of volition is a purely spiritual affair, and deny it a natural history in the sense explained. VVith them are the philosophers (i. e. \Vundt) who carry the concept of will back of volition to include the active side of consciousness everywhere, and so hold that no analysis of effort throws any light upon the real genesis of it. Analysis of Volz'z‘z'on.——Ooming to the full-fledged expe- rience of volition or choice, certain profound questions con- front the psychologist. If we ask what is actually in the mind at the very moment of a hard-fought choice or mental decision, we again find various views on what seems so simple a matter of description. The older schools held to one of two positions respectively. One class (again mainly the associationists) said that what was in consciousness then could be described thus: A conflict of motives was going on analogous to the play of forces in any case of complex ac- tion of forces in the physical world. The outcome, in one case as in the other, must be a resultant of the various forces——that is, the strongest or controlling motive would win, and action 011 this motive would follow. This view was—-and is—-supported by all the evidence from pathology which shows that a motive may become so imperative-—an idea so " fixed ’’-—that no effort or persuasion can prevent action upon it; also by the force of the analogy from the physical forces, represented in this instance by the processes in the brain which accompany the mental experience of volition. The other answer to the question runs thus : The experi- ence of volition is not exhausted by a statement of the mo- tives which are appealing at the time to the agent. He is conscious behind it all that he is weighing these motives and coming to a decision upon their relative value to him ; this consciousness is evidence that the analogy of the play of motives to that of physical forces is false. The newer insights of psychologists are restating both of these positions. Those who refuse to recognize the force of the physical analogy are nevertheless yielding the point that analysis is exhausted in the statement of the actual lay of the so-called motives to conduct; but, on the other hand, the associationists are having to enlarge the concept “motive ” to include a great variety of influences which can not be clearly stated in terms of the physical analogy, i. e. the so-called sub-conscious, the influence of suggestion, social and other. This increasing rapport is influential in 4 bringing the differences of psychologists to a minimum, and, on the other hand, in throwing the question of interpreta- tion over into metaphysics. How far the physical analogy can be forced upon mental facts is a question for philosophy to decide, and those who discuss it are becoming more and more disposed to interpret even the play of the physical forces 1n terms of mental process, or at least to hold to a theory which preserves the relative autonomy of both kinds of reality. . Moreover, although psychology finds no reason to admit in its analysis any elements other than those of content, yet it finds the changes of content governed by a principle or law which seems to be different from that of the compo- sition of forces. This principle is known as that of synthe- sis or Arrnacsrnon (q. 2).). Each new pulse of thought seems to have a unity of its own, and while the elements of earlier mental states may sometimes be detected in it, yet the unity is that of a function, itself complete and indivis- ible. For this reason psychology is constrained to ask for some adequate explanation of the unity and continuity of the mental life before it gives up the contention that mental reality is both as valid as physical, and furnishes—— when supported by the considerations due from metaphysics —-as good an ultimate category of explanation of existence in general. This is especially pertinent in the matter of volition. For here the unity of outcome is so obtrusive that the ordinary man is startled when he hears any doubt thrown on the independence of his relation to the alterna- tives which appeal to him for choice. He fails to see how he, the actor, can be identified with the actions which he is thinking of performing. Freedom of the TV/£ZZ.——We now see to what narrow mar- gins of interpretation the time-honored question of " free- dom ” is confined by modern psychology. If we adrnit——as the foregoing considerations lead us to admit—that (1) there is no choice but what is confined to the elements or motives at the time in consciousness, and (2) the agent as such has no power to make for himself new motives, and (3) that the synthesis which follows and is called choice is al- ways the forming of a new mental unit out of these old elements—then we must admit certain facts about freedom. (1) A man is free in the sense that nothing. forces his choice. This is only to deny the resultant theory based on the physical analogy. But (2) the agent is nothing apart from the motives which come up in his consciousness and stand for his character; and so by a fair interpretation his synthesis or choice is conditioned upon these elements. Choice, then, is always conditioned; if the conditions, the motives, the character, were different. then the choice would be different. To say that the agent is capable of acting outside of these conditions is to say that he can be some- body else. But yet he is not caused. To say that he is caused or forced is to say that the only way that a series of conditions in the world can operate is under the law of con- servation of energy or composition of forces. This is to make the mechanism of the physical laboratory the final ex- plaining category of reality. The final form of statement therefore of the question of freedom is this: How can a phenomenon be comlitioneri upon a group of earlier phenom- ena, and yet not be caused by them ‘? The difficulty which some have in conceiving that inviolable conditions do not mean in all cases causation arises from the mental habit which we all acquire of identifying all cases of unbroken se- quences in time, and even logical sequences as well, with the particular series of events in nature upon which the notion of physical causation rests. But an adequate analysis even of these series of sequences shows difficulties in the way of considering the so-called necessity that an effect be ex- plained entirely in terms of its cause as an ultimate fact. The effect, no less than the cause, may have some deeper guarantee in thenature of things: and with this admission we open the door to a possible recognition of the kind of union spoken of as mental synthesis as a candidate for “ ul- timate” honors. Lotze seems to have some ground for thinking that the only analogy we have to rationalize phys- ical causation by is to be drawn from the unity which shows itself in consciousness beneath complexity of content, and through the temporal sequences which make up the stream of thought. Psycho-phg/st'cs of lVe'ZZ.——Another great question which modern psychology asks of all the mental functions is that covered by the general word psycho-physics, i. -e. the ques- tion of the physical process which goes on in the brain dur- ing the continuance of the mental function in question. 764 This question assumes very great importance, in the case of volition, since here the metaphysics of the relation of mind and body comes into prominence. If we are to hold that there is any interaction of any kind between the two kinds of e.\:istences--any interchange of energy—here is the place to look for it, here in the voluntary management of the movements of the body by the agent. Historically the ' modern discussion of this question began with Descartes, who propounded the famous doctrine of “ occasional causes,” especially to meet this case. This doctrine holds that the will to move the hand is not the efficient cause of the actual movement, that there is no passing of energy from the mind to the body, but that the act of volition is only the “ occasion ” upon which the discharge of the energies of the brain go forth. The further question as to what arrange- ment must subsist between the two in order that this occa- sion may be just the occasion requisite aud no other, led to two further positions. The doctrine of “pre-established harmony” was developed by Descartes’s disciples; it held that the arrangement whereby the mental volition was the occasion of just the right movement and no other was one pre-established between two independent substances from their creation, and to extend for all time. The other doc- trine inspired by the position of Descartes is that the mind in volition does not increase or decrease the amount of phys- ical energy disposable in the brain for movement, but only directs it into one channel rather than another. The mind, by thus directing the discharge of energy, decides what movements of the body shall take place. The theory of “ pre-established harmony ” is not now widely held in the dualistic form presented by Descartes, but it is widely prevalent in the doctrine which goes under the name “ double-aspect theory.” According to this theory —held by men who wish to avoid metaphysical discussion and to restrict themselves to the facts on both sides the series of mental changes found in consciousness on one hand, and the series of physical changes in the brain on the other hand, may be considered as two independent sets of events, each set pursuing its own course, and not in- terfered with by the other. This assumes, of course, that since certain mental determinations—as the volition to raise the right hand-—is always accompanied by the actual rise of the hand, this concomitance must in some sense be the re- sult of prearrangement, even though there be no intelligence involved in it. The second view of the two referred to—i. e. that the will has a directive office in connection with the discharges of brain energy-is mainly held by those who are concerned to maintain a dualism in philosophy. It is openly fallacious, however ; for it is plain that force can not be directed into one channel rather than another without doing work-—i. e. removing a resistance. etc.-—in the system of forces in question ; but to say that the will can do this is to say that it can put forth physical force, and that is the original view which the theory of “direction” is intended to supersede. The later theories of the psycho-physics of will may be divided into two types : 1. Theories which frankly rule out the mind considered as an independent kind of existence, or even as a sort of existence which has any laws of action of its own apart from the processes of the brain. This gen- eral view is called the “epi-phenomenon” theory, since it considers consciousness merely as an added phenomenon, a piece of by-play to the material processes going on in the brain. It is the position in psychology which is demanded by a thoroughgoing materialism in philosophy. 2. The other class of views holds to the relative phenomenal independence of both mind and brain, recognizing that if laws of action are formulated for the behavior of material bodies—the laws of mechanics, chemistry, etc.-—solely from the facts of observa- tion of the material world, then there is the same reason and justification for the formulation of laws of the behavior of mind,the laws of association, apperception, etc., solely from the facts of observation of the events which take place in con- sciousness. This leads to the recognition of the law of con- servation of energy in the brain at the same time that the mental stream of events is held to pursue its own course under laws of its own. The further question as to how these two systems of events are, or came to be, in harmo- nious relation to each other, that is left to the metaphy- sician. He, in turn, may hold the dualism to be ultimate, or he may, by a line of argument which is not in place here, show that the laws of mind are really immanent in the ex- ternal world, and constitutive of it. See Psvcnomer and Pnmosornr. J . MARK BALDWIN. WILL Will (or LAST WILL, or TESTAMENT): a formal act or in- strument whereby a person disposes in whole or in part by anticipation of the property.which he shall leave at his death. Such an act, in order to be properly described as tes- tamentary, may or may not be revocable at the pleasure of the testator, though its revocable or “ ambulatory ” character is perhaps the most obvious and important feature of the Eng- lish and American will, but it has the invariable‘ character- istic that it will not take effect and thus operate to transfer the property of the testator until the death of the latter. This has not always and everywhere been the case, however, the will in its primitive form having sometimes been noth- ing more than a present alienation of property in contem- plation of death, the donor perhaps reserving certain rights of user and enjoyment in the property in the event of his recovery. Or2Tg1.'n and Hz'story.—-Tl1e right of testation is by no means inherent in or essential to the existence and due rec- ognition of property rights in general. Although the prac- tice of allowing the owner of property in some measure to direct its disposition after his death is of very ancient ori- gin, it is even in its most restricted form a comparatively late development out of the conception of the right of pri- vate property, while in the comparatively unrestricted form in which we know it the practice is of very recent origin. The right of testation, like that of free alienation, has been won only slowly, and is wholly the creature of positive law. Indeed, the history of human society shows that among most of the civilized races there have been long pe- riods of time during which the right of alienation, includ- ing that of testation, was regarded as incompatible with the right of property as that was understood. In those primi- tive communities in which the patriarchal system prevailed property was conceived of as belonging in a sense'to the family and not absolutely to the patriarchal head of the family. The right of intestate succession, of heirship, was thus established long before that of testation, and the will in the modern sense of the term, as a disposition of property outside the regular and lawful line of succession, was long regarded as an encroachment upon the rights of the lawful heir. The true historical and legal view of succession there- fore differs widely from the popular view. According to the latter, it is the duty of every prudent citizen who has any property to leave at his death to dispose of the same by will, the statutes of descent and distribution being intended only to carry into effect in a general way the intentions of those who die without having‘ made such disposition. From the legal point of view, however, intestacy and inheritance by operation of law are the normal state of affairs. According to the best modern authorities the right of testation existed in a qualified form in ancient Egypt as early as the fifteenth century B. 0., but it did not appear in Greece before the time of Solon, nor is there any evidence of its legal recognition in Rome before the Twelve Tables. It did not exist among the Hindus (except perhaps in Ben- gal) before the English conquest, nor in any but the most rudimentary form among the ancient Hebrews. There is no trace of the will in the codes or customs of the barbarian conquerors of Rome. As Sir Henry Maine has pointed out, “to the Romans belongs pre-eminently the credit of invent- ing the will,” an institution “ which,” he declares. “ next to contract, has exercised the greatest influence in transform- ing human society.” But, as he also shows, this very Ro- man testament from which all modern wills have sprung, originally performed very different functions from those which have attended it in more recent times. “ It was at first not a mode of distributing a dead man’s goods, but one among several ways of transferring the representation of the household to a new chief.” (Maine, Ancient Lama.) Indeed, it is not until the end of the Middle Ages that wills become a recognized device for diverting property from the family and of distributing it according to the fancy of the owner. But the law has never in any age or country al- lowed free and unrestricted range to the testator’s will. He has always been more or less fettered in the testamentary disposition of his estate by considerations of public policy and the rights of the family to which reference has been made above, and it seems unlikely that the process of eman- cipation which has removed most of those restrictions will go much further. ludeed, so far as present indications show, the tendency to free testamentary alienation seems for the present to have been completely checked by those conservative instincts of society to which the modern demo- cratic régime is giving legal expression, the interests of the WILL family on the one hand and those of the community at large on the other being equally guarded by recent legisla- tion in England and the U. S. Instances of this legislation will be found in the last subdivision of this article. GEORGE W. KIECHWEY. ROMAN AND Monrmv EUROPEAN LAw.—In early Roman law it seems that patricians, at least, could obtain some modification of the law of inheritance, as far as their estates were concerned, by means of private bills, passed by the atrician assembly. The ordinary testament of the repub- lican period, however, was originally a conveyance of the entire estate, with the understanding that the conveyee should not enforce his right during the life of the conveyor. The forms observed were those of “mancipation” or sale, which required the presence of the conveyee, a scale-holder, and five witnesses. Such a conveyee might, however, be charged with a trust; and by substituting for the heir a purely fiduciary conveyee, whose instructions were written in sealed tablets. the conveyance became simply a mode of giving effect to the last will of the testator. The conveyee and the scale-holder gradually sank into the position of ceremonial figures like the witnesses; and the ordinary tes- tament of the later R-oman law was simply a written instru- ment signed by the testator in the presence of seven wit- nesses and signed and sealed by these witnesses. Imperial legislation introduced several other forms of testation, some of which (e. g. the testament intrusted to the local court of first instance and made a part of its records) have passed over into modern European legislations. The modern codes have established still other forms. One of the most i1n- portant of these is the so-called holographic testament, which is written out in full by the testator with his own hand, is signed and dated by him, and is valid without call- ing in witnesses or observing any further formality. Ifelrs and Legalees.—In accordance with its theory of universal succession (see Succrzssrox), the classical Roman law required that the testator’s estate should be bestowed as an entirety upon one or more heirs. These could be charged with the duty of delivering to other persons special things or paying to them definite sums, but all such bequests or legacies implied the previous appointment or “ institu- tion” of an heir, and became effective only when he became owner of the inheritance. The testamentary heir thus com- bined the powers and duties of a modern executor, with the rights of a residuary legatee. By the less Faleiclla (40 B. o.) it was provided that, after the debts of the estate had been paid, the heir should retain, as against the legatees, at least one-fourth of the inheritance. In the imperial period it was recognized that bequests made in precatory form (fiolei com- missa) were enforceable, and that such bequests might trans- fer the whole estate. (The heir, however, retained, in such a case, the “ Falcidian fourth,” unless the testator expressly provided to the contrary.) It was also recognized that be- quests might be made in a less formal codicil, executed later than the formal testament; and it was decided that even where no testament had been made, bequests might be made by codicil, and that such bequests were binding upon the intestate heirs (the so-called intestate codicil). The effect of these changes was to make the distinction between in- heritances and legacies, on the one hand, and between testa- ments and codicils, on the other, of little practical impor- tance. In modern European law these distinctions have become still fainter. Testament was unknown to the Ten- tonic peoples, and was introduced into Northern Europe by the Roman Church; but even in the ecclesiastical practice the Roman testament was modified by Teutonic ideas, and further changes have been introduced by modern legislation. In the majority of European countries to-day a will made up entirely of special bequests is not necessarily regarded as an intestate codicil, nor does its execution necessarily de- volve upon the intestate heirs. Provision may be made, as at English law, for the payment of the debts and bequests by special executors. Oaipaellg/.—At Roman law nearly all persons of sound mind and above the age of puberty could dispose of their property by testament. At modern European law minors have not, as a rule, -full powers of testation. At French law, for example, a person under sixteen can make no tes- tament; a person over sixteen and under twenty-one can dispose. by testament, of only one-half of the amount which he might bequeath if of full age. A general capacity of taking by testament is attributed to natural persons; but juristic persons (corporations, foundations) can take only by virtue of express legal authorization. 765 Limitat»lons.—At classical Roman law the power of the testator was theoretically unlimited; he might will away all his property from his next of kin, even from his chil- dren. The only restriction imposed was that children must be expressly disinherited, not merely passed over. In prac- tice, however, a testament which carried the entire property out of the family was easily overturned as “undutifnl.” Imperial legislation afterward established the rule that a testator could not will away all his property from descend- ants or parents him surviving. A quota was reserved for them, one-third or one-half of the estate, according to their number. Modern codes contain similar rules, at least as regards surviving descendants. The Cocle r\'a_yaoléon, which goes furthest in this direction, reserves for a single child one- half of the estate; for two children, two-thirds; for three or more children, three-fourths. If there are no descendants, one-half of the estate is reserved if there are ascendants in both lines, and one-fourth if there are ascendants in either line. Some of the European codes also create a reserved share for the surviving husband or wife. In the French law these protected persons are really the heirs in the Roman sense; the whole estate vests in them. and the person to whom the free share of the estate is left, cl 2.‘/t'tre nne'oersel, is really only a legatee. In the Austrian code, however, and in the German draft code, the estate vests in the testamentary heirs, and the reserved portion is recovered from them as if it were a debt owed by the es- tate. All of these persons, however, to whom a share is reserved may forfeit it by gross misconduct. The grounds upon which they may be disinherited are specifically set forth in each of the modern codes. For literature. see SUccEssIoN. MUNROE SMITH. Exemsn AND AMERICAN LAw.—The will of the English law, notwithstanding its derivation from the Roman testa- ment, differs widely in conception, form, and effect from the latter. The beneficiaries under it are not the testator‘s heirs; they do not succeed to his entire inheritance as such, but only to such specific gifts or separate amounts as he be- stows upon them individually; they do not become liable for his debts, but the personal estate, which devolves pri- marily upon the executor, and the real estate, which vests under the will in the devisees to whom it is given, constitute in law separate funds (known respectively as personal and real assets) for the payment of the testator’s debts. The legatees of personal property derive their title not di- rectly from the testator, but from the executor, who occu- pies a representative character closely analogous to that of the Roman heir. (See SUCCESSION.) It was doubtless in virtue of this representative character. and not as a specific legatee, that the executor of the English law was anciently entitled to the undistributed residue of the personal estate. The continuity of person, which was preserved in Rome by ersonifying the inheritance in the interval between the L eath of the pater fmnz'lz'as and the accession of the heir, is secured in English law by the fiction that the appointment of the executor relates back to the date of the testator‘s death. (Holmes, Common Law.) These points of similarity between the English executor and the Roman heir are clear- ly traceable to the ecclesiastical tribunals in which the English law of wills was developed. While the law ad- ministered in those tribunals was avowedly a part of the native common law of the English people, yet, being ex- pounded and applied by men who, for the most part. had no common-law training and whose learning was that of the Romanized canon law (the bishops. or “ordinaries,” and their delegated oflicers). it was naturally and perhaps un- consciously moulded into forms resembling those of the Roman law. \Vhile it was only the characteristic English will-i. e. the will of personal property-which came within the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, that jurisdiction survived in all cases affecting the personal estates of deceased persons, through all changes in the power and authority of the Church, down to the reorganization of the judicial system of Eng- land after the middle of the nineteenth century. The English law of wills, as thus developed. prevails to- day in the several U. S. as well as in Great Britain and her colonies. The only important exceptions are Scotland, the State of Louisiana, and the Province of Quebec. in which the civil law of Rome continues, with some modifications, to regulate the right of testation. Mexico and the rest of the Spanish-American states also generally follow the R0- man law. In Louisiana and Quebec the law is contained in civil codes based on the Code Napoléon; in England and 766 the U. S. generally it is embodied in statutes in which the nature and extent of the right, the manner in which it must be exercised, and the persons who may exercise it, are explicitly set forth. The English legislation on the subject runs back to the 27th Hen. VIII. (A. D. 1535), and is compre- hensively summed up in the existing Statute of Wills, passed in 1837 (1 Vict., ch. 26). It is this prevailing Eng- lish and American doctrine of wills which is expounded in the following subdivisions of this article. What may be given by Will.—-Personal property has always been subjectto disposition by will. The principal restrictions with which this right was guarded in early English law are described in the article SUceEssIoN (q. v.). These restrictions upon the bequest of personal property have long since disappeared from our law, and the owner of such property may now, as the popular expression is, “ dis- inherit” those of his own household and lavish his estate upon strangers. Some States of the U. S. furnish an ex- ception to this rule, however, by virtue of legislation secur- ing to the widow an interest of one-third in the personal estate of which her husband dies possessed. In the same category should perhaps be placed the statutes which have been enacted in many of the States, making void devises to charities in excess of one-third or one-half of the estate of a testator who leaves wife or children, though there is nothing in this legislation to prevent a total diversion of the estate to stranger beneficiaries who do not come under the description of charities. In the law of Louisiana and of Quebec, on the other hand, the principle of rationabiles partes, which prevailed in the early English law, is fully recognized, and the testator who has children is restrained from disposing; of his whole estate. One child may claim one-third of the inheritance, two may claim half, and three are entitled to two-thirds, as their légitime, or reasonable share, of the estate. It seems also to be clearly established that in the era an- tedating the Norman conquest real property could also in many cases be disposed of by will. This was certainly true of those boclands, the “bee” (book or charter) conferring which expressly granted the right to devise the same, though it was probably not true of allodial holdings gen- erally. But the rapid development of the feudal system after the Conquest speedily abolished the right of devising freehold estates, and, excepting in a few localities, where local usage was strong and tenacious enough to withstand the feudalizing process successfully, this continued to be the rule of English law for upward of four centuries. Of course, this had no application to leasehold estates, which, being relegated to the position of personal property, could be freely bequeathed as such. See LA-NDLORD AND TENANT, PROPERTY, and TENURE. The way in which the doctrine of uses and the practice of conveying lands to one person for the benefit and use of another afiected property rights, and especially the transfer of substantive rights in real property, is explained in the article USES (Q. v.). Notwithstanding the incapacity of real property to pass by will, the “use” of such property might be freely devised by any one in whom it was vested, whether he was also holder of the legal title or not. It was mainly in order to remedy and prevent this manifest eva- sion of the law forbidding the devising of real property that the Statute of Uses was enacted in 1535 (27 Hen. VIII., cap. 10). But the practice of thus indirectly and surrepti- tiously devising lands had become too firmly intrenched to be done away with, and only five years after the Statute of Uses (1540, 32 Hen. VIII., cap. 1) the first English Statute of Wills was enacted. This made possible the devising of cer- tain kinds and portions of lands held by free tenures, and subsequent legislation speedily extended the right so as to include all lands that were held in fee. To-clay all real property may, under certain restrictions, be as fully and freely transferred by will as personal property. The most important exceptions are those created by the statutes of mortmain, which prohibit a gift of lands to corporations unless they are expressly empowered by statute to receive devises; those created by statute in England and in many of the American States, which in various forms and with much diversity of detail limit the power of testators in re- spect to the time and amount of their testamentary gifts to religious or charitable institutions and for distinctly relig- ions or charitable purposes ; and that—by far the most im- portant one in the U. S.—which prevents a husband from depriving his widow of her dower or its equivalent. To these should be added the restriction contained in the l WILL homestead laws which have been enacted in some States of the U. S., which make void a husband’s devise of home- stead lands. ' In whose favor Wills may be made.—-Beyond the excepted classes last enumerated, the law places no limitation upon the capacity to receive testamentary gifts. Wills may be made in favor of, and property real and personal may be bequeathed to, all persons, whatever may be their disabili- ties to perform any positive act which shall be legally bind- ing, including married women, infants, lunatics, idoits, per- sons of unsound mind, and the like, as well as all those in the full possession of their mental faculties and in the en- joyment of all the legal rights belonging to manhood. By whom lVills may be made.—-As a general proposition, all persons are empowered to make a valid will except those disqualified through lack of the requisite age, through co- verture, or through mental incapacity. (1) Age.—The stat- utory rule is almost universal that a person must have at- tained the age of twenty-one years before he or she can make a will of lands, and the same age is frequently, and perhaps generally, required for a will solely of personal prop- erty. In New York males of eighteen and females of six- teen are competent to bequeath personal estate. In Con- necticut, California, and Nevada both males and females, and in Vermont, Maryland, and Illinois the females, acquire the full testamentary capacity in respect of lands as well as chattels at the age of eighteen. (2) Coverture.—Formerly the law denied to married women any testamentary power over lands, and admitted only a partial authority in the be- quest of personal estate. Recent legislation in the U. S. (see MARRIAGE and MARRIED WOMEN) has to a very great extent removed these restrictions, and has clothed married women with the same power to devise and bequeath their separate property as .that held by single women. (3) .Men- tal 1ncapacity.—It is a fundamental doctrine that a suffi- cient mental capacity in the testator—that is, sound and disposing mind and memory——is essential to the validity of any will. This rule excludes idiots, 1unatics—unless the instrument is executed during a lucid interval——persons completely intoxicated at the time of the execution, and persons of unsound mind or weak mind to such degree that they are unable without assistance to call up to memory the property which they possess or the individuals who would naturally be the recipients of their bounty, or to compre- hend without prompting the nature of the act in which they are engaged while making a testamentary disposition. A will is also invalid when procured by fraud, or by undue influence exerted upon a testator of enfeebled mind and memory, even though he might possess a sufficient testa- mentary eapacity if left to exercise his own judgment un- forced by the external pressure. The Form and Execution of I/Vills.—Il‘ormerly all wills of personal property as well as those testamentary disposi- tions by which the use of lands was transferred were oral, and the first Statute of Wills (1540), which for the first time made real property devisable, while it required a writing (but no signature or formal execution) for a devise of lands, made no change in the will of personal property. It is cer- tain that it became customary for testators at an early pe- riod to commit their testamentary intentions to writing, but this did not become obligatory in the case of wills of per- sonal property until the enactment of the present Statute of Wills, already referred to (1837). The existing legislation, both in the U. S. and in England, concerning the form and execution of wills, is constructed upon the same model, ap- plies alike to wills of real and of personal property, and differs only in minor points of detail. All wills, except in the single case to be mentioned hereafter, must be in writing. The following formalities must be observed in order that the execution-—the factum—may be complete: (1) The in- strument 1nust be subscribed or signed at the end by the testator, or by some one in his presence and by his direc- tion. In some of the States the statutory language still re- mains “ signed” without the words “at the end,’ and this, it has been decided, is complied with wherever in the in- strument the signature appears, even at the commencement. (2) The signature must either be affixed, or must be ac- knowledged by the testator to be his own, in the presence of each of the witnesses. (3) The testator must declare the instrument to be his last will in the presence of each of the witnesses. This step, which is technically termed the “publication,” is of the utmost importance, and was bor- rowed directly from the Roman mode of execution. (4) There must be a certain number of witnesses, who act as WILL such in all that they do at the request of the testator, which request may be made by him personally or by some one in his presence. In most of the States the required number is two, but in some it is three. (5) These witnesses must all sign the will at the end thereof, usually in the presence of the testator; some of the statutes add that the witnesses shall sign in the presence of each other. If the testator’s name is written by an amanuensis, it is often required that he should be one of the attesting witnesses. \Vhile all these five steps are necessary to the validity of a will, a substan- tial compliance is sulficient. A eodtetl is an appendix an- nexed to the main will after its execution, whereby the tes- tator makes some change in or addition to his former dispo- sitions, and it must be signed, ublished, and attested in the same manner as the origina . Verbal or nuneupattee wills are, by the existing legislation in England and in a great majority of the American States, permitted to be made only by soldiers in active service during war and by sailors while at sea; in a very few States, however, the priv- ilege is extended to all persons in eaztremts in respect to a limited amount of property. The statutes authorizing nun- cupative wills contain various provisions intended to pre- vent imposition or mistake, by-requiring a certain number of witnesses, and frequently that the testator’s declaration should be reduced to writing and attested within a short time after his death--generally thirty days-—and that the will itself must be ofiered for probate before the expiration of a limited period from its execution, often fixed at six months. Reuoeatton.—The revocation of a will may be express or implied. (1) Eazpress.-—As the statutory law requires that the intent of the testator ill the execution shall be mani- fested by a compliance with certain fixed formalities, so it demands that the contrary act shall be done in a manner which leaves no doubt as to his real purpose. An express revocation may be affected by a subsequent will, which in plain and absolute terms annuls any and all former ones, or which, without such formal clause, disposes of all the estate in manner inconsistent with the prior bequests. It may also be made by the destruction or cancellation of the instrument, if done by the testator himself or under his di- rection with the intent thereby to revoke——antmo revoean-del The statutes often enumerate the modes, as burning, tear- ing, obliterating, canceling, and destroying. (2) Implied.- An implied revocation is wrought by the subsequent mar- riage of the testator and the birth of children, or by either. A will made by a single woman is annulled by her marriage. In the greater number of the American States the will of a man is revoked by his subsequent marriage and the birth of children for whom it makes no provision. In England and in some of the States the same efiect is produced by the marriage alone. In a very few States the implied revoca- tion results from the subsequent birth of a child or children who are left unprovided for by the testator. As a general rule, however, such children receive the portions to which they would have been entitled had their father died intes- tate, and the will stands, subject to the necessary deduction from its bequests. Gifts eansa rnortts.—Gifts of this nature, being essen- tially testamentary in character, really constitute a sort of informal will, free from the technical and sometimes incon- venient requirements of the statutes governing the execution of formal testaments. They constitute a considerable though legitimate infringement upon the statutory law of wills, and are apparently a survival of the ancient practice of be- queathing chattels without formal act or instrument. Such a gift can be made only in contemplation of death. It has this in common with the gift 2'/nter otros that it is not consum- mated without such delivery as would suffice to pass the legal title, but, like the testamentary gift proper, it is re- vocable at the pleasure of the donor, and is revoked tpso faeto by his recovery from the illness which occasioned the gift. It is therefore, like gifts by will, ambulatory and condi- tional. The only well-defined limitations on the exercise of the right are (1) that only personal property can pass by donatto eau-sa mortts, and (2) that not the whole nor sub- stantially the whole of a man’s estate can be given in this way——certainly not in one comprehensive gift to one person. But even this last limitation would not stand in the way of the giving of a coin or jewel or other single article or, prob- ably, of several such articles, conditionally, to one person, even though such article or articles constituted the whole of the donor’s estate. See GIFT. For the rules concerning the construction and interpreta- WILLARD 767 tion of wills, see the article on INTERPRETATION. In connec- tion with the general subject of wills the reader may also consult the articles on EXECUTOR, LEGACY, PROBATE, and SUCCESSION. The best treatises are those of J arman on Wells and Williams on Ereeentors. The works of Schouler, Redfield, and Chaplin may also be consulted with advan- tage. Revised by GEORGE W. Krncnwnr. Willa’ mette River: a branch of the Columbia; rises in the Cascade Mountains in Oregon, and flows first N. W. and then N. through a beautiful region, extremely fertile and now well settled. It is navigable for ships to Portland, 15 miles. Twenty-five miles from its month are the \Villa- mette Falls, at Oregon City. The river here falls 40 feet perpendicularly, but a canal and locks have been construct- ed at a cost of over $500,000, so that small steamboats, for two-thirds of the year, can pass up to Eugene City, more than 130 miles. At Oregon City the river furnishes a noble water-power. Revised by I. C. RUSSELL. Willard, EMMA C. (Hart): educator; b. in VVorthington parish, Berlin, Conn., Feb. 23, 1787 ; educated at the village academy; began to teach school at an early age, and after her marriage to Dr. John Willard at Middlebury, Vt., opened at that place a boarding-school for girls 1814; in- troduced several new studies and many improvements upon the ordinary methods of instruction; wrote A Plan for ten- provtng Female Education (1819), which was submitted in MS. to Gov. De Witt Clinton of New York; obtained his en- couragement for her project, and by a special act a portion of the State fund for academies; opened a school under his patronage at Waterford, Y., 1819; removed the school to Troy May. 1821; wrote several school histories and other educational books; superintended the seminary with great success until 1838, when she resigned it to her son and his wife ; published her Journal and Letters from France and Great Britain (1833), devoting the profits (about $1,200) to the assistance of a school for women in Athens, Greece, which owed its origin to her; settled at Hartford, Conn., 1838. D. at Troy. Apr. 15, 187 0. Among her numerous pub- lications were A .Hz'story of the United States (New York, 1828); Universal History (1835); Anetent Geography; avoi- ume of Poems, containing the favorite piece, Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep (1830); The flfottre Poeeers-u-hz'eh pro- duce the Cireulatton of the Blood (1846); Respiration and its Effects (1842); Last Leaves of Amerz'can H [story (1849) ; and 1l[orals for the I’oung (1857 . See the biography by John Lord, LL. D. (New York, 1873). A statue of Mrs. Willard was unveiled in Troy, N. Y., Apr. 15, 1895. Her great prominence in the history of education in the U. S. is due especially to the fact that the cause of higher education for women found -in her its most earnest and successful ad- vocate. Revised by C. H. THURBER. Willard. FRANCES ELIZABETH, LL. D.: reformer: b. near Rochester, N. Y., Sept. 28, 1839; graduated at the'North- western Female College, Evanston, Ill., 1858 ; was a successful teacher in several Weste1'n towns; director of the Genesee Wesleyan Seminary at Lima. N. Y., 1866—67: in 1871-'74 was Professor of .ZEsthetics in Northwestern University, and dean of the \Voman’s College connected with it. In 1869-71 she traveled in Europe, Egypt. and Palestine, and on her return delivered lectures in Chicago. She is the author of Nineteen Bea/atziful Years, a biographical sketch of a de- ceased sister (1864); Glimpses of Fifty Years (1889); A Great lllother (1894), and other works. She became presi- dent of the W'oman’s Christian Temperance Union in 187 9; founded the \Vorld‘s \Voman's Christian Temperance Union in 1883, and has been president of the same since 1888. She is editor-in-chief of The Union Signal, the official organ of the \Vhite Ribbon movement. Willard, SAMUEL: clergyman; son of Major Simon ‘Vil- lard; b. at Concord, Mass, J an. 31, 1640; graduated at Harvard 1659; studied divinity; was minister of Groton from 1663 until driven away during King Philip’s war, 1676; became colleague pastor with Rev. Thomas Thatcher over the Old South church, Boston, Apr. 10, 167 8; suc- cecded to the pastorate in the same year; opposed the witch- craft delusion of 1692; and was vice-president (exercising full powers as president) of Harvard College, as successor to President Mather, fro1n 1701 until his death, at Boston, Sept. 12, 1707. He was twice married and had twenty children; author of A Govnyalete Body of Dtvltnttq , posthumously pub- lished in a folio volume under the editorship of Joseph Sewall and Thomas Prince (Boston, 1726), and of various minor religious treatises. Revised by GEORGE P. FISHER. 763 WILLARD Willard, SIDNEY: educator; son of Joseph Willard, presi- dent of Harvard College; b. at Beverly, Mass., Sept. 19, 1780; graduated at Harvard 1798; was librarian there 1800-05; studied theology. and sometimes preached, though he never held a pastoral charge; was a member of the fa- mous Anthology Club; was Hancock Professor of Hebrew and Oriental Languages at Harvard 1807-31, filling also the chair of English Literature, and for some years that of Latin; was frequently a member of the Massachusetts Legislature, and once of the executive council, and was mayor of Cambridge 1848-50. He was the author of a Ifebrew Gmvnmar (Cambridge. 1817) and llfemories of Y oath and Jlfanhoocl (2 vols., 1855); was one of the founders of and a contributor to the Literary Jli/iscellany; also founder and editor of the American fllonthly Review (4 vols.. 1832-33); wrote largely for the ilfonthly Anthology, the N orth American Review (18 papers, 1816. seg.), the Gen- eral Repository, and the C'hristian Ea;aminer. D. at Cam- bridge, Dec. 6, 1856. Revised by GEORGE P. FISHER. Willcox, ORLANDO BOLIVAR: b. at Detroit, Mich., Apr. 16, 1823; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy, and ap- pointed second lieutenant of artillery July, 1847. On the out- break of war in 1861 he took command of the First Michigan Volunteers, which he led at. Bull Run, where he was wound- ed and taken prisoner, and was held until Aug., 1862, part of the time as hostage for Confederate privateers. His commis- sion of brigadier-general of volunteers was dated from the day of his capture. At South Mountain and Antietam he commanded a division of the Ninth Corps, and at Fred- ericksburg was in command of that corps. During the riots arising from the enforcement of the draft in Indiana in 1863, Gen. I/Villcox was placed in command there. He was engaged in East Tennessee from Sept., 1863, until Mar., 1864, then transferred to the Army of the Potomac, and in the Richmond campaign of that year commanded a di- vision of the Ninth Corps, through the Wilderness battles to Petersburg, participating in the capture of that city. He subsequently commanded various military districts until J an., 1866, when he was mustered out. Resuming his pro- fession at Detroit, he was also U. S. assessor of internal revenue until July, 1866, when he re-entered the army as colonel of the Twenty-ninth Infantry; transferred to the Twelfth Infantry in 1869. Brevet brigadier and major-gen- eral for gallantry at Spottsylvania and capture of Petersburg ; became brigadier-general 1886; retired Apr. 16, 1887; gov- ernor of the Soldiers’ Home in Washington, D. C., Feb., 1889, to June, 1892. He published Shoepac/0 Recollections (Boston, 1856) and Faca, an Army lliemoir by lllajor Jlfarch (1857). Revised by JAMES MEReUR. Willdenow, oil'de-n5, KARL LUDWIG: botanist; 'b. in Berlin, Germany, Aug. 22, 1765; d. there, July 10, 1812; Professor of Botany in Berlin. His principal works are Florm Berolinensis P/rodrovnus (1787); Grnnclriss der Krctaterhuncle (1792); the fourth edition of Linné’s Species Plantarw/n (1797-1830; the last volumes completed by Link); C'aricologia (1805); Izlortas Berolinensis (1816; ed- ited by Link). CHAELES E. BESSEY. Wi1’leha1l, or W ilhead: saint; b. in Northumbria, Eng- land, early in the eighth century; was educated at York; became a priest; went as a missionary to the pagans of Friesland shortly after the martyrdom of (Saint) Boniface; was supported by Pope Adrian I. and by Charlemagne; be- came Bishop of “Wigmodia” (afterward Bremen) 787; built there a noble cathedral, and had great success in the conversion of both Frieslanders and Saxons. D. in Bre- men, in 789. His feast is celebrated Nov. 8. He was the author of a Commentary on the Epistles of Paul and of several works still in MSS. See Smith’s Dictionary of Christian Biography, and Dehio’s Geschichte des Erzbis- thnms Hambnv~g-Bremen. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Willemite, or Wilhellllite [named after Wilhelm I., King of the Netherlands, by the mineralogist Levy; also called troostite (the New Jersey ore)]: a native silicate of zinc, of composition O..SiZn2; rhombohedral in crystalli- zation; generally yellowish, greenish, or salmon-colored; generally opaque, but sometimes translucent, or even trans- parent; hardness somewhat below feldspar. Willemite, which is not common in Europe, occurs at some localities in New Jersey-—about Franklin and Stirling—almost in rock-masses, constituting a very valuable zinc ore. Willems, JAN FRANSZ philologist and author; b. at Bou- chout, near Antwerp, Belgium, Mar. 11, 1793; at the age of WILLET’S POINT twelve was sent to Lierre to study music and singing; gained a local reputation as an amateur actor and a composer of satirical verses; became interested in the old Flemish lan- guage and literature; in 1809 was sent to Antwerp to study in a notary’s oilice; won in 1811 a prize offered for the best poem on the battle of Friedland; published in 1818 an ode, Aen de Belgen (To the Belgians), and in 1819-20 a treatise, Over cle N edewlnyt sche Tael en Letterhnndc (2 vols., Antwerp), his object being to induce the Government and the authors of Belgium to use Dutch as an official and literary language, claiming that it was only a modified form of early Flemish; became the leader of the Flemish movement (see FLEMISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE); was alternately favored and slighted by the Dutcl1 and Belgian Governments, according as the anti-Dutch or anti-French tendency of the Flemish movement could be used; was appointed keeper of the ar- chives at Antwerp, but on’ the separation of Belgium from Holland, 1830, was removed, and in 1831 settled at Eecloo, near Ghent, where he published numerous works, including versions of Reinche I/os (Reynard the Fox), to which he as- cribed a Flemish origin, and editions of the rhymed chronicles of Jan de Klerk and Jan van Heelu (Brussels, 1836; Ghent, 1840). In 1835 he became keeper of the archives of Ghent; in 1837 founded a quarterly review, the Belgisch llfnseum. D. at Ghent, Jan. 24, 1846. His Life was written by Snel- laert (Ghent, 1847). Willenlstad, wil’lem-sta”ad: capital of the island of CURAQOA (q. 1).). and of the Dutch West Indies; on the south side of the island, at the mouth of a channel which ex- pands into a large lagoon: the channel and part of the lagoon form a capacious and safe harbor, admitting the largest vessels. W illemstad is a place of great commercial activity, being a central station of the European trade with the northern coast of South America. It has the appearance of a town in Holland. Pop. about 11,000. H. H. S. Willes, Sir JAMES SHAW, LL. D. : b. at Cork, Ireland, in 1814; educated at Trinity College, Dublin (graduated in 1836); then studied law in London with Mr. Chitty, and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1840, practic- ing for several years before this as a special pleader; became the acknowledged leader of the junior counsel, and in 1850 was appointed a commissioner to examine and report on the subject of reform in the system of common law procedure, and he was the chief author of the acts on that subject passed in 1852. 1854, and 1860, the important services which he rendered in this matter leading to his appointment as a judge of the court of common pleas in 1855, when he was knighted; from 1851-1855 was tubman in the court of ex- chequer, where his chief practice was. He was a man of remarkable memory and acumen, and was perha s the most learned judge of his time; was placed on the ndian law committee in 1861, and on the English and Irish law committee in 1862. With Sir Henry S. Keating he edited Smith’s Leading Cases (1849). The amount of work he ac- complished was enormous. and at last he gave way under the strain and committed suicide in a fit of insanity at Otterspool, Hertfordshire, Oct. 2, 1872. F. S. A. Willet, or Stone Curlew: the Symphemia semipal- mata, a bird of the snipe family found in North and South America. It is about 16 inches long, ashy above, speckled, with blackish, white, or slightly rufous or brownish below. It is a fine game-bird, and its eggs and flesh are prized as food. The name willet is derived from its note, “ pilt-will- willit.” F. A. L. Willet’s Point : U. S. military reservation ; opposite Fort Schuyler, Throgg’s Neck, at the west end of Long Island Sound, N. Y. ; 2%; miles S. of Whitestone, 20 miles N. E. of the Battery, New York city (for location, see map of New York, ref. 7—B). The site, consisting of 136 acres, was bought by the Government in 1857 and 1863, for the pur- pose of building a fort to co-operate with Fort Schuyler in defending the eastern entrance to New York harbor. This fort was begun in 1862, but owing to radical changes in the means of attack and defense during the civil war, work upon it was suspended, and it still remains unfinished. In 1864 the Grant General Hospital was located here, and many temporary buildings were erected. At the close of the war three companies of the U. S. Engineer battalion were or- dered here to establish an engineer dép6t for stores and materials, aschool of practice, and a station for experiments with torpedoes. The present organization of the school was authorized by the Secretary of War in 1885, and is sub- stantially as follows: The academic staff consists of the WILLETT commandant, the three company commanders, and the bat- talion adj utant and quartermaster, the adj utant as secretary of the staff, and the quartermaster as instructor in photog- raphy; the student otficers consist of from ten to sixteen lieutenants of engineers who are on duty with the compa- nies, and of an additional detail of from seven to ten lieu- tenants from other arms of the service for the special course in torpedoes. The engineer lieutenants usually are sent to the school directly after graduation at West Point, and remain about two and a half years. The other officers are detailed after some service with their regiments, and remain at the school ten months. The instruction, which is divided into a winter and a summer course, is intended to be practical as well as theoretical, and includes the fol- lowing subjects, viz.: Submarine mining, including elec- tricity, high explosives, and torpedo warfare; military en- gineering, including operations of armies in the field, sea- coast defense, modern siege operations, ordnance, field forti- fications, and pontoniering; civil engineering, including surveying, river and harbor improvements, hydrographie surveys, steam engineering, building superintendance, esti- mates, etc.; practical astronomy, including the use of in- struments employed on geodetic and boundary surveys; military photography, including methods of map-reproduc- tion, the use of the camera, development, printing, etc. The non-commissioned officers and privates, of whom there are from 350 to 400 at the post, are instructed in tactics, pontoon-drill, photography, torpedo-drill, and in several in- dustrial trades, such as carpentry, blacksmithing, engine- driving, and, when necessary, in common-school studies. VVILLIAH R. KING, LIEUT.-COL. U. S. Enenvnnns. Willett,1vIAR1ivUs: soldier; b. at Jamaica, L. I., July 31, 1740; was a lieutenant in Delancey’s regiment during the French war, and was distinguished at the unsuccessful as- sault upon Fort Ticonderoga; served in C01. Bradstreet’s expedition against Fort Frontenac; entered McDougal‘s regiment as second captain early in 1775; was a captain under Montgomery in the Canada campaign of 1775-76, commanding the post of St. John until J an., 1776, when he returned home; became lieutenant-colonel of the Third New York Regiment 1776 ; defended Fort Stanwix against the regulars, Tories, and Indians commanded by St. Leger Aug., 1777 ; made a successful sally as a diversion in favor of General Herkimer; held the fort until its relief by Ar- nold ; joined the army in New Jersey June, 1778 ; was pres- ent at Monmouth; accompanied Sullivan in his campaign against the Six Nations; was sheriff of New York 1784-92 ; declined the post of brigadier-general in the expedition sent against the Western Indians 1792, and succeeded De Witt Clinton as mayor of New York in 1807. D. in New York, Aug. 22, 1830. He left an autobiography, from which A Narrative of the Military Actions of Col. ]V[a1'in'u,s Willett, etc. (New York, 1831), was prepared and edited by his son, William M. Willett. Willey, HENRY: botanist; b. at Geneseo, N. Y., July 19, 1824; educated at the academy in that town and the Bridgewater (Mass.) Normal School ; was for several years a teacher ; studied law and practiced in New York State ; re- moved to Massachusetts 1858, and after teaching for a time became editor of The Daily Evening Standard at New Bedford. As a botanist has occupied himself especially with lichens, his principal publications being List of North Amer- ican Lichens (1873); Statistics and Distribution of lVorth American Lichens, in Ball. of Buffalo Nat. Hist. Soc. (1873); Lichens of the Yellowstone, in U. S. Geol. Sarv. Terr. (1873) ; Lichens of Colorado (1874); American Lichenography, in Proc. Essex Inst. (1867); An Introduction to the Study of Lichens (1887); Synopsis of the Genus Arthonia (1890) ; Enumeration of the Lichens found -in N ew Bedford, .zl[ass. (1892). He also edited part ii. of Tuckerman‘s Synopsis of the North American Lichens (1888). CHARLES E. Bnssnv. William: the name of four kings of England. (1) WILL- IAM I., THE Coxounnon. King of England (1066-87); b. at Falaise, Normandy, in 1027 or 1028, the bastard son of Robert the Devil, Duke of Normandy, by the beautiful Ar- lctta, a tanner’s daughter of Falaise; was educated at the court of King Henry I. of France; succeeded by his aid to the ducal throne of Normandy on the death of his father in 1035, and married, in 1053, Matilda, a daughter of Count Baldwin V. of Flanders. In his many feuds with his vas- sals and neighbors, and with the King of France, he showed himself a man of superior talents, and his ambition was fully on a par with his power. As the English king, Ed- WILLIAM 769 ward the Confessor, had no children, Vi/illiam laid claim to the succession, his grandmother, Emma, being a sister to Edward. It is said that the king himself acknowledged the claim, and William maintained that Harold had pledged himself on a visit to Normandy in 1064 that he would not oppose his succession. Nevertheless, when Edward died (J an. 5, 1066), Harold was elected king by the Anglo-Saxon nobles, and rejected W'illiam’s demand that he should fulfill his promise. The Norman duke thereupon formed an alli- ance with Tostig, Harold’s banished brother, composed his affairs at home, and having secured from Pope Alexander II. a declaration that his claim was just, and a blessing on the expedition, gathered a large force in the harbor of St.- Valéry, at the mouth of the Somme, crossed the Channel, and landed at Pevensey Sept. 29. On Oct. 14 was fought the battle of Hastings or Senlac between him and Harold; the Anglo-Saxons were completely routed, Harold fell, and, Dec. 25, William was crowned King of England at VVest- minster. His government was at first conciliatory, but as one insurrection followed another. and found support both from the Scots and the Danes, he adopted severe measures, subjecting the conquered to heavy fines and confiseations. With the capture of Ely (1071), where Hereward had kept up an obstinate resistance to the invaders. the conquest of England was complete. and in 1072 William forced the Scottish king, Malcolm III., to do him homage. The whole country between the Tees and the Humber was laid waste, and every Saxon was expelled from his position in the ad- ministration, the courts, and the Church, and supplanted by a Norman. The estates of the fallen or banished Saxon nobles were partitioned out to the Norman lords; but. in order to prevent the concentration of too much power in the hands of a vassal, care was taken that the lands thus bestowed should not be contiguous. A network of military stations was spread over the whole country—strongl_v forti- fied castles, from which the feudal Norman kept the Saxon population in absolute submission. In 1068 the curfew-bell was introduced, at the sound of which every light and fire in the country should be extinguished, and between 1080 and 1086 a survey was taken of the Conquest and the di- vision of the spoil-—the so-called Donesnav BooK (g. ’L'.). The landholders were obliged to swear fealty to the king, who, while retaining the forms of feudalism, exalted the royal authority and laid the foundation of a strong king- ship, in marked contrast to the feeblen'ess and uncertainty that characterized the feudal monarchies of the Continent. In the political system that he established, the upper ranks and great positions were filled by the Normans, while the native population made up the lower orders in the feudal scale. Though a harsh ruler he administered a rude kind of justice, repressing the tyranny and violence of his nobles as a menace to his own authority. As the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says, “ He would permit no plunder save his own." Besides the establishment and consolidation of his power in England, William carried on a series of wars on the Continent with his son, with Brittany, with the King of France. etc. In a campaign against France he was injured by a fall from his horse at Mantes-sur-Seine. He was brought to R-ouen, and died there Sept. 9, 1087. He was buried in the Church of St. Stephen at Caen. (See Thierry, H2Tstoi1*e de la Conqnéte de l’AngZeterre par les lYormands (1825); Freeman, H istory of the Norman Conquest of England (1867); Palgrave. En_(]la'nd and lVornzandy (1851- 64); and Stubbs, Constitutional H z'story of England (1874).) —(2) WILLIAM II., RUFUS. King of England (1087—1100), b. in Normandy in 1056. son of William the Conqueror: was educated in England by Lanfranc. and succeeded to the throne of England on the death of his father, while his elder brothel‘. Robert, took possession of Normandy. He was soon (1088) involved in war with the partisans of his brother in England, who stirred up a serious rebellion, which, however, he soon put down with the aid of his Eng- lish subjects. Two years later he carried the war into Nor- mandy, and forced his brother to consent to humiliating terms of peace. He also waged war with Scotland. invaded Normandy a second time in 1094, quarreled with the King of France, and attempted to conquer the Welsh. He came finally into possession of Normandy when. in 1096, Robert mortgaged the country to him on setting out for the Holy Land. He was planning to secure Aquitaine, but before he could take possession of this new dominion he was shot by Walter Tyrrel, or Tirel, while hunting in the New Forest. Aug. 2, 1100. He built London Bridge and completed Lon- don Tower and Westminster Hall. (See Freeman, Reign of 446 770 WILLIAM William Raf/as.)-(3) WILLIAM Ill., King of Great Britain and Ireland (1689-1702) and stadtholder of the Netherlands (1672-1702), a son of William II., Prince of Orange and stadtholder of the Netherlands, and Mary, the eldest daugh- ter of Charles I., King of England, b. at The Hague, Nov. 4, 1650, ten days after the death of his father. His mother died in 1661; Louis XIV. took possession of the family estate of Orange; Oliver Cromwell persecuted him as a Stuart; and in the Netherlands, where his father had exerted himself to make the stadtholdership hereditary in the family of Orange, Jan de Witt carried through a law which prevented any person from being at the same time stadtholder and com- mander-in-chief of the military forces of the republic. Nevertheless, in 1672, when France and England attacked the Netherlands, and Jan de Witt had been murdered, Will- iam was made stadtholder and commander-in-chief, and by his military and diplomatic talents he freed the country from the grasp of Louis XIV. much in the same way as his ancestor had wrenched it from the grip of Philip II. He succeeded in detaching England from France, and the Peace of Nymwegen (1678) was at least honorable to the re- public. In 1677 he married his cousin Mary, eldest daugh- ter of James, Duke of York, and heir-presumptive to the English crown, and in the contest between the king and the people, which became almost desperate. as soon as James ascended the throne, he naturally became the center of the opposition. In 1688 he was invited by a large number of the most prominent men in England to interfere, and on Nov. 5 of the same year he landed at Torbay with an army of 15,000 men. James fled to France, deserted by all, and on Feb. 13, 1689, was deposed by Parliament, and William and Mary were established on the throne, James after- ward went to Ireland, where the Roman Catholic popula- tion rose in favor of him, but he was completely defeated in the battle of the Boyne, and in Ireland, as well as in Scotland, all Jacobite movements were successfully sup- pressed. In Dec., 1689, England joined the Grand Alliance against France, which William had formed between Aus- tria, Spain, and the Netherlands. From 1691 William him- self commanded the allied army in the Netherlands, and although he was defeated at Steenkerke (Aug. 4, 1692) and at Neerwinden (July 19, 1693), he nevertheless prevented France from making any progress. At La Hogue the French fleet was nearly annihilated in 1692, and by the Peace of Ryswick (1697) England and the Netherlands lost nothing and France was utterly exhausted. Louis XIV., however, had by no means given up his ambitious plans, and England had just determined and publicly announced that it would take part in the Spanish war of succession when William died Mar. 8, 1702, in consequence of a violent fall from his horse. In England he was not loved, and his po- sition was often very difficult, especially after the death of Mary (Dec. 28, 1694). He was -entirely destitute of all those small arts by which a man in a superior position so easily wins the confidence, good will, and enthusiasm of his inferiors; but the soundness and elevation of his political views, and the sagacity and self-sacrificing energy with which he carried them out, have probably never been doubted. His great task was to resist Louis XIV., and in him political absolu- tism and religious intolerance; and he fulfilled it. (See Trevor, Life and Times of William III. (1835); Vernon, Court and Times of William III. (1841); Macaulay’s His- tory of England; and H. D. Traill, ll/Iilliam III. in Twelve English Statesmen Series (1888).)—(4) YVILLIAM IV., King of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover (1830-37), b. in Lon- don, Aug. 21, 1765, the third son of George III.; was edu- cated for the navy ; became a lieutenant in 1785, an admiral in 1801. and lord high admiral in 1827 ; was created Duke of Clarence in 1789, became heir-presumptive to the crown in 1827, and succeeded to the throne June 26, 1830. The chief event of his brief reign was the movement for parlia- mentary reform, which was secured by the Reform Act of 1832. Though he had professed to be a Whig and in favor of liberal measures, his blundering and irresolute conduct obstructed the much-needed reform, and by prolonging the crisis exasperated the people. D. at Windsor, June 20, 1837. He had entered in 1790 into a connection with an actress, Dora Jordan, by whom he had ten children, but he left her in 1811 for political reasons, and in 1818 he married a Ger- man princess. He was succeeded in Hanover by his broth- er, and in England by his niece, Victoria. For a further ac- count of the events of his reign, see the articles on his min- isters, GREY, CHARLES; MELBOURNE, WILLIAM LAMB; and PEEL, ROBERT. F. M. COLBY. WILLIAM I. William: the name of three kings of the Netherlands, descending from the brother of William the Silent of Orange-N&SS&II.—WILLIABII 1. (1815-40), was born at The Hague, Aug. 24, 1772, the eldest son of William V., Prince of Orange-Nassau and stadtholder of the Dutch republic, and married, Oct. 1, 1791. Friederike Luise Wilhelmine, a daughter of Frederick William II. of Prussia. When the National Convention of France declared war against the republic (Feb. 1, 1793), William assumed the command of the Dutch army, but on J an. 18, 1795, he embarked with his father and the rest of the family at Scheveningen, and went to England. Aug. 29, 1802, he received the principality of Fulda, together with Corvey, Dortmund, and Weingarten, which had been given to his father in compensation for the Netherlands, and he now resided for several years at Fulda. On his father’s death (Apr. 9, 1806), he came into posses- sion of the hereditary estates of the family, Nassau-Dietz, but having allied himself with Prussia and accepted a com- mand in the Prussian army, he was taken prisoner at Jena by the French, and all his possessions were confiscated by Napoleon. He was soon released from his captivity, and fought against the French at Wagram, but lived subse- quently in retirement at Berlin until after the battle of Leipzig. The Hollanders now rose against the French, and on Nov. 29, 1813, William landed at Scheveningen, and was hailed by the people as their sovereign. By the Congress of Vienna the kingdom of the Netherlands, consisting of Holland and Belgium, was formed, and on Mar. 16, 1815, William I. was proclaimed king. In compensation for his hereditary possessions, which were given partly to Prussia, partly to Nassau, he received the grand duchy of Luxem- burg. The combination of Holland and Belgium proved a blunder. By the revolution of 1830, Belgium seceded, and was recognized as an independent kingdom by the powers at the conference in London Dec. 20, 1830. William I., however, would not submit to this decision, but continued his protest and resistance up to 1839 in a very foolish man- ner. This and other circumstances made him unpopular. and on Oct. 7, 1840, he found it advisable to abdicate in favor of his son. He went to Berlin with an enormous fortune, and died there Dec.12,1843.-—WILLIAM II. (1840-49), b. at The Hague, Dec. 6, 1792, the eldest son of William 1., was educated in the military academy of Berlin and the University of Oxford; served in the Spanish and British armies against the French, and distinguished himself at Quatre-Bras and Waterloo, where he was wounded. On Feb. 21, 1816, he married the Grand Duchess Anna Pau- lovna, a sister of Alexander I. of Russia. As king, he restored order to the finances, which had fallen into utter confusion during the reign of his father, but showed him- self very unwilling to enter on any political reforms. Nevertheless when, in 1848, the fermentation became dan- gerous in the country, he consented to a thorough reor- ganization of the government, but died before the new constitution could be established Mar. 17, 1849.—\/VILLIAM III., b. at The Hague, Feb. 19, 1817, the eldest son of Wil- liam Il.; married June 18, 1839. Sophie, a daughter of King William of Wiirtemberg, and succeeded to the throne Mar.17,1849. When the German union was dissolved in 1866, he succeeded in separating Limburg and Luxemburg from all connection with Germany, and annexed the former completely to the Netherlands. Concerning the latter, ne- gotiations were opened by Napoleon Ill., who wanted to buy it, but these negotiations were frustrated by Bismarck, and Luxemburg was declared neutral under the sovereignty of the house of Orange-Nassau by the treaty of May. 11, 1867. Though notoriously licentious in his private life, he was a politic and progressive ruler, and in internal affairs his government was very successful. In 1879 he married the Princess Emma of Waldeck-Pyrmont, by whom he had two daughters, the elder of whom, the Princess Wilhelmina, became the heir to the throne. D. at the Castle of Leo, N ov. 23, 1890. William I., Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia: b. in Berlin, Mar. 22, 1797 ; the second son of King Fred- erick William III. and Queen Luise, a Princess of Mecklen- burg. He grew up with the humiliating impressions of the defeat of Jena, but distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1813-14 against France. All his life through he was an enthusiastic soldier, indefatigable in the military service, even in its minutest details. When his father died (1840), and his elder brother, Frederick William IV., became king, he received the title of Prince of Prussia as heir-presumptive, WILLIAM I. but for many years was not prominent in political affairs. He was considered an absolutist, and for this reason, as well as on account of his military inclinations, he was very un- popular. On the outbreak of the revolution in 1848 he was compelled to leave the country and go to England. On his return in the same year he entered the Prussian national assembly as member for Wirsitz and delivered a speech in which he declared himself in favor of constitutional govern- ment. In the spring of 1849 he took command of the mili- tary force sent against the South German insurgents, and uickly suppressed the revolution in the Palatinate and Ba- en. Later, when the supremacy of the Austrian policy in German affairs was felt with much regret in Prussia, public opinion underwent a change concerning the prince, and peo- ple began to look at the strength and firmness of h1S char- acter as a support of the greatness of Prussia. He was nevertheless by no means popular, and frequent collisions arose between him and the people when he came to the head of the Government as regent Oct. 9, 1858, and as king J an. 2, 1861. It was the reorganization of the army which aroused the bitterest opposition. The king considered this measure as the most effective means of elevating the Prus- sian state, while the people looked at it as an instrument of oppression. There followed what is known as the “Conflict Time,” in which neither the king nor his opponents in the Prussian chamber would give way, and the former, in order to carry out the scheme of military reform, was obliged to rely on the upper house for supplies in direct opposition to the spirit of the constitution ; but the resolution and energy of Bismarck won in the end, and the reorganization was ef- fected. In the war with Denmark (1864) the army proved able and effective, and the king began to be popular. This change was more apparent in 1866, when, under the per- sonal leadership of the king, brilliant victories were won over Austria and her German allies. The Landtag readily granted an indemnity for all military expenditures. By the publz'ccmdum issued from Ems July 26, 1867, William placed himself at the head of the newly formed North German union, and assumed for himself and his successors to the Prussian crown the rights and duties connected with this new dignity. But the greatest glory was gained by the king in the war with France (1870—71). The refusal of Napoleon III.’s demand for territory on the Rhine and the thwarting of his designs on Belgium and Luxemburg had made war probable, and all measures were taken to insure success when the conflict came. The war was desired by the king and Bismarck as the means of strengthening Prus- sia and attaining German unity. Na oleon’s folly in the matter of Prince Leopold of Hohenzo lern’s candidacy for the Spanish throne offered a welcome opportunity of refus- ing his demands and making him appear as an aggressor in the war that followed. In the negotiations with the French ambassador, Benedetti, in Ems July, 1870, the king’s presence of mind, courage, and dignity won general admiration, and the enthusiasm for him increased every day as the German army pushed farther into France and gained one victory after another. Moved partly by the brilliancy of the victory, partly by the personality of the victor, the German princes, so long divided, finally agreed in offering the imperial crown of Germany to King William, and he accepted it at Versailles J an. 18, 1871. On Mar. 15, 1871, he returned to Berlin. Here a new contest awaited him. The internal state of Germany, especially on the co- clesiastical field, needed a development in a liberal direction, and the policy of Bismarck soon brought about a conflict with the Roman Curia. (See KLTLTURKAMPF and FALK Laws.) The next difficulty to be dealt with was the social- ist agitation, which had increased to an alarming extent. In 1878 occurred Hiidel‘s attempt on the emperor’s life, and this was soon followed by the murderous assault of Dr. No- biling, who succeeded in wounding his victim. Influenced by these events the Reichstag passed Bismarck‘s anti-social- ist law, which ex ired in 1881, but which has been several times renewed. l cspite this repressive policy the Social- Demooratic party increased in strength, and the emperor and Bismarck competed for the favor of the laboring man by a plan of social reform based on the principles of state socialism. An illustration of this paternal policy is Bis- marck’s law for the insurance of workingmen against acci- dents. In his foreign ‘policy the emperor showed himself determined to keep what had been gained from France, but to avoid war if possible. To insure peace he en- deavored to make Germany so strong that none dare at- tack her. To guard against a combined attack from Russia WILLIAM AND MARY, COLLEGE OF 771 and France he formed a military alliance with Austria-Hun- gary and Italy, the Dvm'buncl. ‘D. in Berlin, Mar. 9, 1888. Revised by F. M. CoLBY. Willialn II.: German emperor and King of Prussia; b. J an. 27, 1859, eldest son of Frederick, second German em- peror and eighth King of Prussia, who was eldest son of Will- iam I. He received a thorough military training and in- struction in administrative methods. On the death of his father, June 15, 1888, he became emperor and early showed himself a resolute upholder of the traditional rights and dignity of his office. His speeches inspired the fear that his policy would be reactionary, his tone being that of a mon- arch convinced of his divine right. He was soon at variance with Bismarck, who, finding himself unable to retain his influence, resigned in 1890. Some of the important fea- tures of the reign are the strengthening and renewal of the Triple Alliance, the legislation in favor of the workingman, and the cession to Germany of Heligoland. William II. married Feb. 27, 1881, Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Hol- stein-Augustenburg. William, THE SILENT : See WILLIAM or Nassau. William and Mary, College of: an institution of learn- ing near Williamsburg, Va.; in its antecedents the oldest in the U. S., dating back to 1617, and in its actual operation standing next to Harvard College, having been founded in 1693. A grant of land for the establishment of an Indian college and an English seminary of learning at Henrico was made by the Virginia Company in 1619, and £1,500 was raised by the bishops of England for the encouragement of Indian education. A collegiate school was opened at Charles City in 1621, but was suspended by reason of the Indian massacre of 1622, and a second project, to found a uni- versity to be called Academia Virginiensis et Oxoniensis, on an island near the mouth of the Susquehanna, failed on ac- count of the death of its chief advocate, Edward Palmer. In 1660 the colonial assembly of Virginia voted to purchase land for a college and free school. Subscriptions of money were received from Gov. Berkeley and others in the colony as well as in England, and in 1691 the assembly sent Rev. James Blair, D. D., to secure a charter from the English crown. King William and Queen Mary approved. The charter was signed in Feb., 1693, and the Government appro- priated, toward the support of the college, lands, funds, a duty on exported tobacco, and all fees and profits arising from the office of surveyor-general. Dr. Blair became the first president. Six masters or professors, who were gradu- ates of Oxford and Cambridge, were appointed. Several scholarships were founded, a school for Indians was estab- lished about 1697, and at Dr. Blair‘s death (1743) the col- lege was highly prosperous. It was the wealthiest college in America when the war of the Revolution broke out, but the war deprived it of all endowments, save 20,000 acres of land, by the sales of which a new moneyed endowment of about $200,000 was obtained. In 1781 the buildings were occupied alternately by the British and the French and American troops, and while used as hospitals by the latter were injured by fire. The college exercises, however, were interrupted for a few months only. During the civil war the college was closed, the buildings and grounds were occupied by U. S. forces, and several buildings. together with the li- brary and apparatus, were destroyed. In 1869 the main building was restored, and the college was reopened; but in 1882 financial embarrassment made it necessary to close its doors. In 1888 the general assembly of Virginia appro- priated $10,000 a year, subsequently increased to $15,000 to establish in connection with collegiate training “a system of normal instruction and training.” The college was re- opened in Oct., 1888, with a full faculty, and has since en- joyed fair success. In 1893, by an act of Congress, it re- ceived $64,000 indemnifying it for losses sustained during the civil war. The present faculty consists of a president, Lyon G. Tyler, six full professors, and three tutors. It confers the degrees of master of arts, bachelor of arts, bachelor of letters, and licentiate of instruction. There are seven departments. As an adjunct to the department of pedagogy a well-equipped model school is carried on in Williamsburg. The library contains about 8,000 volumes. The number of students in 1894-95 was 160. The institution is undenominational. Among its distinguished alumni have been Thomas Jef- ferson, James Monroe. and John Tyler, Presidents of the U. S.; Benjamin Harrison, Carter Braxton, Thomas Nelson, and George Wythe, who, with Jefferson, were signers of the 7'72 WILLIAM or crmnrnxux Declaration of Independence; Edmund Randolph, chief draughtsman and author of the Constitution; John Mar- shall and Bushrod \Vashington. jurists ; and Lieut.-Gen. Winfield Scott. The Phi Beta Kappa Society, established to promote literature and patriotism among the youths of the colony, was founded at William and Mary in 1776. Until 1776 the chancellors of the college were, with several exceptions, the bishops of London. George Washington was chancellor 1788-99. See The History of the College of William and Ilfary (Baltimore and Richmond, 1874) and Circular of In- formation, Bureau of Education, No. 1. (Washington, 1887). LYON G. TYLER. William of Clmmpeaux: anglicized form of GUILLAUME DE GHAMPEAUX (g. v.). William of Malmesbury: See MAL1uEsnURY. William of Nassau, sometimes called William of Orange, or William the Silent: b. at Dillenburg, Nassau, Apr. 14, 1533 ; was the eldest son of Count William of Nassau- Dillenburg and his second wife, Juliana von Stolberg, both of whom were Protestants. In 1544 he inherited from his cousin, Renatus of Nassau, the principality of Orange in Provence, whence he derived the title of Prince of Orange, and extensive estates in the Low Countries, and he was now sent to Brussels, where he was educated at the court in the Roman Catholic faith. When he was fifteen years old he became a page to Charles V., who employed him, while still a young man of twenty years, in the highest military and diplomatic positions, and on his abdication (1555) recom- mended him in the strongest terms to his son and successor. In the beginning, Philip II. also seemed inclined, if not to put confidence in him, at least to use him. He held high otlices in the provinces; he negotiated the preliminary ar- rangements for the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559; and he was one of the four hostages—the Duke of Alva was another-whom Spain sent to France as a guaranty for the fulfillment of the treaty. \Vhile there the French king, Henry II., one day told him that there existed a se- cret treaty between him and Philip II. for the purpose of destroying all Protestants within their dominions; but, al- though this communication must have shocked and angered him. such was his self-possession and presence of mind that the news was received as carelessly as it was given. His discretion on this occasion earned for him the sobriquet of “The Silent,” which, however, in nowise applies to his general character, for in his usual bearing he was frank and cordial. As a young man he kept a magnificent house- hold, and exercised a most generous hospitality. Soon, however, after his conversation with Henry II., he found other use for his money, for he rose immediately in oppo- sition to Philip II., and never, as long as he lived, gave up his resistance for one moment. As governor of Holland and Zealand he refused in 1564 to allow the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition in these provinces ; and although he had not signed the compromise which the Guena; or Beg- gars presented to the regent, Margaret of Parma, in 1566, yet he supported their demands at the court. When, finally, Philip II. decided to send the Duke of Alva as gov- ernor-general to the Netherlands with a large Spanish army, William resigned all his offices and retired with his family to Germany. As soon as Alva arrived, the most arbitrary measures for the religious and political suppression of the provinces were carried out, often with incredible atrocity. William was summoned to appear before the council which had condemned Egmont and Horn, and his eldest son, a boy of thirteen years, who studied at the University of Lou- vain, was seized and carried to Spain, where he was held in captivity for twenty-eight years. In 1568 he raised an army by his own funds, and afterward invaded the country, but although he gained some advantages, he was unable either to rouse the population to a general revolt or to bring Alva to a decisive battle; and he was soon compelled by lack of money to disband his army. In 1572 he made a new at- tempt, and with greater effect. In 1570 he had issued let- ters of marque to privateers, and these “Beggars of the Sea” inflicted great damages on Spanish commerce, espe- cially since they early in 1572 had come into possession of Briel and Flushing, which formed a solid basis for their operations and commanded the navigation of the Schcld and the Meuse. Thus war with Spain appeared to be a re- munerative trade, while obedience had proved to be utter desolation and ruin, and, consequently. on the approach of William with a new army, the province of Holland rose in open rebellion, and its states chose William, stadt-holder in WILLIAMS July, 1572. Gelders, Overyssel, Zealand, and Utrecht im- mediately joined, and although William, failing to obtain aid from the French, was again compelled to disband his army, war nevertheless now began to be carried on in a regular manner against the Spaniards. The military suc- cesses which the H ollanders achieved under the leadership of William were not very remarkable, but the heroism of the people was displayed on many occasions, as in the de- fense of Leyden. It soon became apparent that the prov- inces under Spanish rule were impoverished, while the provinces under William’s administration prospered. By degrees the hatred to the Spaniards spread throughout the southern provinces, even amongthe Roman Catholics, and in Oct., 1576, William brought about the so-called “Pacifica- tion of Ghent,” by which all the provinces united for the purpose of driving the foreign soldiers out of the country and establishing religious toleration. The southern prov- mces, however, soon separated from the league, and re- turned under the Spanish rule. In J an. 23, 1579, was signed the “ Union of Utrecht,” by which Philip II. was formally deposed. On Mar. 15, 1580, Philip II. put a price of 25,000 crowns on William’s head, and after several attempts which failed, one Balthazar Gérard finally succeeded in shooting him, at Delft, July 10, 1584. He had been four times mar- ried, and left twelve children, of whom the two sons, Mau- rice and Frederick Henry, became very celebrated. See Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic (1856); Klose, Wil- helm I. von Oranien (1864); Herrmann, Wilhelm von Ora- nien (1873); J ustc, Guillaume le Taciturne (1874) ; Barrett, William the Silent (1883); and Kallig’s I/Vilhelm von Ora- nien (1885). Revised by F. M. COLBY. William of Orange : See WILLIAM III. of England. William of Tyre: historian; b. in Syria, about 1137; educated at Antioch and Jerusalem; visited France and Italy; was made Archbishop of Tyre in 1175; was one of the six bishops who represented‘ the Latin church at the Lateran council (1179); wrote Historia de Orientalibus Principibus, and a history of the crusades between 1127 and 1184. It is entitled Historia Rerum in Part/ibus Transma- rinis Gestarum, a.nd is one of the finest specimens of me- dieeval historiography, full, accurate, and impartial. It was first printed by Bongarsius (Basel. 1549), afterward by Migne. There are German and French translations. William of Wykeham: Bishop of Winchester and chan- cellor of England: b. at Wykeham or Wickham, Hampshire, England, in 1324, of poor parents; was educated at Win- chester School ; became private secretary to his patron, Sir John Scures, by whom he was recommended to the notice of Edward III., who received him into his service as clerk of the royal works then being carried on at Henley and at Yethampstead May, 1356; became “chief keeper and sur- veyor of the castles of the king at Windsor, Leeds, Dover, and Hadlee” Oct. 30,1356; was virtually the architect of Windsor Castle, which was built under his eye, as also of Queensborough Castle in the Isle of Sheppey ;‘took holy or- ders; became rector of Pulham, Norfolk, 1357, prebendary of Lichfield 1359, of London and Southwell 1361, of Lin- coln 1362, of York Mar., 1363, and Archdeacon of North- ampton and of Lincoln the same year; was appointed keeper of the privy seal 1364, Secretary of State 1366; Bishop of Winchester 1367; was Lord Chancellor 1367-71; founded St. Mary’s College at Winchester and New College, Oxford, 1373; was deprived of the temporalities of his see and ex- cluded from Parliament 1376, but restored on the accession of Richard II. (1379): completed his munificent foundation at Oxford 1386 ; was again chancellor 1389-91, and rebuilt Winchester Cathedral 1395-1405. D. at South Waltham, Sept. 24, 1404. A splendid monument was erected to his memory in Winchester Cathedral. See Three Chancellors -Lives of Wykeham, Wynflete, and Sir Thomas .More (1860), by an anonymous writer, and Life, by G. H. Moberly (1887). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Williams, ALPHEUS STARKEY: soldier; b. at Saybrook, Conn., Se t. 20, 1810; graduated at Yale College 1831, but continue his studies in the law school there two years longer; in 1836 removed to Michigan, and took up his resi- dcnce in Detroit, where he began to practice law; was chosen alderman of that city in 1843, city recorder in 1844, and from 1840 to 1844 was judge of probate of Wayne County. In 1843 he became proprietor of the Detroit Daily Advertiser, of which he was also editor until 1848. In the war with Mexico he served as lieutenant-colonel of the First Michigan Volunteers, and was postmaster of Detroit from WILLIAMS 1894 to 1853. On the outbreak of civil war he was (May 17, 1861) appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers, and after- ward commanded a division in the Shenandoah ; succeeded to the temporary command of the Twelfth Corps in 1862, which he led at South Mountain, at Antietam (after the fall of Gen. Mansfield), and until Apr., 1863 ; in temporary com- mand of corps at Gettysburg; transferred with his corps to Tennessee in October, and engaged at Lookout Mountain. In Sherman’s Atlanta campaign of 1864 he commanded a division of the Twentieth Corps, succeeding to the command of that corps Nov. 11, which he held during the march to the sea and the campaign in the Carolinas. He was mustered out of service in Jan., 1866 ; was U. S. minister to Salvador 1866-69; and member of Congress 1875-78. D. in Washing- ton, D. C., Dec. 21, 1878. Revised by JAMES Mnncun. Willialns, EDWARD : poet and Celtic scholar; better known by his bardic name of IoLo Monexxwez b. in the parish of Llancarvan, Glamorganshire, Wales, in 1745; was associated with Owen Jones and William Owen Pughe in the editorship of the great collection of ancient Welsh lit- erature known as the Jtfyvyrian Archaioloyy (3 vols., 1801-07); published The Fair Pilgrim, a Poem translated from the W'els/i (1792), and Poems, Lyrical and Pastoral (2 vols., 1794, in the former of which appeared An Ode on the Mythology of the Ancient British Bards, in the man- ner of Taliesin.~accompanied by notes and specimens of “Triads” containing the metaphysical and religious doc- trines of the old Druidical bards, alleged to have been copied from the MS. of a Welsh poet of the sixteenth cen- tury. This publication gave rise to a controversy as to the genuineness of these “ Triads,” and the alleged MS. was never produced. VVilliams was a friend of Southey, and was recognized as the best Welsh writer of his time. D. at Flemingstone, Wales, Dec. 17, 1826. His posthumous Welsh work, Secrets of the Bards of the Isle of Britain (1829), was edited by his son, Taliesin Williams. An amusing vol- ume, Recollections and Anecdotes of Edward lVilliams (1850), was published by Elijah Waring. Williams, ELEAZAR2 missionary; b. at Caughnawaga, N. Y., about 1787; son of Thomas Williams by an Indian woman, and supposed to have been a descendant of Rev. John Williams, of Deerfield, Mass., known as “ the redeemed captive.” He was educated at Longmeadow, Mass. ; served in the American army in the war of 1812-15, being wounded at Plattsburg; became a missionary of the Protestant Epis- copal Church among the Oneida and St. Regis Indians, and subsequently among the tribes at Green Bay, \Vis. About 1842 the’ claim was made that he was the dauphin of France, son of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, and a narrative of his having been rescued from prison at Paris and brought to the U. S. gradually gathered form, and was embellished with all necessary details, including the total loss of memory by the young prince in consequence of his sufferings in pris- on. The story was brought out by Rev. J . H. Hanson in a famous article in Putnam’s .Magazine—lYave we a Bourbon among us .9—in 1853, expanded the following year into a volume entitled The Lost Prince. Belief in this story was much aided by a remarkable personal resemblance to the Bourbon type. Williams died at Hogansburg, N. Y., Aug. 28, 1858. He was the author of an Iroquois Spelling- Boole (1813); a translation of the Book of Common Prayer into Iroquois (1853) ; a political tract against the British (1815); and a Life of Thomas Williams (1859). Revised by F. M. Comzv. Williams, EPHRAIM: soldier; b. at Newton, Mass., Feb. 24, 1715; served in Canada against the French in the war of 1740-48, attaining the rank of captain; received from the Massachusetts Legislature a grant of 200 acres of land in the present townships of Adams and Vvilliamstown, upon which he erected Fort Massachusetts 1751, and was made comlnander of the whole line of frontier posts VV. of the Connecticut river. and on the renewal of war with the French in 1755 led a regiment of Massachusetts troops to join Sir Vililliam Johnson in his projected invasion of Canada; made his will while on the march, leaving his property to found a free school at Williamstown (see WIL- LIAHS CoLLnen); fell in an ambuscade of French and In- dians near the head of Fort George, N. Y., and was killed at the first fire Sept. 8, 1755. On the spot where he fell a monument was erected in 1854 by the alumni of Williams College. Williams, Gnoaen HENRY: jurist; b. at New Lebanon, N. Y., Mar. 23, 1823 ; educated at an academy in Onondaga 773 County: was admitted to the bar 1844; settled in Iowa; judge of the first judicial district 1847-52, and a presidential elector in 1852; was chief justice of Oregon Territory 1853- 57; member of the Oregon constitutional convention 1857 ; U. S. Senator 1865-71; member of the commission which signed the Treaty of Washington for settling the “Alabama. claims” 1871 ; and was Attorney-General in President Grant’s cabinet 1872-75. He was nominated chief justice of the U. S. Supreme Court 1873, but not confirmed by the Senate, and practiced law in Washington after resigning his seat in the cabinet. Williams, GEORGE HUNTINGTON! geologist; b. in Utica, N. Y., Jan. 28, 1856. He graduated at Amherst College in 1878, and then studied in Germany, making a specialty of petrography, and obtained the degree of Ph. D. at Heidel- berg in 1882. On his return to the U. S. he was called to the Johns Hopkins University, where he was advanced, until in 1892 he became Professor of Inorganic Geology. He studied the geology of Maryland with success, and prepared numer- ous memoirs on that subject. also in his own specialty of petrography, contributing bulletins to the U. S. Geological Survey. To him is due an electric machine for cutting and grinding thin sections of rocks and the petrographic micro- scope. He was a member of foreign and American scientific societies, vice-president of the Geological Society of America, and a member of the international jury of awards at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago, 1893. Besides some sev- enty-five papers contributed to the literature of his specialty, as well as much cyclopzedia work, including charge of depart- ments for Johnson”s Universal Cyclopcedia and The Standard Dictionary, he was the author of an excellent work on the Elements of Crystallography (New York. 1890). D. at Utica, N. Y., July 12, 1894. l\IARCUS BENJAMIN. Willianls, HENRY SEALER, Ph. D.: paleontologist and geologist; b. at Ithaca, N. Y., Mar. 6, 1847; graduated at the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University, 1868; after teaching at Yale and at the Kentucky University became Professor of Geology and Paleontology at Cornell Univer- sity 1879 ; resigned his position in 1892 to accept the chair of Geology at Yale, where he succeeded James D. Dana; became chairman of the section of geology and geography of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1892 ; secretary of the International Congress of Geologists at Washington 1891. His most extensive studies have per- tained to the Devonian and Carboniferous systems, and he has made important contributions to their stratigraphy and paleontology. Among his publications are The Classifica- tion of the Upper Devonian (Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1885): Fossil Faunas of the Ujaper Devonian (Bull. 3, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1884, also Bull. 41, 1887); The Cuboides Zone and its Fauna (Bull. Geol. Soc. America. 1890); Correlation Papers, Devonian and Carboniferous (Bull. 80, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1891). G. K. G. Vvilliams, ISAAC : clergyman and author; b. at Cwmcyn- felin, near Aberystwith, Wales, Dec. 12, 1802: studied at Trinity College, Oxford; graduated 1826; took orders in the Church of England 1829; became a fellow of Trinity 1831; was curate successively of \Vindrnsh, St. Mary the Virgin’s. Oxford, and Bisley; was associated with Kcble, Newman. and Pusey in the “ Tractarian " movement, having written the tracts Nos. 80, 86, and 87. and was a successful imitator of Keble as a sacred poet; was defeated by Gar- bett in his candidacy for the professorship of poetry at Oxford 1842; was a contributor to the Lyra Apostolica; wrote numerous theological treatises imbued with a vein of mysticism and symbolism. and spent his later years in com- plete retirement at Stinchcombe. Gloucestershire. where he died May 1, 1865. He was the author of The Cathedral, or the Catholic and Apostolic Church of England, in rerse (London, 1838): Ifymns (1839); Thoughts in Past Years (1842); Harmony and Commentary on the Whole Gospel 1V arrativc (8 vols., 1842-45) ; The Bag)t/istery (4 parts. 1842- 44) ; The Christian Scholar (1849) ; The Altar (1849) ; The Seven Days, or the Old and the _New Creation (1850) ; The Apocalypse (1852); The Beginning of the Book of Genesis (1861) ; The Psalms interpreted of Christ (3 vols., 1864-65); and other works. See his Autobiography (1892). Revised by S. M. J senses. Williams, JAMES DOUGLAS: Governor of Indiana; b. in Pickaway co., O., Jan. 16, 1808; settled in Knox co., Ind., in childhood; received a common-school education; became a farmer and stock-raiser; was frequently elected as a Democrat to the lower house of the Legislature ; was State 774 Senator 1859-67 and 1871-75; chosen member of Congress 1874, serving as chairman of the committee on accounts; was a member of State board of agriculture seventeen years, and its president four years, and was chosen Governor of Indiana over Gen. Benjamin Harrison at election of Oct., 1876, after one of the most exciting contests in the political history of the U. S. He was widely known by the sobriquet of “Blue Jeans,” given him by his supporters on account of the farmer’s costume which he ordinarily wore. D. in Indianapolis, Nov. 20, 1880. 1Williams, JOHN, D. D.: archbishop; b. at Aber-Conway, Carnarvonshire, VVales, Mar. 25, 1582; educated at Ruthin School; graduated at Cambridge 1603; became a fellow of St.Jol1n’s College; and took orders in the Church of England 1609. He was successor to Bacon as lord keeper of the great seal July 10. 1621, to Oct. 25, 1626, and was consecrated Bishop of Lincoln Nov. 11, 1621. In the negotiation of the Spanish marriages 1622-23 he took an active part, thereby making a bitter enemy of Buckingham; used his court influence against monopolies and illegal exactions, and displayed mod- eration in the management of the Star-Chamber tribunal; preached the funeral sermon of James I. 1625; offended the new sovereign, by whom he was dismissed from the keeper- ship the following year; supported the Petition of Right 1628; was three times prosecuted by Archbishop Laud before the Star Chamber on a charge of betraying the king's secrets ; was condemned, after eight years’ legal proceedings, to im- prisonment, suspension from his bishopric, and successive fines of £10,000 and £8,000; was confined four years in the Tower 1636-40, until released by the Long Parliament and restored to his diocese; caused the withdrawal of the bish- ops from the House of Lords on the occasion of the im- peachment of Stratford; advised the king to assent to the execution of that minister; became Archbishop of York Dec.4, 1641; was soon afterward sent to the Tower with eleven other bishops for protesting against the validity of acts passed during their enforced absence from the House of Lords; was released 1643; was a firm supporter of the king during the great rebellion, and fortified and held Con- way Castle. D. at Glodded, Mar. 25, 1650. He wrote a treatise in opposition to Laud’s innovations in church cere- monies. His Lifc, under the Latin title Scrinia resercufa (London, 1693), was written by Bishop John Hacket and by Ambrose Philips (Cambridge, 1700; 2d ed. 1703). In Lon- don, 1869, there was privately published the Correspondence between Archbishop I/Wlliams and the fllarguis of Ormond. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Williams, JOHN: clergyman; b. at Lampeter, Cardigan- shire, Wales, in 1726; became an Independent minister of Socinian views; was notedlfor classical scholarship, and was pastor of a Dissenting congregation at Sydenham, near Lon- don, from 1758 to his death, at Islington, in 1798. Among his works are A Concordance to the Greek Testcmnent, etc. (1767) ; A Free Inquiry into the Authenticity; of the First and Second Chapters of St. 1lIatlhew’s Gospel (1771; 2d ed. 1789); and some works on the alleged discovery of Amer- ica by the Welsh. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Williams, J OHN: scholar; b. at Ystradmeirig, Cardigan- shire, Wales, in 1792; educated at Baliol College, Oxford; took orders in the Church of England; was classical in- structor at Winchester College and at Hyde Abbey School; was incumbent of Lampeter, Wales, several years ; was ap- pointed, by the influence of Sir Walter Scott, rector of the New Edinburgh Academy; preached the funeral sermon of Scott; and became archdeacon of Cardigan 1833. He was the author of The Life and Actions of Alexander the Great (1829; 3d ed. 1860); Claudia and Pudcns, an Attempt to show that Claudia, mentioned in St. Paul’s Second Epistle to Timothy, was 66 British Princess (Llandovery, 1848); Gomer, or a Brief Analysis of the Language and Knowledge of the Ancient Cymrg (2 parts, 1854). D. at Bushey Heath, Hertfordshire, Dec. 27, 1858. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Williams, Jonx: missionary; b. at Tottenham, near London, England, June 29, 1796; was apprenticed to an ironmonger, and acquired great skill i11 mechanical arts; was ordained a minister 1816, and sent by the London Mis- sionary Society to the South Pacific islands; labored sev- eral years in the Society islands with great success, acquir- ing the native languages: visited the Hervey islands, and founded a mission at Raratonga 1823; built with his own hands a vessel 60 feet long, with which for four years he explored the neighboring groups of islands, including the Samoan; returned to England 1834; superintended the I/VILLIAMS publication of the New Testament in the Raratongan lan- guage; raised £4,000 for the purchase.and outfit of a mis- sionary ship, with which, accompanied by other mission- aries, he returned to Polynesia 1838; renewed his explora- tions, and reached the New Hebrides, where he was about. to plant a mission when he was killed and eaten by the cannibals of Erromanga Nov. 20, 1839. He was the author of that famous missionary classic A .Nao'ral'ii'e of .ll1ission- ary Enterprises in lhe South Sea Islands (London and New York, 1837; 56th thousand 1865). Several memoirs were published, the most complete being that by Rev. Ebenezer Pr-out (1843). Revised by S. M. J AOKSON. Williallls, JOHN, D. D., LL. D.: bishop; b. at Deerfield, Mass., Aug. 20, 1817 ; was a student at Harvard, but grad- uated at Trinity College 1835; was tutor and professor in that institution; subsequently trustee and chancellor; studied divinity; ordained deacon in the Protestant Epis- copal Church Sept. 2, 1838, and advanced to the priesthood Sept. 26, 1841; was rector of St. George’s, Schenectady, N. Y., 1842-48; president of Trinity College 1848-53; be- came assistant Bishop of Connecticut 1861, and sole bishop J an., 1865. He is the founder and head of Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown. On the death of Bishop Alfred Lee in 1887, Bishop Williams became the presiding bishop in the Protestant Episcopal Church. Author of A Translation of Ancient Hymns of the Holy Church (Hartford, 1845); -\ Thoughts on the Gospel llfiracles (New York, 1848) ; Studies on the English Reformation, being the Paddock lectures for 1881; Studies in the Boole of the Acts (1890); and The lVorld’s lVitness for Jesus Christ, the Bedell lecture for 1881; and other religious publications. He edited Bishop Harold Browne’s On the XXXIX. Articles, with notes. Revised by W. S. Pnnnr. Williams, J ONATHANI soldier; b. at Boston. Mass, May 20, 1750; was employed in the oflice of a commercial house in Boston; made frequent business voyages to the yVest Indies and to England. He was secretary to his grand- uncle Benjamin Franklin. ambassador to France. While abroad he studied the military sciences, and made himself acquainted with standard works on fortification. Return- ing with his relative in 1785, he resided near Philadel- phia, where he was for several years a judge of the court of common pleas. On Feb. 16. 1801, he entered the army. In December he was appointed inspector of fortifications, and took command of the post of West Point and the duties of instruction of the artillerists and engineers. The act of Mar. 16, 1802, fixing the military peace estab- lishment, separated the two corps and provided for the present Military Academy, of which the “principal engi- neer” should have the superintendency. Under this act Williams was retained as major of engineers (Apr. 1, 1802; lieutenant-colonel July 8, 1802), and at once assumed the duties of superintendent at West Point, where he continued until June 20, 1803, when on a question of rank he re- signed from the, army. An adjustment of the point at issue was arranged. however, and Apr. 19, 1805, Williams, at the request of President Jefferson, returned to the army as chief engineer, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, re- suming also the superintendency of the Military Academy. While exercising the latter duty he devoted himself per- sonally to the fortifications of New York harbor and most of the forts which constitute its inner line of defense, being promoted colonel and chief engineer Feb. 23, 1808. Fort Columbus, Castles I/Villiams and Clinton (Castle Garden), and a work similar to the last named (Fort Gansevoort) lo- cated 2 or 3 miles higher up the river, were planned by him and built under his immediate supervision. Castle \Villi-ams was the first “ casemated ” battery erected in the U. S. (built 1807-10), and was planned after the system of Montalembert, with which Col. Williams had made him- self acquainted in France. Upon the declaration of war with Great Britain in 1812 he was at Castle Williams, and being the senior officer present claimed command of that work. The authorities at Washington, however. as- signed the command to another, whereupon Col. Williams resigned July 31, 1812. Returning to Philadelphia. he was elected to Congress in 1814. and devoted his leisure to lit- erary pursuits. He was vice-president of the American Philosophical Society; author of a Jlfcmoir on the Use of the Thermometer in l\lavigation (1799); Elements of For- tification (translation, 1801); If'osciusho’s Jlfouemcnts for Horse Artillery (1808); of numerous military and philo- sophical works ; and translator of several works on military WILLIAMS science. He was an officer of decided merit, and justly styled the " father of the Corps of Engineers.” D. in Phila- delphia, Pa., May 16, 1815. Revised by JAMES MERCUR. Williams, ll/IONIERZ See Monnzn-WILLIAMS, Monmn. Williams, Orno HOLLAND: b. in Prince George’s co., Md., in Mar., 1749; entered the Revolutionary army before Boston as lieutenant of a rifle company 1775; became major of a rifle regiment and was wounded and taken prisoner at Fort Washington, N. Y., 1776, but soon exchanged; made colonel of the Sixth Maryland Regiment, with which he ae- companied Gen. De Kalb to South Carolina; was adjutant- general of the Southern army under Gens. Gates and Greene from 1780 until the end of the war; rendered efficient ser- vice at the battle of Camden and during Greene’s retreat, when he commanded a light corps which acted as a rear- guard; took an active part, commanding the Maryland Bri- gade, at the battles of Guilford and Hobkirk Hill; de- cided the victory by a brilliant charge at Eutaw Springs; was made brigadier-general May, 1782, and was collector of customs for Maryland from 1783 to his death, July 16, 1794. He wrote a lVarrate'oe of the Campaigns of 1780. A Sketch of his life was published by Osmond Tifiany (Baltimore, 1851) Williams, ROGER: founder of the State of Rhode Island; b. in London, England, in 1607. He studied at Sutton’s Hospital (later the Charter-house School) and graduated ‘at Pembroke College, Cambridge, J an.. 16:26. He took orders in the Church of England, and obtained a benefiee in Lin- colnshire; but soon became a decided Nonconformist or “Separatist.” He embarked for New England at Bristol, Dec. 1, 1630, with his wife Mary. on board the ship Lyon, and arrived off N antasket, Mass., Feb. 5. 1631. He was im- mediately chosen to supply the pulpit of John Wilson, minister of Boston, during the latter's contemplated visit to England, but declined on the ground that that Church was “an unseparated people.” He soon made known some “novel opinions,” denying the right of magistrates to pun- ish breaches of the Sabbath or other offenses against religion, coming thereby into collision with the authorities of the colony, and soon afterward= he went to Plymouth, where he labored as assistant to Rev. Ralph Smith. a rigid Separatist, supporting himself by manual labor, though also engaging in trade in a limited way. He acquired the Indian language, which stood him in good stead during all his after-life. Leaving Plymouth with a number of adherents in 1633, the Church having refused to sanction “ divers of his singular opinions,” Williams proceeded anew to Salem, where he as sisted Mr. Skelton, though without formal ordination. A treatise which he had written at Plymouth to prove the title of the Massachusetts Company to its lands incomplete with- out purchase from the Indians, Williams now sent to Gov. Winthrop at the latter’s request. Its examination by the Governor and assistants, Dec. 27, 1633, resulted in a vote censuring the author. \Villiams was nevertheless, on Mr. Skelton’s death, Aug.. 1634, settled as astor of the Salem church. The resident’s oath, institute Apr. 8, 1635, Will- iams refused to take. "He would not renounce an oath which he had taken and substitute another which bound him to obey whatever laws the magistrate might deem wholesome. The reason assigned for the new oath, more- over, was to guard against ‘ episcopal and malignant prac- tices.’ This gave it the appearance of a law to restrain lib- erty of conscience.” Williams was cited before the general court held July 8, when he maintained his opinions in a protracted debate. The Salem people having before the court a claim. which all admitted to be just, for some land at Marblehead Neck. and the court refusing to give them the land so long as the Church stood by Williams, the Salem church sent letters, indited by W'illiams, to the other churches of the colony, rebuking the magistrates for their "heinous sin," and demanding that they be admonished therefor. This turned public sentiment against the Salem church, and a majority refused to go with Williams further. The Salem church’s letter to the other churches and \Vill- iams’s letter to the Salem church to persuade it to refuse communion with the others till Salem’s wrongs were righted, were declared “ full of anti-Christian pollution.” and brought him before the court again in September. His own church new “ had him under question for the same cause. and he, on his return home, refused communion with his own church.” Williams’s final a >pearance before the court oc- curred at Newtown (Cambrh ge). Oct. 8, 1635. when he was charged with having taught various doctrines subversive of 775 the civil authority and of having “ writ letters of defama- tion both of the magistrates and churches.” He maintained his opinions in a formal debate with Rey. Thomas Hooker, whom the court had appointed to try and convince him. On the following day, Oct. 9, the court delivered its sen- tence. \Villiams was ordered to depart out of the Massachu- setts jurisdiction within six weeks. Subsequently he was permitted to remain in Salem until the next spring, pro- vided he should not “ go about to draw others to his opin- ions.” As people resorted to his house to hear him, he was alleged to have violated this condition. In January he was cited to Boston, but declined to o, as by so doing he should hazard his life. Capt. Underhill was dispatched to Salem with a sloop under orders to arrest him and put him aboard ship for England. Underhill came too late, as Williams had been gone three days, “ but whither they could not learn.” With four companions Williams " steered his course" for the land of the N arragansetts, being “ sorely tossed for one fourteen weeks in a bitter winter season, not knowing what bread or bed did mean.” Of the Indian chief Ousamequin he purchased a tract of land at Manton’s Neck, on the east bank of Seekonk river, and in Apr., 1636, commenced to plant. But his old friend the Governor of Plymouth “ lovingly advised” him “that he had fallen into the edge of their bounds.” W'illiams and his associates, William I] arris. John Smith, Joshua Verin, Thomas Angeli, and Francis Wickes, therefore, about June 1, removed “ to the other side of the water,” and, landing at a point near the present St. J ohn’s church in Providence, began the founding of that city. Making a “covenant of peaceful neighborhood” with the surrounding Indians, they pro- ceeded to frame articles of agreement with one another, binding themselves to subject themselves to the will of the majority “ only in civil things.” Embracing now the prin- ciples of the Baptists, \Villiams was immersed, and, with some ten companions, in Mar., 1639. formed a Baptist church, but four months later he withdrew from it. and was never again connected with any church. In 1643 he visited England, and obtained a charter for his plantation through the influence of Sir Henry Vane. I/Vhile in London he printed his Key into the Language of America, or an Help ‘to the Language of the Natives in that Part of America called New-England, Together with Brief Obsercate'ons of the Customes, Manners, and lVorslztps. etc.. of the Afore- said Nat-toes in Peace and lVarre, in Life and Death, etc. (1643; new ed. by John Pickering, Providence. 1827). and two controversial treatises——1ll'r. Cotton’s Letter, Lately Printed, Eranztned and Answered (1644) and The Bloud y Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience, discussed. in a Conference betzeeene Truth and Peace, etc. (1644). which elicited replies from Cotton and others. He returned to Providence 1644. landing at Boston in September, but re- fused to act as governor of the colony. He again visited England to secure a confirmation of the charter, starting in N ov.. 1651, remaining in London between two and three years, and returning in June, 1654. He was for some time a teacher of the Hebrew. Greek. Latin, French, and Dutch languages, employing the conversational method of instruction. He became acquainted with Cromwell and Milton, and was intimate with Sir Henry Vane. \Vith Mrs. Anne Sadleir, daughter of his early patron. Sir Edward Coke, Vvilliams had a curious correspondence. He pub- lished The Bloody Tenent yet more Bloody, by ill)‘. Cotton‘s endeavour to uush it white in the Blood of the Lambe, etc. (1652); The H treltng .Zl[tnistry none of Christ's, or A Dis- course touching the Propagating the Gospel of Christ Jesus, etc. (1652): and E.rpe/m"me'22.ts of Sptre't/ual Life and Healtlt, and their Preservate'res (1652). He returned to Providence early in 1654. He was president of the colony 1654-58, rendering important services to the neighboring colonies, as he had earlier done, by his influence with the Indians and by giving warning of impending hostilities. He refused to sanction in 1672 the proposed exclusion of Quakers from Rhode Island, but engaged in public debate, both at Newport and at Providence, with three Quaker preachers (Stubbs, Burnet, and Edmundson), and published George F01; dz'gg’d out of his Burrowes, or an Ofibr of Dis- putatton on fourteen Proposalls made this last Sumnzer 1672 (so ca/ll’d) unto G. Fox. then present on Rhode-Island tn lV'ew-England (Boston, 1676), which elicited Fox’s vio- lent rejoinder: A New England Fire-Brand Quenehed, etc. (1679). D. at Providence between Jan. 18 and Apr. 25, 1683. He was buried on his own estate, where a menu- ment has been erected by his descendants. A statue of him 7 7 6 WILLIAMS has also been placed by Rhode Island in the Capitol in Vvashington, D. C. His Letters (sixty-five in number) to the two Governors Winthrop were printed by the Massachu- setts Historical Society (1863). The Narragansett Club has published a carefully prepared edition of his works (6 vols., 1866-75). There are biographies by J . D. Knowles (Boston, 1833), \Villiam Gammell (1846), Romeo Elton (London, 1852), Oscar S. Straus (1894). See also Samuel G. Arnold’s I Ifistory of Rhode Island (vol. i., 1860); Rev. Henry M. Dexter’s As to Roger lVilliams and his so-called “ Banish- ment” from the IV[assachusetts Plantation (Boston, 1876); and Henry F. Waters in Nero England Genealogical Regis- ter (July, 1889, pp. 291, seq.) What immortalizes Roger Williams and gives him a high place among the greatest characters of history is that, in spite of towering difficulties, he founded a State—-the first in history—which was creed- less itself, while welcoming and protecting all creeds what- soever, thus giving to the principle of separation between Church and state that lodgment in American public law which led later to its adoption into the national Constitu- tion. E. BENJ. ANDREWS. Williams, ROWLAND, D. D.: clergyman and author; b. at Halkyn, Flintshire, Wales, Aug. 16. 1817; educated at Eton and at King’s College, Cambridge, and graduated 1841 ; be- came fellow and tutor there; took orders in the Church of England, identifying himself with the “Broad Church” movement headed by Arnold and Maurice; was prominent in connection with university reform; became chaplain to the Bishop of Llandaff; vice-principal and Professor of Hebrew at St. David’s College, Lampeter, 1850 ; became vicar of Broad Chalk, Wiltshire, 1859; was prosecuted before the court of Arches for having contributed to the famous volume of Essays and Reviews, and was condemned Dec., 1862, but obtained a reversal of judgment from the Privy Council Feb., 1864; resigned his professorship 1862, and resided thenceforth at his vicarage of Broad Chalk, near Salisbury, where he died J an. 18, 1870. He wrote Rational Godliness (London, 1855): Christianity and Hinduism (1856) ; A Let- ter to the Lord Bishop of St. David’s (1860); The I-Iebrew Prophets, a New Translation (2 vols., 1868-71); Broad Chal/0 Sermon-essays (1867); Owen Glendower (1870); and Psalms and Litanies (1872). See his Life and Letters (2 vols., 1874) by his widow. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Ivillianls, SAMUEL WELLS, LL. D.: missionary and Si- nologist; b. at Utica, N. Y., Sept. 22,1812; graduated at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, N. Y., 1832; went to Canton, China, as printer to the American mission 1833; assisted in editing the Chinese Repository; com- pleted at Macao the printing of Medhurst’s Dictionary ; vis- ited Japan to return some shipwrecked sailors 1837 ; learned the Japanese language, into which he translated the books of Genesis and Matthew; aided Dr. Bridgman in preparing his Chinese Chrestomathy; published Easy Lessons in Chi- nese (Macao, 1842), The Chinese Commercial Guide (1844), and An English and Chinese Vocabulary in the Court Dia- lect (1844); visited the U. S. 1845, delivering lectures on China, and procuring from Berlin a new font of Chinese type; published The Middle Kingdom, a Survey of the Geography, Government, Education, Social Life, Arts, Re- ligion, etc., of the Chinese Empire and its Inhabitants (2 vols., 1848; 3d ed. 1857; revised ed. 1883), which is still considered the best work of the kind on that country; re- turned to China 1848; edited the Chinese Repository until 1851, when it was discontinued; accompanied Commodore Perry as interpreter on his expedition to Japan 1853-54; published a Tonic Dictionary of the Chinese Language in the Canton Dialect (1856); aided Hon. William B. Reed in the negotiation of the Treaty of Tientsin 1858; accompa- nied Mr. Ward to Peking to exchange the ratifications of 1859; revisited the U. S. 1860-61; went to reside at Peking as secretary of the U. S. legat-ion 1862, then first established in the capital of China; published a fifth edition of the Commercial Guide (1863), nearly rewritten ; completed and brought out the great work of his life, The Syllabic Dic- tionary of the Chinese Language (4to, Shanghai, 1874) ; re- turned to the U. S. iI1 1875 and settled at New Haven, Conn., where he was appointed Professor of Chinese at Yale Col- lege, and where he died Feb. 16, 1884. A new edition of his Tonic Dictionary, revised by Dr. Eitel, was published by the British authorities at Hongkong 1876. During the last years of his life he was president of the American Bible Society (elected Mar. 3, 1881), and also of the American Ori- ental Society. WILLIAMSBURG Williams, STEPHEN, D. D. : clergyman; son of Rev. John Williams, the “redeemed captive”; b. at Deerfield, Mass. May 14, 1693; was carried captive with his family to Canada by the Indians Mar., 1704; was bought of the Indians by the French governor of Canada, and sent to Boston before the rest of his family, arriving there Nov. 21, 1705; not long afterward wrote a minute narrative of his experiences in captivity; graduated at Harvard 1713; taught school at Hadley 1713-14; was ordained minister of Longmeadow, Mass., Oct. 17, 1716; was chaplain of a regiment in Sir William Pepperell’s expedition against Louisburg 1745, of Col. Ephraim Williams’s -regiment in the expedition to Lake George 1755, and of Col. Thomas Williams’s regiment in the campaign of 1756; visited the Housatonic Indians at Stock- bridge, Mass.. 1734, and was instrumental in the establish- ment of a mission among them. D. at Longmeadow, Mass., June 10, 1782. Williams, WILLIAM: one of the signers of the Declara- tion of Independence; son of Rev. Solomon Williams; b. at Lebanon, Con n., Apr. 18, 1731 ; graduated at Harvard ; served on the staff of his relative, Col. Ephraim Williams, in the ex- pedition to Lake George 1755; became a merchant at Wind- ham; was long the town-clerk and justice of the peace; was frequently elected to the provincial assembly, of which he was for many years speaker; was afterward a member of the council, of the committee of safety, and of the Comi- nental Congress 1776-77 and 1783-84; was a signer of the Declaration of Independence; and contributed by his pen and his estate to the cause of independence, expending nearly his entire fortune in the patriot cause. D. at Lebanon, Conn., Aug. 2, 1811. Williams, Sir WILLIAM FENwIcK: soldier; b. in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Dec. 4, 1800, and entered the Royal Artillery in 1825. Having been much employed in Turkey prior to 1848, he was in J une of that year appointed British commissioner for the settlement of the Turco-Persian boundary, and in 1854 was made British commissioner with the Turkish army in the East, with the local rank of brigadier-general. His gallant defense of Kars in 1855 won him the promotion to major-general, and he was created a baronet and Knight of the Bath. The order of the hledjidie and the grand cross of the Legion of Honor of France were also bestowed on him. He was a member of Parliament for Calne 1856-59; was in command of the troops in Canada from 1859 to 1865, governor and commander-in-chief of Gibraltar 1870-76; re- tired 1877. D. in London, July 26, 1883. Williamsbridge: former village in Westchester eo., N. Y.; annexed to New York in 1895; on the Harlem divis- ion of the N. Y. Ceht. and Hud. Riv. and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. railways; 13 miles from the New York city-hall (for location, see map of the city of New York, ref. 3-F). It contains 6 churches, 2 public schools, and a part of Bronx Park, and has a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1890) 1,685; (1895) estimated, 4,500. EDITOR or “COURIER.” WilliamSbll1'g‘ : town (founded in 1818) ; capital of Whit- ley eo., Ky.; on the Cumberland river, and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad; 17 miles S. of Corbin, 100 miles S. by E. of Lexington (for location, see map of Kentucky, ref. 5-I). It is in a coal-mining region, and has 6 churches, 5 public schools, an academy, a college, a State bank with capital of $60,000, 2 weekly newspapers, 3 large saw-mills, and 2 planing-mills. Pop. (1880) 208; (1890) 1,376; (1895) estimated, with suburbs, 2,500. EDITOR or “ Tnuns." Williamsbllrgz town (incorporated in 1771); Hampshire eo., Mass.; on the Mill river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 8 miles N. W. of Northampton (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-D). It contains the villages of Williamsbnrg, Haydenville, and Searsville; has a high school, 15 district schools, public library, 3 churches, and a savings-bank (I-Iaydenville); and is principally engaged in agriculture and the manufacture of hardware and brass goods. The bursting of a dam on Mill river at Haydenville in 1874 caused the loss of many lives and the destruction of much property. The assessed valuation of the town in 1894 was $878,031. Pop. (1880) 2,234; (1890) 2,057. Willian1Sbll1'g‘: city; capital of James City eo., Va. ; on the Ches. and Ohio Railway; 3 miles N. of the James river, 50 miles S. E. of Richmond (for location, see map of Vir- ginia, ref. 64% It is on an elevated plateau between the James and ork rivers, about equidistant from either stream; was first settled in 1632; is the oldest incorporated city in the State, and abounds in historic interest. Prior to WILLIAMSBURG, BATTLE OF the Revolution it was the seat of the royalgovernment, and subsequently, until 1779, the capital of the. State. The Capitol was destroyed by fire in 1748, and rebuilt; the latter building was also burned about 1830. The Eastern lunatic asylum, located here, authorized in 1769 and opened in 1773, is the oldest of the kind in the U. S. Williamsburg is also the seat of WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE (q. o.). Pop. (1880) 1,480; (1890) 1,831. LEoNARn HENLEY, MAYOR. Williamsbllrg‘, Battle of : a conflict during the civil war in the U. S., occurring May 5, 1862. The Confederates evacuated Yorktown on May 4 and fell back toward Rich- mond. McClellan, sending forward in pursuit the Third and Fourth Corps, preceded by the cavalry under Stoneman and followed the next day by the Second Corps, all under the command of Gen. E. V. Sumner, remained at Yorktown superintending the embarkation of the rest of the army on transports for transfer by water to West Pomt. Stoneman’s advance overtook the Confederate cavalry of the rear guard near the Halfway House, from which point it fell back skir- mishing until it occupied a line of twelve redoubts previously constructed as a defensive line across the Peninsula near Williamsburg. Here it was re-enforced, and became strong enough to stop Stoneman’s advance. The Union infantry coming up was deployed for the attack, but the lateness of the hour, Hooker’s troops not being in position till 11 P. 31., and the fact that the ground was covered with woods and tangled undergrowth, led to the postponement of the attack until morning. In the early morning of the 5th the battle was begun by Hooker, whose Third Corps occupied the left of the line. His attack at first promised success, but the Confederates sending back the rest of Longstreet’s division, he was held in check, and at about noon was driven back: losing some ground which was regained when Kearny’s divi- sion came to his support at about 2 P. M. The battle in this part of the field was continued until night without gain on either side. Meanwhile, on the Union right an advance was made under Gen. WV. F. (“ Baldy”) Smith’s direction. Han- cock, commanding his own brigade and a part of I)avidson’s. pushed forward across a creek and occupied an abandoned redoubt, from which he advanced and made a vigorous at- tack u on the enemy's left, with a view to relieving Hooker from t e pressure upon him. The Confederates brought up four regiments to meet this attack. Hancock fell back to his position near the redoubt, where he had open ground in his front, and when the Confederates emerged from the woods, turned upon and repulsed them, inflicting upon them a heavy loss. The Confederate left fell back out of fire and remained in line of battle until it joined the rest of the army, when, during the night, it abandoned Williamsbi11'g and retired toward Richmond. The Union losses on May 4 and 5 were 2,283 in killed, wounded, and missing. The Con- federates report a loss of 1,560 men. See Battles and Lead- ers of the Civil War; A. S. Webb, The Peninsula; and Ofiietal Record, etc. JAMES MERCUR. Vvilliams College: an institution of learning in Will- iamstown, Berkshire co., Mass. It owes its origin and name to C01. Ephraim \Villiams, who fell in 17 55 near Lake George in the French and Indian war. On his way to the field of battle, at the city of Albany, he made his will, devoting the bulk of his property to the founding of an institution of learning, which in 1793 was chartered as \Villiams College. Rev. Ebenezer Fitch, D. D., who had been the principal of the school up to the time of its incorporation as a college, became its first president, and continued such till 1815. The catalogue published in 1795 contained seventy-seven names ; the largest number of students under President Fitch was 144. Rev. Zephaniah Swift Moore succeeded him, re- signing in 1821. Rev. Edward Dorr Griffin, D. D., fol- lowed, and held the oihce with distinguished success till 1836. \Vhat is now known as Griflin Hall was then built. and funds were raised for the library, for the aid of indigent students, and for other general purposes of the college. After Dr. Griffin came Rev. Mark Hopkins, D. D., LL. D., who after a successful presidency of thirty-six years, resigned in 1872. During this period the college grounds were greatly extended, several buildings erected. its corps of instructors enlarged, and an endowment amounting to nearly $300,000 secured. The next head of the college was Hon. Paul A. Chadbourne, LL. D., formerly president of the State Univer- sity of \Visconsin, who was succeeded by Prof. Franklin Carter, LL.D., in 1881, under whose management a large extension in endowments and buildings and equipments has taken place. At Williams College in 1806 the first foreign WILLIAMSPORT 777 missionary society formed in the U. S. originated in connec- tion with Samuel J . Mills and his associates. I-Iere, under Prof. Hopkins, was erected the first permanent astronomical observatory connected with a college in North America. Here, also, under Profs. Emmons and Hopkins, originated the first of those college scientific expeditions now so com- mon, followed in later years by others to Labrador, Green- land, Florida, South America, and Central America. The condition of the college at present is highly prosperous; its hbraries contain over 40,000 volumes; its cabinet, recitation- rooms, appliances, and apparatus are of the best order; it has eighteen professors and several instructors and assist- ants; its funds and securities amount to $850,000; a college hall has been erected where board is furnished at cost-. There are a number of scholarships, and an ample charita- ble fund. Revised by FRANKLIN CARTER. _Williams0n: town; \Vayne co., N. Y.; on Lake Onta- P10, and the Rome, VVater. and Ogdens. Railroad; 6 miles W. of Sodus, 15 miles E. by N. of Rochester (for location, see map of New York, ref. 4—E). It contains the villages of Williamson, East Williamson, and Poultneyville, and has a gram elevator, flour-mills, box-factory. mineral spring, pri- vate bank, and a weekly and a monthly periodical. Pop. (1880) 2,745 ; (1890) 2,670. Williamson, HUGH, M. D., LL. D. : physician and states- man ; b. at West Nottingham, Pa., Dec. 5, 17 35; graduated at the University of Pennsylvania 1757; studied theology and occasionally preached; was Professor of hlathematics in the University of Pennsylvania 1760-63; studied medi- cine at Edinburgh and Utrecht, where he took his degree; practiced at Philadelphia; observed the transits of Venus and of Mercury for the Philosophical Society 1769; visited the West Indies 1772 and England 1773 to procure aid for the academy at Newark, Del.; was examined before the privy council 1774 on the subject of the destruction of tea ; spent two years on the Continent 1774-76 ; engaged in mer- cantile business at Charleston, S. C., 17 77 ; subsequently settled and practiced medicine at Edenton, N. C.; was a surgeon in the Continental service 1781-82 ; was a member of the North Carolina Legislature, a delegate to the Conti- nental Congress 1782—85 and 1787-88, to the Federal consti- tutional convention 1787, and to the State convention that ratified the Constitution 1789, and a member of Congress 1790—93; removed afterward to New York. and was one of the founders of the Literary and Philosophical Society in 1814. D. in New York. May 22, 1819. He published vari- ous medical and scientific treatises, and a Hwtory of North Carolina (2 vols., 1812). Willialnsoll, RORERT Sroexrox : soldier; b. in New York in 1824; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy July, 1848. In the civil war he served as chief topographical engineer at the capture of Newberne and Fort Macon. N. C. (Mar.—Apr., 1862). gaining the brevet of lieutenant-colonel for gallantry at the siege of Fort Macon ; subsequently en- gaged in fortifying Newberne until August, when trans- ferred to the Army of the Potomac. Ordered to the Pacific coast in 1863 (in May of which year he attained a majority in the Corps of Engineers), he was for a short time chief topographical engineer of the department, and retained on the staff of the general commanding, until Dec., 1865. From Feb., 1863, he performed the duties of lighthouse en- gineer, besides having charge at times of the improvement of rivers and harbors on the Pacific coast and of surveys in California and Oregon. Promoted lieutenant-colonel Corps of Engineers Feb., 1869 : retired for physical disability June, 1882. In 1868 he published a valuable work On the Use of the Barometer on Surrey/s and Reeonno‘zTssanees (New York). D. Nov. 10, 1882. Revised by JAMES MERCUR. Williamsport: city (founded in 1827): capital of ‘Var- ren co., Ind.; on the \Vabash river, and the Wabash Rail- road; 24 miles S. VV. of Lafayette, 25 miles N. E. of Dan- ville, Ill. (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 5—B). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region; has 5 clmrches, high school, graded school, 2 State banks (combined capital, $100,000), 2 weekly papers, a building-stone quarry, large grist-mill, electric lights, and several warehouses. \Vithin a distance of 3 miles are extensive coal mines and the Indian mineral springs. Pop. (1880) 913: (1890)1,062; (1895)1.684. EnIToR or ‘" THE REVIEW.” Williams ort: town (founded in 1787); Washington co., Md. ; on the otomac river, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and the Cumberland Valley and t-he West. Md. railways; 6 - coal and grain. 778 WILLIAMSPORT miles S. VV. of Hagerstown, the county-seat, 15 miles N. N. E. of Martinsville (for location, see map of Maryland, ref. 1-C). It is in a timber region, has excellent water-power, and con- tains 6 churches, 6 schools for white children and 1 for col- ored, several flour-mills, sash and door factories, and a na- tional bank with capital of $100,000. There are 2 weekly newspapers. The city has an extensive trade in bituminous The Confederate army under Gen. Lee crossed the Potomac at this point in June, 1863, when ad- vancing to Gettysburg. Pop. (1880) 1,503; (1890) 1,277; (1895) estimated, 1,600. EDITOR or " LEADER." Williamsport: city (selected for county-seat in 1795, chartered as a city in 1866) ; capital of Lycoming co., Pa. ; on the Susquehanna river, and the Beech Creek, the Will- iamsport and North Branch, the Fall Brook, the North. Cent., the Penn., and the Phil. and Bead. railways ; 96 miles N. of Harrisburg, 202 miles N. W. of Philadelphia (for lo- cation, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 3-F). It is built on a plain along the river at the base of hills; is regularly laid out, paved with asphalt, wood, brick, and macadam, supplied with water from mountain springs piped beneath the river, and lighted with gas and electricity; and has a steam-heating plant. Local and suburban transit is pro- moted by five electric railways. The city has 3 public parks, 2 race-courses, Dickinson Seminary, City Hospital, City Mis- sion, l/Vomen’s Christian Home, Girls’ Industrial Home, Y. M. C. A. building. public library, 5 national banks, a State bank. an incorporated and a private bank, with combined capital of $1,226,000 and surplus of $970,000, and 4 daily, 8 weekly, and 4 monthly periodicals. It derives its pros- perity from its lumber manufactures and diversified indus- tries. The Susquehanna boom, which cost over $1,000,000, is located here, and catches all logs cut from the vast forests of pine and hemlock on the western branch of the river and its tributaries. There are about 30 sawmills, picket, lath, and shingle mills, sash, door, and blind factories, rub- ber-works, silkmill, sewing-machine works, iron furnace, furniture, soap, paint, glue, and carriage and wagon fac- tories, boiler-works, and manufactories of wood-working machinery. Pop. (1880) 18,934; (1890) 27,132. JAMES W. SWEELY, EDITOR or “ THE SUN.” Vvilliamstonz village; Ingham co., Mich.; on the Det., Lans. and N. Railroad; 14 miles E. by S. of Lansing, 32 miles N. by E. of Jackson (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 7-I). It is in an agricultural, coal, and fire-clay region, and has Baptist, Congregational, Methodist Episcopal, and Roman Catholic churches, two public-school buildings, a State bank with capital of $50,000, and a weekly paper. Pop. (1880) 982; (1890) 1,139. ED1ToR or “ENTERPRISE.” lvillialnstown : town (incorporated in 1765) ; Berkshire co., Mass. ; on the Hoosac and Green rivers, and the Fitch- burg Railroad; 5 miles W. of North Adams, with which it is connected by electric railway, and 42 miles E. of Troy, N. Y. (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-C). It contains the villages of Williamstown, South Williamstown, Blackington, Sweet’s Corners, and VVilliamstown Station, and has excellent water-power for manufacturing. There are a high school, 21 district schools, public library, 6 churches, 4 hotels, a national bank with capital of $50,000, and a weekly and a monthly periodical. The town is prin- cipally engaged in bleaching and the manufacture of wool- en goods ; and has the extensive freight yards of the Fitch- burg Railroad. Vililliamstown is widely noted as the seat of WILLIAMS COLLEGE (q.o.). Pop. (1880) 3,394; (1890) 4,221; (1895) 4,886. EDIToR or “ WILLIAMS WEEKLY.” Williamstown: borough; Dauphin co.. Pa. ; on the North. Cent. and the Williams Val. railways; 20 miles E. of Millersburg, about 50 miles N. E. of Harrisburg (forlocation. see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-G). It is in a mining and coal-shipping region and has 9 churches, 12 schools, 6 ho- tels, 2 public halls, 2 weekly newspapers, and hosiery-mills and coach-shops. Pop. (1880) 1.771 ; (1890) 2,324. EDIToR or “ TIMES.” “’illia.lnStoWI1: town; Orange co.,Vt.; on the Cent. Vt. Railroad; 10 miles N. W. of Chelsea, 12 miles S. of Mont- pelier (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 6—C). It has three churches, a library (founded in 1801), hotel, and man- ufactories of harness, granite monuments, lumber, shingles, and grist. Pop. (1880) 1,038; (1890) 1,188. Willibrodz See WILIBRoRD. Williman'tic: city (incorporated as a borough in 1833, chartered as a city in 1893); Windham co., Conn.; at the WILLIS junction of the Willimantic and N atchaug rivers, which here form the Shetueket, and on the Cent. Vt . the N. Y. and New Eng., and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. railways ; 16 miles N. by W. of Norwich, 32 miles E. by S. of Hartford (for loca- tion, see 1nap of Connecticut, ref. 8—J). It is picturesquely situated between the two rivers, has exceptional water-power from a fall of 91 feet in the Willimantic river within the city limits, and contains numerous manufactories III the two val- leys. The city owns improved water and sewerage systems, is the only city in the county, and is the trade center of a region having 25.000 inhabitants. There are Baptist‘, Con- gregational, Methodist Episcopal, Protestant Episcopal, Swedish Lutheran, African Methodist Episcopal Zion, Ro- man Catholic, Spiritualist, Unitarian, and Christian Believ- ers churches and missions. The educational institutions in- clude a State Normal-training School, with model schools attached (building completed in 1895, cost $125,000), Central Public High School, Natchaug graded schools, and St. J o- seph’s parochial school. There are two libraries, the Public (founded in 1864) and Dunham Hall (founded in 1878). The municipal receipts in 1894 were $67,862, expenditures $66,496; tax rates, city 10 mills, town 9 mills; the funded debt (incurred for water-works and now practically self-sus- taining) $200,000, floating debt $169,000. In 1895 there were 2 national banks with combined capital of $200,000, 2 sav- ings-banks with aggregate deposits of nearly $1,500,000, and two flourishing building and loan associations; and a daily and 2 weekly newspapers. The principal industries are the manufacture of linen thread, spools, silk, print cloths, cotton warps, hosiery, silk machinery. carriages, and paper boxes, and there are also an iron-foundry, a grain elevator, and a quarry. Pop. (1880) 6,608; (1890) 8,648; (1895) esti- mated, 9,000. ALLEN B. LINCOLN. VVillis, NATHANIEL PARKER: author; son of Nathaniel Willis, editor; b. at Portland, Me., Jan. 20, 1806 ; studied at the Boston Latin School and at Phillips Academy, Andover; graduated at Yale College 1827 : gained while an undergrad- uate a prize of $50. oiiered by the Album for the best poem, and wrote for his father’s paper, the Boston Recorder, some religious poems which are still much admired, and were re- printed by S. G. Goodrich under the title Sketches (Boston, 1827); edited for Mr. Goodrich (“ Peter Parley ”) two annuals, The Legendary (1828) and The Token (1829); founded and conducted at Boston The American Jlfonthly Jflagazine (1829-31) until it was merged in the New York llfirror (1823-42), of which he became in 1831 associate editor with George P. Morris; traveled in Europe and Asia Minor 1831-36. seeing much of the best literary society, which he described with abundance of personal details in letters to the llfirror, collected under the title Pencillings by the Way (3 vols., London, 1835, and more completely at New York, 1844); married in -England in 1835 Miss Mary Leighton Stace; wrote for numerous English magazines; returned to the U. S. 1836 ; settled on a beautiful estate on the Sus- quehanna, near Owego, N. Y., which he called “ Glen Mary”; founded, with Dr. T. A. Porter in 1839, a short- lived weekly literary paper, The Corsair; revisited Europe in 1839 ; discontinued the Jllirror Dec. 31, 1842 ; conducted, with Gen. Morris. two daily papers, The lVew Blirror (Apr. 8, 1843, to Sept. 28, 1844) and The Evening Mirror (Oct. 7, 1844, to end of 1845) ; lost his wife, and went to Europe for his health 1845-46; published numerous volumes of Euro- pean correspondence; married Miss Grinnell, of New Bed- ford. 1846. and established in 1853 a new home at “ Idle- wild,” near Newburg, on the Hudson; joined his friend Morris (Nov.,1846) in the editorship of a new weekly pa- per, the Ifome Journal, upon which he continued to be oc- cupied until his death, at ldlewild, Jan. 20, 1867. Among his numerous works were Inhlings of A(Z'ventnre (3 vols., 1836) ; Loiterings of Travel (3 vols., New York, 1840); Let- ters from anrler a Bridge (London, 1840); People I hare Jllet (1850); H‘/arry-graphs (1851); A ffealth-trip to the Trop- ics (1854) ; Famous Persons and Places (1854); The Conra- lescent, his Rambles and Aclrentnres (1859); and a volume of Poems, which appeared in many editions, some of them richly illustrated. I/Villis was for many years the. most brill- iant and popular American magazinist. His published writ- ings (of which a “complete " edition was published in one volume in 1846; Complete Poems in one volume in 1868; and Prose W'orhs in 13 volumes in 1849-59) include stories, sketches of travel, miscellaneous papers of social observation, and verses secular and religious. See Nathaniel Par/cer Willis, by Henry A. Beers (Boston, 1885). _ WILLIS Willis, THOMAS, F. R. S.: physician and author; b. at Great Bedwin, Wiltshire, England, Jan. 27, 1621; studied at Christ Church, Oxford; took the degree ‘of bachelor of medicine 1646; served in the royalist ranks during the great rebellion; practiced his profession at Oxford; became Sed- leian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the university at the Restoration; afterward settled in London; was one of the founders of the Royal Society; became physician to Charles II. 1666; and the same year removed to VVest- minster. He published several medical works, written in good Latin, of which the most important were Cerebri Anatome, cai accessit lVervornm Descriptio ct Usns (1664); Patholog-ice Ccrebri et Neroosi Generis Specimina (1667); and De Anima Bratornm (1672). HIS complete works were posthumously published in Latin (2 vols., Geneva. 1676; Am- sterdam, 1682) and in English, translated by Roger l‘Estrange (folio, 1679). D. at St. Martin’s, London, Nov. 11, 1675, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Willmar: village (founded about 1868) ; capital of Kan- diyohi co., Minn.; on Foot Lake, and the Great “North. Rail- way; 92 miles W. by N. of Minneapolis (for location, see map of Minnesota, ref. 9-C). It is in an agricultural and dairying region, and has 9 churches, 2 public-school buildings, court- house, jail, 2 State banks (combined capital, $90,000), and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,002: (1890) 1,825 ; (1895) estimated, 2,700. Emroa or “ REPUBLICAN GAZETCEE.” Willmore, JAMES TIDBITS : engraver; b. at Handsworth, Staffordshire, England, Sept. 15, 1800; became one of the most eminent of the landscape-engravers who distinguished themselves by their reproductions of the masterpieces of Turner, and was made an associate of the Royal Academy 1843. Among his prints of Turner are lllercury and Argus, The Fighting Téméraire, and Ancient Italy. He also en- graved several notable pictures by Eastlake, Landseer, Stan- field, and Creswick. D. Mar. 12, 1863. Will-0’-the-Wisp : See IGNIS FATUUS. Willoughby : village (settled under the name of Chagrin about 1794); Lake co., 0.; on the Chagrin river, and the Lake Shore and Mich. S. and the N. Y., Chi. and St. L. rail- ways; 3 miles ‘E. of Lake Eric, 18 miles N. E. of Cleveland (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 1—I). It is in a grape and fruit growing region; has five churches, high and graded schools, water-works, electric lights, a private and a branch bank, and a weekly and a quarterly periodical; and is prin- cipally engaged in the manufacture of brick and tile ma- chinery and fruit and market baskets and in shipping cl1eese, milk, and fruit. Pop. (1880) 1,001; (1890) 1,219; (1895) esti- mated, 1,500. EDITOR or “ INDEPENDENT.” Willoughby, Sir HUGH: explorer; supposed to have been born at Risby, Derbyshire, England, about 1500; acquired military experience in the continental wars; was chosen com- mander of an expedition fitted out by the Merchants Ad- venturers at the instance of Sebastian Cabot, and received from Edward VI. a “ license to discover strange countries ”: fitted out three vessels, one of them under the command of Richard Chancellor; sailed from Deptford May 10, 1553; proceeded to the Arctic regions by the coasts of Norway; but his vessel, having become separated from the others, was detained in the ice somewhere upon the northern coast of Lapland. By a journal, supposed to be his, which was re- covered from the Russians. it appeared that his company was living in J an., 1554, but when his vessel, the Bona Speranza. was discovered in the spring of 1554, all the inmates were dead. Richard Chancellor, with his vessel, the Edward Bonaventura, discovered the port of Archangel, and thus gave rise to direct commerce with Russia, which did not then extend to the Baltic. A journal of Sir Hugh’s voyage to Sept., 1553, is printed in Hakluyt, from a MS. in the hand- writing of Michael Lok. Willow [M. Eng. wilowe, eeilwe < O. Eng. 'wz'l2Tg : O. Dutch wilge > Dutch wily] : any tree or shrub of the genus SaZia;, of which there are over 160 well-recognized s ecies, besides innumerable varieties. Many of the long- caved shrubby sorts are used in basket-making, and the larger, short-leaved kinds, called sallows in Fngland, are in Europe raised in copses for hoop poles; for charcoal, to be used in gunpowder-making; for fence-poles, which when peeled and dried are very durable; for vine-props, hoe-handles, and the like. Willow-wood is also used for steamboat paddles, cricket-bats, and surgeons’ splints. It is light, tough, and stands exposure in water very well. Salicine, an active principle from willow-bark, is very useful in medi- WILLS 779 cine. The S. bahylonica, or weeping willow, has long been an emblem of grief. lt is much planted as an ornamental tree. There are about 100 species of willow in North Amer- ica. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Willow: town (laid out in 1876); capital of Glenn co., Cal.; on the South Pac. Railroad; 21 miles N. of Colusa, 151 miles N. by E. of San Francisco (for location, see map of California, ref. 5—C). It is in an agricultural and fruit- growing region; was named from a willow grove, the only one for miles around, in the center of the town; and has 5 churches, high and district schools, county court-house (erected in 1894 at a cost of $150,000), a State bank with capital of $300,000, and a daily and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 750; (1890) 1,176; (1895) 2,200. PUBLISHER OF “ JOURNAL.” Willow-apple : See GALL INSECTS. Willow Family: the Salicacere; a small group (about 200 species) of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs with alter- nate leaves, and dice- cious, apetalous flow- ers in catkins. The ovaries are free, two to four carpellary, with as many basal- parietal placentze, each with usually many ovules; seeds with a tuft of hairs on the funiculus. Upon comparison of the structure of the willow flowers with those of the TAMA- RISK FAMILY (q. /0.) their similarity may readily be seen. The principal differences are due to the reduc- tion of the willow flowers, whereby they have become dicli- nous and apetalous. The pistils, placentae, ovules, and seeds show striking simi- larities. It is inter- esting to note that / ' \ r ~ ’/ 4’ Y _ ' - I I T: T ’ A < &¥:§R{¥\\\\-_q<'1-—\€\<<-\_<,‘1.~* r W A. pistillate flower of willow: B. vertical section of pistil : C, staminate flower of - - - - willow: D section of a flower of the In both . fa’ml1.1eb tamarisk, for comparison. All mag- many living twigs njfied_ detach themselves spontaneously in the autumn; this is notably the case with the cottonwood tree (Popzzl us monilifera). The species of this family are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, but are scarcely found S. of the equa- tor, South Africa and Chili having but one each. while they are wanting in Australia. the Malayan region, and the South Pacific islands. About seventy-five species are na- tives of North America. of which nine belong to the genus Populus (the poplars. cottonwoods, etc.), the remainder be- ing true willows (Salio:). Crrxxmzs E. Bnssnv. Willow Grouse. or Ptarmigan: a gallinaceous bird the Lagojjns albas; found in the northern regions of the Old and New Worlds. See PTARMIGAN. Willow Herb: See EPILOBIUM. Willow Springs: city; Howell co., Mo.; on the Kans. City, Ft. Scott and Mem. Railroad; 21 miles N. \V. of IiVest Plains, the county-seat (for location. see map of Missouri, ref. 8-H). It is in an agricultural and fruit-growing region, and has a State bank with capital of $10,000, and two week- ly newspapers. Pop. (1880) not reported; (1890) 1,539. Wills. WILLIAM GORMAN: dramatist: b. in County Kil- kenny, Ireland, in 1830; educated at Trinity College. Dub- lin: studied art at the Royal Irish Academy; was a por- trait-painter at Dublin and in London ; author of _Notz'ee to Quit (3 vols., 1861) and The Life's Eoiclezzce (3 vols., 1863), bothrepublished in the U. S., and of several successful dramas, among which are Charles the First (187 2) ; Ezzgene Aram (1873); llfarie Stuart (1874) : Jane Shore (1876); Oltria (1878); Nell Gwynne (1878); Blarlr-eyed Susan (1880); Sedgemoor (1881); Cla/uldialn (1885); A Royal Dirorce (1891); and in conjunction with Sydney Grundy, Jtladame Pompa-dour. D. in London, Dec. 14, 1891. ‘ 78O VVILLS Wills, WILLIAM JOHN: physician and explorer; b. at Totnes, Devonshire, England, Jan. 5, 1834; educated at the Ashburton grammar school; was apprenticed to his fa- ther, Dr. \Villiam \/Vills ; pursued his medical studies also in London; emigrated to Australia Oct., 1852; was joined there in the following year by his father, with whom he practiced medicine at Ballarat; became a surveyor; was appointed assistant in the magnetic observatory at Mel- bourne Nov., 1858; joined the expedition headed by O’Hara Burke for the exploration of the interior of the continent, leaving Melbourne Aug. 20, 1860; crossed the entire conti- nent northward through the deserts, reaching the Gulf of Carpentaria in J an., 1861, but on their return both Burke and Wills died of starvation near Cooper’s creek about July 1, 1861. The journal kept by the latter was recovered and published by his father, A Successful Ea;]9l0'ratt'on from fllelbomne to the Gulf of Oao~pentm-e'ct,fr07n the Journals and Le2fzfe/rs of Ii/h'ZZzTam John I-l/‘ills (1863). Willson, DAVID BURT, M. D., D. D.: educator and editor; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 27, 1842; educated at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, J eiferson Medical College, Phila- delphia. and the Reformed Presbyterian Seminary, Alle- gheny, Pa.; was in medical servicein the U. S. army in 1862, and again in 1863—65; pastor of the Reformed Presbyterian church, Allegheny, 1870-75; and since 1875 Professor of Biblical Literature in the Reformed Presbyterian Seminary, Allegheny. Since 1874 Dr. W'illson has been an editor of the Reformed Presby2ferz'cm and Covenanter. Pittsburg, Pa. ; he edited Lymcm’s He'sz‘om'cal Chart (Philadelphia, 1867), and has published several addresses, including The Revised Bible (Pittsburg, 1881). C. K. HOYT. lVills0n, ROBERT, D. D.: bishop; b. in Lincolnshire, England. in 1795; educated at the Roman Catholic Semi- nary at Oscott; was ordained priest 1825; was stationed sev- eral years at Nottingham; was appointed by Pope Gregory XVI. Bishop of Tasmania 1842; returned to England 1847, and communicated to the Government facts proving the bar- barous treatment of convicts in Tasmania and on Norfolk island, which through his efforts was speedily remedied ; re- turned to Tasmania 1848, resigned his bishopric from ill health 1865, and returned to England. D. at Nottingham, June 30, 1866. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Will’S Point: town; Van Zandt co., Tex.; on the Tex. and Pac. Railway; 48 miles E. of Dallas (for location, see map of Texas, ref. 2—J). It is in an agricultural region; has 5 churches, a public and 2 private schools, 2 private banks, and a weekly newspaper; is an important shipping- point for cotton, cattle, and hides; and has several fiour- mills and cotton-gins. Pop. (1880) 860; (1890) 1,025; (1895) estimated, 1,800. EDITOR or “CHRONICLE.” Willughby, FRANCIS: naturalist: b. at \/Vollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire, England, in 1635; graduated at Cam- bridge about 1656; became a pupil of John Ray in natural history; resided some time at Oxford; traveled extensively on the Continent with Ray, making valuable collections for a work on natural history. D. July 3. 1672. He left many Latin MSS. upon natural history, which were translated, digested, and extended by Ray, who made them the basis of his own labors. (See RAY, JOHN.) It is claimed that Wil- lughby was the most accomplished ZOOlogist of his time, and that he was the author of the system of classification in zoology adopted by Linnaeus. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Wilnleriling : town (founded in 1889); Allegheny co., Pa. ; near the Monongahela river, and on the Penn. Railroad ; 8 miles S. E. of Pittsburg (for location, see map of Pennsyl- vania, ref. 5—A). It was laid out for a manufacturing town by the \/Vestinghouse Air-brake Company, and contains a foundry, machine-shops, and other works that employ over 3,000 men. The town site contains forty-two plots, com- prising 740 lots, on which several hundred workmen have built homes. The supply of water is from the Monongahela river, near Port Perry; every street is sewered; natural gas is used for fuel; and the Westinghouse incandescent elec- tric light is in general use. Wilmerding does its banking in Braddock. Pop. (1890) 419; (1895) estimated, 10,000. Wilmington: city, port of entry, and capital of New Castle co., Del. ; on the Delaware river at the junction of its afliuents, the Christiana and Brandywine rivers, and on the Bait. and O., the Phil., Wil. and Balt., and the Wil. and North. railways; 28 miles S. W. of Philadelphia. 70 miles N. E. of Baltimore (for location, see map of Delaware, ref. 2-H). There are three freight and passenger steamship WILMINGTON lines to Philadelphia, connecting with the principal points on the Atlantic coast. The city is built mainly on elevated ground, and extends from the,river front about 4 miles back, the most thickly settled part lying between the Chris- tiana and the Brandywine rivers. The houses are princi- pally of brick and Brandywine granite, and the streets are neatly paved, shaded well, lighted with gas and electricity, and traversed by electric cars. The city owns five parks and several squares. Among its public buildings are a new U. S. Government building, county court-house, city-hall, U. S. custom-house, public library, auditorium, and Dela- ware Historical Association hall, the latter over 100 years old. The old Swedes’ church, built of stone in 1698,is in ex- cellent preservation, and is used by Trinity Episcopal so- ciety. There are 83 churches, divided denominationally as follows: Methodist Episcopal, 31; Baptist, 13; Roman Catholic, 10; Protestant Episcopal, 10; Friends, 2; Luth- eran, 2; Presbyterian,11; Reformed Episcopal, 2; Sweden- borgian, 1; and Unitarian, 1. The educational institutions include 26 public and many parochial and private schools, a business college, and a Friends’ School. The most prominent charitable and reformatory institutions are the Ferris Reform School for Boys, and the girls industrial school. The Delaware State Hospital for the Insane is lo- cated at Farnhurst, 2 miles S., and the almshouse is near it. There are 2 savings-banks with aggregate deposits of $4,000,000, 2 trust companies with combined capital of $1,000,000, 6 national banks with combined capital and sur- plus of $1,500,000, 18 loan associations, and 5 daily, 8 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, and 3 monthly periodicals. The Brandywine within 4 miles from its month has a fall of 120 feet, and furnishes water-power for many factories, including 18 morocco-factories, 17 carriage-factories, 3 paper-mills, Du Pont’s powder-mills, 4 ship-building yards, 4 car-building works, 27 iron-works, 4 cotton-factories, 3 hard-fiber works. glass-works, 4 marine railways, phosphate-factory, 2 flour- mills, 2 hosiery-factories, terra-cotta works, dental factory, surgical-instrument factory, wire-cable mill, chemical works, Pullman palace-car works, pulp-mills, and a parlor-match factory. There are numerous brick-yards in the city. The origin of the city was the building of Fort Christina by the Swedes in 1638. The Dutch captured this fort in 1655, and changed the name to Fort Altena, and the town under direction of Gov. Beekman became Chrisiinaham. In 1731 the village of W'illingtown, named after Thomas Willing. was begun. The name was afterward changed to Wilmington. The first borough election was held Sept. 8, 1740; the first town-hall was built in 1774; and a city charter was granted in 1832. Pop. (1880) 42,478; (1890) 61,431; (1895) estimated, 76,000. T. W. l\’IULFORD. Wilmington: city (founded in 1847: \Villco.,Ill.; on the Kankakee river, and t-he Chi. and Alton Railroad ; 15 miles S. by \V. of J Oliet; 53 miles S. W. of Chicago (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 3-G). It is in an agricultural and coal-mining region, and has 5 churches, high school, 2 na- tional banks (capital, $150,000), 2 weekly papers, good water- power, and several manufactories. Pop. (1880) 1,872; (1890) 1,576; (1895) estimated, 2,000. EDITOR or “AIWOOATE.” Wilmington: city, port of entry, capital of New Han- over co., N. C : on the Cape Fear river, and the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line. the Wil. Newb. and Norf., and the Wil. Sea Coast railways; 88 miles S. W. of New- bern, 214 miles N. E. of Charleston, S. C. (for location, see map of North Carolina, ref. 5-H). It is 26 miles above the mouth of the river and 8 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, and is on a peninsula between the river and the ocean. The city is built along the river front a distance of 2 miles and extends back a mile. It is laid out in blocks of 2-} acres, with five lots to the block. The principal streets are 99 feet wide; the others 66 feet. The surface is an elevated sand ridge, fairly well drained. Among the noteworthy buildings are the city-hall, court-house, U. S. Government building, U. S. Marine Hospital, the armory of the Wilming- ton Light Infantry, First Baptist church, Fifth Street Meth- odist Episcopal church, Grace church, St. J Ohn’s Protestant Episcopal church, Y. M. C. A. and Y. M. C. U. buildings, and the public schools. The city has a chamber of commerce, a produce exchange, 3 hotels, 5 cemeteries, electric street-rail- ways, water-works, electric lights, 2 national banks with com- bined capital of $225,000, a savings and trust company with capital of $25,000, a private bank, and a monthly, 3 daily, and 5 weekly periodicals. There are 22 churches for white people and 17 for col- WILMINGTON ored; aggregate value of church property, $350,000. The educational institutions include 2 public schools for white pupils and 2 for colored, with nearly 3,000 white pupils and nearly 4,500 colored ; and 6 private and 4 parochial schools. There is also a library (founded in 1855), with over 5,000 volumes. A Bureau of Associated Charities and a Ladies’ Benevolent Society look after the needy and unfortunate, and a County Home, a County House of Correction, a Sea- men’s Friend’s Society, and the Catherine Kennedy Home for elderly women take charge of special cases. The city has a bonded debt (1895) of $782,000, and an assessed prop- erty valuation of $7,036,920. The principal business in- terests are the exportation of naval stores, cotton,lumber, and rice; truck-farming: and the manufacture of cotton goods, fertilizers, cottonseed oil, turpentine, spirits and oil from pine, saw and lumber mill products, and lampblaek. The city was settled in 1730-31 under the name of New- ton ; was incorporated under its present name in 1739; and was chartered as a city in 1866. The first newspaper was issued Sept. 1, 1764, and the first overt act of rebellion against British authority occurred in 1765, when the citi- zens refused to permit the landing of stamps brought in a man-of-war. On July 18, 1775, the militia under Col. John Ashe, who had led the anti-stamp party, captured Fort Johnson, at the mouth of the river, and forced the royal governor to flee. On the secession of North Carolina in 1861, Forts Johnson and Caswell were occupied by State troops. During the war many cargoes were run into Wil- mington through the Federal blockading fleet, nearly 300 foreign steamships making the entrance safely with cargoes in the two years 1863-64. For the principal military opera- tions in the vicinity of Wilmington during the war of 1861- 65, see FORT FISI-IER. Pop. (1880) 17,350; (1890) 20,056; (1895) estimated, 25,000. J osn. T. JAMES, EDITOR or “ DAILY REvIEw.” Wilmington: city; capital of Clinton co., O.; on the Bait. and O., and the Cin. and Musk. Valley railroads; 55 miles N. E. of Cincinnati, 60 miles S. W. of Columbus (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 7-D). It is in an agricultural region, and contains 2 national banks with combined capi- tal of $200,000, an incorporated bank with capital of $25,- 000, several mills, bridge-works, auger-bit works, gas and electric light plants, and 3 weekly newspapers. It is the seat of \Vilmington College (Orthodox Friends, coeduca- tional, organized in 1870), which in 1894 had 10 instructors, 137 students, and 2,000 volumes in its library. Pop. (1880) 2,745 ; (1890) 3,079. EDITOR or “ CLINTON R-EI>UBLIcAN.” Willllingtonz town (chartered in 1763); Windham co., Vt.; on the Deerfield river, and the I-Ioosac Tunnel and Wilm. Railroad; 20 miles S. \V. of Newfane, 96 miles S. \V. of Montpelier (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 10-B). It has Baptist, Congregational, Methodist Episcopal, and Universalist churches, public high school, 12 district schools, savings-bank, 4 hotels, several creameries, lumber-mills, ma- le-sugar works, and a weekly and 2 monthly periodicals. op. (1880) 1,130; (1890) 1,106; (1895) estimated, 1,200. EDITOR or “ DEEREIELD VALLEY TIMES.” Wilmot, DAVID: jurist; b. at Bethany, Pa., J an. 20, 1814; educated at the academies of Bethany and of Aurora (Ca- yuga co.), N. Y.; studied law, was admitted to the bar, and began practice at Wilkesbarre, Pa., 1834; soon removed to Towanda; sat in Congress as a Democrat 1845-51, and moved on Aug. 8, 1846, an amendment to a bill appro- priating §“52,000,000 for the purchase of Mexican territory, which became celebrated under the name “the Wilmot proviso”—“ That, as an express and fundamental condi- tion to the acquisition of any territory from the republic of Mexico by the U. S., . . . neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of the said territory.” This proviso was adopted by the House, but rejected by the Senate, and became the starting-point for the “Free-soil" movement of 1848. Mr. I/Vilmot was president judge of the Thirteenth District of Pennsylvannia 1853-61, was a dele- gate to the Republican national conventions of 1856 and 1860, acting as the temporary chairman of the latter: an unsuccessful candidate for Governor of Pennsylvania 1857 ; was U. S. Senator to fill a vacancy 1861-63, and was ap- pointed a judge of the U. S. court of claims by President JlllCO1ll 1863. D. at Towanda, Pa., Mar. 16, 1868. Wilmot, J OIIN : See ROCHESTER, EARL OF. Wilmot, RQEERT DUNcAN: statesman; b. in Fredericton, New Brunswick, Oct. 16, 1809; educated in St. John; en- wILsoN 781 gaged in business as a shipowner; represented St. John (city and county) in the New Brunswick Assembly 1846-61, 1865-67; was a member of the executive council of the province 1851-54, 1856-57, again in his own government in 1865, and from 1866 until 1867. He was surveyor-general of province 1851-54; provincial secretary 1856-57 ; mayor of St. John 1849; a delegate to the colonial conference in London 1866-67 ; and appointed in 1875 a commissioner on behalf of Canada to the Centennial Exposition at Philadel- phia. He became a member of the Canadian Senate in Man, 1865; a member of the privy council Nov. 8, 1878; was Speaker of the Senate from Nov. 8, 1878, to Feb. 1, 1880; and lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick from the latter date until Oct. 31, 1885. NEIL MACDONALD. Wilmot Proviso: See WILIIOT, DAVID. Wilna: See VILNA. Wilson: town; capital of Wilson co., N. C.; on the At- lantic Coast Line of railways; 44 miles E. of Raleigh, 108 miles N. of Wilmington (for location, see map of North Carolina, ref. 3-H). It is in an agricultural and a cotton and tobacco growing region ; contains a collegiate seminary for young ladies, an academy, a graded school for colored pupils, a national bank with capital of $51,000, a State bank with capital of $50,000, improved water-works, and an elec- tric-light plant; and has a semi-monthly and two weekly periodicals, several cotton-mills, large carriage-factory, plow- works, machine-shops, planning-mills, harness-factory, and a sash, door, and blind factory. Over 5,000,000 lb. of tobacco are handled here annually. Pop. (1880) 1,475: (1890) 2,126 ; (1895) estimated, 4,000. MANAGER OF "ADvANcE.” Wilson, ALEXANDER: ornithologist; b. at Paisley, Scot- land, July 6, 1766; was trained as a weaver; engaged in peddling; published a volume of poems in 1790 (2d ed. 1791); was sentenced in 1793 for a lampoon, after which event he emigrated, and landed at New Castle, Del., July 14, 1794. He worked for some time as a weaver, and then as a peddler; taught school in various places—-in 1802 at Kingsessing on the Schuylkill—and was afterward em- ployed in Philadelphia as editor of the American edition of Rees's Cyclopcedia. During his wanderings as a peddler he always took a great interest iII observing the life of birds; and this interest was further developed during his residence at Kingsessing by his acquaintance with Will- iam Bartram. He determined to write an American orni- thology. At his death, in Philadelphia, Aug. 23, 1813. seven volumes of this work had been published; the eighth and ninth were edited after his death by George Ord, and a continuation was given by Charles Lucien Bonaparte (Philadelphia, 4 vols., 1825-33). His poems were published at Paisley in 1816, and at Belfast in 1857, and his statue was raised at Paisley in 1874. See C. Lucy Brightwell, Dzfiiculties Orelrcome, Scenes in the Life of Alexander l'Vi'Zs0n, the OrmI2‘7z0[0gz'st (London, 1860); Allan Park Paton, Aleasanoler lWZ.s0n the Orm'z‘hologz'sz‘, a Nezu Chapter of his Life (1863); and a volume of verse. prose sketches, notes, etc., published by Alexander B. Grosart, Paisley, 187 4. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Wilson, ALLEN B.: inventor in 1849 of the first sewing- machine by which an endless seam could be sewed capable of being turned upon any curve or at any angle at the pleasure of the operator while the seam was being formed. He was born i11 Central New York in 1827. and learned the trade of a cabinet-maker. In 1850 he also invented the ro- tary hook and stationary bobbin of the YVheeler & Wilson sewing-machine, by which was obtained a double-thread machine of the greatest speed, with the least expenditure of power and waste of thread, with the smallest wear of parts, adapted to a range of practical articles and fabrics from the lightest want of a family to the heaviest necessity of stitch manufacture. D. Apr. 29, 1888. See the article SEWING-MACHINES. Wilson, Sir ARCIIDALE: soldier; b. at Didlington, For- folk, England, in 1803; entered the military service of the East India Company 1819 as an oificer of artillery; was dis- tinguished at the siege of Bhurtpore 1825-26; participated in the Sikh war 1848-49; became colonel 1854; was briga- dier-general of artillery at Meerut at the outbreak of the Sepoy rebellion May, 1857; was the first British officer to encounter the mutineers in the field, defeating them May 30-31 ; effected a junction with the Delhi field force under Sir Henry Barnard; succeeded to the command of that force on the death of Barnard in July; maintained his position 782 before Delhi until Sept. 14, when the city was stormed and taken after six days’ hard fighting in the streets, for which _ service he was made a baronet; received the thanks of both houses of Parliament and a pension of £1,000 from the East India Company; was promoted major-general Sept., 1857, and lieutenant-governor Mar., 1858, and took part as com- mander of the Royal Horse Artillery in the siege and cap- ture of Lucknow, 1858, for which he was again thanked by Parliament. D. in London, May 9, 1874. Wilson, AUGUSTA (Evans) : See EVANS. Wilson, Sir CHARLES RIVERS: financier; b. in London, Feb. 19, 1831 ; was educated at Eton and at Baliol College, Oxford ; was appointed clerk in the Treasury in 1856; wasa private secretary of Mr. Disraeli 1867-68, and of Mr. Lowe 1868-73, when they held the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer ; and he became controller of the National Debt Office in 1873. In 1876 he was appointed one of the British administrators of the Suez Canal, and in 1878 was appointed vice—president of the international commission of inquiry into the financial condition of Egypt. On the presentation of their report he was made finance minister to the khedive. and in 1880 was appointed by the new khedive, Tewfik Pasha, president of the international commission of liqui- dation. In 1881 and 1885 he took part in international negotiations in Paris; in 1892 was one of the delegates at the monetary conference in Brussels; and in 1895 he became president of the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada. In 1880 he received the Turkisl1 order of the Medjidieh, and was made a G. C. M. G. in 1895.’ Wilson, Sir DANIEL, LL. D., F. R. S. E.; educator and author; b. in Edinburgh, Scotland, J an. 5, 1816; educated at Edinburgh University, and engaged in literary pursuits. He was appointed Professor of History and English Litera- ture in University College, Toronto, in 1853; became presi- dent of that institution in 1881; was elected president of the Canadian Institute in 1860; president of the Royal So- ciety of Canada in 1885. and was knighted in 1888. He published the following works: Memorials of Edinburgh in Olden Times (1847); The Archceology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland (1851); Prehistoric .Man: Researches into the Origin of Civilization in the Old and the New lVorld (1862); Ohatterton, a Biographical Study (1869); Caliban, or the flfissing Link (1873) ; Spring lVild Flowers (1875); Reminiseences of Old Edinburgh (1878); Anthro- pology (1885); and William Nelson, a Jllernorial (1890). D. in Toronto, Aug. 7, 1892. NEIL MACDQNALD. Wilson, FLORENCE, known only by the Latinized form of his name as FLORENTIUS VOLUSENUS1 scholar and thee- logian; lo. near Elgin, Morayshire, Scotland, about 1500; educated at the Universities of Aberdeen and Paris; became a member of the households of Cardinals Du Bellay and Sadolet, master of the Latin and Greek school at Carpen- tras; author of Oozmnentatio qucedam Theologica quoe cadem Precatio est in Aphorismos dissecta (Lyons, 1539); De Ani- rni Tranquillitate (1543; several times reprinted at Edin- burgh, the best edition being that of Thomas Ruddiman, 1707); and Poe/nata (London, 1619). D. at Vienna in 1547. His death was commemorated by George Buchanan in sonorous Latin verses, and a Life was written by Dr. Let- tice. Revised by J . J . KEANE. Wilson, HENRY: statesman; b. at Farmington, N. H., Feb. 16, 1812 ; was apprenticed at the age of ten to a neigh- boring farmcr, remaining in his service for eleven years, after which he took up his residence in Natick, Mass. In 1836 he visited Washington, where his first sight of slavery and the domestic slave-trade produced an impression so profound on his mind that he made a solemn resolve to devote his life to the cause of emancipation. In 1840 he was elected a member of the lower branch of the State Legislature: in 1844 and 1845 he was a member of the State Senate; in 1848 was a member of the national con- vention of the \Vhig party. In this body, on the nomi- nation of Gen. Taylor on a platform unplcdged against slavery extension, he openly renounced his connection with the VVhig party, and gave his support to the Free-Soil or- ganization. In 1850 he was again elected to the State Senate, and was made president of that body. He failed of an election as Governor of the State in 1853, but two years afterward he was chosen a Senator of the U. S. in the place of Edward Everett, resigned. During the civil war his name is associated with much important legislation, and he did especially good work as chairman of the committee WILSON on military affairs. In 1872 he was elected Vice-President of the U. S. In the last years of his life he prepared his great literary work, The Rise and Fall of the Slave Power. two volumes of which were published before his death, the third and last being left nearly completed in manuscript. He died in Washington, Nov. 22, 1875. Wilson, HENRY Bmsrowz clergyman and educator; b. in London, England, in 1803; educated at Merchant Tay- lors’ School, of which his father, Rev. Harry B. Wilson, D. D. (1774-1853), was a master and the historian; studied at St. J ohn’s College, Oxford; graduated with high clas- sical honors 1825 ; became a fellow and tutor at St. J ohn’s; took orders in the Cl1urch of England ; was one of the four resident tutors at Oxford who in 1841 issued a joint protest and remonstrance to the editor of Tracts for the Times on account of their Romanizing interpretation of the XXXIX. Articles; was successively a select preacher, public exam- iner, Professor of Anglo-Saxon, and Bampton lecturer (1850) at Oxford; became vicar of Great Staughton, Hunt- ingdonshire, 1851, and was one of the seven clergymen of the Church of England who in 1860 published the famous volume of Essays and Reviews, to which his contribution was an essay on The National Church; was tried for heresy before the court of arches, and sentenced to a year’s suspen- sion from his benefice 1862, but obtained a reversal on ap- peal to the privy council; was author of The Communion of Saints, an Attempt to lllustrate the Principles of Church Union (1851, the Bampton lecture); contributed to Oxford Essays, and published sermons and pamphlets on univer- sity and theological questions. D. at Lee, Kent, Aug. 10, 1888. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wilson, HORACE HAYMAN. F. R. S. : Orientalist; b. in Lon- don, England, Sept. 26, 1786; studied medicine; went to India in 1808 as assistant surgeon in the Bengal service of the East India Company; gave his attention to chemistry: obtained an appointment in the Calcutta mint as assistant to Dr. Leydcn, the noted Orientalist; became assay—master and secretary; applied himself with great diligence to the study of Sanskrit literature; was appointed secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal on the death of Dr. William Hun- ter 1811; became secretary to the public instruction com- mittee at Calcutta, and director of studies of the Hindu college at Benares 1819; returned to England in 1832 as Boden Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford University; was ap- pointed librarian at the East India House on the death of Sir Charles Wilkins 1836, and retained both oflices until his death, in London, May 8, 1860. Among his numerous works were a Sanskrit and English Dictionary (Calcutta, 1819; 2d ed., enlarged, London, 1832); a Sanskrit Grammar (1841 ; 2d ed. Oxford, 1847); A History of British India from 1805 to 1835 (3 vols., 1844-48); Ariana Antigua, a Descrip- tive Account of the Antiquities and Coins of Afghanistan (1841); A Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus (Cal- cutta, 1846); A Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms, etc., in Arabic, Persian, I-Iindustani, Sanskrit, Bengali, Uriya, Jlfarthi, Guzurathi, Telugu, Karnata, Tamil, Ala- layalam, and other Languages (1855); and many transla- tions in verse or prose of classical works from the Sanskrit, including The Jliegha-Diita, or Cloud Jtiessenger (1813; new ed., with vocabulary, 1869) ; Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus (Calcutta, 3 vols., 1827 ; 2d ed., 2 vols., 1835); the Vishnu Purdna (1840; new ed., 6 vols., 1867-70); and The Rig- Veda Sanhita (3 vols., 1850-57), comprising about one-half of the hymns of that collection. His collected works were published under the editorship of Rest and Fitz- edward Hall (13 vols., 1861-67). Wilson, JAMES: signer of the Declaration of Independ- ence; b. near St. Andrews, Scotland, in 1742; educated at the Universities of Glasgow, St. Andrews, and Edinburgh ; emigrated to Pennsylvania 1766 ; was a tutor in the College and Academy of Philadelphia; studied law ; was admitted to the bar 1768 ; practiced at Reading, Carlisle, and Annapolis, Md. ; was a member of the Pennsylvania provincial conven- tion 1774, and of the Continental Congress 1775-77, and again 1782-83 and 1785-87; signed the Declaration of Inde- pendence, and wrote several pamphlets on political ques- tions; was commissioned a colonel at the outbreak of the Revolutionary war, but did not serve in the field ; settled at Philadelphia 1778; was advocate-general for the French Government in the U. S. 1779-83; was a member of the committee which drafted the Federal Constitution 1787, of the Pennsylvania convention which ratified it, and of the convention which amended the State constitution of Penn- WILSON sylvania in 1790; was appointed in Sept., 1789, one_of the first judges of the U. S. Supreme Court, and became 1n 1790 the first Professor of Law in the College of Philadelphia. He published Address to the Citizens of Philadelphia (1784). D. at Edenton, N. C., Aug. 28,1798. His Wor/as (3 vols., 1803-04), consisting chiefly of legal lectures, speeches, and orations, were edited by his son, Bird Wilson. Wilson, JAMES: naturalist; brother of Prof. John Wil- son (1785-1854); b. at Paisley, Scotland, in 1795; studied but never practiced law; traveled on the Continent in 1816, 1819, and 1820-21; settled at Woodville, near Edinburgh, 1824, and died there May 18, 1856. He was the author of Illustrations of Zo'o'logy (9 parts, 1826-32); A Treatise on Insects (1835); The Natural History of Quadrupeds and Whales (1838); The Natural History of Fishes (1838); The Natural History of Birds (1839); A Voy- age round the Coasts of Scotland and the Isles (2 vols., 1842); and Illustrations of Scripture, by an Animal Paint- er; aided Hugh Murray in his works on Africa, North America, and India, and Patrick Fraser Tytler in his Prog- ress of Discovery on the 1Vorthern Coasts of America (1832); was joint author with James Duncan of Entomo- logia Edinensis (1834); contributed largely to Blaclcwood and the quarterly reviews, and wrote the articles on natural history in the 7th and 8th eds. of the Encyclopazdia Bri- tannica. His 1lr[emoirs (1859) were written by James Hamil- ton, D. D Revised by F. A. Luoas. Wilson, Sir JAMES ERASMUS, F. R.S.: dermatologist; b. at Aberdeen, Scotland, Apr. 28, 1809; studied medicine; became lecturer on anatomy and physiology at the Mid- dlesex Hospital Medical School, consulting surgeon to St. J oh.n’s Hospital, London ; a fellow by election of the Royal College of Surgeons 1843; a member of its council 1870, and its president in 1881 ; gave special attention to diseases of the skin, in which branch he was the leading English authority; founded in 1869 in the College of Surgeons a museum and a professorship of dermatology, and was chosen the first occupant of that chair. He was the author of Practical and Surgical Anatomy (1838); The Anato- mist’s Vade Jlfecum, a System of Human Anatomy (1842) ; Diseases of the Shin (1842) ; Healthy Shin (1845) ; History of the Ilfiddlesea; !Iospital (1845); Ringworm, its Causes, Pathology, and Treatment (1847): On Syphilis, Constitu- tional and Hereditary (1852); The Eastern or Turkish Bath (1861); On Food as a 1lIeans of Prevention of Disease (1865); and edited the Quarterly Journal of Cutaneous Medicine. He spent large sums of money in charity, and for his benefactions was knighted in 1881. Most of his works have been reprinted, and have had a large circulation in the U. S. D. at Westgate-on-the-Sea, Aug. 7, 1884. Revised by S. '1‘. Anvsrnone. Wilson, JAMES F.: U. S. Senator; b. at Newark, 0., Oct. 19, 1828; received a good education, and studied law; settled at Fairfield, Ia., 1853; was elected to the convention for revising the State constitution 1856; sat in both houses of the Legislature; became a member of the State Senate 1859 ; was president of that body 1861 ; was a member of Congress 1861-69, serving as chairman of the judiciary committee and as one of the managers of the impeachment of President Johnson, and in 1869 was appointed a commissioner for the Pacific Railroad; was elected U. S. Senator (Iowa) for 1883- 89; re-elected for 1889-95. D. at Fairfield, Ia.. Apr. 1895. Wilson, Gen. JAMES GRANT, D. C. L., LL. D. : author; b. in Edinburgh, Scotland, Apr. 28, 1832; was taken to the U. S. in infancy by his father, William Wilson, poet (1801-60); served through the civil war in the southwest under Gens. Grant and Banks, attaining the rank of brigadier-general. Prior to 1861 he had been engaged in the publishing business with his father in Poughkeepsie, N. Y.; settled in New York city at the close of the war. Since 1884 he has been president of the New York Genealogical and Biographical Society, and for three years also president of the American Authors’ Guild, of which he was one of the founders. Gen. Wilson was instrumental in erecting the statues of Fitz- Greene Halleck (1877) and Columbus (1894) in the Central Park. Author or editor of Illinois Ofiieers in the Rebellion (1863); Life of (ten. Grant (1868; 3d ed. 1885); ilfr. Secre- tary Pepys and his Diary (1869); Life and Letters of Fitz- Greene 1-Iallecls (1869); Sketches of Illustrious Soldiers (1874) ; Poets and Poetry of Scotland, from the Earliest to the Present Tzhne (2 vols., London and New York. 1876); Continued History of the Diocese of New York, 1785-1885 (1886); Bryant and his Friends; Reminiscences of the \ 783 Kniclterliocleer VVriters (1886) ; Appletons’ Cyclopcedia of American Biography (6 vols., 1886-89); Personal Recollec- tions of the Rebellion (1891) ; The VVorld’s Largest Libraries (New York, 1894) ; hfemorial History of the City of lVew York (4 vols., 1892-93); and Great Commanders’ Series (16 vols., 1892-96). Wilson, JAMES HARRISON: soldier; b. near Shawneetown, Ill., Sept. 2, 1837; educated at McKendree College and at West Point, where he graduated 1860; became first lieu- tenant of topographical engineers Sept. 9, 1861, and captain May 7,1863; served in the Port Royal expedition and at the capture of Fort Pulaski, Ga., for which he was breveted major Apr. 11, 1862; was aide-de-camp to Gen. McClellan at South Mountain and Antietam ; became staff lieutenant- colonel of volunteers Nov. 8, 1862; was assistant engineer and inspector-general of the Army of the Tennessee in the campaign against Vicksburg, and in the operations about Chattanooga and Knoxville; was made brigadier-general of volunteers Oct. 31; breveted lieutenant-colonel U. S. army Nov. 24, 1863, for gallantry at Chattanooga; commanded the 3d cavalry division of the army of the Potomac May to Aug., 1864; was breveted colonel May 5 for the battle of the Wilderness; took part in the ensuing battles of that campaign up to and during the siege of Petersburg, and in the Shenandoah valley Aug. and Sept., 1864; commanded the cavalry of the division of the Mississippi from Oct., 1864, to July, 1865; took part in Gen. Thomas’s campaign in Tennessee, distinguishing himself at the battles of Frank- lin and Nashville. and in a cavalry raid into Alabama and Georgia Mar. and Apr., 1865; was breveted brigadier and major-general U. S. army Mar. 13, 1865, for the battle of Nashville and the capture of Selma, Ala., respectively; took Montgomery, Columbus, and Macon; was made major-gen- eral of volunteers Apr. 20, 1865; captured Jefferson Davis May 10, 1865; mustered out of volunteer service July 8, 1866; became lieutenant-colonel of '1‘hirty-fifth Infantry July 28. 1866; resigned Dec. 31, 1870; vice-president St. Louis and Southeastern (now Louisville and Nashville) Railroad 1870- 76: U. S. civil engineer on improvement of Illinois river, etc., 1871-76; and vice-president N. Y. and N. E. Railroad 1878- 80, and its president 1880-83. He is the author of Life of Gen. U. S. Grant (1868); Life of Andrew J. Alea:ander (1887); China: Trarels and Inrestigations in the Illiddle Kingdom (1887 ; new ed. 1894), besides numerous scientific and literary articles. Revised by J AMES I\IERCUR. Wilson, JOHN: clergyman; b. at Windsor, England, in 1588; educated at Eton School 1598-1602; entered King‘s College, Cambridge, 1602; graduated about 1606: obtained a fellowship; studied law three years at one of the inns of court; took orders in the Church of England; became conspicuous for his Puritanical leanings; took part in the project of the colonization of l\Iassac-husetts: emigrated with VVinthrop’s colony 1630; landed at Salem June 12; re- moved soon afterward to Charlestown, where he preached under a tree, and instituted (July 30) what was afterward the first church of Boston, consisting of himself. Gov. Winthrop, Isaac Johnson, and Deputy-Gov. Thomas Dud- ley: was ordained "teacher" of that church Aug. 27 by imposition of hands of the members thereof; was ordained pastor of the church Nov. 22, 1632; visited England in 1631 and again in 1634, returning with his wife Oct. 3, 1635, along with the celebrated Hugh Peters; took a promi- nent part in the Antinomian controversy as the chief ally of Gov. Winthrop against the party headed by W’heel- wright and Mrs. Hutchinson; was chaplain to the Massa- chusetts forces sent to Connecticut against the Pequots 1636, for which service he afterward received a grant of 1,000 acres of land in the present town of Quincy; ac- companied the “ apostle" John Eliot on his visit to the Indian settlements, and labored for their interests; was noted for benevolence, hospitality, and readiness in impro- vising verses, being esteemed by Cotton Mather “ the greatest anagrammatist since the days of Adam.” D. at Boston, Aug. 7, 1667. Biographies were written by Mather in his Jlfagnalia (1702) and by Rev. Dr. A. W”. McClure in the Lives of the Chief Fathers of New England (6 vols., 1746, seq.). He published in England a theological treatise, Some Helps to Faith (1625) ; a poem, Famous Delireranees of the English Nation (1626; new ed. Boston. 1680): a Latin poem to the memory of John Harvard; and a tract. The Day Breal;ing. if not the Sun Ii"ising. of the Gospel with the Indians in lVew England (1647; new ed. New York, 1865), besides many other occasional productions. 784 Wilson, J01-IN, more generally known by his pseudonym CHRISTOPHER Nears: author and educator; b. at Paisley, Scotland, May 18, 1785; son of a wealthy manufacturer; studied at the University of Glasgow and at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize for Eng- lisl1 poetry by a poem on The Study of Greek and Roman Architecture, and graduated in 1807. In 1808 he bought the estate of Elleray, on Lake Windermere, in Westmoreland, where he lived in intimate intercourse with Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, and ublished in 1812 the poem The Isle of Palms. In 1815 e sold Elleray, removed to Edinburgh, and was admitted to the bar; published in 1816 the dramatic poem, The City of the Plague; became one of the chief contributors to Blaehwood’s Illagazine, founded in 1817; and was appointed Professor of Morals in 1820 at the University of Edinburgh, in preference to Sir William Hamilton. In 1822 he published Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life; in 1823, The Trials of Ikfargaret Lindsay; in 1825, The Foresters; in 1841, Essay on the Genius and Character of Burns; but his most popular productions were his contributions to Blachwood’s Jlfagazine under the pseudonym of “Christopher North ”: Noctes Ambrosiance, imaginary dialogues, at Ambrose’s tavern in Edinburgh, between the leading contributors to Blachwood (1822-35); Dies Boreales, or Christopher nnder Canvas (1849-52), etc. In 1851 he resigned his chair at the university. D. in Edin- burgh, Apr. 3, 1854. A collected edition of his works was published in 12 vols. by his son-in-law, Prof. Eerrier; his Life was written by his daughter, Mrs. Gordon (2 vols., 1862) ; and a bronze statue of him has been raised in Edi11- burgh. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wilson, JOHN, D. D.: missionary; b. near Lauder, Scot- land, Dec. 11, 1804; educated in Edinburgh, and from 1828 till his death there Dec. 1, 1875. missionary at Bombay, after 1843 in the Free Church. He was one of the most learned and influential of missionaries. Author of An Eac- posure of the Hindu Religion (Bombay, 1832); A Second Erposare (1834); The Doctrine of Jehovah. addressed to the Parsis (1839; 3d ed. Edinburgh. 1847); The Parsi Religion (1843); The Lands of the Bible Visited and Described (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1847) ; The Evangelization of India (1849) ; and The History of the Suppression of Infanticide in West- ern India (Bombay, 1855). See his Life, by George Smith (London. 1878).—I-lis son, ANDREW, b. in Bombay, 1831, was employed by the East India Company; visited China; trav- eled in Western Tibet; was author of The Ever- Victorious Army, a narrative of the suppression of the Tai-ping rebell- ion in China (Edinburgh, 1878), and of The Abode of Snow (1885; 2d ed. 1876), an account of his travels in the Hima- layas. D. June 8, 1881. Revised by S. M. Jacnson. Wilson, Jornv LEIGHTON, D. D.: missionary; b. on a plantation at Salem, Sumter co., S. C., Mar. 25, 1809; edu- cated at Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., 1829, and at the Presbyterian Theological Seminary, Columbia, S. C., 1833; sailed for Africa as missionary of the American board at Cape Palmas, West Africa, 1834; in 1842 he was trans- ferred to the Gaboon, where he started_a mission. In both places he reduced the language to writing, and pre- pared grammars and dictionaries, set up printing-presses, and taught the natives to read. He also paid attention to natural history, and is said to have discovered and named the gorilla in 1846. In 1852 he returned home; was a sec- retary of the Presbyterian board of foreign missions from 1853 to 1861. On the outbreak of the civil war he left for the South, and entered at once into the service of the South- ern Presbyterian Church, and combined the functions of secretary of both home and foreign missions until 1872, and he held the latter olfice till his death at Salem, S. C., July 13, 1886. He was the author of Western Africa: its I-Iis- tory, Condition, and Prospects (New York, 1857). See his Life, by H. C. Du Bose (Richmond, Va., 1895). SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON. Wilson, J01-IN IHACKAYI author; b. at Tweedmouth, Scot- land, in 1804; was for some years editor of the Berwick Ad- vertiser. He was the editor and principal author of an important work, of which 150,000 copies have been sold—- Tales of the Borders, Historical, Traditionary, and Imag- inative (6 vols., 1.835-40), intended as a companion to the Waverley 1Vovels. The last edition, revised and enlarged by Alexander Leighton, appeared in 24 vols. (Edinburgh, 1869). D. at Berwick-on-Tweed, Oct. 2, 1835. Wilson, Sir Ronnnr THOMAS: soldier; b. in Bloomsbury, London, England, in 1777; educated at Westminster and WILSON Winchester schools; took part as a volunteer in the cam- paign in Flanders 1793-94; was on the staff in Ireland dur- ing the rebellion of 1798; served in Holland 1799, in Egypt under Abercromby 1800; accompanied Sir D. Baird to Brazil and the Cape of Good Hope 1805; went with Lord Hutchinson on a secret mission to the allied armies on the Russian frontier 1806-07 ; served in Portugal and Spain 1808-10, in command of the Lusitanian Legion, and after- ward of a Spanish brigade; was British military commis- sioner at the Russian headquarters in 1812, and at the camp of the allies in the subsequent campaigns in Germany and France; reeeived decorations from the allied emperors; aided in effecting the escape of Count Lavalette at Paris, J an., 1815 ; incurred the displeasure of the prince regent by espousing the cause of Queen Caroline; was in consequence dismissed from the army 1821, but was indemnified by a public subscription, and a few years later was restored to his rank; sat in Parliament as a Liberal 1818-31 ; attained the full rank of general 1841, and was governor of Gibraltar 1842-49. D. in London, May 9, 1849. He was the author of A History of the British Ervpedition to Egypt (1802), etc. Since his death have appeared his Narrative of Events during the Invasion of Russia by Napoleon Bona- parte and the Retreat of the French Army (1860), and his Private Diary of Travels, Personal Services, and Public Events during Missions and Employment with the Euro- pean Armies in the Campaigns of 1812-13-14, from the In- vasion of Rnssia to the Capture of Paris (2 vols., 1861, both edited by his nephew and son-in-law, Rev. Herbert Ran- dolph, who also published a Life (2 vols., 1863). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wilson, THEODORE DELAVAN: naval constructor; b. in Brooklyn, N. Y., May 11, 1840 ; served apprenticeship as shipwright at the navy-yard, Brooklyn; appointed a car- penter in the navy 1861 ; served about two years afloat; was in the fight with the Merrimack in Hampton Roads; or- dered to duty as an inspector of the building and repairing of vessels in private establishments in New York and vicin- ity in 1863; appointed an, assistant naval constructor May 17, 1866; served in the navy-yards at Pensacola, Philadel- phia, and Washington: was four years instructor in naval architecture and ship-building at the U. S. Naval Academy: promoted to be naval constructor July 1,1873; appointed member of the first naval advisory board to report upon the number and classes of vessels that should be constructed for the naval service (1881); chief constructor of the navy 1882; resigned in 1893. He is an honorary member of the Institute of Naval Architects of England, and first vice- president of the U. S. Society of Naval Architects and Ma- rine Engineers. He is the author of Ship-building, Theo- retical and Practical (New York, 1873), used as a text-book at the Naval Academy. Wilson, Sir THOMAS: scholar; b. at Stroby, Lincolnshire, England, about 1524; educated at Eton under the cele- brated Udal; was sent on an Eton scholarship to King’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1546; took or- ders in the Church of England ; became tutor to Henry and Charles Brandon, sons of the Duke of Suffolk by Mary, the ex-Queen of France, both of whom, however, soon died; wrote the biographies of his pupils in a rare Latin volume, Vita et obitns dnornm fratrnm Svfiolcierisiitni Henriei et Caroli Brandoni (London, 1551); published The Rule of Reason, coriteining the Arte of Logigne set forth in Eng- lishe (1551; 9th ed. 1580); and The Arte of Rhetorigne (1553 ; 9th ed. 1585), said to be the first critical treatises on logic and rhetoric in English, and incidentally to give the author a title to rank as the founder of English philology, the latter work having been referred to by Shakespeare, and having exerted a powerful influence to purify the English language from foreign idioms. He withdrew to the Conti- nent on the accession of Mary 1553; took the degree of LL. D. at the University of Ferrara; was imprisoned by the Inquisition at Rome on charges said to have been based on his published works; was put to the torture; obtained his liberty at the death of Pope Paul IV. 1555, when the popu- lace broke open the prison of the Inquisition; returned to England soon after the accession of Elizabeth, to whom he became private secretary 1558, acting also as her instructor in various branches of learning; was made master of re- quests and master of St. Catherine’s Hospital, near the Tower; published a translation of The Three Orations of Demos- thenes. Chief Crater among the Grecians, in Favor of the Olynthians, with those his fower Orations against King WILSON Philip of Macedonie (1570; 2d ed. 1572), which greatly pleased Queen Elizabeth by the obvious analogies 1t sug- gested between Philip of Macedon and Philip II. of Spam: issued A Discou/rse upon Usurie by way of Dialogue and Oracions (1572; 3d ed. 1584); went as ambassador to the Netherlands 1576; succeeded Sir Thomas Smith as Secre- tary of State and colleague of Sir Francis Walsingham 1577, and became dean of Durham 1579. D. in London, June 16, 1581. See Strype’s Annals. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Wilsoll, THOMAS, D. D., LL. D.: bishop; b. at Burton, Cheshire, England, Sept. 20, 1663; educated at Trinity Col- lege, Dublin; took orders in the Church of England; be- came curate of Newchurch Kenyon, Lancashire, 1686; do- mestic chaplain to the Earl of Derby 1692; traveled on the Continent with that nobleman’s son, Lord Strange, 1694- 97; and was Bishop of Sodor and Man fifty-seven years, from Jan. 16, 1698, until his death on the island, Mar. 7, 1755. He was “held in the most exalted reputation for apostolic piety and unquenchable zeal in good works,” and is even yet prominent in the writings of Matthew Arnold, Ruskin, and their followers as an exemplar of their doctrine of “sweetness and light.” He was the author of The Prin- ciples amcl Duties of Christianity (1699), in English and Manx (being the first book printed in the language of the Isle of Man); A short and plain Instruction for the better understanding of the Lord’s Supper (1736 ; very many later editions); The Knowledge and Practice of Christianity made easy to the Jlleanest Capacities, or an Essay toward an Instruction for the Indians (1740; 20th ed. 1848) ; Sacra Privata (1800; very numerous later editions); several vol- umes of Sermons and other treatises. His lVorles (Bath, 2 vols., 1781) were edited with a Life by Rev. C. Crutwell, and again with Life by John Keble (7 vols., Oxford, 1847- 63). Revised by S. M. J AGKSON. Wilson, WILLIAM: poet; b. in Perthshire, Scotland, Dec. 25, 1801; was editor of the Dundee Review (1821-23) and of the Literary Olio (1824), for which he wrote many poems ; resided afterward in Edinburgh as a writer for the press ; was intimate with the brothers Chambers; removed to the U. S. 1833; established himself as a bookseller and pub- lisher at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1834; wrote under the signa- tures of Allan Grant and Alpin for Blachwood’s l'[aga2ine, Chamhers’s Journal, the Ifniclcerbocher, the Albion, and other Scottish and American periodicals; associated with him his son, James Grant \Vilson, in 1856, the firm having previously been Potter and Wilson; edited the Scottish Songs, Ballads, and Poems of Hew Ainslie (New York, 1855), and several other volumes. D. in Poughkeepsie, Aug. 25, 1860. A volume of his Poems was edited by Benson J . Lossing (1870; revised and enlarged editions 1875, 1884). Wilson, WILLIAM DEXTER, D. D., LL. D., L. H. D.: cler- gyman and educator; b. at Stoddard, N. H., Feb. 28. 1816; educated at the VValpole (N. H.) Academy and Harvard University; in 1842 was ordained in the Protestant Episco- pal Church; in 1850 became Professor of History and Moral and Intellectual Philosophy in Geneva College (now He- bart), and became Professor of Intellectual and Moral Phi- losophy in Cornell University at its opening. In 1886 he was retired as emeritus professor and became deacon of St. Andrew’s Divinity School, Syracuse, N. Y. His principal works are Lectures on Psychology, Comparative and Hu- man (1871); Introduction to the Study of I/lfetaphysics and Intellectual Philosophy (1872); Live Questions in Psychol- ogy and _7VIetaphysics (1877); and The Foundations of Re- ligious Belief (1883). J . M. B. Wilson, WILLIAM LYNE: lawyer; 'b. at Middleway, Jef- ferson co., W. V a., May 3,1843; graduated at Columbian College (now University), I/Vashington, in 1860; entered the University of Virginia in 1861. which he left to join the Confederate army; became Professor of Ancient Languages at Columbian College and began studying law at the close of the war; was also Professor of Latin Language and Literature in 1867-71, and studied political economy and politics; and resigned to practice law. In 1882 he was president of the State Senate; was elected to Congress in the same year; and in the latter body he served continuously till 1894, when he was defeated by his Republican opponent. As chairman of the committee on ways and means he pre- pared the Tariff Bill of 1894, which bore his name, and he vigorously supported it in the House, but did not approve of the Senate amendments. In Apr., 1895, President Cleve- land appointed him Postmaster-General in place of Wilson S. Bissell, resigned. WIMBLEDON 785 Wilson, Woonnow, Ph. D., LL. D.: educator and au- thor; b. at Staunton, Va., Dec. 28, 1856; was educated at Davidson College. North Carolina, 1873-74, and Princeton College 1875-79 ; studied law in the University of Virginia 1879-81; history and politics in Johns Hopkins University 1883-86; held successively various college appointments; since 1890 has been Professor of Jurisprudence in Prince- ton College; and since 1887 lecturer on administration in Johns Hopkins University. On literary and political topics Dr. \Vilson is a public lecturer and a contributor to maga- zines and reviews; he has published Congressional Govern- ment : a Study in American Politics (Boston, 1885), which has gone through many editions and is widely known and used by foreign publicists; The State : Elements of His- torical and Practical Politics (Boston, 1889) ; Diiision and Reunion, 1829-1889, in Epochs of American History (New York and London, 1893); and An Old IlIaster and other Political Essays (New York, 1894). C. K. Herr. Wilton : town (incorporated in 1802) ; Fairfield co., Conn.; on the Norwalk river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad ; 6 miles N. of Norwalk, 16 miles S. of Dan- bury (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 12-D). It was set off from the town of N orwalk; contains the villages of \Vilton, North V/Tilton, South Wilton, Cannon, and Georgetown ; has two academies and a boarding-school ; and is principally engaged in agriculture and wire-drawing. I11 1894 it had a grand list of $653,264. Pop. (1880) 1,864; (1890) 1,722. Wilton: town; Muscatine co., Ia.; on the Chi., Rock Id. and Pac. Railway; 12 miles N. of Muscatine, the county- seat, 25 miles W. of Davenport (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 6-K). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and has 8 churches, the Wilton German-English Col- lege, several public schools, excellent artesian water system, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1.431; (1890) 1.212; (1895) State census, 1,367. EDITOR OF “ Rnvmw.” Wilton: town (settled in 1789, incorporated in 1803); Franklin co., Me.; on the Maine Cent. Railroad; 8 miles S. \V. of Farmington. the county-seat (for location. see map of Maine, ref. 8-B). It contains the villages of IVilton and East Wilton, and has six churches, Wilton Academy, and manufactories of carriages, cabinet-work, coffins and cas- kets, woolen goods, shingles, long and short lumber, and bob- bins. Pop. (1880) 1,739; (1890) 1,622. Wilton: town; Hillsboro co., N. H.; on the Souhegan river, and the Boston and Maine Railroad; 15 miles W. of Nashua, 41 miles S. W. of Concord (for location, see map of New Hampshire, ref. 9-E). It contains the villages of Wilton and West VVilton. four churches, a savings-bank, several lumber-mills, woolen-mill. creameries, and plow, wooden-ware, carriage, and trunk factories. Pop. (1880) 1,7 7; (1890) 1,850. Wilton, J osnrn, R. A. : sculptor; b. in London. England, in 1722; studied sculpture at Brabant. at Paris, and at Rome, where he gained the jubilee gold medal of Pope Benedict XIV.; spent eight years in Italy, chiefly occupied in copying ancient statues, after which he returned to Eng- land; was appointed director of the Duke of R-ichmond’s art gallery in Spring Gardens; became the most popular sculptor in England; was a friend and patron of Richard Wilson the painter, and of Baretti, the lexicographer, and was one of the founders of the Royal Academy. Among his best-known works were busts of Bacon. Cromwell, New- ton, Swift, IVolfe, Chatham. and Chesterfield, and the menu- ments of Wolfe, Admiral Holmes, and Stephen Hales. D. in London, 1803. Revised by RUssELL Sruners. Wilton Carpets: See CARPETS. Wilts, or Wiltshire : an inland county in the southwest- ern part of England. Area, 1,375 sq. miles. In the north- ern part are extensive plains well suited to agriculture and dairy-farming, which are carried on with great energy. Many hogs are reared here, and W'ilton bacon and \Vilton cheese are famous. The southern part is hilly, and on the bleak downs a great number of sheep of a fine breed is reared. \Voolen stuffs are extensively manufactured; also some cotton, silk, and iron mainifactures are carried on. Pop. (1891), 264.997. Wim’bledon: town: in the county of Surrey, England; 8:} miles S. ‘V. of St. Paul‘s, London (see map of England, ref. 12-J). It is principally noted for its common of 628 acres, where the annual meetings of the National Rifle Association were formerly held. Pop. (1891) 25,758. 447 786 WIMPFFEN Wimpifen, French pron. /van’fa“a1'1' EMMANUEL FELIX, de: soldier: b. at Laon, department of Aisne, France, Sept. 13, 1811; began his military career in Algeria; was made a brigadier-general in the imperial guard m_18o5; distin- guished himself both in the Crimean and in the Italian wars ; was made a general of division in 1859; commanded at Lyons, and was subsequently made governor, first of the province of Algeria, then of that of Oran. In the Franco- German war he received the command, first of the Twelfth, then of the Fifth Army-corps, and during the battle of Sedan, after MacMahon had been wounded, he assumed the command of the whole army, and as such signed the cap1tu- lation of Sedan. He published several letters concerning the catastrophe, the memoir Sedan (1871) and Réponse au Ge'ne'ral Ducrot (1871). He was violently attacked by Le Pays, and was unsuccessful in the libel suit he lnstituted against its editor, Paul de Cassagnac. In 1876 he_ ran for member of the Chamber of Deputies for the arrondissement of St. Denis, but failed. D. Feb. 26, 1884._ Besides the above-mentioned publications, he wrote La Situation do la France et les Réformes ne'cessaires (1873) and La i\TCl/t’!/O’It armée (187 6). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Vl’in’alnac: town (founded in 1838); capital of Pulaski co., Ind. ; on the Tippecanoe river, and the Pitts., Cin., Chi. and St. L. Railway; 25 miles N. IV. of Logansport, 92 miles S. E. of Chicago (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 3-D). It is in an agricultural region, and has a new county court-house, Christian, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic churches, public and parochial schools, 2 private banks, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 835; (1890) 1,215; (1895) estimated, 2,000. Enrron OF “ PULASKI COUNTY Dnnoon.u.” Winchell, ALEXANDER, LL. D.: geologist; b. at North East, Dutchess co., N. Y., Dec. 31, 1824; graduated at the Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., 1847 ; was teacher in Pennington Seminary, New Jersey, 1847-48, and of natu- ral sciences at Amenia Seminary, New York, 1848-51, and at Mesopotamia Female Seminary, Alabama, 1851-53; was president of the Masonic Female University at Selma, Ala., 1853; became Professor of Physics and Civil Engineering at the University of Michigan 1853, and of Geology, Z061- ogy, and Botany 1855 ; was president of the Michigan Teachers’ Association 1859 ; State geologist of Michigan 1859-62 ; Professor of Geology in the Kentucky University 1866-69; director of geological survey of Michigan 1869-71; vice-president of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science 1871; chancellor of Syracuse University 1872-74; lecturer in Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn., 1876-78 ; Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the Uni- versity of Michigan from 1879 to his death Feb.19, 1891, at Ann Arbor, Mich. He was the author of The First Bien- nial Report of the Geological Survey of Jlfichigan (1861); The Grand Traverse Region (1866); Genealogy of the Family of VVinchell in America (Ann Arbor, 1869); Geological .ZV[ap of./l1'ichigan(1865) ; Geological Chart (1870) : Sketches of Creation (1870) ; Geology of the Stars (1872) ; The Doc- trine of Evolution (1874); Reconciliation of Science and Religion (1877); Preadarnites (Chicago, 1880); Sparks from a Geologist’s Haninier (1881); W09-ld-Life, or Coniparatii'e Geology (1883) ; Geological Excursions (1884); and Geolog- ical Stuclies (1886). He revised portions of Johnson’s Natural History, 1885. He was a member of numerous scientific societies both in the U. S. and in Europe. In 1890 he was elected president of the Geological Society of Amer- ica. In American geology what is known as the “ Marshall” group was established by him, and fourteen newly discov- ered species have been named after him. His paleontolog- ical researches established seven new genera and 304 new species, most of them fossil. Revised by C. H. THURBER. lrVin'el1end0n: town (incorporated in 1764); VVorcester co., Mass. ; on the Miller river, and the Fitch. and the Bos- ton and Albany railways; 18 miles N. W. of Fitchburg, 36 miles N. by W. of Worcester (for location, see map of Mas- sachusetts, ref. 3—F). It contains the villages of Winchen- don, Waterville, and Winchendon Springs; has the Mur- dock High School (building cost $100,000), 8 district schools, public library, 7 churches, a national bank with capital of $200,000, a savings-bank, the New England Home for orphan and destitute children, and a weekly newspaper; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of wooden- ware, toys, cotton goods, and wood-working machinery. The assessed valuation in 1894 was $2,262,297. Pop. (1880) 3,722; (1890) 4,390. WINCHESTER Winchester: city; capital of Hampshire, England; on the Itchin ; 60 miles W. S. W. of London (see map of Eng- land, ref. 13-I). It is the O'aer- Gwent of the Britons and the Venta Belgarum of the Romans. After being taken in 495 by the Saxons, it received its present name, and was for several centuries the capital of England and the residence of its kings. In the thirteenth century it lost its trade, and since that time it has gradually declined. Its cathe- dral, built in the eleventh century, is avast but heavy struc- ture, containing many interesting monuments. It is 520 feet long; the breadth at the transepts is 208 feet; the nave is 351 feet long and 86 feet high ; the central Norman tower is 186 feet high. Among the monuments of the cathedral are the tomb of William Rufus, the bronze fig- ures of Charles I. and James I., the golden shrine of St. Swithin, etc. Winchester College, one of the great public schools of England, was founded here by Wykeham in 1369-93. Pop. (1891) 19,073. Winchester: city (founded in 1830) ; capital of Scott co., Ill. ; on the Big Sandy creek. and the Chi., Burl. and Quincy Railroad ; 29 miles S. of Beardstown, 84 miles N. by W. of St. Louis, M0. (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 7-C). It is in an agricultural region; has a public high school, Baptist, Christian, Methodist Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic churches, 2 private banks, and 2 weekly newspapers ; and has 3 grain elevators, 2 flour-mills, meat- packing works. sawmill, and plow and furniture factories. Pop. (1880) 1,626 ; (1890) 1,542; (1895) estimated, 2,000. EDITOR or “ STANDARD.” WinclleSte1‘: city; capital of Randolph co., Ind.; on the \Vhite river, and the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L. and the Gr. Rapids and Ind. railways; 25 miles N. of Rich- mond (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 5-G). It is in an agricultural and natural-gas region, and has several fac- tories, a soldiers’ monument, 2 private banks, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,958; (1890) 3,014; (1895) esti- mated, 3,800. EDITOR or “ DEMOCRAT.” Winchester: town: capital of Clark co., Ky.; on the Ches. and O., the Lex. and S., and the Louisv. and N ashv. railways ; 18 miles E. of Lexington (for location, see map of Kentucky, ref. 3-I). It is in the famous Blue Grass region; contains the Kentucky Wesleyan College, the Cooper Fe- male Institute, the I/Vinchester Female College, public schools, water-works, electric lights, street-railway, 2 na- tional banks with combined capital of $375,000, and a State bank with capital of $200,000; has a semi-weekly and a weekly newspaper; and is principally engaged in agricul- ture and stock-raising. Pop. (1880) 2,277 ; (1890) 4,519: (1895) estimated, 6,400. EDITOR or “DEMOCRAT.” WinclleSte1‘: town (incorporated in 1850); Middlesex eo., Mass.; on the Boston and Maine Railroad; 8 miles N. E. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H). It has 7 churches, high school, 8 district schools, public library, savings-bank, town-hall (cost over $100,000), and a weekly and a monthly periodical; and is rincipally engaged in tanning and the manufacture of sc ool furni- ture. The assessed valuation in 1894 was $6,206,125. Pop. (1880) 3,802; (1890) 4,861 ; (1895) estimated, 7,000. PUBLISHER or “ STAR.” Wil1cheSte1': town ; Cheshire co., N. H. ; on the Ashuelot river, and the Boston and Maine Railroad; 13 miles W. of Keene, 65 miles S. W. of Concord (for location, see map of New Hampshire, ref. 9—C). It contains the villages of Win- chester and Ashuelot, 3 churches, high school, 3 libraries, a national bank with capital of $150,000, a savings-bank, and manufactories of woolen goods, lumber, palm-leaf hats, and butter and cheese. Pop. (1880) 2,444; (1890) 2,584. Winchester: town: capital of Franklin co., Tenn.; on the Elk river, and the Nash., Chat. and St. L. Railway; 67 miles N. W. of Chattanooga, 85 miles S. S. E. of Nashville (for location, see map of Tennessee, ref. 7-F). It is in an agricultural, mining, and lumbering region, near the foot of the Cumberland Mountains, is a resort for invalids, and has two State banks with combined capital of $50,000, sev- eral saw, planing, and flour mills, carriage and wagon fac- tories, marble-works, wood-working factories, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,039: (1890) 1,313. Winchester : city; capital of Frederick co., Va. ; on the Balt. and O. and the Cumberland Val. railways; 88 miles W. by N. of VVashington, D. C., 113 miles IV. by S. of Bal- timore, Md. (for location, see map of Virginia, ref. 3-G). It is in a wheat-growing region ; has 14 churches, large public WINCHESTER school, 3 female seminaries, an academy, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a State bank with capital of $50,825, and a monthly and 3 weekly periodicals; and contains 4 glove-factories, 2 hosiery-mills, 2 steam planing- mills, flour-mill, a sumach and bark mill, tannery, paper- mill, shoe-factory, and a canning-factory. The place is the key to the valley of the Shenandoah, and during the civil war it was repeatedly occupied by the forces on either side, and in its vicinity were fought several battles. (See CEDAR CREEK.) The city contains national and Confederate ceme- teries. Pop. (1880) 4,958; (1890) 5,196; (1895) estimated, 5,800. EDITOR or “ REPUBLIGAN LEADER.” Winchester, ELHANAN: clergyman; b. at Brookline, Mass, Sept. 30, 1751 ; began preaching to a Baptist church at Newton 1769 ; was pastor of a church at Rehoboth 1771, and was excommunicated in consequence of his views on close communion ; went to South Carolina 1774; preached to the Negroes on the plantations on the Pedee river; became pastor of the First Baptist church at Philadelphia 1780, and, having adopted the doctrine of universal salvation, founded there a Universalist church 1781, after which he traversed several States to propagate his new doctrines, and preached in England 1787-94. He was one of the precur- sors of the modern system of Universalism, his doctrines being very similar to those preached by his contemporary, Rev. Dr. Charles Chauncy. He was the author of numer- ous religious treatises, pamphlets, sermons, and addresses, and of several volumes of verse. D. at Hartford, Conn., Apr. 18, 1797. Revised by J . W. CIEIADWICK. Winchester, WILLIAM PAULET or PoULET, K. G., Mar- quis of: b. in Hampshire, England, about 1475 ; dissipated large estates in youth ; entered the personal service of Henry VII.; became comptroller and afterward (1536) treasurer of the household to Henry VIII. ; was made Baron St. John Nov., 1537 : received from Henry VIII. the order of the Garter; was appointed treasurer to Edward VI. 1549 ; made earl 1550 and Marquis of Winchester Oct., 1551 ; pre- sided at the trial of Somerset Dec., 1551, in the capacity of lord high treasurer, which post he managed to retain under Mary and Elizabeth, and, according to the testimony of Fuller, “ trafficked so wisely and prospered so well that he got, spent, and left more than any subject since the Con- quest,” the secret of his prosperity being given by himself in the words, “ No oak, but an osier.” He built a magnifi- cent mansion in Hampshire called Basing House, afterward celebrated for its siege by Cromwell; entertained Elizabeth there in 1560, and died there Mar. 10, 1572. titled The Lord Jlfarques’ Idleness, contaz'm'ng Jlfcmifold llfatters of Acceptable Denise, as Sage Se/ntenees, Prudent Preeepts, flforal l[l’E(¥/m/_Z)l8S, Sweet St'mt'ZzItudes, etc., was printed in 1586. Winckelmann, vink'e1-ma”an, J OHANN J OAOHIM: archaeol- ogist; b. at Stendal, Prussian province of Brandenburg, Dec. 9, 1717, in humble circumstances; studied theology at Halle, medicine at Jena; lived for several years as tutor in a private family, and from 1743 to 1748 as co-rector at the school of Seehausen in Brandenburg, and in 1748 went to Dresden as librarian and secretary to Count I-Ieinrich von Biinau. Here his study of classical archaeology began. Here also he published his first work, Gedanken fiber die 1Vach ah- mwng der g1'z'eehz'sc7z,en IVer7ee in 1lIaZerez' mzd Bdldiz aue/rkzmszf (1755). This brought him a pension of 200 thalers from An- gustus III. of Saxony, and VVinckelmann having joined the Roman Catholic Church went to Rome. where he had un- rivaled opportunities for archaeological and artistic studies. Soon the original and striking views which resulted from his researches attracted great attention, and in 1763 he was ap- pointed prefect over the antiquities of Rome, and received also a position in the Vatican Library. I-Ie visited Florence, where he published Dese1"2.'p1fz'0n des PzTe'rr(>s gmvées du fen Baron de Stoseh (Florence, 1760) : Naples, Herculaneum, and Pompeii, whence he sent to Dresden Sendsehrez'ben 'z'0n,.(Zen he?'euZam'sche'n Enlfdeckimgen (1762) and lVac7rr/z'cht von den neuesfen he7'c'aZwm'sehe'a Entdec7.:zmge'a (1764); and from Rome he contributed many minor essays to various Ger- man periodicals, such as Von der G/razte, Von der FcZ7zig- lcett der Emp_fi/ndzmg des Seh(')'n,en, etc. In 1764 appeared his principal work, Gesc7w‘ehte der K11/nst des Altertimmzs (Dresden); and in 1767 his ,7l[0'22/umentb' a-m‘z'e7u3 ’I/")Z’€d'I,'ll/II (Rome). III 1768 he started on a visit to his native coun- try. Arrived at Vienna, he determined to proceed no farther, but on his return he was murdered at Trieste, June 8, 1768, by a professional thief who attempted to steal A volume en- ~ WINDHAM 787 some rare gold coins from him. Winckelmann is generally admitted to be the father of modern archaeology. A col- lected edition of his works, begun by Ternau and completed by Heinrich Meyer and Schultz, appeared in Dresden 1808- 20, in 8 vols., and another by Eiselein (12 vols., Donaueschin- gen, 1825-29). His correspondence was edited by F. Forster (Berlin, 1824, 2 vols.). Also see J usti, Ifiinekelmann, .s-ein Leben, set/ne Werke und seine Zez'igeno-asen (2 vols., Leipzig, 1866-72). Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Wind : See WINDS. Winder, WILLIAM HENRY: soldier; b. in Somerset co., Md., Feb. 18, 1775; graduated at the University of Pennsyl- vania, and became a member of the Baltimore bar 1798. In Mar., 1812, he was appointed a lieutenant-colonel of the Sixteenth Infantry, and colonel in July; commanded a suc- cessful expedition to the Canada shore from Black Rock Nov. 28, 1812; promoted to be brigadier-general Mar., 1813; was taken prisoner at Stony Creek June 6. In May, 1814, he was appointed adjutant and inspector-general, and when the British forces under Gen. Ross landed below VVashington he was placed in command of the militia summoned to defend the capital; was defeated at the battle of Bladensburg, and was unable to prevent the occupation of Washington by the enemy. Honorably discharged June, 1815, he returned to his profession in Maryland, in which he became distinguished, as well as in the State Senate, of which he was a member. D. in Baltimore, -Md., May 24, 1824.—His son, JOHN HENRY, b. in Maryland, 1800, graduated at West Point in 1820; was breveted major and lieutenant-colonel for gallantry in the Mexican war; resigned his commission of major of artil- lery Apr. 27, 1861, and joined the Confederate army, in which he became a brigadier-general; was the commandant of Libby Prison and Belle Isle, and later of Andersonville. D. at Branchville, S. C., Feb. 7, 1865. Revised by JAMES MERCER. Win'dermere, or Winandermere: the largest lake of England; 14 miles long and 1 mile broad. It lies in Lanc- ashire, and is celebrated for the rich beauty of its shores. Its outlet is the small river Leven, which flows southward into hlorecambe Bay. an extensive inlet of the Irish Sea, on the west coast of England. A group of islands, the largest of which contains 28 acres. is situated in the center of the lake. The village of \Vindermere is about a mile from the east shore of the lake. Pop. 1,500. Wind-flower : See ANEMONE. Windgalls: puffy swellings about the fetlock joints of horses. They are the same as synovial ganglia or " weeping sinews ” in man. Tight bandaging. irritant ointments, and rest may apparently cure them, but they are liable to recur. They usually appear on the hind legs in the form of little oval sacs between the back sinews and the bones, just above the fetlocks. At first the pufis, or windgalls, feel soft and elastic, but after some time, if the animal is employed at hard labor, they will become firm and hard. Rubbing is considered the most effective remedy. “rilldllillllt town (incorporated in 1762); Cumberland co., Me.; on the Presumpscot river, near Lake Sebago; 12 miles N. IV. of Portland (for location, see map of Maine. ref. 10-B). It contains the villages of \Vindham Center, South \Vindham, North Windham, and Newhall, and has a public library and important manufactures. Pop. (1880) 2,312; (1890) 2,216. Windham, VVILLIAII: statesman; b. in London, England, May 3, 1750 ; educated at Eton, at Glasgow University. and at University College, Oxford: traveled on the Continent; became a member of Dr. Johnson‘s Literary Club and a friend of Burke and Fox, with whom he co-operated in denouncing the American war; distinguished himself as an orator; was chief secretary to Lord N orthington. Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland. 1783; was returned to Parliament from Norwich in 1784: was one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings 1787 ; was a strenuous opponent of the French Revolution and advocate of war with France; was Secretary at Ivar i11 Pitt-’s cabinet 1794- 1801; opposed the Peace of Amiens 1802: was again Sec- retary at ‘Var, and also for the colonies, in the Grenville administration 1806-07 : after which, declining a peerage. he remained in opposition and denounced the Copenhagen and \Va-lcheren expeditions. D. in London, June 4. 1810. He had a great reputation for oratory, and possessed brill- iant conversational powers, but as a statesman he lacked vigor and tenacity. He was nicknamed “ The \Veather- 7 88 WINDHOVER cock.” His Diary from 1784 to 1810 was published by Mrs. Henry Baring in 1886, and a Life by Thomas Amyot was prefixed to an edition of his Speeches in Parliament (3 vols., 1806). His Select Speeches (Philadelphia, 1837) were edited in the U. S. by Robert Walsh, who wrote a biograph- ical sketch. Windhover: See KESTREL. Willdisch, oin’dish, ERNST, Ph.D.: philologist; b. in Dresden. Saxony, Sept. 4, 1844; educated at the University of Leipzig: was employed in cataloguing Sanskrit manuscripts at the India otlice library in London 1870-71; professor ex- traordinary at Leipzig 1871 ; Ordinary Professor of Compar- ative Philology and Sanskrit at Heidelberg 1872-75. at Strassburg 1875-77, and Professor of Sanskrit at Leipzig since 1877. Since 1880, also, he has been editor of the Zeitschrift der Dentschen Zlforgenlctnrlischen Gesellschaft. Among his numerous works are Der l§[elianel and seine Qnellen (Leipzig, 1868) ; Untersnchnngen ilber clen Ursprnng des Relatiopronomens (in Curtius’s Stnclien zar Griech. and Lat. Grammatih, vol. ii., Leipzig, 1869); Syntahtische Forschnngen (with B. Delbriick; vol. i., on the subjunct- ive and optative in Sanskrit and Greek, Halle, 1871) ; Ifnrz- gefasste Irische Grammatih (Leipzig, 1879; Eng. trans., A Concise Irish Grammar, Cambridge, 1882); Irische Texte (Leipzig, 1880; 2d series, with VV. Stokes, i., 1884, ii., 1887; 3d series, i., 1891); Georg Cnrtins (Berlin, 1887); Ueber das lVyayabhashya (Leipzig, 1888); Hiozittaha (Pali Text So- ciety, London, 1880). S. A. T. Windischgratz, oind’ish-grclts, ALFRED, Prince von: Austrian field-marshal ; b. at Brussels, Belgium. May 11, 1787; entered the army in 1804, and rose rapidly in the service, distinguishing himself especially in the campaigns of 1813-14. In 1826 he became major-general and governor of Prague, and in 1833 general of division and lieutenant field-marshal. After the Napoleonic wars he saw no field service till the Revolution of 1848 broke out in the Austrian empire. The Bohemian agitation for the establishment of a separate self-government under the direct authority of the emperor was for the moment successful, and a Bohemian congress assembled at Prague with the emperor’s permission, but here, as elsewhere, the radical element gained the upper- hand. The people demanded to be armed. Windisehgratz refused, and fighting began in the streets. His wife and son were killed by the insurgents, but he continued the contest, and by June 14 was completely successful. The Bohemian congress was dissolved, and Prague placed in a state of siege. No further trouble was experienced from Bohemia during this revolutionary year. Windischgratz was then placed in command of all the Austrian forces out- side Italy, and summoned to Vienna, which was at the mercy of the revolutionary mob. Aided by J ellachich he succeeded in restoring the imperial authority in the city (Oct. 31), after which he entered on the campaign against the Hun- garians. In this campaign, after gaining some advantages, he remained inactive, and sought to subdue the country by threatening decrees against the revolutionists, leaving them in the meanwhile time to gather their forces and secure strong positions. Finally, he retreated without accomplishing any- thing of importance. Superseded in the command, he retired to his estates in Bohemia and applied himself to the prepa- ration of his Winterfehlzng 1848-49 in Ungarn (Vienna, 1851). D. Mar. 21. 1862. F. M. COLBY. Windlass [corruption of M. Eng. winclas, from Icel. oinclciss, windlass, winding-pole ; mncla, to wind + ass. beam, pole : Goth. ans, pole (‘?)]: a form of the wheel and axle, in which the axle is horizontal, while in the capstan it is usually vertical. The axle is made to revolve either by means of handspikes or a winch. The mathematical prin- ciples involved are precisely those of the wheel and axle. Wilidmills : devices for utilizing the energy of the wind as a motive-power; specifically, wind-driven mechanisms for grinding, pumping, etc. The first use of the windmill for doing work is unknown. Prof. John Beckman, of tlfe University of Giittingen, who made a thorough investigation in regard to its history, and whose work was translated by Mr. \Villiam Johnson (London, 1817), found a reference to the use of the windmill among the Bohemians as early as 718, but no trace of it farther East before its more extensive use in France and Germany. M ention was made of the use of windmills in 1105 and again in 1143, but no authentic information in regard to their mode of construction is found until a still later period. WIN DMILLS A windmill has four essential parts-a wind-wheel; a shaft or axle to which the wheel is attached, and which is made to rotate by the wheel ; wheels and shafts for transmitting the power to the desired place ; and a frame for supporting the wheel and other machinery. The manner of making the wheel find the wind has given rise to two classes of these old mills. One, in which the whole frame is turned by hand, as shown in Fig. 1, is called the German mill. The frame rests FIG. 1. upon and turns about the post E. In the other only the dome containing the shaft and bevel-wheel is rotated, as shown in Fig. 2. In this case the shaft A and bevel-wheel attached are stationary, but free to rotate. The movement of the dome in this case is sometimes made automatic by extend- ing an arm to the rear of the wind-wheel, and mounting thereon a small wind-wheel, S, whose axis is connected by suitable gearing to the dome in such a way as to turn the dome when the small wheel S rotates. I/Vhen the wind- wheel is firm to the wind the plane of the small wheel S will FIG. 2. be in the direction of the wind and will be at rest, but when the wind veers it will strike the small wheel, setting it in motion and bringing the wind-wheel into the proper po- sition by driving the shaft a, pinion b, beveled-wheel c, and pinion cl, which engages a rack e extending around the tower. The wind-wheel was made of four arms, called whips, fast- ened at right angles to each other and to the shaft. These arms were 30 or 40 feet long and sometimes longer, some- times 12 inches in diameter at the large end and 5 or 6 inches at the small end. They were either round or rectangular. Rods were put through them transversely, not in a plane but in a spiral, so that the canvas which was attached to them made a warped surface, as shown in Fig. 3. This form is in- dicated both by theory and experience. The first rod was about 5 or 6 feet from the shaft and 2 feet or so long, and WIN DMILLS made an angle of about 40 degrees with the face of the wheel, the last about 12 degrees, and was about 6 feet long. Sometimes they were symmetrical in reference to the arm, projecting the same distance each side of it; but in others they were unsymmet- rical, as shown in Fig. 7, and more nearly rectangular. The shaft of the wheel, when made of wood, was sometimes 20 inches in diameter, and gave rise to much fric- tion. When of cast iron they have been made 12 inches in diameter and hollow. Experience has shown that the wheel is more efiicient if its axis be in- clined upward from 8 to 15 degrees, as shown in Fig. 1, but for pumping it is better to substitute a crank or eccentric for the bevel-wheel, in which case the shaft should be hori- zontal, as in Fig. 9. A somewhat definite statement in regard to these mills is given in a report by Coulomb, a French scientist, who about the year 1820 made careful observations upon some fifty Dutch windmills near Lille, in Flanders, which were used for the extraction of oil from rapeseed. They were about 66 feet in diameter, width of sails about 6 feet; the sail be- gan about 6 feet from the shaft, where it made an angle with the plane of rotation of 30 degrees, and at the extreme end it was about 12 degrees. The shafts were inclined from 8 to 12 degrees to the horizontal. With a wind of 205 feet per second, or nearly 15 miles per hour; when the wheel made thirteen revolutions per minute, it developed about 7 horse-\ power, which included nearly one-half a horse-power, or about 7 per cent. of the power, for the friction of the shaft. The friction was determined in still air by applying weights at the arms to produce the motion; and the velocity of the wind was determined by stationing two men on slight ele- vations, 150 feet apart, and noting the time required for a feather to pass over that distance. The sails had over 200 sq. feet each. The wind velocity was from 8 feet per second to 28 feet, with a velocity of the wheel at its circumference of 22 feet to 72 feet per second. When a sail is compelled to travel across the course of the wind it may be made to move with a greater velocity than the wind by placing the sail at a small angle to the weather. Thus if A B be the direction of the wind (Fig. 4) and the sail, B D, be compelled to FIG. 3. \]L B travel parallel to F G, F E if the sail goes a dis- G tance E B while the wind goes the distance 0' A D E, then when the point E reaches B, D will be directly back of B. The angle D B E may be so small that B E will be several times D E. It had been observed that the velocity of the outer ends of the arms of a Dutch wheel exceeds considerably that of the wind for the best effect. If the wheel be run freely, doing no work except overcoming the friction of the shaft and resist- ance of the sails, it will attain a finite uniform velocity; then by applying a resistance in the form of useful work, the veloc- ity may be diminished and more external work be done until the work becomes a maximum. According to Smeaton, the velocity for doing maximum work is two-thirds that it would have if running free, with the machinery below the shaft disconnected. A similar ratio obtains with hydraulic tur- bines. More than four arms may be used advantageously, and later they were increased to twelve or more. According to Smeaton, seven-eighths of the space within the circle cir- cumscribing the wheel may be used for sails. and the power is diminished if more than that amount of sails be intro- duced. Horizontal wheels have been used, in which case the axis is vertical, thus avoiding some of the gearing which is neces- FIG. 4. 789 sary in the vertical wheel. In such wheels if plane sails are used, one-half the wheel must be covered so as to be out of the action of the wind, or other devices be used to put the returning sails out of wind. Such mills have been con- structed similar to inflow water turbines, having curved vanes in the wheel and fixed curved guides outside for de- flecting the wind into the wheel, which work independently of the direction of the wind. Also since the force of the wind is greater against a concave surface than against a sim- ilar convex one, buckets like hollow hemispheres have been used, placing them around the circumference of the wheel. These also work independently of the direction of the wind ; but during one-half or more of the rotation the back of the buckets offer resistance to rotation, while the sails, as above de- scribed, are effective throughout the circumference. Theory and experience both indicate that horizontal wheels are only about one-fourth as powerful as vertical ones of the same size with sails, so that what is gained by gearing is more than lost in power. The Sails.—It is not only necessary that the face of the wheel should be toward the wind, but the amount of sail presented to the wind should vary with the speed of the wind where the work to be done is nearly constant. As the speed of the wind increases the amount of sail should be de- creased so that the speed of the mill will not be too great. Many ingenious devices have been used to accomplish this object. One is to have the cross-rods project from one side only of the arms, and be sufliciently flexible, so that as the pressure of the wind increases the sticks will bend and so present less canvas to the wind. Another is to hang the can- vas at one edge on the arm and support the outer edge by a rope which passes to the next arm, over a pulley down that arm, while all four (or more) of the ropes pass down the hol- ‘\\\\\\\fi.-1 Ii \~)\ \/ \ \\\l.\ \s\\\\ -§ E\\AEN ~,-_-:‘“ ‘ // /M FIG. 6. low shaft at the other end and are attached to a weight. As the pressure of the wind increases it raises the weight and permits the sails to slope more, and as the wind slackens the weight draws the sails back into position. A windmill in Belgium known as Thirion‘s, with some fifteen narrow sails, had their outer edges attached to a kind of circular frame. which was moved by a centrifugal governor, and set the sails more or less to the weather. This mill had a pc- culiar mode of connect-ing-shafts not parallel, consisting of a strong steel spiral spring (Figs. 5 and 6). The strips forming the helix were about half an inch thick and 14; inches wide, and the diameter of the coil about 12 inches. Such a coupling. when properly made, transmits the power when the shafts make almost any angle with each other. The prin- ciple has been applied on a large scale in machine-shops for giving rotary motion to portable metal drills and bits for boring wood, and is known as flexible shafting. For pumping, the sails may be fixed and the power regu- lated by a movable fulcrum. The pump piston-rod being attached to one end of a lever, while the other is operated by a cam or eccentric 011 the shaft of the wind-wheel, the fulcrum between the ends may be moved by a centrifugal governor, so that when the wind is low the length of the arm nearer the mill will be increased. and consequently the other arm shortened. Such an arrangement permits the mill to do some pumping when the velocity of the wind is low. The wheel may be brought to rest by a brake operat- ing on the shaft or on some of the gear-wheels. Of the Dutch wheels one is mentioned that measured 150 feet in diameter. and exaggerated statements were made to the effect that some of them were 1.000 horse-power. In some cases each mill had a superintendent who gave orders. 790 like the captain of a sailing craft, to increase or diminish the sail or shift the position of the wheel according to the strength or direction of the wind. Fig. 7 is a view of one cred- ited to the year 1200. Aenewlcan lVe'nd- mills. — The Dutch windmills are chiefly of historic interest. Commercially and practically they are being displaced by the American mills. NO country has done so much to improve the windmill as the U. S., where it has been bettered in form, in mode of working, and in the mode of manufacture. The parts of the better mills are made to gauge and with tem- plates, so that the parts are interchangeable. This greatly lessens the cost of manufacture and is a convenience in repairing. The characteristic features of the American mill are the large number of narrow radial slats or sails (plane when made of wood, or generally curved when made of iron) ; the rudder or tail-piece; the automatic adjustments; and the pyramidal tower, as shown in Fig. 8. Each of these ele- ments is subject to many modifications. The tower was for- merly of wood, made on the spot, but more recently it is made of steel, fitted in the shop, and shipped to the place where it is to be erected. Some towers are made of brick or stone. The upper stories may be used for storage-tanks, and the lower ones for sawmills or other small machinery. They are of all heights, suited to circumstances, usually from 30 to 70 feet. The Scieoztefic Amer/lean describes one 150 feet high, claimed to be the highest and strongest windmill tower in the world, on which is mounted a wheel 22?; feet in diameter. Steel frames are rectangu- lar or triangular, as desired. Many firms are engaged in the manufacture of these semi-portable mills. l/Volff on Windmills, a book which contains much valuable infor- mation, written prior to 1885, states that in some cities more than 5,000 are made annually; at present (1895) the writer is credibly informed that one firm is manufacturing over 16,- 000 a year, from which it does not seem rash to infer that some 50,000, more or less, are made in the U. S. annually. One firm advertises that during eighteen years following the Centennial Exposition, 1876, they sold $20,000 worth of their machinery in Africa. This, though vague, gives some idea of the business done from a source least expected. They are shipped to all civilized countries. More than one system of American mills is manufactured in Germany and elsewhere. VVindmills are used for a great va- riety of purposes—on railways for pumping water into storage-tanks for supplying locomotives ; at residences, for family uses; at nurseries, for wa- tering plants. etc.; on prairies, for irrigation and watering cattle, etc.; for threshing, grinding, feed-cutting, and the like; and they might be made to run a sewing-machine, to do laundry-work, run a dish-washer, blow fans in a dining- room, etc. American mills are made of all sizes. from jg- to 4 horse-power, the latter of which may be some 30 feet in diameter. These are made at the shop, ready to be set up when shipped. Special wheels of 8 or more horse-power are made to order. The rating per horse-power is indefinite. A mill that is rated at 4 horse-power with a fair breeze—say, 20 miles per hour—would be nearly 14 horse-power at 30 WINDMILLS miles per hour, and 32 horse-power at 40 miles. But, with all their good qualities, this intermittent power is not suited to manufacturing purposes, when the power needed must be practically uniform and produced at will. Numerous windmills were displaced by the introduction of steam into Great Britain. Both have their proper place, and each read- ily finds its own. In some cases the windmill may serve as an auxiliary to the steam-engine. At Fair Haven, Eng- land, “ a 15 horse-power windmill raised in ten months 21,- 000i000 gal. of water 109 feet, at a saving of 100 tons of coa .” Ad_y'usz.‘ments.——ln order to maintain a more uniform speed with winds of varying velocities, self-regulating devices are made. III the “solid wheel " this is accomplished by turn- ing the wheel “ out of the wind.” One way of accomplishing this is by means of a lateral vane placed back of and paral- lel with the face of the wheel. The wind, by acting against this vane, will turn the wheel to one side so that less surface is presented to the wind. The rudder, being parallel or nearly so to the course of the wind, permits the side vane to operate quickly; but that it shall not operate too quickly balancing-weights are used which must be raised while turn- ing the face of the wheel. These weights also act to bring the wheel, when the wind slackens, back into the wind. This system is represented in the Corcoran wheel, Fig. 9, ;‘\f\1m . iitri-_:f,..‘b_ “,7 ’i: " ., _ .l , . 3;: ~, 5" I- ., \\ .i I F, V, I . . -.\. . I I III, " / '1 , . in -, I I . My ‘ ’ 7 ‘ J’ I-' V \ l I " . ‘- , ‘Hr. ‘A | I ' I" )1‘ 1. I I A / in which B is the rudder, and F the side vane. The first solid-wheel windmill using the side vane was the Eclipse, invented by L. H. Wheeler, formerly of Massachusetts. His first patent was issued in 1867, and his mills are manufac- tured at Beloit, Wis. The wheel may also be turned out of wind by placing the vertical support one side the axis of the wheel; then the pressure of the wind against the wheel will turn the wheel about the vertical axis. The Stover windmill is of this ty e. The plane of the rudder is from 3 to 6 inches to one si e of the line of the axis of the wheel, being more for the larger wheels. An objection to this adjustment is that the wheel is never fair with the wind. The Strong windmill is also of this type. Again, the solid wheel may be adjusted by being so hinged that the wheel may be turned away from the wind while the rudder remains in the plane of the wind. The wheel is held against the rudder by a weighted lever, and when the wind is so strong as to turn the wheel aside it raises the weighted lever at the same time. which, by descent, brings it back into position when the force of the wind slackens. The Buchanan wheel is of this type. Again, wheels are regulated without a rudder by being WINDMILLS 7 91 so placed as to receive the wind from behind the tower. The tendency in this adjustment is for the wind to keep the wheel fair with the wind; and a vane is placed beyond the wheel perpendicular to its face, which turns the wheel away when desired. This vane is attached to a weighted lever, which it is forced to raise when turning the wheel away, and which brings the wheel back into fairness when the wind slackens. The Regulator and the Champion windmills are of this type. The weight, be- ing all on one side of the col- umn, produces cross strains on the supports. In some more recent designs the wheel has been balanced by a counter- weight, as shown by the star in Fig. 10. The wheel here shown is regulated by a centrifugal governor described below. The action of the wind on the wheel is equivalent to a mechanical couple, and as the resistance is taken off at one point there is a tendency to force the wheel around on the turn-table in the direction of rotation, causing the wheel to turn out of the wind. A weighted lever resists this tend- ency, but when the pressure of the wind is sufficiently great it raises the weight, and when the wind slackens the weight brings the wheel into the wind again. In this way an ad- justment is made, and has been found to work well with small wheels. The VVoodmanse windmill is a type of this adjustment. The speed may also be adjusted by turning the slats, by means of a centrifugal governor, so that they will present more or less surface to the wind. This is called the “ see- FIG. 11. tional wheel.” as opposed to the solid wheel, and was in- vented by Daniel Halliday (patented in 1854). The Halli- day was long manufactured by John Burnham, formerly of Connecticut and later of Batavia, Ill., who is called the “father of the American system." The Halliday Standard wheel is shown in Fig. 11. The arms of the wheel are firm- ly secured to the spider G C, which is firmly secured to the shaft. Y Y are pivoted elbows to which are attached the regulating-rods carrying centrifugal weights, Z. The regu- lating-rods are connected directly with the slats, so that as Y is moved to the left by the centrifugal weights the edges of the slats are turned more to the weather. To force them back as the wind slackens, the forked lever F, carrying a weight, W, forces the spider D forward, which, being joined to Y by the links a, forces Y in the opposite direction from that caused by the centrifugal weights Z. By raising the weight W by means of a cord or chain passing over a pul- ley and extending to the ground, the edges of the slats may be presented to the wind and the mill stopped. This mill has been very extensively used on railways for filling water- tanks. The Adams mill is governed like the Halliday, but instead of a spider it has a spring on the hub of the wheel, set for a given speed, and when that speed is exceeded the spring is curled up, retarding the motion of the cylinder to which it is attached, pulling the vanes out of wind. From a scientific standpoint the centrifugal governor appears the most perfect, but, practically, the hinging of the slats may make the wheel less stable and less durable than the solid wheel, and the side vane adjustment seems to serve well in practice. It is quite possible that too much importance has been attached to perfect regulation. There are comparatively few times in the year when a mill will run at a dangerous speed, and it may be better to make the wheel solid and let it run freely with- out any adjust- ment up to the dangerous speed, and provide only for the excess. This may not only simplify the con- struction, but also make the wheel more efficient and more durable. The aéromotor, shown in Fig. 12, has been intro- duced to the pub- lic at a more re- cent date. It is the invention of Thomas 0. Perry, a graduate of the University of Michigan. After a long experience with this class of mills, and of experimental tests extending over some two years, during which he made over 5,000 dynamometric measure- ments and tested 61 diiferent forms of wheels in regard to the forms of vanes. the modes of construction, and the best methods of management. he invented this wheel. He ap- pears to have done for the windmill what Poncelet did for hydraulic motors. by in- creasing the efficiency in many cases several fold over previous wheels. The wheel is made of steel. the vanes are curved and riveted to the circular sections. prop- erly braced with tie-rods; all obstructions to the free flow of wind through the wheel are avoided as far as possible, and all unnecessary adjustment avoided. When not used the rudder may be thrown around parallel with the wheel. It runs with a light breeze. and is durable. Formerly the upper end of the pump-rod was at- tached directly to a crank driven by the shaft of the wheel, but in many mills of the present day the speed is reduced by gearing. The object is to permit a longer stroke for doing the same work, thereby allowing more time for the valves to get seated; also by reducing the length of the crank. for which provision is made, a short stroke is produced, thus allowing some work to be done with a light breeze. Although not the original inventor. Perry claims to have been the first to have made it a success with the public. FIG. 12. , _ W 792 WINDMILLS Perry also invented the tilting-tower, shown in Fig. 13. Its object is to lower the wheel to the ground for conveni- ence i11 oiling and repairing. Some pumping-mills are provided with an automatic ar- rangement, operated by a float, for throwing the mill com- pletely out of the wind when the tank is nearly full, and bringing it into the wind by a weight when the tank is nearly empty. Action ofthe I/Vind.—A windmill is a prime mover. Its conditions of working differ from those of other motors. Its source of power is not stored nor controllable like that of other powers, but is subject to “the freaks of the wind.” Its use, therefore, is chiefly limited to small powers, and where intermittent and irregular power is valuable. These conditions are supplied in a vast number of cases all over the world. In order to investigate the mechanical properties of the windmill some knowledge of the action of wind is necessary. Wolff, in his work on the Windmill, from the records of the Signal Service, gives the average velocity of the wind for each month of the year for fourteen cities widely separated iii the U. S., the general average of which is 5,769 miles per month, or about 8 miles per hour; hence it is probable that during half the time it exceeds this amount, and that com- paratively few days are likely to pass during which some work may not be done. It is difficult to get the actual velocity of a body of wind because it is so “ streaky ”—-the velocity not only being variable at any given point, but very different from that a few feet distant. The extremes above and below a mean are very great, so that tables should be considered as only approximations, more or less close, to mean values. The pressure of the wind against a plane varies with the temperature, the barometric pressure, and square of the mean velocity. The following table is adopt- ed for ordinary calculations, and is sufiicientl_v accurate for a temperature of about 45° F. at the level of the sea, and is known as Smeaton’s results: VELOCITY OF THE WIND. PRESSURE. R k . Miles per hour. Feet per second. Pounds per sq. ft. emar B 1 1'47 O'OO5 . ' - 2 _ 3 i Just perceptible. 4 5' 7 0'0’/9 - 15 17%; 0.1§3 % Gentle wmd. 0 4' 7 0'4 3 - 15 2300 1.107 %Br1sk gale. 20 2 '34 1 ' 968 . g5 3. ‘L Very bI‘]Sk. 0 4 '0 4429 ‘ . _. 35 ? W1lZl(1. 40 58' 68 7 '873 45 6601 9963 Very high storm. 50 7335 12'300 60 8802 17 '715 Great storm. 80 117 '36 31'490 Hurricane that tears up trees, destroys buildings. 100 146 ' 7 49 ' 200 Imm ense hurricane. Extreme pressures and extreme velocities have been re- ported as high as 180 miles per hour, and pressures of 71 lb. per square foot, but these are exceptional cases, and wind- mills commercially made are not expected to meet such emergencies. Mr. Perry, from his dynamometric tests, found that the power of the best-designed wheel that he made gave only 25 per cent. of the power, or energy, of the wind; and that this was more than 80 per cent. above the best commercial wheel which he used in his tests. In these tests the wheel was forced with a known velocity against still air, and the result would be different for a wheel working in variable currents. Since the average of the energies of variable currents exceeds the energy of the average current, the effi- ciency is probably higher than that given above. The most prejudicial resistance which the wheel has to overcome is the resistance of the air itself. The efiicieney is work done compared with the cost of do- ing it, and the cost includes the first cost, interest on the capital invested, deterioration, repairs, attendance, lubrica- tion, and fuel (when used) or other power. The last does not enter into consideration in the case of the windmill. The mechanical efficiency of the windmill can not be determined with accuracy, but this is not a serious obstacle commer- cially. for the actual and continued use of machines and the growth of the business is the best guarantee of merit and economy. WINDS Wolff, writing prior to 1885, made numerical comparisons between windmills and some other motors. He concluded that a windmill employed in pumping water is from 1'75 to 225 times as economical as a steam-pump, three times as economical as an Ericsson hot-air engine, and 225 times as economical as a gas-engine, all doing the same work; but the cost of the windmill has been much reduced since that time, and the efficiency increased, hence the above ratios are much greater to-day, since the other motors have not changed to the same extent. The windmill must be ready to run night and day for a succession of years. It should therefore be of durable mate- rial and of the best workmanship; steel is being used more and more. The capacity should also be ample to accom- plish the work designed; it is vexatious and a loss of time to be hindered for want of capacity. The commercial effi- ciency is enhanced by the life of the mill, hence a low first cost, if at the expense of workmanship or cheap material, may be a poor investment. In many cases it is also en- hanced by storing power by pumping water into tanks or reservoirs, or charging electrical storage batteries for future use. DE VoLsoN Woon. Windom, WILLIMI: cabinet oflicer; b. in Belmont co., 0., May 10, 1827 ; studied law, and began the practice of his profession in Ohio; removed to Minnesota in 1855; member of Congress 1858-68; appointed U. S. Senator July, 1870, to fill a vacancy, and elected Senator for 1871-77 ; re-elected in 1876; was U. S. Secretary of the Treasury Mar. 5, 1881, to Oct. 27, 1881; re-elected U. S. Senator Oct. 26, 1881, for term ending 1883 ; became U. S. Secretary of the Treasury Mar. 5, 1889. D. in New York, Jan. 29, 1891. Windowpanez a name given on parts of the coast of North America to the flatfish Pleuronectes maculatus, on account of its thin, transparent body. It is closely related structurally to the turbot of Europe, but is without econom- ic value. J. S. K. Windpipe: See Taxcnna. Winds [O. Eng. wind : Germ. wind :Goth. winds; cf. Lat. ventus : Sanskr. vdta-, from root vd-, to blow]: air-currents. Winds are defined by their direction and velocity. The velocity is measured by the ANEMOMETER (q. v.), and ex- pressed in miles per hour or meters per second. The great- est velocities attained can be judged only by their effects, as no human structures withstand them; they occur in torna- does and hurricanes, and have been estimated at 200 or more miles per hour. For estimate by observers without iagnemometers the following scale is in use by the weather ureau: NAME. Miles per hour. Apparent effect. Calm . . . . .. 0 No visible horizontal motion to inanimate matter. Light . . . . . . 1 to 2 Causes smoke to move from the vertical. Gentle . . . . . 3 to 5 Moves leaves of trees. Fresh . . . . .. 6 to 14 Moves small branches of trees and blows up dust. Brisk . . . . . . 15 to 24 Good sailing breeze and makes white caps. High . . . . . . . 25 to 39 Sways trees and breaks small branches. Gale . . . . . . . 40 to 59 Dangerous for sailing vessels. Storm . . . . . 60 to 79 Prostrates exposed trees and frail houses. Hurricane. 80 or more. Prostrates everything. Many other scales have been adopted. The best known and the one usually employed at sea is the Beaufort scale, as follows: Wind force, Common name Velocity, Beaufort scale. ' miles per hour. 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light breeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gentle breeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moderate breeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fresh breeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strong breeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moderate gale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fresh gale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strong gale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wliole gale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hurricane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 The velocity of the wind increases as we ascend in the free air, and reaches a maximum at some height unknown, but not great. The decrease of velocity below this plane of maximum is due to friction on the earth’s surface, and above the plane to the rarity of the air. Irregularities of the 4 WINDS earth’s surface also introduce inequalities in the velocity, which are of so short duration that our ordinary sensations and instruments do not betray them. They have been studied especially by S. P. Langley, whose results are given in a paper entitled Internal Work of the Wind (Smithsonian O0ntrt'batt'0ns to Knowledge, No. 884, 1893). These varia- tions within a moving mass of air appear to play an impor- tant part in the flight of birds, especially the soaring. The air when in motion exerts a pressure on obstacles opposed to it which is in the ratio of the area vertical to the direction of the wind, but is much modified by cushions of still air on the exposed surface, by eddies at the margins, etc., due to the physical properties of air. The pressure in- creases as the square of the velocity. For velocities up to 90 miles per hour, the pressures given by experiment are as follows, where the barometer stands at about 30 inches: TABLE OF WIND PRESSURES (POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT). ‘U 3.‘? 553 +0. +1. +2. +3 +4. +5. +6. +7. +8. +9 1%? 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0104 0144 0'190 0243 0303 10 0'369 0'433 0'511 0'586 0'666 0762 0853 0949 1'05 1'16 20.. 1'27 1'38 1'50 1'63 1'76 1'90 2'04 2'19 2'34 2'48 30.. 2'64 2'81 2'98 3'14 3'32 3'50 3'67 3'87 4'04 4'24 40.. 4'44 4'64 4'84 5'07 5'27 5'51 5'72 5'93 6'18 6'40 50.. 6'66 6'89 7'12 7'40 7'64 7'88 814 8'43 8'69 8'95 60.. 9'22 9'49 9'76 10'1 104 ]0'6 10'9 11'2 11'6 11'9 70..12'2 125 128 13'1 13'5 13'8 14'1 14'4 14'8 15'1 80..15'5 15'8 16'2 16'5 16'9 17'3 17'6 18'0 18'4 18'8 90.. 19'2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. The velocities indicated are those of the Robinson ane- mometer. These pressures are notably lower than those usu- ally given, and are most reliable for velocities below 60 miles. The direction is determined by the wind-vane or anemo- scope. In horizontal directions the wind is named by that from which it comes. Thus a north wind is southward bound. The vertical motions of the air—upward or down- ward—have been but little observed. This is due to the position of the observer, who is tied to the bottom of the aerial ocean whose vertical currents are to be observed. He therefore occupies the most unfavorable position possible for their observation. Our knowledge of vertical currents is chiefly hypothetical, and is confirmed by cloud formation or other results of such motions. Air-currents are the efforts of the air to restore the at- mospheric equilibrium where it has been disturbed. If the earth were smooth and homogeneous, if it did not rotate. and there were no sun, the atmosphere would settle even- tually into a state of equilibrium, in which there would be no air-currents, If now the sun should pour its rays on such an earth, the spot immediately beneath the sun would become warmer, the warmer air would rise and fiow out above, colder air flow in below, and one regular vortex would be set up. If now the earth should rotate, this vortex would be spread along the whole equator, and would form a ring of ascending air with an inpouring layer below and an outpouring one above. Moreover, the rotation of the earth would give a twist to westward for the infiowing and to eastward for the outfiowing air. Now, if to these are added irregularities of surface, irregularities in the distribu- tion, formation, and dissipation of cloudiness, and seasonal and diurnal changes, suflicient causes have been found for the variability of winds. As results we have the general circulation of air over the globe, and the modifications of this by a great variety of special winds. General 0’I,'?'O7.l/Z(1,lf’2,'O’)I/.——If the earth were covered with water the general circulation, as determined by William Ferrel, would be that shown in Fig. 1, where the horizontal flow is shown on the sphere and the vertical section at its margin. The broken arrows represent the upper winds. This would consist of-— 1. An equatorial ring with calm or light variable winds at the surface. This is the doldrums, and over it the air is ascending. 2. On each side of this are the trade winds, infiowing air at the surface, N. E. in the northern hemisphere, S. E. in the southern; also the westerly antitrades at some elevation. The trades are experienced over a band about 20° wide on the ocean. The stratum of air in motion is shallow, and does not generally extend far on shore. The antitrades are found on the tops of high mountains in the tropics. 3. Outside the trades a band in which, though the weather is settled, the wind is controlled by local instead of general 793 terrestrial conditions. In this band lie the great stationary high pressures of the world. 4. The temperate regions or zones of variable weather and wind where the prevailing direction is westerly, S. W. below, VV. above. ///’ i1’ll"//»”'Wr/"/ .,ih M1/i//,//I///_///,‘_////;\ ,‘ \ Wl1t§fili‘tlitti‘ft1§é9“i/2‘ 771/117‘ 1/!” ' ‘ ,':\‘s1\'\\\\.\\\ .".‘\y|"\‘\‘\ \_\\ \\ _' /i/ ' /H i',I;/ ' _ » \ w 1) . /'// H‘ \ 1 \ . ‘ \\a\1\ (3 211 1n:a n (L ~ :\ \ ////’/.”,{//,, \ ,\\‘\ . \ \ \_/ ,1 J" B ;///9 “Q //-—; [ f/ .4 / / /4 I 4 /I/é {_/, ' 9 \ %:~___" _ \ \_/( x / / /7/, _: / ///////F FIG. 1.—Genera1 circulation. 5. The polar regions, generally calm, but frequently dis- turbed by storms. The equatorial belt moves alternately N. and S. with the changing declination of the sun. completing its movements in a year and causing a corresponding change in the zones mentioned above. The phenomena following the great Knaxxroa (g. ’L'.) eruption indicate that above the system of winds described there is a rapid easterly wind over the equator, changing to S. E. and N. E. as the latitude increases N. and S. re- spectively. As an object of registry the wind is a complex quantity, having two elements of difierent sorts——viz., velocity and direction. The averages for climatic tables are either very voluminous as objects of record or so artificial as to be of little popular use. In the first case they are recorded sepa- rately for direction and velocity or for various combinations of these. Or they may be graphically represented by a dia- gram constructed like a mariner's compass and called a wind-rose. By giving to the radius representing each wind a length proportional to the length of time and the velocity with which it has blown at a given place during a stated period, such as a year or a month, a wind-rose may be traced which will present at a glance the peculiar condition of this im- portant element of climate at that place. In Fig. 2 the N N NE SE S January. FIG. 2. two diagrams, for instance, which represent in this way the average duration of winds in January and July in Mary- land, the eye seizes at once the great prevalence of the northwesterly winds in winter and of the southwesterly in summer which is characteristic of the climate of the Atlan- tic coast. Prof. I-leinrich Dove, of Berlin, used a similar method for showing graphically the average condition of the barometric pressure, thermometer, and hygrometer which accompanies the different winds, and calls such diagrams the barometric, thermic, and atmic (hygrometric) wind-roses of the places considered. In the second case the directions alone, each occurrence counted as one, or the direction, each with its proper veloc- ity, are combined to form a resultant by the principles of 794 wINDsoR the composition and resolution of forces given in text-books on physics. For this purpose a traverse table may be used. The resultant derived in this way is of little use except in certain technical inquiries, and gives no clear idea of the succession of winds. See Ferrel, A Popular Treatise on Winds; also articles CLIMATE, GEOLOGY, and METEoRoLoeY. MARK W. HARRINGTON. Windsor: town of England, in Berkshire; on the right bank of the Thames; 21 miles I/V. by S. of London by rail (see map of England, ref. 12-J). The river is crossed here by an elegant iron bridge connecting Windsor with Eton. Windsor is an ancient borough, but has undergone much alteration of late years, owing to the improvement of the castle. (See VVINDsoR CASTLE.) The park is next to the castle the most interesting feature of the place. Together with the immediately adjoining forest, it comprises an area of 13,000 acres. It still contains many historic trees, such as Elizabeth’s Oak, Shakspeare’s Oak, also the Long ‘Walk, laid out in the reign of Charles II., Queen Anne’s Ride of Elms, 3 miles long, etc. The oldest planted timber in Eng- land, dating back to the time of Elizabeth, is also found in Windsor Park, and not a few oaks may be pointed out of which the age is well established to be more than 1,000 years. Pop. (1891) 12,327. The parliamentary borough re- turns one member. R. A. R. Windsor: town and port of entry; Hants co., Nova Sco- tia. Canada; on the Avon river, and the Dominion Atlantic Railway; 45 miles N. W. of Halifax (for location, see map of Quebec, etc., ref. 2-B). It is in a region abounding in lime- stone, gypsum, and other minerals; is the seat of Kings College, University of Windsor; and is principally engaged in ship-building. fruit-growing, and the manufacture of cot- ton, iron, and wooden goods. It has 2 weekly and 2 monthly periodicals. Pop. (1881) 2,559 ; (1891) 2,838. Windsor: town and port of entry; Essex co., Ontario, Canada: on the Detroit river, and the Mich. Cent., the Grand Trunk, and the Canadian Pac. railways; opposite Detroit, Mich., and 110 miles S. W. of London (for location, see map of Ontario, ref. 6-A). It is regularly laid out and substantially built; has a large export trade in salt, fruit, and agricultural products; and is principally engaged in brewing and distilling liquors, and the manufacture of to- bacco, cigars, leather, boots and shoes, carriages, etc. It has a daily and three weekly newspapers. Pop. (1881) 6,561; (1891) 10,322. - Windsor: town (settled in 1635; first house built in 1633 ; named in 1637); Hartford co., Conn.; on the Connecticut and Farmington rivers, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hartford Railroad (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 7-H). It contains several villages; has post-offiees at Windsor, Po- quonock, and Rainbow, and railway stations at Windsor, Wilson’s, and Hayden’s; and is principally engaged in ag- riculture, and fruit, vegetable, and tobacco growing. There are 7 churches—Congregational, 2; Roman Catholic, 2; and Methodist Episcopal, Protestant Episcopal, and Baptist, 1 each, and 2 mission chapels; a town high school, 2 kinder- gartens, public schools in 10 districts, and a young ladies’ institute; public library; 2 town-halls; Moore’s Park, with a half-mile racing-track, where the Windsor Agricultural Society holds annual fairs; and a trolley line connecting the town with Poquonock, Rainbow, and Hartford. Among the industrial plants are a creamery, canning-works, and manu- factories of electrical goods, machine screws, tobacco, worst- ed goods, underwear, and paper. The banking business of the town is done in Hartford. The assessed valuation of property in 1894 was $1,375,787, and the town debt $61,200, chiefly incurred for macadamizing the roads. Pop. (1880) 3,058; (1890) 2,954. The history of the town extends back more than 250 years. The leader of its first settlers was Roger Ludlow, “the father of Connecticut jurisprudence.” He is believed to have been the author of the constitution adopted in 1639 by the towns of Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield, which united to form the commonwealth of Connecticut. This was the first written constitution in the world, and the model afterward followed in drawing up the Constitution of the U. S., in which the Connecticut delegates exerted great influence. His only monument in Windsor is the “ Roger Ludlow School,” a modern brick edifice erected in 1893 not far from where he lived. Capt. John Mason,the conqueror of the Pequot Indians, was a Windsor citizen; and so was Oliver Ellsworth, Chief Justice of the U. S., whose home is still standing, and contains many colonial relics of great interest. His body lies in the old cemetery, WINDSOR LOCKS and near him the Rev. Ephraim Hewit, one of the early pastors of the First Congregational Church, whose tomb- stone, dated 1644, is probably the oldest in New England. Gov. Roger Wolcott is also buried here, and many others bearing the distinguished names of Mather, Allyn, Rowland, Sill, Loomis, Pierson, Hayden, Morgan, Phelps, etc. See Ancient ll/'indsor (revised edition), by Henry Stiles, M. D., and the Iflemorial II/istory of'Hartford Connty. Rev. F. W. I-IARRIMAN. Windsor: city (founded in 1856); Henry co.,Mo.; on the Mo., Kan. and Tex. Railway; 21 miles S. W. of Sedalia, 208 miles W. of St. Louis (for locat-ion, see map of Missouri, ref. 5-E). It is in an agricultural, stock-raising, and coal-min- ing region, and has 8 churches, a twelve-room public-school building, 2 State banks (combined capital, $70,000), and a semi-weekly and a weekly paper. Pop. (1880) 872; (1890) 1,427 ; (1895) estimated, 1,900. EDITOR or “REVIEW.” Windsor: town; Windsor co., Vt.; on the Connecticut river, and the Cent. Vt. Railroad ; 78 miles S. by E. of Mont- pelier, the State capital (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 7-C). It is in an agricultural region, is an important mar- ket for general produce, cattle, poultry, and maple-sugar; and has 6 churches, the State prison, 2 public parks, library (founded in 1882), high school, iron-foundry, machine-shop, manufactories of hardware specialties, lumber, and shoes, a savings-bank, and a weekly paper. Pop. (1880) 1,696; (1890) 1,384. EDITOR or “VERMONT JOURNAL.” Windsor Castle: the principal royal residence of the sovereigns of Great Britain since the accession of George III. and frequently occupied by the earlier kings. It is built upon a chalk hill near the river Thames, about 22 miles from London. The older palace of the English kings was at Old \Vindsor, about 2 miles distant, and considerable doubt seems to exist among antiquaries and historians as to the first English king who built solid work of masonry at \Vindsor Castle. The most ancient portions are the Garter and Caesar towers, the latter of which forms a bastion of the castle-wall, and abuts upon the winding street called Thames Street. It is one of the most curious antiquities in the whole building. These towers were erected in the reigns of Henry 1., II., and III. To the same period belong the south ambulatory of the Dean’s Cloister, a door behind the altar in St. George’s chapel, and the remains of Domus Regis in the north of the chapel. The Norman gateway near the keep, the groining of the Devil’s Tower and King J ohn’s Tower, and the Dean's Cloister pertain to the time of Edward III. St. George’s chapel was built by Edward IV. ; the choir roof by Henry VII.; the outer gateway of the lower ward by Henry VIII.; and the buildings from the Norman gate to the state apartments, including the library, were raised by Queen Elizabeth. But the' castle, as it now appears, is almost entirely the creation of George IV .’s reign, when about a million sterling was spent upon the place. The courts, the terrace, the gardens, the slopes, and the parks, all underwent great change and much improvement. The internal changes are even more striking than the ex- ternal. Suites of rooms decorated and furnished with the utmost magnificence, the corridor which runs round two sides of the quadrangle, and the grand staircases, immense- ly surpass what was previously to be seen in the castle. Changes have been made in the pictures, some of the old ones having been sent away and others introduced; a mu- seum of curiosities has been arranged in a small gallery on the north side; the library has been improved; the plate- closet, containing silver and silver-gilt services, the engrav- ings, the miniatures, and the drawings are of great value; and the collection of porcelain in the long gallery is thought to be unequaled in Europe; but no facilities are afforded for the study of the works of art in the castle, even when they are national property. The Wolsey chapel contains the tombs of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, and the Duke of Clarence. It has been magnificently decorated and contains a cenotaph to the Prince Consort. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Windsor Locks: town ; Hartford co., Conn.; on the Connecticut river. and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 12 miles N. of Hartford, 14 miles S. of Springfield, Mass. (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 7-H). It was set off from VVindsor, the oldest town in the State, and incorpo- rated in 1854, and has an area of 11 sq. miles. Good power for manufacturing is obtained from the Connecticut river by means of a canal. There are 4 large mills engaged in the manufacture of book, cover, plate, enameled, tissue, and WINDTI-IoRsT fine copying paper and bristol-boards; also manufactories of cotton warp, novelty yarn, and fancy weavmg thread, un- derwear, paper machinery, Jordan engines, silk goods, rolled steel, school globes and apparatus, carpet-loom chains, rub- ber rolls, trucks, furniture, lathe-chucks, and iron-foundry products. The town has 4 churches--Orthodox Congrega- tional, Protestant Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal, and Ro- man Catholic; a public graded school; a Roman Catholic arochial school; Memorial Hall (cost $33,000), presented by Charles E. Chaffee to J . H. Converse Post, 67, G. A. R.; a savings-bank; and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 2,332; (1890) 2,758. EDITOR or “ J oURNAL.” Windthorst, vint’h5rst, LUDWIG : party leader; b. at Kaldenhof, near Osnabriick, Hanover, Nov. 17,1812, studied law at Gtittingen and Heidelberg; practiced as an advocate in his native city, and entered the lower house of the Hano- verian diet in 1849. As leader of the anti-Prussian, anti- constitutional party he became president of the house and Minister of Justice 1851-53, founding the bishopric of Osna- briick and surrounding the king with Roman Catholics. In 1862 he again became a minister, and forced Hanover into an alliance with Austria. After the annexation of Hanover by Prussia and the formation of the North German Confed- eracy he became the leader in the Prussian diet of the Hano- verian opposition, and after the proclamation of the German empire, the chief of the Ultramontanist party in the German Reichstag. The indefatigable adversary of Prince Bismarck, he fought against the prolongation of dictatorial rule in Al- sace-Lorraine, the expulsion of the Jesuits, the introduction of civil marriage, the establishment of the so-called May laws, theissue of the anti-socialist laws. etc. ; and though he suspended his opposition when the Holy See and the Ger- man Government came to a compromise, he demanded too important concessions as the price of clerical support, and on their rejection by the Government renewed his attacks. He was re-elected in 1890. D. in Berlin, Mar. 14, 1891. Windward Islands: originally, the Caribbee islands, or Lesser Antilles; that portion of the West Indian archipelago which forms a north and south chain on the eastern side of the Caribbean Sea, from the Virgin islands to Trinidad. The name was given in allusion to the prevailing winds, which in this region blow almost constantly from the E. (See WEST INDIES.) Ofiicially, the name is now restricted to a British colony, embracing the islands of GRENADA, the GRENADINES, ST. VINCENT, and ST. LUCIA (qq. c.). The cap- ital and residence of the governor-general is St. George’s, in Grenada. H. H. S. Wind-work: See GEoLoeY. Wine and Wine-making [wine is O. Eng. win, an early loan-word from Lat. rinum; cf. the ‘v in the later loan- word oin- (cinea) in vineyard]: By wine is usually under- stood the fermented juice of the grape, although the name is occasionally applied also to fermented beverages derived from other fruits. Its preparation dates from the most ancient times. The wines of the ancients, however, were very generally modified by the addition of spices and other condiments to suit the taste of the consumers-a habit still largely prevalent among their descendants on the Mediter- ranean shores. The taste and demand for strictly pure wines are of comparatively modern date, and their preva- lence accounts in part for the decline of the reputation of some of the wines, anciently most esteemed. of Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, and Persia. Wine-making is a complex and ditlicult art when the best possible results are to be achieved, and owes much to the progress of modern science. Grapes to be used in wine-making should be fully ripe; when this is not the case, the juice is deficient in quantity as well as quality, poor in sugar, and rich in acids, and yields a wine deficient in aroma, of a “ green " flavor. It is therefore generally necessary to gather the fruit in two or three successive “pickings,” leaving the unripe bunches time to mature. Should the natural conditions fail to bring about the full ripening. the defect is sought to be remedied by various devices, such as spreading the bunches on mats or straw in the sun or in warmed rooms; placing them in large vats, in mass, for several days: causing them to freeze, or steaming them moderately. When the weather permits, the grapes are often allowed to become over-ripe to such extent as to make them appear to be wilted; they then yield less, but sweeter and stronger wine (Ausbruchwein, Germ.). Finally, in southern countries (Spain, Italy, Greece) wine is frequently made from grapes fully dried, or raisins, the requisite water being added in crushing and pressing. In WINE AND WINE-MAKING 795 vineyards whose product is very valuable, all unripe and decayed berries are carefully handpicked from the bunches, and the latter, or even their berries, assorted as to quahty. Where the vineyards are exposed to dust, the fruit is washed by Spraying with clean water, since otherwise the wme acquires an “earthy” flavor, which is often erroneously ascribed to the inherent quality of the soil. Stemming and Crushing.—According to the kind and quality of the wine to be made, the separation of the stems from the berries prior to crushing and fermentation may or may not be desirable, the stems containing much acid and tannin. It is sometimes done by handpicking, but mostly by means of coarse wire sieves or combs, against which the bunches are worked by hand. In California mechanical stemmers and crushers, driven by steam power and capable of working 10 tons of grapes per hour, are in use. The berries are mostly crushed by passing them between ribbed rollers. set so as to avoid crushing any kernels. Sometimes the unstemmed bunches are crushed by treading with clogs or sandals, or by pounding with wooden pestles. The “ first run,” or juice flowing off spontaneously after crushing, is often kept apart, because of yielding a higher quality of wme. Pressing.—This is effected by means of presses of every variety of pattern, from the primitive lever and wedge press to the screw and hydraulic, and even the centrifugal proc- ess has been successfully used. When the “first run ” has been separately received, the pressed juice constitutes the "second run”; while the pressed residue is the pomace, which is thereafter utilized for the production of inferior wine, vinegar, or brandy. The amount of unfermented juice obtained usually ranges from 70 to 80 per cent. of the weight of the berries in the wine grapes proper. which are juicy, with little pulp; while pulpy varieties (mostly used for the table) may yield as little as 60 per cent. But when, as in red-wine making, the pulp is fermented with the juice before pressing. the pomace (skins. pulp. and seeds) may amount to only 7 per cent. of the weight of the bunches, while the stems range from 2% to over 7 per cent. of the same. The average product of salable red wine per ton of grapes is usually estimated at 150 gal. Composition of Grapes and JIust.—The ‘grape-berries vary considerably in their contents of soluble matters. ac- cording to variety and degree of ripeness; viz., from 126 per cent. i11 colder climates to over 28 per cent. in warm regions; insoluble matters from 25 to 7 per cent.; water from 70 to 85 per cent. The ash of grapes varies from '4 to "5 per cent., of which from one-half to two-thirds is soluble in water. The ash of must varies from '25 to '4 per cent. of its weight; from 80 to 85 per cent. of this ash consists of alkali (chiefly potash): P20.-,. about 41. The proximate ingredients of must may be briefly stated as follows : VVater; sugar. in the form of about equal parts of gra-pe—sugar or dextrose, and fruit-sugar or levulose; a little gum and dextrin and pectin; vegetable acids—chiefly tar- taric (sometimes racemic), small amounts of malic, citric: fat, wax; albuminoids; tannin ; coloring-matter: volatile aroma. pre-existing chiefly in the husks of some kinds of grapes, and distinct from the wine flavor and “bouquet”; ash ingredient-—potash, soda, lime, magnesia, oxides of iron and manganese, potassium sulphate, calcium phosphate, chlorine, silica. Potassium is chiefly present as bitartrate, or cream of tartar. Sugar may be considered the most important ingredient of must, its amount, together with that of the vegetable acids, being largely the index to the probable commercial value of the product. Of all known fruit-juices, grape-must contains the largest amount of sugar, ranging from 13 to over 30 per cent., according to the warmth of the climate or sea- son. From 20 to 25 per cent. is considered a desirable figure for dry wines. In fermentation the sugar is partially or wholly transformed into somewhat less than half its weight of alcohol, about one-half being given ofli in the shape of carbon dioxide (carbonic acid). Besides common alcohol, there are formed succinic acid, glycerin. and a number of aromatic ethereal compounds, whose presence and quantity materially influence the quality of the wine. Since. more- over. a liquid containing over 125 weight per cent. of alco- hol ferments slowly or not at all, any excess of sugar of over 25 per cent. may remain undecomposed and sweeten the wine. Wines containing less than 12 per cent. of alcohol seem to owe any sweetness chiefly to glycerin produced in fermentation. The amount of sugar in the n1ust is usually ascertained by means of a hydrometer. 796 The following table gives the volume-percentage of alco- hol contained in some of the best-known wmes, varymg greatly, of course, from year to year: Rhenish and Moselle wines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 to 12'0 Gri'1neberger, Naumburger (Northeast Ger- many) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' Burgundy, red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7'5 to 135 Bordeaux, first class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7'0 to 11'5 Catawba, Concord, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8'5 to 127 California wines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 to 150 Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 to 230 Sherry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17'0 to 210 Madeira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17'0 to 190 Tokay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12'0 to 20'0 Greek and Syrian wines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 to 180 The aciol's of must rank next in importance to sugar. Their amount varies from '3 to 1'02 per cent., to a certain extent in inverse ratio to the sugar present, since during the later stages of ripening the free acids undergo a rapid diminution; and as on their presence depends, to a large extent, the formation of the peculiar ethereal wine-flavors in fermentation, one cause of the lack of flavor observed in wines of southern countries is obvious. From '6 to '8 per cent. are usual and desirable proportions of acid in musts; but more does not necessarily render the resulting wine more acid, provided abundance of sugar is present. Of the special nature of the albuminoicls and other ni- trogenous ingredients of must but little is known. Their amount varies from '24 to '83 per cent., and their presence exerts a most important influence upon the fermentation and keeping qualities of wine. Being essential to the for- mation of yeast, an inadequate supply of these substances causes incomplete fermentation; while an over-supply, though partially precipitated in the lees, is supposed to ren- der the wine liable to spoiling. This assumption is not, however, confirmed by the latest researches. Tannin is not present in the pure juice, but occurs largely in the skins of some kinds of grapes (red and black) as well as in the stems and seedcoats. Hence close crushing and pressing, and still more the presence of the whole pomace during fermentation, cause the wine to be rich in tannin. Under the same circumstances the coloring-matter of the husks and the acid and tannin of the stems and seed-hulls find their way into the wine in larger quantities, thus causing the more acid and astringent qualities of red wine. The fermentation by which must becomes wine starts spontaneously, under the influence of minute germs adher- ent to the outside of the berries or afloat in the air, within a time varying, according to temperature, from a few hours to several days after pressing. The must becomes increas- ingly turbid, gas-bubbles begin to rise, and soon bring with them particles of yeast (see FERMENTATION), which tend to accumulate on the surface. At the same time the tempera- ture begins to rise, reaching 10° to over 20° C. above the outside temperature, according to that temperature and the quantity of the fermenting mass. Fermentation is usually most active between 25° and 30° C., depending somewhat upon the sugar-content of the juice; but wines fermented at high temperatures lack aroma and keeping quahties; hence the use of deep, cool cellars to retard the process and permit the formation of the delicate “ bouquets” which characterize the wines of cool climates. Of late, the controlling of the temperature by artificial means, and the starting of the fermentation by means of pure yeast f1:om superior vintages, are attracting increased attention. In the making of red wines, dark-tinted grapes are crushed and fermented as a whole, with the must, usually in open tanks; thus charging the wine with the color, tan- nin, and other soluble matters of the grape body; while white wines are made by fermenting alone the previously pressed juice of white or light-colored grapes. This differ- ence in preparation results, of course, in material differences in hygienic as well as other properties. Five to seven days is the usual time for red-wine mashes to complete their first fermentation; the gas carries the pomace to the top, form- ing the “ cap ” (Fr. chapeau), which is either submerged by stirring-in (Fr. foulage) at least once a day, or may be kept permanently submerged by perforated covers, to favor ex- traction and the contact of the yeast with the must. To pre- vent more certainly souring (acetification) by exposure to the air, a solid “ floating" cover, leaving an annular space around its circumference for escape of gas, is advantageously employed. Of late, the complete exclusion of air during WINE AND WINE—MAKING red-wine fermentation by various devices is coming into‘ greater favor, and is applied even to the “ grand wines” of France. In the fermentation of white musts the accumula- tion of the yeast at the surface and (in the usual practice) its expulsion at the bung-hole of the fermenting cask retards the action, approximately doubling the times above men- tioned. Sandbags on the bung-hole are frequently used to p_1('ievent injurious access of air when the fermentation sub- si es. After-fermentation.-—Upon the subsidence of the violent fermentation, the yeast, with more or less of tartar, gummy and albuminoid matters (lees) and grape clébris, and pomace, settles to the bottom, while the liquid clears and is then carefully drawn off into casks to undergo the after-fermen- tation, during which the remaining sugar (4 to 2 per cent.) ferments out slowly, and the formation of the characteristic bouquet begins. Great care must now be taken to prevent access of air and consequent acetification, yet without in- curring the risk of bursting the casks by tight lounging. Hence, as the wine diminishes by eva oration through the wood, the empty space must be fille up with other wine (ullage), a practice which must thereafter be continued so long as the wine remains in wood. The after-fermentation may last from six weeks to several months; during that time an abundant deposition of lees takes place; these con- sist largely of tartar (which is difficultly soluble in alcoholic fluids) with some yeast, and gummy and albuminous mat- ters, and are utilized in the manufacture of cream of tartar. Ilfaturing-When fermentation has completely ceased the young wine is again drawn (racked) off, preferably into smaller casks, in which the maturing or aging is to take place. This process depends essentially on the gradual action of atmospheric oxygen, which enters through the pores of the wood, for in air-tight vessels no bouquet is formed. The ma- turing process is hastened by frequent racking (every two months), during which the wine is for a short time exposed to the air and absorbs oxygen. Each time this is done the wine becomes slightly turbid (“muddy ”) and forms adeposit, consisting mainly of products of oxidation, but very common- ly in part of fungus vegetation. The suppression of the lat- ter is of capital importance to the preservation of the wine, upon which it feeds, causing a variety of “ diseases,” which often cause enormous losses. According to circumstances and the nature of the germs present, the wine may incline to turn sour, forming vinegar, or “ milksour,” with a taste of rancid butter-; or bitter, from the bitter ferment that par- ticularly infests old wines; or stale, from the destruction of both tartar and alcohol by a special parasite, etc. Many remedies (mostly antiseptics) have been of old resorted to against these dangers. Among them sulphuring (by burn- ing sulphur in the casks) to kill the germs; fining (adding gelatin and then, in the case of white wines, tannin, thus forming a bulky precipitate); and filtration are the most used; the last named, when employing close-textured un- glazed porcelain (Ohamberland) filters, is very effective. But the most ready remedy is the heating, out of contact with air, to about 65° C., as recommended by Pasteur, which can be done without injury to most wines, while killing the noxious germs and increasing the apparent age. When, finally, after the lapse of from two to four, and in rare cases even eight years, the wine remains clear when racked, it is “ bottle-ripe,” and is considered finished. Most wines, however, continue to improve by age in flavor, for a length of time differing for each kind. In the end, even bottled wines become too harsh and acid to be palatable. Sparkling Wines-Ordinary “ still” wines retain only so much of the gas generated in fermentation as to impart to them a refreshing quality, which soon vanishes on exposure to the air; the wine then becomes “flat.” Sparkling wines, of which champagne (so called from the province of France where it is chiefly made) is the type, effervesce on account of an excess of carbonic acid gas contained in them under pressure. This gas is generated in a second fermentation produced in the young wine, subsequent to after-fermenta- tion, by the addition of sugar and (when necessary) yeast- forming matter (gelatin). This is effected in strong bottles tightly corked, and when the fermentation is completed the sediment of yeast is ejected from the mouth of the inverted bottle by dexterous manipulation. Of all Wines, champagne is perhaps the most extensively imitated, mostly by forcing into sweetened still wines, or even cider, such gas as is used in the preparation of soda-water. Sweet or fortified wines are made from certain grapes of high sugar-contents, grown in warm countries, by arresting WINE AND WINE-MAKING the fermentation of the must by the addition of wine-brandy before the sugar has fermented out, and subsequent expo- sure of the wine thus “fortified ” to air at summer heat in partially empty casks, whereby it is matured. Such wines are often sweetened to suit the taste by means of evaporated must; they contain usually from 2 to 8 per cent. of sugar. Blending of Wines. Few wines reach the consumer as they would result from the processes above detailed, as applied to one kind of grape. It is the general practice to adapt the various kinds and qualities of wines to the taste of the consumers by the intermixture of such as will im- prove each other. To this practice no reasonable objection can be made, since from beginning to end intelligent man- agement infiuences the nature of wine nearly as much as its origin. and it would be difficult to define just what should be understood by “natural wine.” Blending is a difficult art, requiring a natural qualification as well as trained judgment, but is greatly aided by chemical wine an- al sis. 3‘r‘D0ct01'ing” of IVines.—Of all articles of human con- sumption wine is probably the one most commonly modi- fied by additions and adulterations. So long as these addi- tions merely make up for deficiencies in what might be considered the normal composition of must (as is done in adding sugar to the must of vintages that have suffered from unfavorable weather), it is questionable whether the consumer has reason to complain; and hence this practice (“chaptalizing”) is very general in the colder wine coun- tries, and is hardly made a secret of. The simultaneous addition of water ("gallizing”) might claim equal immu- nity when made on similar grounds, and not for the fraudu- lent increase of quantity. The manufacture of a wine-like beverage from the pomace, by extraction with sugar-water to such extent as will secure for the resulting juice a pro- portion of constituents similar to that of natural must (“petiotizing”) while not intrinsically objectionable, is liable to great abuse, though vastly preferable to the com- pounding of so-called wines from materials to which the grape is a stranger, and whose manufacture has to a great extent been supplanted by that of cheap “petiotized ” wines. The “ piquette ” made in France from the pomace by a second fermentation, forming the common beverage of the laboring class, falls under these heads. Aside from these more or less avowable practices (among which “ scheelizing,” the addition of glycerin, might also be men- tioned), the dark arts of the wine-compounder are innumer- able, and often difficult of detection. Among still wines, those most commonly imitated are the heavy, sweet wines of southern countries, which are to a great extent themselves the result of a comparatively arti- ficial process, and whose general wine-fiavor it is relatively easy to reproduce. Raisins and other dried fruits are most commonly the basis of such articles. Classification of Wines.-The wines of commerce may in a general way be divided into—(1) dry wines, not or at least not obviously sweet, but possessing a more or less dis- tinctive and high flavor—bouquet; (2) sweet or “ forti- fied” wines, permanently and decidedly sweet, and rich in alcohol, with but a general vinous aroma; mostly from southern climates. Between these two classes there are of course all degrees of transition, and in both we find both white and red or tinted wines. Those of France are classed with especial care for commercial purposes. France stands at the head of wine-producing countries, and produces an especial abundance and variety of red wines, of which those most highly esteemed are grown in the Bordelais and in Burgundy, as well as in Dauphine. The Bordeaux wines (clarets) have a full, agreeable bouquet, a good deal of body, are spirited yet not heady, with a de- cided astringency and acid, and permit of considerable dilu- tion with water, with but little less of zest; they form the bulk of French export wines; first-class are Chateau Lafitte, Chateau Latour, Chateau l\’Iargaux, Haut Brion, etc. Sec- ond-class clarets are, e. g., those of St.-Julien, St.-Este‘phe, Cantenac of the Bordelais, those of the Champagne, the Lyonnais, and Dauphiné. The Burgundy wines, such as Chambertin, Clos V ougeot, etc., are rather heavy, oily, less astringent and acid, with a fine, peculiar aroma, and will not bear shipment to long distances. Petits wins, or win orclinaire, is produced in all but eight out of eiglity-six departments. The white wines of France are stronger and have more body than the Rhenish wines: first-class are the “Haut Sauterne” of Chateau Yquem, of the Bordelais; also some white wines of Burgundy and Champagne (Sil- \ 797 lery). Other Sauternes, Barsac, etc., count as second-class. Superior dry wines are also produced in the south of France, but most prominent in commerce are the liqueur (sweet) wines of Perpignan, Languedoc (Frontignan, Lunel), Rous- sillon, and the “straw wines” of Dauphiné. In 1875 the wine yield of France was over 1,840,000,000 gal., in 1887, only 535,000,000 gal., owing to the phylloxera, in 1893, 1,300,000,000 gal., and in 1894, not much less than the last amount. Foremost among the wines of Germany are the high-fla- vored. dry Rhenish wines, grown from Alsace down to Cob- lenz, in the valley of the Rhine and its tributaries. Of the white wines (known in England under the collective name of “ hock,” a corruption of Hochheim), those of Hoch- heim, Riidesheim, J ohannisberg, Forst, the Niersteiner, Mareobrunner; and among the red wines, the Affenthaler and Asmannshauser are best known. The Moselle wines resemble those of the Rhine in flavor, but are light and acid; the wines of Franconia are also acid, but heavier, and not so high-flavored. Those of Northeastern Germany (Si- lesia, Saxony) are very acid. Among the wines of Switzerland, those of the J ura region (Vaud, Neuchzitel, Geneva) are esteemed best. Almost all have a somewhat harsh and earthy taste, and are not ex- ported. That of the Valtelline has some reputation as a stomachic and tonic. Austria has usually been second to France in the amount of wine produced, but only the wines of Hungary and some of the liqueur wines of the Adriatic provinces are somewhat widely known in commerce, and the aggregate export is quite small. The sweet, fiery, and aromatic wine of Tokay in Hungary is by some esteemed above all others. Many other excellent wines are in high local repute. Italy produces abundance of wines, which in the north (Piedmont, Tuscany) are chiefly “ dry” reds, such as those of Asti, Monte Pulciano, and Fiascone, the Chianti, etc.; while southward, and especially in Sicily, Lachryma Christi and Marsala are best known. Much good material is spoiled by bad management in wine-making. During the worst period of the phylloxera invasion in France. Italy exceeded the latter country in wine production, and supplied much wine to it. - The wine production of the Iberian Peninsula is very extensive and of considerable commercial importance. Both dry and sweet wines are produced. Among the wines ex- ported, the best known are those of J erez (sherry), Malaga, and Oporto (port). The latter is largely made and blended to suit the English market. The wines of Malaga and J erez are both of the dry and liqueur class; all are strengthened by the addition of spirit. Of the same general character are the wines of Madeira. Few of the wines of Greece enjoy a general reputation at present, although the wines of Cyprus and Chios are still praised. They, as well as those of Turkey in Europe and Asia, and Persia, suffer for want of care in preparation, and from the nature of the vessels (goat or hog skins, ren- dered water-proof by pitch) in which they are too commonly kept or conveyed. The wines of Southern Russia (Crimea and Bessarabia), though little known to commerce, are now supplying a con- siderable portion of the demand in that empire, and their production is increasing very rapidly. In Africa (apart from the Canaries) wine-production has long been established in the Cape Colony, and the (mostly sweet) wines of the Cape enjoy some repute in England and elsewhere. In Algeria, the vine-culture early established by the French now produces a considerable amount of wine. The wines of Constantine enjoy some commercial reputa- tion. but most of the Algerian wines disappear under the blending art of the mother country. Recently the wines of Australia, resembling in general ' those of California, have appeared in the English market, and have met with favor. The wines of Chili and Argen- tina are not known to commerce as yet. Of American wines, those of California approach most nearly to those of Europe, being made from the same vari- eties of grapes, of the mTn/i_fera type, which are unadapted to the climatic conditions E. of the Rocky Mountains. The variety of climates within California seems to render feasible, with proper selection and treatment, the production of all the various types of wines of Middle and Southern Europe. The best wines of California growth are unfortunately now commonly sold to consumers under various French labels, leaving mainly the inferior qualities credited to the State; 798 WINEBERRY which, added to various unfortunate, but in their nature only temporary, commercial conditions, has caused a serious depression in the wine industry there. The high qualities of the best Californian wines, however, have been repeatedly recognized by French experts. The wine product of Cali- fornia has for a number of years ranged from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 gal. The wines of the States E. of the Rocky Mountains, made from American grapes only, differ from those of Europe, and all other countries in mostly possessing more or less of the peculiar (foxy) aroma of the berries. As in Europe, the musts frequently fail to acquire. N. of the Potomac, the de- sirable amount of sugar; which is then supplemented by the addition of cane-sugar, but would be more appropriately supplied from the surplus sugar of California musts, evapo- rated for the purpose. E. VV. HILGARD. Wineberry: a term applied in the U. S. to Rubus phac- nicolasius, a raspberry of J apan, introduced as a fruit-plant in 1887, although it was grown before that time as an orna- mental plant. The plant is characterized by a hairy red- dish covering, and the wine-red berries are inclosed in a husk-like calyx. The fruit is little known. L. H. B. Wine’brenner, JoHN: religious leader; b. in Frederick co., Md., Mar. 24, 1797; became a minister of the German Reformed Church at Harrisburg, Pa., 1820, but in conse- quence of a difference of views in regard to revivals seceded from that Church Sept., 1828, and in Oct., 1830, established a new denomination under the title of the Church of God, now more generally known as “ W'inebrennerians.” (See article CHURCH OF GOD.) Winebrenner edited for several years The Gospel Publisher, now the Church Advocate, the organ of his sect. published at Harrisburg, and published a number of books, including Pronouncing Testament and Gazetteer (Harrisburg, 1836); Brief Views of the Church of God (1840); A Treatise on Regeneration (1844); and Practical and Doctrinal Sermons (1860). D. at Harrisburg, Sept. 12, 1860. Winebrennerians : See WINEBRENNER. Wineland: See VINLAND. Wine-plant : a name sometimes applied to RHUBARB (g. c.). Winer, eee'ner, GEORG BENEDIKT: professor of theology ; b. at Leipzig, Germany, Apr. 13, 1789; studied theology in his native city; became professor extraordinary there 1819, ordinary professor at Erlangen in 1823 and at Leipzig in 1832, and died there May 12, 1858. He published Compara- tive Darstellung des Lehrbegrifis der oerschiedenen Kirchen- parteien (Leipzig, 1824; 4th ed. by P. Ewald, 1882; trans- lated into English, The Doctrines and Confessions of Chris- tendom, Edinburgh, 1873) ; A Grammar of the Chaldee Language as contained in the Bible and the Targums (1824 ; Eng. trans. by H. B. Hackett, Andover 1845); and A Gram- mar of New Testament Greek regarded as a sure Basis of New Testament Emegesis (1822; 8th ed. 1894; translated into English by W. T. Moulton, Edinburgh, 1870; 2d ed. 1877): Biblisches Real/worterbulc/i (1820: 3d ed. 1847, 2 vols.), a work of great industry and learning upon all historical, geographical, and archaeological matters contained in the Bible; Hcmdbuch der Theologischen Litteratur(1821; 3d ed. 1838), also a very useful work, and distinguished as much by accuracy as by completeness. Revised by S. M. J AGKSON. Wines, ENOGH Conn, D. D., LL. D.: philanthropist; b. at Hanover, N. J ., Feb. 17, 1806; graduated at Middlebury College 1827 ; took charge of the Edge Hill School, Prince- ton, N. J ., 1833; became Professor of Languages in the Cen- tral High School at Philadelphia 1838; conducted a board- ing-school at Burlington, N. J ., 1844-48; was licensed as a Congregational preacher 1849; was pastor of churches at Cornwall, Vt., and Easthampton, Long Island ; became Pro- fessor of Ancient Languages in Washington College, Pa., 1853, and president of the City University of St. Louis, Me., 1859; secretary of the New York Prison Association 1862; founded the National Prison Association 1870, of which he became secretary; went to Europe as a representa- tive of the U. S. Government 1871 ; succeeded in convening representatives of twenty--six governments at the first Inter- national Penitentiary Congress at London, July 4, 1872, when he was appointed chairman of a commission which met at Brussels 1874 and at Bruchsal 1875, and called a sec- ond international congress to meet at Stockholm 1877. He was the author of Commentaries on the Laws ofthe Ancient Hebrews (New York, 1852; 6th ed. Philadelphia, 1869) and WINNEMUCCA The State of Prisons and Child-saving Institutions through- out the VVorld (Cambridge, 1880). D. at Cambridge, Mass., Dec., 10, 1879. Revised by GEORGE P. FISHER. Winfield: city (founded in 1870); capital of Cowley co., Kan.; on the Walnut river, and the Atch., Top. and S. Fé, the Mo. Pac.. and the St. L. and San Fran. railways; 38 miles S. E. of \Vichita (for location, see map of Kansas, ref. 8-H). It is the center of a rich agricultural region; is prin- cipally engaged in farming and manufacturing; contains churches of the leading denominations. a public high school, Methodist Episcopal and German Lutheran colleges, 3 na- tional banks with combined capital of $225,000, and a State bank with capital of $20,000; and has a daily, 5 weekly, and 4 monthly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 2,844; (1890) 5,184; (1895) estimated, 6,800. EDITOR or “ COURIER.” \Vi11g'llanl: village; Huron County, Ontario, Canada; on the Maitland river, and the Gr. Trunk and Canadian Pac. railways; 39 miles W. of Palmerston (for location, see map of Ontario, ref. 4—C). It is in an agricultural and dairying region; derives excellent power from the river, and has saw and flour mills, salt-works, furniture and other factories, a bank, and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1881) 1,918; (1891) 2,167. Winkelried, oink’el-reved, ARNOLD, von: patriot; a na- tive of the canton of Unterwalden, Switzerland. According to the legend, he decided by his patriotic self-sacrifice the battle of Sempach July 9.1386, in which a small Swiss force was engaged with a large Austrian army under Archduke Leopold. By gathering the lances of Austrian halberdiers into his body and bearing them down to the ground, he effected a breach in the Austrian line, through which the Swiss made the attack. A monument was raised to him at Stanz, in Unterwalden, Sept. 3, 1865. The question of the truth of the legend has furnished the subject of an extensive literature. See H. von Liebenau, Arnold eon IVinhelried, seine Zeit und seine That (1862) ; Kleissner, Die Quellen zur Sempacher Schlacht und die W inhelried Sage (Giittingen. 1873); Biirkli, Der wahre lVinhelried—die Tah- tih der alten Urschweizer (1886); and T. von Liebenau, Die Schlacht bei Sempach, etc. Winlock, J OSEPH, LL. D.: astronomer; b. at Shelbyville, Ky., Feb. 6,1826; graduated at Shelby College 1845; be- came Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in that in- stitution ; was employed at the observatory at Cambridge, Mass., as one of the computers of the Nautical Almanac 1852; became Professor of Mathematics in the U. S. navy 1856; was the second superintendent of the American Nau- tical Almanac, succeeding Admiral C. H. Davis in 1856; was for a short time professor at the Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md.; became director of the observatory at Cambridge, Mass, and Phillips Professor of Astronomy in Harvard University 1866; conducted expeditions to Ken- tucky to observe the solar eclipse of Aug., 1869, and to Spain to observe that of Dec., 1870, and made important im- provements in the equipment of the observatory. D. at Cambridge, June 11, 1875. Revised by SIMON NEWGOMB. VV inneba’ go City: village; Faribault co.,Minn.; on the Blue Earth river, and the Chi., Mil. and St. Paul and the Chi., St. P., Minn. and Om. railways; 35 miles S. of Man- kato (for location, see map of Minnesota, ref. 11—E). It is in an agricultural region, and has water-works, a Freewill Baptist college, a high school, 2 private banks, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 993; (1890) 1,108; (1895) 1,635. EDIToR or “ PRESS-NEWS.” Winnebago Indians: See SIOUAN INDIANS. Willnebago Lake: the largest body of water entirely within the limits of Wisconsin ; traversed by the navigable Fox river. It is 26 miles long, and has a maximum breadth of 10 miles. Area, 212‘sq. miles. As shown by railway surveys, it is 748 feet above the sea. It is navigated by steam- boats, and abounds in fish of various species. A part of its eastern shore has been curiously walled with stones that have been forced shoreward by the expansion of the ice in winter. Revised by I. C. RUSSELL. Winnemuc’ca: town; capital of Humboldt co., Nev.; on the Humboldt river, and the South. Pac. Co.’s railway; 144 miles W. of Elko, 170 miles N. E. of Reno (for loca- tion, see map of Nevada, ref. 3-G). It is in an agricultural and silver-mining region, is a shipping-point for beef, wool, and grain, and has a national bank with capital of $110,000, and a daily newspaper. Pop. (1880) 763; (1890) 1,037. SILvER STATE PUBLISHING Co. WINNEMUCCA LAKE Winnemucca Lake: a body of water occupying a desert valley in Western Nevada. It is 96 miles long from N. to S. with an average breadth of 3%; miles, and is from 50 to'87 feet deep. It is fed almost entirely by Truckee river, which divides and supplies Pyramid Lake also._ It is Without out- let, and contains 3'6 parts per 1,000 of mineral matter, prin- cipally common salt, in solution. ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. inne )e 00' sis : the Indian name for Little Lake Win- nigierg, a clonltginuation of Lake Manitoba, lying from 30 to 60 miles W. of Lake Winnipeg, into which it_ discharges through the Fauford and Little Saskatchewan rivers. It 1S surrounded by wooded prairie land not yet settled. ’in'ni e : ca ital of the province of Manitoba, Domin- I01? of Canladi ; thg largest city of the Dominion W. of Lake Superior, and the seventh in size in British North Ameri_ca; situated in 97° W. lon. and 49° 50’ N. 1at.; at the Junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers (see map of Canada, ref. 9-H). Winnipeg covers an area of about 12,750_ acres, a large part of which is not yet built upon. It is divided into six wards for municipal purposes, and its streets are laid out almost entirely on the rectangular system. Public squares, other than the spaces surrounding some of the public build- ings, have not been provided, but a board_of park commis- sioners has purchased several open spaces in different parts of the city, which, by degrees, are being converted into pub- lic recreation-grounds. _ _ Streets, Public Bzn'Zdz'ngs, and Instetutzons.—The streets, stores, offices, and larger private houses are lighted by'elec- tricity, while gas is also used as an auxiliary or substitute. The street-car service is an electric one, and there are about 14 miles of line in use. Neither of the rivers has been used for commercial purposes by the city for several years, but when a lock has been built to overcome an obstruction 18 miles down the Red river, that stream will be navigable from Winnipeg to Lake Winnipeg, and for its whole dis- tance in the province, and probably for a considerable dis- tance iii the U. S. The Assiniboine is a smaller and more sluggish stream, on which are the city water-works, which, together with forty or fifty artesian wells, provide the water-supply of Winnipeg. The city is only partially paved, cedar blocks being used for the roadway, and where wooden sidewalks have been abandoned, granolithic pavement has taken their place. Main Street, running N. and S. from the Assiniboine to the northern limit of the city and parallel with Red river, is the principal business street, though most of the wholesale houses are on Princess Street and its imme- diate vicinity. _ The city-hall and the post-office. both on Main Street, together with the legislative buildings, heutenant-governor’s residence, court-house, and armory-—these latter in _the southern or Assiniboine side of the city_—-are the principal public buildings. There is an Anglican cathedral and archbishop’s residence at the northern extremity of the city, and 3 other edifices belonging to the Church of _Eng- land, 6 Presbyterian churches, 5 Methodist, 1 Baptist, 3 (including the cathedral) Roman Catholic, the Roman Cath- olic cathedral being in St. Boniface, a suburb on the east side of Red river. St. J ohn‘s College, for Anglicans, the Methodist College, the Presbyterian College, and the Roman Catholic College at St. Boniface comprise the Manitoba University, and there are 11 large ublic schools. The W'innipeg General Hospital and the St. Boniface Hospital are supported by voluntary, private, and denominational subscriptions with government aid. The Deaf and Dumb Institute is supported by the Provincial Government. Ft‘ncmces.-—Wiiinipeg is governed by a mayor elected by general vote, and acouncil of twelve elected by SIX wards, there being a separate organization of trustees for the government of the public schools. also elected by wards. The real estate of the city’ was assessed in 1894 at $18.7 60,950, and_busmess- tax assessment $3,240,380, or in all $22,001,330. with a rate of 1960 mills on the dollar, including the school assessment, which varies according to the necessity of building. In 1893 it was 4 mills on the dollar. . . Industries, Brmks, etc.——-The business interests of VViiiiii- peg are very varied. The city is not only the capitalof the province, but is to a large extent the distributing point for the whole of the territory between Lake Superior and the Rocky Mountains. There is not yet any great ma.nufactui'- ing interest, with the exception of a large flour-mill, linseed- oil mill, lumber-mills, a foundry, and the Canadian Pacific Railway’s shops, three barbed-wire factorie_s, and a pork- packing establishment on the St. Boniface side of the Red WIN N IPISEOGEE LAKE 799 river. All the leading banks of Canada have branches in Winnipeg, the city ranking generally third in the monthly return of banking business of the Dominion. There are, in addition, several mortgage and loan companies that advance money on real estate, and a private bank. .Ht'szf0ry.—-\Vinnipeg was incorporated by act of the pro- vincial Legislature in 1873. At the junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers the Hudson Bay Company’s post, Fort Garry, had drawn round it in course of time a small settle- ment of traders and retired employees of the company. In 1870, when the Red River expedition, under Col. (later Lord) Wolseley, arrived at Fort Garry to dispossess the insurgent Riel, there was a population of about 200 people within a mile of the fort. This served as the nucleus of the city of Winnipeg. (See MAi\*IToBA.) The rush of people from other parts of Canada, consequent upon the opening up of the country and the decision of the Government to make the capital of the new province at Fort Garry, quickly deter- mined the question of the future central point, and the popu- lation rapidly increased. When rail communication through Northern Minnesota was completed, the growth of the city continued more steadily, and was again largely augmented by the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the boom which occurred in 1881 and 1882. The reaction from the boom was felt for a few years, but the settlement of the farming lands, the produce of which passed through ‘Winnipeg, prevented any serious results from the over-specu- lation, and enabled the city to recover its steady growth. Eight lines and branch lines of railway converge in Winni- peg. Pop. (1881) 7,985; (1891) 25,642: (1894) estimated, 35,- 000, I\LIOLYl\‘EUX ST. JOHN. Winnipeg Lake : a large sheet of water situated in Manitoba, Canada, between lat. 50° and 54° N. and lon. 96° 30' and 99° W. It is about 4 miles wide at its south end, narrows very closely in the center, and then extends for about 27 5 miles, expanding to about 60 miles at its northern extremity. It is the reservoir of a number of rivers. chief among which is the Winnipeg, draining the Lake of the VVoods and country W. of the height of land that separates the waters flowing into Lake Superior from those of the west; the Great Saskatchewan, which with the Assiniboine, whose waters also fall into it, drains the Canadian N orth- west territories Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Assiniboia: and the Red river, flowing between Minnesota and North Da- kota and flowing through Manitoba. Lake VVinnipeg clis- charges through the Nelson river into Hudson Bay. It is about 9,000 sq. miles in area, and 710 feet above the sea— that is, 112 feet higher than Lake Superior. It is rocky and rugged on its east coast, the Laurentian formation pre- vailing, but fiat and marshy on much of the west, where the Silurian formation is found. At the head of the lake is Norway House, formerly one of the chief distributing ports of the Hudson Bay Company. There is a large Icelandic settlement on the west shore. back of which the country is fertile and wooded. The lake produces large quantities of whitefish, the fisheries being worked systematically as well as providing food for the Icelandic settlement and the Ind- ians on neighboring reservations. There is a small trade between the lake and Selkirk in Manitoba, which will be considerably increased when the rapids of St. Andrews, on the Red river, half way between the lake and the city of I/Vinnipeg, have been locked. l\IOLYi\'EUX ST. JOHN. Wiiinipeg River: a river having its chief sources in the Lake of the Woods, which drains the Rainy River country, and in English river (300 miles long), flowing out of Lake Seul. besides other smaller streams. It is about 530 miles long, and runs through a rocky Laurentian country well wooded with spruce, some pines, tamarac, etc. It is rather a series of small‘lakes, connected by links flowing over rapids and falls. than a continuous stream. It is navi- gable by small boats and canoes, but not by steamers; the first rapids are quickly succeeded by others occurring within a few miles of the mouth. The boats and canoes of the Red River expedition, under Wolseley in 1870. reached Mani- toba from Lake Superior by this river. There is a mission. and there are one or two Hudson Bay Company's posts on the river, and a few scattered settlers, but the country is not fitted for agriculture. MOLYNEUX ST. JOHN. WinnipiSe0g"ee Lake: a body of water in east central New Hampshire. It is of irregular outline, and has an ex- treme length of 25 miles and a breadth var_ving from 1 to 10 miles. It is studded with picturesque islands, and is much visited in summer for its charming scenery. Area, 800 WINNSBORO 175 sq. miles: elevation, 472 feet. It discharges its clear waters by the Winnipiseogee river, one of the head streams of the Merrimack. Revised by I. C. RUSSELL. Winnsboro: city; capital of Fairfield co., S. C.; on the Southern Railway: 35 miles N. of Columbia (for location, see map of South Carolina, ref. 5—E). It is in an agricultu- ral and stone-quarrying region; contains Mt. Zion Insti- tute (chartered in 1777), a graded public school, a national bank with capital of $100,000, and an incorporated bank (capital, $81,400); and has a tri-weekly and a weekly news- paper. It was at one time the headquarters of Lord Corn- wallis, and for a number of years all the cotton-gins in the U. S. were manufactured here. Pop. (1880) 1,500; (1890) 1,738; (1895) estimated, 1,850. EDITOR OF “NEWS AND HERALD.” Vl’ino’na: city (settled in 1851, city government organ- ized in 1857); capital of Winona co., Minn.; on the Missis- sippi river, and the Burl. Route, the Chi. and N. W., the Chi., Mil. and St. P., the Green Bay, Win. and St. P., and the Win. and West. railways; 27 miles N. NV. of La Crosse, Wis., 104 miles S. E. of St. Paul (for location, see map of Minnesota. ref. 11—H). It is on a plain between the river and Lake Winona, is surrounded by towering bluffs, includ- ing Sugar Leaf and Trempealeau Mountains, and is famed for its beautiful location and picturesque scenery. Two railway bridges and a wagon bridge span the river here. The city has improved water-works and sewerage, electric lights, electric street-railways, and several miles of paved streets. The noteworthy buildings include the U. S. Gov- ernment building, erected in 1890 at a cost of $150,000 ; the State Normal School, built in 1868 and enlarged in 1894, cost $220,000; High-school building, erected in 1887 at a cost of $60,000; Winona Seminary for young ladies, cost $50,000; opera-house, erected in 1893 at a cost of $50,000; and the ublic library, with nearly 12,000 volumes. There are 23 churches, 10 public schools, 4 parochial schools, 2 watchmakers’ and engravers’ schools, and a business college ; 2 national banks with combined capital of $425,000, 3 State banks, two of which had combined capital of $100,000; a private bank; and 2 daily, a semi-weekly, and 7 weekly news- papers. The city is an important market for grain and other products of this part of Minnesota and the neighboring part of ‘Wisconsin, and has flour and lumber mills, wagon-facto- ries, and agricultural-implement works. Pop. (1880) 10,208 ; (1890) 18,208; (1895) estimated, 23,000. WILLIAM CODMAN. Winona: town; capital of Montgomery co., Miss.; on the Ill. Cent. and the Southern railways; 23 miles S. of Grenada, 88 miles N. by E. of Jackson (for location, see map of Mississippi, ref. 5—G). It is an important cotton-shipping point, and has several cotton-gins and grist-mills, 2 State banks with combined capital of $100,000, and a weekly and a semi-monthly periodical. Pop. (1880) 1,204; (1890) 1,648. EDITOR OF “TIMES.” Winoos’ki : village; Colchester town, Chittenden co., Vt. ; on the Cent. Vt. Railroad; 2 miles N. of Burlington, the county-seat (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 4-A). It is in an agricultural region; has 4 churches, a graded pub- lic school, a savings-bank, electric railway to Burlington and to Fort Ethan Allen, and a weekly newspaper; and is engaged in the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, iron and brass goods, lumber, carriages, window and door screens, and doors, sashes, and blinds. Pop. (1880) 2.833; (1890) 3,659. EDITOR or “JOURNAL.” Winooski (or Onion) River : a river that rises in North- eastern Vermont, fiows westward through the Green Moun- tains, and empties into Lake Champlain at a point 5 miles N. W. of Burlington. It has numerous falls, including those at Middlesex and at Winooski, near Burlington; and in several places has cut deep gorges. It is a beautiful river, about 100 miles long. I. C. R. Winslow, EDWARD : governor of Plymouth Colony; b. at Droitwieh, Worcestershire, England, Oct. 19, 1595; joined the congregation of the Pilgrim church at Leyden 1617; mar- ried in Leyden; embarked in the Mayflower with his wife and his brother Gilbert 1620; was one of the party in the shallop which explored the coasts of Cape Cod and discov- ered the harbor of Plymouth; lost his wife during the first winter ; married Mrs. Susannah White, theirs being the first marriage in New England. During troubles with the na- tives he offered himself as a hostage to Massasoit, and paid two visits to the residence of that chieftain two days’ jour- ney inland, curing him of a severe illness on the second WINSLOW occasion (1623), thereby gaining his confidence and assur- ing his friendship; wrote a narrative of his visit to the Indians, which appeared in George Morton’s Relation (1622); made a voyage to England as agent of the colony 1623, returning with a supply of necessaries and the first cattle; was chosen a magistrate 1624; made a second voy- age to England, returning 1625; was chosen governor 1633; went to England again 1635, when he appeared before the council and succeeded in disconcertinga plot for abolishing the self-government enjoyed by the colonists; was confined in the Fleet prison for seventeen weeks by order of Arch- bishop Laud, on complaint of Thomas Merton, for having at Plymouth taught in the ehurch,being a layman, and hav- ing performed the ceremony of marriage as a magistrate; was again governor 1636, and a third time 1644; went to England for the last time 1649, when he was influential in the formation of the Society for Propagating the Gospel among the Indians of New England; remained in Eng- land during the Protectorate, being employed in several public capacities, and in 1655 was one of three commission- ers sent by Cromwell to direct an expedition against the Spanish settlements in the West Indies. D. at sea of a fever, between Santo Domingo and Jamaica, May 8, 1655, and was buried at sea. A portrait, said to be by Vandyke, is preserved in Memorial Hall, Plymouth, where are also his chair and other relics. He was the author of Good Newes from New England, or a True Relation of Things very Re- markable at the Plantation at Plimouth in N. England; together with a Relation of Customes among the Indians (1624; given in full in Young’s Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers, Boston, 1841); Brief IVarration, or Hypocrisie Unmasked, a True Relation of the Proceedings of the Gov- erneur and Company of the Ilfassachusetts against Samuel Gorton, etc. (1646), re-issued as The Danger of Tolerating Levellers in a Civill State, etc. (1649; given in part in Young’s Chronicles); New England’s Salamander, etc. (1647); The Glorious Progress of the Gospel amongst the Indians in New England, with Appendix (1649); and A Platform of Church Discipline in New England (1653). Several of these have been republished by the Massachusetts Historical Society. An elaborate Genealogy of the descend- ants of Gov. Winslow and his brothers was prepared by Dr. David Parsons Holton and Frances K. Holton of New York (New York, 1877). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Winslow, FORBES BENIGNUS, D. O. L. : alienist; b. in London, England, in Aug., 1810; a descendant of the Mas- sachusetts Winslows; went to the U. S. in early life; be- gan the study of medicine at New York ; graduated at the College of Surgeons, London, 1835 ; took his degree of M. D. at Aberdeen; began practice in London ; was for some time parliamentary reporter for the Times; gave special atten- tion to insanity; was Lettsomian lecturer to the Medical Society of London 1837 ; opened a private asylum at Sussex House, Hammersmith, and subsequently another in Lon- don ; founded in 1848 the Quarterly Journal of Psycholog- ical Ilfedicine and Iklental Pathology, which he conducted until 1865 ; founded The Ilieclical Critic 1861; was chosen vice-president of the J uridical Society and president of the Medical Society of London 1853; was a member of the lead- ing scientific societies. D. at Brighton, Mar. 3, 1874. He was the author of The Application of the Principles of Phrenology to the Elucidation and Cure of Insanity (1831); A Illanual of Osteology; A Illanual of Practical .ZlIidwif- ery; Physic and Physicians (2 vols., 1839); The Anatomy of Suicide (1840) ; On the Preservation of the Health of the Body and _Mind (1842) ; The Plea of Insanity in Criminal Cases (1843) ; Notes on the Lunacy Act (1845) ; On Soften- ing of the Brain, arising from Anxiety and Undue Mental Easereise (1849); The Lettsomian Lectures on Insanity (1854) ; On Obscure Diseases of the Brain and Disorders of the Iifind (1860; 4th ed. 1868) ; Light, its Influence on Life and Health (1867). Revised by S. T. ARMS'1‘RONG. Winslow, HUBBARD, D. D.: clergyman and author; b. at Williston, Vt., Oct. 30, 1799; studied at Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.; graduated with honors at Yale College 1825, and in the Yale theological do oartment 1828; was pastor of the First church at Dover, . H ., 1828-32, and of the Bowdoin Street church, Boston, Mass., 1832-44; was principal of Mt. Vernon (Boston) institute for young ladies 1844-54; took an active part in the discussioh of educational questions; was an examiner at Harvard and a trustee of several colleges; visited Europe to inspect educational in- stitutions 1853; edited the Religious Jllagazine and wrote VVINSLOW for numerous periodicals; defended the doctrines of his former instructor, Dr. Nathaniel Taylor, against the attacks of Dr. Bennet Tyler, gaining great repute as a polemical theologian; delivered lectures on scientific, religious, educa- tional, literary, and practical topics, including the duties of citizens ; pastor of the First Presbyterian church at Geneva, N. Y., 1857-59, and in charge of the Fiftieth Street Pres- byterian church, New York city, 1861-62. D. at \Villist-on, Vt., Aug. 13, 1864. He was the author, among other works, of The Doelrlnie of the Tr'lnltg (Boston, 1831); Conl1'o2'e9'slal Theology (Boston, 1832) ; The Y oang ]V[an’s Add to Knowl- edge (1836); App2'oprt'ale Splzere of ll/oman (1837), repub- lished as W'oman as She Should Be (1838); Elements of Intellectual Philosophy (1852) ; Elements of Jlforal Phl- losophy (New York, 1856) ; and The Ifldden Life (1863). Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Winslow, JACQUES BENIGNE2 physician; b. at Odense, Denmark, Apr. 2, 1669; was probably a descendant of the English Puritan family of the name at Leyden, Holland: studied medicine at Paris, where he settled ; became in 1743 Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at the J ardin du Roi; made important discoveries in anatomy, of which a memo- rial remains in the name “ foramen of Winslow” borne by an opening in the gastro-splenic omentum. He was the au- thor of E.z;posz'lz'on anafomigue de la Structure da Corps hnmain (Paris, 1732), which was translated into English, German, Italian, and Latin. D. in Paris, Apr. 3, 1760. Revised by S. T. ARMSTRONG. Winslow, Jon.v: military oillcer; b. at Marshfield, Mass., May 27, 1702; grandson of Gov. Josiah Winslow; was a captain in the unfortunate British expedition against Cuba 1740 ; was prominent in the Kennebec and Acadian expedi- tions, being the principal actor in the expulsion of the Aca- dians from their homes in 1755 ; commander at Fort William Henry 1756; took part as major-general in the expedition against Canada 1758-59 ; became judge of common pleas for Plymouth County 1762; was the founder of the town of Winslow in the district of Maine 1766, and was a member of the Massachusetts Legislature and of the provincial council during the Stamp Act difliculties. D. at Hingham, Mass., Apr. 17, 1774. Most of his family were loyalists, and settled in Nova Scotia during the Revolution. Winslow, JOIIN ANCRUM1 naval oflieer: b. at Wilming- ton, N. C., Nov. 19, 1811. He entered the U. S. navy as a midshipman in 1827; was promoted lieutenant in 1839; served with distinction in the Mexican war; and was pro- moted commander in 1855 and captain in 1862. In 1863- 64 he was given command of the steamer Kearsarge. and assigned to the special duty of pursuing the Confederate privateer Alabama. In June, 1864, he found the Alabama oif Cherbourg, France. and blockaded her in that harbor. On the 19th, after notifying Capt. Winslow that he would fight, Capt. Semmes steamed the Alabama out of the har- bor. and when 7 miles from shore Capt. Winslow headed the Kearsarge toward the privateer. The latter discharged the first shot, but after an engagement of an hour and a half began to sink; her officers and crew surrendered, and were taken on board the English yacht Deerhound, which had accompanied the Alabama into the fight. Capt. Y/Vinslow received the thanks of Congress, and was promoted commo- dore for his victory. In 1866-67 he commanded the Gulf squadron; in 1870-72 was commander-in-chief of the Pa- cific squadron; and M ar. 2, 1870. was promoted rear-admi- ral. D. in Boston, Mass., Sept. 29, 1873. Winslow, J osmn : governor of Pl_vmouth Colony: son of Gov. Edward Winslow; b. at Marshfield, Mass., in 1629: commanded the hlarshfield military company 1652: became major and commander-in-chief of the colonial forces 1658 ; was chosen deputy 1657, and one of the commissioners of the united colonies 1658, to which post he was annually re- elected until 1670; served several years as assistant gov- ernor, and was governor from 1673 until his death, includ- ing the trying period of King Philip‘s war, when he was both an oflioio and by virtue of his military rank the general-in- chief of all the forces of the united colonies. D. at Marsh- field, Dec. 18, 1680. He was the first native-born governor in New England. Vfinslow, MIRON. D. D., LL. D. : missionary ; brother of Drs. Gordon and Hubbard Winslow; b. at Williston. V t., Dec. 11, 1789; graduated as valedictorian at Middleburv College 1815, and at Andover Theological Seminary 1818'; married 1819 Miss Harriet Wadsworth Lathrop (d. 1833); VVINSTED 80 1 sailed forCeylon as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. June. 1819: arrived at Jaffna Feb., 1820; labored there and at Oodooville seventeen years; founded the Madras mission 1836 ; was president of the native college established at that city in 1840 : translated the Bible into Tamil (finished about 1835); published educational and religious books in that language; supervised the mission press; wrote largely for the 1l1'lssz'onar_1/ Jierald and other European and American periodicals; prepared a 1l1'ernoz"/" o_f Zlfrs. Izlcu"/rz'e2.‘ ll'z'nslow (New York, 1835), which was widely read for many years, republished in England, and translated into French and Turkish; and devoted three or four hours daily for nearly thirty years to the preparation of his great work. A Com- _yarehensz.'re Tamil and English D'z'cllon(u'g of High and Low Tamil (Madras, 1862). partly based upon MS. materials left by the Rev. Joseph Knight—a work of a highly original character, containing over 67,000 Tamil words. D. at the Cape of Good Hope when on a voyage to America. Oct. 22, 1864. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Winslow. WILLIAM COPLEY, Ph. D., Sc. D., L. H. D., D. D., D. C. L., LL. D.: archaeologist and journalist: son of Hubbard Winslow; b. in Boston, Mass. Jan. 13, 1840: re- ceived his early education at the Boston Latin School; graduated at Hamilton College 1862. and the General Theo- logical Seminary in New York city 1865, after which he spent a winter in Italy, devoting much of his time to archae- ological researches in Rome. He assisted in founding the Une'rersziz‘g Quarterly 1861; edited the J’-Ianzz'llonz'an 1862; was assistant editor of the New York ll'orld 1862-63, and edited the Christian Times 1863-65. He ofilciated tempo- rarily at the W'ainwright Memorial church in New York city, and was rector of St. George's church, Lee. M ass., 1867- 70, spending his summers in exploring the Adirondacks. He was chaplain of St. Luke’s Home, Boston. Mass., for four years, and had temporary charge of churches in Boston, Taunton. and Weymonth. He was for many years execu- tive secretary of the Free Church Association in the Epis- copal Church. He devoted his energies chiefly, however, to the promotion of Egyptian exploration, and was for many years vice-president. secretary. and treasurer of the Egypt Exploration Fund for the U. S. He is an honorary fellow of the hoyal Archaeological Society of Great Britain and the British Archaeological Association. and honorary member of many other learned societies. including over twenty Stale historical societies. He was instrumental in securing many monumental remains from Egypt for the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Dr. IVinslow is a prolific writer and lecturer on archaeological subjects and on colonial history. Among his principal works are Israel in Egypt (1883); The Sfo/re C£f,I/ o_fPl1‘hom (1885): A Greelr City /in Egypt (1887): The Egg]n‘zT(m Collcc1‘ion in Boston (1890); and The Pz'lgrlm Fathers in Holland (1891). Winsor. JUSTIN, LL. D.: historian and librarian; b. at Boston. Mass., J an. 2, 1831 ; educated at Cambridge. Paris, and Heidelberg; contributed to the Ch rz'sf"lan E.ranzincr, the Knlclcerboclrer lllaguzine, and other periodicals : super- intendent of the Boston Public Library 1868-77; librarian of Harvard University since 1 “7 7. Among his more impor- tant works are BzTblzTograplzg of 0r2'ginal Qzzorlos and Fol [es of Slmkespea/re (1875) ; Rerule/r‘s Handbool: of the American Reoolnz‘zIon (1880): Jlfcnzorial History of Boslon (editor. 4 vols., Boston. 1880-82): l\Iarra/l‘z'2'e and C'r2'l'z‘oal ffz'story of America, (editor, 8 vols., 1884-89); Chrz's1‘o7)lze/r Columbus (1891) ; From ( -‘a/r1‘z'er lo F-ronlenac (1894) ; The 1l[z's-sz'ssz'ppi Basin; The Struggle in Anzeflca betzeeen England and France 1697'-170's’ (New York. 1895). His contributions to library science are numerous and important. C. H. T. Winstesl : borough; Winchester town, Litchfield co.. Conn.: on Mad river. and the Naugatuck Division of the N. Y., N. H. and Hart.. and the Phil., Read. and New Eng. railways : 26 miles N. W. of Hartford, 62 miles N. of Bridge- port (for location. see map of Connecticut. ref. 7-F). lt contains the villages of Winsted and \Vest “'insted. about a mile apart and connected by one continuous main street about 3 miles in length. following as it does the winding course of Mad river (a branch of the Farmington). which furnishes excellent water-power for manufacturing. The business portion is mainly along the river-bank. Near the western limit of the borough is Long Lake, a natural body of water artificially strengthened. 150 feet above Main Street: area about 400 acres. Superior water-power is fur- nished by it. The two villages are supplied with water in pipes from Crystal Lake (area about 100 acres), 150 feet 448 809, wINsToN higher up. Winsted is principally engaged in the manufac- ture of clocks, scythes, book leather, pocket and table cutlery, edge tools, knit goods, undertakers’ supplies, pins, wagon- springs, carriage-bolts, and sewing silk. The borough has 2 national banks with combined capital of $280000, 2 sav- ' ings-banks with aggregate deposits of over $2,250,000, the Beardsley Public Library (founded in 1874), and 2 daily and 2 weekly newspapers, a convent, and an opera-house. It is one of the shire towns of the county, and has a well-appoint- ed court-house. Pop. (1880) 4,195; (1890) 4,846; (1895) es- timated, 6,000. EDITDR or "EVENINGr CITIZEN.” Winston: city; capital of Forsyth co., N. C.; on the Nor. and I/Vest. and the Southern railways ; 120 miles NY. by N. of Raleigh (for location, see map of North Carolina, ref. 2-F). It adjoins the city of SALEM (g. v.), and as the interests of the two cities are nearly identical they are commonly spoken of as one place, by the name of lVinston-Salem. \Vinston has several tobacco warehouses and factories, cotton-mills, iron and wood works, carriage and wagon factories, 3 na- tional banks (combined capital, $450,000), a State bank (capi- tal, $200,000), and a daily and 3 weekly papers. Pop. (1880) 2,854; (1890) 8,018. EDITDR or “ TWIN CITY SENTINEL.” Winston, J OHN ANTHONY: Governor of Alabama; b. in Madison co., Ala., Sept. 4, 1812; educated at Lagrange Col- lege, Alabama, and at the University of Nashville; settled in 1834 in Sumter County, where he established a large cot- ton plantation ; was a member of the Assembly 1839-40, and again 1842, and of the Senate 1843-52, being president of the latter body 1845-48 ; engaged in mercantile business at Mo- bile 1844; was an influential member of the Baltimore con- vention of1848, where he was the acknowledged leader of the Alabama Democracy ; was the first native-born Governor of Alabama (1853-56); gained the name of the “veto governor ” on account of his numerous vetoes of legislative bills; was delegate to the Charleston convention of 1860, and was placed on the Douglas electoral ticket; went as a commis- sioner to Louisiana in 1861: raised the Eighth Alabama Infantry for the Confederate service; commanded it as colonel at Yorktown and on the Peninsula, being distin- guished at Seven Pines, but was soon forced to retire through infirm health; was chosen to the State constitu- tional convention 1865, and elected U. S. Senator in 1866, but was not admitted to a seat. D. at Mobile, Dec. 21, 1871. Winter [O. Eng. winter : O. H. Germ. wintar (> Germ. winter) : Icel. vetr : Goth. wintrus; perhaps akin to O. Ir. find, white, the winter being named from the color of the snow] : astronomically, that season of the year which begins with the shortest day, Dec. 21, and ends with the vernal equinox, Mar. 21. In ordinary speech, however, winter comprises the three coldest months. namely, December, J an- uary, and February, in the U. S., and November, December, and January in Great Britain. In the southern hemisphere the winter months are June, July, and August, and in the tropical zone the rainy season corresponds to the winter. Winter, JOHN STRANGE : See STANNARD, HENRIETTA ELIZA VAUGHAN. Winter, WILLIAM: journalist and dramatic critic: b. at Gloucester, Mass, July 15, 1836; was educated in Boston; graduated at the Harvard Law School and admitted to the bar; published a volume of poems. The Convent and other Poems, at Boston in 1854, and another, entitled The Queen’s Domain, in 1858 ; went to New York in 1859, and was em- ployed as book reviewer on the Saturday Press for a year; wrote for Vanity Fair irregularly for a long time ; was dra- matic critic for the New York Albion from 1861 to 1866, and also assistant editor and literary critic; for five years was nlanaging editor and literary and dramatic critic of the New York Weekly Review ; in 1865 became dramatic critic of the New York Tribune; published a third volume of poems, lily Witness (1871) : Life of Edwin Booth (1872) ; Thistle-down, verse (1878) ; The Trip to England (1879); Poems, complete edition (1881) ; The Je_fl”ersons (1881) ; English Rambles (Boston, 1883); Life of I-Ienry Irving (1885); Sha/sspere’s England (Edinburgh, 1886); Stage Life o_/"1/l:[ary Anderson (1886) ; The Wanderers (1888). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Winterberry: any one of several American shrubs, form- ing a sub-genus of the Item or holly ; more particularly the black alder (lien; verticillata), which ranges from 5 to 12 feet in height, grows on the edges of swamps, bears clusters of small white flowers, and in November and December an abundance of brilliant. crimson berries. sometimes employed in domestic medicine as a bitter tonic. WINTHER Wintergreen : one of the many popular names (checker- berrv, boxberry, partridge-berry, mountain tea, etc.) for Gaultheria procumbens, an evergreen undcrshrub of the heath family found everywhere in the damp places of the woods of the northern temperate zone, more especially un- der the shade of e'vergreens in the forests of Canada and the northern part of the U. S. The stem is from 5 to 6 inches high, with a few leaves, and small flowers appearing in May and June iII the axils of the leaves. The berries, which are red, ripen in autumn and remain the winter over. They form a large part of the food of the partridge. Both berries and leaves have the aromatic flavor of sweet birch. Sec GAULTIIERIA. Revised by CI-IARLEs E. BESSEY. Wintergreen, Oil of, or Oil of Gaulthe'ria: an arc- matic liquid contained in the leaves of Gaultheria pro- eumbens, also in Betula lenta (sweet birch), and probably in the roots of Polygala paueifolia, Spirrea ulmaria, Spirtea lobata, and Gaultheria hispidula. It is colorless when freshly prepared, but gradually acquires a yellowish or reddish hue; possesses a peculiar sweetish taste and a characteristic and very agreeable odor; has a greater den- sity than any other of the essential oils (1173), and boils at 412° F. Wintergreen oil contains about 90 per cent. of methyl salicylate (gaultheric acid, CQHBOS), and 10 per cent. of a terpene termed gaultherilene, isomeric with oil of tur- pentine. (See TURPENTINE.) The former compound, which is an isomer of anisic acid, is obtained in the distillation of the oil by allowing the boiling-point to rise to 432° F., and then collecting the portion that distills over; it can also be prepared artificially by distilling a mixture of 2 parts of crystallized salicylic acid, 2 parts of wood-spirit, and 1 part of sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 166), or by treating wood-spirit with salicylic chlorohydrate. Methyl salicylate has a sp. gr. of 1'18, boils at 431° F., and possesses the taste and odor of the oil from which it is prepared. It is slightly soluble in water, dissolves readily in alcohol and in ether, and unites with bases, forming crystalline salts. Its aqueous solution is colored violet upon addition of a ferric salt. The purity of wintergreen oil can be ascertained by means of this reac- tion, as well as by its very high specific gravity. It is often employed to disguise the taste of disagreeable medicines, and largely in confectionery. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Winterhalter, vin’ter-ha’al-ter, FRANZ XAVER: portrait and genre painter; b. at Menzenschwand, in the Black For- est, Germany, Apr. 20, 1805. He studied at the Munich Academy and afterward in Rome; received medals at the Paris Salon of 1836 and 1837, and at the Paris Exposition of 1855; officer of the Legion of Honor 1857; order of the Red Eagle 1861 ; commander in the order of Francis J oseph. and received many other decorations. He settled in Paris in 1834, and was the most- fashionable portrait-painter of his time, painting portraits of women especially, and receiv- ing commissions from the royal families of France, Great Britain, Belgium, Prussia, Austria, and other countries. D. in Frankfort-on-the-l\lain, July 8, 1873. Some of his works are in the museum at Versailles. WILLIAM A. COFFIN. Winterport: town (formerly part of Frankfort; incor'- porated in 1860); Waldo co., Me.; on the Penobscot river; 13 miles S. of Bangor, 20 miles N. by E. of Belfast (for loca- tion, see map of Maine, ref. 8—E). It contains the villages of \Vinterport, North \Vinterport, West W interport, W'hitc’s Corner, and Ellingwood’s Corner, and has 4 churches, public library, semi-monthly newspaper, and manufactories of clothing, lumber, and grist mills. There is a daily line of steamers to Boston, and a ferry connects with the Maine Central Railroad. Pop. (1880) 2,260: (1890) 1,926. EDITOR or “ADVERTISER.” Winterset: city (platted in 1849, incorporated in 1857); capital of Madison co., Ia.; on the Chi., Rock Id. and Pac. Railway; 42 miles S. W. of Des Moines (for location, see map of Iowa, ref. 6-F). It is in an agricultural and stone- quarrying region, and has 9 churches, 2 large public-school buildings, 2 national banks with combined capital of $100,- 000, a State bank with capital of $5,330, a private bank, a public library (founded in 1891), and a monthly and 4 weekly periodicals. The city is a trading-point for a large agricultural area. Pop. (1880) 2,583; (1890) 2,281; (1895) State census, 2,708. EDITOR or “ l\'lADIsoNIAN.” Winther, vin’ter, RAsMUs VILLADS CHRISTIAN FERDI- NAND: poet: b. in Fensmark, Zealand, Denmark, July 29, 1796. In 1815 he entered the University of Copenhagen, where his poetical talent soon won recognition from his fel- I/VINTHROP low students, and his first collection of poems (1828) imme- diately brought him national popularity. Among his nu- merous publications may be mentioned 1Voyle Deyte (Some Poems, 1835); Sa/ng oy Sayn (Song and Legend, 1841); Lyrtshe Dtyte (Lyrical Poems, 1849); Nye [)_tyte (New Poems. 1850). In 1856 he published his masterpiece, H yor- tens Flnyt (The Flight of the Hart), a romantic lyric, dealing with the Danish Middle Ages. Though not the greatest Danish poet, he has given the truest and fullest 1n- terpretation of certain elements of the Danish national character. Unlike Oehlcnschléiger, he never merges into the Scandinavian. D. in Paris, Dec. 30, 1876. Complete Worlcs (11 vols., 1860-72). D. K. DODGE. Winthrop: town; Kennebcc co.. Mo.; on the Maine Cent. Railroad; 10 miles W. of Augusta, 19 miles N. E. of Lewiston (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 9-C). It has six churches, public high school, a national bank with capi- tal of $50,000, a weekly newspaper, a sweet-corn cannery, oil-cloth and blanket factories, and agricultural-implement works; and has become a popular summer resort. Pop. (1880) 2,146; (1890) 2,111. EDITOR or “ BUDGET." Winthrop: town (incorporated in 1852); Suffolk co., Mass.; on the Boston, Revere Beach and -Lynn Railroad; 3 miles S. E. of Chelsea, 5 miles N. E. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-I). It has a high school, 15 district schools, public library, 4 churches, 1 all-year and 9 summer hotels, and a weekly newspaper; is a popular beach resort; and is principally engaged in the manufac- ture of calfskins. In 1894 it had an assessed valuation of $4,573,560. Pop. (1880) 1,043; (1890) 2,726. Winthrop, F[TZ—-JOHN: Governor of Connecticut; eldest son of Gov. John W'inthrop of Connecticut; b. at Ipswich, Mass., Mar. 14, 1638; resided in childhood at New London, Conn. ; was educated in England; held a commission under the Protector Richard Cromwell 1658; returned to Connec- ticut in 1663 ; was elected to the Assembly 1671; served as major in King Philip’s war; was one of the council of Gov. Andros 1686; became a magistrate in Connecticut 1689; was major-general of the expedition against Quebec 1690; was a highly-eificient agent of Connecticut in London 169?- 98, and Governor of Connecticut from 1698 until his death, at Boston, Nov. 27, 1707. Winthrop. JAMES, LL.D.: jurist and author; son of Prof. John Winthrop, physicist; b. at Cambridge, Mass., in 1752; graduated at Harvard 1769; was librarian there 1772-87 ; participated in the battle of Bunker’s Hill, where he was wounded, 1775; was for some years chief justice of the Massachusetts court of common pleas and register of probate. He was the author of An Attempt to Translate the Prophettc Part of the Apocalypse of St. John tnto Fa-rntlz‘a/r Language (Boston, 1794); A Systematic Arrangement of several Scriptural Prophecies relating to Antichrist (1795); and An Attempt to Arrange, tn the Order of Ttme, Scrip- ture Prophectes yet to be Fal_filZecl(Caii1bi‘idge. 1803). He contributed scientific papers to the ]t[e*/noirs of the Amer- ican Academy. D. at Cambridge, Sept. 26, 1821. He be- queathed his valuable library to Allegheny College, Mead- ville, Pa. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. VVinthr0p, J OHN: colonial Governor of Massachusetts; b. near Groton, Suffolk, England, J an. 22, 1588: studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1602-05; is said to have been appointed a justice of the peace at the age of eighteen years. He acquired such influence among the Puritans of the east- ern counties and the capitalists of the “Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England” that he was chosen governor of that body Oct. 30, 1629 ; was the leader of the great emigration of the following year, when, having sold his Suffolk estates, he sailed in the Arbella at the head of a small fleet bearing some 900 colonists: wrote on board the Arbella his treatise A illodell of Ch rzfstzian Charity : landed at Salem June 22, 1630. Endicott had been appointed by the Massachusetts Bay Company to govern the colony in subordination to the governor and company in London, but a change of great historical importance was now made, The entire government was transferred to America, and Win- throp was appointed Governor. Hc was annually re-elect- ed Governor until 1634, and by his defeat in the ensuing election escaped the chief responsibility for the proceed- ings against Roger \Villiams, in which he nevertheless shared as an assistant. He was again defeated at the election of 1636 by the young Sir Henry Vane, then recently arrived, who was put forward as the champion of the Antinomian 803 party directed by Wheelwriglit and Mrs. Hutchinson : but Winthrop defeated Vane in the next election (1637) and held the ottice till 1640. As a leading opponent of the Antino- mians he took an active part in the banishment of Mrs. Hutchinson and her followers, and in the controversy with Vane, which terminated only with the latter's withdrawal to England. He was again Governor 1642—4-4, deputy Gov- ernor 1644-45, and Governor from 1646 until his death, at Boston, Mar. 26, 1649. He left an interesting and valuable body of correspondence, given in his Life and Letters (2 vols., 1864-67) by his descendant, Robert C. \Vinthrop, and a copious Journal, which was edited, from the original MSS., with notes, by James Savage, under the title The H istory of Nezo Enylancl from 1630 to 104.9 (2 vols., Boston, 1825-26: 2d ed. 1853). Many of the l‘Vtnthrop Papers were printed in the Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (3d series, vols. ix. and x.). The facts concerning his an- cestry and early life may be found in I/Villiam H. YVhit- more’s iVotes on the Winthrop Family and its English Connections (Albany, 1864). Revised by F. M. COLBY. VVinthr0p, JOHN, F. R. S.: Governor of Connecticut; son of John Winthrop, Governor of Massachusetts; b. at Groton, Suffolk, England. Feb. 12, 1606: graduated at Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, 1625; studied law at the Inner Temple, Lon- don; obtained a commission in the army; participated in the expedition for the relief of the Huguenot garrison at La Rochelle, France, 1627; visited Turkey as an attache’ of the British embassy 1628; removed to Massachusetts 1631; was chosen a magistrate 1633, and settled at Ipswich, Mar., 1633; went to England the same year; obtained a com- mission under the grant to Robert Rich, Earl of \Varwiek. by virtue of which he founded a settlement at Saybrook. at the mouth of Connecticut river, Nov., 1635: built a fort there and acted as governor; removed his family from Bos- ton to Pequot Harbor 1645, and founded New London ; was chosen a magistrate of Connecticut 1651. after the union of Saybrook to that colony; was chosen Governor of Connecti- cut 1657, and annually re-elected through life; went to England 1661; obtained from Charles II. a charter uniting Connecticut and New Haven in one colony, under himself as Governor; was an early member of the Royal Society (founded 1662), and a contributor to its Transactz'ons. being well versed in chemistry and physics: represented Connec- ticut in the congress of the united colonies at Boston 1676, and died there Apr. 5, 1676. ‘Vinthr0p, JOHN, LL.D., F. R. S.: physicist; a great- grandson of Gov. John Winthrop; b. in Boston, Dec. 19. 1714; graduated at Harvard 1732; was Hollis Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in that institution from 1738 until his death; was a profound mathematician and well versed in scholastic discussions; made accurate observations of the transit of Mercury 1740, and that of Venus J an. 6, 1761, making for the purpose on the latter oc- casion a voyage to St. J ohn's, Newfoundland; was several years judge of probate for Middlesex County; declined the presidency of I-Iarvard 1769. and again 1774; was a member of the executive council 1773-74, and a firm advocate of po- litical liberty. He was the author of A Lecture on Earth- gnahes (1755): Two Lectures on Comets (1759); Relation of a Voyage from Boston to 1Vew_fou/ndlancl for the Observa- tion of the Transit of Venus (1761); Two Lectures on the Parallaa; anal Distance of the Sun, as cleduetlale from the Transit of Venus (1769): Cogitata cle Cometis (1766). com- municated by Dr. Franklin to the Royal Society; and other publications. D. at Cambridge, May 3. 1779. ~ Winthrop. ROBERT CHARLES, LL. D.: orator; son of Thomas Lindall W'inthrop; b. in Boston, Mass., May 12, 1809; a descendant of Gov. John VVint-lirop; graduated at Harvard 1828; studied law with Daniel Webster 1828-31: was a VVhig member of the Massachusetts Legislature 1836-40, and Speaker of the House 1838-40: a member of Congress 1841-42 and 1843-50; was Speaker of the Thirticth Congress 1847-49. distinguishing himself through a critical period by his tact as a presiding officer no less than by his graceful eloquence on the floor and his skill in debate. He was U. S. Senator, by executive appointment. to fill the unexpired term of Daniel \Webster 1850-51; received a large plurality of popular votes for Governor of Massa- chusetts 1851, but was defeated in the Legislature: deliv- ered at Boston Nov. 23. 1853, an oration on Arelzz'nzed’es and Franl.‘lzTn-, which led to the erection of the statue of Franklin in that city; was the orator on the occasion of the inauguration of that monument in 1856, as he had been 804 IVINTI-IROP at the inauguration of the Boston Public Library 1855, as president of the city library commissioners. He was the etlicient president of the Massachusetts Historical Society from 1855 until his resignation in 1885, being also the senior member of that body; and, possessing an ample es- tate, devoted his leisure to the cause of historical litera- ture, taking little part in political questions after 1854. D. in Boston, Nov. 16, 1894. His speeches in Congress appeared in a volume of Addresses and Speeches on Vari- ous Occasions (1853), and a second volume, pubhshed in 1867, contained, among other notable orations, his eulo- gies upon \/Villiam H. Prescott, Josiah Quincy, and Edward Everett. Two other volumes followed, containing l11s ad- dresses to the close of 1886. He contributed to the 1Vo_rth American Review and other periodicals, wrote the article on lVashington for Wilson’s Presidents of the United States, 1789-94, and is author of a 1lIemoir of Hon. 1Vathan Apple- ton, LL. D. (1861); of the Life and Letters of John Win- throp, etc. (2 vols., Boston, 1864-67); of a_ volume entitled lVashington, Bowdoin, and Fran/din, wit/i a few Brief Pieces on Kindred Topics (1876); and Reminisceiices of Foreign Travel, a Fragment of Autobiography, Privately Printed (Boston, 1894). After his death a volume was Issued entitled Tributes to the Iilemory of Robert C. lVinthrop by the ]VIassac/iiisetts Historical Society. A painting of him in the Capitol at \Vashington, presented by citizens of Mas- sachusetts, commemorates his speakership and his Yorktown oration, while another portrait in the hall of the Massa- chusetts Historical Society is a proper reminder of his ser- vices to New England history. Revised by JAMES GRANT WILSON. Winthrop, THEODORE: soldier and author; b. at New Haven, Conn., Sept. 22, 1828; graduated with honors at Yale College 1848; traveled in Europe 1849-51 as tutor to a son of William H. Aspinwall; resided two years at Panama in the employ of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; ac- companied Lieut. Strain's expedition in 1853, and made other explorations of South and Central America; studied law at St. Louis, Mo.; was admitted to the New York bar 1855; joined the famous Seventh Regiment of New York on its entering the national service Apr., 1861; was com- missioned major in the New York volunteers; became a member of the stalf of Gen. B. F. Butler as his military secretary, and was killed at the head of an assaulting col- umn in the earliest formal engagement of the war, at Big Bethel, Va., June 10, 1861. In the Atlantic Jllonthly from June to September of that year were published several spir- ited sketches of early war-scenes which attracted great at- tention, and he left ready for the press the materials of five volumes of novels and essays, several editions of which were immediately sold. They were Cecil Dreeme (Boston, 1861; 17th ed. 1864); John Brent (1862; 14th ed. 1864); Edwin Brothertoft (1862); The Canoe and the Saddle (1862); and Life in the Open Air and other Papers (1863). with a por- trait. See Life and Poems of Theodore Winthrop, by his sister (New York, 1884). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Winyaw Bay: a body of water in Georgetown co., S. C. It receives the waters of Waccamaw, Pedee, and Black riv- ers, and is perhaps more properly called the estuary formed by the confluence of those three rivers. It is 14 miles long and 2 miles in average breadth. Large vessels ascend to Georgetown. The main entrance to the bay, called George- town entrance, has a brick lighthouse on the north side, lat. 33° 13’ 21" N., lon. 79° 6’ 44" W., 'called Georgetown Light. Wire and Wire-drawing [wire is 0. Eng. wtr : O. H. Germ. wiara, fine-drawn gold, gold ornament : Icel. virr, wire]: The manufacture of wire depends upon the ductility of metals-that is to say, upon their property of being drawn out into attenuated form. This property is quite different from a capacity for working under the ham mer- copper, which is third among the metals in the order of its malleability, being sixth in ductility. Gold, however, stands firstin both properties, and silver stands second in both. Apparently these were the first metals from which wire was made. The first wire was fabricated by beating the metal into thin sheets, then cutting these into narrow strips or slivers, which were afterward rounded by hammer- ing or filing. Such wire was woven into fabrics with an admixture of textile material—literally, the cloth of gold. The date when silver was first made into wire is uncertain, the earliest that can be fixed being the time of the later By- zantine emperors. The period when the shears, the hammer, WVIRE AND W IRE-DRAWING and the file gave way to the draw-plate with graduated holes or dies is not known. The terms “‘ wire-smiths,” applied to those who made wire with the hammer, and “ wire-drawers ” and “ wire-millers,” applied to those who made it with the die-plate, are both found in German records in the middle of the fourteenth century; and it was doubtless at this time that the draw-plate, which still remains and probably always will remain, the chief appliance in the manufacture of wire, was first invented or brought into use. As the most impor- tant use for wire drawn of the precious metals was for pur- poses of ornamentation, the discovery that by flattening it a given weight could be wound around three times the length of textile fiber was an important step forward, this being the method in which for many purposes gold and silver is a.p- plied in ornamentation for tasscls, fringe, etc., to this day. Wire was at first manufactured with the draw-plate entirely by hand, but at an uncertain date, probably before the year 1400, a machine, the inventor of which is unknown, was made to operate by water-power. In this, it is said, a lever moved a pair of pincers that opened as they came in con- tact with one side of the draw-plate, laid hold of the wire, drew it through the hole or die, and after drawing it a cer- tain distance retraeed their path, taking a new hold, and repeating the operation. This mechanism was in use in France for making certain kinds of wire well into the nine- teenth century, such wire being known by indentations at intervals of about 2 inches along its length where the grip- ping pincers had taken hold. Nuremberg, so flourishing during the later portions of the Middle Ages in its arts and its manufactures. seems to have been the center from which the art of manufacturing wire extended over Europe, al- though it is said to have been carried on with very great success i11 France and Italy. The prosperity of the 1nanu- fact-ure in the German city was due to the system of encour- aging manufactures by granting exclusive patents, som etimes given by the emperor, sometimes by the council of the city. One of these patentees, Frederick Hagelsheimer, received in 1592 a patent of fifteen years for the making of fine gold and silver wire. This patent appears to have been more than once confirmed, and in 1622 was transformed into a fief or continual privilege to the heirs male of his family. The flattening of wire appears to have been a most important branch of the manufacture, this being done by passing it between rollers. ln England wire was made by hand until after the middle of the sixteenth century, and then the art making use of machinery was introduced by foreigners. See Beckmann’s History of Inventions. In modern times what is known as gold wire has an ex- terior of gold and a core of silver, being made by forming a cylindric ingot of silver and coating the latter with gold. This compound ingot is gradually reduced in size by means of the draw-plate—that is to say, by passing it through a succession of holes or dies in a hardened steel plate—first, through one only slightly smaller than the original diameter of the ingot, then through another still smaller, and so on until the requisite reduced diameter is reached. The finest wire ever made (that substituted for the spider-web lines of telescope micrometers) is made by first covering a platinum wire with solid silver. This compound wire, platinum with- in and silver without, is then reduced in diameter in the same manner as the gold wire with the silver core just re- ferred to. This compound wire may be thus brought down to a diameter of about 3-évth part of an inch. Assuming a platinum core to be one-tenth the whole diameter, this core will be attenuated to the 31,~1(Wtl1 part of an inch. This fine compound wire being then dipped into hot nitric acid, the silver is dissolved and the inner core of platinum remains. Platinum wire was made by this means by the inventor, Wollaston, as fine as the -1-7;-(170-vtll of an inch in diameter. Wire for industrial purposes is for the most part made of iron and steel. Brass and copper wire are also largely made, the methods of the manufacture being substantially the same as with iron. In the manufacture of iron wire, rods of the requisite quality of metal have their surfaces cleaned of scale or oxide, and are then passed through the successively diminishing holes of the draw-plate—for example, ten, fif- teen, thirty, or more times, according to the degree of attenu- ation required. The constant compression of the molecules of metal upon each other hardens the wire, so that it has to be repeatedly annealed during the successive drawings. This is performed by placing the wire in kilns, which are first heat- ed to redness and then allowed to cool gradually. Twenty- four hours is the time ordinarily required for annealing the smaller grades of wire. Six or eight different annealings are WIRE-ROPE necessary; very small wire requires more. A scale is formed upon the wire at each annealing, and this is removed by pickling in some acid, preferably dilute sulphuric acid. Wire is sold in coils, and those of the more rigid and stiffer kinds are straightened for use by being passed alternately back and forth on two rows of alternating pins placed a slight distance apart. The wire is thus made to pass in a zigzag course through the device, which is termed a riddle, and comes out straight. Cast-steel wire is made from steel rods hammered to about one-quarter of an inch square by a tilt- hammer, and afterward made round on the anvil. A spuri- ous gold wire, called “gold wire of Lyons,” is manufactured by heating copper to a red heat and exposing it to the fumes of zinc, which converts the external portion of the metal into brass. Brass wire loses its strength when ex- posed to the fumes of acid, and even by long exposure to a damp atmosphere. Zinc wire is flexible, and at first as strong as copper, but resumes the original crystalline state of the metal when subjected to the action of boiling water. The uses and applications of wire are too many to be noted. One of the most unique is the production of surfaces for printing calico, in which copper wires are imbedded in the block, then filed down to a flat surface, and thus form the slightly raised figures upon which the pattern is printed. A remarkable extension of the wire manufacture has of late years occurred from the universal introduction of barbed wire for fences. The wire is provided with points, or barbs, more or less radial to its axis, and this material provides much the greater portion of fencing in many parts of the world. Other fencing wires are made devoid of barbs, one of the best being oval in cross-section and wavy longitudinally, the alternating curves being in the plane of the greatest diameter of the wire. In 1856 an English projector claimed to “improve the tone in strings or wire used for musical purposes” by gilding the same, depositing “the gold by chemical means or coating by any process in which such covering can be produced.” The English experiments ex- tend back to 1768, when it was proposed to fold silver around a copper wire with borax between, and then draw the compound strip thus formed through a draw-plate to unite the metal. Silver was to be covered with a layer of gold and drawn in a similar way. Drawing zinc wire at a temperature of from 210° to 310° F. was patented in 1805. In 1852 the coating of wire with molten metal by drawing it through a bath thereof was described in a patent which also showed a method of excluding air from the bath. Among U. S. inventions, one for which much was claimed, was a combined telegraph wire, comprising a steel core and copper exterior, which was asserted to possess greater con- ductivity and strength in proportion to its weight and cost than the wire commonly used for such purposes. One of the most valuable improvements in wire manufacture was that patented in Aug., 1858, by Henry VVaterman, which reduced the cost of tempering fiat steel crinoline wire from a pound to three cents. Previous to this the tempering of such wire was done by winding it in volute coils kept apart by inter- laced iron wires, the coils being heated to the requisite de- gree in a furnace, and then plunged in a hardening bath. In the improved process the wire was drawn through the fire of a furnace, and guided directly from the fire into the harden- ing bath. It is remarkable that among the 146,119 patents granted in the U. S. previous to the close of the year 1873 there were but five relating to the manufacture of wire, while since that time the improvements have been numerous and important. In 1890 no less than 116 patents were granted for improvements in wire manufacture and arti- cles made from wire. J nuns A. WHITNEY. Wire-rope: See Rorns AND ROPE~.\IAKING. Wil‘e—W01'll1: a term applied to certain Inyriapods and the larvae of various beetles, but properly restricted to the tough, light-brown, cylindrical larvae of various species of elaters, family Elaferzdcc. These beetles are well known under the popular names of spring-beetles, click-beetles. skip- jacks, snapping-bugs, etc. (See Emrrun.) The family com- prises a number of genera and many species. which vary mucl1 in size, though averaging about one-third of an inch. The prevailing color is brown, but a few are jet black and others speckled with white. The larv:.e of many species feed upon the roots of living plants, and these are known by the name of wire-worms. The eggs from which they hatch are generally laid loosely in the ground, and the newly hatched larva is invariably pale. The worms are from one to three (or in cold climates even five) years WISBECH 805 attaining full growth, according to the species, and undergo a larger number of moults than are necessary to most in- sects. The head is somewhat flattened. and there are six true legs near it; the body consists of thirteen joints, and the last gen- erally has at its base, beneath, a retractile proleg. When full grown they descend deeper into the earth, and go through their transformations within an oval cavity, most of them issuing as beetles in early summer. Wire-worms are among the greatest insect pests of the farmer, doing more or less damage to all the grasses and cereals, and often eating into and ruining potatoes, onions, turnips, and injuring various other root-crops and bulbous flowers. \Yire- worms are always abundant in meadows, and crops grown on pasture or meadow land recently broken suffer most from them. In the U. S. the crops most affected are wheat and Indian corn. The remedies proposed and adopted to coun- teract their injuries are innumerable. As wire-worms can not subsist on the soil, as does the earth-worm, and as they mostly require about three years to come to full growth, one of the most effectual ways to prevent their injuries is to fallow the land for one year. but in order to be effectual the fallow must be thorough and the ground plowed often enough in summer to keep down the weeds. In a small plot of ground they may be trapped by strewing on the surface sliced potatoes, turnips. lettuce, or other succulent vegetables. Being unusually fond of these, the worms eat into them. and while doing so may be col- lected and destroyed. Fall plowing, by which the worms are exposed to their natural enemies, especially birds, at a time when most insect-life is sluggish, and submersion, where feasible, are two of the most practicable ways of de- stroying them on a large scale. Corn soaked over night in copperas-water before planting is generally left untouched by them. As the worms have a great partiality for rape- cake, this. mixed with Paris green and spread in lumps over a field from which domestic animals can be excluded, is probably the best of all the remedies, and it acts at the same time as a manure. Revised by J . S. Krnesmv. Wirt, WILLIAM, LL. D.: lawyer and author; b. at Bla- densburg. Md., Nov. 8, 17 72; was left an orphan at the age of eight years, and brought up by an uncle: was educated at the grammar school of Rev. James Hunt. of Montgomery County; was afterward tutor nearly two years in the family of Benjamin Edwards, of Maryland. father of Gov. Ninian Edwards. of Illinois; studied law; began practice in Cul- peper and Albemarle cos., Va., 179.2; married and settled at Pen Park, near Charlottesville, Va., 17 95; removed after his wife’s death to Richmond 1799; served three years as clerk to the house of delegates; became chancellor of the eastern district of Virginia, and married a second time 1802 : settled as a lawyer at Norfolk 1803, and published in the Vz'2'g2§nz'a Argus his celebrated Leflers of a B2'z'z‘iI.s-h Spy, which assed through twelve editions: wrote for the Rich- mond 'nqm're2' a series of essays entitled The Rainbow 1804; returned to Richmond 1806; was an assistant in the prosecution of Aaron Burr 1807 : sat in the house of dele- gates 1807-08; wrote the collection of essays entitled The Old Bachelor, which originally appeared in the Enguz'rer in 1812; was appointed U. S. attorney for the district of Virginia 1816: was Attorney-General of the U. S. for three full terms during the administrations of Monroe and John Quincy Adams 1817-29; delivered at Washington a dis- course commemorative of the death of Adams and Jeffer- son Oct. 19,1826: settled. at Baltimore 1830; and was the anti-\Ia-sonic candidate for the presidency of the U. S. 1832, and received for that office the electoral vote of Ver- mont. D. at Washington, D. O., Feb. 18. 183-1. His chief work was Slrez‘c7zes of the Life rmd Cizarader Of Paz"2'2'cl.> fIcnr;z/ (Philadelphia. 1817 ; 15th ed. Hartford, 1852). His Life was written by John P. Kennedy (:3 vols., 18-19). FIG. 1. Click-beetle. FIG. 2.-Wire-worm. Wvisbecli, wiz'be’ech: town of Oambridgesliire. England: in the Isle of Ely, on the Nene; 40 miles N. of Cambridge (see map of England, ref. 9-K. It is well built, and carries on a variety of manufactures and an active general trade. Vessels of nearly 500 tons can ascend from the Wash. Pop. (1891) 9,395. 806 WISBY Wisby, or Visby, eis’bii: the only town on the west coast of the Swedish island of Gothland (see map of Norway and Sweden, ref. 12-G.). During the Middle Ages it was an im- portant commercial city. In 1361 the Danish king \Valde- mar IV. sacked it and destroyed its importance. Only re- cently it began to recover, and is now a rather thriving com- mercial place with a population of 7,102 (1891). Wiscas’ set: town (incorporated as Pownalboro in 1760, and under its present name in 1802); capital of Lincoln co., Me. ; on the Sheepscot river, and the Maine Cent. Railroad; 20 miles N. of the Atlantic Ocean, 50 miles N. E. of Port- land (for location, see map of Maine, ref. 10-D). It is a port of entry and a popular watering-place; has Congrega- tional, Methodist Episcopal, and Protestant Episcopal churches, seven public-school buildings, U. S. Government building, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a savings- bank, and a weekly newspaper; and is principally engaged in commerce, manufacturing, and farming. Pop. (1880) 1,847; (1890) 1,733. EDITOR or " SHEEPSCOT Ecno.” Wiscon’ Sill: one of the U. S. of North America (North Central group); the seventeenth State admitted to the Union; capital, Madison. Location and Area-It is situated between lat. 42° 27’ and 47° N., and lon. 86° 53’ and 92° 53’ \V.; is bounded N. by Lake Superior, N. E. by the Upper Peninsula of Mich- :_"l' . igan, E. by Lake ' Michigan, S. by I | | u ll -M ' ; ll _ _'_‘_. ‘:- l,, 7' l'i'| '1 I E -L... 75.,u.!7:.,i;g,i|,,||,,,.,,” wig“? H,-=:.:r - - I: W '5 Iowa and Minneso- ta; extreme length from N. to S., 300 miles ; extreme breadth, 250 miles; coast-line over 500 miles ; area, ac- cording to the U. S. census, 56,040 sq. miles (35,865,600 acres), of which 1,590 sq. miles are water surface. Physical Fea- tures.-—There are no mountains in I/Visconsin; the lowest level is 600 feet above the sea, and the highest 1,800 feet. The greatest swell is the Penokee range of Laurentian or granite hills, running N. E. by S. W., some 30 miles S. of Lake Superior, and forming with its outlying spurs a triple watershed—- the northward descent carrying streams flowing into Lake Superior; that sloping to S. E., the feeders of Lake Michi- gan; and that dipping S. and S. IV., the affluents of rivers emptying into the Mississippi. A longitudinal ridge of Niagara limestone follows the shore of Lake Michigan, about 30 miles in the interior, and in the main separates the lake drainage from that of the Mississippi. In the Glacial period Wisconsin, excepting about 10,000 sq. miles in the southwest, was covered by the ice cap, which left about 2,000 minor lakes in the eastern and northern por- tions, with many picturesque gravel knolls, demos of drift, and morainic peaks and ridges. In the driftless area, deep detritic valleys, erosion cliffs, and castellated outlines are characteristic features. One of the. chief characteristics of the State is the diagonal valley occupied by Wisconsin and Fox rivers, and Green Bay. About the center of this valley, at Portage, the Fox and Wisconsin rivers (the one a mem_ber of the Great Lakes drainage system, the other flow- 1ng mto the Mississippi) are separated by a marsh but 11} miles in width, which is sometimes overflowed in spring. The prmci pal Wisconsin rivers which flow into Lake Supe- r1or are the St. Louis, Bois Brule (a famous trout-fishing stream), Bad, and Montreal; into Green Bay are discharged the Fox, Pensaukee, Oconto, Peshtigo, and Menominee; Lake Michigan receives the Kewaunee, East and West Twin rivers, Manitowoc, Sheboygan, and Milwaukee; and the chief rivers emptying into the Mississippi from Wisconsin are the Wisconsin, Black, Trempealeau, Buffalo, Chippewa, and St. Croix, the latter forming with the interlocking Bois Brulé a famous French fur-trade route. The largest in- tcrior lake is WINNEBAGO (Q. 7).). Soil and Procluctions.—'In the central part of the State are wide areas of comparatively unfertile, sandy soil, derived '“l}["p' . | Q l .4 "f'{_{r_ 41/ iiI .{l"l]]!H, I I . Seal of Wisconsin. -u I, 1!! '7 7 ll‘ Illinois, and ‘W. by ~ \/VISCON SIN from the underlying Potsdam sandstone; in the Penokee range are tracts too rocky for successful agriculture; but for the 1nost part the soils are arable, and some of them highly fertile, consisting in the drift area of sandy and clay loams, derived from the heterogeneous mixture of pre-glacial soils and glacial grindings; and in the driftless S. W., of the re- sults of the decomposition of underlying limestone. Before the advent of whites, heavy forests covered much of the State-oaks, maples, ash, poplars, hickories, and the like. Great regions in the north were timbered with pines, hem- locks, and spruce, with which were mingled many deciduous trees. In the south and west the colonists found large prairies surrounded by forests of hard wood, and also much country in which the woods were dotted with small treeless areas. Most of the timber in the south and east has been removed by agricultural settlers, and the northern conifers have suflfered much depletion from lumbering operations; but there remains a large belt of “pinery district.” The chief agricultural productions are Indian corn, oats, po- tatoes, barley, root-crops_, grass seed, and wheat; in the southern counties of Dane, Rock, and Jefferson tobacco is an important crop; live stock and dairy products are large interests in the south and east, the latter in 1890 amount- ing to 303,701,134 gal. of milk, 46,295,623 lb. of butter, and 906,266 lb. of cheese; and there are extensive cran- berry marshes, with an annual product of 500,000 bush., in the central and northwestern sections. The severe winters are not favorable to the culture of apples, grapes, peaches, and pears, but small fruits and vegetables are grown in large quantities. The capital invested in nurseries is about $500,000. The following summary from the census reports of 1880 and 1890 shows the extent of farm operations in the State : FARMS, ETC. 1880. 1890. Per cent.* Total number of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . 134,322 146,409 9'0 Total acreage of farms . . . . . . . . . .. 15,353,118 16,7 7,988 9'3 Total value of farms, including buildings and fences . . . . . . . . . . .. $357,709,507 $477,524.50’? 33'5 >1‘ Increase. The following table, compiled from U. S. reports, shows the acreage, yield, and value of the principal crops in the calendar year 1894: CROPS. Acreage. Yield. Value. Indian corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787.066 16,292,266 bush. $7,331,520 Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567,647 9,366,176 “ 4,7 7 6,750 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 758,967 57.870014 “ 173361.004 Rye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269,476 4,311,616 “ 1,853,995 Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 436,398 12,480,983 “ 5,616.-142 Buckwheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49,532 421,022 “ 235,7 7 2 Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,066 14,669,592 lb. 792,158 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166,407 7,488,315 bush. 3968,80? Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,898,733 2,487,340 tons 19,799.226 Totals ............... .. 5,952,292 ............ .. ( $61,735,674 On Jan. 1, 1895, the farm animals comprised 466.161 horses. value $20,345,306; 5,025 mules, value $258,105; 811,- 012 milch cows, value $1'7,647.621; 748,055 oxen and other cattle, value $11,752,926; 895.756 sheep, value $1,474,414; and 911,623 swine, value $5,807,950—total head, 3,837,032; total value, $57,286,322. Climate.—The climate is similar to that of other interior States upon the same latitude. The winters are protracted and often severe, the mean winter temperature varying from about 25° in the southern tier of counties to about 15° on the Lake Superior shore; but the atmosphere is dry, and this low temperature does not represent the discomfort it would induce in seaboard States. The summer is brief and warm, the mean temperature varying from about 70° in the ex- treme south to about 60° in the extreme north; but there are frequent brief rains, and cool southern and eastern winds. The following is a table of means for the entire late for 1893 as computed by the Wisconsin weather service: MONTHS Tem- Preeipila- M O NTI N Tem— Precipita- ' perature. tion. “ ' pemture. tion. January.. . .. 55° F. 1'48 in July . . . . . . .. 71'1°F. 3'90 in. February.. .. 12'7 1'84 August. . . .. 66'7 2'03 hlarch . . . . . . . 25 '8 2 ' 30 September. . 59 '1 2 ' 32 April . . . . . . .. 40'8 4'45 October.... 485 2'49 May . . . . . . . . . 52 ' 0 2'54 November. . 31 '3 1'33 June . . . . . . . .. 686 245 December. . 160 267 Annual mean temperature, 415° F.; annual precipitation, 29'80 in. _s7 _A1_, as UTER I. POSTL Q masque I- O 4lSLANDS I ozuue |. 3. .\ — . | I . ' .9- A '-___. _- .- iiffielk) ,; l’-Vcock Po Sipp Y A u s H - ‘s all Scale of Miles l£LJL*-L-__ Y‘ -M _—_ 0 I0 20 so 40 F570 County Towns 9 Railroads _.__.- This type indicates a population of 3,000 or over. WISCONSIN As compared with 1891 and 1892, the year was an average of 3° colder; the precipitation was slightly below nor- mal, the average yearly rainfall being 30 inches. The aver- age velocity of wind in 1893 was 8 miles per hour, the high- est vclocity being 56 miles from the W. on May 11. The total snowfall was 69 inches, a third more than the previous year. The mean barometric pressure was 30 inches, the highest reading being 3101 (Feb. 3) and the lowest 2895 (Apr. 20), an extreme range of 2'06 inches, which is above normal. The last severe spring frost was May 8, but there were frosts in northern counties as late as the 28th; killing frosts were reported Aug. 29 and 30, and light frosts at intervals to Sept. 24, when the temperature fell to or below freezing. These were somewhat unusual dates both as to lateness and earliness. During the year there were 124 hail- storms and 67 thunder-storms, the latter most frequent in July. I)1,'uisi0n,s.--For administrative purposes the State is di- vided into seventy counties, as follows: COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWNS, WITH POPULATION. counrms. * Ref. ,P8"81Z,1 23%: COUNTY-TOWNS. 112?)‘. Adams . . . . . . . . 6-D 6.741 6,889 Friendship. . . . . . . . . . . .. Ashland . . . . . . . 2-C 1,559 20,063 Ashland . . . . . . . . . . . 9,956 Barron . . . . . . . . . 3-B 7,024 15.416 Barron . . . . . . . . . . . . 829 Bayfield . . . . . .. 2-C 564 7,390 Washburn .- . . . . . . . 3,039 Brown . . . . . . . . . 5-F 34.078 39,161 Green Bay . . . . . . . . 9,069 Buffalo . . . . . . . . 5-B 15,528 15,997 Alma . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,428 Burnett . . . . . . . . 3—A 3,140 4,393 Grantsburg . . . . . . . 410 Calumet . . . . . . . 5-F 16.632 16,639 Chilton . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,424 Chippewa . . . . . 3-C 15,491 25.143 Chippewa Falls. .. 8,670 lark . . . . . . . . . . 4—C 10,715 17,708 N eillsville . . . . . . . . . 1 ,936 Columbia . . . . . . 6-D 28.065 28,350 Portage . . . . . . . . . . . 5,143 Crawford . . . . .. 7-C 15,644 15,987 Prairie du Chien. . 3,131 Dane . . . . . . . . . . 7-D 53,233 59,578 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . 13,426 Dodge . . . . . . . . . 6-E ,931 44,984 Juneau . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 Door . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1?‘ 11,645 15,682 Sturgeon Bay. . . . . 2,195 Douglas . . . . . . . 2-B 655 13.468 Superior . . . . .. . . . . 11.983 Dunn . . . . . . . . . . 4-B 16.817 22,664 Menomonie . . . . . . . 5.491 Eau Claire. . . . 4—C 19,993 30,673 Eau Claire . . . . . . . . 17.415 Florence t . . . . . 3-E . . . . . . 2.604 Florence . . . . . . . . . . 4-44 Fond du Lac.. . 6-E 46,859 44,088 Fond du Lac . . . . .. 12.024 Forest 1” . . . . . . . . 3-E . . . . . . 1,012 Crandon . . . . . . . . . 37 Grant . . . . . . . . . . 7-C 37.852 36,651 Lancaster . . . . . . . . . 1 ,543 Green . . . . . . . . .. 7- 21,729 22,732 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,768 Green Lake.. . . 6-E 14,483 15,163 Dartford . . . . . . . . . . 204 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . 7-D 23,628 22,117 Dodgeville . . . . . . . . 1,722 Iron 1: . . . . . . . . . . 2- D . . . . . . . . . .. Hurle . . . . . . . . . . . 2.267 Jackson . . . . . .. 5-C 13,285 15,7 7 Black River Falls. 2261 J eiferson . . . . . . 7-E 32.156 33,530 J eiferson. . . . . . . . 2.287 Juneau . . . . . . . . 6-D 15.582 17.121 Mauston . . . . . . . . . . 1.343 Kenosha . . . . . .. 7-F 13,550 15 581 Kenosha . . . . . . . . . 6.532 Kewaunee . . . . . 5-F 15,807 16,153 Kewaunee . . . . . . . . 1.216 La Crosse . . . . .. 6-B 27,073 38,801 La Crosse . . . . . . .. 25.090 Let Fayette . . . . 7 -C 21,279 20,265 Darlington . . . . . . . . 1,589 Langlade . . . . . . 4-E 685 9,465 Antigo . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,424 Lincoln . . . . . . . . 3-D 2.011 12,008 Merrill . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.809 Ma.nitowoc.. . . . 5-F 37,505 37,831 Manitowoc . . . . . . . . 710 Marathon . . . . . . 4-D 17.121 30.369 Wausau . . . . . . . . . . . 9.253 Marmette . . . . . . 4-F 8,929 20,304 Marinette . . . . . . . . . 11,523 Marquette . . .. . 6-D 8.908 9,676 Montello . . . . . . . . . . 761 Milwaukee. . . . . 7 -F 138,537 236,101 Milwaukee . . . . . . . . 204,468 Monroe . . . . . . . . 6-C 21,607 23,211 Sparta . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.795 Oconto . . . . . . . . 4-E 9,848 15,009 Ocouto . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,219 Oneida t _ . . . . .. 3-D . . . . . . 5,010 Rhinelander . . . . . . 2,658 Outagamie . . . . 5-13 28,716 38,690 Appleton . . . . . . . . . . 11,869 Ozaukee . . . . . . . 6-F 15.461 14,943 Port Washington. . 1.659 Pepin . . . . . . . . . . 5-B 6,226 6.932 Durand . . . . . . . . . . . 1,154 Pierce . . . . . . . . . 4-14 17,744 20,385 Ellsworth . . . . . . . . . 67 Polk . . . . . . . . . . . 3-A 10.018 12.968 Osceola Mills . . . . .. 384 Portage . . . . . . . . 5-D 17,731 24,798 Stevens Point. . . . . ‘.896 Price . . . . . . . . . . 3-C 785 5.258 Phillips . . . . . . . . . . . 1,582 Racme . . . . . . . . . 7-F 30,922 36.268 Racine . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.014 Ricliland .. . .. 6-C 18.174 19.121 Richland Center . . 1.819 ock . . . . . . . . . . 7-13 38,823 43,220 J auesville . . . . . . . . . 10.836 St. Croix . . . . . .. 4-A 18,956 ' 23.139 Hudson . . . . . . . . . .. 2.885 Sank . . . . . . . . . . . 6-D 25,729 30.57 5 Baraboo . . . . . . . . . . 4.605 Sawyer ‘t . . . . . . . 3-C . . . . . . 1.977 Hayward . . . . . . . . . 1,349 Shawano . . . . . . 4-E 10,371 19,236 Shawano. . . . . . . . 1,505 Sheboygan . . . . 6- F 34.206 42,489 Sheboygan . . . . . . . . 16.359 Taylor . . . . . . . . . 4-C 2,311 6.731 Medford . . . . . . . . . 1,193 Trempealeau. . 5-B 17,189 18,920 White-hall . . . . . . . . . 304 Vernon . . . . . . . . 6 -C 23,235 25,111 Viroqua . . . . . . . . . . . 1 .270 Vdast . . . . . . . . . 2-D . . . . . . . . . . . . Eagle River . . . . . .. 1,154 \Valworth . . . .. 7-13] 26,249 27.860 Elkhorn . . . . . . . . . .. 1.447 W ashburn 'l'. . . . 3-B . . . . . . ".926 Shell Lake . . . . . . . 1.535 Waslnngton . . . 6-F 23.442 23,751 West Bend . . . . . . . . 1.296 Waukesha .. . . . 7-F 28.957 33.270 Waukesha . . . . . . . . 6.321 Waupaca . . . . . . 5-E 20.955 26,794 Waupaca . . . . . . . . . 2.127 Waushara . . . . . 5-E 12.687 13.507 Wautoma . . . . . . . . . . 704 \\{mnebago. . . . 5-13 42,740 50.097 Oshkosh . . . . . . . . . . 22,836 W ood . . . . . . . . . . 5-D 8,981 18,127 Grand Rapids. . . . . 1,702 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . 1,315,497 1,686,880 * Re1’erence_for location of counties, see map of Wisconsin. ‘t Not organized in 1880. Not organized in 1890. 'Pr2Iam,'paZ (.7tt'ies and Towns, with P0pu,Zaz"2Ionf02' 1890.— Milwaukee, 204,468; La Crosse, 25,090; Oshkosh, 22,836; 807 0 Racine, 21,014; Eau Claire, 17,415; Sheboygan, 16,359; Madison, 13,426; Fond du Lac, 12,024; Superior, 11,983; A'pplcton, 11,869; Marinette, 11,523; Janesville, 10,836; Ashland. 9,956; \Vausau, 9,253; Green Bay, 9.069: \Vater- town, 8,755; Chippewa Falls, 8,670; Stevens Point, 7,896; Manitowac, 7,710; Merrill,6,809; Kenosha.6,532: IVaukesha, 6,321 ; Beloit, 6,315; Menomonie, 5,491; Oconto, 5,219; Port- age, 5,143; and Neenah, 5,083. Population and Races.—In 1840, 30,945; 1850, 305,391; 1860, 775,881; 1870. 1,054,670; 1880. 1,315,497; 1890, 1.686,- 880 (native, 1,167,681; foreign. 519,199; male, 874.951; female, 811,929; white, 1,680,473; colored, 6,407, of whom 2,444 were persons of African descent, and 3,835 were civil- ized Indians. The aggregate of other Indians was 8,896, of whom 7,915 lived on reservations (Green Bay agency 3.137, and La Pointe agency 4,778) and 981 off. The principal native tribes are Chippewa, Menomonee, and \Vinnebago; the Stockbridgcs were removed hither from Massachusetts and the Oneidas from New York. State Census, 189-5.—According to the unofficial reports of the decennial State census the population of the State in that year was 1,931,905, and that of the principal cities and towns was as follows: Milwaukee, 247,152; La Crosse, 28,- 769; Oshkosh. 26,937; Superior, 26,168; Racine, 24.889; Sheboygan, 21,130; Eau Claire, 18.637 ; Green Bay (to which Fort Howard was annexed in 1895), 18.290; Madison. 15,- 950; Marinette, 15,286; Appleton, 14.641; Fond du Lac, 13,051 ; Janesville, 12.958; Ashland. 12,310; \Vausau, 11.013; Watertown, 9,922; Manitowoc, 9,427; \Ierrill. 8,607; Keno- sha, 8,122: Beloit, 7,786; Menomonie, 6,198; Oconto, 6,017; Neenah, 5,781; Portage. 5,419. In(Z‘u.s2‘rics and Business Interests.—The U. S. census re- turns of 1890 showed that 10,417 mechanical and manufac- turing establishments reported. These had a combined capital of $2-16.515,404, and employed 132,031 persons, to whom $51,843,708 was paid in wages. The total value of the plants was $125,455,518, of which 843328.127 was iii- vested in machinery, tools, and implements. During the census year materials costing $145,437,016 were used in the manufactories, whose combined output was valued at 8248,- 546.164. The following table gives details of industries having an output valued at $2,000,000 and upward: Estab_ Em- 'Valne of PRODUCTS. 11514 \Vages paid. ‘ ments. ployees output. Lumber-niill products from logs or bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853 32.755 810046.413 852115.739 Flour and grist mill products.. 497 2.300 1.172.505 24.252297 ilaltlliquors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1g7 1.§64.g7 9 14.193853 eat ier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘8 ~, 7 1, 71. 67 11,1G]5L5 Slaughtering and meat-paek- ing products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28 1,006 501.533 10.657 ,911 Timber products, not mill manufactures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 10,123 1,852,757 8.850,705 Foundry and machine-shop products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 5,304 2,836,433 8,467,290 Butter, cheese. and condensed I milk .(.1. . . . .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 968 1 545.361 6,960.711 ron an stee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1...“. , 4,613.753 6.501.761 Planing-mill products . . . . . . . . . 88 3.705 1,623.889 6.295.810 Agricultural implements . . . . . . 51 3.031 1.489.673 5.015.512 Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.613 695.221 4.216.593 gurnitura. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1?) 1,§10.717 3253.225 oots an s ioes . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $2 2, 55 75,785 L..7‘..2‘ 3 Cigars and cigarettes . . . . . . . . . . 355 1.967 868. ~2 2.524.949 Halt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15 ‘ 7 8 238.091 2.472.018 The fishing industry is one of much importance. In Lakes i\Iiehigan and Superior, according to the census. \Yisconsin had capital invested in 1889, 8326.744; number of vessels and boats employed. 956; men employed, 1.484; and value of catch, 3455.030. The State fish cominissioners reported that the catch in 1894 amounted to 8869.737. and that the capital invested in the industry was $1,016,278. The value of the fisheries on the inland lakes and rivers probably amounts to a like figure. The fishing interests of the State are controlled by a State commission which conducts large lia-teheries at Madison. Bayfield. and Milwaukee for the arti- ficial propagation of fry. with which the Great Lakes and inland waters are annually stocked. Fmuniccs.-Tlie total receipts of the general fund in the biennial period 1893-94 were 83.835,732; total disburse- ments. $3.693.733: amount of productive school fund on Sept 30, 1894, $3,418,760: property valuation on which tax was levied in 1894, $600,000,000; amount of State tax. $595,684; total town. city, village, and county taxes. 814,- 725,939 ; State bonded debt, none. 80,8 Ba/nls/ing.—On Oct. 3, 1893, there were 76 national banks with an aggregate capital of $7,019,318, individual deposits of $18,872,300, and a surplus fund of $2,009,099 ; on July -2, 1895, there were 125 State banks, with an aggregate capital of $6,934,750, and deposits of about $28,000,000; and 105 private banks with an aggregate capital of about $1,000,000, and deposits of $5,000,000. Means of C0mmum'cation.—The railway mileage Dec. 31, 1894, aggregated 6,010'06. The leading companies are Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 1,644'73 miles; Chicago and Northwestern, 1.57962; Wisconsin Central, 78196; Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, 62007 ; Minne- apolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie, 276'02; Green Bay, Winona and St. Paul, 22480; and Chicago, Burlington and Northern, 2.22/56. There are but two canals within the State, both small and owned by the U. S. Government, one, now seldom used, connecting Fox and \Visconsin rivers at Portage: the other, convenient for lone‘-shore tratlic, con- necting the waters of Green Bay and Lake Michigan, at Sturgeon Bay. . Clm/'e7ies.—'.Fl1e census of 1890 gave the following statis- tics of the religious bodies having a membership of 1,000 and upward in the State : , Organiza- Churches value of DEN OMIL ATIONS.- tions and hang. Members church ' ‘ property. Roman Catholic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 646 666 249.164 $54,859,950 Lutheran, Synodical Conference. 388 357 83,942 1,306,303 Methodist Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 705 41,360 1,791,900 Lutheran, United Norwegian. . . . 187' 183 28,717 394,450 Congregational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 196 15,841 1,089,750 Lutheran, Norwegian Evang. . . . . 95 94 15,037 200,800 Baptist. Regular. North . . . . . . . . .. 192 198 14,152 838,945 Evangelical Association . . . . . . . . . . 224 225 12,553 355,100 German Evang. Synod of N. A. .. 63 63 11,410 182 700 Presb. in the U. S. of America. . .. 131 141 11,019 877,400 Protestant Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 135 10,457 1,035,978 Lutheran, Joint Syn. of Ohio, etc. 25 41 7,356 80,600 Reformed Church in the U. S. . . .. 55 56 5,966 143,750 Lutheran, General Council . . . . . .. 41 41 3,099 52,325 Welsh Calvin, Methodist . . . . . . . . .. 41 52 2,641 114,500 Lutheran, Hauge’s Synod . . . . . . .. 28 27 2,165 20,150 Lutheran, Ind. Congregations. . .. 13 13 2,114 26.200 Lutheran, Danish Evangelical.. .. 16 15 2,076 22,200 Lutheran, Gen. Augsburg Synod. 10 10 1,991 20,310 Seventh-day Advent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 58 1,892 28,850 United Brethren in Christ . . . . . . . . 47 47 1,687 39.275 Free-will Baptist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48 51 1,683 94.400 Moravian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19 1,477 27.900 Unitarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16 16 1,394 238,500 Reformed Church in America. . .. 11 13 1,349 40,100 Disciples of Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24 18 1,317 30,300 Jews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 8 1,231 112,000 Lutheran, Buifalo Synod . . . . . . . .. 7 7 1,158 19,600 Seventh-day Baptist . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 10 1,078 26.475 Sehools.—The provisions made for the education of the children of the State are liberal, $4,929,191 being expended for the common schools and $249,331 for normal schools in 1894, in addition to the cost of maintaining private and denominational systems. The total income for public schools in the biennial period ending June 30, 1894. was $1,712,988. The number of children of school age (between four and twenty) in 1894 was 665,268, of whom 384,243 were enrolled in the public schools. There were 6,795 public schoolhouses in the State, with 12,581 teachers; 178 high schools; 7 normal schools; State schools for deaf, deaf mute, blind, indigent, and incorri- gible children; and a State university. (See WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY or.) The State University has also in charge an admirable and far—reaching system of farmers’ insti- tutes, and was a pioneer in the work of university extension, having in both these fields special staifs of lecturers. An important work, in connection with public instruction, is the fostering of town and district libraries, the former maintained through withholding a portion of the school fund income and the latter by local taxation. The Roman Catholic Church, in addition to parochial and charitable schools, maintains several colleges, chiefly Pie None at St. Francis, Marquette (Jesuit) at Milwaukee, Sta. Clara at Sin- sinawa Mound, Ste. Catherine at Racine, and St. Lawrence at Mt. Calvary. The Lutheran colleges are Concordia at lVIilwaukce, Northwestern University at VVatertown, a theo- logical seminary at W auwautosa, and a mission-house at Franklin. Other denominational colleges are chiefly Beloit and Ripon (Congregational), Lawrence University (Metho- dist) at Appleton, Milwaukee—I)owner (Congregational) at Milwaukee, Racine (Protestant Episcopal), Milton (Seventh- day Baptist), Carroll (Presbyterian) at Waukesha. WISCONSIN L/£b1'arvjes.—Aecording to a U. S. Government report on public libraries of 1,000 volumes and upward each in 1891, Wisconsin had 83 libraries, containing 453,534 bound vol- umes and 133,566 pamphlets. The libraries were classified as follows: General, 28 ; school, 27: college, 15 ; law, 1 ; theological, 4; public institution, 2; Y. M. C. A., 1 ; scien- tific, 1; historical, 1; society, 2; and not reported, 1. In 1895 there were about 100 public, college, and subscription libraries, with about 600,000 volumes; and 900 small town- ship libraries, under the supervision of the State superin- tendent of public instruction. The legislature has provided for a State library commission. P082‘-ojfices and Perz'0d1'ca.Z.s.—In Jan., 1895. there were 1,800 post-otlices, of which 120 were presidential (4 first- class, 23 second-class, 93 third-class, and 1,680 fourth-class). There were 568 money-order offices, 6 money-order stations, and 21 limited money-order offices. The newspapers and periodicals comprised 54 daily, 4 semi-weekly, 467 weekly, 1 tri-monthly, 5 bi-weekly, 7 semi-monthly, 37 monthly, 1 bi- monthly, and 2 quarterly publications; total, 57 . C/ta.7't'taZ1Ze, Reformm/0'ry, and Penal Io2sz‘t'tui2'0ns.—-The State board of control, composed of five members appointed by the Governor, has supervision over the Insane Hospitals near Madison and Oshkosh, School for the Deaf at Delavan, School for the Blind at Janesville, Industrial School for Boys at \Vaukesha, State Prison at VVaupun, Home for the Feeble-minded at Chippewa Falls, and the State School for Dependent Children at Sparta. The board also has charge of 23 county chronic-insane asylums, 68 jails, and 51 city and county poor-houses. It officially inspects and reports on all police stations and lock-ups, and all private benevo- lent institutions ; and supervises four semi-State institutions —-the Milwaukee Insane Hospital,Milwaukee House of Cor- rection, VVisconsin Industrial School for Girls at Milwaukee, and the \/Visconsin Veterans’ Home at Waupaca. Polvjticctl Orgcm2'zaz.‘t'0n.—Tlie Legislature is composed of a Senate of 33 members and an Assembly of 100, and members must be voters and residents of their districts. All State, county, and district ofiicers, except school oflicers, must be voters. The Governor and Lieutenant-Governor must be voters and citizens of the U. S., so also judges, who must be not under twenty-five years of age. Only males, twenty-one years of age. are qualified to vote. If a foreign- er, the voter must have resided one year within the State and declared his intention to become a citizen. Indians made citizens by Congress may vote. The classes disquali- fied are idiots and insane persons ; convicts, unless restored to civil rights; U. S. soldiers or marines stationed within the State ; those who have a wager pending on the election ; and duelists. Members of Congress, U. S. ofiieers, officers of foreign powers, criminals, or defaulters can not be elected to any post of trust, honor, or profit within the State. Sheriffs are ineligible for re-election to succeed themselves. General State elections are held in November, biennially; elections for judges and town and village ofiicers in April. There is a State Supreme Court with five j ustices. seventeen circuit judges, a probate judge in each county, and in cer- tain cities munieipal judges, all elected by popular vote. Hz'st01'y.—Sitiiated at the head both of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi valley, and drained by interlacing rivers which at their sources so closely approach each other that the canoe-voyager can with ease pass from one great water system to the other, the geographical character of Wisconsin became, very early in the history of New France, an important factor in the development of the West. It also was the meeting-point between the Algonkin and Da- kotah tribes. In 1634 Frontenac, then governor of New France, sent Jean Nicolet, a coureur des bots (wood-ranger), to make treaties with the Indians and induce them to trade with the French of Quebec and Montreal. Nicolet landed at the site of Green Bay, ascended the Fox river to about the site of Berlin, and thence went overland to Illinois, re- turning home, doubtless, by way of the Chicago portage and Lake Michigan. The next recorded visit of whites to Wis- consin was that of the traders Radisson and Groseilliers in 1658-59. They ascended the Fox, and, it is believed, descend- ed the VVisconsin ; there is small reason to doubt that they were the first to set eyes on the upper Mississippi. In 1661 they were on Lake Superior, and built a stockade fort on the southwest shore of Chequamegon Bay, near Ashland. It is probable that Father Allouez, the first missionary to Wiscon- sin, built his mission of La Pointe on the site of this fort. Four years later Allouez established St. Francis Xavier mis- sion at the rapids near the mouth of the Fox, the site of the WISCONSIN present Depere. In 1673 Louis Joliet and Father Marquette tarried at the mission while on their celebrated tour by way of the Fox and Wisconsin rivers to explore the Mississippi river ; and after their return Marquette stayed there through the winter and wrote his journal of the trip. In 1674 Mar- ( uette made a canoe trip along the Lake Michigan shore of isconsin from Green Bay to Chicago, as did also La Salle five years later. It was among the islands of Green Bay that La Salle’s Grilfon, the first sailing vessel on the upper lakes, was lost in a storm. Another notable traveler in Wisconsin was Du l’Hut (Du Luth), who in 1680 made a fur-trading trip up the Bois Brulé river and down the St. Croix. . Five years later Nicholas Perrot, another coureur des Zmzs, ap- peared in Wisconsin. and for many years was the chief fur- trader of the region, wherein he had several stout stockades. ‘For much of the time he acted for New France as "com- mandant of the West.” Le Sueur, also a fur-trader captain, fortified the Bois Brulé-St. Croix route, and had stockades at La Pointe and on the Mississippi. For upwards of a century \Visconsin played an important part in the forest trade of New France, and Indians from here were largely used as allies of the French in the protracted struggle between France and England for the mastery of the continental interior. The first permanent white settlement was made by the Langlade family at Green Bay, about the middle of the eighteenth century. At Prairie du Chien. at the junction of the Wisconsin river with the Mississippi, temporary hamlets of voyagcum often sprung up, but no permanent settlement was effected there until 1781. Traders were at Milwaukee as early as 1779, but it was not really settled until the trader Vieau’s arrival in 1795 ; Portage and La Pointe trace an un- interrupted settlement to about the same date. Notwithstanding the treaty of 1783, Great Britain re- tained possession of the forts on the upper lakes : and Wisconsin being a dependency of Mackinaw, it was prac- tically under British control until the close of the war of 1812-15, although nominally U. S. territory after 1796. Early in the nineteenth century, as a means of helping Astor’s fur company, Congress sought to exclude British traders from the district; but U. S. influence was not much felt until the close of the war, when the U. S. Government erected Fort Howard. opposite the then French and Indian village of Green Bay, and Fort Crawford at the fur-trading hamlet of Prairie du Chien. Up to this time the French and their half-bloods held \Visconsin woods and streams; and the fur- trade, in which they acted as agents and royageurs for Eng- lish firms at Mackinaw and Montreal, was the leading in- dustry. Little by little this French predominance was undermined, at first by the advent of Americans into the lead mines (1827), and then by agricultural settlers from New England and New York State. The Black Hawk war (1832), wherein the Sacs were nearly exterminated, was also an im- portant factor in the opening of the region. Settlement and development now began in earnest. The fur-trade, after the formation of VVisconsin Territory (1836), ceased to be of im- portance, the non-progressive French element subsided into insignificance, immigrants from the East were attracted by cheap lands on easy terms, and thenceforth VVisconsin was 31 U. S. Territory, in fact as well as in name, which rapidly grew into a powerful and patriotic State (admitted to the Union in 1848). In the war of 1861-65 Wisconsin took front rank 011 behalf of the Union, sending to the armies a ninth of her population and over half’ of her voters. Her death- roll was 12,301, or 166 per cent. of her total enlistment of 91,327, and her war expenses aggregated $11.7 04,932.55. The famous Iron Brigade was chiefly composed of Wisconsin men. GOVERNORS OF IVISCONSIN. Territorial. .IIames Levy? . . . . . . . . . .. 1864-65 em..DOd(,e I . . . ‘ _ ‘ _ _ ‘ . __ 8~ _ mcius 4£LiI‘(31iCl . . . . . . . . .. 1866-71 _ITI,Lme3S D_ D’:f)t-Iy _ _ _ , _ . _ _ H Ca_dwalladerC.Washburn 1872-T3 Nathaniel P. Tallmadge.. 184-l-45 ---- -- i§Zé—I='> \ 0 l' 1 ‘ L ‘ ‘ c ( 0' . . . . i — N Hemy Dodge ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " 1b‘1‘)—4b William E.Smifh . . . . . . . .. 18i”8-81 Jeremiah M Rusk . . . . . . .. 1882-88 Sfate- William D. Hoard ...... .. 1889-00 Nelson Dewey . . . . . . . . . . .. 1848-51 George W. Peck . . . . .. . . .. 1891-9-1 Leonard J . Farwell . . . . . .. 185:3-53 William H. Upham . . . . . .. 1895- William A. Ba-rstow . . . . .. 1854-56 Coles]3ashforcl . . . . . . . . . .. 1856-57 Alex. ‘V. Randall . . . . . . . .. 1858-61 Louis P. Harvey . . . . . . . . .. 1862 Edward Salomon (acting). 1862-63 AUTI-Ion.rrIEs.-—The prime source of materials for the original study of early “hsconsin history is the ll/Izfsconsfn H zsforzcal Oollectwns, of which thirteen volumes have thus l WISDOM, BOOK OF 809 far been published by the State Historical Society. See also Thwaites’-s Story of llfils-consin (Boston,‘1890). Strong’s I113- tory of the Territory] of Wt'sc0nsz'n (published by the State, 1885) is a compilation of territorial annals. Lapham’s lids- cons/in (1844; enlarged in 1846) is now out of print ; so also are M cLeod’s Hi.s-iory of W'L'.s-lronsan (1846) : Smith’s H isfory of I/V/isconszjn (published by the State, 1854, only vols. i. and iii. issued) ; and Tuttle’s IZZusz‘rat‘ed His[o7'y of the State of Wz'scons-in (1875). REUBEN GOLD THWAITES. Wisconsin River: a river that rises in Vieux Desert Lake (which is partly in Michigan and partly in Wisconsin); flows in a generally south course to Portage City, “is. where it turns to the S. VV. It reaches Mississippi river 4 miles be- low Prairie du Chien. Breadth at its mouth, 1,800 feet; elevation, 600 feet. Its length is over 600 miles. It is nav- igable 200 miles to Portage City, whence a short canal leads to Fox river. The channel of the W'isconsin is much injured by shifting sandbars. The upper part of the river passes through heavy pine forests. Several cataracts, of which the most famous are those of the Dalles of the \Visconsin and Grandfather Bull Falls, break the course of this picturesque stream. Revised by I. C. Rnssnnn. Wisconsin, University Of: an institution of higher learn- ing. at Madison, Vl’is. ; incorporated in 1838 and organized in 1848. In 1849 a preparatory department was established ; in 1850 the university was formally opened : in 1851 the first college classes were formed. Congress in 1838 granted 46,- 080 acres of land to the 'I‘erritory of YVisconsin for the sup- port of a university, and in 1854 it made another grant of the same amount. In 1866 the university also received 240,- 000 acres of land which Congress had granted to the State in 1862 in accordance with the conditions of the Morrill Act. In 1889 this was supplemented by a grant which will ulti- mately amount to $25,000 a year. The university also has the income of the Hatch Act, appropriating 815.000 per an- num for an agricultural experiment station. In 1867 the university was reorganized in accordance with the conditions of the grant. Since 1866 it has received generous Stale appropriations. among which were 5550.000 in 1870 for the erection of the Ladies’ Hall, and $80,000 in 1875 for the erec- tion of Science Hall. The latter was burned in 1884. together with the apparatus and geological and other collections of great value. For the erection of new Science Hall and to replace apparatus, etc.. the State appropriated, in 1885, 8190.- 000, and $195,000 in 1887. For the benefit of the university there is levied annually a State tax of nine-fort-ieths of a mill on a dollar. which yields about $150,000. Besides this amount. the State provides $12,000 a year for the support of farmers‘ institutes, and 1 per cent. of the railroad-license tax, which yields about $13,000 a year, for the college of engi- neering. The entire income of the university in 1894 was $364,000. In 1893 a new building for the college of law was completed at an expense of 886,000. and in 1894 a gymnasium and armory at a cost of $116,000. The university domain consists of about 350 acres, extending a mile along the south shore of Lake Mendota. In 1895 the university build- ings were more than 20 in number, 10 being of stone and 6 of brick. The staff of instruction in 1894-95 consisted of 50 professors, 17 assistant professors. 25 instructors, 3 assist- ants,‘and 29 special lecturers. Students in the same year numbered: Fellows, 13; other graduates. 7'7 ; undergradu- ates in college of letters and science, 785: college of me- chanics and engineerin<**. 225; college of agriculture, 213; college of law, 266; school of pharmacy. 41—total. 1,530. The general management of the institution is vested in a board of 14 regents——nan1ely, the State superintendent of public instruction, the president of the university, and 12 members, one for each of the 10 congressional districts of the Slate. and two for the State at large, appointed for three years by the Governor. The president is chosen by the board of regents. The university comprises a college of letters and science: a college of mechanics and engineer- ing; a college of agriculture: a college of law; a school of pharmacy: a school of economics, political science. and his- tory; and a school of music. All the departments are open to women, the number in attendance in 1894-95 being about 300. C. K. .~\n.\us. Wisdom, B00]; Of: one of the .~\pocr_vpha of the Old Tes- tament; written in Greek, apparently during the latter half of the second century 13. c. It is a “wisdom“ book, like the canonical books of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, the New Testament book of James, and several of the Apoc- rypha. For greater effectiveness, the author speaks in the 310 WISE name of Solomon. In the earlier copies of the Septuagint it is called the \Visdom of Solomon; but from the time when Jerome demonstrated that Solomon was not its author, his name has been generally omitted 1'rom the title. By Roman Catholics the book is regarded as canonical, on the same basis with others of its class. The Greek is more nearly classical than in most of the Apocrypha, and the contents, on the whole, of a high order. Among the numerous older commentaries 011 the book the most remarkable are by John Rainold (Oxford, 1618); Bauermeister (Giittingen, 1828) ; and Grimm (Leipzig, 1860). The best accessible Greek text is in Swete’s Old Testament in Greek. An admirable translation and commentary is that of Dr. Bissell i11 the American Lange Series. Revised by WILLIS J . BEEG1-IER. Wise, DANIEL, D.D.: clergyman; b. at Portsmouth, Eng- land, Jan. 10, 1813; removed to the U. S. 1833; became a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church ; was editor of The Sunday School fllessenger 1838-43, and subsequently of the Ladies’ Pearl, 1 he Rhode Island Temperance Pledge, and Zz'on’s lferald 1852-56 ; was corresponding secretary of the Methodist Sunday-school Union 1856-72, and Tract So- ciety 1860—72; and editor of Sunday-school and tract pub- lications. Author of more than fifty volumes designed for youth, several under the pseudonym of Francis Forrester, Esq. Revised by ALBERT Osnoan. Wise, HENRY ALEXANDER: Governor of Virginia; b. at Drummondtown, Accomack co., Va., Dec. 3, 1806; grad- uated at Washington College, Pennsylvania. in 1825; stud- ied law at Winchester, Va., and then moved to Nashville, Tenn.; returned to his native county, where he continued the practice of law with great success, and soon became actively engaged in politics until the outbreak of the civil war. He was member of Congress 1833-43 and became noted for his vigorous but not always politic expression of his views. I-Ie favored the extension of slavery and the an- nexation of Texas. He was greatly attached to Henry Clay during this period of his life, and, it has been said. was a warm advocate of his nomination for the presidency in the election of 1840. He was influential in securing the nomi- nation of John Tyler for the vice-presidency at that elec- tion. In 1843 Tyler nominated him minister to France, and he resigned his seat in the House in expectation of its con- firmation, but the Senate, which was so decidedly at war with Mr. Tyler at this time, rejected the nomination. l/Vise was immediately returned to the House by his constituents. In 1844 Tyler nominated him minister to Brazil. This ap- pointment was confirmed by the Senate. Resigning in 1847, he returned and took an active part in the presidential elec- tion in 1848. He was a Cass elector for his State. In 1850 he was a member of the reform convention of Virginia. In 1852 he was again presidential elector on the Pierce ticket. He was elected Governor of Virginia in 1855, and continued in the office until after the John Brown raid in 1859, Brown’s execution being one of the last acts of his administration. Wise was decidedly opposed to secession in 1860, but he went. with his State after her ordinance of secession. He entered the Confederate service with the commission of brigadier- gcneral, which position he held until the close of the war. After the war he took no active part in politics, but changed his residence to Richmond, where he resumed the practice of law. He published Seven Decades of the Unton, Memoir of John Tyler (1872). D. at Richmond, Va.. Sept. 12, 1876. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wise. HENRY AUGUSTUS: naval oflicer; son of George Stuart I/Vise, U. S. navy; b. at Brooklyn, N. Y., May 12, 1819; entered the U. S. navy as a midshipman 1834; served on the coast of Florida during the Seminole war, and on the Pacific coast during the Mexican war 1846-48; married a daughter of Edward Everett: was flag-lieutenant of the Mediterranean squadron 1852-54; conveyed the Japanese ambassadors home in the U. S. frigate Niagara 1861; be- came assistant chief of the bureau of ordnance and hydrog- raphy, with the rank of commander, 1862; was promoted captain and chief of that bureau Dec.,1866; resigned his post 1868, and went to Europe for his health. D. at Naples, Italy, Apr. 2. 1860. He was the author of Los Grtngos, or an Interior IN/<20 of Jlferc/co and (,‘c1.lt_/"o1~n1'a, Iw/z.'th lVander- /tngs /tn Porn, C/1/tlzi, and Polz/nesta (New York, 1840); Tales for the Jllartnes (Boston. 1855); Sc(rm.pr1.mIa.9, from Ge'hel- Tareh to Slam!/onl (New York, 1857); The Story of the Gray] A/’re'can Parrot, for children (1850); and Cayn‘atn Brand of the Centipede (London. 1860; New York, 1864), all under the pseudonym of Harry Gringo. IVISH ART Wise. Jonx: clergyman ; b. at Roxbury, Mass, in Aug., 1652; graduated at llarvard 1673; was settled as pastor at Chebasco, a new parish of Ipswich, 1683; was imprisoned, fined, and deposed from the ministry by order of Gov. Andros for remonstrating against a violation of charter rights in imposing a province-tax without authority from the Assembly (1688); brought a suit against Chief Justice Dudley for denying him the benefit of the I-Iabcas Corpus Act (1689); was deputy from Ipswich in the Legislature of 1689, after the overthrow of Andros; was chaplain to the expedition against Quebec 1600; successfully opposed the scheme fathered by the Mathers for placing the churches of l\Iassachusetts under the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical councils in his two essays, The Churches’ Quarrel Esponscd (Boston, 1710 : 2d ed. with the“ Cambridge Platform,” 1715) and A V tndtcatz.'on of the Government of lVcw England Churches (bound with a new edition of the former pamphlet, 1717). A large edition of both essays was printed in 1772, presumably as a political text-book; 4th ed., with historical notice by Joseph S. Clark, D. D., Boston, 1860. According to Dr. Clark “ some of the most glittering sentences in the Declaration of Independence are almost literal quotations from the Ve‘nd/tcatton.” Revised by S. M. Jncxson. Wiseheart, Gnoncnz See WISHART. Wiseman, NICHOLAS PATRICK STEPHEN, D.D.: cardinal and archbishop; b. at Seville, Spain, Aug. 3, 1802. of Irish parents; educated at \Vaterford, at the Roman Catholic Col- lege near Durham, and in the English college at Rome; was ordained to the priesthood 1825; became Professor of Ori- ental Languages in the Roman university 1827, and rector of the English College 1828; returned to England 1835; established with ()’Connell the Dublin Review, and deliv- ered a course of lectures on Roman Catholic doctrines at St. Mary’s, Moorfields, during Lent, 1836; maintained a polem- ic on the “ Real Presence ” with Dr. Turton, Bishop of Ely, and published several able works in advocacy of Roman Catholicism ; lectured at Rome during Lent, 1837, at which time he induced Pope Gregory XVI. to appoint several ad- ditional vicars apostolic in England; was consecrated Bish- op of Melipotamos /tn parttbns e'nfidele'nm, and coadjutor to Dr. \Valsh of the Midland district of England June 8, 1840; became in the same year president of St. Mary’s Col- lege, Oscott; visited Rome in 1847, and gave his influence in favor of the measure then preparing for the restoration of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England ; was appoint- ed pro-vicar apostolic of the London district 1848, and vicar apostolic on the death of Bishop I/Valsh 1849; was sum- moned to Rome Aug., 1850; aided in preparing the “apes- tolic letter” of Sept. 29, re-establishing the English hier- archy ; was nominated Archbishop of Westminster Sept. 30. and made cardinal Oct. 1, 1850—measures which caused great excitement in England, where they were characterized as a “ papal aggression,” and gave rise to the Ecclesiastical Titles Act, prohibiting the assumption of local ecclesias- tical titles by Roman Catholics, and which remained nomi- nally in force until its repeal in 1872. Cardinal \Viseman was active in the exercise of his new functions. making fre- quent episcopal journeys through England and Ircland,'de- livering lectures and speeches, and publishing numerous volumes in support of his doctrines. D. in London, Feb. 15, 1865. He was the author, among other works, of Ilene S_’I/rtacre (Rome, 1828); Lectures on the Connection between Sctence and Revealed Religion (2 vols., 1836): The Real Presence (1836) ; Lectures on the Doctrrnes and Practz'ces of the Cathohlc Church (2 vols., 1836); Three Lectures on the Catholic I~Itera/rc72.y/ (1850); Essays on Varto-us Subjects (3 vols., 1853); Fabtola, or the Church of the Cataconzhs (1855): Recollecttons of the Last Four Popes (1858); Sermons (2 vols. 186-4); The Witch of Rosenlnzrg, a Drama tn Three Acts (1866) ; and Datly Jlleditatlons (1868). See the llfernotr by G. White (1865) and Lord Houghton’s Monograjahs (1373 . Revised by J . J . KEANE. Wisllart, GEORGE: reformer and martyr; supposed to have been a native of Pittarrow, Fo'rfarshire, Scotland; b. about 1513; taught Greek at Montrose; began preaching the doctrines of the Reformation about 1535; had to flee to England about 1538; resided and taught at Corpus Christi Jollege, associating with Bilney, Latimer, and other Re- formers; published several theological tracts in Latin ; re- turned to Scotland July, 1543; began anew to preach at Montrose, Perth, Ayr, and Dundee, with such effect that in the latter town the populace destroyed the convents and churches of the Black and Grey Friars ; made a preaching- VVISHART tour of the western counties; was arrested by the Earl of Bothwell at Crmiston ; was tried for heresy at St. Andrews Feb. 28, before Cardinal Beaton’s ecclesiastical court, com- posed of several bishops ; condemned to the stake, and burned at St. Andrews Mar. 1, 1546. At the stake he pre- dicted thc death “ within a few days ” of the cardinal, who was a spectator from the castle, and the assassination of the latter about three months afterward is alleged to have been in pursuance of a plot to which l/Vishart was privy, the evi- dence being the mention of “a Scotchman called \Vys- shart” in a MS. account of the plot in the State Paper Ollice. See his Life, by Rev. C. Rogers (Edinburgh, 1876). Wishart, or Wiseheart, Gnonen, D. D.: bishop; b. at Ycster, East Lothian, Scotland, in 1609; educated at the University of Edinburgh ; became a parish minister at North Leith and at St. Andrews ; refused to take the cove- nant 1639, for which he was deprived of his living and im- prisoned; made his way to Newcastle, England, where he preached, and was captured by the Scottish army Cct., 1644; was for some months imprisoned in the common jail at Ed- inburgh, suffering great hardships; succeeded in joining the celebrated royalist leader James Graham, Marquis of Montrose, to whom he became chaplain; escaped to the Continent 1646; returned to Scotland in the expedition of Montrose 1650, and narrowly escaped sharing his fate; be- came chaplain the same year to Elizabeth, the ex-electress- palatine and titular Queen of Bohemia; accompanied her to England at the Restoration 1660; became rector of New- castle-upon-Tyne, and was consecrated Bishop of Edinburgh June 1, 1662. D. at Edinburgh in 1671. He was the author of a History of the lVars of Jlfonlrose (Paris, 1647), in ele- gant Latin, a copy of which was tied to the neck of the mar- quis at his execution. A second part, completing the history to the death of Montrose, was left by Wishart in MS., but was never printed in Latin. English translations of the valuable work were published in 1647, 1652, 1660. 17 20, 1756, and 1819. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wish'oskan Indians: a linguistic stock of California Indians formerly occupying the shores of Humboldt Bay and the Eel, Elk, and lower Mad rivers emptying into it. The river settlements did not extend more than 40 miles up the streams, and the principal villages were around the bay. This people was one of the many who were designated by the whites as “ Diggers.” Their principal food consisted of roots, berries, nuts, and seeds, but they also depended much upon the salmon which ran up their rivers and which they knew how to cure. The natives of the coast also had recourse to mollusks and various other salt-water products. Their principal arms were the bow and arrow, with which, however, they are said not to have been very expert. Their chief industries were basket-making, the manufacture of ‘ nets for catching salmon, and of grass ropes for sna-ring deer and elk. They carried on a trade with the mountain tribes to the eastward, exchanging clams and seashells for acorns, pine-nuts, and grass for basket-making. For rai- ment the men used the skins of rabbits and deer, cut into strips and made into blankets or cloaks, while the women were skirts of deerskin and robes for the upper part of the body. The principal tribes were the Patawat on lower Mad river and Humboldt Bay as far S. as Areata, the \Viyot or V iard at the mouth of Eel river, and the \Vishosk near the mouth of Mad river and on the northern part of Humboldt Bay. In 1853 the tribes of this family probably numbered 1,000 to 1,200 souls. They are now almost extinct. Aurnomrrns.——Powers, Tribes of (*olz'_7"0rnz'a (Cont. N. A. Eth., iii., \Vashington, 1877); H. H. Bancroft. .Hisf0r_z/ of California, vols. i.—vii. (San Francisco, 1884-90). See IND- IANS or Nonrn AMERICA. J . W. PowELL. Wismar, ris’1na‘ar: town ; in Meek]enburg-Sehwerin. Ger- many; on a deep inlet of the Baltic. 20 miles by rail N. E. of Schwerin (see map of German Empire, ref. 2-—G). It has an excellent harbor, ship-building docks. fisheries, breweries, distilleries, and mamifactures of sailcloth, cordage, tobacco, and playing-cards. lts fortifications have been demolished, but a number of old houses still remain. It was founded in the twelfth century, incorporated in 122-9, and formerly be- longed to the llanseatie League. Pop. (1890) 16,787. Wistafria [1\Iod. Lat., named from Dr. Caspar Wistar (1761—1818)]: a genus of climbing leguminous shrubs. ll". conseqmma, a native of China, is one of the most beautiful spring flowering climbers. IV. f/mtescens is a smaller orna- mental species, growing wild in the western and southern parts of the U. S. in rich wet soils. wrreneaarr 811 Wister, ANNIS LEE (Famess): translator and author; b. in Philadelphia, Oct. 9, 1830; married Caspar Wister, M. D., in 1854; has contributed to Li'[J;oineolf’s ilfagazine, and translated from the German several excellent novels, among which are Blum and l/Vahl’s Seaside and Fireside Fairies (1864); E. Marlitt’s The Old 1l1a’mselle’s Secret (1868; 8th ed. 1870); Gold Elsie (1868); The Countess Gisela (1869); The Little Jlfoorland P/'i'/wess (1873) ; and The Second llhlfe (1874) ; Wilhelmine von Hillern’s Only a G irl, or a Physician for the Soul (1870); Hackl£inder’s .Enelzam‘ing and E'neham‘- ed,_ or Fairy Spells (1871); Volkhausen’s IV/zy Did he /not Die .9 (1871); Von Auer’s It is the Fashion (1872); Fanny Lewald’s Halda, or the Deliverer (1874), and many others. She has written or translated over thirty books. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Witchcraft: the cunning of a witch, i. e. of a man or woman who claims to compel supernatural aid. Religion seeks the sympathy and aid of supernal powers by rites open to all and approved by their fellows; witchcraft thinks to extort their help or ba-file their wrath by divining and using their secrets. In this broadest sense it is identical with l.\.[AGIC'(Q.’U.), and belongs to all times and lands. Old and very generally recognized, however, is a distinction between “ white magic,” which seeks its power by wisdom and uses it for worthy ends, and “ black magic.” which wins it bv bar- gain with evil. and uses it in selfishness or malice’. Bv witchcraft is commonly meant the latter. and especiallv that blackest but wholly imaginary sort, which was for centuries the nightmare of Christendom. Born into an atmosphere of belief in magic, the early Church seems never to have questioned its realitv, while she greatly broadened its scope by stigmatizing as niagic all the marvels of rival faiths. Her monotheism and her identifi- cation of religion with ethics led her to look on the gods of the heathen as devils and on their worship as witchcraft. Her conversion of the Germanic peoples brought in a host of fresh demons: and it is the name of the seers of this northern faith, a'iz‘ega,. ericca, which gives us tl1e word 'zez'fclz. As the old paganisms faded away. however, the Church 1‘( se to a nobler rationalism. Great churchmen like Agobard of Lyons dared to question the popular superstitions. and the canon Episcopi, which from the ninth centurv was the voice of the canon law on this subject, denounced the believer in the witch fables as “an infidel and worse than a pagan.” But when, in the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas gave its ripest form to the medieeval theologv, the svmmetry of his scheme seemed to demand for the devil ah earthly following not less numerous or loyal than God’s faithful, the Church. and bound to their master by similar ties of wer- ship and service. Thus was postulated into existence, bv a monkish logieian, the “ witch," as known to Christian his- tory. For when. a little later. his fellow Dominicans of the Inquisition had by aid of the torture successfullv rooted out the heretics, they turned their idle hands and their new in- strument to the detection of these viler servants of Satan. It took, indeed. two centuries of inquisitorial sermon and treatise to convince the world of their existence: and not till the torture had forced from its victims. under the fruit- ful suggestion of their learned judges. what seemed con- firmation of all the witch-lore of the classics. as well as of the demonologie suggestions of Holy \Vrit. did the persecution get fairly under way. But when. in 1484. the bull Smm7zis des2'(lcra'n2‘es of Pope Innocent VIII. sanctioned the worst charges of the witch-lnmters, and when to this was added by the German inquisitors, in their ll‘z‘lelz-Ha.222nzeI' (1489) a code of rules which made detection certain and easv. illé victory was won. The Reformation for a little distr-acted men‘s 1ninds. but with its first lull. at the middle of the sixteenth century, the persecution burst forth with redou bled fury in all Christian lands, Catholic and Protestant alike, to rage for more than a century. and then smolder to our own day. The figures given for the total number of its victims are wildest guesswork, and those for manv local persecutions are scarcely more reliable: but thevlare as likely to be below as above the truth. \l e have the names of hundreds who perished in single jurisdictions within the space of two or three years; and the records thus preserved are but chance fragments. No crime was more common. A single Lorraine judge boasted of having sentenced 900: and he was still in the midst of his aclivitv. If the per- secution knew ficrcer epidemics in Catholic communities. it was more chronic in Protestant. Nor was it mainlv old women who suifered. Such might be accused first, but the 812 WITCH-ELM witch was always tortured into naming her accomplices, and naturally she named those whom she hated or envied. Riches, learning, beauty, goodness were often so many titles to death. “There are still,” wrote the chancellor of the Bishop of IViirzburg to a friend in Aug., 1629, “ four hun- dred in the city, high and low, of every rank and sex, nay, even clerics, so strongly accused that they may be arrested at any hour. Some out of all offices and faculties must be executed: clerics, electoral councilors and doctors, city oificials, court assessors, several of whom Your Grace knows. There are law-students to be arrested. The Prince-Bishop has over forty students who are soon to be pastors; among them thirteen or fourteen are said to be witches. A few days ago a Dean was arrested; two others who were sum- moned have fled. The notary of our church-consistory, a very learned man, was yesterday arrested and put to the torture. In a word, a third part of the city is surely in- volved. The richest, most attractive, most prominent of the clergy are already executed. A week ago a maiden of nineteen was put to death, of whom it is everywhere said that she was the fairest in the whole city, and was held by ' everybody a girl of singular modesty and purity. She will be followed by seven or eight others of the best and most winsome. . . . There are children of three and four years, to the number of 300, who are said to have had intercourse with the devil. I have seen put to death children of seven, promising students of ten, twelve, fourteen, and fifteen. Of the nobles—but I can not and must not write more of this misery. T here are persons of yet higher rank, whom you know and would marvel to hear of.” Such. to quote but a single document, was the scope of the witch-persecution. Of the sufferings of its victims, and of the vile charges which blasted their fair names, it were better not to speak. Spain and Scotland were perhaps, next to Germany, the lands of its greatest severity. In England, despite the efforts of witch- hunting James II. and the reign of the Commonwealth, it never, for want of the torture, reached the same height as on the Continent; and in her colonies it was only at Salem in 1691-92, under the influence of Cotton Mather’s 1lIemor- able Providences, that it became a panic. Skepticism was never wanting, but the first open protest was that of the German physician Weyer, who published in 1563 his brave Dc Prcestigiis Dcemonum. His book stirred up here and there a disciple, of whom the most rational was the Englishman Reginald Scot; but it roused adversa- ries far more numerous and influential, and it was the Cau- tio criminalis, published anonymously in 1631 by the young Jesuit poet Friedrich von Spec, that first gave the persecu- tion pause by laying bare its cruelties and the part played in it by the torture. And it was reserved for the Dutch pastor Bekker to strike it in 1691 a yet deadlier blow by undermining, in his Betooverde weereld, the whole theory of human intercourse with the devil. The persecution lin- gered on, especially in lands where (as in Catholic Spain and South Germany, or in Protestant Scotland and Switzer- land) a literal faith in the Bible had rooted it firmly in re- ligion. “ The giving up of witchcraft,” wrote even the reformer John Wesley in 1768, “is in effect giving up the Bible.” The latest legal witch-executions in Europe were at Kempten, Bavaria, in 1775, at Glarus, Switzerland, in 1785, and in the grand-duchy of Posen in 1793; but witches were judicially burned in Mexico as late as 1873. The literature of the subject is vast, the greater part sup- porting the superstition. Graessc’s Bibliotheca magica is still the only attempt at an exhaustive bibliography. The best survey of the subject in English is Lccky’s chapter in his Rat/ionalism in .Europe. \Vright’s Alarratives of Sor- cery and Illagic is more detailed, and Lowell's essay (in his Among my Books) is admirable for its terse insight. The most thorough history is Soldan’s Geschichte der IIe.ven- prozesse, revised by lleppc. Liingin’s Religion und IIc;vcn- process and Baissac’s Les Grands Jours de la Sorcellerie add something, as does Mr. Lea’s excellent chapter on sor- cery in his The Inquisition of the ill/iddle Ages. M ichelet’s brilliant and suggestive La sorci/Ere is far too largely a work of the imagination. Of monographs on single episodes, Upham’s on the Salem panic especially deserves mention here. GEORGE L. BURR. Witch-elm. Wych-elm, or Scotch Elm: the Ulmus mon- tana, a large fast-growing European elm, much planted for ornament and affording good timber. It is very hardy in the U. S. Witch Hazel: See HAMAMELIS VIRGINIOA. WITHERSPOON Witebsk: See VITEBSK. Witenagemot, wit’e-na“a--ge-mot [: 0. Eng., assembly of wise men; /witena, gen. plur. of urita, a wise man + gem6t (cf. Eng. meet), assembly]: the old Anglo-Saxon national council, the great court of justice and supreme legislative body of the English nation before the Conquest, superior to the scir-gernot or county assembly, and itself the oil’- spring of the primitive fOl/13-7)l0l, an old Germanic institu- tion. 'The ealdorn1en, the high ecclesiastics, and the great landholders as well as the higher shire ollicers, appear to have had seats in the uritan, or witenagemot; and probably the freemen who lived near the place of meeting were al- lowed to sit in the assembly. It elected the king, observing, however, the principle of hereditary succession, though not necessarily choosing the eldest son, and it possessed the right of deposition. Its powers included the making of treaties, the appointing of bishops, the regulation of military and ecclesiastical affairs, the raising of revenue, etc., but its functions differed in different reigns and can not be clearly defined ; nor is it easy to trace the descent of the later Eng- lish Parliament from this council, though in some points there is a close resemblance. The witenagemot was abol- ished by \Villiam the Conqueror, who, however, had previ- ously secured its acknowledgment of his title. See Stubbs, Constitutional History of England. Wither, GEORGE: poet; b. at Brentworth, Hampshire, England, June 11, 1588; entered Magdalen College, Oxford, 1604; was called home “ to hold the plow” without a degree 1607, but soon proceeded to London 1608; studied law at Lincoln’s Inn; printed in 1613 a volume of metrical satires on the manners of the time, entitled Abuses Stript and lVhipt, for which he was thrown into the Marshalsea prison, where he wrote his poem The Shep/ierd’s Hunting (1615), and probably Fidelia. Among his other poems are The ]lIotto (1618); Philarete (1622; Hymns and Songs of the Church (1623); and Hallelujah (1641). He is best known to modern readers by his song Shall I, ll/'astz.'n.g in Despair, etc. He published many political and devotional pieces in prose and verse; served as captain of horse and quarter- master-general of a regiment in the expedition sent by Charles I. against the Scotch Covenanters 1639; sold his estate and raised a troop of horse for the Parliament 1642; was soon promoted to the rank of major; was commissioned by the Long Parliament a justice of the peace; was made by Cromwell “major-general of all the horse and foot in the county of Surrey ”; profited largely by the confiscations of royalist estates, but had to surrender his acquisitions at the Restoration, when he was imprisoned three years in Newgate; was deprived of his library, and passed his last years in poverty. D. in London, May 2, 1667, and was buried in the Savoy church. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Witl1’erite : a mineral barium carbonate, of the compo- sition BaCO8, named after William Withering, an English physician and botanist (1741-99), who discovered it in 1784 in a lead mine in Cumberland, England. Its crystallization is right rhombic; it is almost as hard as fluor-spar. It has a white, gray, or yellow color. lt_is found at a locality near Lexington, Ky., and occurs so abundantly at Fallow- field, Northumberland, England, as to be mined largely, and sold for making plate glass and for chemical uses. Witherspoon, JOHN, D. D., LL. D. : signer of the Decla- ration of Independence; b. at Yester, I-Iaddingtonshire (East Lothian), Scotland, Feb. 5, 1722, said to be a descendant of John Knox; graduated at the University of Edinburgh 1742; was licensed to preach 1743; was parish minister of Beith in the west of Scotland 1745-57 ; joined the Pre- tender with a corps of militia at Glasgow; was taken pris- oner at the battle of Falkirk, but released after two weeks’ confinement in Donne Castle; became favorably known as a theologian by several learned treatises; was pastor of the Low church at Paisley from 1757 until 1768, when he ac- cepted the presideney of the College of New Jersey, at Princeton, in which he was inaugurated Aug. 17, becoming also Professor of Divinity there and pastor of the church; identified himself with the interests of his adopted coun- try, taking an active part in the political struggles of the time; was in 1776, the college being for a time broken up, chosen a member of the constitutional convention of New Jersey, and also of the Continental Congress, in which he sat for six years, being one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence and of the Articles of Confederation ; op- posed in Congress the repeated issues of paper currency, and showed great sagacity in anticipating political contin- ° WITHROW gencies ; gave lectures on moral philosophy and rhetoric at the college, of which he greatly raised the reputation and improved the financial condition; visited England in 1783, and again in 1784, to collect funds for the college, with but slight success, the war being too recent; married for the second time, at the age of sixty-nine (1791), a young lady of twenty-three, and resided thenceforth 011 a farm near Princeton until his death on Nov. 15, 1794. He was totally blind during the last two years of his life. His two daugh- ters by his first marriage married respectively Dr. David Ramsay, the historian, and Rev. Dr. Samuel Stanhope Smith, who succeeded him as president of the College of New Jersey. Ilis IVor/»:s were collected at New York (4 vols., 1800-01) and at Edinburgh (9 vols., 1804), edited wrth a I/llemoir by Dr. S. Smith; they comprise A Serious In- gnz"ry info the ZVJ/.u'e and Ejfects of the Sta;/e (Glasgow, 1757); Consitle/'.rttt'ons on the IVature and Eden! of the ]A{(/I/'SZCtZil,'I.'/3 Ant/1.0m'z‘y of the Bm'Ze'sh Parlianzent (Philadel- phia, 1774); and a series of essays on social and literary topics entitled The Druid (1781). His colossal statue was unveiled in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, 1876. See Pro- ceedings and Addresses, edited by W. P. Breed (Philadelphia, 1877). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Withrow, WILLIAM HENRY, M. A., D. D. : author; b. in Toronto, Canada, Aug. 6, 1839; educated at Victoria Col- lege and Toronto University ; was engaged in the itinerant and stationed ministry of the Methodist Church from 1864 till 1874; since the latter year has been editor of The 1l[ez‘h- odist ]l1'agaew'ne published at Toronto. He has published the following among other books: Catacombs of Rome (New York and London, 1874); Ifisiory of Canada (Boston and Toronto, 1878); Lawrence Temple: a Tale (New York and London, 1881); I/'aZem'a the Jk/a/2'6;/r of the Catacombs (New York and London, 1884); Life in a, Parsonage (To- ronto and London, 1885); fllen l'l"or2fh lfnowing (1886); Great Preachers, Ancient and Jlloclern (Toronto, 1886) ; lVorI.‘ht'es of lllethode'sm (1886) ; Canada, Scenic and Descrip- tive (1889) ; China and its People (1893). N. M. Witness [orig. testimony, evidence < O. Eng. wifnes, ge- witnes, deriv. of whfan, know; cf. Lat. m'de’re : Gr. i6eZz/, see] : in law, a person who testifies in a judicial proceeding as to the existence of facts material to the issue which is to be de- cided. In the different forms of trial known to the American and English law, such testimony may be given orally in open court, or it may be taken before some olficer, reduced to the form of a written deposition, and read on the trial. It is well settled that originally the functions of the jury and the wit- nesses were not differentiated. Indeed, the jury was composed of persons of the vicinage, who were supposed to know the facts, the trial of which was committed to them, and who were sworn to find those facts according to such knowledge. It was only at a later date (probably about the middle of the fifteenth century) that the practice arose of producing wit- nesses to testify in open court to the jury. It is also prob- ably true, as has been said, that “this feature of a jury trial, in our day so conspicuous and indispensable, was then but little considered and of small importance.” In the Roman law no fact could be established by the testimony of less than two witnesses (a principle embodied in the maxim, 2‘esz‘is nnns testis nnllns), and there is reason to believe that this principle was anciently recognized in England; but such a principle could hardly be expected to survive under a system where the witnesses were of so little importance relatively to the jury, and it is therefore an indirect result of that system that, “as a rule, no particular number of witnesses is required by our law.” As witnesses in court were always put under oath, they were of course always “required to have that amount of maturity, sense, and religious belief which the act of swear- ing presupposes.” But other qualifications were added (many of them obviously derived from those required in the case of jurors) until the system became exceedingly complicated and inconvenient. The most important dis- qualifications are considered elsewhere. (See EVIDENCE, The Instruments of Evdience; hIARR.IED WOMEN, Ineapa.e2'z‘_2/ fo ’l’estifg/.) Most of these objections to the competency of witnesses have been removed by legislation. The accused in criminal prosecutions are still generally under a disabil- ity, though in many of the U. S. they are now permitted, if they choose, to testify in their own behalf. As all the State constitutions protect parties accused of crime from being compelled to furnish evidence against themselves, the pris- oners can never be called as witnesses for the prosecution. wrrraocx 813 It has been universally decided, however, that when the ac- cused does become a witness, he may be cross-examined in the same manner as any other witness for the defense. Re- ligious qualifications have been wholly swept away in a great majority of the States, as being inconsistent with their policy in respect to the separation between the state and religion. Besides the rules concerning the competency of the wit- nesses themselvcs, there are others touching certain classes of facts from which they are either privileged or prohibited from testifying: (1) No one can be compelled to state mat- ters which would tend to criminate himself or render him liable to a penalty. This is a personal privilege of the wit- ness, which he must assert on his own behalfor may waive. (2) An attorney or counselor will not be suffered to-alisclose facts communicated by or learned from a client in the con- fidence of a business relation actually existing between them. (3) This rule, which the common law admitted only in the case of lawyers, has been quite generally extended by statute to physicians and to clergymen, who are forbidden to dis- close facts discovered concerning their patients or their peni- tents through the means of their professional relations. See OATH and TESTIMONY ; and consult Sichel on Wz'z‘nesses ; Best on Emclence (International edition) : Stephen’s Digest‘ of the Law of Evidence (Chase’s edition); Thayer‘s Cases on Eredence (chap. v.): Abbot’s Select Cases on Evidence; and ]-Tarvard Law Rerz'ezc, v., 249, 295. 357. Gnosen IV. Kmcuwnv. Wit-te. vit'te, EMANUEL, de: painter; b. at Alkmaar, H ol- land, 1607. He was a pupil of Vanelst or Van Aalst. He matriculated at his guild at Alkmaar in 1636. and was living at Delft from 1642 to 1649. In 1650 he established himself at Amsterdam, where he painted architectural subjects and interiors with figures. He married in 1653. His works are to be found in the museums of Amsterdam. The Hague. Rot- terdam. Brussels, Berlin, YVeimar, Hamburg. Diisseldorf, and Brunswick, besides private galleries in England. Sir Richard \Vallace’s collection possesses a picture by de \Vit- te, and also the National Gallery. D. at Amsterdam in 1692. He is said to have destroyed one of his master-pieces. the monument to Admiral Ruyter, as the latter's son-in-law re- fused to pay the price agreed upon for it. W. J. S. Witt’ekind, or “'idllki1Id: the leader of the VVestpha- lian Saxons in their wars with Charlemagne. When most of the Saxon chiefs 'submitted to Charlemagne at the Diet of Paderborn (777). \Vittekind fied to Jutland, but returned in 778, while Charlemagne was in Spain, and renewed the war in the Rhine countries. Charlemagne hastened back to Germany, and Wittekind was once more compelled to flee to Jutland. In 782, however. he again returned, and annihilated a Frankish army in the Siintel mountain on the IVeser. Charlemagne took a cruel revenge by massacring 4.500 Saxons at Verden on the Aller, but this cruelty occa- sioned a general rising of the Saxons under ‘Wittekind and Albion. They were defeated, however. at Detmold and on the Hase in 783. and the two chiefs fied to Holstein. Nev- ertheless, in 785 a reconciliation took place between the em- peror and his two great antagonists; they repaired to his camp at Attigny in Champagne, and were baptized, after which event their career is legendary. Of \Vittekind it was said that the emperor made him duke of all the Saxons, and gave him Enger as his residence, and that he fell in 807. in the war against Gerold, Duke of Suabia. In 1377 the Em- peror Charles IV. raised a monument to ’Witiekind in the parish church of Enger, where he is said to lie buried. In 1812 another monument was raised to him in M inden, West- phalia. See Diekamp, I'l'2'dzzh'2I/22d der Sac/zsenfithrer (187 7). “'ittel1bel'g, '2-it'ten-bareh: town: province of Saxony. Prussia; on the right bank of the Elbe: 55 miles S. IV. of Berlin (see map of German Empire, ref. 3—G). It is famous as the place where the Reformation began. The houses of Luther, Melanchthon, and Lucas Cranach are still shown; also the spot, outside the Elster gate, where the papal hull was burned. Luther and Melanchthon are buried in the Schlosskirche. The university, once so famous, was incor- porated with that of Halle in 1817. Breweries, dist-illeries, and tanneries are in operation, and woolen and linen goods manufactured. Pop. (1890) 14,458. _ Wittroek. VEIT BRECHER, Ph. I).: botanist: b. at Skogs- bol, province of Dalsland, Sweden, May 5, 1839; educated in the school at Wenersborg and the University of Upsala: Professor of Botany in the University of Upsala. then in the Bergian Institution, and also director of the Botanical M u- seum in Stockholm. He traveled extensively in Sweden, 814 WITZEL Norway, England, Ireland, Germany, Austria, and Hun- gary in the study of the botany of these countries. His principal publications are l1‘(')'2's<')'/0 till en Monokr/rrqaiu'e (')'_f're1' Algslcigiet ll;/onostro__ma (1866); 1'<1lg0Z0gz's/ca stacltcr (1867); Om Gotlcmds och Ulands S0tL‘C6?‘L‘67tS—(L/967‘ (1872); Pr0dro- mus 'm0n0gra]2ht'(c (Ede;/om'earu/m (1874); On the De'veZ0]9- ment and S//sL‘ema,z"1,'c jlrra/n.ge2nen2f of the Pit'hophoracerc (1877); On the Spore-_formatz'on of the llfesocmjaere (1878); Om Lzlnncea borea/Zés (1878-79); Ueber Sc/mee anal Ez'sfl0'I'ct (1883); De FiZz'c£bus Obsew/'att'0nes Bt'clogicaa (1891); besides many articles in journals and proceedings of societies. He is editor of Acta Iforz‘zl Berg'2Zam', and has issued Ery1‘.7m'cc(e E.rst'ccat(e (i. to iv., 1884-90), and Algae aqua; dulcis E:z:sic- cafre (i. to xxiii., 1877-92). CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Witzel, Geese: See WICELIUS. Wead [C. Eng. /wcZcZ:O. H. Germ. 'we2I2f> Germ. waid: from Teuton. are Ital. gzmclo : O. E1'.g1mL'cZe > Er. guéde]: a biennial herbaceous plant, the IsaZz's If'L'ncI.‘0rz'(1,, indigenous i11 Europe, which has been employed from the times of the Ito- mans for dyeing blue. It is cultivated in France and Ger- many. The leaves possess a pungent odor and an acrid taste. These are either simply dried and sent to market, or by grinding are made into a paste, which is then prepared into balls and allowed to undergo fermentation, after which it is dried. \Voad does not appear to contain either indigo- white or indigo-blue (see INDIGO), its coloring qualities being due to the presence of a body termed incliccm (C26H31NO17). which is converted into indigo-blue and z'ndz'gZucz'ne by the action of dilute acids. At present it is chiefly used for the reduction of indigo in the "woad-vats,” but is seldom em- ployed by itself for dyeing purposes. Weadwaxem See Dvna’s Bacon. lV0bu1‘n, \voob"z“n'n: city; Middlesex eo., Mass; on the Boston and Maine Railroad; 10 miles N. \V. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H). Its plan is a thickly settled center, with three outlying villages and an area occupied by a small rural population. The general ap- pearance of the center from the railway station is pictur- esque from the variety of the buildings, the curvature of the streets, and the several rocky elevations near. There are over 63 miles of streets, a public park, several squares, and a notable public library building, one of Richardson’s most beautiful‘ creations in stone, the gift of a private citi- zen, containing 33,203 volumes, 7,686 pamphlets, and 5,000 manuscripts, and having a collection of paintings, busts, and other objects of artistic and antiquarian interest. The birthplace of Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) is pre- served intact by an association. The churches comprise 3 Baptist, 2 Roman Catholic, 2 (Trinitarian) Congregational, 2 Unitarian, 2 Protestant Episcopal, a Methodist Episcopal, a Scandinavian Evangelical Free church (Congregational), Salvation Army barracks, and All Saints chapel (Congrega- tional). There are 51 public schools, a parochial school, and a private free industrial school—enrollment, public schools, 2,685: parochial, 404; industrial, 379—annual cost of public schools, $53,219. There is an endowed free lecture course for all citizens, and an incorporated home for aged women. The city receipts in 1894 were $614,306 ; expenditures, $598,- 981 ; net debt, $413,134; property valuation, $9,464,154. There are a national bank with capital of $200.000, a sav- ings-bank with deposits of nearly $1,500,000, a co-operative bank, and a private banking-house. The manufacture of leather is the leading industry. There is an excellent sup- ply of pure water from l-Iorn pond, the largest sheet of water in the city’s limits. Electric and horse railways connect the city with adjoining towns and cities. l/Voburn was the first town set off from Charlestown. The location was es- tablished in 1640, and the town was incorporated in 1642. Its territory then embraced the larger part of. the present area of ’Woburn, and the towns of Winchester, Wilmington, and Burlington. In 1888 it became a city. Almost to the middle of the nineteenth century it was largely an agricul- tural town; railways and manufactures changed its charac- ter after 1835; and its growth since 1850 has been compara- tively rapid. Pop. (1880) 10,931; (1890) 13,499: (1894) local census, 14,500. WILLIAM R. CUTTER, LIBRARIAN, WOBURN Pueme LIBRARY. Woden, or Wedan: See Onnv. Wedrow, ROBERT: clergyman and author; b. at Glas- gow, Scotland, in 1679; educated at Glasgow University, where he became librarian, and became in 1703 minister of Eastwood, Perthshire, where he died Mar. 21, 1734. He was WOLCOT . the author of several works relating to Scottish history. Many of his MSS. are preserved in the Advocates’ Library. “ The \/Vodrow Society ” was formed at Edinburgh in 1841 for the publication of the early writers of the lleformed Church of Scotland, and has p'ublished 24 volumes, of which the earliest consisted of Wodrow‘s U0’i"7'06Y)0’lLCl('7l/C(5 (3 vols., 1842- 43), edited by Rev. Thomas Met/‘rie. The New Spalding Jlub in 1890 published his Béqr/rcllp‘/tL'cal (lollections relat- ing to the ll-’o'rt/wrest of Scotland. See his memoir in the new edition of his Iiiszfory and in the other works. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. l"l’0ff01'(l College: an institution at Spartanburg, S. C.; named for Rev. Benjamin \Vofl'ord, who gave $100,000, un- der the control and management of the conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church South of South Carolina. It was chartered by the Legislature of South Carolina Dec. 16, 1851, and the board of trustees held their first meeting to organize under it at Newbury Court-house Nov. 24, 1853, when they elected a president and four professors, who opened the institution for regular scholastic exercises Aug. 1, 1854. An ample curriculum of studies was prescribed. There are two literary soeieties—viz., the Calhoun and the Preston, the first organized Oct. 1, 1854, and the second Oct. 16, 1858, named respectively for Hon. John C. Calhoun and Hon. \/Villiam C. Preston. The buildings were com- pleted Jan. 1, 1855, and consist of a large and elegant col- lege edifice, a president’s house, and houses for six pro- fessors. They stand on a beautiful campus, inclosing 69 acres, within the corporate limits of the town of Spartan- burg. The endowment of the college, originally ample, was almost entirely lost by the civil war, but the trustees and alumni society are making vigorous efforts to restore it and to promote the success of the institution. There were in 1894 8 instructors, 149 students, and a library of 6,000 vol- umes. Its president (1895) is James H. Carlisle, LL. D. Wohlgemuth, or Welgemut, ?'5l'ge-moot, l\'I1oHAEL: en- graver; b. at Nuremberg, Germany, in 1434. He was a pn- pil of James V alsch, and worked for Hermann Schedel, the compiler of the lVuremberg Chronicle. Some say he made the drawings only, the blocks being cut by others. He was the master in painting of Albert Durer. His pupils pro- duced large altarpieces in his workshop, besides carving the adjuncts and church furniture generally. A large altar- piece in the Marienkirche at Zwickau is by him and is dated 1479; in the Vienna Gallery is a Sf. Jerome painted in 1511. Wohlgemuth was also a portrait-painter. D. at Nuremberg, Nov. 30, 1519. A portrait of him by Albert Dtirer is in the Munich Gallery. \Vohlgemuth is supposed to have been the author of the prints after Schiingauer, twenty-eight in number, signed with the letter l/V. He also made the designs for A. Hoberger”s SC/b(6tZ]UCt77?77Z@7' der wahren Revicizf/tilmer, and for other works. \V. J S Wojwode, woi'w6d [Pol. wojewoda, from ui0jna,,wa.1‘, and wodrz'é, to lead; Servian, oojvocla; Russ. ooevoda]: a title exactly corresponding to German I-Icrzog, duke, in its origi- nal meaning. It gradually became a dynastic title in P0- land before the Piasts and of the Roumanian princes in Moldavia and \/Vallachia, until in 1716 the Turkish suzerain bestowed upon the elected prince the title of hospodar (Slav. master, lord). In the kingdom of Poland the title of VV ej- wode passed over to the administrative governors of the provinces, which were accordingly called \Vojew6dstwa. These well-nigh sovereign chiefs, like the old German dukes, governed their provinces in peace and accom panied the elect- ive king with their army in case of war. Each had a seat and a vote in the senate, and they formed the first class of the secular state, holding equal rank with the archbishops; their Latin title was the princely name of palm‘/t'n’as. The title of \Vojwode in its original meaning of leader in war still exists in Servia and Bulgaria. The Temeswar Banat in Southeast Hungary still bears the Slavic name of \Vojwodina. The Polish Wojewodstwa (twenty-nine in number in 1772) were abolished in 1832 and changed into governments of the Russian Vistula provinces, as Poland is ofliciallylgaléed. Welcet, or Welcett, J OTIN, better known as PETER PIN- DAR: physician and satirical poet: b. at Dodbrooke, Devon- shire, England, in May, 1738; served an apprenticeship of seven years to his uncle, a physician and apothecary at Fowey, Cornwall, who ultimately left him a considerable property ; accompanied Sir l/Villiam Trelawney, governor of Jamaica, to that island as his physician 1767 : took orders in the Church of England, and obtained a curacy in Jamaica WOLCOTT in 1769, but returned to England on the death of his patron three years later ; spent twelve years at Truro, Helston, and other towns in Cornwall as a physician; discovered the merits of the obscure painter Opie, with whom he went to London 1780; made himself conspicuous by his poetical productions, mostly satirical, which involved him in many quarrels. His attacks upon the king were so effective that. at one time the ministry purchased his silence by the pay- ment of £300 per annum. Among his satires are Lyric Odes ; An Epistle to the Reviewers; Peeps at St. James; Royal Visits ; and The Lousiad. A collection of these in four vol- u1nes was published in 1796. In his later years he became totally blind. D. at Somers Town. London, Jan. 14, 1819. Several editions of his collected lVo'rhs (about seventy in number) appeared in his lifetime, the last in 5 vols. (1816). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wolcett, EDWARD OLIVER, LL. B.: U. S. Senator; b. at Longmeadow, Mass., Mar. 26, 1848; served for a few months as private in the ]50th Regiment, Ohio Volunteers, 1864; entered the class of 1870, Yale College, but did not gradu- ate; subscquently received the degree of A. M.; graduated at Harvard Law School 1871 ; removed to Colorado to prac- tice law; became extensively interested in silver mines; elected as a Republican to the U. S. Senate, 1888; re-elected 1894. Wolcott, J01-IN: See WoLeoT. Woleott, OLIVER, LL. D.: signer of the Declaration of Independence: son of Gov. Roger \Volcott; b. at Windsor, Conn., Nov. 26, 1726; graduated at Yale College 1747; served as a captain of New York Volunteers on the Canada frontier 1748; studied medicine, but never practiced; was elected sheriff of Litchfield County 1751 ; became a judge of common pleas and of probate; was a member of the execu- tive council 1774-86: commissioner of Indian affairs for the northern department 1775; took his seat in the Continental Congress J an., 1776; signed the Declaration of Independ- ence; commanded as major-general the fourteen Connecti- cut regiments raised for the protection of New York: joined Gen. Gates with several hundred volunteers, and was present at the battle of Saratoga, where he gained the rank of brigadier-general of the regular army; served in Congress, in the army, or on commissions throughout the war; was Lieutenant-Governor of Connecticut 1786-96, and Governor 1796-97. D. at Litchfield, Conn., Dec. 1, 1797. Wolcott, OLIVER, LL. D. : cabinet officer: son of the pre- ceding; b. at Litchfield, Conn., Jan. 11, 1760; graduated at Yale College 1778; served as a volunteer to repel the British attack on Danbury 1 777, as volunteer aide to his father 1779, and as an officer in the commissary department 1780-81; was admitted to the bar 1781; was employed in the finan- cial affairs of the State government, and subsequently (1784) as a commissioner to settle its accounts with the U.'S.; was comptroller of public accounts of the U. S. 1788-89, auditor of U. S. treasury 1789-91, comptroller 1791-95, Secretary of the Treasury 1795-1800, and judge of U. S. circuit court 1801-02; removed to New York city 1802 ; was a merchant there until 1812; took part with his brother Frederick in founding extensive manufacturing es- tablishments at \Volcottville, near Litchfield ; was president of the State constitutional convention 1817, and Governor 1818-27, after which he resided in New York, where he died June 1, 1833. Woleott, ROGER: Governor of Connecticut; b. at IVind- sor, Conn., Jan. 4, 1679; was apprenticed to a mechanic, and never attended a school, but acquired a good education by private study; was commissary in the expedition of 1711 against Canada; served as an oflieer in subsequent wars with France, and was major-general and second in command at the capture of Louisburg 1745; was succes- sively a member of the assembly and of the executive coun- cil, judge of the county court, deputy governor, chief judge of the superior court, and was governor of the colony 1751- 54. D. at East \Vindsor, May 17, 1767. He published a volume of Poetical ]l[edita1‘ions (New London, 1725), and a pamphlet on church government (Boston, 1761), and left a MS. poem of 1,500 lines entitled A Brief Account of the Agency of the Honorable John l'l'z'ntlzI'op, Esq., in the Court of King C'harles the Second, Anne Dom. J6(>‘.3, 1('ll(’7t he ob- tained a (‘ha'rI‘e-rfor the (I’olony of Connecticut, which con- tains a detailed account of the Pequot war. It was printed in the collections of the l\Iassachusetts Historical Society (1st series, vol. iv.). WOLF 815 Wolf [O. Eng. wulf: Germ. wolf: Goth. wulfs; cf. Gr. Mixes : Sanskr. 1;;/‘lace-]: the common name for the larger wild species of the family Canidce and genus Canis which most resemble the dog, and which agree with the ordinary types of that animal in the possession of circular pupils to the eyes and a somewhat bushy tail. The species are some- what numcrous, and the typical representatives are chiefi y found in the northern hemisphere and southward to India; but allied species, which are properly called wolves, al- though more generally designated as wild dogs or foxes, are also found in Africa, South America, and Australia. They agree essentially in their habits with the dogs, and hunt their prey either by surprising or running it down. At some seasons of the year they live, to some degree, in soli- tude, although they often associate in packs ; and especially is this the case in winter, when they combine in the pursuit of game and other objects of prey. In America there are two well-marked species : (1) The large common wolf (Canis lupus), identical with or a sub-species of the wolf of Europe and Northern Asia, and (2) the small prairie wolf or coyote (Canis lutrans), occurring on the plains of the \Vestern States and Territories. (1) The former has an average length of about 4 feet, with a tail of 17 to 20 inches; its color is generally grizzly gray above, but is quite variable, sometimes being black and sometimes white, and with vari- ous gradations between the two. These variations were formerly supposed to indicate specific differences, but as they are found in cubs of the same litter, they are now rec- ognized as being not even of sub-specific or varietal im- portance. (2) The prairie wolf is about 3 feet long or so1ne- what longer, and has a tail about 16 inches in length. Its color, as in the wolf, is generally gray, but is subject to much less variation than in the former species. It is found more generally on the plains of the great IVest and in the hydro- graphical basins of the Missouri and Saskatchewan rivers, and extends southward into Mexico. It is quite prolific, sometimes having as many as ten in a litter. It lives mostly in burrows. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Vl'0lf. e5lf. CHRISTIAN, Baron : philosopher and mathema- tician: b. at Breslau. Silesia, Jan. 24. 1679: studied first the- ology, then mathematics and philosophy at Jena and Leipzig, and began to lecture in the latter city, but was compelled by the invasion of Saxony by Charles XII. in 1706 to leave the country, and received in the following year an appointment as Professor of Mathematics and Natural History at the University of Halle. Here his lectures attracted much at- tention and drew large audiences, and his writings. mathe- matical and philosophical, gained for him a great reputa- tion all over Germany, but being opposed to the pictistical ten_dency which at that period characterized the University of Halle. he was formally accused of heresy by his theolog- ical colleagues, and by a cabinet order of Nov. 15, 17 23. was ordered to leave Halle within twenty-four hours and the Prussian states within two days. He found refuge in Hesse- Cassel, and lectured for several years with great success at hlarbnrg, but on the accession of Frederick II. he was re- called to Halle in 1740, made chancellor of the university in 1743. a baron in 1745, and died there Apr. 9, 1754. He wrote on m athematics, law, and all the various disciplines of philosophy. and he often issued his works in double editions —one in Latin and one (generally abbreviated) in German. His prominence in the history of philosophy is due more to his method than to his ideas: and indeed his method became universally employed, not only in philosophy, but in all sciences, up to the time of Kant. The characteristic of his method is usually known as “dogmatism,“ being mainly by definition and analytic statement with little resort to experience. See his A'z1tob'2'og'raphy, edited by IVuttke (1841), and the works of Ludovici on his philosophy and its influence, together with the treatment of the Histo- ries of Philosophy, by Fischer, Erdmann, and Ueberweg. Revised by J . M. BALDWIN. Wolf, EDMUND JACOB, D. D.: theologian; b. at Rebers- burg, Center co., Pa.. Dec. 8. 1840: educated i11 Pennsylva- nia College, the Theological Seminary. Gettysburg, and at Tiibingen and Erlangen; entered the ministry 1865: pas- tor in Northumberland co., Pa... and Baltimore, Md.; in 1874 became Professor of New Testament Excgesis and Church I-listory, Theological Seminary, Gettysburg; author of H 1'stor_z/ of the Luther-ans in :1’/7l(’)"I.(°(‘(' (New York, 1890) ; former editor of The Qua‘)-te/rly Rerz‘ezc of the L-utheran Chuwlz, and at present (1895) one of the editors of The Lutheran lVorld (Cincinnati, O.). H. E. JACOBS. 816 WOLF Wolf, FERDINAND: Romance scholar; b. in Vienna, Dec. 8, 1796; studied philosophy and law, but 1nore particularly literary history. and in 1819 was made secretary of the Academy of Sciences in Vienna. D. in Vienna. Feb. 18, 1866. His works, of which there is a long list, are marked by thoroughness of research and a fine critical perception. Especially to be noted are the Floresta ole /rimas moclernas caslellamas (Paris, 1837); Ueber clie La/is, Seqaenzen uncl Leiche (Heidelberg, 1841); Rosa ole ronzances (Leipzig, 1846); Staclien 210' Gcsclzieltte cler spaniso/ren anal porta- giesisohen iVazfiona]li1fler(ltm' (Berlin. 1859); Hisloire cle la liz‘/ércimre brésiliemie (Berlin, 1863): and in collaboration with Hofmann, ])7‘i7)t(l?.‘6’I“Cl, y flor cle romances (2 vols.. Ber- lin, 1856). In addition he contributed‘ numerous articles to the J00]?/rbiic/cor der Li1‘2ferctl'a2', published at Vienna, and supplied corrections and new matter to the German trans- lation of Ticknor’s History of Spcmis/i LiIferafm'e. for which he also prepared a supplement. J . D. M. FORD. Wolf, FR.IEDR.IcI-I AUGUST: classical scholar; b. at Hayn- rode. Prussian province of Saxony, Feb. 15. 1759; studied classical languages at Gtittingen, where, on Apr. 8, 1777, in spite of the strenuous opposition of the authorities, he in- sisted on inscribing himself as “studiosus philologice” (in place of ph/ilosop/2/ice). This date has generally been taken as the birthday of the new school of philology inaugurated by Wolf, but the traditional and still widely accepted state- ment that he was the first so to style himself has been dis- proved by the matriculation lists of the Gottingen Univer- sity. On graduating he became a teacher at the seminary of Ilfeld in 177 ; rector of the gymnasium of Osterode in 1782; Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy at Halle in 1783-1807. During this time his extraordinary talent as a teacher, added to his worldwide renown as a scholar, made Halle the most famous seat of classical learning in Ger- many. Boeckh, Bekker, Buttmann, Bernhardy, and Hein- dorf, to mention only these, were among his great pupils. With his removal to Berlin University in 1807, in the foun- dation of which he had taken a conspicuous part, a change came over I/Volf. Dissatisfied with his surroundings, and embittered by petty personal quarrels, his usefulness was considerably impaired and his bodily vigor broken. In 1824 he took a journey through Southern France for the sake of regaining his health. but died Aug. 8 at Marseilles. Wolf was the first to systemize and to define the scope of philology. or “ Alterthumswissenschaft,” to use his own favorite designation. It dealt, according to him. with the study of ancient life and thought in all its various political, social, economic, and intellectual phases as handed down to us in the literary, epigraphic, and monumental documents of the Greeks and Romans. (See his Encylelopc'r3clie cler P72 i- lologie, ed. by Stockmann, Leipzig, 1831.) Among the writ- ings that emanated from his prolific pen were his editions of Demosthenes‘s Lepz‘inm (1790), with a valuable intro- duction; Plato’s Symposium, Apology, Phredo, Crilo ; Hesiod’s Theogony; Cicero’s Tuseulcm Dispulalions; Post‘ reclifam in senata, De clomo sua, De haraspiemn responsis, and Pro Marcello, all of which speeches Wolf unjustly re- garded as apocryphal ; Aristophanes’s Clouds, with a famous German translation; Lilfemrise/ze Analelcten (4 vols.), with admirable sketches of classical scholars, that of Bentley being the most noteworthy; Kleine Schriften (2 vols.). But all these works are now but little read for their intrinsic value. \Volf’s claim to immortality rests upon his Prolego- mena in I-Iomeram (1795), in which he attempted to prove that the Iliael and Od_2/ssey are not the work of one author but of several. (See Volkmann, Geschichte and Krifilo der lVolfsehen P'2'ole'(/omena, Leipzig, 1874). It is true that but few, if any, of Wolf’s arguments are accepted at the present day; nor is it their originality, strictly speaking, that gives them permanent value, for in some of the most important he was anticipated by Vice and Wood. What gives to this treatise‘ its monu'mental and epoch-makin g character is rather the brilliancy of its style. the consummate skill in which the information imbedded in the Homeric scholia, which had only recently been published by VILLOISON (q. ex), is here for the first time scientifically utilized and interpreted, and finally the influence which this iconoclastic treatise exerted upon methodical research in general. For VI/'olf’s arguments and the “Homeric question” in particular, see the article HOMER. The best estimate of \/Volf is given by M. Pattison, Essay/s (vol. i., pp. 337-415). See also WV. Kiirte. Leben and Schriften Friedrich Ail;/ast Wolfs des Philologen (2 vols., Essen, 1833); I. F. D. Arnoldt, Friedrich August Wolf in VVOLFE ISLAND seinem Verlw'ilfm'sse zum Schulwesen uncl zur Pd'clagog'i/c dowgesfel/t (2 vols.-—vol. i., biography; vol. ii., technical part. ——Brunswick, 1861—62); Bursian, G-esehiehte tler /CZCt88’lS(;/l(3’)L Philologie in l)em‘.s-elilcmcl. ALFRED GUDEMAN. Wolf, ll1ERoNYMUs: classical scholar; b. at Gtittingen, Germany, Aug. 13, 1516; pupil of Camerarius and l\’lelanch- thon. After leading a life of many vicissitudes as a teach- er. librarian, and secretary (at the house of Fugger in Augs- burg), he finally secured the position of the director of It school at Augsburg in 1557, which he retained till his death Oct. 8, 1580. ‘Nolf was one of the foremost Hellenists of the sixteenth century. His fame now rests upon his elaborate editions, with critical and exegetieal notes and Latin trans- lations, of lsoerates (Basel, 1570, fol.) and Demosthenes (Basel, 6 vols. fol.). He also edited a number of Byzantine historians (Zonaras, Choniatas, Niccphorus Gregoras, Laoni- cus, Chalcondylas), with Latin translations, thus inaugurat- ing the study of Byzantine history in Germany. Still other editions are the l}Il07I.(”i')"L'(l’L.07t of Epietetus ; Cebes’s l’inaa; the pseudo-Platonic Azrioehos; Plutarch’s Demostlzeozes and O1'oero ; some of the astronomical treatises of Proelus, Por- phyrius, and Hermes; a Latin translation of the non-lexi- cographical portions of Suidas; and verbose commentaries to Cicero’s Cato Jlfojor, Lcelius, Paraclorca, and ;SO7TI’l7ill77’L Scipionis. See his autobiography in Reiske’s Oratores Grceoi (vol. viii_., pp. 742 if); G. C. Mezzer, Memoria Hier- onymi Wolfii (Augsburg, 1862); Schmid, I1]/neylt'lo]Jiiclie der Piidagogilc (vol. pp. 433-456); Raumer’s 1J’i8i07"i80lt68 Tasohenbuch (pp. 339-389, 1830). ALFRED GUDEMAN. W'0lfb01'0 : town (incorporated in 1770): Carroll co., N. H.; on Lake VVinnipiscogee, and the Boston and Maine Railroad; 10 miles S. of Ossipee, 45 miles N. E. of Concord (for location. see map of New Hampshire, ref. 6—G). It con- tains the villages of Wolfboro Center, North \Volfboro, South \Volt'boro, East Wolfboro, and \Volfboro Falls; is a summer resort in an agricultural region ; and has five churches, graded public schools, the Brewster Free Acad- emy, public library, Memorial Hall, savings-bank, loan and banking company, gravity system of water-works, electric- light plant, a weekly newspaper, and manufactories of wool- en goods, boots and shoes, furniture, carriages, shingles, and marble-work. Pop. (1880) 2,222; (1890) 3,020. EDITOR or “ GRANITE STATE Nnws." Wolf-dog: a large variety of the domestic dog, allied to the shepherd’s dog, now found almost exclusively in Spain, though formerly common in Ireland and Scandinavia. The name is also applied to a dog of any kind that is trained to protect sheep, etc., against wolves. Wolfe, CHARLES: poet; b. at Dublin, Ireland, Dec. 14, 1791; studied at Winchester School; graduated at Trinity College. Dublin, 1814; was tutor there 1815-56; took orders in the Church of England 1817, and became curate of the parish of Donoughmore, Ireland. After a visit to the south of France he died of consumption at the Cove of Cork (now Queenstown) Feb. 21, 1823. His poetical Remains, with a Brief Jlfemoir of his Life (1825; 8th ed. 1846), were pub- lished by Archdeacon John A. Russell. His Ode on the Death of Sir'Jo/m itfoore is one of the most beautiful of modern poetical compositions. ‘V0lfe, JAMES: soldier: b. at Westerham, Kent, England, Jan. 15, 1726; son of Lieut.-Gen. Edward Wolfe; entered the army as second lieutenant at an early age : was present at the battles of Dettingen, Fontcnoy, Falkirk, and Culloden; dis- tinguished himself at Lafeld 1747, and at the siege of Maes- tricht 1748; commanded a regiment in the Highlands of Scotland 1749-54; was quartermaster-general in the expe- dition against Rochefort 1757, and brigadier-general in that against Louisburg, Cape Breton, 1758; was appointed by Pitt major-general andplaced in command of an expedition for the conquest of Canada 1759; arrived with 8,000 men in the St. Lawrence in June; was repulsed by Montcalm in a first attack, July 31, and fell in the moment of victory in the battle on the Plains of Abraham, Sept. 13, 1759. He was buried at Greenwich, and monuments to his memory have been erected in Westminster Abbey and at Quebec. His Life has been written by Robert Wright (London, 1864). See also Parkman’s illonlealm and Wolfe (1885). Wolfe Island: an island township and post-village; at the outlet of Lake Ontario, directly opposite Kingston, Canada, and Cape Vincent, N. Y. It belongs to Frontenac County, Ontario, is about 18 miles long, and has a light- house. Pop. about 2,000, and diminishing. WOLFENBIITTEL Wolfellbiittel, v6lf’en-but-tel: town ; in Brunswick, Ger- many; on the Oker; 7 miles by rail S. of Brunswick (see map of German Empire, ref. 3-E). It has an excellent li- brary of 300,000 volumes, of which Lessing was librarian for some time, housed in a handsome building, several edu- cational institutions, and manuf-a.ctures of lacquered and japanned wares, paper-hangings, leather, and tobacco. It dates from 1046, and in 1193 and 1542 was besieged and taken. Pop. (1890) 14,480. “’0lfl', ALBERT: sculptor; b. at Neu-Strelitz, Mecklen- burg, Nov. 14, 1814; studied sculpture under P.auch, after- ward in Rome, and was made Professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Berlin 1866. He is especially celebrated for his equestrian statues, of which he produced a great number —Frederick \Villi-am III. in Berlin, Frederick William IV . in Ktinigsberg, Ernst August in Hanover, Frederick Francis 1. in Ludwigslust, etc. D. in Berlin, June 20, 1892. Wolff, ALBERT: journalist; b. at Cologne, Dec. 31, 1835, was educated in Paris for mercantile pursuits, and after- ward studied in the University of Bonn, but finally devoted himself entirely to literature. After trying, with success. various literary branches in the German language, he settled in 1857 in Paris, became secretary to Alexandre Dumas, Sr., and began in 1859 to write for the Parisian papers, Gaulois. Figaro, C’72,a9'z'ziaJ't', L’Um'ue7*s Illastré, L’Eréncmen1‘, etc. Of those articles, which often produced a great sensation, he published various selections in book-form: J1 émoires cla Boulevard (1866); Les cleaas Emperears (1871); Vz'cfom'en Sardoa et Z’OncZe Sam (1873), etc. After the Franco-Ger- man war he became a French citizen. From that time till his death, Dec-. 23, 1891, he contributed specially art,criti- cisms to the F'L'ga'ro and dramatic criticism to L‘Ere'ne- meat. He also wrote some novels and farces. Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. W0lfi', JOSEPH, D. D., LL. D.: missionary; b. at \Veilers- bach, near Bamberg, Germany, in 1795; son of a Jewish rabbi; studied at Stuttgart, Munich, and \Veimar; was bap- tized into the Roman Catholic Church at Prague 1812: completed his education at the Universities of Vienna and of Tiibingen, devoting himself to Oriental languages: went to Rome in 1816; was admitted as a student into the Roman College, and afterward into the College of the Propaganda, from which, however, he was expelled in 1818 for hereti- cal opinions; went to London 1819; joined the Church of England; spent two years at Cambridge studying Oriental languages; was ordained as a missionary to the Jews Apr., 1821; made an extensive tour through the East: returned to England 1826; married Lady Georgiana Vary \Valpole, daughter of the Earl of Orford, Feb., 1827; embarked in April upon another missionary tour: penetrated through Persia to Bokhara, and thence to Afghanistan, Kashmir, and the Punjaub ; visited Southern India, Arabia, and Abys- sinia, where he learned the Amharic language; returned to England 1834; revisited Abyssinia. Arabia, and India 1836; proceeded thence to the U. S., reaching New York in Aug., 1887; was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episco- pal Church; lectured in the principal cities and preached before Congress; returned to England Jan., 1838: was or- dained priest at Dublin; obtained the curacy, first of Lin- thwaite and afterward of I-Iigh Hoyland, Yorkshire; made a second journey to Bokhara in 1843, at the instance of the British Government, to attempt the release or learn the fate of Col. Stoddard and Capt. Conolly; was himself imprisoned and condemned to death, but saved by the interposition of the Persian ambassador; returned to England 1845, and spent the remainder of his life as parish priest at Isle Brewers, Somersetsl1ire. D. at Isle Brewers, May 2,1862. He published, among other works, Researches and 171 z'ssz'oa- ary Labors amo'n,g Jews and Jlfohammeal/ans (Malta, 1835): Jo/wraal of Jlfisséoaa»ry Labors (1889); A ATa1'r(1tz've of a flfisszioa to Bo/chara (.2 vols., 1845); and an autobiography entitled Tra'veZs and ../1cZ'vem"u/res, etc. (2 vols.. 1860). Revised by S. M. J acnsoa. Wolflian Body [named from Kaspar Friedrich \Voltf, a German anatomist and physiologist (1733—94)] : the primi- tive kidney of vertebrates, the mesonephros of embryolo- gists. In the lower vertebrates it is the chief excretory organ throughout life, but in reptiles, birds, and mammals -it disappears during the embryonic stages, its place being taken by the true kidney. All that remains of it in the adult of these groups is the anterior end, which enters into connection with the reproductive organs. The \Volffian body arises as a paired organ from two longitudinal ridges WOLF RIVER 817 in the dorsal part of the body cavity. In its primitive condition it consists of a series of transverse tubes connect- ing the body cavity with a longitudinal tube emptying near the vent. The number of these tubes increases, and in the human embryo the whole reaches its maximum about the seventh week, and in the sixteenth has almost disappeared. The best account of the structure in the higher vertebrates is by Mihalkowics in Inz‘e'/wazfa'onale i1[0naz‘se7u'z'fzf _/Ii/m Ana- tomic and flistologie (vol. ii., 1885). J . S. K. Wolf-fish: a name given to the fishes of the family Ana‘r2'hic7zz'eZcc and genus Anarrlzz'cas, on account of the fierce aspect and large canine teeth. They are elongated, but stout fishes. The scales are rudimentary; the head has a steep profile; the mouth is widely cleft; the jaws armed with strong conical teeth in and toward the front, and with molars in two rows on the palate and sides of the lower jaw; the dorsal fin is long and sustained by flexible spines; the anal fin is less than half as long as the dorsal, and opposite the posterior half of that fin; the caudal is distinct from the dorsal and anal fins, and rounded behind; the pectorals are large; the ventrals absent. The species are peculiar to the northern seas. The best-marked, and possibly the only ones, are the Anarrhicas Z2/pus, found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, and Anarv-lzz'cas cZeniicu- Zatus of Greenland. On the American coast the wolf-fish is found as far southward as Cape Cod, and occasionally even beyond. It is a very ravenous and ferocious fish. and with its powerful jaws can inflict a severe wound even on man. Although repulsive in its appearance, and rarely if ever eaten on the American coast, it is regarded as palatable or even excellent food in different parts of Europe. The skin is in some places used for bags and pockets. The wolf-fish occasionally attains a length of 6 or 7 feet. It mostly lives in deep water, but approaches the shore to deposit its spawn in May and June. This species is also called in various places sea-wolf and catfish, and in the Orkney islands swine- fish, on account of the movements of its nose, which are supposed to simulate those of a hog. W6ltflii1,z~6lf'le“en, EDUARDZ Latinist; b. at Basel, Switz- erland, Jan. 1, 1831; studied in his native city and at Got- tingen; privat docent at Basel 1856: professor at a gymna- sium in \Vinte1'thur in 1861: called to the University of Zurich in 1869. to Erlangen in 1875, to Munich in 1880. VV5lfiiin is the foremost representative. if not the founder, of the historical study of Latin syntax and lexicography; edited Ampelius (1854); Polyzrnus (2d ed. 1886); Publilius Syrus (1869); Livy. books xxi., xxii., xxiii. (school editions. repeatedly re-edited): Asinius Pollio, De belle Afrz'cano (with Miodonski, 1889). Among his works are his treatises on the style of Tacitus in the Plzilologus (1866-68); Die La1‘z'm'fcif dcs Afrika-ners Cassius Felix (1880): Die aZZzIzf- l‘erz'rc?2de22 T'e2'Z1£nd/zuzgen der Zafez'nz'sc7zen Spracize (1881); Die Gemz'naz‘z'oa im Laz‘ez'nz'selzen (188.2): La2‘ez"nz'sc7ie and romaniselze Compm'az‘z'on (1879); Zfcber die Aufgaben der Z(zI‘cm 23071022 Le.2'z'l.'ogra])7z2'e (1882); etc. He is the founder, editor. and one of the chief contributors of the ;l‘7"L‘/Lil‘ fill‘ Z ate in £8071 e Lc.z'z'A‘og1'<1p7i ie. ALFRED GUDEMAX. W'0lf1':1ll1 [Germ. possibly Ii'oZ_fra7zm, the ancient name of the mineral being spzmza Z2gn', wolf's spittle or froth (rahm signifying cream)]: mineral fzuzigsiafe of 'zTron», fer- rous tungstate, O.flVFe, though usually containing also from 4 to 20 per cent. of manganous oxide. It is right rhombic ; dark brown or black, with a reddish-brown streak; hard- ness between apatite and feldspar; luster metalloidal, some- times slightly magnetic; specific gravity from 72 to 75. It is abundant with the Cornish tin ores and in many Eu- ropean localities ; in America at Monroe. Conn., with native bismuth; Trumbull, Conn., with massive topaz : in Mecklen- burg co., N. C., and a number of other localities. Molecu- larly considered, it is probably a variable mixture of _ferbe- rzife, ferrous tungstate, and 7u7baem'z‘e, manganous tungstate (the latter being also right rhombic) crystallized together. IV0lf River: a river of Mississippi; rises in Marion County, and flows S. into St. Louis Bay, an arm of Missis- sippi Sound.—Another \VOLF RIVER rises in Tippah co., Miss, and flows \V. NW’. 100 miles, mostly in Tennessee. It reaches the Mississippi at Memphis. ‘"011’ River: a river of VVisconsin; rises in the northeast part of the State, flows southward, and after passing through Pewaugan Lake flows into Fox river. It is navigable 150 miles for small steamboats, and affords passage to a vast amount of timber. 449 818 WOLFSBANE Wolfsbane: See Moxxsnoon. Wolgemut: See WonLe"'EuUTH. Wo1'laston, WILLIAM I-IYDE, M. D., F. R. S.: chemist and physicist; great-grandson of ‘William \Vollaston; b. at East Dereham, England, Aug. 6, 1766; educated at Caius College, Cambridge; took the degree of M. B. in 1787 ; graduated in medicine 1793; began to practice at Bury St. Ed1nunds in 1789, but soon removed to London, where he was not suc- cessful, and abandoned the profession; devoted himself to scientific researches, especially to experiments in chemistry, mineralogy, and physics; became secretary of the Royal Society 1806; discovered the metals ]l.)£tlltt(lll11l11 and rhodium (1803), and a method of making p atinum malleable, for which he was awarded the medal of the Royal Society Nov. 30, 1828, and by which he gained £30,000; was the first to detect the dark or Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum (1802), and to demonstrate the identity of galvanism and frictional electricity ; constructed a sliding scale of chemical equivalents; invented the reflecting goniometer, the camera lucida, and the cryophorus for freezing water by means of its own evaporation; improved the construction of the mi- croscope by means of the “ \Vollaston doublet” or compound lens; was the first to describe cystic oxide and three new compounds connected with the production of urinary cal- culi. He was chosen president of the Royal Society 1820. D. in London, Dec. 22,1828. He presented to the Royal Society £1,000 for the encouragement of experiments. He published thirty-eight papers in the Philosop/tz'caZ Trans- actions (1797-1829). He may be considered the founder of modern British chemistry. Wollstonecraft: See Gonwm, l\lxnv W OLLS'1‘()NECRAFT. W 010W’ ski, Loms Fr..rneors l\irennL RAYMOND: political economist; b. at Warsaw, Aug. 31, 1810; studied in Paris 1823-97 ; served in the Polish revolution of 1830; retired to Paris after its suppression; was naturalized in France in 1834; became Professor of Law at the Conservatoire des Arts et ilfétiers in 1839, and was a member of the Constituent As- sembly of 1848, and of the Legislative Assembly of 1849, but retired from politics in 1851. He founded in 1833 the Re- eue de Lé,1/t'sZatt'0n et de JZbI't8]9I‘l66Z€7bC6, and established the first Crédit Foncier bank in Paris. Among his works are De Z’Or_(]am'satL'on da Travail (1845); De Z’O/*gam'zatz.'on (Z10 Gre'cZzI/5 Foncier (1849) ; Les Finances de la Rassée (1864) ; La Le'berté eommerciale et les Re'suZtaz‘s cla T/raz'fe' de Com- merce de 1860 (1868): Le change et la CL"I'Cl.tZ(l,iI,'077/ (1869); and D07’ et Fargent (1870). D. at Gisors, France, Aug. 4, 1876. Wolseley, wo”olz'le“e, GARNET J osern, First Viscount Wolseley: soldier; b. near Dublin, Ireland, June 4, 1833; entered the British service as ensign Mar. 12, 1852; served in the Burmese war of 1852-53 ; with Sir John Cheape’s ex- pedition against the robber-chief Myattoon; in the siege of Sebastopol from Dec., 1854, to close of the war; in the sup- pression of the Indian mutiny of 1857-59 ; and in the war with China (1860). In 1870, in command of the expedition from Canada to the Red River territory, he suppressed the insur- rectionary government at Fort Garry, and was created a knight of St. Michael and St. George for his services. In 1873 he was appointed governor of Gold Coast settlement, which had become involved in a war with the Ashantees, and as commander-in-chief of the British forces defeated the enemy’s army, occupied and destroyed Coomassie, his capital, and the king’s palace, and brought the war to a speedy and successful end. For these services he was made major-general, created K. C. B., and the thanks of Parlia- ment and £25,000 were bestowed upon him ; inspector-gen- eral of auxiliary forces 1874—7 6; governor of Cyprus in 187 8 and of Natal in 1879; commander-in--chief of British forces in Egypt 1882, winning the battle of Tel-el-Kebir Sept. 13, 1882, which practically closed the war; was raised to the peerage as Viscount 'Wolseley, and was made general in 1882 ; in 1884-85 he was commander-in-chief in Egypt, and con- ducted operations for relief of Khartum, for which services he was highly honored. 1111888 he was appointed adjutant- general of the army; in 1890 was appointed commander- in-chief of the troops stationed in Ireland, with headquarters in Dublin; in Nov., 1895, succeeded the Duke of Cambridge as commander-in-chief of the British army with limited pow- ers. He is the author of several military works, including an exhaustive biography of the Duke of Marlborough, at present (1895) in course of publication in four volumes. Revised by J anus GRANT Winsox. WOLZOGEN Wolsey, wo‘ol'ze"e, Tuonasz cardinal; b. at I_pswich, Suf- folk, England, Mar., 1471 ; was educated in Magdalen Col- lege, Oxford ; studied theology; took holy orders, and received in 1500 the rectorship of Lymington, Somersetshire ; was ap- pointed a chaplain to, Henry VII. 1505; went to Bruges in 1507 on a special diplomatic mission to the Emperor Maxi- milian and to Scotland the next year on a similar errand, and for his success was rewarded with the deanery of Lin- coln 1509. Henry VIII. made him his almoner 1509, and soon employed him in the most iinporta-ntaffairs. He made him Archbishop of York in 1514, Lord Chancellor of Eng- land in 1515. and showed him an almost unlimited confi- dence in all negotiations. Foreign princes courted his favor: the Emperor and the King of France sent him great presents and bestowed pensions on him; the pope created him a cardinal in 1515 and legate in 1519; and from this last year to his fall he acted as if he were really the ruler of England and one of the. sovereigns of Europe. His income was royal, and so were his expenses. He built Hampton Court; he founded Christ Church College and seven lecture- ships at Oxford; he kept a household of from 500 to 800 persons, and showed himself in many ways a patron of sci- ence and art. In personal bearing he was haughty and ar- rogant toward his equals, exceedingly adroit in managing his superiors, and kind and generous toward his inferiors. 'I‘wice—on the death of Leo X. (1522) and again on that of Adrian VI. (1523)-—t-he tiara seemed to be within his reach, but both times his plans were foiled by the in- trigues of Charles V. and by the opposition of the French bishops. At last his ambition came into conflict with the king’s passion. The king wished to be divorced by the pope from Catharine of Aragon, the aunt of Charles V., and W'ol- sey had to carry through the necessary negotiations; but this task, in any case difficult, proved impossible for a man who. for his own sake, had to tread cautiously and manage people with the greatest discretion. The negotiations seemed to be endless. The king lost his patience, and even began to distrust the cardinal. At last it was evident that he had hopelessly failed. The pope, under the domination of Charles V., refused to grant the divorce. VVolsey was op- posed to I~Ienry’s marriage to Anne Boleyn, because it might endanger his own position at home by giving the widespread jealousy and enmity around him a firm center. At last Anne Boleyn demanded and obtained from the king the cardinal's dismissal in disgrace, and on Oct. 17, 1529, the great seal was taken from him and he left the court. He retired to his archbishopric, and seemed prepared to end his life in com- parative obscurity. But the hatred of his enemies was not yet satisfied, and on Nov. 4, 1530, he was arrested at Cawood on a charge of high treason. He was conducted to London, but on the way thither he fell ill, and died at the monastery of Leicester, Nov. 29, 1530. His Life has been written by G. Cavendish (1641), J. Ga-lt (1812), G. Howard (1824), C. Martin (1862), M. Creighton (1888). See Froude’s Ifisfory of England (vol. i., 1856) and \Villiams’s Lives of the Eng- lish Carchnals (1868). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. yv01sem= See WULrs'rAN. lvolverenez a name of the GLU'r'roN (Q. 5.). lV0l’verl1a1npt0n: town; in Staffordshire, England; 13 miles N. W'. of Birmingham (see map of England, ref. 9—I"l). Besides a number of modern public buildings, the town-hall (1868). an art gallery (1885), etc., it contains St. Peter’s church, a cruciform Gothic edifice, which, founded in 996 and rebuilt several times afterward, was restored in 1859—65. The town lies on the western outskirt of the rich mining districts of Stafi“ordshire, which are covered by blast furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries, and every other kind of contrivanee by which iron ore is transform ed into pig, railway, sheet, rod, hoop, and nail iron, and worked into boiler-plates, locks, hinges, axles, bolts, vises, anvils, and edge tools. Besides hardware, in which branch of manufacture W*olverhampton is one of the leading centers of the world, it has extensive manufactures of tinware, articles of papier-maehé, and ja- panned and enameled goods. The parliamentary borough returns three members. Pop. (1891) 174,325. Wolzogen, 'v6lt.-s6’gen, Kaaomnn, von: author; b. von Lcucnrnnn, Feb. 3, 1763, at Rndolstadt, Germany; married as her second husband, in 1796, Baron von \Volzogen, cham- berlain at the court of Saxe—Weimar. I). at Jena, J an. 11, 1847. Her brothers were Sehiller’s fellow pupils in the Karlsschule of Stuttgart; her sister Charlotte became his wife; she herself was through the whole latter part of his life an intimate friend of his, and her book, Sc7L'1.'ZZe'rs Lcbea WOMAN’S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION (2 vols., 1830), is one of the most vivid and trustworthy pic- tures of him. In the field of pure imagination she also gained reputation by her romances, Agnes von Lilian (2 vols., 1798) and Cordelia (2 vols., 1840), the first of which was for a time considered a work of Goethe even by eminent critics. See .Lt'itcmm'sc/wr .LVaehZa.ss der Frau Karoli//w "U. Wolzogen (1867). Revised by JULIUS GOEBEL. W0man’s Christian Temperance Union (in abbrevi- ated form V/. C. T. U.) : an association formed for the pur- pose of unifying throughout the world the work of women in temperance and social reform. Its methods are prevent- ive, educational, evangelistic, social, and legal; the time of rayer observed by its members is noontide; its badge is a mot of white ribbon; its watchwords are“ A gitate! Organ- ize.” Its motto is “ For God and home and every land.” The National \Voman's_ Christian Temperance Union was organized in C-leveland, O., in 1874, and is the result of the great “ women's crusade.” It is now regularly organized in all the States of the Union, and in every Territory except Alaska. Its headquarters are in Chicago, Ill., where it has a temperance publishing-house which sends out about 135.- 000,000 pages annually, and has seven editors and 150 em- ployees. This publishing-house is a stock company, and all its directors and stockholders are women, as is its business manager. The Union Signal is the organ of the society, and has an average circulation of 80,000. The \Voman’s N a- tional Temperance Hospital demonstrates the value of non- alcoholic medication. The \Voman’s Temperance Temple, which cost over $1,000,000, has been built in Chicago. There are about 10,000 local unions with a membership and follow- ing, including the children’s societies, of about half a mil- lion. The YVoman’s Christian Temperance Union has forty- four distinct departments of work, presided over by as many women experts in the national society and in nearly every State. All the States in the republic except three have laws requiring the study of scientific temperance in the public schools, and all these laws were secured by the \Voman‘s Christian Temperance Union, as were also the laws forbid- ding the sale of tobacco to minors. Most industrial homes for girls were secured through the efforts of this society. also the refuges for erring women; laws raising the age of consent and providing for better protection for women and girls have been enacted by many legislatures through the influence of the department for the promotion of social purity, of which the president of the society, Miss \Villard, was until 1895 superintendent. The Vi/orld‘s 'Woman’s Christian Temperance Union was founded through the influence of the national society in 1883, and already has auxiliaries in more than forty coun- tries and provinces. Its president is Frances E. \Villard, and its vice-president at large, Lady Henry Somerset, of London. The white ribbon is the badge of all the W'oman‘s Christian Temperance Union members, and is now a famil- iar emblem in every civilized country. A great petition is being circulated in all parts of the world against legalizing the sale of opium and alcoholics ; 7,500,000 names have been secured, including endorsements of great societies, and the petition is to be presented to all the governments of the world by a commission of women appointed for that pur- pose. FRANCES E. IVILLARD. VVOIIII) [< 0. Eng. wmnb]: the uterus, the chief of the female sexua.l organs, in which conception takes place and the embryonic organism is retained during the period of gestation, and developed from step to step of foetal growth until its birth as a living, independent individual. The womb (see Fig. 1 in article Ovamns) in hca-lth_v adult women is located in the abdominal cavity, in the median line of the pelvis: it has the bladder in front, the rectum behind; its position is one of slight anteversion-—that is, its vertical axis is thrown slightly forward. It is a pear-shaped body. with base above, and measures about 8 to 3-3; inches in length. It is chiefly muscular in structure; is hollow, hav- ing a small canal through its lower portion. the neck or cervz'.z: mferz', which widens into a triangular cavity within the body or broad base above. The length of this canal and cavity is usually 2% to 3 inches. At the upper or basic end of the cavity the angles connect by small apertures with t-he Fallopian tubes, which bring the ovules from the ovaries to the uterus. The'int.erior of the womb, both neck and body. is lined with mucous membrane, arranged in folds and rich in blood-vessels. and containing numerous glands. The sub- stance of the organ comprises three distinct sets of muscular fibers—an external, middle, and internal layer—some of frons, is a native of South Australia. WOMEN’S RIGHTS 819 which are transverse or circular, others longitudinal, and others oblique. These give the organ a powerful contrac- tility. The organ is retained in -sdén by ligaments and the cellular tissue surrounding it. It has attachments to the bladder in front, to the rectum behind, to the pelvic bodies on either side by the broad ligaments—to the ovaries by the ovarian ligaments. When in pregnancy the womb increases to acconnnodate the developing infant, its muscular fibers take on increased growth, and, following the expulsion of the child and placenta. these fibers contract in the direction of the several coats, as stated, and prevent hzemorrhage. By a slow process of involution or atrophy from disuse the womb gradually returns to its normal size. For details of its func- tions, see EMBRYOLOGY, Onsrnrmcs, and Ov..1.1~*.r15s ; for diseases to which it is liable, sec STERILLTY and UTERINE DISEASES. lvonlbat: any marsupalian quadruped of the family PHASCOLO)iYIDrE (g. 12). of which only three species are known. The wombat is an animal of clumsy form and stout limbs, reaching a length of about 3 feet and a weight of 60 lb. The legs are short. but powerful. and the animals burrow readily. The general color is gray, lighter beneath. They are nocturnal in habits, feed on vegetables. and. as a rule,'are easily tamed. The common wombat. Plmscolomys zrombazf, is found in South Australia, New South ‘Vales. and Van Diemen’s Land. The broad-fronted wombat, P. [ali- F. A. L. Women’s Rights : those rights which are denied to women because of their sex, and to secure which organized effort is being made, namely, equal political rights with men, involving equal recognition in the laws and constitutions, in colleges, trades, and professions; equal honor in the Church and the state; the same code of morals in social life. Those who are laboring in behalf of woman’s rights demand that there shall be no limitations to her sphere of action. \Vhat- ever she has the desire and capacity to do, she must be free to do. Men and women have the same sphere in the uni- verse of possibilities, though as individuals they may have different duties in that sphere. Woiiiaii asks to be subject to the laws of her being. and not to male authority-—the as- sumptions and superstitions of the past. The flfaz‘rz'archaz‘e.—During the earl_v centuries woman reigned supreme. the arbiter of her own ‘destiny, the pro- tector of her children. the builder of all there was of home- life. of religion. and of government. The mother was all- suflicient; family descent and property were in her line; man‘s relations were promiscuous—no one knew or cared who his father might be. Down to a late period woman sat in the councils of peace and war, and even at the dawn of Christianity, as priestess. she took part in religious ceremo- nies. Her motherhood compelled the use of all her powers, and made her the great factor in civilization. This period was called the Matriarchate, or mother age. Traces of it can be found in early Egyptian, Aryan, German. and Persian his- tory, all through the Middle Ages, and among some uncivi- lized tribes and nations to-day. The P(u‘1'£arc7iafe.-—Tl1e transition to the patriarchate. or father age, was marked by force, violence, slavery. and wars for conquest. As soon as man assumed authority, woman‘s position, not only in the home, but also in the Church and the state, was the subject of constant dispute, whether the right to the throne could be in the female line. or whether. as priestess, she could administer the ordinances. The Salic law of France prevailed in some countries. in others the more liberal policy of England. But all through the patri- archate women have retained some recognition in the laws and customs of continental Europe. The Roman civil law was in some points favorable to woman until touched by the icy fingers of the canon law, out of which grew the old com- nion law of our Saxon fathers. Charles Kingsley said, “' This will never be a good world for women until the last remnant of the canon law is swept from the face of the earth." Under the common law of England the right. of suifrage was a franchise attached to a ire-ehold, and women as well as men were “ frceholders." As far back as the time of \Villiam the Conqueror women were enrolled among the inliabit-ants as “householders ” who were “ burgesses " or voters. Down to the seventeenth century women voted for members of Parliament. and in earlier centuries sat in the councils of the state and Church as members. The right of women to the franchise was verified many times by the courts. Judge Charles B. \Vaite, of Chicago. says : “ Of fourteen authors whom I have consulted, who have written treatises on the election laws of England, four only express 820 any doubt as to the common-law right of women to vote for members of Parliament.” \Vomen not only voted, but held important offices, as queen, queen regent, with power to declare war, high constable, keeper of the seal, member of Parliament, and other ofiices-some of which they hold to- day. They have always had some form of representation, as property-holders, in most European countries, the feme sole (widows and spinsters) voting in person, the feme co/cert (married women) voting by proxy, the husband casting one vote for himself and another for his wife. Thus the princi- ple of woman suffrage has all along been recognized in most civilized nations. Adverse Legtslatton tn the United Statcs.——The com- mon law of England was brought to New England by the colonists of 1620. The word “male” was not found in any of the constitutions of the original thirteen States. Voters were designated as “persons,” “freeholders,” “ 1n- habitants,” “freemen.” and, following English precedent, women voted. New York was the first State to narrow her constitution by inserting the word “ male ” (1778). Mas- sachusetts followed (1780). The last States to make the change were Rhode Island (1842) and New Jersey (1344). If women had not exercised their right to vote during two hundred years, why was it necessary to introduce the word “male” at all? Many publicists still hold that they were disfranchised then only by implication. It is rema_rkable that a nation claiming to be a republic, based 011 universal suffrage, should be’ the first to deny representation to_ one- half the people on the ground of sex. Whether a majority of women voted or not when they had the right does not affect the question from a legal standpoint. Political rights are not lost by non user. In some of the Southern States Negro men do not vote, yet no one doubts their legal right. Eflorts made to secure Equal Snfi”ra,ge.—l*“i'0ni the foun- dation of governments there have been women in all coun- tries who understood their political status. In more recent times Mercy Otis Warren and Abigail Smith Adams, of Mas- sachusetts, and Hannah Lee Corbin, of Virginia, made their protests against the exclusion of women from representation in the new republic (1776). Madame Roland and Madame de Stael’s political utterances in the French Revolution, Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vtndtcat/zlon of the Rights of Wbmen, Frances VVright’s lectures on Political Equality, both in England and America ; and later Harriet M-artineau’s writ- ings on Political Econom.'_z/ in England, Margaret Fuller’s Woman tn the lVtneteenth Century. Judge I-Iurlburt’s Jin- r/nan Rights in the U. S., Madame Anneke’s influence in the German revolution, the novels of George Sand, Charlotte Bronté, Frederika Bremer, and Elizabeth Barrett Brown- ing’s Aurora Leigh-all prepared the way for the general uprising of women in all civihzed countries. The first organized effort made by women to recover their ancient rights was in the U. In 1848 Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton called conventions in Seneca Falls and Rochester, N. Y. Strong resolutions and a “declaration of rights” were adopted, which were ex- tensively noticed, denounced by the pulpit, and ridiculed bv the press. These conventions were speedily followed by others in Ohio, Indiana, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, all making the same demands for political rights, for equal advantages of education, and for equal place and equal pay in the trades and professions. In 1850 a national committee was formed—-Paulina vWright Davis, president; Lucy Stone, secretary ; l/Vendell Phillips, treasurer-which called conventions in the different States until 1866, when the national association was organized. Favorable Legislation.-New York was also the first State to legislate on the question. A bill introduced by Judge I-Iurtell in 1837 for the property rights of married women aroused general discussion. John Savage, chief jus- tice of the Supreme Court, and John C. Spencer, one of the rcvisers of the statute laws of the State, assisted in framing the bill, which became a law in 1848. \Vhile this bill was pending Ernestine L. Rose and others circulated petitions through the State. Pennsylvania enacted a similar law in the same year, and the other States soon followed. During all these early years The New Yor/c Trtbnrz.e, edited by Horace Greeley, was the only metropolitan paper that gave the question a fair hearing. Legislation thus far had been confined to the several States, but in 1866 national action was demanded. The civil war, the emancipation of the slaves, and the recon- struction of the Southern States involved prolonged dis- cussions, resulting in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fif- I/VOMEN’S RIGHTS teenth amendments to the Constitution, under which it was claimed that women, as well as the slaves, were entran- chised. This being the opinion of able jurists, the national association sent a petition with 80,000 signatures to Con- gress, on which Hon. William Loughridge, of Iowa, and Hon. Benjamin F. Butler, of Massachusetts, made a 1ninor- ity report, asserting woman’s right to vote under the four- teenth amendment, ‘With this view Virginia L. l\linor, of Missouri, who tried to register and was denied, sued the in- spectors, while Susan B. Anthony, of New York, who regis- tered and voted, was arrested, tried, and fined. The result of this denial by longress and the Supreme Court was the demand for a sixteenth amendment forbidding disfranchise- ment on the ground of sex. ‘Washington thus became the center for national conventions, and congressional legisla- tion the future demand. An amendment to the national Constitution adopted by the legislatures of three-fourths of the States is the most speedy way to secure woman’s en- franchisement. The national association has held annual conventions in 'Washington from 1869 to 1895, with hear- ings before congressional committees, whose minority and majority reports with the arguments of the women have been published by Congress, franked by members, and sent broadcast throughout the Union. \Vhile demanding national action, much liberal legislation has been secured in the States. Propositions to amend their constitutions have been submitted by nine different legisla- tures—Ka.nsas, 1867 ; Michigan, 1874; Colorado and Minne- sota, 1877; Nebraska, 1882; Oregon, 1884; Rhode Island, 1886; l/Vashington, 1889; South Dakota, 1890: and in Kan- sas again 1894-all of which were lost. During these years school suffrage has been granted by the legislatures of twenty-five States, municipal suffrage in Kansas (1887), and full suffrage in VVyoming (1869); and by popular vote full suffrage in Colorado (1893) and in Utah (1895). In 1894 a constitutional convention was held in New York which aroused deep interest throughout the State and among a class of women who hitherto had taken no part in the movement. The result of their efforts was a peti- tion containing 625,000 names asking for an amendment to the Constitution, striking the word “ male” from Section I., Article 2, and thereby securing to women the right to vote on equal terms with men. The majority of the members not having thought on the subject, knew nothing of its merits, and a considerable number of women who were op- posed to the movement protested against the enfranchise- ment of their sex, and did what they could to prevent it. The amendment was lost by a vote of 97 to 58. Age'tate'on in Great Br'tta'tn.—-Soon after the agitation began in the U. 8. it started in England. The New York Tribune, containing a full report of the first convention in l\Iassachusetts (1850), fell into the hands of Mrs. Taylor, the future wife of John Stuart Mill, and inspired her able essay in the Westmzlnter Reotew on the enfranchisement of wom- an. This roused Mr. Mill to thought on the question. In 1867 in the House of Commons he moved an amendment to the Household Suffrage Bill to strike out the word “ man ” and substitute “person.” He presented petitions from dis- tinguished men and women, made an able argument, and secured 81 votes. Though the word “ man ” was retained in the Reform Acts of 1867-68, English women claimed their right to vote under them. In M anchester alone 5,345 wom- en householders tricd to register, but the courts decided against them. In 1869, by a motion of Jacob Bright, the ancient right of women householders to vote at municipal elections was restored. In 1882 Dr. Cameron carried a simi- lar measure for the women of Scotland. In 1870 ‘William E. Forster carried an educational bill which empowered women householders to vote at school board elections and to act as members of school boards. In 1883 the Married \Vomen’s Property Bill was passed, the result of the untir- ing efforts of Mr. and Mrs. Jacob Bright. In 1888 the County Council Franchise Bill became a law, which ex- tended the sufi°rage to another large class of women. Since 1866 the agitation has been sustained by a central commit- tee in London, with auxiliaries throughout the three king- doms. Mammoth meetings have been held and petitions circulated. The largest (1874) contained 445,564 signatures. I/Vomen now (1895) in Great Britain vote for all officers except members of Parliament, and many women are elected on school boards and as poor-law guardians. Throughout Ireland they vote for poor-law guardians, in the seaport towns for harbor boards, and in the city of Belfast for mu- nicipal officers. WOMEN’S RIGHTS Political Rights enjoyed in other Countries-In the prov- inces of Canada, Cape of Good Hope, Australia, the presi- dencies of Madras, Bombay, and other British colonies. women householders vote at all municipal elections. In the Isle of Man women gained full suffrage in 1881, in New Zealand in 1893, and in South Australia in 1895. In Rus- sia women who are heads of families vote for all elective officers and on all local questions. In Asiatic Russia, wher- ever there is a Russian colony, the mir or self-governing vil- lage obtains and women householders vote. In Finland, Sweden, and Denmark they vote for all otficers except mem- bers of parliament. In Norway women have school suffrage. In Austria-Hungary they vote (by proxy) at all elections, including those for members of provincial and imperial par- liaments. In Italy widows vote (by proxy) for members of parliament. In Croatia and Dalmatia women vote at all elections in person. In France the women teachers elect women on the boards of education. At every change of dynasty in France there have been propositions to extend political rights to women. Though many able advocates, such as Condorcet, Legouvé, and Dumas, have pressed their claims they have been persistently ignored. Thus far the discussion has been confined to woman‘s political status, because on that depends the recognition ‘of all her civil rights. \Vith the suffrage all the opportunities of life are available. Colleges and universities closed to girls were open to boys because they were prospective heirs in the Government, while all of woman’s disabilities grew out of her disfranchisement. Her position in the industrial world was essentially changed by the introduction of ma- chinery, emancipating her from the dependence of home life and giving a monied value to her labor. This taste of financial freedom gave women new confidence, and they began to establish t_hemselves in business of their own as milliners, dressmakers, mercliants, manufacturers, bankers, farmers, horticulturists, and owners of vessels. In addition to the higher position in the industrial world, women soon fitted themselves for a place in the professions by the study of art, science, literature, philosophy, and political economy in seminaries founded for girls and in colleges opened for coeducation. They are new teachers in the public schools, professors in colleges, public lecturers on civil and parlia- inentary law, popular lyceum speakers, and most eflicient organizers in the charities and the churches. In 1876, the year of the Centennial celebration in the U. S., the supporters of suffrage reform were especially ac- tive. A protest against calling the Centennial a celebration of the people while one-half were denied all representation was issued by the YVashington convention of that year and presented to Congress. The national association issued a declaration of rights, which was presented before a great assembly in Independence Square. The first International Council of \Vomen, held in IVash- ington, D. C., 1888, was called and conducted by the Nation- al Suffrage Association-Elizabeth Cady Stanton, president -—at a cost of $13,000. This brought together women from every civilized country engaged in every variety of public work. The convocation continued through eight days. An international council was organized to meet once in five years, and a national council to meet once in three years. The most remarkable feature of the World‘s Columbian Ex- position in Chicago (1893) was the responsible position as- signed to women in its administration. Congress appointed a “ board of lady managers ” and made an appropriation of $300,000, to be used at their discretion in the different de- partments of woman‘s exhibits ; women were also appointed on the general committees, and served with men as judges of awards. Of all the great assemblies in the Art Palace (1893) the most wonderful was the “congress of representa- tive women," to which all civilized nations sent delegates, and in which all questions involving the interests of domes- tic as well as public life were freely discussed during eight consecutive days. The many rights alreadyconceded herald the dawn of a new civilization in which woman. as the chief factor in the development of the race, must be crowned with new dignity, honor, and power in the government. \Ve have passed through the matriarchate. and a.re now approaching the close of the patriarchate, gathering our forces for an- other step in progress, which will bring us to the amphiarch- ate, the combined rule of man and woman. R.EFER.ENcEs.-—Bachofen‘s Das 1l[ ntterreoht (1861); Mor- gan’s Ancient Society (1877 : \Vilkeson‘s Ancient Egypt (1836); Karl Pearson’s Ethics of Free Though-t (1888); Theo- dore Stanton’s IVO/nian Qnesz‘ion in Europe (1882); Inter- woon 821 national Council of I/Vonzen (Washington, D. C., 1888); Congress of lteynesentaltire lVornen (Chicago, 1893); Prof. M. Oskogorski’s Rights of ll'or/zen (1893); The .H istory of ll/'oman S1/jfraye (1884); Dr. Mary Putnam-Jacobi’s Com- mon Sense A])]/lied to lV077ZCt/Z S"nfi‘raye (1894). \Vo1nen’s newspapers: The Re'i'ol'ation (1868-71); The Legal i\’6?.t'8 (1869); The Ballot-Boa: and Aational Citizen (1876-81); The I'l"o'/nan’s Journal (1870); The ll’oman's Trilmne (1882). ELIZABE’I‘H CADY Srxxrox, Susan B. A-.vTIIo.\'Y. Wonders, Seven: See Snvnx Woxnnns or THE Wonma. “’00(l [M. Eng. erode, wade < O. Eng. wada, aiodn : O. H. Germ. /wit/it : Icel. i'i6r]: the hard and compact or tough and fibrous parts of higher plants. chiefly composed of fibrous and vascular tissue. It is found in the stems and roots, while those woody fibers which are obtained from the inner bark of dicotyledonous plants or from the midrib and veins of the leaves of monocot-yledons, and which are so valuable in the arts, are not, strictly speaking, wood. An- nual plants usually contain little woody fiber; they are chiefly composed of parenchymatous tissue, which also forms the great part of many herbaceous perennials and of all plants in a very young state. Wood is valuable not only as timber and fuel, being in many parts of the world the chief, if not the only, fuel, but to the woody fiber we are also indebted for cordage, many textile fabrics, ets., and, reduced to pulp, it is used for the manufacture of paper. A kind of factitious or artificial wood used for making ornamental articles was invented in France, and is known under the name of hois- daré. It is formed of sawdust heated to a high temperature and subjected to a very great pressure. Its compactness and hardness exceed those of wood itself. See FIBER : FORESTRY ; FEEL: HIsToLoeY. VEGETABLE; PRESERVAT1ON or TIMBER, and TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. Revised by CHARLES E. BESSEY. I'V00(l, or 5 ‘V0011. Axrnoxvz antiquarian: b. at Oxford. England, Dec. 17. 1632; studied at Merton College. Oxford ; took his degree 1652; devoted most of his life to the collec- tion of data illustrative of the history of Oxford lL"niversit_v. D. at Oxford. Nov. 29, 1695. He was the author of Historia et A/ztiguitates U/zirersitatis O.roniensis (2 vols. folio. 1674). being a translation from IYood's original History and An- tiquities of the LInii'ersity of Orford. which appeared in 5 vols., 1786-96. and of Athence O.ronienses: an Exact His- tory of all the lI’riters and Eisho_ps who have had their Education in the JL/ost Ancient and Famous L’nirersity of Orrford, 1500-1695, icith the Fasti or Annals of the said LInirersity (2 vols. folio, 1691-92). For his strictures on the Earl of Clarendon. ‘Wood was expelled from the univer- sity and his book burned shortly after its publication. A second edition, with 500 new Lives, was edited by Tonson (2 vols., 1721), and a third edition was carefully superin- tended, with extensive Additions and a Continuation. by Rev. Philip Bliss. D. C. L., fellow of St. John’s College, Oxford (4 vols., 1813-20). A fourth edition was projected by the short-lived Ecclesiastical History Society. and for it Dr. Bliss wrote vol. i., embracing the Life of IVood (1848). but the project was not further carried out. though abun- dant materials were left by the editor to the Bodleian Li- brary. \Vood‘s Life and Times. descrilwd by H inzself, first published 1730, was edited by Andrew Clark for the Ox- ford Historical Society, and published at Oxford (5 vols., 1891-95). I-Iis State of the City of Oxford (1773), by the same editor, appeared (3 vols., 1889-95) under the same au- spices. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. VVOOG. DE VOLSON. A. M. : engineer; b. at Smyrna. N. Y.. June 1, 1832; graduated at the State Normal School, Al- bany, 1853 ; taught mathematics in that Institution 1854-55 ; graduated at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Troy. 1857: was Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Michigan 1857-72 : from 1872 to 1885 Professor of Mathe- matics and Mechanics in the Stevens Institute of Technol- ogy, Hoboken, N. J. : since 1885 has been Professor of En- gineering in the same institution ; inventor of a steam-pump, a steam or pneumatic rock-drill, air-compressor, etc. : brought out revised editions of Mahan’s Ciril Engineering and of Magnus's Lessons in Elementary lleclmnics : furnished many articles on engineering and on mathematical subjects to the Journal of the Franklin Institute and other period- icals ; and is author of A Iveze System o_t'1llliyation and of treatises On the Resistance of Jfaterials, Bridges and Roofs, Elements ofI~1nalytical I/lfechan-ics, Elenie'n2‘a-r_z/ life- chanics, Co-ordinate Geometry, Trigozzometry, Thermody- namics, Reaction flfotors, etc. 1 822 WOOD ‘V006, ELEAZER DERBY! soldier; b. in New York in 1783; graduated at the U. S. Military Academy Oct. 30, 1806, and appointed a second lieutenant in the Corps of Engmeers_; assisted in the construction of Castle \Villiams. Governors Island, N. Y., and of Fort Norfolk, Va. During the war with Great Britain he served with Gen. Harrison's Northwestern army during the memorable siege of Fort Meigs, where he conducted the defense, and was engaged in the sortie of May 5, 1813 ; was in command of the artillery at the battle of the Thames Oct. 5. Transferred to the Northern army in 1814, he was engaged in all the events of that campaign, includ- ing the capture of Fort Erie July 3, the battle of Chippewa July 5, and that of Niagara, or Lundy’s Lane, July 25. In the repulse of the assault on Fort Erie Aug. 15, Col. I/Vood led the Twenty-first regiment of infantry, and in the sortie of Sept. 13, 1814, he fell almost at the outset at the head of a column of which he was in command. For distinguished services in the defense of Fort Meigs he was breveted ma- jor, and lieutenant-colonel for gallantry in the battle of Niagara. His commanding general (Bro wn) erected a monu- ment to his memory at West Point. VV00d, ELLEN (P/rice), better known as Mrs. HENRY Woon : novelist; b. at \Vorccster, England, J an. 17, 1814; lived many years in France ; contributed to many periodicals. She became editor of the Argosy magazine in 1867 ; pub- lished upward of thirty popular novels, among which are East Lynne (1861); The C/l.Cl/71/72,?/'7lL(/8 (1862); The Shadow of I/1shZ_?/clyat and Verhe9"s Pride (1863); John'n._2/ Ludlow stories (1874, 1880); Count Nezfherleigh (1881); and About Ourselves (1883). D. Feb. 10, 1887. VV0041, GEORGE BACON, M. D.. L L. D. : physician and au- thor; b. at Greenwich, N. J ., Mar. 13, 1797; graduated at the University of Pennsylvania 1815, and at its medical school in 1818 : was Professor of Chemistry in the Philadel- phia College of Pharmacy 1822-31, and of Materia Medica 1831-35 ; professor of the same branch in the University of Pennsylvania 1835-50, and of Theory and Practice of Medi- cine 1850-60; was physician in the Pennsylvania Hospital 1835-59; became president of the American Philosophical Society 1859; was long president of the College of Physi- cians of Philadelphia, and in 1865 endowed an auxiliary faculty of medicine in the University of Pennsylvania. He was the author of A Treo.z‘L'se 0a the Prae2‘iee of il[erlz.'eine (2 vols., 1847 ; 5th ed. 1858); T/zerajaeutzlos curl Pha.1'maeoZ- (1_(],2/ (2 vols., 1856; 3d ed. 1868); and Lcefwres cmcl All- (Z1-esses oh1l[ecZ1.'eaZ S1/Zg7'eeIfs (1859). \Vith Dr. Franklin Dache he prepared The l)1.'spehsrt[or_2/ o_fz‘he Umzfecl Sin./es (Phila- delphia, 1833 ; 13tl1 ed. 1870). D. in Philadelphia, Mar. 30. 1879. Revised by S. T. Aansraose. W000, Mrs. IIENRY: See \/Voon, ELLEN (Price). ‘V000. Gen. Sir I'IE.\'ItY l*l\'ELY.\* : soldier; b. at Cressing, England, Feb. 9, 1838: entered the navy 1852; about 1856 entered the army in which he served with distinction in the Indian mutiny, the Ashantee, Zulu, and Transvaal wars; commanded the second brigade in the Egyptian expedition of 1882; commander-in-chief of the Egyptian army I)ec., 1882; commanded the line of communication in the Nile expedition 1884-85 ; since 1886 has held home appointments and was appointed quartermaster-general to the forces in 1893. See the Life by Charles \Villiams (1892). ‘V000, l-IoR.A'1‘Io C., M. D., LL. D. (Yale): physician and author; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 13, 1841 : graduated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania 1862, and be- came Professor of Medical Botany and afterward of Thera- peutics; also Clinical Professor of Diseases of the Nervous System in that institution. Ile is the author of numerous papers on myriapods, See/rpz'om'clrc, P/m.Zcmg'£cZ(e, botany of the coal periods, and on fresh-water Algae in the Proceed- e'n_g/.s and the Tr(msaeI‘L'ons of the Academy of Natural Sci- ences of Philadelphia, of the American Philosophical Soci- ety, and of the Essex Institute; also of The Fresh.-wa2fer AZ;/re of .No')'2f'h A/nz.erz'r:a in the Smithsonian Cohtr2.'bm‘L'ons to Z17’)?/0’ZL'Z@LZ_(](5 (1873), of numerous original physiological and clinical investigations upon Indian hemp, nitrite of amyl, I/'e/ctr/aih m'7"1'cZe, hyoscine, ergot, chorea, the pneumogastric nerves, etc., in the P/'ooeed1Iwg.s of the American Philo- sophical Society, and in the medical journals of the U. S., England, Germany, and France; gained various prizes for original research, among them the Boylston prize by his Eu- .s-ajz/ on T/z.e7"‘/Mo Feue//' or Suns/9'0/cc (Philadelphia, 1872), and has published A T2'eat/A-e on P/zy/st'()Zog'2IeaZ .’['/zerape/1tM'es (1874; 9th ed. 1894); A ASYl"U/d:l/ of Fever (1875) in the Smith- WOODBR-IDGE sonian ]lh'seeZlrmeo/as Collections: also N erooas Dz.'seases (1/hd the?)/r D'1Ic1.(/Iliosis (Philadelphia, 1887) ; has been chief editor of the U1uIZed b‘z‘az‘es Dt'sy9ehsaio1'y, 15th,16th, and 17t.h edi- tions. ltevised by S. T. ARMSTRONG. W00d, Jonx Gnoaén, F. L. S. : writer on natural history; b. in London, England, in 1827; educated at Ashbourne grammar school; became Jackson scholar at Merton Col- lege, Oxford; graduated 1848; was attached for two years to the anatomical museum at Christ Church, Oxford ; took orders in the Church of England 1852 ; became chaplain to the Boatman’s floating chapel, Oxford ; was assistant chap- lain to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, 1856-62; was examiner for the natural history university prize at Oxford 1855-57, and became in 1868 preeentor of Canterbury dio- cesan choral union ; was author or editor of numerous pop- ular works on all the branches of natural history, many of them written for children; was editor of The Boy’s Own lllagaz/fae and E‘L‘67'?/ Bog/’s .7l1a.,(/acme, and contributor to several prominent periodicals. His most important works are The I ZZ'z1.s1f1'ated 1Vatm*a.Z lfistory (3 vols., 1859-63 ; new ed. 1865-66), with 1,500 original illustrations ; The iVaiuraZ .Hz.'.s-zfor_y of Jlfcm (2 vols., 1868-"'0), richly illustrated; A Popular 1Vazfm'c1.Z flisz‘ory (1866); [Tomes wt'1,‘h.out Hamls, booing ct D(5'S‘(‘7"1.'Z)Z"Z/.0’It of the I-JaZ2zTtaz"ions of Amfmals (1864-65) ; Bzlble Am‘-mals (1869) ; The ll;/'orlern Play/mate : a Book of Games, etc. (1870); IL/rm and Beasts, Here and I-Jereafter (2 vols., 1874) ; Horse and Jllrm (1886). D. at Coventry, M ar. 4, 1889. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. W00(l, Tnoints J nrrcasonz soldier; b. at Munfordsville, Ky., Sept. 25, 1823; graduated at U. S. Military Academy July 1, 1845; served in the Mexican war and on frontier duty in Texas 1849-55. Promoted to be major Mar. 16, lieu- tenant-colonel May 9, 1861, he was employed in organizing and mustering lndiana volunteers until Oct. 11, when ap- pointed a brigadier-general of volunteers, and Nov. 12 at- tained the colonelcy of the Second U. S. Cavalry; com- manded a division of the army of Gen. Bucll in the second day's fight (Apr. 7, 1862) at Shiloh and at siege of Corinth; of the Army of the Ohio at Perryville; of the Army of the C‘umberlancl at Murfreesboro, where wounded, and at Chicka- mauga ; of the Fourth Corps at Missionary Ridge and march to Knoxville, and in the numerous battles in Sherman's Georgia campaign in 1864 from Dalton toLovejoy‘s Sta- tion, Sept. 2, where severely wounded; took part in oppos- ing Gen. l~lood’s advance into Tennessee; succeeded to the command of the Fourth Corps, which he led in the battle of Nashville and pursuit of Hood to the Tennessee river. For gallant conduct at Chickamauga he was breveted brigadier- general, and for Nashville major-general. He was placed on the retired list. June 9, 1868. with rank of major-general, but by act of Congress of 1875 he was reduced to brigadier- general. Revised by JAMES lllnaeua. Wood, THOMAS Wlvrsi-mas: painter; b. in Montpelier, Vt., Nov. 12, 1823; studied painting with Chester Harding, and at a later time went to Europe for several years. In 1867 he took up his residence in New York. He was presi- dent of the American W ater-color Society from 1878-87. The National Academy of Design received him as an asso- ciate in 1867, as an academician in 1871. He was elected vice-president in 1878 and president in 1889. Three of his pictures, The (/’ow.fmZ)a/ht], The Reeruz'f, and The Vetercm, belong to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Woodbine : a name given in Europe to the honeysuckle, Lom'eera ])e1'2'eZ']/'meq2/mil, and iii the U. S. to the Virginia creeper. See ITONEYSUCKLE and AMPELOPSIS. ‘W00(ll)1'i(lge: township; Middlesex co., N. J.; on Staten Island Sound, and the Cent. of N. J. and the Penn. railways; 10 miles N. E. of New Brunswick, the county-seat-, and 25 miles S. W'. of New York, with which it has regular steam- boat connection (for location, see map of New Jersey, ref. 3-D). It contains several villages, and has 5 churches, high school, public library, 3 weekly newspapers, large deposits of fire-clay, and fire-brick, tile, and drain-pipe works. Pop. (1880) 4,099 ; (1890) 4,665; (1895) estimated, 7,000. ' EDITOR or “ SUN.” W00(lb1‘i(lg'e, \V1LLiAM: U. S. Senator; b. in Norwich, Conn., Aug. 20. 1780. His father was one of the earliest emi- grants to the Northwest Territory, removing to M arietta, O., in 1791. The son received his earliest education in Connec- ticut; studied law at Litchfield, and was admitted to the bar in Ohio in 1806; in 1807 was elected to the Assembly; was prosecuting attorney for his county 1808-14, during WOCDBURY which period he was also a member of the State Senate ; in 1814 received from President Madison the appointment of secretary of the Territory of Michigan, and removed to_De- troit; in 1819 was elected the first delegate from Michigan to Congress ; judge of the Supreme Court of Michigan Tern- tory 1828-92; in 1835 was a member of the convention called to form aState constitution; in 1837 was elected to the State Senate of Michigan; in 1839 was chosen Governor of the State; was Senator in Congress 1841-47. For many years before his death he lived at Detroit. D. Oct. 20, 1861. W00db1lry: town (named in 1674); Litchfield co., Conn.; on the Pomperaug river, and the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; 12 miles W. of 1Waterbury, 25 miles N. W. of New Haven (for location, see map of Connecticut, ref. 9-E). It contains the villages of ‘Woodbury, North I/Voodbury, Hotchkissville, and M inortown; has a savings-bank, Parker Academy, a weekly newspaper, and manufactures of woolen goods, cutlery, powder-flasks, and shot-pouches. In 1894 it had a grand list of $898,938. Pop. (1880) 2,149; (1890) 1,815. EDITOR or “ REPORTER.” VV00dbury: city (chartered in 1871); capital of Glouces- ter co., N. J .; on the Del. River and the West. Jersey rail- ways; 8 miles S. of Philadelphia (for location, see map of New Jersey, ref. 6-B). It contains 6 churches, 3 public schools, a widely known private school, public library with 5,000 volumes, and 2 national banks with combined capital of $200,000, and has a monthly and 3 weekly periodicals. The city has gas and electric-light plants, water-works, and manufactories of chemicals, glass, and pianos. It is con- nected with Philadelphia by steam and trolley lines, and is an important shipping-point for fruit, berries, and vegeta- bles. Pop. (1880) 2,298; (1890) 3,911; (1895) estimated, 4,400; with suburbs 7,000. EDITOR or “ Gnouonsrna COUNTY DEMOCRAT." W00dbury, DANIEL Prrrnmsz soldier and engineer; b. at New London, N. H., Dec. 16, 1812; graduated at U. S. Military Academy July 1, 1836, appointed second lieutenant. of artillery. Soon after transferred to the engineers, he was promoted captain 1853 and major 1861. At the out- break of the civil war, he was assigned to duty under Gen. _-John G. Barnard, and became henceforth associated in the arduous duties involved in providing for'the defense of the capital and in the engineering organization of the Army of the Potomac. As commander of the brigade of engineers he had immediate control of a large portion of the engineering operations in the siege of Yorktown and subsequent opera- tions before Richmond. In the memorable “ Seven Days,” and more especially in the engineering works by which the army was able to cross the White Oak Swamp and move to the James river, Gen. VVoodbury rendered conspicuous services. At the unfortunate battle of Fredericksburg his personal gallantry in throwing bridges across the Rappahannock won him the brevet of brigadier-general. Detailed for the im- portant command at Key \Vest Mar. 16, 1863, he fell a vic- tim to the yellow fever Aug. 15, 1864. Woodbury, GrEORGE EDWARD : author; b. at Beverly, Mass, May 12, 1855 ; graduated at Harvard College in 1877 : was Professor of English Literature in the Nebraska State University in 1877-78 and 1880-82, and was appointed to a similar position i11 Columbia College, New York, in 1892. Besides many papers in reviews and magazines, he has writ- ten aHt'story of Wood Eagmvziag (1883); Life of Eclgar Allan Poe (1885); and The A/‘orth Shore l'Vaz‘ch and oz‘/zer Poems (1890). In 1894 he published an edition of Shelley, and in 1895 an edition of Poe, i11 collaboration with E. C. Stedman. HENRY A. BEERS. lW00dbury, LEVI: jurist; b. at Francistown, N. H., Dec. ‘22, 1789; graduated at Dartmouth College with the highest honors of the class in 1809; was admitted to the bar, and began the practice of the law in his native town in 1812. He was an earnest Democrat, and zealously supported the war against Great Britain. In 1816 he was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of the State; in 1823 was elected Gov- ernor; in 1825 was elected Speaker of the House of Repre- sentatives of the State. and to the Senate of the U. S.; in May, 1831, was appointed Secretary of the Navy. and in 1834 Secretary of the Treasury, by President Jackson. and remained in the last-named office till the close of President V an Buren’s administration in 1841. when he was again elected to the Senate of the U. S. In 1845 he declined the mission to England, and was appointed a justice of the Su- preme Court of the U. S., and held that oflice until his wooD-oaavme 823 death, which occurred at Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 4, 1851. At the time of his death he was the candidate for the presi- dency upon whom all factions of his party had agreed. Wood-carving: sculpture in wood. Many kinds of wood afford excellent material for sculpture. Some hard and close-grained woods, such as box, holly, mahogany, pear, linden, and those of several Oriental trees, are fit for the most minute and delicate carving, whether in relief or in the round. Except on a small scale it is not necessary to seek for woods having an exceptionally fine grain. It is often found that the grain adds a charm to the work-—not merely the lines of the veining, as in the case of ivory, but even the open pores as they are cut across at difi"erent angles. Thus of all woods oak has been the most employed since the tenth century for all kinds of sculpture, and there is no wood so fit for it and so beautiful, as is shown in the stalls and con- fessionals of hundreds of churches throughout Europe; but oak, with all its tenacity, its beautiful grain, and the patina it takes from time and wear is a very open-grained wood. Chestnut is excellent, and is much used for coarser work. Walnut has been much used, especially for carved furniture and the like, and in the south of Europe. Sycamore wood, the use of which for large pieces of sculpture is traditional in Europe from the earliest times, seems to have been but little employed in the Middle Ages. The wood of the ancient acacia of some varieties is recognized as having been em- ployed in important sculptures of the earliest times. It is to be remembered that the beauty of the wood when finished was less thought of because sculpture in wood. like that of stone, was generally covered with painting and often in parts gilded. \Vood-carving in monumental tombs, in church fit- tings, and in elaborate furniture was indeed painted in bright colors down to the seventeenth century. VVood that is to be used for artistical carving should re- ceive a special treatment fitting it for its purpose and add- ing to its durability. One expedient much used in ancient times was smoking in wood smoke. This, of course, was not used until the wood was well seasoned. It is a custom, still observed in the few cases where delicate carving is to be done, to glue pieces of paper upon the ends of the piece of wood and covering the end grain; such wood may then be thoroughly dried even in hot rooms, without checking, the drying out of the sap taking place equally along the whole length of the wood and not rapidly at the ends. Most work- men of the best class have secrets for the preparation of wood: but the cost of fine work has become so great in modern times that it is very rare that a cabinet or a similar piece of furniture is undertaken with every precaution for the highest excellence of material and artistic completeness. The soft wood of the common coniferous trees lends itself well to carving on a large scale, and is particularly good for out-of-door work which is to be painted. These woods might equally well be used even where the surface is not to be painted, as may be seen in the curved and pierced panels of Japanese temples and dwelling-houses. Some of those panels are 3 inches or more thick. and are carved in animal and vegetable forms and with legendary subjects, even iuvolvin g the suggestion of landscape with mountains and clouds, the carving being carried deep into the wood so that parts of it are pierced through. The domestic architecture of India includes a great deal of efiective wood-carving, the pieces being often very large and covered with minute fiower and leaf sculpture. In this Indian work carving is used in ex- cess. all parts being equally covered with it. It is frequently painted in rich colors, but apparently rather for ornament than for preservation. The earliest piece of wood-carving which we know is also perhaps the earliest piece of sculpture known. This is the celebrated Egyptian statue called the Sheikh-el-Belcd or “village chief," so named by the natives when first dis- covered—the life-size statue of a short and stout man, apparently of sycamore wood. and dating from an epoch about 4.000 years B. o. A few other large pieces of Egyptian sculpture in wood are preserved, especially in the Boulak Museum, now removed to Gizeh. Wood—carving of the Greeks is not known, but it is certain that many of the sacred statues, regarded with great veneration throughout classical antiquity, were of wood. The type of the earliest stone statues seems to be that of the primitive wooden ones. and the term .roo.noa has been applied to the lost wooden proto- type and the earliest stone copy alike. Classical Roman sculpture in wood has also perished. There is, in fact. little hope of finding well-preserved wooden articles in tombs or 824 ween-mavnve otherwise buried in a climate and soil less dry than those of Egypt. The doors of the Church of St. Sabina at Rome have been thought to date from the fifth or sixth century, but this theory is now abandoned. It is with the later Middle Ages that the finest wood-carv- ing is associated. The stalls and other fittings of the choir in the Church of Ratzeburg, near Lubeck, those in Notre Dame de la Roche, near Paris, those of the Cathedral of Auch, and especially those of the Cathedral of Amiens, are specimens of the most admirable detailed carving of men and animals, foliage and the like, all combined in a semi- architectural design of great dignity and importance. The stalls were often crowned by high Gothic canopies, with tracery, gables, and pinnacles. The bishop’s chair and the reading-desk are parts upon which a great deal of detail was lavished. The carving of the arms of the stalls, the 7m'serc'- co/rcles or misereres under the seats and frequently of the ends of the benches, is often rich and varied, with incidents and character studies of wonderful vigor and truth of inter- pretation. _ Larger carvings were used for the wooden structural parts of churches and other buildings. Of these almost nothing remains except the English open timber roofs; and the ends of the hammer-beams in Westminster Hall, carved into angels holding shields, are good instances of the kind of work which was put upon such architectural members. The portable furniture of the same epoch, French, Ger- man, Italian, and English, though but few pieces remain, gives us an excellent example of elaborate carving used for the adornment of the simplest and most natural forms. The furniture-makers of the Middle Ages used only very simple methods of putting together the parts of their benches and tables, but decorated the members by skillful cutting away of the wood in picturesque curves where comparative thick- ness was not needed, and by carving of leafage and animals wherever their forms could be introduced as part of the general design. (See FURNITURE.) Wood-carving was used also for images of the sacred personages of Christian theol- ogy, both small and portable, and of large size in connec- tion with the altar, the rood screen, etc. The mediasval forms of church fittings were retained after the close of the epoch of Gothic architecture. The churches of the Renaissance and of the seventeenth century were fitted up with stalls, thrones, singing-desks, and the like, as elaborate as those of the Middle Ages, but of a different style. In the Church of Sta. Maria in Organo, in Verona, is an elaborate candelabrum, 15 feet high, for the Pascal candle; a reading-desk arranged with a double-revolving support for the service-book, and mounted on a pillar which rests upon a large base serving as a cupboard. for the storage of sacred articles; and choir-stalls of great beauty. All these are of walnut, and although much of the decoration is in- tarsz'atma, or inlaying of one wood in another (see INLAY- ING), many parts of the structure are elaborately carved. This is ascribed to Fra Giovanni da Verona, and is certainly of the years from 1480 to 1510. The stalls of Sta. Maria Gloriosa dei Frari at Venice are of the same epoch, though they retain a,Gothic feeling in some of their details; those of the Church of S. Zaccaria and of S. Stefano, both in Venice, St. Francis of Assisi, and of the Cathedral of Sienna contain wood-carving of the time of the Renaissance. In like manner the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris contains in the choir some beautiful wood-carving of the time of Louis XIV. The churches of Belgium contain high Wain- scoting and partitions of oak of the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries, decorated with twisted columns with elab- orately carved capitals and bases. In connection with these, confessionals, which structures were not treated as separate compositions in the Middle Ages, were made a part of the general design and often the most prominent feature in it. The pulpits in some of the churches in Belgium are of ex- cessive richness, with statues and groups representing bibli- cal scenes, the carving being not confined to the decoration of the surfaces of the structure, but free of it and occupying a large span on the floor. These extraordinary pulpits are of the eighteenth century, and represent a low ebb of taste in spite of their extreme richness and the evident skill of the workmen. In all the times and places of a free use of wood-carving, the art grows to be familiar and the mechanical process easy and rapid beyond the conception of those who have only seen it done to order in an inartistic and commercial com- munity. Thus in cities of France, where old traditions still partly remain undisturbed, very interesting and spirited WOOD—ENGRAVING carving in oak is done at a price surprisingly low, and yet done by men who are well-to-do citizens earning a good liv- ing. Some of these men have also a considerable knowledge of certain styles of art, and can do “Louis XIII.” or “Louis XV.” work without special study or preparation. In all this work it is noticeable how simply it is done; how few cuts, how few minutes have gone to the shaping of a leaf or a bunch of leaves. At present and especially in the U. S. the demand is generally restricted to very delicate and highly finished work. Moreover, there are fewer competent wood-carvers in a great city like New York than there are in many a French town of one-twentieth its size. RUSSELL STURGIS. W0odchat: the \Lcm't'us rutt'Z'us, a shrike of the Old W'orld which has a very wide geographical range. In South Africa it is called “magistrate bird,” from its habit of im- paling and hanging its victims. In some systematic trea- tises it is named Evmcoez‘on/as rufas, the “ red nine-killer,” from the belief that it kills nine victims before it begins to eat. Woodchuck, or G1'0l1ll(l-ll0g‘: the Aretomg/s menace, a large rodent mammal of North America, quite common in the eastern portions. It is about 18 inches long, and has a grizzled reddish-brown fur, which has a limited industrial use. The creature is very prolific, eats clover, young cab- bages, and beans, hibernates in cold weather, and is some- times used for food. It digs a deep burrow. See Sew- RIDE. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Woodcock : either of two different game-birds of the snipe family. The European woodcock (Scolopacc rus-z"£coZu., Linn.) ranges over the Eastern continent from Japan to the British isles, and attains a length of 14 inches, while the American bird (Phz'lolz.ela minor, Gray), which attains only 11 inches, is found abundantly in the Northern U. S. and in Canada. The plumage is a warm brown with gray and black markings. The eye is placed high up toward the hinder part of the head. Both are highly prized by epicures for the delicacy of their flesh. The food of the woodcock consists mostly of worms, which it obtains with extraordinary skill, thrusting its beak as far as the nostrils into the soft, moist earth. A tame woodcock has been seen to probe large turfs with its bill, and to draw out a worm at every thrust of the long slender beak. enables the bird to discover the worms beneath the surface. It moves about chiefly on misty days, and is said by experi- enced woodcock-shooters to prefer the northern side of a hill to the southern. It is a very silent bird, seldom utter- ing a cry except when first starting for its feeding-places, and hardly ever crying when flushed. The flight of the woodcock is wonderfully swift, although the wings do not appear to move very fast. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Wood-duck, or Summer-duck: the Ada; sponsa, one of the most beautiful members of the family of Amzz‘icZw, whose only congener is the still more beautiful mandarin duck (Aim galertcalatct) of China. Both of these have the bill shorter than the head, high at the base, where the upper lateral angle runs back much behind the lower edge, the nail very large and hooked, the lamellae broad and distant, the nostrils very large and open, the wing-coverts nearly as long as the feathers, and the tail truncate at the tip. The wood-duck has the head green, glossed with purple, with a line from the upper corner of the bill, one from behind the eye, and two bars on the side of the head confluent with the chin, and upper part of threat white, the jugulum and tail at sides purple, the under parts white, the sides yellowish, banded with black, and subterminally with white, the spec- ulum bluish green, the primaries silver white at tip, and the back uniform with various reflections. It is about 19 or 20 inches long. (B(1/Mel.) The species ranges over most of North America—in the warmer regions as a permanent resident, and in the northern as a summer migrant. It builds its nest generally in a hollow tree. Its eggs are smaller than a hen’s, and have surfaces like polished ivory. It is generally seen in pairs, and rarely in flocks of more than three or four. It feeds chiefly on acorns. the seeds of wild oats, and insects. The flesh is tolerably good food. Wood-engraving: the art of carving a smooth flat sur- face of wood in very low relief, so that a figure or pattern is left raised above the background no more than is suf- ficient to enable the whole to be used as a si amp or type for printing in ink upon paper. All other processes which might be called wood-engraving have disappeared, if they ever existed, and the use of the term is limited as above. It is thought that the sense of smell‘ WOOD-ENGRAVING In the modern practice of Europe and America the wood is always boxwood, and it is cut across the grain, so that the engraver has end-grain to work upon; but in Europe before the seventh century, and in Chma and Japan, the wood is used i11 planks cut in the usual way. A drawing being made upon the surface of the wood, or transferred to that surface by photographic process, as in recent times, the engraver cuts away the parts left white and leaves the darks. If, new, the engraver is asked to follow exactly lines that are drawn for him, no discretion being left to him, he requires mere technical skill and neatness of hand. This seems to have been the casein the famous wood-en- gravings of the sixteenth century, those by Albert Diirer and others, mentioned below, and also generally in China and in Japan. lVhen, however, the drawing has been made partly in tints, as in washes of India-ink and touches of white, the engraver has not a black line to leave standing while he cuts away around it, but a certain artistic effect to reproduce. Thus as the drawing offers him a surface of gray, darker in one part than in another, it is his duty to produce a similar effect by certain black lines or spots printed on white paper. He is compelled then to cut out such parts as in his judgment will leave the surface of the block such that ink printed from it on paper will produce the tint or the gradation needed. This is, of course, true artistic work. The artist is indeed a copyist or reproducer, but his duty is to copy in one art, viz., engraving, an effect produced by a very different art, viz., drawing with a lead pencil and camel’s-hair brush. Such wood-engraving as this is recognized as a very admirable fine art, and prints taken from the blocks engraved in this way are valuable works of art, and are loved and bought at high prices and carefully preserved. One important distinction is to be observed: the easiest and simplest way for a wood-engraver to work is to cut narrow grooves and little pits in the surface, which grooves and pits will come out white on a black ground when the impression is taken in ink on paper; the most difficult and the slowest way is to leave lines and points standing while he cuts away from around them. The latter must be the process used by the mere mechanical workman who fol- lows the lines set down for him, because this is the only way of reproducing those lines on the paper; but the artist working freely will choose the former. A wood-engraver of ability, working as he pleases, will then consider his wooden surface as a solid black space. out of which he is to get his work of art, made up of different grays and blacks and whites. He will work then in the whzife line, as it is called, very much as a student would draw in white chalk on a blackboard, making a careful drawing of a statue or bas- relief, putting in the lights, and leaving the black or gray ground for the darks. This is the peculiarity of the work of Thomas Bewick, W. J. Linton, Timothy Cole, Gustav Kruell, and the other able men belonging to the school of which those artists are chiefs. The Art in C'ht'na. and Japa»n.—It is generally thought that the Chinese were the first to .use wooden blocks with figures in relief for printing. The device is so obvious, however, that any one who might wish for a stamp to use instead of a signature would be apt to employ it. It seems probable that the first artistic use of it was Oriental, and Oriental scholars generally assume that such artistic work was done in China as early as the eighth or ninth century of our era. It spread at a very early date to Japan and Corea and perhaps to other Eastern nations. Fine and ar- tistic prints evidently made from wood blocks are known, the dates of which are fixed with some certainty as early as the fourteenth century A. D., but books printed from en- graved blocks of wood are known to be mucl1 earlier. These block books of Chinese make, the syllabic characters of which are engraved with great care and delicacy, date from the tenth century A. D. ; but these contain no illustrations. Japanese and Chinese wood-engraving of later dates is known to us by many excellent examples. Much of it is in outline, and the prints have been taken i11 black ink on white or nearly white paper, so that they appear like early European prints from wood blocks to have been intended for coloring by hand. The Japanese at an early date dis- covered a remarkable means to artistic effect in the free use of rather large patches of solid black. These black patches were, however, not the monotonous glossy silhouettes that they would be in European art. The peculiar paper used for the impressions and perhaps something in the grain of the wood caused the black surface to be filled with mi- 825 nute striations, and gave it great diversity. What is called local color in black and white drawing or printing—that is, the representation of the strength of natural colors by dark- er and lighter modifications of black and white—is treated with great freedom in these woodcuts. Thus in a picture where the murder of the hero by spears is the chief subject, his blood in large patches is given in solid black, whereas in other prints of the same period black is kept for ceremonial caps and the glossy hair of the personages, the lower parts of the horses’ legs, their manes and tails—in other words, for those parts which might easily be really black or very dark in nature. It is in color-printing, however. that the most extraordinary results have been reached in the Chinese and Japanese use of this art. It is late in its development, seeming not to have been in use before 1700 A. D., and is evidently imitated from the hand coloring of outline prints. The color is laid upon the block with great care and skill by hand, the gradations and breaking of the color being done upon the block and printed off at once upon the paper. Such prints resemble water-color drawings. They are of extraordinary merit, both expressional and decorative, and such prints when fine have been in eager demand in Europe and the U. S., though scarcely known to the West before 1875, the finest examples much more recently. In Em'0])e.—WTood-engraving in the \Vest begins in the fifteenth century. Cuts dated 1423 and 1418 have been thought the earliest artistic work, but a still earlier date has probably been established by Henri de Laborde. It is generally held that the first European wood-engraving was in BLOCK Booxs (Q. 1).), which would have preceded the purely artistic compositions made for separate printing: but Léon de Laborde has given excellent reasons for his belief that the earliest relief engraving for artistic purposes was done upon metal. It is certain. however. that block books exist which are as early as the beginning of the fif- teenth century. iude illustrations appear in these at a very early date, and the next step to be taken would seem to be obvious and inevitable. Before the close of the fif- teenth century woodcuts had been engraved in Italy, the prints from which exist in abundance and are of great beauty. They are generally in pure outline and of small size. They illustrate such books as early editions of Dante, the Leflers of S1‘. Jerome (1497), Ovid’s _l[ez‘amo21v7z0ses (1497). a translation of Vegetius’s Art‘ of lVar (1496), and the celebrated _Hypner0z‘0’n2ac72ia of Francisco Colonna (1499). By the middle of the sixteenth century wood-en- gravings of an elaborate kind were being produced in Ger- many and France as well as in Italy. Some of these are very large. The engravings in Albert Diirer’s Apocalypse. which were published early in the sixteenth century, those of the Life of the T"2.'rgz'22, and those of the Greater Passion, as it is called, are all large, the prints of the last-named se- ries about 11 by 15 inches. Prints as large appear in books of this period. Artists such as Lucas Cranach, Hans Schau- felin, and Hans Burgkmaier made the drawings for them, and it is often claimed for them, but probably without suf- ficient reason, that these artists engraved the blocks them- selves. The large prints from wood-engravings published in the sixteenth century were commonly, but not always, parts of books. Sometimes the title-page of a book not otherwise illustrated would be adorned with rich border and orna- mental lettering and coats-of-arms. Sometimes a frontis- piece would be inserted opposite the title-page. Tl1e1nrz'nz‘- er‘s *mm‘h—that is. the device or emblem of the printer and publisher—was often a decorative composition or a figure- subject with an ornamental border and a motto, and this print would come upon the title-page or at the close of the volume or elsewhere. Often, however. the book would be full of illustrations either of the full size of the page or in- serted in the text. Thus the Sc7zatzbehd'Zz‘er, a book of de- votion printed in Nuremberg in 1491 and containing ninety- five large pictures of Bible history, each about '7 by 10 inches actual size of print, was followed by a number of such books which succeeded each other all through the sixteenth cen- tury. In like manner the celebrated Vergil translated into German rhyming verse and published at Strassburg in 1502- has some pictures the full size of the page and others in the text, which among them tell the whole story of the xE2ze2'ul pictorially, and similar fantastic illustrations of ancient story and of history as understood in the Middle Ages were used in many books published throughout the century. These pictures were clearly intended for painting by hand. Many volumes remain to us in which all or a part of the 826 wooDEALL illustrations have been so painted, this having been done at the time or very soon after. Sometimes they have been col- ored very skillfully and with great elaboration, like original paintings, and touched with gold, the black outline wholly disappearing. Of all this early and facsimile engraving the most refined and delicate is perhaps that done by Hans Ltitzelburger, of Basel, who engraved I-Iolbein’s drawings of the Dance of Death, published in 1538 and frequently thereafter. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries color was used in a very guarded way by the printers of woodcuts in Italy and elsewhere. Two blocks or more were used, each block for a different shade. The resulting prints were called ch/iar0sc'zw'o prints, and these form a special branch of the art and study of wood-engraving. Some of these were very large. Thus John Baptist J ackson. an Englishman, pub- lished in 1742 a print after Titian’s Presenzfatzfon of the Vir- gin in the Temple, which print on three sheets of paper is exactly 4 feet long, one of the great ll’[ar/riage of Cana by Paul Veronese, which is made up of two parts each 17 by 23 inches, and many others; these being in three tints of brown or gray, the white paper showing through freely, and the colors being mingled with each other and with the white by the usual hatchings and dottings. THOMAS Bnwrcx (q. '0.) is the first engraver who made the engraving itself a fine art, as explained above. He used the white line with freedom and with great intelligence. The first collection of his prints is in the Select‘ Fables, pub- lished 1784, but those contained in the General Hisl()1'g/ of Qaaclrapecls (1790) are more important and have never been excelled in their peculiar merits. The engravers of the nineteenth century have not generally used the white line freely. Luke Clenell. a pupil of Bewick. is the chief of those in the early part of the century. Other able engrav- ers, such as IVilliam Harvey, Robert Branston, and John Thompson, though admirable artists in their way, scarcely ever used the freer and more artistic process. Of engravers of the latter half of the nineteenth century Stephane Pan- nemaker, a Belgian, has done wonderful work. Edward Evans is an English artist with great delicacy of touch, but generally producing rather mechanical drawings in a me- chanical wa.y. \Villiam J . Linton is probably the greatest wood-engraver since Bewick’s death, at once artist and technician. Henry Marsh, in his illustrations to Harris’s Insects 1/rjarious lo Vegetation (Boston, 1862), has produced artistic and individual engraving worthy of Ben/ick. Of the engravers who have done such admirable work for The Century and ]~Yarpe/".9 rllalr/azine, Cole and Kruell have been named above. William Kingsley should also be men- tioned. Sec )V. J . Linton, lVoocl Engraving: a Jlfannal of In- slrnclioii (London, 1884); John Jackson, A Treatise on I’V00(Z E’/2/grcz/ring, Historical and Practical (London, 1837 ; also an enlarged edition 1861); Henri de Laborde, La Gra- oare, Précis E'le'menlaire (Paris, 1882); Alfred de Lostalot, Les ProceTcle's cle la Graoare (Paris); Firmin Didot, Essai T;ypog7'aph/iqne ei B’b'Z)Z?,'0‘(/')’Cl]9/blqlle s/wr l’Hisloire (le la Gra- eare snr Bois (Paris, 1863). RUssELL S'1‘UR.ttIS. VV00dfttll, HENRY SAMPSON: editor; b. in London, Eng- land, 1739 ; was son of the proprietor of the London Pahlz'c A(lve7't1I.se7', and succeeded to the management of that paper, which he edited from 1760 to 1793, including the period during which the celebrated Letters of J nnins (see J UNIUS, LETTERs or) appeared in that paper (1769—'71); was prose- cuted and tried for their publication June, 1770; printed the standard edition of Janins in 1772, and became master of Stationers’ Hall 1797. D. at Chelsea, Dec. 12, 1805. He probably never knew the secret of J unius, though an argu- ment to the contrary has been alleged by the advocates of the Franciscan theory from the fact that he was a schoolfel- low of Philip Francis.—I-lis son GEORGE, b. about 1780, suc- ceeded to the business; brought out a famous edition of the Bible (4to, 1804) in which only one erratum has been de- tected, and employed Dr. John Mason Good to edit the Lot- ters of Jnnias (3 vols., 1812), whence that edition is usually called It/'ooel_7"all’s Jnnins, and is supposed to derive peculiar authority from the name of its publisher. In fact, however, the only real lVoorlfall’s Jnnias is the edition of 1772, and Good’s edition of 1812 is the most misleading of all from the fact that it includes a multitude of anonymous letters under different signatures culled from the columns of the Public Arlcerliser by Dr. Good, and attributed by him to J unius without any warrant. WOODPECKER Woodford, STEWART LYNDON, LL. D.: lawyer and sol- dier ; b. in New York city, Sept. 3, 1835 ; graduated at C0- lumbia College in 1854, and began the practice of law in his native city in 1857, l:le was assistant U. S. attorney at New York from Apr., 1861, to Aug., 1862, when he resigned and served three years in the U. S. army. He was appointed chief of staff to Maj.-Gen. Gilmore, commanding the depart- ment of the South; served in the Army of the Potomac; was military commandant of Charleston, S. C., was military governor of Savannah, Ga., and was breveted brigadier- general for service in the field and assigned to duty as of brevet rank. He was elected Lieutenant-Governor of New York in 1866, and in 1870 was the Republican candidate for Governor, but was defeated by John T. Hoffman. In 1872 he was sent to Congress from the third district of Brooklyn, but resigned in 1873, and in 1875 canvassed Ohio in joint de- bate with Thomas Ewing in behalf of a sound metallic cur- rency. From Jan., 1877, to Mar., 1883, he was U. S. attorney for New York. He is a trustee of Adelphi Academy, Brook- lyn, and of Cornell University. He has published several college and commencement literary addresses, and sundry pamphlets on legal, literary, and political subjects. He has practiced law in New York except when in the army. Revised by JAMES MERCER Wood Grouse : See CAI>ERcA1Lz1E. Woedllouseleez See 'l‘v'rLER, ALEXANDER FRASER. \V00d Ibis: See IBIS. IV00dla11(l: city; "apital of Yolo co., Cal.; on the South Pac. Co.’s railway; 20 miles N. of Sacramento, 86 miles N. E. of San Francisco (for location, see map of California, ref. 6—C). It contains a public high school, Academy of the Holy Rosary, and Hesperian College (Christian, organized in 1861), and has 4 State banks with combined capital of $1,468,600, 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers, and large in- terests in wheat, barley. and fruit-growing, wine-making, wool-growing, and stock-raising. Pop. (1880) 2,257; (1890) 3,069. Wood-louse: any one of various isopod crustaceans, of the genera Porcellio, ()niscns, A'rmaclillo, etc. They are otherwise called slaters. sow-bugs and pill-bugs. They in- habit moist places, rotten wood, cellars, etc., and are often found under stones. ‘W00d-llaplltha: See ME'rI-IYL ALco11oL. IW00d-Oil: a fine aromatic drying oil used in making varnish, in preventing insect ravages, in making litho- graphic ink, and in medicine as a cure for gonorrhoea. lt comes from Burma, and is produced by the Dz'pierot'ctr1)u.s tarbinalns and other trees. Woodpecker: a popular name for the birds of the fam- ily Piciclw, or, more strictly, of the sub-family P'1'c1'n(c. given on account of their habit of cutting, or pecking, into trees either in search of food or to build their nests. They have the outer (fourth) toe turned backward, bill compressed at the point to form a chisel, tail-feathers more or less still, strong, and pointed, except in the little birds of the genus Picnmnns (chiefly South American). where they are soft and rounded. The claws are strong, scales of the feet well de- veloped, both features connected with their climbing habits. The salivary glands are large, and the tongue usually very long, extensile, and barbed at the tip. Aside from these, the woodpeckers are mostly of moderate size, ranging from the great Mexican CCtfll])0]9lIil’ll8 im]9e'rial'z's, which is 22 inches long, to the little downy Picns ])tlZ)68C8’Il/8 of 6 inches. Though not, as a rule. bright-colored birds, many species have a plumage which is striking from its sharp contrasts of black and white, heightened by the red, crescent-shaped nape-mark. Some species have conspicuous crests, and others, like the flickers of North America Cola_ptes aau-alas a.nd U. cafer, have considerable red or yellow about them; but this is so blended as not to be glaring. \Voodpeckers live largely on ants, grubs, and other insects, as well as on fruit and vegetable food. The tongues of the majority of species form effective spears for impaling wood-borin g grubs, whose burrows are cut into by the strong bill. In other spe- cies, like the flicker. the tongue is used for probing ant-hills, or picking these insects from the ground, being plentifully besmeared with sticky saliva. The sapsuckers, Sp/z.yrapic'us, have comparatively short and brushy tongues. (See SAP- SUCKER.) The California woodpecker, Jlilelaneifpes fo9'mici'u- orns, stores up acorns in holes cut into dead branches, and scores may be seen imbedded in one limb. A woodpecker‘s eggs are six to nine in number, white, glossy, and translucent. \/VOOD-RAT There are between 250 and 300 species of woodpeckers, dis- tributed over the greater portion of the globe. save Mada- gascar and the Australian region, except Celebes and Flores. About half this number are American, and twenty-two spe- cies and thirteen sub-species occur in the U. S. One of these, the ivory-billed Woodpecker, (Ice/npoplvr'las prineipalis, is in some danger of being exterminated, being limited to the wilder parts of Florida in the East. although still found sparingly in some parts of the Southwest. F. A. LUCAS. Wood-rat: See RAT. Woodrow, Janus, Ph. D., M. D., D.D., LL. D.: educator; b. at Carlisle, England, May 30, 1828 ; was educated at J effer- son College, Ca nonsburg, Pa.. Lawrence Scientific School, and Heidelberg; Professor of Natural Science in Oglethorpe University, Ga., 1853-61, where he privately pursued a full theological course, and was ordained into the Presbyterian Church South in 1860; Perkins Professor of Natural Science in connection with Revelation in the Presbyterian Theolog- ical Seminary, Columbia, S. C., 1_861-84, when he was re- moved for views expressed in a public address on EL-olatziovz; reinstated in 1885, and ceased to act in 1886; Professor of Science in South Carolina College 1869-72; in South Caro- lina University 1880-91 ; and since 1891 president of South Carolina College. Dr. Viloodrow has been editor of The Southern Presbg/telrian Reodezo 1861-85, of The Souflzern Presbyterian since 1865; and has published many review articles, such as Geology and /its Ass-a.z'Za2z,2‘s (1862); An. Ew- ame'natz'on of Ce?'tat'n Recent Assaults on Physieal Science (1873) ; and A Furtlaer E.z;arm'naz‘ion (1874). C. K. Herr. Vvoodruff : the Asperala odorafa. a favorite herb of the European peasants, belonging to the family Ruln'aeerr. It has. when dry, a pleasant odor, somewhat like that of the Ton- quin bean or sweet clover. The Germans put it into their May-drink (1l[az'zfra'nl1) and into home-made beer. In Amer- ica Galiwm I‘r1I]‘lo2'a2n, a related plant with a similar smell, is used as a substitute. ‘V006-rush: See LUZULA. Woods, LEONARD, D. D.: professor of theology; b. at Princeton, Mass., June 19, 1774; graduated at Harvard 1796; studied theology; was ordained pastor of the Congre- gational church at West N ewbury 17 98; took an active part in the Unitarian controversy, vindicating "orthodox Cal- vinism” against Drs. IVare, Buckminster, and Channing; was prominent in the organization and management of tract, education, temperance, and foreign missions societies: was Professor of Theology in Andover Seminary from its establishment in 1807 until 1846, and emeritus professor from that time until his death Aug. 24, 1854. Among his works were Leflfers to Ua1I1‘aria12.s (Andover, 1820): Reply to D7‘. ll’are's Letters to T2-£nz'ta/'z‘r‘l-22$ (18.21); Lectures on the Ins]n'ratz'on of the Serz.'ptures (1829): Letters to Rev. TV. W. Taylor (1830); fllemoirs of Azlzerlerzlz iI[£ss1'o12arz'es (1833) ; An E.ranzz7mz‘ion of the Doclrin/e of Per_fem‘z'o/1. etc. (1841); Reply to .ll[7'. llfalzmz, on [he Doehzizze of Perfem‘z'on (1841); and Lectures on Szredenborgz'anz'sm (18-16). A col- lective edition of his l/Vorlos appeared at Andover (5 vols., 1849-50; 4th ed. 1860). Revised by G. P. FISHER. Woods, WILLIAM BURNHAM: soldier and jurist; b. at Newark, O., Aug. 3, 1824; educated at IVestern Reserve College and at Yale, where he graduated 1845; was admit- ted to the Ohio bar in 1847 ; was elected mayor of Newark, O., in 1856 and 1857; served two terms in the Ohio House of Representatives as a Democrat, and became Speaker of the body; in Sept., 1861, was commissioned lieutenant-colo- nel of Seventy-sixth Ohio Infantry: was engaged in many battles during the civil war, and became brigadier-general and brevet major-general: removed to .~\laba-ma after the war, and became a chancellor of that State in 1867, and U. S. circuit judge in 1869; in 1877 removed to Atlanta. Ga., and on Dec. 21, 1880, was commissioned associate jus- tice of U. S. Supreme Court. D. at Washington. D. C., May 14, 1887. Wood’s Halfpenee: copper currency coined in Ireland by William \Vood in accordance with a grant made in 1722, giving him a share of the profits from the difference be- tween the nominal and bullion value of the coins. A por- tion of these profits also went to the king‘s mistress, the Duchess of Kendal. Swift attacked the system in his famous Drapr'er‘s Letlers, with the effect of stirring the public in- dignation and causing the cancelation of the patent. Woods Holl (formerly ll’ood‘s Ilole): village; Falmouth town, Barnstable co., Mass.; on Buzzard‘s Bay, Vineyard woonsrows 827 Sound, and at the terminus of the ¥Voods Holl Branch of the Old Colony Division of the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Rail- road; 7 miles N. IV. of Cottage City, on Martha’s Vineyard, and 72 miles S. E. of Boston (for location. see map of Massa- chusetts, ref. 5-J). It has long been noted as a harbor of refuge for shipping, and contains one of the most important stations of the U.S. fish commission for the propagation of cod, scup, sea-bass, lobsters, and other food-fishes. The lower floor of the main building contains fish-hatching jars and tanks, while the upper floors are devoted to the scientific study of all problems connected with the fisheries. Oppo- site the main building is a thoroughly equipped marine biological laboratory, supplied with tanks of running sea- water, and having a technical library and a lecture-room. In 1895 there were fifteen instructors and 188 students and investigators at the station. The U. S. Government owns a plot of land with a shore-line of over one-third of a mile. Pop. of village (1880) 508; (1890) not reported. J . S. K. Wood-sorrel: See OXALIS. Wood-spirit, or Wood-naphtha: See METHYL ALCOHOL. Woodstock: port of entry; capital of Carleton County, New Brunswick; on Canadian Pacific Railway; on the river St. J ohn, which is navigable at high and medium stages of water (see map of Quebec, ref. 5—G). It is 12 miles E. of Houlton, Me., and is in a fertile region. Red haematite iron ore, charged with manganese, and making a prized variety of steel, was formerly mined here, but the mine is abandoned. Pop. 3.000. Woodstock: port of entry and railway center: capital of Oxford County, Ontario. Canada; 28 miles E. N. E. of London, and on the river Thames and Cedar creek, which affords water-power (see map of Ontario, ref. 5—C). It is well built, and situated in a healthful and fertile region. It has a large trade in wheat and flour. Pop. (1891) 8.610. Woodstock: town (incorporated as a part of Massa- chusetts in 1690, annexed to Connecticut in 1749); YVind- ham co., Conn.: 5 miles N. IV. of Putnam, 41 miles E. of Hartford (for location, see map of Connecticut. ref. 7-K). It contains the villages of Woodstock. North \Voodstock, South IVoodstock, Past I\'oodstock, \Vest \Voodstock, and \Voodstock Valley; has an academy and a public library; and is principally engaged in agriculture‘ and the manufac- ture of cotton twine. Pop. (1880) 2,639 ; (1890) 2,309. Woodstock: city; capital of Mel-Ienry co., Ill.; on the Chi. and N. IV. Railway; 32 miles E. of Rockford, 51 miles N. of Chicago (for location, see map of Illinois, ref. 1—F). It is in an agricultural and dairying region; contains 6 churches, city-hall that cost $30,000. water-works plant that cost 821,000. the Todd Seminary for boys. public library, pickling and canning works. several mills, a State bank with capital of 8.25.000. and a private bank; and has 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,475; (1890) 1,683; (1895) esti- mated, 2,2-00. EDITOR or " SE.\'TI.\’EL.” Woodstock; town: capital of Windsor co., Vt; on the Ottaquechee river. and the \Voodstock Railway ; 40 miles S. of Montpelier (for location, see map of Vermont, ref. 7-C). It is in an agricultural region; contains the villages of II/'oodstock. South \Voodstock, \Vest \Voodstock, and Tafts- ville; and has 6 churches, high school, the Norman \Yill- iams Public Library (founded in 1885), a national bank with capital of $300,000. a savings-bank. 3 hotels. 2 weekly newspapers, and manufactories of butter and cheese. car- riages and sleighs, lumber, soap, hay-rakes, and doors. sash. and blinds. Pop. (1880) 2.815; (1890) 2.545; \Voodstock village (1880) 1,266; (1890) 1,218: (1895) estimated, 1,240. Enrroa or ~‘\*ER.uo.\'r STANDARD." Woodstock : town (laid out in 1762) ; capital of Shenan- doah co., Va: on the north branch of the Shenandoah river. and on the Balt. and Ohio Railroad : 100 miles IV. of \Vashington, D. C., 160 miles N. TV. of Richmond (for loca- tion, see 1nap of Virginia. ref. 4-G). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and has eight churches, separate public schools for white and colored children. several pri- vate schools, a number of inanufa-ctories, a State bank with capital of 841,500. and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,000; (1890) 1,068; (1895) estimated. 1,200. Emroa or " SJIENANDOAH HERALD." Woodstown: borough ; Salem co., N. J. ; 10 miles N. E. of Salem, 25 miles S. of Philadelphia (for location, see map of New Jersey, ref. 6—B). It is in an agricultural and marl region, and has a public library (founded in 1858), a 828 WOOD-SWALLOWS Friends’ academy, a national bank with capital of $75,000, extensive canneries, manufactories of shirts and agricultural implements, and a weekly paper. Pop. (1880) 490; (1890) 1,556 ; (1895) 1,470. EDITOR or “ MoNi'roR-REc1s'rEa.” lVood—SWalloWS, or Swift Shrikes: a group of birds slighly resembling swallows in habits and appearance, but belonging to the sub-family Artamidre. In the East Indies and Australia they abound. The Artamus sordidus, an Australian species, has the habit of forming clusters like those formed by honey-bees on their hives, the whole flock clinging together, and sometimes forming a mass as large as a bushel basket. They eat insects and seeds, and are somewhat migratory in their habits, arriving in and leav- ing Van Diemen’s Land at regular intervals, and making a partial migration on the Australian continent. Some indi- viduals, however, remain in the same country throughout the year, as they find abundance of food without repair- ing to another climate. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Wood-thrush: See Trmusn. W00d“’ard, BERNARD BOLINGBROKE, F. S. A.: archaeolo- gist and historian; son of Samuel Woodward (1789-1838), author; b. at Norwich, England, May 2, 1816 ; studied the- ology in the Independent College at Highbury, near Lon- don; took his degree of B. A. at London University 1841; was settled in 1843 as minister of a Congregational church at ‘Wortwell, Norfolk; assisted the printer John Childs in some of his large undertakings, especially in preparing a new edition of James Barclay’s Universal English Diction- ary (1848); settled in London as a professional man of letters 1849; wrote a History of lVales (2 vols., 1850-52); completed a History of the United States of 1Vorth Amer- ica to the End of the Administration of President Polh (3 vols., 1855), which had been begun by William Henry Bart- lett; was coeditor (with John Morris and VV. Hughes) of Maunder’s Treasury of Knowledge (1859) ; wrote several ad- mirable works for the young, including First Lessons on the English Reformation (1857) ; was appointed librarian in or- dinary to Queen Victoria and keeper of the prints and draw- ings at \Vindsor Castle 1860 ; edited a H istorg of I-Ia/mpshire (1859-62) ; founded the Fine Arts Quarterly Review (1863) ; translated Elisée Reclus’s The Earth and The Ocean, Atmos- phere, and Life; and was actively engaged upon his chief work, The Encgclopaedia of Chronology (completed by VV. L. R. Cates, 1872), when he died at London. Oct. 12, 1869. Revised by HENRY A. BEERS. Woodward, J osnrn J ANVIER, M. D. : surgeon ; b. in Philadelphia, Oct. 30, 1833; was educated in the Central High School of that city ; studied medicine in the University of Pennsylvania, and graduated in 1853. He practiced medicine in Philadelphia until 1861, when he was appointed assistant surgeon in the regular army, and in 1876 he was made surgeon of the army with rank of colonel. He early attracted attention by his treatises on the use of the micro- scope in the practice of medicine, and subsequently he was regarded as one of the leading authorities on medical mi- croscopy. He invented an instrument by which myopia or other conditions of the eye can be determined with mathe- matical accuracy. Among his published works were Remarks on Croup and Diphtheria; Tgpho-ltlalarial Fever; Pho- tographic llTi07”0’)’)l6l7"l ; Application of Photograph/g to _/lficrometrg, with Special Reference to the JP! icrometry of the Blood in Criminal Cases; Outlines of the Chief Camp Diseases of the United States Armies (Philadelphia, 1863) ; and The ilfedical and Surgical I-Iistorg of the War of the Rebellion (2 vols., \Vashington, 1870-79). D. in Philadel- phia, Aug. 18, 1884. Revised by S. T. Aausraone. Woodward, ROBERT Srurson, Ph. D. : physicist and mathematician; b. at Rochester, Mich., July 21, 1849 ; edu- cated at University of Michigan; assistant engineer U. S. lake survey 1872-82; astronomer U. S. transit of Venus commission 1882-84; astronomer U. S. Geological Survey 1884-90; assistant U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 1890- 93; Professor of l\Iechanics, Columbia College, New York, from 1893; chairman of section of astronomy and mathe- matics of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 1889. Prof. \Voodward’s chief contributions to science have been in the field of precise mensuration, geod- esy, the physics of the earth, physical astronomy, and pure mathematics. Among his published papers are Re- sults of Eo;periments to Determine the Variation in Lengths of Certain Bars at the Ternperature of .Melting Joe (Am. Jonr. Science, 1883); On the Free Cooling of a VVOOL AND WOOLEN MANUFACTURES Homogeneous Sphere (Ann. Jllathematics. 1887) ; On the Conditioned Cooling and Oubical Contraction of a Homo- geneous Sphere (Ann. lllathematics, 1887); On the Form and Position of the Sea Level (Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 48, 1888); On the Diflusion of Heat in Ifomogeneous Rec- tangular lllasses, with special reference to Bars used as Standards of Length (Ann. ]l.’[athematics, 1888) ; The Jllathematical Theories of the Earth (Am. Jour. Science and elsewhere, 1889) : The Iced Bar and Taped Base Apparatus, and Results of flfeasures made with them on the Holton and St. Albans Bases (hept. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1892); Mechanical Interpretation of the Variations of Latitudes (Astron. Jour., 1895). G. K. G Woodwaxen, 01-Woadwaxen: See Dvnas’ Bacon. Woodwortll, SAMUEL: poet; b. at Scituate, Mass., Jan. 13, 1785: served an apprenticeship as a printer in the office of Russell’s Columbian Centinel; edited and printed a short-lived weekly paper at New Haven, Conn., 1807 ; settled in New York 1809; conducted during the war of 1812-15 a weekly paper, The I/Var, and a monthly Swedenborgian magazine, The Halcyon Luminary, both unsuccessful: wrote a romantic history of the war entitled The Champions of Freedom (2 vols., 1816); published a small volume of poems 1818, and another 1826; was one of the founders of the N ere Y orh flfirror 1823-24; edited the Parthenon 1827. and wrote a number of dramatic pieces. D. in New York, Dec 9, 1842. His Poetical lVor/es appeared in 2 vols. (1861), with a ]L[emoir by George P. Morris. He is chiefly remembered by his song, The Old Oalcen Buchet. Woody Nightshade: See BITTER-SWEET. VVOOI, JOHN ELLIS: soldier; b. at Newburg, N. Y., Feb. 20, 1784; after engaging in the book business for a time in Troy, the destruction of his stock by fire led to his turning his attention to the study of law, which he abandoned in Apr., 1812, to accept a commission in the army as captain of the Thirteenth Infantry. He distinguished himself in the war of 1812, and in 1816 was appointed inspector-general with the rank of colonel, which position he retained until June 25, 1841, when appointed a brigadier—general, to which rank he had been breveted in 1826. In the war with M exico he superintended the organization of ‘Western volunteers, and after dispatching some 12,000 to the seat of war, conducted himself a force of 3,000 on the march from San Antonio to Saltillo, a distance of 900 miles, where he joined the army of Gen. Taylor as second in command. At Buena Vista, before the arrival of Taylor, he was in command during the early part of the day, and had made the disposition of the troops for the battle, which was approved of by Taylor on his arrival. After Taylor’s return to the States, VVool rema_ined in com- mand of the army of occupation until the close of the war. For his services at Buena Vista he was breveted major- general Feb. 23, 1847, and in 1854 Congress passed a joint resolution of thanks and presented him with a sword for his Mexican services. The State of New York also presented him with a sword. Returning East in July, 1848, he com- manded the eastern military division until 1853, the depart- ment of the East 1853-54, that of the Pacific 1854-57, when again in command of the Eastern department until 1860. In Aug., 1861, he was placed in command at Fort Monroe, Va., and in May, 1862, occupied Norfolk and Portsmouth. He was promoted to be major-general May 16, 1862; was in June placed in command of the middle military department, including the Eighth Army-corps ; transferred to New York J an., 1863, he commanded the department of the East until July 15, when relieved, and Aug. 1, 1863, was placed on the retired list. D. at Troy, N. Y., Nov. 10, 1869. Wool and Woolen Manufaetures [wool is 0. Eng. null : Ger. /wulle 2 Goth. wulla; cf. Lat. ldna, Gr. M51/os, Lith. oilna, O. Bulg. /vlrlna] : strictly, the covering or fleece of the sheep, and the processes by which it is converted into tex- tile and other fabrics. The term wool, however, has been extended to include the hair of the angora, cashmere, and other goats, the hairy fleece of the alpaca, vicuna, and other species of the llama, the soft down from the belly of the- camel, several kinds of fur which are spun and woven, and even cow’s hair, which is made up into a cheap quality of woolen goods. \Vool proper may be distinguished from all these varieties of hair, as well as from all vegetable fibers, by the corrugated character of its fibers and by its ~iroperty of felting, which is due to the epithelial scales which overlap each other along the course of its fibers, and which, under certain conditions, from their corrugation, interlock with WOOL AND WOOLEN MANUFACTURES each other and form a felted fabric. (See FELT.) The aver- age number of these epithelial scales or serrations per linear inch varies greatly in different breeds of wool. The larger numbers improve the elasticity and the felting property in like proportion. East India wool has 1,000 scales per inch; common domestic, 1,400; Leicester, 1,400; merino, 2,000; Saxony, 2,200. The average size of the fiber varies, and al- most inversely to the above proportion. East India meas- ures -nl)-;;tl1 of an inch; common domestic, ,—1i0~Uth; merino, T-,3-0—(;tl1; Saxony, E-(,1-myth. Hair possesses very little of this felting property, but by long beating and rubbing develops it to some extent. The primitive sheep was covered with long hair, the rudiments of the present fleece being an undercov- ering or down. This hair was bred out, and the wool was left. If sheep are neglected now, or become very old, they will revert to this habit by growing hairs among their wool. Sheep formed a large part of the wealth of the Oriental na- tions, particularly of those which were more or less nomadic in their habits; and as these were kept very largely for food. .though shorn every year, it is remarkable that in the absence of any special efforts to improve the character of their wool it should have retained its good qualities to such an extent as to enable those nations with their rude processes to have produced fabrics of such delicate and exquisitely fine texture as issued from their looms. The first attempts to improve the breeds of sheep with special reference to the production of a finer quality of wool were made by the Romans about the second century B. c. Their Tarrentine sheep produced a long and finely stapled wool, and their fleeces were very heavy, but the color was either brown or black, and the sheep was so delicate in con- stitution that they were reared with difliculty, and were kept covered even in the mild climate of Italy. Oolumella relates in his De re rust‘z'ca that his uncle, Marcus Columella, who was a wealthy agriculturist in Spain, transported some white African rams of great size and beauty to his estate in Bzetica, and by continually crossing them with his Tarren- tine ewes and their progeny succeeded in producing a breed of white fine-wooled sheep of vigorous and hardy constitu- tion and yielding a heavy fleece. This cross is supposed by many to have been the original of the Spanish merino sheep, which, with its various modifications and crossings, has been the parent of most of the fine-wooled sheep of Europe and America. It was renewed by Pedro IV. of Castile iii the middle of the fourteenth century, and probably from Afri- ca, and again with Barbary rams in the sixteenth century by Cardinal Ximenez. Its transportation to France and careful improvement there have led to the production of the French merino, one of the finest of the long-wool breeds. Its introduction into Germany, and modification by cross- ing and by climatic influences, have produced the fine Saxon wools, adapted to the making of the best broadcloths; and the French sheep of Naz, which yields a more silky wool of great luster, though now a distinct breed, bears traces of its early merino origin. In the U. S. the Spanish merino, introduced by Delessert, Livingston, Col. Hum- .phreys, and I/Villiam Jarvis between 1801 and 1812, has ex- erted a wide influence, and, together with the Saxony sheep, the sheep of Naz, and the French merino, constitutes to this day the largest proportion of those flocks which are bred mainly for their wool. The Australian and Cape Colony wools are also la.rgely indebted to the merino sheep for their good qualities. The greatly increased demand for mutton has led to the breeding of sheep which have larger food-producing value, and with which the wool is an inci- dental rather than the principal product. The Leicester. Cotswold, South Down, Hampshire Down, and Oxford Down among the English sheep are the best of this class, while the undistinguished breeds of South America have some of the same characteristics. The large flocks of the \Vestern States and the Pacific coast are American merinos. These all yield .a portion of medium and coarse wools, and while the best grades are valuable for the worsted manufacture, the coarser are equally in demand for carpets, friezes, and the lower grades of goods for men‘s wear. \Vool is divided primarily into pulled and clipped or fleece wools, the former being pulled by the roots from the pelt or skin of the dead animal, and the latter clipped or shorn from the living one. The clipped or fleece wools form the greater part of the wool in market, and these are again divided into long and short staple, or combing and clothing wools. The clothing wools are used mainly for broadclot-hs and the thicker woolen cloths ; the finer combing wools for .soft and thin fabrics for women's wear; the medium for 829 worsted goods, delaines, alpacas, mohairs, etc. ; and the coarser for carpets, blankets, and coarse goods generally. The quantity of wool grown has increased very rapidly dur- ing the nineteenth century, especially in Europe, America, Australia, and Southern Africa. The increase in quantity in Europe and America has been largely due to improved methods of breeding and feeding the sheep, which caused them to mature earlier and to yield larger and more uni- form fleeces. Horned Dorsets are the most prized for the production of hot-house or winter lambs. The increase in the consumption of wool in Great Britain has been enor- mous, and the production has increased. In 1801 the wool- clip of the United Kingdom amounted to 94,000,000 lb., and the imports of unmanufactured wool to 8.000.000 lb. more. In 1828 the production was about 112,000,000 lb., and the imports in round numbers 30.000,000. In 1873 the produc- tion was 165,000,000 lb., and the imports 324,000,000, of which 123,000,000 was re-exported. In 1883 the production was 128,000,000 lb., and the imports 508,000,000, of which 277,000,000 was re-exported. In 1892 the production was 153,000,000 lb., and the imports 762,000,000, of which 332,- 000,000 was re-exported. Large quantities of shoddy, wool extract, and mungo were also consumed. The wool produc- tion of France has increased almost as rapidly as that of Great Britain, though mainly in the finer descriptions of wool; but it is now decreasing. France imports also considerable quantities of fine wools from other countries. The Aus- tralian colony of New South I/Vales alone exported in 1893 344,982,876 lb. of wool. Australasia produces the best wool in the world for fine combing purposes. In the U. S. the demands for wool for home manufactures have immensely increased the production, while the amount imported was nearly 55,000,000 lb. in 187 5, 67,7 68,77 8 lb. in 1885, and 172,- 435,838 lb. for the year ending June 30, 1893. Importation consists of the merino wools of Australia, the Leicester and other combing wools of high luster for worsted goods, from Canada and Great Britain, and the coarse long-stapled wools from Asia, Russia, and South America for carpets, etc. In 1810 the wool produced in the U. S. was estimated at 13,000,- 000 lb.; 1880, 264,000,000 lb.; 1890, 309,474,856 1b.: 1891, 307,101,507 lb. These figures are those of James Lynch, con- tinued by Mr. Truitt. In 1840 the average weight of the fleece, as estimated by the Department of Agriculture, was 19 1b.; 1850. 24 lb. ; 1860. 2'7 lb.; 1870,35 lb.; 1880,48 lb.; 1891, 55 lb. The scoured wool produced by the growth of 1891 was rated at 139,326,703 lb. The Department of Agricul- ture estimated the growth for 1891 at 285,000,000 1b.; the imports at 129,303,648 1b.; total consumption after deduct- ing exports, 411.37 3,603 lb. The percentage of imports was 302 per cent., and in 1890 it was 276 per cent. The per- centage has varied from 21"? percent. in 1840 to 449 per cent. in 1872, the highest point ever reached. It dropped to 156 per cent. i11 1879, the lowest point. It was 299 per cent. in 1886. The consumption of wool per capz'ta in the U. S. was 449 lb. in 1840. It increased steadily. and was 852 lb. in 1880 and 9'07 lb. in 1890. The world's supply was 955,000,000 lb. in 1860 and 2,456,773,600 lb. in 1890. The latter quantity was distributed as follows: United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Continent of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Australasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Southern Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128,681,600 “ River Plate country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37 6,700,000 “ Other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 294,900,000 “ 2,456,773,600 lb. The principal European markets for wool are at London and Antwerp. At London periodical auction sales of British colonial wools are held. and are attended by buyers from all manui'acturing countries. At Antwerp the bulk of the wools from the important River Plate country is disposed of. Il'o0Zcn Jlmzufacz‘wres.—Tl1e manufacture of wool into fabrics for clothing is one of the oldest industries. At a very early date the primitive man, or rather the primitive woman, discovered that the coarse wool of the sheep, the first of do- mesticated animals. could be spun into long threads, woven, and then, by rubbing with clay and beating in water, thick- ened or fulled till it furnished a satisfactory substitute for the pelts of the sheep, which had till then formed the cloth- ing of man. From these rude garments the transition to those of finer and more skillful workmanship, such, for in- stance, as are shown on ancient Egyptian monuments, was gradual, and must have required long periods of develop- ment. The production of dyed garments, of shawls, and 147,475,000 lb. 639,917,000 “ 319,100,000 “ 550,000,000 “ 880 of carpets, often of elaborate patterns and requiring pro- tracted labor, was attempted at a very early period, and the manufacture of tent and curtain cloths, of tapestry hangings embroidered with needlework, and of those vest- n1ents of lamb’s wool and the rich imperial robes of Tyr- ian purple came somewhat later. Some of the Persian, Greek, and Roman cloths, robes, and shawls must have been very beautiful; but in the ages which followed the down- fall of the \Vestern Roman empire the art of manufacturing them, like most of the fine arts, was nearly lost; the says and scrges of the l\Iiddle Ages were made from coarse and harsh wools. The rough friezes, made of still coarser wool in Friesland, were still more objectionable, and the manufacture, such as it was. existed mainly in Florence, in Flanders, in England, and in France. After the thir- teenth or fourteenth century silks, sa-tins, and velvets be- came the favorite and distinguishing clothing of the wealthy. Until after the period of the Reformation the manufacture of woolen goods was almost entirely domestic; the large spinning-wheel and the reel had indeed taken the place of the distatf: and the hand-loom, gradually improved, of the rude contrivances of the Oriental weavers. Among the thousands engaged in this domestic manufacture, some pos- sessed greater manual skill and higher ingenuity than others, and consequently their cloths were more in demand; and the assembling of their looms and spinning-wheels in a single building gave them some advantages. The dyeing and falling of the cloths was a separate business, and for this a water-power was required, and so fulling-mills sprang up wherever there were considerable quantities of cloths made. The use of the teasel for combing out a nap on the fulled cloths dates from an unknown antiquity. There were frauds in those days stretching of the goods and the ex- travagant use of flocks. Floclcs are shorn fibers or the nap cut from the face of one piece of cloth, then fulled into the back of another piece. If judiciously used, they im- prove the fabric, as they not only increase the bulk, but re- tard the whole felting process, and thus render the cloth firmer. From the end of the thirteenth to the end of the seventeenth century this domestic manufacture of worsteds, baizes, kerseys, serges, friezes, broadcloths, and other cloths was carried on very extensively in England, and considera- ble quantities of each were exported. The English cloths were mainly of coarse qualities, and inferior to some of those made on the Continent, the Spanish and Flemish fine wools enabling them to make finer and more desirable goods. In the eighteenth century the manufacture of both worsteds and woolens began to be concentrated in Yorkshire, and Leeds, Stroud, Ohippenham, and Huddersfield gradually became the seats of the woolen goods manufacture; while Bradford, Halifax, Norwich, and their vicinities absorbed the manufacture of worsted goods and carpets. But, though large quantities of goods were made and sold, their quality was far from uniform, and there was no im- provement in the processes of manufacture until the inven- tion of the carding-machine, which first came into use for wool in England about 1753, and the SPINNING-JENNY (q. 1).). The gradual introduction of these macl1ines, and the appli- cation of steam both as a motor and for dyeing and dressing purposes, greatly improved the character of the English and French cloths, but until the introduction of the power-loom (which, though invented in 1785, did not come into general use till about 1800) and the Jacquard loom (invented in 1811), the woolen and worsted manufactures had not received their greatest impulse in Great Britain. The French manufac- turers were moving meanwhile in a somewhat different direction. With their fine and soft wools they directed their attention very largely to the production of fabrics for women’s wear, and with their admirable taste and delicacy of workmanship soon achieved great success. The French merino goods, introduced by Pallotan at Rheims in 1801, have never been surpassed by any all-wool product in soft- ness, durability, and beauty. Other goods, both of wool and worsted, pure and in combination with silk, cotton, and linen, have been produced in vast quantities in England and France. The broadcloths of the highest grade made in France are of better quality than any others, except some of the west of England goods; but the practice of adulterat- ing these, as well as eassimeres, satinets, and indeed almost every description of the heavier wool goods, with shoddy or the ground and picked fibers of old woolen rags, first under- taken in 1813 at Batley, England, but not largely used till 1840, has done much to impair the value and durability of .the lower and medium priced goods. This practice has WOOL AND WOOLEN MANUFAOTURES been carried to a greater excess in Great Britain and Bel- gium than elsewhere. The modern shoddy is fiber of yarns or threads picked and broken into the semblance of wool. Jlfititg/0 is the fiber of felted rags thus picked. Both these articles, being mixed with wool, are carded and spun; they are never fulled or carried into the fabric like flocks. In the U. S. the manufacture of woolen goods was almost entirely domestic as late as 1790, and though there had been fulling-mills from the first settlement of the colonies, there was no woolen-factory in successful operation before 1794, when one was established in Byfield parish, Newbury, M ass. An attempt had been made at I-lartford in 1788. In 1794 the first carding-machine for wool was put in operation in Pittsfield, Mass. Between that time and 1801 four or five were started. Gray-mixed broadcloth of good quality was made at Pittsfield in 1804, and President l\Iadison’s inaug- ural suit of black broadcloth was made there in 1808. In 1809 a woolen-mill was erected by Dr. Capron at Oriskany, Oneida co., N. Y., and in 1812 what was then considered a large manufactory of fine cloths was established at l\‘lid- dletown, Conn., which made 30 or 40 yards of broadcloth a day. In the same year were produced what are known as the helieoidal shears, a cutting-machine with spiral blades on a cylinder acting against a straight steel blade, and shearing the nap of the cloth evenly and perfectly. This was first adopted in France. To the inventors of the U. S. the world is indebted for the original and best processes for making felted goods, carpetings, hat-bodies, etc.; the knit- ting-frame, and later the various knitting-machines, the burring-machine, the Orompton and Knowles power-looms for weaving fancy cassimeres, which, with their successive improvements, are 110W far superior to any other loom for this purpose; the still more wonderful automatic Bigelow carpet-loom; the best processes for making a mixed mousseline delaine; Orompton’s improvement of Noble’s wool-comb; and the Smith moquette carpet-loom. The woolen-manufacturers in the U. S. have had great diffi- culties to contend with. In addition to the high price of labor as compared with European countries, and the lack for many years of native wool of those qualities best adapted to their use, they have been unduly affected by high and low tariffs, and.their goods systematically depreciated b_v the importers and free-traders; but they have at length reached a position in which they can supply more than three-fourths of the woolen and worsted goods consumed at home, and, except in a few classes of goods, produce those of quality equal to those of their European rivals. From 1790 to 1810 there was a large domestic manufacture in proportion to the population, and the greater part of the men and all the boys were clothed in homespun, while the women were for everyday use linsey-woolsey, a fabric com- posed of linen and wool. In 1810 the value of this domes- tic manufacture was estimated at $25,608,788. But after this date the domestic production fell off rapidly, and at first the factory-made goods did not supply their place. In 1820 the total value of woolen goods reported was $4,413,068; in 1830, $14,528,166; in 1840, $20,696,999; in 1850, $49,636,- 881; in1860, $80,734,060; in 1870, $217,668,826. In 1876, owing to the depression of business, there was a slight fall- ing off in production, and a still larger one in importation. The value of the woolen goods produced in 1880 was $267.- 252,913 ; in 1890 it had risen to $337,768,524, of which $137.- 930,014 was in woolen goods proper, $72,194,642 in worsted goods, $8,958,205 in felted goods and hats, $39,769,441 in carpets, and $55,457,642 in hosiery and knit goods. Mas- sachusetts has from the first maintained the leading posi- tion in these manufactures, her production of all-wool goods, carpetings, worsted, and mixed goods of cotton, linen, or silk and wool. amounting in 1890 to $72,681,408, or more than one-fourth of the whole production of the country. Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, and Rhode Island are the other largest producers, though nearly every State has some woolen manufactures. The value of importations in 1821 was $7,238,954; in 1831, $13.197,364; in 1840, $10.- 808,485 ; in 1850, $19,620,619 ; in 1860, $43,141,988 ; in 1870, %?;5i:i7,064.001; in 1880, $35,356,992; in 1890, $56,582,432; in 1891, $41,060,080. Processes. The variety of goods wholly or in part made of wool, and of those wholly or in part of worsted, is so great that the processes to which each is subjected in its manufacture can only be named in the most general way. The distinction between the woolen and worsted goods be- gins in the character of the wool used; for all heavy wool goods a more or less fine, short-stapled, and readily felting WOOL AND WOOLEN MANUFACTURES wool is required; for goods wholly or in part of worsted the wool must be strong in fiber, of long staple (fibers 25- to 5 or 6 inches in length, although shorter wool can be combed), not very fine, and either naturally or by the comb- ing process freed from the noil or short fiber, which is af- terward mixed with wool, carded, and spun for felted goods. The wool, which is usually purchased in bales, is first sorted and scoured. The sorter arranges the parts of each fleece according to fineness, length of staple, and silkiness of tex- ture; and the scouring is accomplished by throwing the wool into large tanks filled with water and an abundance of soap, keeping it at a high temperature by means of steam, and continually moving it by means of rakes or stirring- sticks driven by machinery. \Vhen thoroughly cleansed it is drawn out through rollers to squeeze out the water, and then dried by revolving fans or other means. By this scour- ing and washing not only is the dirt and soil removed from the fleeces, but the yolk or suint—a peculiar fatty secretion of the sheep most abundant in the merino breeds--is also discharged. The British manufacturers extract these mat- ters from the water by a chemical process, and make dc’- gms, a low form of grease, from the product. Similar processes for extracting the fat are now being introduced into the U. S. The wool is next dyed (if it is necessary to dye it in the wool). The next process is willying, or, in the case of Western and South American wools, burring. The object of this is to remove seeds and burs which have be- come entangled in the wool. The American burring-ma- chines of various kinds do this very perfectly and in com- bination with the carding-machine. Picking, teasing, or moating is the next process, and is performed by a machine which tears open the matted portions and separates the wool into small tufts. Either before or immediately after this process the wool is oiled, oleic acid or olein being now gen- erally used for this purpose, instead of olive oil, and some- times a mixture of olein and paraffin oil; these oils are much more readily removed from the yarn or tissues by a brief scouring with carbonate of soda and pure water than the olive oil, and there is much less danger of spontaneous combustion than from the use of the vegetable oils. The wool is now ready for the carding and slubbing processes, which, though formerly separate, are now continuous by the use of a patent feeder and condenser. Their oifice is to convert the wool into rolls, which are drawn out before they are spun. The spinning is the next process, and herein is another difference between woolen and worsted yarns, t-he yarns for woolen cloths being but slightly twisted, so as to leave them more free for felting, but those for the warp twisted more than those for the weft, as they have to hear more strain; while the worsted yarns are hard-spun and made into a much stronger thread. The slight twisting and comparative lack of strength in woolen yarn renders it more difiicult to weave it on a power-loom than the worsted, cotton, silk, or linen yarns. The yarn, when spun, is reeled, and, if to be made into cloth, warped, beamed, sized, and otherwise prepared for weaving. The weaving is gen- erally done on an ordinary power-loom for broadcloths, fiannels, cassimeres, satinets, blankets, etc.; on a Cromp- ton chain-loom for fancy cassimeres, yarns of different colors being introduced; or on the Earnshaw needle-loom, where the goods are made with two faces or different. colors are used. Broadcloths, and indeed most woolen goods, are next scoured to remove the oil, and then, if thought necessary, dyed again, and tentercd or stretched upon hooks to dry. Burling, or picking off irregular threads, hairs, and dirt, succeeds this. and then, for the cloths, come the fulling process and the teascling or raising the nap, which is sheared evenly by the helicoidal shcars\. It is next steamed or scalded to prevent its spotting un- evenly from the rain, and pressed between polished iron plates in a powerful hydraulic press, or, as is more common now, in a rotary or calendaring press. The fiannels, blan- kets, etc., do not go through these last processes. The knit goods are made from the yarn on lcnitting-machines, and finished by hand. Delaines have usually cotton warp, and are woven on cotton looms, and printed, like calicoes, from rollers. l\Ierinos, Tibets, empress and Henrietta cloths, al- pacas, with many other kinds of dress goods, are made from worsted yarns. Carpets are made from coarser wools, and do not go through so many preliminary processes be- fore spinning ; they are woven on the Bigelow carpet-looms. or some modification of‘ them. The worsted wools are combed on a combing-machine with teeth heated by indi- rect application of steam, to make the fibers straight and wooLsEY 831 parallel, and the noil or shorter fiber is combed out. The other processes before the spinning are much the same as already described. But the spinning of worsted and woolen yarns is entirely cliiferent. VVoolen is drawn finer by the draft of the mule carriage after the roving passes through rollers. \Vorsted is drawn between rollers a cotton thread. The front pair of rollers runs faster than the back pair, and thus the size is reduced. Then the thread is twist- ed by the revolutions of the spindle. The yarns are hard- twisted, and for some purposes, as for alpacas. mohairs, and lustered goods, the lustered wools and the hair or wool or the alpaca and vicuna and of the angora goat are used. The weaving and dyeing of these goods are watched with great care. The cows hair, camel‘s hair, and calf’s hair goods are of cheaper grades, and in quality belong rather to the wool- en than the worsted trade. Most of them contain a con- siderable proportion of the lower grades of wool, woolen waste, and shoddy. Revised by W. B. WEEDEN. Woollet. VVILLIAM : engraver; b. at Maidstone, En gland, Aug. 15, 1735. His father apprenticed him to an engraver named John Tinney, and he also studied in the St. Martin's Lane Academy. Vfoollett carried landsc-ape-engraving to an unsurpassed degree of excellence ; his success with historical subjects was also great. Among his plates (123 in number) are those of \Vest's Death of TVol_fe and Battle 017' Cape La flog/we, and those after Van Dyck, Claude Lorraine. Ville- ment, Zuccarelli, and Richard IYil‘son. \Voollett belonged to the St. Martin‘s Lane Academy and the Incorporated So- ciety of Artists elected him in 1766. He was also appointed engraver to the king Nov. 27. 1775. He had the habit of fir- ing off a cannon from his roof when he had finished an im- portant plate. D. May 23, 1785, in London. See Louis Fagan‘s Catalogue Rat's-022210’ of the Engraved ll'0r7rs of Il’iZZz'am Il'o0ZZet (London, 1885). YV. J. S. Woolner, TI-IOMAS: sculptor and poet: b. at Hadleigh, Sufiolkshire. England, Dec. 17, 1826. He was a pupil of the sculptor \Villiam Behnes, and exhibited his first work at the academy in 18-13. Genre works occupied his attention dur- ing his youth. such as T Mania u't'z‘7z. her Indz'an- Boy, a bas- relief Feed ing the .E[ung/ry, and The Ra2"nhou'. He also pro- duced busts of Carlyle and Tennyson. In 1849 he was active in the association called PRERAPHAELITES (q. “v.). In 1853 or 1854 he went to Australia, and after his return in 1857 he produced the remarkable bust of Tennyson which was set up in Westminster Abbey after the poet’s death. At about this time he produced the medallion portrait of Tennyson, an engraving of which forms the frontispiece of the Moxon edition of Tennyson’s poems published in 1857. From this time on he was actively employed and produced many nota- ble works. In 1871 he was made associate of the Royal Academy, in 1874 an academician, in 1877 Professor of Sculpture in the Royal Academy, an office which he re- signed in a few years. D. in London, Oct. 7, 1892. His poem iffy Beauz‘z'fuZ Lady, which first appeared in the peri- odical issued by the Preraphaelites. was published as a vol- ume in 1863 and has been through several editions. He also published volumes of poems under the titles Pyymalz'on (1881), Silenus (1884), and Tz'resz'as (1886). W00lrych. HUMPHREY YVILLIARIZ b. in England in 1795; entered Oxford with the intention of taking orders in the Church, but upon graduation took up the study of law and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 18.21 : became eminent as a barrister on the western circuit and the home circuit. and in 1855 was made serjeant--at-law. D. in Lon- don, July 2. 1871. He was a prolific writer. and was the author of a Life of Sir l§'dzmrd Cohe (1826); Series of the Lord C7m'n.eeZZ01's, Keepers of the Sea]. etc. (1826): IL/emoirs of the Life of Lord Je__ffre_z/s (1827): and Lives of L'mz'nenz‘ Serjemzfs-at-Law (1869) ; and of a number of legal treatises, of which those on the Law of ll'ays (1836). the Law <>_f'fl1z's- clemeanor, and on the Law of Sewers, z'm=luelz'ng the .Z)raz"2z- aye Acz‘s. have a present value. F. Srunens ALLEN. Woolsey, SARAH C‘n.wwenv : author: b. at Cleveland. 0., about 18-15 ; a niece of Theodore D. \Voolsey. and a favorite writer for children under the pseudonym of Susan Coolidge. She resided a number of years at New Haven, Conn.. and subsequently at Newport, R. I. Among her books are The iVeu~ Yearls Bar_(](12'it (1871): ll'/zatI{a2f,1/ Did (187 2): Verses (1880) ; A Guernsey Lily (1881): A Little (“omzfrzj Gz'rZ (1885); and A Short fI2§-sl‘ory of the City of Phflade/p72z'a' (1887). She edited The I)1Ia'2-y and Letters of Jlrs. DeZa*ne2/ (1878) and The Diary and Letters 0_f-Frmzees Burney/, lifel- da-me d‘Arblay (1880). HENRY A. Br-znas. 839, woonsnv Woolsey, THEODORE DWIGHT, D. D., LL. D.: educator; b. in New York, Oct. 31, 1801 ; graduated at Yale College 1820 ; read law in the office of Charles Chauncey, Esq., in Phila- delphia ; studied theology at Princeton ; was a tutor in Yale College 1823-25 ; licensed to preach in 1825 ; studied Arabic, Greek, and modern languages abroad 1827-30: elected Pro- fessor of Greek in Yale College in 1831; elected presidentin 1846, resigned this office in 1871 ; resided in New Haven, and for a time lectured in the law school, and was busily occupied in researches and studies chiefly in political science; was ordained at the time of his inauguration, and frequently preached in the college chapel and elsewhere with great ac- ceptance; edited the Alcestis of Euripides (1833), the Antig- one of Sophocles (1835), the Electra of\Sophocles (1837), the Prometheus of Afischylus (1837), the Gorgias of Plato (1842) ; published his inaugural discourse on College Eclucatwn (1846) ; an Historical Discourse upon Yale College (1850); An Introcluction to the Study of International Law (12mo, Bos- ton, 1860; 4th ed. New York, 1874) ; An Essay on Divorce and Divorce Legislation (New York, 1869) ; a volume of ser- mons entitled The Religion of the Present ancl the Future (New York, 1871). After the death of Prof. Francis Liebcr (1872) President \Voolsey re-edited, with notes, his work on Civil Liberty and Self- Go vernment (Philadelphia, _8vo, 1874), also his Jllanual of Political Ethics (2 vols. Philadelphia, 1874). President Woolsey was for several years one of the regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and was a member and the chairman of the American division of the commit- tee for the revision of the New Testament. He published a work on Political Science in 1877, in two vols., and a book on Cornmunism ancl Socialism in 1879. D. in New Haven, Conn., July 1, 1889. Woolsey, THEODORE SALISBURY, A. M., LL. B. : professor of international law; b. in New Haven, Oct. 22, 1852; son of Theodore Dwight VVoolsey; educated at Yale University (A. B. 1872, LL. B. 1876, M. A. 1877); traveled for two years in Europe and Asia; studied for two winters in Ger- many; in 1877 became instructor in public law in Yale College; in 1878 -Professor of International Law in the same institution: editor of Pomeroy’s International Law (1886) and the sixth edition of Woolsey's International Law (1891); associate editor John-son’s Universal Cyclo- jpteclia, in charge of the department of public law and inter- course of nations (1892-95). Woolson, Coxsr./axon FENIMORE: novelist: b. at Clare- mont, N. H., Mar. 5, 1838. Her mother was a niece of James Fenimore Cooper. She was taken, when a child, to Cleveland. O., and was educated there and at the school of Madame Chegaray in New York city. She resided at Cleve- land till 1869, spending her summers on the island of Mac- kinac. From 1873 to 1879 she lived in the South, chiefly in Florida and in the mountain districts of Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas. In 1879 she went to Europe and resided principally in Italy till her death, which occurred at Venice. J an. 24, 1894. The scenes of her stories were commonly in the South and in the region of the Great Lakes. Besides tales, sketches, and poems in the magazines, which remain in part uncollected, she is the author of the following books : Castle IVowhere (1875); Roolman the Keeper (1880); Anne (1882); For the Major(1883); East Angels (1886); J npiter Lights (1889); and Horace Chase (1894). H. A. B. Woolsorter’s Disease: See ANTHRAX. Woolston. THOMAS: deist; b. at Northampton, England, in 1669; studied at Sidney-Sussex College, Cambridge; took his degree about 1688; became a fellow of Sidney-Sussex; took orders in the Church of England: made a careful study of the works of Origen ; wrote The Olcl Ayaologg for the Truth of the Christian Religion against the Jews and Gentiles re- vioecl (1705), in which he maintained, ostensibly in the inter- est of Christianity, that many seemingly historical portions of the Bible, including the Pentateuch, are to be interpreted allegorically, Moses and his miracles being merely types of Christ ; was deprived of his fellowship 1721 on account of the scandal occasioned by his writings; published The .ZlIoder-- ator between an Infidel and an Apostate: or the Controversg between the Author of the Discourse of the Grounds and Rea- sons of the Christian Religion [Anthony Collins] ; and his reoerencl ecclesiastical opponents; set in a clear light (1725) and Site Discourses on the Jkliracles of our Saviour (1727- 29), addressed to six bishops, in which he maintained the allegorical character of those miracles. Woolston was in con- sequence indicted for blasphemy at the instance of the attor- WOOSTER ney-general, tried, and convicted at the Guildhall, London, N ov., 1729, fined £100, imprisoned for a year in the King’s Bench prison, and failing to provide security for not re- peating the ofiense, spent the rest of his life within the rules of that prison, dying Jan. 21, 1731. He was probably some- what deranged. See his collected works with Life (5 vols., London, 1733). Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. W001-tree: See Emonnunnox. W001Wi0ll, wo“ol’ich: town; county of Kent, England; on the southern bank of the Thames ; 9 miles below London Bridge (see map of England, ref. 12—K). It extends for a distance of 2 miles along the river. This is also the seat of the chief arsenal of England, covering over 100 acres, and contains all the different kinds of workshops in which cannons, bombs, shells, etc., are 1nade. It has the Royal Military Academy and extensive barracks. (See I\’IlLITARY ACADEMIES.) \Voolwich is now a part of London. Pop. (1891) 40,848, and of the parliamentary borough, returning one member, 98,976. “’0011S00k' et: city; Providence co., R. I.; on the Black- stone river, and the N. Y. and New Eng. (now New Eng.) and Prov. and I/Vorcester Div. of the N. Y., N. H. and Hartford railways; 16 miles N. by NV. of Providence and 37 miles S. VI. of Boston (for location, see map of Rhode Island, ref. 7-N.). It is a consolidation of what were isolated fac- tory villages; hence its streets are irregular, but not without beauty. A century ago the region now called VVoonsocket was a wilderness. The village then called Woonsocket, and which contained the post-oflice, bank, tavern, etc., of the locality, has not only relinquished these institutions, but is now not even included within the limits of the city to which it gave its name. The present VVoonsocket was set off as a town from Cumberland in 1867, enlarged by the addition of a part of Smithfield in 1871, and incorpo- rated as a city June 13, 1888. The river is here crossed by a magnificent bridge whose construction cost $300,000. Woonsocket has three parks and a fair-ground, and a sol- diers’ monument gives name to the principal square. The leading industries are cotton, woolen, and rubber manufac- tures, with an aggregate capital of $4,500,000, and giving employment (1895) to 5,646 persons; besides these there are several machine-shops, a sewing-machine, wringing-machine, shuttle, reed, harness, and bobbin factory, and extensive gas and electric plants. The water-works has a daily capacity of 3,000,000 gal. The city contains 6 national banks, with an aggregate capital of $850,000, and 4 savings institutions with deposits of about $8,000,000. Woonsoclret has 18 school- houses, with 75 teachers and 2,500 pupils, besides 1,800 who attend, the parochial schools and 45 in a kindergarten. There are 3 Roman Catholic churches, 2 Episcopalian, while the Baptists, Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Universalists, and Second Adventists have one each. The Friends meeting-house is just outside the city limits, on a site which has been owned by them for more than a cen- tury. The city also has a free public library of about 13,850 volumes, one weekly and 3 daily newspapers, 2 opera-houses, and 3 hotels. The assessed valuation in 1894 was $13,862,- 150, its rate of taxation $00135, and its net debt, including water bonds, $1,371,426. Pop. (1880) 16,050; (1890) 20,830; (1895) 24,468. Enasrus RICHARDSON. Woorari, or W00rara: See OURARI. Wooster: city (founded in 1808); capital of VV.yne co., 0.; on the Balt. and Ohio and the Penn. railways ; 25 miles W. of Massilon, 52 miles S. S. VV. of Cleveland (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 3-G). It is in an agricultural region; has 12 churches, high school, 5 ward schools, city-hall, court- house, water-works, electric lights, 2 national banks with combined capital of $175,000, and a daily, a quarterly, 5 weekly, and 2 monthly periodicals; and has manufactories of pianos. engines, boilers, mill-gearing, flour, furniture, har- ness, paving-brick, carriages and wagons, and door, sash, and blinds. Wooster‘ is the seat of the Ohio agricultural experiment station, and of Woosrnn Uruvnn.srrv, a coedu- cational institution of learning under the control of the Ohio Synod of the Presbyterian Church. The university was founded in 1866 and opened in 1870; its buildings, of brick, cost $190,000, and its endowment is $262,000. There are collegiate, preparatory, post-graduate, and music de- partments, besides a medical department located at Cleve- land. The instructors number _(1895) 69: students, 850; and collegiate alumni, 765. Pop. (1880) 5,880 ; (1890) 5,901; (1895) estimated, 7,500. EDITOR or “ REPUBLICAN.” WOOSTER Wooster, DAVID: soldier; b. at Stratford, Conn., Mar. 2, 1710; graduated at Yale College 1738; commanded a sloop- of-war in the expedition against Louisburg 1745; went to Europe in charge of a cartel-ship; visited England; was presented at court and made a captain’ in Pepper_ell’s regi- ment; was appointed colonel of the Third Connecticut Reg- iment 1755; served as brigadier-general In. the northern campaigns of 1758-60; was one of the originators of Ar- nold’s expedition for the capture of Ticonderoga Apr., 1770; was appointed brigadier-general June 22, 1775; succeeded to the command in Canada on the death of Montgomery; became major-general of State militia 1776; mortally wounded in the defense of Danbury against Tryon, dying there May 2, 1777. A monument was erected by the State in 1854. Worcester, wobs'ter, or Worcestershire [Worcester is 0. Eng. I1Twz'owa,moeaste'r, liter., camp of the Huiecn; Lat. Haicoii, name of a people in Britain + cas’tm, camp] : an inland county of England, on both sides of the Severn and its affluent, the Avon. Area, 751 sq. miles. The surface is undulating and well wooded; the elm grows luxunantly, and has received the name of the weed of \Vorcestersh1re; fruit-trees also succeed well. Wheat, hops, vegetables, and pears are extensively cultivated. Coal and Iron abound, and about one-third of the inhabitants are engaged in min- ing. Among the different manufactures which are carried on are those of carpets at Kidderminster, the most remark- able, glass and iron wares at Dudley and Stourbndge, gloves, porcelain, needles, and fish-hooks. Pop. (1891) 413,- 760. Worcester: city of England: capital of W'orcestershire; on the Severn; 27 miles by rail S. \/V. of Birmingham (see map of England, ref. 10—Gr). The principal feature is the cathedral, which, founded in 679, was rebuilt after 1084 and restored since 1857. It is principally Early English and Decorated in style. It is 410 feet long, 126 feet wide, and 60-67 feet high. Tanning, currying, dressing, and staining of leather, glove-making, the manufacture of porcelain, vinegar, sauce, and chemicals are the principal branches of industry, and several of thcm—as, for instance, those of sauce, china, and gloves—-enjoy a great reputation. Woi'ces- ter returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1891) 42,905. Worcester: city; capital of Worcester co., Mass. ; on the Blackstone river, and the Boston and Albany, the Boston and Maine, the Fitchburg, the N. Y. and N. Eng.. the N. Y., N. H. and Hart., and the ‘W01’. and Shrew. railways; 44 miles \/V. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-G). The settlement, begun in a valley, has spread over and beyond adjacent hills, and the natural advantages for beauty, health, and convenience are unsurpassed. Plan and Govermnent.—Tl1e principal business thorough- fares are Main Street, running generally from N. to S., about 3 miles, and having most of the largest and finest business blocks and trades-houses extending for half its length; and Front Street, running E. from the common to the Union railway station. one-third of a mile. The city is well supplied with pure water, and there is an extensive sewerage system. An extensive electric-railway system ae- commodates all parts of the city and communicates with some of the adjoining towns. There are 11 public parks, aggregating 360 acres. The city is divided into 8 wards, the boundary-lines of which diverge from the center like the spokes of a wheel. The government is vested in a mayor, 9 aldermen, and a common council of 24 members. The total appropriation for city maintenance in 1895 was $1,116,990. The property valuation in 1894 was $86,397,576, the net debt $2,535,719 ; tax-rate, $15.20 per $1.000. -There are 7 banks for discount and a safe deposit and trust com- pany with a capital of $2,450,000, and 5 savings-banks with deposits of over $26,000,000. Chmches, Schools, etc.—\Voreester possesses few striking specimens of architecture; Mechanics’ Hall building and the stone court-house are the only ones of classic preten- sions. Other important buildings are the Armory, the new U. S. building, the Oread Institute, the \Vorcester Academy buildings, Holy Cross College, and CLARK UNIVERSITY (g. 2).). There are 73 church organizations and 64 edifices. Of these, 16 are Orthodox Congregational, 3 Unitarian, 10 Baptist, 11 Methodist Episcopal, 10 Roman Catholic, and 4 Protestant Episcopal. The schools of Worcester are noted for their excellence. The number of pupils registered in 1894 was 17,604; average attendance, 13.099 ; teachers employed. 471 ; appropriation for school maintenance in 1895, $415,000. woacnsrnn 833 There are 2 high schools—the Classical and the English. Six parochial schools are maintained by the Roman Catholic C-hurch, three of which are French, with a total of 3.000 pupils. There are also several excellent private schools. The higher educational institutions are the Roman Catholic College of the Holy Cross, founded in 1843, the Polytechnic Institute for practical training (see YVORCESTER POLYTECHXIC INSTI- TUTE), the State Normal School, the \Vorcester Academy, and Clark University. The Free Public Library, with a circulating department and a reading-room, has a total of 100,000 volumes. The library of the American Antiquarian Society contains 100,000 volumes. Various smaller libra- ries with the above make a total of 305,000 volumes for public use. There is an active and prosperous Mechanics’ Association, whose hall is one of the finest in the U. S. The Agricultural and the Horticultural Societies, the IYorcester County Musical Association, the Natural History Societv, and The Worcester Society of Antiquity are prominent or- ganizations. There is a flourishing board of trade. The principal social clubs are the \Vorcester, the Commonwealth, the Hancock, and the new South End. The Y. M. C. A. and the Y. W. C. A. own each a fine building. Four dailv papegs and several weekly and other periodicals are pub.- ishe . C’/zaritable and Benevolent Dzsttieztions.—The City Hos- pital for general medical and surgical cases and the Wash- burn Memorial Hospital for the treatment of women and children are well endowed. There is also a Homoeopathic Hospital and several private ones. Two State hospitals for the insane are located here. The State Odd Fellows’ Home was opened in 1892, and there are homes for aged men and women, orphan asylums, and many other charitable estab- lishments. The county jail is the only penal institution. llfanufactures.—Worcester produces a greater variety of manufactured articles than any other city in the U. S. The wire-mills of the Washburn 8; Moen Company are the largest in the world, employing 4,000 persons. Loom manu- facture comes next in importance. One-third of the envel- opes used in the U. S. are made here. The boot and shoe industry is extensively carried on. Every kind of machine used in a woolen or cotton mill is made here. There are nearly 1,100 manufacturing establishments, with $26,000,000 capital, employing 22,000 persons, who receive nearly $12.- 000,000 per annum in wages. Material to the value of $21.- 000,000 is used in manufacturing, and the total output has a value of $39,000,000. Ht'story.—VVo1'cesteI' was first settled in 1675 under the name of Quinsigamond Plantations. The pioneers were soon driven away by the Indians, and their buildings destroyed. A second settlement in 1684 met the same fate after a few years. In 1713 the third and permanent settlement was made. The first church was organized in 1719, and the town was incorporated in 1722. In 1775 Isaran Tnonxs (q. o.) removed his press from Boston to It-Iorcester, and during 1790-1800 carried on the most extensive publishing business in the U. S. From the steps of the old South church the Declaration of Independence was read for the first time in Massachusetts. The opening of the Black- stone Canal III 1828, and of the railways which superseded it, caused the town to grow rapidly, and it was incorporated as a city in 1848. From its central situation in the State, in its richest agricultural section, Worcester has long been known as the “ Heart of the Commonwealth." Pop. (1880) 58,291; (1890) 84,655; (1895) estimated, 100,000. FRANKLIN P. RICE. Worcester, EDWARD Sonnasnr, Second Marquis of: b. at Raglan Castle, England, about 1601, was the eldest son of Henry Somerset, Lord Herbert of Chepstow, created in 1642 first Marquis of Somerset; spent some years in foreign travel; married in 1628; devoted himself to mathematical and mechanical researches at Raglan Castle; entered the military service of Charles I. in 1641, along with his father, raising and commanding a body of troops; was known from 1642 by the courtesy title of Lord Herbert: is alleged to have been created Earl of Glamorgan by Charles I. Apr. 1. 1644; was sent to Ireland as a secret agent of the king to treat with the Irish Roman Catholics 1645; was imprisoned on the discovery of his errand, and at first disowned by the king; was released, and succeeded his father in 1646, and went into voluntary exile in France Mar., 1648; returned to England 1652; was imprisoned in the Tower 1652-55: drew up while in the Tower a little work entitled A Cen- tury of the 1Vames and Scam‘lz'ngs of such Inrenz‘z'ons as at 450 834 woaonsrnn present 1 can call to mind to have Tried and Perfected, etc. (1663), in which he describes a steam-engine as “an ad- mirable and most forcible way to drive up water by fire,” and spent a large sum of money upon the erection of water- works at Vauxhall. D. Apr. 3, 1667. A well-written ac- count of his Life, Times, and Scientific Lcdrors (1865), in- cluding a reprint of the Century of Inventions, was issued by Mr. Henry Dircks, who also published l'Vorcestcriund (1865), consisting of notices of 180 works relating to the marquis or his connections. Worcester, J osnrn Ennasonz lexicographer: b. at Bed- ford, N. H., Aug. 24, 1784; graduated at Yale College 1811 ; taught school at Salem, Mass.; studied theology two years at Andover Seminary; settled at Cambridge, Mass.,1819, and devoted himself thenceforth to the preparation of a series of valuable text-books and of his dictionary, for which purpose he visited Europe 1830-31. D. at Cambridge, Oct. 27, 1865. Among his works were a Geographical Diction- ary, or Universal Gazetteer (2 vols., Andover, 1817); Ele- ments of Geograph/1 , Ancient and ilfodern (1819 ; several edi- tions); Shetches of the Earth and its Inhcll)ita.nts (2 vols., 1823); Elements of Ifistory, Ancient and ilfodern (1826); Elements of Ancient Classical and Scripture Geography (1828); The American Almanac (1831-43); a revised edition of Todd’s Johnson’s Dictionary (1828); an abridgment of Webster’s Dictionary (1829) ; a Comprehensive Pronouncing and Ezcpldnatory Dictionary of the English Language (1830); a Universal and Critical Dictionary (1846) ; and his great work, A Dictionary of the English Language (Bos- ton, 1860, with 1,000 illustrations). Worcester, NOAH, D. D.: clergyman ; b. at Hollis, N. H., Nov. 25, 1758; received only a common-school education; served three years as fifer and fife-major in the Continen- tal army 1775-77, being present at Bunker Hill and at Ben- nington; was licensed to preach 1786; was pastor of the Congregational church at Thornton 1787-1809; removed to Salisbury, N. H., 1810, supplying there the pulpit of his brother Thomas until 1813, when he settled at Brighton, Mass; edited the Christian Disciple 1813-19, and a quar- terly magazine, the Friend of Peace, 1819-29: founded the Massachusetts Peace Society in J an., 1816 ; was its secretary until 1828; published Solemn Reasons for Declining to adopt the Baptist Theory and Practice (Charlestown, 1809) ; Bible News, or Sacred Truths relating to the Living God, His Only Son and Holy Spirit (Concord, 1810), which was censured by the Hopkinton Association as unsound on the doctrine of the Trinity: Impartial Review of Testimonies in Favor of the Divinity of the Son of God (1810), and other controversial treatises against the Trinitarians; A Solemn Review of the Custom of War (1814; 11tl1 Amer. ed. 1833) ; The Atoning Sacrifice a Display of Love, not of W'rath (Cambridge, 1829); The Causes and Evils of Con- tentions among Christians (Boston, 1831) ; and Last Thoughts on Important Subjects (Cambridge, 1833). D. at Brighton, Oct. 31, 1837. A Memoir (1844) was issued by Rev. Henry Ware, J r., D. D. Revised by G. P. FISHER. Worcester Polytechnic Institute: a school of engi- neering at \Vorcester, Mass.; founded by John Boynton. of Templeton, Mass., in 1865, by a gift of over $100,000. This was soon followed by a gift from the Hon. Ichabod VVash- burn, of a large and very well equipped machine-shop for the training of students pursuing the course in mechanical engineering, and a handsome endowment for the mainte- nance of the same. Further gifts were received from others, including the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, by means of which extensive buildings were erected, and the annual income of the institute from all sources was made to exceed $60,000. The buildings occupy a prominent and beautiful location in the city of VVorcester, the grounds belonging to the institute including about 11 acres. They are adjacent to a beautiful park in a part of which the right to erect buildings in the future belongs to the corporation of the institute. The principal buildings are Boynton Hall, the Washburn machine-shops, the Salisbury laboratories of physics and chemistry, the large and completely equipped Engineering laboratory built by funds appropriated by the commonwealth, the Power laboratory, magnetic laboratory, etc. There is also an extensive hydraulic laboratory about 4% miles distant from the other buildings, where there is water-power of 80 horse-power and a completely equipped testing plant, including turbine wheels, a large Venturi and other meters, weirs, water-rams, and other apparatus. There are five courses of study, i. e. civil engineering, WORD mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, chemistry, and general science. The institute confers the degree of Bachelor of Science. There are (1895) about 33 instructors and 225 students. Its graduates are almost entirely em- ployed in the various branches of engi11ee1'ing, a few having become teachers and college professors. One of the dis- tinctive characteristics of the school is the thorough prac- tical training which it gives in the Washburn shops to students of mechanical engineering. The constructive idea is dominant. From the beginning every student works on some part of a machine which he afterward assembles, and the whole is subjected to the actual tests of practical use. In this way the invention. design, construction, test, and use of machinery are systematically taught. The extensive laboratories of physics, electricity. chemistry, and engineer- ing are managed in harmony with the same general prin- ciple. T. C. IIENDENHALL. Word [O. Eng. word : O. H. Germ ( > Germ.) wort : Icel. ort) : Goth. waurd < Teuton. word- < Indo—Eur. urdhom > Lat. ver’burn, word : Lith. vardas, name]: the smallest de- tachable portion of a sentence, i. e. the smallest sentence- segment which, when abstracted, still suggests its possible sentence functions. The term has two senses: (1) particular word, the single concrete utterance in an actual sentence, e. g. book, in give me the book; (2) general uord, or the psychical word-picture generalized out of, and serving as substrate to, all the concrete occurrences of identical or similar forms, e. g. Eng. boolc vs. Fr. livre. In both these senses the real word may be different from our naming of it, e. g. in Td go ’f I could, the second and fourth real par- ticular words are ’d and ’f, their names are would and if; the real general Eng. word “n ” is named and. See ABLAUT. Sentences as Words.—Actual language consists always of sentences. The real particular word exists only as an organic part of an actual sentence, and the real general or psychical word only as implicitly capable of filling one or more places in any appropriate sentence type. In primitive language (whether individual or racial) the sentence is an undivided whole, and words and sentences are identical (“ incorporating” languages). Individual parts may have a clearly felt force, but the native mind does not recognize their sentence function when abstracted; e. g. Massachusetts (Indian) wut-cqopesitugussrtn-nooucht-unh—guoh, lit., he-came- to-a-state-of-rest-on-bended-knees - doin g-reverence - to-him ; Accadian in-bat, he-opened, in-nin-bat, he-opened-it, in- sub-subc, he-built-a-building; Basque didac, I-have-it-for- you, dizut, you-have-it-for-m e. Purely pronominal sentences often remain incorporating (i. e. single words) even in highly developed inflectional and agglutinative languages, e. g. Arab. agta/la, he caused to kill; Congo wamvondisa, be caused him to kill. Word-order in Japanese is the same as if the whole sentence were still one compound word. In all languages a large class of emotive (and volitive) sentences must always remain sentence-words, because the emotive psychical states. and hence the sentences expressing them, do not admit of sub-organization, e. g. pshaw! horrors I shoo ! Sentence-members as W'ords.—Speakers of every language in time develop a limited number of sentence-types or gen- eralized psychical pictures of sentence-structure. Every actual sentence must thereafter approximately embody one of these types, and consist of sentence-members conforming to the general structure-picture, e. g. the boy—runs, the rdin—fell in torrents are both sentences of the “simple declarative” type having as members a subject and predi- cate; the man-who so/w him-told me is of the complex de- clarative type, etc. As fast as these psychical types succeed in reshaping language, sentence-members take the place of sentences as words (polysynthetic languages), e. g. Magyar hcscm, my-knife; Lhota Naga oydn, village, niydn, your- village, yc'mtzit, large-village, /eydntziiydn, all-villages, ydndro, small-village, ydnthaono, another-village; dnd tso, I will-eat, dnd tsoldrn, I will-eat-again, rind tsolem, I will- eat-first, etc. Significant Sentence-portions (“Phrases ") as Words; .“ Stems ” and “ Infleclion.”—Sentence-members are in turn capable of sub-organization into what we may call signifi- cant portions. One significant portion may indeed consti- tute a whole member, e. g. (t/ie-boy)—walhs, but more often thoughts and feelings and our linguistic expression of them are complex, e. g. the shepherd-strohes + the dog’s + back + with-his-hand, the l2oy—ivent-a/way + rotthout-getting + what-he-came-for. Here strohe-s, with-his-ha/nd, u'haz‘.-he- WORDE came-for, etc., are significant sentence-portions within the larger sentence-members. As the speaker comes to regard these portions as separable components of the sentence, and unconsciously reshapes his language accordingly, words begin to coincide normally with sentence-portions (inflec- tional languages), e. g. Gr. iipz/toe 1:-é'rpqi ,8d7\Aa, lit., the-bird with-a-stone he-hits ; Lat. clorswm cant munu remuloet pastor, the-shepherd stroke-s the-dog’s back with-his-hand; Eng. John’s shtp ran agrou/ncl = the-ship of-John did-run on-the- ground. In this stage of language different particular words asso- ciate themselves as “forms” under one general word, e. g. I, me, we, us are forms of I; am, was, etc., are forms of be, etc. Usually the different forms of a word come to closely resemble each other (see ANALOGY), and then their common portion comes to be felt as a “stern” whose variations are felt as “tnjteottons.” Stern and inflections may be com- pletely fused (e. g. Arab. agtala, Eng. men) or completely analyzable (Gr. é-A6-617-u, I-did-get--released, lit., d1d-released- get-I), but if detached retain no sentence function. Sentence-elements as Worcls; “Roots,” “A_1fi13es.”-—Sen— tence-portions having resembling significance (whether dif- ferent words or forms of the same word) constantly tend to form association groups, and in the end (see ANALOGY) to acquire resembling forms, with constant variations for the expression of like variations in meaning, relation, or func- tion. The constant part then becomes a “ root” (e. g. sorr- in sorrow and sorry, str-ng in strong and strength).* When the variation in form is not completely fused with the root, it then becomes an aflia: (either prefix, sufltw, or tnfix), e. g. -y in sorry, etc. As fast as this analysis succeeds in ex- pressing itself in the sentence-structure, roots, or both roots and atlixes, become detachable as words. Three stages of development arise: (1) Either the significant root (or stem) alone or the root and affix together constitute a word, but the affix alone does not (agglutinative languages), e. g. Sanskr. suroa- or sarva-s, all; in Congo tua-ht-vangtclzi, lit., we it made, oungtdt alone is a word, or tua-ht-rtmgtdt is one word, but neither tua nor ht nor tuaht are words; Eng. home-warcl, etc. (2) Both significant root and rela- tional root are words (analytic languages). (3) Significant, relational, and mechanical roots are all words (isolating or root languages). Examples: he gives food to you (all significants and the relational to are words, but the mechanical s is not); J ap. tsuht ga, htharu, the moon shines, hono hoclomo wa 3/olcunuhatta, this boy was not good (all significants and the relationals [nominative particles] go and we are words, but mechanicals -no-, not, -hatta, was, are not words); Eng. the moon is brtght, this boy was not good (all elements words). “ Cognutes,” “I)ertvates ”; Compound lVorols.—Words felt as having a common root are called cognates. If the root is felt to be practically identical in form with one of a group of cognates, this is regarded as a primate (or prtrn- tttve) to which the rest are clefloates (or derivatives). Logi- cally, derivation implies some change or addition to the concept expressed by a word. Patlful, church-steeple, ptel;poeh*et, foretell, forget-me-not, etc., are examples of compound words. In English nearly all parts of speech are freely compoundable with each other, as in the examples above (noun + adj., noun + noun, verb + noun, adv. + verb, verb + pron. + adv.). Compounds may be (1) copulative, with both members on an equal footing, e. g. The THOMPSON-HOUSTON Co.; (2) determinative, with one (in Eng. the former) member serving as a modifier of the other, e. g. wtncl-mill. tll-gotten; (3) secondary adjective, e. g. (t TI-lREE—FOOT rule, UPHILL work, etc. As a rule, logical deri- vation (see above) and fusion of meaning subsists between the members of a compound, but this makes them one word only as it makes them fill the place of one word in sentence- structure. With exactly the same juxtaposition and fusion (or lack of fusion) of meaning, groups that 1nust be com- pounds in one language can not be so in another, e. g. San- skrit copulatives would not be compounds in an uninflec- tional language; Germ. stetnbr'i2,ohe is a compound, but Eng. stone bridge is not, because stein by itself can not sug- gest adjective function, but stone can; Chin. min ll: Gr. 5v7,uorcpm-la, lit., people-power, but the former is not a com- pound, because min alone suggests adjective function. ROBERT J . KELLOGG. W0rde,wawrd,\VYNKi1v, de : printer : b. probably at Worth. Belgium, about 1455; was an assistant to Caxton in his first \" Root is used here to include the narrower term stem. \VORDSWORTH 835 English press at Westminste1', and after his master’s death (1491) succeeded to the business; made many nnprovements in the art; introduced Roman letters and many fonts of different sizes, which he sold to other printers; was the first to adopt title-pages and to employ Greek characters; en- joyed the patronage of the '(,)ueen-dowager llla-rgaret, and was an intimate friend of Richard Pynson. He had prmted 408 works, many of them being school-books; all remarkable for neatness and elegance. The best specimens of his press are Higden’s Polgerontoon (1495) and Stephen H awes’s Pas- ttme of Pleasure (1517). D. after 1535. Worden, J oax Loanma: rear-admiral U. S. navy; b. in Westchester co., N. Y., Mar. 1.2, 1818; entered the navy as midshipman Jan. 10. 1834; commanded the Monitor in her famous fight with the Merrimack M ar. 9, 1862, and the Mon- tauk in the attacks on Fort McAllister of J an. 27 and Feb. 1, 1863, and in the first Fort Sumter fight of Apr. 7, 1863. By his heroic conduct in the engagement with the Merrimack, Worden gained a worldwide reputation. Toward the close of that action a shell, exploding against the pilot-house of the Monitor, fractured one of the great iron logs of which it was composed, and filled his eyes with powder, so that for a long time he was blind. He was promoted captain Feb. 3, 1863; was on duty at New York connected with the iron- clads 1863-66 ; commanded the Pensacola in the Pacific squadron 1866-67 ; was promoted to the rank of commodore May 27, 1868; superintendent of the Naval Academy 1870-74; commissioned rear-admiral Nov. 20, 1872; commander-in- chief of the European squadron Feb. 3, 1875, to Dec. 23, 1877; served as member of the examining board and president of the retiring board; retired at his own request Dec. 23, 1886. Wordsworth, CHARLES, D. C.L.: bishop: son of Rev. Dr. Christopher Wordsworth (1774-1846); b. at Booking. Essex, England, Aug. 22, 1806 ; educated at Harrow School and at Christ Church, Oxford ; took his degree 1830, gaining a stu- dentship and two chancellor's medals; took orders in the Church of England; was a tutor at Cambridge 1830-33. hav- ing among his pupils IV. E. Gladstone and Cardinal Man- ning; was second master of VVinchester College 1835-46, and first warden of Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perthshire, Scotland, 1846-54 ; contributed largely to the establishment of that institution on a firm basis, and built the college chapel (costing £8800) at his own expense : became bishop of the united dioceses of St. Andrews, Dunkeld, and Dun- blane 1853 : distinguished himself by his efforts to procure “ a united Church for the United Kingdom,” and by his vin- dications of the Anglican doctrines, and was one of the “ New Testament Company for the revision of the authorized ver- sion of the Bible.” D. in London, Dec. 5, 1892. He was the author of numerous theological and critical treatises, includ- ing S/zahespeare’s Ii’/nowledge and Use of the Bible (London, 1864: 3d ed. 1880), and of aGreek grammar in extensive use, Grazooe Gramntattcte Rucltmenta (1839 ; 19th ed. 1868). See his autobiography to 1856,Annols (2 vols., 1891-93; vol. iii. promised). Revised by S. M. J .e.cxsox. Wordsworth, CHRISTOPHER, D.~D.: clergyman and au- thor; youngest brother of \Villiam YVordsworth ; b. at Cockermouth, Cumberland. England. June 9, 177 : studied with his brother at Hawkeshead School. Lancashire, also at Trinity College, Cambridge : took his degree 1796 : was elected a fellow of Trinity 1798 : took orders in the Church of England: became chaplain to the Bishop of Norwich, subsequently Archbishop of Canterbury. 1802- : rector of Ashby. Norfolk, 1804: dean of Booking, Essex, 1808; rector of St. Mary‘s, Lambeth, and of Sundridge, Kent, 1815: ex- changed the two last-named livings for the rectory of Bux- ted, Sussex, 1820 : was master of Trinity College. Cambridge, 1820-41 ; and was instrumental in adding the new quadrangle or “ court ” to that famous seat of learning. D. at Buxted. Feb. 2, 1846. He was the author of Eecles/z'astz'eal Biogra- phy (London, 6 vols., 1810: 4th ed. 4 vols., 1853): Who Wrote Ethon Bostli/re .9 (1824-25, 2 parts), maintaining the authenticity of that work; King Charles I. the 14'uthor of Icon Bastltlre further Proved (Cambridge, 1828); and Chris- ttan Instztutes, selected from the l'Vrtttngs of the flfost Emi- nent Dtvtnes of the English Church (4 vols., London. 1837). Revised by S. M. Jxcxsox. Wordsworth, CHRISTOPHER, D.D.: Bishop of Lincoln; son of Christopher Wordsworth and nephew of the poet ; b. at Booking, Essex, England, Oct. 30. 1807 : educated at Trin- ity College, Cambridge ; graduated 1830, having twice gained the chancellor’s medal for English poems. and having also taken the Browne medals (1828) for the best Latin ode and $36 woanswoarn Greek epigram; became a fellow 1830; took orders in the Church of England 1833 ; traveled in Greece 1832-33; pre- pared Aihens and Attica (London, 1836 ; 4th ed. 1869), In- scripiiones Pompeianae (1837), and Greece (1839; 4th ed. 1867) ; was head master of Harrow School from Apr., 1836, until Nov., 1844, when he was made canon of I/Vestminster Abbey by Sir Robert Peel ; became vicar of Stanford-in-the- V ale, Berkshire, and rural dean 1850; archdeacon of hVest- minster 1865; was consecrated Bishop of Lincoln Feb. 24, 1869, and took part in the “ Old Catholic ” congress at C0- logne Sept., 1872. D. at Lincoln, Mar. 20,1885. Among his works are Theophilus Anglicanus (1843; later ed. under the title Elements of Instruction concerning the Church, and the Anglican Branch of ii‘. 10th ed. 1879) ; A Diary in France mainly on Topics concerning Education and the Church (1845) ; On the Canon of the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments and on the Apocrypha (1848 ; 6th ed. 1867); and Lectures on the Apocalypse (1849; 3d ed. 1852), being the Hulsean lectures for 1847 and 1848 respectively; Jlfemoirs of William IVordszcorih (2 vols., 1851); St. H ippolytus and the Church of Rome (1853; 2d ed. 1880); The Inspiration of the Bible (1861 ; 8th ed. 1875); a volume of hymns, The I-Ioly Year (1862; 5th ed. 1868); and A Journal of a Tour in Italy (2 vols., 1863) ; edited The Correspondence of Rich- ard Benzfley (2 vols., 1842), the works of T/zeocriius (1844), the Greek text of the Apocalypse (1849) and of the New Testament (4 parts, 1856-60; 2d ed. 1872—his chief work), and The Holy Bible. with iVoies and Introductions (5 vols., 1864-70)—both these works show rare patristic learning— and was a prominent contributor to Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible. See his Life, by J . H. Overton and E. W ords- worth (1888). Revised by S. M. Jacxsox. Wordswortli, WILLIAM: poet; b. at Cockermouth, Cum- berland, England, Apr. 7, 1770; the second son of John Vllordsworth, attorney-at-law, and his wife Anne Cookson of Penrith. His mother died in 1778 and his father in 1783, leaving William and his brothers ill provided for. John Wordsworth had been agent to the Earl of Lonsdale, who borrowed all his fortune and refused to repay it. The future poet was brought up by his maternal grandparents at Pen- rith, and went to school at Hawshead. In Oct.,1787, he pro- ceeded as anundergraduate to St. J ohn’s College, Cambridge. In his second vacation he and his friend Jones took the “ un- precedented course ” of taking a walking-tour in Switzerland, an experience long afterward described in The Prelude. \Vordsworth took his B. A. degree in Jan., 1791, and left Cambridge; later in the same year he paid a visit of more than a year to France. W'ith very limited resources, and still uncertain of his genius, '\/Vordsworth lingered in Eng- land without a profession. At length, toward the end of 1794, he was relieved from the absolute necessity of working by a legacy from a young friend, Raisley Calvert. In 1795 his admirable sister joined him, and they settled at Racedown. in Dorset. His earliest publications, The Evening ll/'allc and Descriptive Sleelches, written in the old-fashioned style of the preceding century, had appeared in 1792; he was now determined to be a poet, but his style came to him slowly. Coleridge became his friend in 1797, and in July of that year the Wordsworths removed to Alfoxden, in Somersetshire, to be near Coleridge at Nether Stoway. Here the greater part of the I/grical Ballads, published at Bristol in 1798, was composed. On the appearance of this volume the Words- worths immediately left for Germany, and spent the winter at Goslar. Here \Vordsworth wrote some of the finest and most characteristic of his poems, and here The Prelude was planned and begun. Returning to England in the spring of 1799, the’ poet and his sister determined to settle in their own ancestral country, whose lakes and mountains had left an indelible stamp on the whole surface of \Vordsworth’s imagination. He settled in a cottage at Townend, Grasmere, “ the lovely cottage in the guardian nook.” From this time forward the life of Vllordsworth, although to be prolonged for more than half a century, was to be almost without ex- /. infinitesimal line (of length ds) along which the point of _ ternal incident. In 1800 he issued a new edition of the Lyr- ical Ballads, with a second volume of unpublished and ma- turer poems. In 1802 he married Miss Mary Hutchinson. of Penrith, a lady of refined character and devoted amiability. His tours now take importance in his career because they stimulated him to direct poetic production. In 1802 the Wordsworths went to France, in 1803 to Scotland ; the Diary of Miss Wordsworth on the latter occasion is a valuable document which was first published three-quarters of a cen- tury later. In 1803 Wordsworth formed the acquaintance WORK ' of Sir George Beaumont, the painter, who was visiting Colel ridge at Greta Hall. The baronet, who lived till 1827, be- came one of I/Vordsworth’s few intimate friends. Beaumont presented to him a piece of land at Applethwaite, near Kes- wick, hoping to persuade him to move there, but the poet clung to Grasmere. On the birth of his fourth child in 1808, I/Vordsworth left his cottage and moved to Allan Bank, and then, in 1811, to the parsonage of Grasmere, where he lived fortwo years. In the spring of 1813 Lord Lonsdale appoint- ed the poet distributor of stamps for the county of West- moreland, and Wordsworth moved into the more commodi- ous residence of Rydal Mount, near Ambleside. A more lucrative local post he afterward declined. The remainder of his life was spent at this house of Rydal. In 1814 Words- worth published the long and elaborate poem of The E:ccur- sion, in which his poetical philosophy was for the first time put strenuously before the public. This didactic epic was received at first with scant respect, and even with open ridi- cule, but it soon became accepted as one of the masterpieces of English poetry. In 1815 appeared a collection of VVords- worth’s lyrical poems, arranged upon a new plan, and in two essays, prefixed and appended to this volume, he developed his theory of poetic art. A second tour had been taken in Scotland in 1814, and had, as usual, stimulated the poet to write. But his finest gift, that of solemn and penetrative melody, was now about to leave him for ever, and after 1820, if not after 1816, he can scarcely be held to have added to what is exquisite in English literature, although he con- tinued to be earnest, forcible. and sometimes stately in his verse. In 1815 he published the romantic narrative of The IVhiic Doe of Rylesione; in 1819 Peter Bell and The I/Vaggoner, two juvenile studies in somewhat affected excess of simplicity; in 1820 the series of sonnets entitled The River Duddon ; in 1822 a first draft of those Ecclesiastical Sonnets which long entertained his middle life; in 1835 a rather barren volume named Yarrow Revisited. In 1842 he rearranged his Poems chiefly of Early and Later Years. The serenity of his life was troubled in 1832 by his sister‘s mental decay, and in 1834 by the death of Coleridge. But he was now enjoying a tardy celebrity; the University of Oxford conferred upon him in 1839 the degree of D. C. L., in 1842 he received a pension of £300 a year from the civil list, and in Mar., 1843, succeeded Southey as poet-laureate. His only remaining work of importance was the Two Letters, on the railway projected between Kendal and Windermere, against which scheme he eloquently protested in 1844. In 1847 he lost his favorite daughter, Dora Quillinan. worth died of pleurisy, at Rydal Mount, Apr. 23, 1850, and was buried among the dalesmen in Grasmere churchyard. His great poem The Prelude was published posthumously in 1850, and The Recluse not till 1888. A Life of Worcls- worth, by Dr. Christopher I/Vordsworth, in 2 vols., was issued in 1851, and a new edition of his poems, in 6 vols., in 1865. In 1876 the Rev. A. B. Grosart published the prose works, in 3 vols. Mr. F. W. H. Myers’s sympathetic memoir dates from 1881. In 1882 Prof. W. Knight began to issue an elab- orate edition of the poetical works, of which the eighth and last volume appeared in 1886. EDMUND Gossn. W0l‘k [O. Eng. weorc, worc 2 O. H. Germ. were (> Mod. Germ. werh) : Icel. cerlc : Goth. gawaurlei ; Gr. zpyov, work] : a term used in mechanics to express the effect produced by a force in causing a definite change of position of a body. In the case of gravity the work done is estimated by the product of the weight of a body and the vertical distance moved through by its center of gravity—that is, if W is the weight and h the vertical distance, the work done is IVh. Hence it appears that the work done depends upon the 1111- tial and final positions only. For instance, the work done in raising a body through a vertical height is the same as that expended in drawing the body up an inclined plane of the same height, provided the effect of friction is neglected. In general, the work done by a force P is expressed by P cos Bds, where 6 is the angle between the force and the application moves. Hence if X, Y, Z are the components of P parallel to rectangular axes, since we have d.‘ d l Pc.os0 : X—~/Q + Yjl + Z-(—Z-, ds ds ds we get the work done equal to _/(Xdat + Ydy + Zde). See ENERGY, HEAT, and POTENTIAL. 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I l . l _ ‘ J‘ ‘ —._::__—§a‘L——‘-' ' —::E— - _. 1' :5“ b===a> ~— __ _.- 1 L . no (\ um mu 1 ) um E l-14) rm ‘I3 100 .~4u(7 on 40 2011 We at 0 E in st 20 _w m, I A I 28 - - . C. . 4 U I“ ll‘ lulk‘ t.lT\lll\. ‘r\‘\‘Cll\Vll'h WORKHOUSE Workhousez See PAUPERISM. WVOrkingt0n: town; county of Cumberland, England; on the Derwent, near its mouth; 7 miles N. of Whitehaven (see map of England, ref. 4-E). It has a good harbor lined with convenient quays, furnished with a breakwater, and provided with docks. Breweries, distilleries, and factories for the manufacture of sailcloth, cordage, and chemicals are in operation, and large quantities of coal from the rich col- lieries of the vicinity are exported. A Sheffield steel-foundry was transferred here in 1883. Pop. (1891) 23,522. W01'kS0p: town; county of Nottingham, England; on the Ryton; 16 miles E. S. E. of Sheffield (see map of Eng- land, ref. 7—I). Malting. brass and iron founding, and man- ufactures of agricultural implements are carried on. Pop. (1891) 12,734. “'01‘l(1 : the earth from the standpoint of habitability and other material human interests. To the part of the earth habitable by man the Germans have given the name of 0elc0- nom. Judging of what is habitable by what is and has been inhabited, this area may be defined as follows : In the Antarctic the entire continent and the adjoining islands are excluded. In the Arctic regions the boundary is irregular. It includes all Norway and Siberia, including Nova Zembla and the New Siberian Archipelago, but not Wrangel island. In North America it includes all the continent, but excludes the 1nost of the American Arctic Archipelago. It has its greatest extension N. on Smith Sound (lat. 80° N.). It in- cludes the entire western coast of Greenland S. of this point, but on the east coast does not reach so high N. by several de- grees of latitude. Southern Spitzbergen has been occasion- ally occupied by Europeans throughout the winter, and the southern part of this archipelago should probably be in- cluded in the habitable area. Besides the polar caps the districts absolutely excluded are small and unimportant. consisting of limited areas on high mountains. Several large cities are at elevations of about 7,000 feet above sea- level. Quito is at 9,250 feet, Leadville at 10,200 feet. and Lassa at 11,580 feet. Many hamlets and isolated dwellings are at higher elevations, especially in Central Asia and 011 the Andes. With toleration created by habit, life can be comfortably supported at 14,000 feet elevation, but at 20,000 feet it is supported with difiiculty, and at 4 miles may be set the limit of habitability in altitude. The habitable parts of the earth’s surface have very varied capacity for supporting life. In the worst of the deserts it is almost, though probably never quite, nil. On rich allu- vial plains, especially in temperate regions because of their freedom from malarial disease, this capacity reaches its max- imum, the average per square mile in Belgium being 550 (1893), in the province of Shantunex China, 557 (otficial es- timate 1882), and for Rampur, a small protected native state in Northern British India, 561 (1891). The average density of population for the entire British possessions throughout the world is thirty-five per square mile, and this is proba- bly a fair average for the entire habitable land area, al- though its extreme capacity is probably five to ten times as great. This capacity has been greatly increased in the nine- teenth century by the advance in civilization. The mastery of steam and electricity accomplished in this time by civil- ized man has added so greatly to his powers as to make of him almost a new species, and has increased manifold his power to wring his sustenance from nature. It has also powerfully protected him from the agents of destruction, as, for instance, preventing famines by speedy and eifective interchange of foods. One of the most noteworthy and one of the most recent features of man’s conquest of the world is seen in the man- ner in which he has bound it together into one organic whole. Such is the effect of the extraordinary growth of the postal system since 1870. Similar in effect is the system of maritime exchanges now so general and so enormous in volume that a failure of crops in any country is felt through- out the markets of the world. An even better illustration is found in the system of submarine cables. (See map here- with.) The telegraph proved effective by Morse in 1844, and soon covering with a network of wires the land area of the civilized world, was in 1866 extended by Field under the Atlantic Ocean, connecting Europe and America. Since that time these threads of copper, rubber, and steel have bound together the severed masses of land in all directions so effectively that an event in Australia at noon can be read in the New York newspapers at the breakfast table of the same day. VVORMWOOD 837 The geographic conquest of the habitable world is nearly complete. The commercial conquest goes hand in hand with the geographic. Eventually must come the economic conquest/——that is, the conquest of the earth’s surface as a source of sustenance, the utilization of its agricultural and piscicultural capacity to its limit. This is not of such press- ing and immediate importance. Congest-ion of population can yet be at once relieved by emigration, but the economic conquest may be the most important problem a century hence. See also EARTH, GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, etc. MARK W. HARRINGTON. World’s Columbian Exposition: See COLUMBIAN Ex- POSITION, Woamfs. Worms, or Vermes [O. Eng. erg/rm : Germ. warm : Goth. wa/rirms; cf. Lat. e'ermz's, Gr. Macs, wood-worm]: a divi- sion of the animal kingdom, including a varied assortment of forms without many features in common. As a rule, they have elongate, cylindrical, or flattened bodies, and are with- out appendages. The present tendency is to restrict the group by removing from it the PLATHELMINTHES, TUNICATA, and ENTEROPNEUSTA (gg. v.), and as thus limited they may be defined as having, with few exceptions. bilaterally sym- metrical bodies, with a digestive tract with two openings (mouth and anus) and a circulatory (blood-vascular) system. A body-cavity (coelom) is usually present, and the nervous system, variously developed. always has a principal center (brain) above the throat. Excretory organs (nephridia) are usually present, and serve to carry waste products from the coelom or from the tissues generally to the exterior. The branch Vermes is usually divided into the following classes: iYemertines, Nemaz‘helm2'm‘hes. Avmelida. Rofifcm, Charlo- gnaflza, and Prosopjz,/giz', to which reference should be made for further details. See also PALEONTOLOGY. J . S. K. Worms, Germ. pron. r5rms: town of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Rhine; 20 miles N. IV. of Heidelberg (see map of German Empire, ref. 6-D). It is one of the oldest cities of Germany. It existed before the time of the Romans, was the residence of Charlemagne, and the seat of the famous diet before which Luther was summoned in 1521. In 1689 it was taken and sacked by the French, and only the cathe- dral (see illustration in ARCHITECTURE), a fine' structure, built 996-1016, of red sandstone in Byzantine style. and a few houses, escaped destruction. It was soon rebuilt, but it never recovered its former prosperity. It manufactures leather, tobacco, and soap, and in its vicinity is produced the celebrated Rhenish wine called L2'eZ)fraue'mm'Zc7z. (For the Concordat of ‘Worms, see COXCORDAT.) Pop. (1890) 25,444. Wormseed : the name given in the U. S. to the fruit of Chenopodz‘um amlirosioides, a wild herbaceous plant, native in the U. S., and most commonly met with in the Southern States. The plant possesses a peculiar aromatic but disagree- able smell. \Yormseed is found in commerce in the form of very minute grains. which have the characteristic odor of the plant. “Then distilled, they yield a volative oil (oleum c72c2z0p0de'2) In Europe the term wormseed (Semen cimc, Semen sa/nz‘02z.zYc2T, Semen-contra) is given to the small unex- panded flowers of Ar2‘emisia raizliana, A. sat/berii, and A. z"nculz‘a.. The first (Levant wormseed) is indigenous in Per- sia and Asia Minor; the second (African or Barbary worm- seed) is found in Persia, Barbary, and Arabia: the third is said to furnish the East Indian wormseed. These varieties contain a volatile oil, an active principle (santonin or san- tonie acid; see SANTONIN), resin, with extractive matters, and other ordinary constituents of plants. The oil is pre- pared by distilling wormseed with water, and forms a yel- low or brownish-yellow liquid, possessing the peculiar dis- agreeable odor and aromatic burning taste of the plant. \Vormseed is employed in medicine as a vermifuge, but lately santonin has been generally used in its place. In the U. S. the seeds and oil of Cizenoporlz'um ambrosz'oz'des are most generally employed as an anthelmintic remedy. Revised by H. A. HARE. Vi"0I'1llW00(l [corrupted under influence of wood from M. Eng. wermocle < 0. Eng. werm6d : Germ. 'u'er*n2’zu‘7z, whence the Fr. has vermozd]: the leaves and flower-tops of the A/rtemzisifa absiatliium/, a perennial plant indigenous in Eu- rope, but naturalized in the U. S. It possesses a strong, peculiar odor and a very bitter unpleas-ant taste, which are imparted to its aqueous and alcoholic infusions. The dried plant furnishes by distillation a dark-greenish oil (oleu-m ab- sinz‘hz'z', C1oHmO), which is isomeric with ordinary camphor, 833 WORNUM has a specific gravity of 0982, and possesses the odor and taste of the plant. The bitter rinciple of wormwood (ab- sinthin, CQOHQSO4) forms a ye low, pulverulent mass, is neutral to test-papers, and has the odor and taste of worm- wood. The remaining constituents of wormwood are chlo- rophyll, albumen, fibrin, lignin, starch, and saline matters. It is occasionally employed externally in medicine as an antiseptic and discutient, and was formerly used also as a tonic. The volatile oil of Wormwood, upon which its active qualities depend, possesses narcotic properties, and if given in large dose produces epileptiform convulsions, and even death ; when mixed with oil of anise, fennel, etc., and dis- solved in alcohol, it forms the well-known liqueur ABSINTHE (q. /v.). Revised by H. A. HARE. Wornum, RALPH N101-IoLsoN: writer on fine art; b. at Thornton, Northumberland, England, Dec. 29, 1812; edu- cated at University College, London; became a portrait- painter in London; became lecturer on art to the Govern- ment schools of design 1848; librarian to those schools 1852, and keeper and secretary of the National Gallery 1855 ; au- thor of A Sketch of the H istory of Painting (1846; 4th ed. 1861) ; Analysis of Ornament (1856); The Epochs of Paint- ing, a Biograjahical and O’/ritical Essay on Painting and Painters of All Times (1864); and a Life of Ilolbein (1867) ; edited the Lectures on Painting by the Royal Academicians Barry, Fuseli, and Opie (1848). D. at I-Iampstead, Sept. 15, 1877. Worsaae, vor’saw, J ENS JACOB ASMUSSEN: archaeolo- gist; b. at Veile, Jutland, Denmark, Mar. 14, 1821; studied theology and law at Copenhagen, Scandinavian history and archaeology; traveled in Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany, and Italy, and was appointed Professor of North- ern Archzeology at the University of Copenhagen in 1854 ; director of the Museum of National Antiquities in 1861 ; and Minister of Public Education 1874-75. His principal works are Danmarhs Olcltirl (Copenhagen, 1843; translated into English by ‘W. J. Thorns as The Primeval Antiquities of Demnarh, 1849); Jlfintler om cle Danshe 0g N0rclmc'tn- rlene /i England, S/cotlancl cg Irlancl (1851 ; translated into English as An Account of the Danes and Norwegians in England. Scotlancl, and Ireland (1852); Den Danshe Ero- bring af England cg lVormancliet (1863); Om Danmarhs ticltigste Beby/ggelse (Concerning the Earliest Settlement of Denmark (1861); .Norclens Forhistortc (The Primitive His- tory of the North, 1881) etc. One work is translated into French——La Colonisation cle la Russie ct clu lV07’(Z Scan- dinaue, etc. (1875). D. at Holbttk, Zealand, Aug. 15, 1885. Revised by D. K. DODGE. hvorsllip [M. Eng. worschipe, 'wurZ5se'i]9e < 0. Eng. weorh- scipe, honorableness, honor; weorh, worth, honor + -sci,/cc, -ship]: the chief act of religion, and its natural expression. It is performed in various ways, from fetishism, the lowest form of human worship (see FETISH), to the highest adora- tion of him who is the Supreme Spirit. The objects of worship are God, angels, spirits of ances- tors, saints, powers and objects of nature such as the sun, moon, and stars, relics, pictures, idols, etc. Of the natural objects the sun enjoyed the greatest favor. The worship of Apollo, so popular among the Greeks, was really sun-wor- ship. Among the Phoenicians the sun was the center of their cultus, so with the Sabzeans; so with the Incas in Peru; and with many other tribes more or less advanced in civilization. The Schoolmen emphasized the distinction between latr/ia (service), rendered only to God, and idola- tria, rendered to images. (See IDOLATRY.) Later distinc- tions have been added—viz., clulia, to saints and angels-— hyyaerclulia, to the Virgin Mary. Every pagan worship centers in sacrifices. (See PAGAN- ISM.) They are offered to propitiate the divine favor and under a sense of guilt, or in thanksgiving, or to secure mercy and favor, or sometimes to serve as food or drink for the gods. Human sacrifices are ofl'ered under the notion that the most precious gift will buy the largest favor. As fire is deemed purifying, mysterious, and sacred, the high- est sacrifice is by burning. Similarly, in the Old Testa- ment, sacrifice appears at first as an expression of faith in a present God, as an act of propitiation and thanksgiving, and a pledge of a covenant. Blood is the life; therefore the best sacrifices are bloody. The offerings were of “clean” domestic animals, grain, fruits, wine, oil, etc., of- fered on altars of stone and earth or metal, in sacred places, under trees, groves, on “high-places”; later in the taber- nacle and the temple. Sacred times were sabbaths, new was laid at first on a particular order. NVO RSHIP moons, the feasts of the Passover, Pentecost, Atonement, Tabernaeles, Trumpets, Jubilee, Dedication, and Purim. (See FEAST.) In the completed temple-service to sacrifice were added prayer, praise, instrumental and vocal music, instruc- tion, purification ; also circumcision, vows, tithes, etc. The synagogue-service, in which prayer took the place of the sacrifices of the temple, consisted of (1) prayer, with writ- ten forms; (2) reading of Scripture in three parts——(a) Shema (three extracts from Numbers and Deuteronomy); (b) the Law; (0) Prophets; (3) expounding the Scriptures. Services were held Saturday, Monday, and Thursday, morn- ing, noon, and evening, and were conducted by the “ eld- ers,” ministers or “ angels,” and deacons. See SYNAGOGUE. The early Christians organized their services on the syna- gogue model. They met in priyate houses, or solitary places, or hired halls at any convenient and safe time. No stress They read from the Old Testament, explaining the passage in free discourse, in which at first all could join. They listened to the exhortation of some eye-witness of the Gospel history, or to some letter written by an apostle. Individual gifts were used under the promptin gs of the Spirit, according to mutual regard and util- ity. Singing and prayer followed. Then the love-feast (see AGAPZE) and the covenant supper were solemnized, the kiss of fraternal love was given, and the voluntary offerings were made. By the end of the second century the service was di- vided into the vntssa catechumcnorum, called “Scripture reading ”—in which were psalmody, Scripture lessons. the sermon, and some of the prayers—and the missa fitlelium, called “ prayers.” In the latter the prayers, which were all offered at the altar, were for consecration, for the whole Church, for the peace of the world, and all orders of men. There were also the Eucharist, hymns, thanksgivings. and doxologies. (See MASS.) By the third century Christian temples were frequent, and sometimes splendid. They were divided into the porch, nave—where the pulpit stood and the sacristy. (See CHURCH.) In the fourth century tri- umphant Christianity built magnificent churches or ap- propriated public buildings (see BASILICA), and adorned its clergy with peculiar costumes, kindled lights on the altars, used incense, and gave more attention to artistic music and responses. The agape was separated from the Lord‘s Sup- per and became a feast. With the union of Church and state the liturgical tendencies were rapidly developed, forms were multiplied, and the ministers came to be held as a peculiar class. See CLERGY. The public worship of the Church includes—(1) Prayer (see PRAYER), in the vernacular or some sacred though often unfamiliar tongue, written and formal or unstudied, standing or kneeling, rarely prostrate, with uncovered heads, with or without responses. (2) Reading of Scripture. (3) Preaching, exposition, exhortation, etc. (4) Singing, in the words of Scripture or human compositions, with or without instrumental accompaniment, by the congregation, or later by choirs. (See HYMNOLOGY.) “ Hymns are prayers in the festive dress of poetry,” tendered with music on account of the strong influence it exerts on the emotions. (5) Con- fession of faith. (6) Voluntary offerings; and (7) sacra- ments, which universally are two in number, baptism, the initiatory rite, and the Lord’s Supper, the rite of witness- ing and edification. The latter was celebrated every day, or every Lord’s Day, or at longer intervals. In the Greek and Roman Catholic Churches five sacraments are added to them, but they form no proper part of worship. (See SAC- R-AMENT.) Christian worship is held on the Lord‘s Day, or on daily or on yearly festivals or fasts which commemorate special events. The liturgical class emphasize the sacrificial side of wor- ship~—others, especially the Reformed churches, the didac- tic side. A multiplicity of ceremonies is commended, on the ground that they give expression to varied scntiments— that they enliven and increase devotion and piety by mov- ing the senses, and lead the illiterate more easily to a knowl- edge of the mysteries of religion. It is condemned on the ground that it diverts the attention from the simple princi- ples of worship, and that, as worship is a divine ordinance, nothing is to be allowed except that which is divinely or- dained. Worship implies the ascription of divine perfections to its object, the possession of such perfections giving the only claim for such homage. In the fourth century the worship of saints was developed from the veneration of martyrs. The worship of the Virgin Mary has gradually greatly in- creased from early days until it forms the distinctive feature WORSLEY of the modern Roman Catholic Church. The use of images (i. e. statues and pictures) was allowed by the Council of Nice (787), and the adoration of relics by the Council of Trent (1545). See the article IMAGE-WORSHIP. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Worsley, PI-IILIP STANHOPE: poet and translator; b. in Kent, England, about 1832; educated at Cholmeley School, Hlghgate, and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he was elected scholar 1854, and subsequentlyr fellow; took orders in the Church of England; gained the Newdigate prize for his poem, The Temple of Janus (1857); contrib- uted poems to Blaclewoocl; published a volume of Poems and Translations (1863): The Odyssey of Homer, translated into English Verse in the Gregorian Stanza (Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1861-62); and The Iliad of Homer, translated into English. Verse in the Spense’/"ian Stanza (vol. i., 1865), both of which have taken a high place among the versions of Homer. D. at Freshwater Bay, Isle of \Vight, May 8, 1866. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Worsted : See WooL AND WooI.E-N IHANUFACTURES. YV'(i1"th, o6rt : village of Alsace, with 1,014 inhabitants in 1890; at the junction of the Sulzbach and the Sauerbach (see map of France, ref. 3—I). It is noted as the point where the first decisive encounter took place between the French and German armies Aug. 6, 1870. The principal point in the French position was Frilschweiler, a village on the road between \V6rth and Reichshofen. See FRANCO- GERMAN WAR. Worth, WILLIALI J ENKINS2 soldier; b. at Hudson, N. Y., Mar. 1, 1794; fought in the war of 1812, and rose to the rank of captain in 1815. Appointed colonel of the Eighth Infantry July, 1838, he commanded the northern depart- ment during the insurrectionary movement on the Canada border 1888-39. In 1840 he was ordered to Florida, and in 1841 placed in command of the army there. During this and the next year the hostile Seminoles were subdued, and the greater part of them removed to the Indian 'I‘erritory. For gallantry and highly distinguished services in Florida he was breveted brigadier-general Mar. 1, 1842, and retained in command of the department of Florida until 1846, when again called to the field by the outbreak of the war with Mexico. III the battle of Monterey his command stormed the heights commanding the Bishop’s Palace, and carried the palace itself. He further distinguished himself at Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, Chapultepec, and in the storming of the city of Mexico. For his services at Monte- rey, Congress presented him with a sword of honor, and sim- ilar testimonials were bestowed upon him by his native State and county, and by the State of Louisiana. D. at San An- tonio, Tex., May 7, 1849. A handsome memorial monument was erected by the city of New York at the junction of Broadway and Fifth Avenue, beneath which rest his remains. Wortl1en,WII.LI.iII EZRA: civil engineer; b. at Ames- bury, Mass., Mar. 14, 1819; graduated at Harvard College 1838, and prior to 1849 was engaged in hydraulic surveys and constructions in Massachusetts. In 1850 he began work in New York city as an architect and engineer, designed the floating grain-docks for the Erie Railway at Jersev City, the dam over the Mohawk river at Cohoes, many large buildings, and the water-works of several cities. He built the first pumping-engine at High Bridge, New York city, and acted as consulting engineer for ‘several cities and important commissions. He is the author of papers on hydraulic and sanitary subjects, and in 1887 he was presi- dent of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He has published Q1/elopcedia of Drawing (New York. 1857) ; First Lessons in 1l[ee/zanies (1862) ; and .Rudimentar3/ Dra/unng for Schools (1863). l\I.INsFIELI) l\‘.lEItR-IMAN. ' W0rthing: town; county of Sussex, England; on the English Channel; 10 miles \V. of Brighton and 56 miles S. S. W. of London (see map of England, ref. 14—~J). It is a fashionable watering-place and winter resort; it has a beautiful promenade along the shore, and a pier 320 yards long. Fruit-growing under glass is extensively carried on. Pop. (1891) 16,606. W01‘tllil1g't0l1 : town (laid out in 1853) ; Greene co., Ind.; at- the junction of the ‘White and Eel rivers, and on the Evans. and Terre Haute and the Pitts, Cin.. Chi. and St. L. railways; 46 miles N. E. of Vincennes, 71 miles S. W’. of Indianapolis (for location, see map of Indiana, ref. 9—C). It is an important shipping-point for corn, wheat, and live stock, and has 4 churches, public high school, 2 private banks, wouuns 839 2 weekly newspapers, and flour, woolen, planing, and saw mills. Pop. (1880) 1,185 ; (1890) 1,448 ; (1895) estimated, 2,100, EDITOR or “ SEJII-WEEKLY TIMES.” Worthington : village : capital of Nobles co., Minn. ; on the Burl., Cedar Rap. and North. and the Chi., Minn., St. P. and Om. railways; 30 miles S. ‘V. of Windsor, 92 miles N. E. of Sioux City, Ia. (for location, see map of Minne- sota, ref. 11—B). It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, near Lake Okabena, and has a public hall, public li- brary, flour-mill, elevator, a State bank with capital of $50.- 000, a private bank, and a daily and three weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 636; (1890) 1,164; (1895) estimated, 2,400. EDITOR OF " ADVANCE.” Wotton, Sir HENRY! diplomatist and author; b. at Boc- ton or Boughton Malherbe, Kent, Mar. 80, 1568: educated at Winchester School, at New College and Queen's College, Oxford; spent several years (1589-97) on the Continent, and became well acquainted with Italian literature, science, and art; was for some time secretary to Robert Devereux. Earl of Essex, whom he accompanied to Spain and Ireland, and at whose fall (1600) he took the precaution to revisit Italy, whence he was dispatched by Ferdinand I., Grand Duke of Tuscany, to warn King James of a plot against his life 1602; made his way to Scotland in disguise vii Norway, under the assumed name of “ Ottavio Baldi ”; delivered his message to that monarch at Stirling, gaining his favor; re- turned to Florence; went to England on the accession of James, by whom he was knighted, and sent as ambassador to Venice (1604); was in the diplomatic service almost con- tinuously for twenty years, chiefly at Venice: returned to England with broken fortunes 1624, and became provost of Eton College in 1625. D. at Eton in Dec., 1639. His Poems have been many times reprinted, usually in connection with those of Raleigh, but he is best known by his miscellaneous remains, entitled ReZ'iq’u/ire llbttonianoe (1651), edited by his friend Izaak YValton, who prefixed a Life. Other of his works were The Elements of Arohfiteeture (1624) and The State of Christendom (1657). W0tt0n, IVILLIAM, D.D.: linguist and author; b. at YVrentham, Suffolk, England, Aug. 13, 1666: was able at five years of age to translate chapters and psalms from the Hebrew, Greek. and Latin into English—attainments which were minutely described by his father in a pamphlet pub- lished the following year (1672) ; was admitted to Catherine Hall, Cambridge, in his tenth year, when Dr. John Eachard, master of the college, certified (Apr. 1, 1676) that his classical attainments were equal to those of Hammond or Grotius: graduated as bachelor of arts at twelve years of age (1679), at which time he was acquainted with twelve languages, and was able to repeat an entire sermon after a single hearing; became fellow of St. J ohn’s College, Cam- bridge, 1685: took orders in the Church of England, and was presented with the sinecure living of Llandrillo. Den- bighshire, 1691; became chaplain to the Earl of Notting- ham, who gave him the rectory of Middleton Kevnes. Buckinghamshire, 1698 ; was made prebendarv of Salisbury 1705; retired to his lVelsh living 1714, and was able sooh afterward to preach in \Velsh; author of Reflections upon Ancient and fl[ode»rn Learning (London, 1694; 3d ed. 17 05) ; The Ifistory of Rome from the Death of Ant0nz'nus Pius to the Death of Severus Alezvander (1701); Jl[z'seella/neous Discourses /relating to the Traditions and Usoges of the Scribes and Pharisees (2 vols., 1710). translated from the Mishna; and editor of the Laws of _Howel the Good (1730), in \Velsh and Latin, with a glossary. D. at Buxted, Essex, Feb. 13, 17 26. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wounds [O. Eng. /urand : Germ. wunde; cf. Goth. erinnan, suffer pain] : injuries classified according to their nature as (1) punctured wounds, made with pointed instruments: (2) incised wounds, produced by cutting instruments or sharp edges; (3) lacerated wounds, in which the borders of the wound are irregular, ragged, and torn. and the result of great force, injuries by dull instruments, or tearing; (-1) contused wounds, which are accompanied by much bruis- ing ; (5) poisoned wounds, in which either an animal venom or virus, or some impure, poisonous, or irritating matter has gamed entrance to the injured tissues and contami- nated the blood; and (6) gunshot wounds, which as a rule are penetrating and may be lacerated, but differ from other wounds, owing to the character of the missile, the shock they give to the part and to the nervous system, and the grave complications to which they are liable. Centu- sions are also classed with wounds, but the contusion is not 3,40 WOUVERMAN properly a wound, since there is no actual solution of con- tinuity of the flesh, unless it be an abrasion of the skin. The tissues at the seat of a contusion are often seriously in- jured, many minute blood-vessels are ruptured, and the escaped blood, settling in the tissues, causes an ecchymosis, a black or blue-black mottling of the part. As the blood is decomposed and slowly absorbed this color changes to blackish green, greenish yellow, dark leather-color and lighter shades, till it disappears. I11 other contusions there is subcutaneous laceration of tissues, or such shock to their vitality that they speedily disintegrate, and the devitalized part sloughs in a mass or becomes the seat of ulcers. Punctured wounds are relatively the most serious class, for they are often poisoned by the entrance, if not of venom or virus, of foreign matter, as rust, dust, splinters, clothing, ete., which cause suppuration at the bottom of the deep puncture, and lead to grave inflammation, erysipelas, and contamination of the blood by retained unhealthy fluids. The punctured wound is to be well washed, cleansed of all blood-clots and dirt, and if deep, or in the vicinity of dense fibrous tissue, as in the hand or foot, or near joints, must sometimes be freely cut and converted into an incised wound. Incised wounds heal in several ways. They heal most promptly and simply when perfectly smooth, clean out, free from clotted blood, and in the flesh of persons in perfect health. Thus a clean cut whose borders do not gape or separate may, if instantly closed and sealed from the air by plaster or collodion, heal in a few hours, and approxi- mately warrant the designation immediate union, or union by first intention. More often a day or two is re- quired; the wound, being cleansed of clots or foreign mat- ter, is exposed for a moment to the air, and closed either by adhesive plaster or stitches of silk, catgut, silkworm gut, or silver wire. The opposed surfaces are glazed over by a film of lymph, containing cells supposed to be identical with the white blood-corpuscles, and this, filling the interspaec, agglutinates the walls of the wound and organizes a firm scar or cicatrix of fibrous tissue. Such speedy healing is termed union by adhesion, or primary union. When a wound has been lacerated, or a considerable area of tissue has been removed, the deficit has to be made up by a slower process of new tissue-growth; new cells develop one by one, in superimposed strata, until the level of the surface is reached, when the skin begins to heal and shoot over the raw area. This is the process of healing by granulation, or by second intention, far slower than the others, and, if the wound be large, a severe tax upon the strength and health of the patient. In lacerated wounds the more ragged points, if left, will be destroyed by sloughing before the wound can begin to heal, and the delay often converts the wound into a suppurating, weak, indolent ulcer; there- fore it is better, in some cases, to remove the irregularities and convert the injuries into incised wounds, either straight or irregular, which can be brought together and heal. When an incised wound has failed of union by adhesion, its walls become covered with granulations, when they may sometimes be approximated and soon unite, constituting the process of union by secondary adhesion or by third inten- tion. In granulation the growth of tissue may become ex- uberant and rise above the surrounding healing parts, or even the healthy intact surface. Such excess of granulation is popularly termed proud flesh. It must be reduced by use of astringents or compression, or destroyed by caustics, and the site stimulated to a healthier action. Poisoned wounds, as a rule, should be laid freely open by incision, treated by disinfectant lotions, and the general strength of the patient sustained by diet, tonics, and stimulants. Contusions are usually best treated by soothing lotions, as lead-water and laudanum, which may be applied cold or warm, as most agreeable to the patient. The healing of a wound is facili- tated by pure air, regular hours for sleep, plain but nutri- tious diet, and abstinence from alcohol. Revised by JOHN Asrrnunsr, Jr. Wouverman. wow’ver-ma”an, PHILIPS: painter; b. at Haarlem, Netherlands, 1619; was baptized May 24. He was pupil of his father, Paulus Joosten Wouverman, a painter of whom no work has been identified. He studied landscape under I/Vynants. His work also shows the influ- ence of Andries Both and Pieter van Laer. In 1640 he en- tered the guild of painters of Haarlem, of which he was elected dean for 1645-46. VVouverman’s pictures are chiefly landscapes with figures of men and animals. He was espe- cially fond of introducing horses, and painted hunting scenes WRASSE or fighting cavalry. He is supposed never to have left his native Haarlem, but the character of some of his landscapes would seem to contradict this supposition. VVouverman was a prolific painter, and his works are to be found in most collections. D. at Iilaarlem, May 19, 1668. Pieter and Jan Wouverman were younger brothers of Philips, and also painted landscapes. See portrait and biography of \Vouver- man, I:1l/lstom‘c Gallery of Porlra/lts (vol. iii.). . J . S. Wrack, or Sea-wrack : names applied to many seaweeds, especially to the Fucacece, useful as manures and as sources of iodine; also to wrack-grass, eel-grass, or grass-wrack, Zoslera m(w'z'nct, a naiadaeeous plant useful as manure, and extensively used for packing glass and pottery. Wrangel, ora“ang'el, FERDINAND, Baron, von : explorer; b. in Esthonia, Dec. 29, 1796 ; was educated in the naval acad- emy of St. Petersburg; accompanied Capt. Golownin on his journey around the world 1817-19; commanded an expedi- tion to the Polar Sea Nov. 2,1820-Aug. 15, 1824; made a second voyage around the world 1825-27; was governor of the Russian possessions in North America 1829-34, and re- ceived on his return various high positions in the naval de- partment, and was made an admiral. D. at Dorpat, June 6, 1870. His account of his polar expedition was published in Russian (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1841), but an extract from his diaries appeared in German in 1839, and was translated into English by Mrs. Sabine in 1840-ll/'rcmgeZl’s Earpedl- tion to the Polar Sea /in 1820-25’. See von Engelhardt, Ferclmancl /von ll/'rangel und seine Relse (Leipzig, 1885). W1'angel, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ERNST, Count von: gen- eral; b. at Stettin, Pomerania, Apr. 13, 1784; served in the Napoleonic wars, and rose rapidly in the service. attaining the rank of major-general in 1823. In the Danish war of 1848 he commanded the troops of the German Confedera- tion, and in the same year he put down the insurrection in Berlin. In 1856 he was made general field-marshal. On the outbreak of the Danish war in Jan., 1864, he held the chief command of the allied Prussian and Austrian troops; but in the following May gave up the direction of the cam- paign to Prince Frederick Charles. D. in Berlin, Nov. 1, 1877. Wrangel, KARLGUSTAF, Count: soldier; b. Dec.13,1613, at Skokloster, the family estate, on Lake M ii-lar, near Upsala, Sweden; received a military education, and fought iii the Thirty Years’ war under Gustavus Adolphus, Bernhard of Saxe-VVeimar, Banér, and Torstensson. In 1644, after the death of Admiral Fleming, he received the command of the Swedish fleet which was destined to join the Dutch fleet and carry the Swedish army from the Danish peninsula to the islands, defeated the Danes off the island of Femern Oct. 11, and shut them up in the Bay of Kiel. In 1646 he was made commander-in-chief of the Swedish force in Ger- many; joined Turenne, and defeated the Austro-Bavarian forces repeatedly. Under Charles X. he commanded in the campaigns in Poland (1655) and in Denmark (1657-59), and in 1674 led the army of 16,000 men which suddenly in- vaded the country of the Elector of Brandenburg, who was a member of the coalition against Louis XIV. and was en- gaged with his whole force in the Rhine countries. But W'rangel’s health failed, the elector hastened back with as- tonishing rapidity, and the Swedes were defeated at Rathe- now and Fehrbelin, and driven out of Brandenburg. D. in the island of Riigen, June 24, 1676. Wrangler [so called from the public disputations in which candidates for degrees were formerly required to take part; from deriv. of wmlng < O. Eng. eorlngan, torcmg] : one of the first class of honormen of the mathematical tripos in the University of Cambridge, England. The number of these is not limited. The first of them is called the senior wrangler. See TRIPOS. ‘ Wrasse [cf. Welsh gwmclzen in gzomclien y m6r, wrasse] : a name commonly applied in Great Britain to sea-fishes of the genus Labrus, family Lalmldrc. They have Spiny fins, large thin scales, and the form, generally speaking, some- what perch-like, with the back more straight. The mouth is protrusible, with thick, fleshy lips, folded so as to appear double. The dorsal fin is long and single; the spines of its anterior portion are surmounted with short membranous fila- ments, while those of the posterior portion have short and split rays. It generally frequents deep rocky gullies where the water is tolerably tranquil, and takes bait freely The colors are generally very brilliant, but fade quickly when the fish is taken out of the water. The species are numerous, WRATH, CAPE not large, and mostly inferior as food. The ballan wrasse or oldwife (L. macalatus) is one of the most common kinds. It attains a length of about 18 inches and a weight of more than 3 lb. It is bluish green, paler on the belly, all the scales margined more or less broadly with orange red, the blue prevailing in some specimens and the orange in others. It feeds on crustaceans, molluscs, and marine worms. See FISHERIES. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Wrath, Cape: See CAPE ‘/VRATH. Wratislaw, ALBERT IIENRY: author and divine; b. in England about 1822 of Bohemian parentage; educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge; graduated in 1844; became head master of Felstead Grammar School in 1849, and of that at Bury St. Edmund’s in 1857. In 1879 he resigned his position as head master, and became vicar of Manorbier, near Tenby, in Pembrokeshire, but resigned on account of ill health in 1887. Besides a number of school-books and re- ligious treatises, he published many volumes of poems and prose translated from the Czech and other Slavonic lan- guages, and thus became the principal promoter of knowl- edge of this important branch of studies in England. H1s more important works are Lyra Czeeho-Slocanshja (Boh. poems transl., 1849) ; The Qaeen’s C'oart]l1SS., with other Ancient Bohemian Poems (1852; from the collection dis- covered in 1817 at Kralové Dvor, Kiiniginhof); Barabbas the Scape-goal (sermons, 1859); Notes and Dissertations on Scrijatare (1863): Atlventares of Baron W'ratislaw of Zllitrovicz in his Captivity in Constantinople and Diary of an Embassy from King George (Pocliebrad) of Bohemia to Louis XI. of France in 1464 (both trans. from Czech) ; Life, Legend, and Canonization of St. John l\Iepomu7t (1873); Lectures on Bohemian Literature (1878); Life of John Has (1882); Sixty Fol/.;-tales from Slaronic Sources (1889). Revised by HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Wraxall, Sir NATHANAEL WILLIAM, Bart. : statesman and author; b. at Bristol, England. Apr. 8, 1751; was employed in civil and military service in India 1769-72; traveled for several years in Europe; was confidential agent of Caroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark. in her negotiations with her brother, George III., 1774-75; entered Parliament 1780; was created a baronet1813; was imprisoned three months in 1815 for a libel on Count NVoronzow, Russian envoy to England, in an autobiography published in that year. He was the author of several amusing volumes of anecdotical history, including Illemoirs of the Kings of France of the House of Valois (2 vols., 1777); Histoziy of France from ]Ienry III. to Louis XIV. (3 vols., 1795); It’Ie2noirs of the Courts of Berlin, Dresden, I/Varsaw, andI Vienna 1?'77'—7'.9 (2 vols., 1799); Ifistorical Illemo i/rs of flIy Own Time, 1772- 84 (2 vols., 1815; 3d ed., revised. 3 vols., 1818); and Posthu- mous Memoirs of his Own Time, 1784-90 (3 vols., 1836: 3d ed. 1845; new ed. of whole work, 5 vols., 1884). D. at Dover, Nov. 7, 1831. Wray, Jenn: See RAY. ‘Wreck [doublet of wraeh, ruin, also seaweed < O. Eng. zrrcec, distress, exile (or Scaudin. reh, anything driven ashore), from same root as O. Eng. wrecan, punish, drive > Eng. wreak : Germ. rtichen : Goth. wri/;an, punish; proba- bly akin to Gr. etpyezv, constrain, Sanskr. r_ry'-; akin is Eng. wretch] : at common law, vessels or parts of vessels or goods cast by the sea upon the land, within the limits of a county and there left. It is said by many writers that at earlv common law wreck belonged to the king, without regard to the claims of the owner; and that the statutes of Henry I., of Henry II.,.and Edward I. modified this rule by per- mitting the owner to recover his property provided a per- son or animal escaped from the wreck alive. Such was not the view of Lord Coke, who agrees with Bracton that the king shall have wreck as he shall have great fish, because none claims the property; that wreck is estray on the sea coming to land, as estray of beasts is on the land coming within any privileged place ; and the law gives in both cases a year and a day to claim them. \Vhether wrecked prop- erty was forfeited by the owner to the crown or its grantees because no live animal came ashore was carefully consid- ered by Lord Mansfield in ]Iamilton vs. Davis, 5 Burrows, 2732 (A. D. 1771). He declared no case had been produced on the argument to prove such forfeiture. In Great Britain the general superintendence of all matters relating to wreck is now confided by statute to the Board of Trade. In the U. S. common-law wrecks are matters of State jurisdiction generally, although the licensing of vessels to engage in WREN 841 wrecking, the disposition of property wrecked on certain coasts, and the control of the life-saving service are proper subjects for federal legislation. (See U. S. Revised Statutes, 4239, 4240, 4241, 5358.) A fair sample of State legislation upon this subject is found in the New York Town Law of 1890 (ch. 569, §§ 137-150). The term is also applied, in the law of marine insurance, to a ship so injured at sea as to become unnavigable, or unable to pursue her voyage without repairs exceeding the half of her value. See FLOTSAM, J nrsan, and Lrea.v. FRANCIS M. BURDICK. W1‘ede,'vra’de,K.iR.L PHILIPP,Pl’lT1C6t Bavarian field-mar- shal ; b. at Heidelberg, Apr. 29, 1767; studied jurisprudence at the university there, and in 1792 became assessor to the higher court. In the following year he was chosen commis- sioner for the Palatinate to the Austrian army. After serving in this capacity for five years, he raised a corps of troops with which he joined the Austrian forces, and fought in the campaigns of 1799 and 1800. On the re- turn of peace he organized the Bavarian army. and when war broke out anew fought on the side of the French against his former allies, the Austrians. In the campaign that ended at Austerlitz he distinguished himself in sev- eral battles, but more particularly in the campaign of 1809 and in his pacification of the Tyrol. Napoleon re- warded him with the rank of field-marshal, and made him a count of the empire. I11 the retreat from Mos- cow he commanded the Bavarian forces; but with the change in Napoleon's fortunes Bavaria returned to the side of his enemies, signing a treaty with the allies on Oct. 8, 1813, and in the ensuing campaigns \Vrede was again fight- ing against the French. At the head of some 40.000 men he tried to cut off Napoleon‘s retreat at Hanan (Oct. 30-31), but was defeated. In the campaign of 1814, however. he was successful, and after the war was made field-marshal and prince by the Bavarian Government. He was after- ward active in Bavarian politics. and held several impor- tant diplomatic positions. D. at Ellingen, in Bavaria, Dec. 12, 1838. F. M. COLBY. Wren [O. Eng. zrrenna, u'r(Z)nna.]: any member of the family Troglodyticlte. a group of song birds having ten primaries. a slender bill, and scutell-ate tarsi. They vary in appearance and habits, but the plumage is generally more or less brown with fine dark bars, and the birds pass much of their time on or near the ground, some being partial to marshes, where they build large round nests among the rushes. Others nest in bushes, hollow stumps, or holes in branches. The eggs are six or eight in number, usually white with fine reddish spots, and two or three broods are raised in a season. None is found in Africa, and only fifteen species in Europe and Asia, while nearly 150 species occur in America. their headquarters being in the tropics. Fourteen species with nine sub-species dwell in the limits of the U. S. The common European species, Troylodytes parrulus, is, next to the kinglet, the smallest bird in Europe; its nearest relative in the U. S. is the winter wren, T. hie- malis, a little bird found over the greater portion of North America. It is shy, with short wings and a shorter tail: dark brown above, whitish below. barred with blackish. The house wren, T roylodytes aédon, is another common species, often nesting in boxes. The cactus wren, (‘am- pylorlzynclzus Z))‘Z£7272€iC(I}7illZl8, of the southwest, is a large species. 8 inches long, and a representative of numerous Central and South American forms. See the article Nnsrs or BIRDS. F. A. Lucas. ‘W1'e11,C1-mrsrornsa, Sir: architect; b. at East Knoyle, \Viltshire, England, 1632. He entered \Yadham College. Oxford, graduated 1650 and was made fellow of All Souls College. Oxford, in 1653. and Savilian Professor of Astron- omy 1660. At Oxford he made a great reputation as a geo- metrieian. In view of his mathematical reputation he was much consulted in matters of building. Architecture. which had been little regarded in the reign of Charles I.. scarcely existed during the civil wars and under the Commonwealth. Immediately after the restoration of Charles II. lVren served on a commission for the repair and partial rebuilding of old St. Paul‘s, the Gothic cathedral of London. The next year (1664) he began his first building. the chapel of Pembroke College at Cambridge. which his uncle Matthew YVren. Bishop of Ely, intended to be a memorial of his release from the Tower, where he had been imprisoned for eighteen years. The next year he began the Sheldonian theater at Oxford. The building is intended to imitate a Roman theater, at 842 least in its general proportions, and the ceiling was made fiat, perhaps to suggest the awning stretched over the un- roofed ancient building. The library of Trinity College at Cambridge was begun in 1665, though not finished for many years. In 1665 l/Vren went to France, where he made the acquaintance of Bernini and Francois Mansart. The Great Fire in London in Sept., 1666, gave him at this time a sin- gular opportunity for impressing his ideas of architecture upon a whole community. The Cathedral of St. Paul was entirely ruined, and it was proposed new, as it had been be- fore the fire, to rebuild the church in what the architects of the seventeenth century supposed to be the Gothic style. VVren’s first design showed a large dome surrounded by small ones arranged almost in a ring; another small dome covered a vestibule, into which access was given through a portico of columns. This design, combining many Byzan- tine features with a Roman exterior in one order and kept down to the dimensions of the model, about 450 feet in length, would have resulted in a noble church of the second class, and one of the most interesting buildings in Europe. The design was abandoned, however, when in 1675 the first stone was laid and the larger and longer church now exist- ing was begun. Previous to this, and probably in consider- ation of his services as adviser and engineer in the matter of laying out the rebuilt city of London, he had been knighted. In 1681 he was made president of the Royal So- ciety, in 1697 the choir of the cathedral was open for serv- ice, in 1710 the last stone was put in place. During all these years Wren was engaged upon public and private buildings, of which he undertook more than by any possi- bility one man could design or direct. It is hardly an exag- gcration to say that every important building, at least in the south of England or in the vicinity of London, from 1666 until about 1710, was put in his hands. He built Win- chester Palacc, which is now used as a barrack, a large addi- tional structure to Wolsey’s Palace at Hampton Court, and Chelsea Hospital, and began the great hospital at Green- wich. He built the town-hall at Windsor, Marlborough House and Buckingham House in London, the Royal Ex- change, the Custom-house, the Ashmolean Museum at Ox- ford, Queen’s College chapel at the same place; and at Cambridge, Trinity College Library, as well as Pembroke College chapel, named above. His most notable work, how- ever, is the great series of churches in London and else- where which Wren carried out during his forty-five years of active practice. Of these may be named St. Michael’s, lornhill; St. Bride’s, Fleet Street; St. Mary-le-Bon, with its remarkable and much admired steeple; St. Stephcn’s, \/Valbrook, with an interesting vaulted interior and a large cupola; St. Lawrence, Jewry, whose interior is a noble and beautiful hall about 70 feet in clear span and over 80 feet long with a fiat ceiling 40 feet above the floor-—all these in London. Another much admired London church is St. J ames’s, Piccadilly, of which the elaborate vaulted roof, praised by writers on architecture for its proportions, is in reality a piece of carpenter work with sham vaults, and even with this the supports below the gallery are very large square piers used as pedestals for the columns above. Wren was never very careful about such constructional mat- ters as these. ‘Wren sat in Parliament for many years during his later life. Throughout the reigns of James II., William III., and Anne he was kept constantly busy in public duties of many kinds. The actual work of his office had to be done by his assistants, and attempts have been made to distinguish in the architectural work under Wren’s name the designs of these different artists. Wren died in 1723 and was buried under the choir of St. Paul’s Cathedral. In the choir above was placed the tablet, now- removed to another part of the church, which bears the well-known inscription, " Si monu- mentum requiris circumspice.” See B’L'0'(]’)‘(Y/)9]?/7/'(£8 by James Elmes and by Miss Phillimore. RUSSELL STURGIS. Wrestling: an athletic sport in which each of the two contestants endeavors to threw his opponent to the ground. It is one of the oldest as well as the most universal of ath- lctic exercises. It flourished most among the ancients, and was a prominent feature of the Olympian games. Among the Greeks, the competitors trained for months prior to the competition, and the victor was feted, processions formed in his honor, special privileges were conferred upon him, and in some of the cities his statue was placed in one of the temples. Most famous among the ancient wrestlers was Milo of Croton, six times the winner at the wrestling competitions WRESTLING at both Olympian and Isthmian games. Among the earliest Jewish records are references to wrestling long before the era of history, and sculpture takes us back still further into the antiquity of this particular form of sport. 1lomer’s ac- count of the match between Ajax and Ulysses (Iltaol, 23- 710) is probably the most perfect account that remains to us of these ancient competitions. Pausanias states that Theseus made the first wrestling rules. During the Ho- meric age the wrestlers were naked with the exception of the loin cloth. This custom continued until t-he fifteenth Olympiad. In the time of Solon oiling and dusting were practiced, and there seems to have been some especial signifi- cance attached to the dusting process, since we read that dust brought from certain localities was much more highly prized by the wrestlers than that from others. In Argos flute music for a time accompanied the wrestling. There were two distinct types of wrestling among the ancients, one where the competitors stood and struggled for a fall, and the other, in which the competition might still go on after the competitor was upon the ground. until a specified part of the body was on the ground. Falling on the face did not constitute a fall. If a man was thrown three times from the standing position he was beaten. Wrestling for boys was introduced at the Olympian games and at Athens, Elusinia, and Thesea. The old Greek rules forbade striking and kicking, but allowed breaking of fingers, throttling, etc. \Vrestling competitions were popular in the olden times in the British isles, and contests were held annually in London on St. J ames’s Day, at which time we find a ram was offered for the prize. Another prize commonly offered in Old Eng- land was a cock. In later times some distinct kinds of wrestling have been developed, in both Great Britain and the U. S. One of the best known of the English styles, is that practiced in Cum- berland and Westmoreland, and is known under this com- bined name. Here the competitors usually dressed in close- fitting and becoming costumes. The rules compelled them to stand chest to chest, each placing his chin on his oppo- nent’s right shoulder, and grasping him around the body, each placing his left hand above the right of his antagonist. If either party breaks his hold, though not on the ground, the one so letting go is the loser. If either touch the ground with any part of the body except the feet, he shall be deemed the loser. Another famous style is that of the Cornish and Devon- shire men. The greatest rivalry exists between Cornwall and Devon. I-l ere kicking was formerly allowed, and heavy- soled shoes, sometimes with thin steel plating inserted within the leather, were worn, so that the injuries resulting from the game were serious. The judging is exceedingly diffi- cult, and the amount of quarreling resulting therefrom has brought the Cornish and Devonshire wrestling into disfavor. It is required that both hips and one shoulder, or both shoulders and one hip (or sometimes both shoulders and both hips) reach the ground simultaneously, and this before any other portion (as the arm or knee) of either thrower or thrown reaches it. The Lancashire style is the roughest of all the English wrestling. It allows catching by the legs, wrestling on the ground, and other equally objectionable features. The wres- tlers combat in stockinged feet, and are not allowed to scratch, strike, or maim. A fall is constituted by both shoulders touching the ground. The Scotch style is largely modeled after that of the Lancashire. In the French style the wrestlers are allowed to take held from the head to the waist. Tripping is prohibited. Com- petitors are not allowed to strike, scratch, or to clasp hands, although they may grasp their own wrists or other portions of their own bodies. They may not wrestle bare-footed, but in the stocking. If one of the wrestlers falls on his knee, shoulder, or side, he must begin again. The one whose shoulders first touch the ground is the loser, providing both shoulders are on the ground at the same time. The German style is a struggle on the ground. The wrestlers can catch hold of the legs, or indeed anywhere be- low the waist. This wrestling starts with the men standing erect, but is usually finished by a competition on the ground, an effort being made to turn the fallen man so that his shoulders may rest upon the ground. The Graeco-Roman is not much favored. Like some of the previous styles it allows only of the clasping of the body above the waist, and does not permit of wrestling upon the ground. WREXHAM The much more popular style is the catch-as-catch-can. Here all brutal playing is barred by the rules, and yet there is always more or less savage work that is really unsports- manlike. The competitor may twist a head or a foot to the extremes of safety, but it is always within the power of the sufferer to relieve himself from the punishment by admit- ting a fall. In this, as in the Greece-Roman style, a fall is lost when both shoulders touch the ground. See J . P. Mahaify’s Old Greek Education, Fencing, Bom- ing, and lVrestling, in the Badminton Library (London and New York); and Strutt’s Sports and Pastimes of the Eng- lish People. E. HITCHCOCK, Jr. Wl‘eXhaln : town; in Denbighshire, North Wales ; 12 miles S. W. of Chester (see map of England, ref. 8-F). It has a fine church of the fifteenth century with a finely dec- orated tower 135 feet high, rich coal and lead mines in the vicinity, and extensive breweries, iron-works, and paper- mills. Pop. (1891) 12,552. Wright, CARROLL DAVIDSON, M. A.: statistician; b. at Dunbarton, N. H., July 25, 1840; received an academic edu- cation; began the study of law 1860; enlisted as a private in the Fourteenth Regiment, New Hampshire Volunteers, 1862, and became in December, 1864, colonel of the regi- ment; 1865 returned to the study of law in Boston, and was admitted to the bar in New Hampshire in the same year. In 1871 he was elected to the State Senate of Massachusetts and served two terms. In 1873 he became chief of the bu- reau of statistics of labor~of Massachusetts, which position he held until Sept., 1888. In this position he developed a system of labor statistics which became the model for all similar work. In 1875 and 1885 he had charge of the census of Massachusetts, and in the latter year was appointed U. S. commissioner of labor. He has lectured on statistical and social subjects before several universities. In 1895 he was appointed Professor of Political Science in the Catholic Uni- versity of America, Washington, D. C. He has published Annual Reports of the fllassachnsetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor (15 vols., Boston, 1873-88); Census of J[assachn- setts (3 vols., 1876-77) ; The Statistics of Boston (1882); The Factory System of the United States (VVashington, 1882); The Census of Jlfassachasetts (4 vols., Boston, 1887-88) ; Re- ports of the United States Commissioner of Labor, including Industrial Depressions (Washington, 1886); Convict Labor (1886); St/ri/ses and Lochonts (1887); TVorhing lVomen in Large Cities (1888); Railroad Labor (1889); J1'[ar'riage and Divorce (1889) ; Cost of Production of Iron, Steel, etc. (1890) ; Cost of Production of Teretiles and Glass (1892); and The Industrial Evolution of the United States (Meadville, Pa., 1895); besides numerous pamphlets. C. H. THURBER. W1'igl1t,ELizUn: journalist; b. at South Canaan, Conn., Feb. 12, 1804; graduated at Yale College 1826 ; taught in the Lawrence Academy at Groton, Mass., 1827-28; was Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in \Vestern Reserve College 1829-33; became secretary of the American Anti- Slavery Society 1833; edited the paper Tlaman Rights 1834-35 and the Quarterly Anti-Slavery jllagazine 1837-38; removed to Boston 1838; became editor of the _il[assachn- setts Abolilionist Apr., 1839, of the Daily Chronotype 1845, and of its successor, the Boston Coininonwealth, 1850; he also edited for short periods the Boston Daily Chronicle and the American Railway Times; was commissioner of insurance for Massachusetts 1858-66; translated La Fon- taine’s Fables (2 vols., Boston, 1841 ; 2d ed. New York, 1859) : wrote an introduction to \Vhittier’s Ballads and other Poems (London, 1844); Savings Bank Life Insurance nith. Illustrative Tables (1872); The Politics and Jllysteries of Life Insurance (1873) ; contributed to the Atlantic jlfonthli/, and published several anti-slavery pamphlets. D. at Med- ford, Mass, N ov. 22, 1885. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wright, FANNYZ See D’Aausnonr, Faascns. Wright, GEORGE FREDERICIC, D. D., LL. D : theologian and geologist; b. at VVhitehall. N. Y., June 22, 1838; graduated at Oberlin College 1859, and at Oberlin Theological Seminary 1862; served in the Union army in the civil war (1860); be- came pastor at Bakersville, V t., 1862, and at Andover, Mass. 1872. He was made Professor of New Testament Literature in Oberlin Theological Seminary in 1881. In 1881 he was assistant geologist on the Pennsylvania survey, and since 1884 has been connected with the U. S. survey in the divi- sion of glacial geology. He has published The Glacial Boundary in Ohio. etc. (Cleveland, 1884); also The Logic of Christian Evidences (Andover, 1880): Studies in Science WRIGHT 843 and Religion (1882); The Relation of Death to Probation (1882); The Divine Authority of the Bible (Boston, 1884). He is an editor of The Bibliotheca Sacra. G. P. P. Wright, Hoaano GOVERNEIJRI soldier; b. at Clinton, Conn., Mar. 6, 1820; graduated at U. S. Military Academy, and commissioned second lieutenant in the Corps of Engi- neers July 1, 1841. In 1856 he was called to Vi/ashington, and served as assistant to the chief of engineers until the outbreak of the civil war in 1861. At the first battle of Bull Run he was chief engineer of Heintzelman's division. He was commissioned a brigadier-general of volunteers Sept. 14, 1861, and commanded a brigade of the land forces of the Port Royal expedition. In Feb., 1862, he set out from Port Royal with a brigade of volunteers, and by the middle of March had occupied Fernandina, Jacksonville, St. Augus- tine, and retaken possession of Fort Marion and Fort Clinch. Promoted major-general of volunteers in July, 1862, he com- manded the department of the Ohio until Mar., 1863. He led a division in the battle of Gettysburg. and in the spirited assault on Rappahannock Station (Nov. 7, 1863). After the Mine Run affair on May 9, 1864, he succeeded to the com- mand of the Sixth Corps; was present with the army of the Potomac at every engagement up to July, 1864, when sum- moned from the front of Petersburg with his corps to the defense of 'Washington. then threatened by the Confederates under Gen. Early. IVright pursued the latter and defeated him at Snicker’s Gap. In the ensuing campaign of the Army of the Shenandoah under Sheridan he led his corps at Ope- quan and Fisher’s Hill, and was in command of the army at Cedar Creek. Mustered out of volunteer service in Sept., 1866, he returned to duty with the Corps of Engineers. in which he had attained a lieutenant-colonelcy Nov., 1865. For gallantry at Spottsylvania he was breveted colonel ; brigadier-general for Cold Harbor; and major-general for capture of Petersburg. He was a member of the board of engineers for fortifications 1867-79; was promoted colonel Corps of Engineers Mar., 1879, and on June 30. 1879, briga- dier-general and chief of engineers, which position he occu- pied until he was retired Mar. 6, 1884. Revised by JAMES MERCUR. Wright, JOSEPH, called YVright of Derby: painter; b. at Derby, England, Sept. 3, 1734; studied portrait-painting under Thomas Hudson; resided in Italy 1773-75: settled in Derby 1777, remaining there through life. occupied chiefly with portraits, but painting also historical and figure pieces: was especially fond of representing the effects of firelight, which he had carefully studied in Italy during an eruption of Vesuvius; exhibited at Covent Garden in 1785 a collec- tion of twenty-four of his pictures. the most striking of which was the Destruction of the Floating Batteries of Gibraltar. D. at Derby, Aug. 29, 1797. See the Life by Bemrose (1885). Wright, ROBERT EMMET: b. at Allentown, Pa.. in 1810; became a distinguished member of the Pennsylvania bar, practicing in his native place. He published Pennsylvania State Reports, etc. (14 vols.. 1861-66); edited I/Villiam Gray- don’s Forms of Conveyancing (1845) and Samuel Roberts‘s Digest of Select British Statutes, etc. (1847); prepared digests of the laws of Pennsylvania on constables‘ duties, on alder- men and justices of the peace. and of several different peri- ods of adjudged cases; besides writing essays and addresses 011 legal and political topics, and editing several legal works. Revised by F. Srenens ALLEN. Wl‘ig‘]1t. SILASt statesman; b. at Amherst, Mass. May 24. 1795; graduated at Middlebury College. Vermont, 1815; studied law; was admitted to the bar 1819; settled at Can- ton, St. Lawrence co., N. Y.; was elected to the State Sen- ate as a Democrat 1823; distinguished himself as an op- ponent of the policy of Gov. De Witt Clinton; developed in a report to the Senate in 1827 the financial policy with which he was identified throughout his political career ; was commissioned brigadier-general of State militia 1827 : was a member of Congress 1827-29 ; was comptroller of New York 1s29-es, and U.‘ s. Senator 1sss-44; supported Cla_v‘s ~ Compromise Bill and defended the removal of the deposits from the U. 8. Bank by President Jackson 1833 : opposed the recharter of the U. S. Bank and the distribution of the sur- plus Federal revenues among the States: was chosen Gov- ernor of New York in the exciting campaign of 1844: took decided ground against the anti-rent rioters, declaring Del- aware County in a state of insurrection : repeatedlv declined appointments to foreign missions, as well as an ~offer of a seat in the cabinet or on the Supreme bench by President 844 WRIGHT Tyler, and of the secretaryship of the Treasury by President Polk 1845; was defeated as a candidate for re-election 1846, and retired to his farm at Canton, where he died Aug. 27, 1847. Biographies were published by Jabez D. Hammond (1848) and John S. Jenkins (1852). Wright, THOMAS : philologist and antiquarian; b. on the Welsh border, near Ludlow, Shropshire, England, Aug. 21, 1810; entered Trinity College, Cambridge; graduated 1834; settled in London as a professional man of letters 1835; was one of the founders of the Camden Society (1838), the Percy and Shakspeare societies (1840), and the British Archzeolog- ical Association (1843), editing its Journal and other publi- cations until 1850, when he withdrew in consequence of the divisions which led to the foundation of the Society of An- tiquaries, of which he became a fellow; was a prominent contributor to the Archceologia; rendered services to M. Guizot’s French record committee, which procured him while still young (1842) the honor of an election as corre- sponding member of the Institute (Académie des Inscrip- tions et Belles-Lettres); was the originator in England of the annual arch-.eological congresses (1844), and success- fully conducted the excavations upon several Roman sites in Britain, especially those which brought to light the re- markable ruins of the Roman Uriconium at NVroxeter, Shrop- shire. He wrote or edited above eighty volumes, nearly all connected with British history, philology, or arehmology, and was selected by the Emperor Napoleon III. to translate his flistory of Julius Ccesar (2 vols., 1865-66). He edited many of the literary relics of the Middle Ages in English, Anglo-Norman, French, and Latin—Eeualal I/lfanuals of English ffistory (1872); The Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets (1872); and The Works of James Gillray (1873), etc. Among his numerous original works are The History of Lucllow and its Aleighborhoool (2 parts, 1841-43; new ed. 1852); Biographia Literaria (2 vols., 1842-46). compris- ing the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman periods of Great Britain and Ireland; The Archteological Album (1845); A .History of Jrelantl (3 vols., 1848-52); The Celt, the R0- man, anal the Saa;on (1852; 3d ed. 1875); The W'anclerings of an Antiguary (1854); A Dictionary of Obsolete and Provincial English (2 vols., 1857); Essays on Archceolog- ical Subjects (2 vols., 1861); A Ifistory of Domestic Alan- ners in England during the 1/lfidclle Ages (1862) ; A H istory of Caricature anal Grotesque in Literature (1865) ; lVoman- hincl in lVestern Europe (1869); and Uriconium, an His- torical Account of the Ancient Roman City (1872). D. at Chelsea, Dec. 23, 1877. Revised by HENRY A. BEERS. Wright, WILLIADI, Ph. D., LL. D.: Orientalist; b. in Bengal, India, J an. 17, 1830; educated at the Universities of St. Andrews and Halle; was appointed Professor of Arabic in University College, London, 1855, in Trinity College, Dublin, 1856, and in the University of Cambridge 1870; be- came employed in the MS. department of the British Mu- seum in 1861, and became assistant keeper 1869. He ed- ited in Arabic the Travels of lbn Jubair (Leyden, 1852); Al-Makkari’s Analectes (1855); Opuscula Arabica (1859); and El-Mubarrad’s Kamil (Leipzig, 11 parts, 1864-82); is- sued The Book of Jonah in Four Oriental V ersions—Chal- clee, Syriac, Ethiopic, ancl Arabic—with Glossaries (Lon- don, 1857); a revised translation of Caspari’s Grammar of the Arabic Language (2 vols., 1859-62; new ed. 1875) ; An- cient Syriac Documents relative to the Earliest Establish- ment of Christianity in Eclessa. etc. (1864) ; Contributions to the Apocryphal Literature of the New Testament, col- lected ancl eclitecl from Syriac MSS. in the British Illu- seum. with an English Translation and Notes (1865) ; The H!) mil ies of A phraates, “ the Persian Sage” (in Syriac, 1869) ; An Arabic Reacting-booh (1870) ; The Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles (Syriac and English, 2 vols., 1871); A Cata- logue of the Syriac MSS. in the British Jlfuseum (3 vols., 1870-72) ; Oriental Series of Eac-similes of Ancient Alann- scripts (1876); The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite (1882); The Boole o_fKalilah ancl Dimnah (1883) : and The Empire of the Hittites (1884). D. in Cambridge, May 22, 1889. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Wl'ig]1t, WILLIAM ALDIS: author and editor; b. in Eng- land about 1836; educated at and became librarian of Trin- ity College, Cambridge; was the principal contributor in biblical geography and biography to Dr. Smith’s Diction- ary of the Bible (3 vols., 1860-63), and corrected the proofs of that important work and made the abridgment (1865); edited with notes and glossarial indexes Bacon’s Essays (1862) and his Advancement of Learning (1869); was co- WRITERS TO THE SIGNET editor with William George Clark of The Cambridge Shah- speare (9 vols., 1863-66), and the Globe edition of Shak- speare’s Complete lVorhs (1 vol., 1864) ; and edited The Bible Word-boot; (1866), Chaucer’s Olerhe’s Tale, the JV etrical Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester and other works. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. W1‘ig‘l1tS\'ille: borough; York co., Pa.; on the Susque- hanna river, the Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal, and the Penn. Railroad; 11 miles N. E. of York, the county- seat, and 31 miles S. E. of Harrisburg (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6-G). It has 6 churches, 8 graded schools, a national bank with capital of $150,000. a weekly newspaper, several saw and planing mills, lime-kilns, foun- dry, blast furnace, and tobacco, cigar and furniture factories. Pop. (1880) 1,776; (1890) 1,912; (1895) estimated, 2,500. G. S. TINSLEY, Bonouen SoL1c1'roR. “Hit: in law, a formal instrument, issued by or under authority of a court, commanding the person to whom it is addressed to do a certain act therein specified. It is written in the form of a mandate from the highest authority in the state—the king in Great Britain, the President, people, or commonwealth in the U. S.—attested by the chief judge of the court, sealed and signed by the clerk, and may be issued either at the commencement of an action or proceeding, or during its progress, to the sheriff or to some other person, for the purpose of procuring various acts to be done in con- nection with such action or proceeding. Anciently, actions in the courts of law were commenced by a species of writs termed “ original,” which were issued by officers of the chan- cery, and were considered as the directmandates of the king, stating the nature of the claim, and laying the jurisdiction of the judge to try the case: but they were long ago abol- ished. and all writs became “judicial ”—that is, were in the nature of process from the court in which the suit was brought or was pending. In the common-law practice the number of writs was very great; a separate one was adapted to every special proceeding and to almost every important stage in an action, and each had its appropriate name. Among the most familiar were the writs of “ copias ” and of “ summons” for commencing legal actions, the writ of “ sub- poena” for summoning the defendants in an equity suit and for compelling the attendance of witnesses (see SUBP(ENA), the writs of “error” and of “ certiorari ” for the review of judgments and other judicial decisions, and the writ of “ habeas corpus” for the production of a person imprisoned in order that the cause of his detention might be inquired into. (See HABEAS CORPUS.) A large part of the common- law writs have been abolished by statute both in the U. S. and in Great Britain. especially those for which some other simpler and more direct substitute could be made. Some of the more common and important, however, have been re- tained in those States which adhere to the ancient system of practice. In those States which have adopted code proced- ures writs have been almost wholly abrogated in civil actions, and simple orders of a court or a judge, or notices, have been substituted in their places. In these States, however, a few important writs belonging to the criminal practice, together with the writs of habeas corpus and of certiorari, and some others of less importance, are still used, though in a some- what modified form. See Pnoenss, Pnocnncnn, Carms, CERTIORARI, etc. Revised by F. STURGES ALLEN. Writer’s Cramp: See N EUROSIS. Writers to the Signet, or Clerks to the Signet: a legal body, constituting an incorporation by immemorial custom, of lawyers having much the same general duties and priv- ileges in the Supreme Courts in Scotland that ATTORNEYS and SOLICITORS (qg. 1).) have in England. They are said to have anciently been clerks in the office of the Secretary of State, by whom writs passing the signet were prepared. When the College of Justice (that is, the supreme civil court of Scotland, composed of the lords of council and session and of the members and oflieers of court) was established the writers to the signet exercised about the same functions as they do to-day, and they are recognized as members of that college. Formerly they alone had the privilege of preparing such summonses as could not pass the signet without a bill, but this pri\"ilege is now essentially modified. All crown writs, however, including charters, precepts, and writs from the sovereign or Prince of Scotland must be prepared by them. Admission to the body is by apprenticeship for a period of five years, except for those holding university de- grees in law or the arts, and for some other specially except- ed classes of men. F. Srunens ALLEN. WRITING ‘Writing [O. Eng. wr/Ztan. write, liter., scratch, score : O. Sax. wrttan, write, tear : O. H. Germ. rtzcm > Germ. rc'L'ssc’rt, tear : Icel. 7'/Eta, write : Goth. writs, stroke, dash, letter] : the art of conveying ideas by means of signs inscribed on some material. It may be either idcographic or phonetic, and is distinguished from the pictorial—-that is. from illustrations intelligible independently of language (though not from numerals) by the fact that it must represent words, either by a sign for a word, or by signs for the mo_re.or less accurate or simple vocal word-elements. This distinction does not exclude the hieroglyphic or the cuneiform determinatives from writing proper, though their strict ofiice lies outside of representing vocablcs. In fact, they are less common in the older Egyptian than the later, and thus belong among the conveniences, like capitals, punctuation, etc. Writmg, as representing words, primarily represents sounds ; but to say nothing of those words which are comed and written and understood (book-words), though scarce ever pronounced, the sounds of many words written in ancient symbols are wholly lost, th.ough the meaning is retained. Iclco_r/rapht'c /z0riit'ng is that in which a single character stands for a word, as in Chinese; phonetic em't'tt'n.g, that in which the vocal elements are more or less approximately represented by separate characters; alphabetic, when the characters are letters, as in most I/Vestern languages; syllabic, when the character stands for a syllable, as in the ancient Babylonian and Assyrian, the Cypriote and the Ethiopic, and the mod- ern Japanese. In all systems writing is an imperfect rep- resentation of the sound, the ideograph generally failing to give the inflection necessary to the word—meaning, besides standing for different words in different connections. Pho- netic writing fails in representing the finer shades of sound or accent even in such uniform systems as the German, Spanish and Italian, and the pointed Hebrew: and it re- quires a large element of the conventional in French, and especially in English ; while in the Semitic languages gener- ally the omission of vowels, and treating them as mere sup- plementary modifications of the vocal effort represented by the consonants, is, if possible, a greater defect in the system of signs than any of the others mentioned. Writing thus never has been. nor can be, a perfect representation of sounds, i. e. of the spoken language proper, since different readers may give to it a variety of renderings, so as almost to change the main thought; yet, by its introduction of pauses and other distinctions, it is a positive addition to oral language as a means of communicating ideas, to say nothing of its peculiar province of recording them. \Vrit- ing doubtless descended through various inventive steps from signs purely pictorial; but it must be one of the old- est of the arts. The descent of nearly all the civilized alphabets from the Phoenician shows a general spread and adaptation, rather than repeated independent invention; and of some alphabets, as the Manse-Gothic and the Ar- menian, we have almost the exact time of their beginning— the one, third or fourth century A. D., the other, the fifth. The Cypriote syllabary, which seems to go back at least to 900 B. o., bears very strong marks of invention for a con- siderable portion of it, but obscurity as yet covers its ori- gin. In the U. S. the generation is scarce passed that saw the pictorial communications called the “ Indian news- paper,” not yet advanced to be writing, and our own times the invention of syllabic and alphabetic writing proper by native American Indians, of which specimens may be seen in the publications of the American Bible Society. These, by the by, are almost the only original syllabic sys- tems of which the original specimens are on a flexible writing material, the syllabic systems of Western Asia be- ing on stone or pottery, and the Ethiopic. etc., on parch- ment and paper, being rather alphabetic characters with syllabic attachments than syllabic characters proper. The alphabet-ic system is that of most countries of the world, and, although certain excellent scholars assert that the Chi- nese language does not admit of the use of an alphabet. yet the Japanese can do so, and there are powerful societies and individuals who are doing their best to induce all the Jap- anese to use Roman letters. The languages of the Pacific isles and of most of the tribes of Africa are expressed in the same alphabet, and the signs of the times foreshadow that the alphabetic system, as it is the best, will be the only one. The learned of Europe and America use the Roman alphabet, with modifications, for a host of Oriental lan- guages, the only obstacle to the nearly universal use of this method being the love which Semitic scholars show for too complicated a system and fonts of type. WRITIN G—MACH IN ES 845 The facts above stated, with the additional ones that spoken language itself changes, and that ignorance is almost as strong a factor as learning in bringing this about, to- gether with changes of fashion (such as any type-founder’s book of specimens exhibits), account for a multitude of variations in the appearance of the written page, produc- ing what are commonly called different al habets, though in the same language, as Roman, Old English, etc., along with a multitude of other matters of which the palmographer has to take account, but, of course, with caution, especially to distinguish that which is sporadic from that which forms the general course of change, with the added caution that great changes are often sudden, and a reaction sets in later. The oldest Phoenician letters are more like the modern Bo- man and Greek than those of many intervening ages. The earliest printed Greek type had far fewer ligatures than the fonts of thirty years later,' and the latter had far fewer than those of 150 years later. In several languages the scribes of later time often affect an antiquated form, so that it takes a long and close inspection to see that the writing is really much later than it seems at first sight. A Greek manuscript in the Philadelphia Library is usually taken at first sight to be several centuries older than it is, and for some centuries older than the author himself of the work. For generations it was supposed that the “ lapidary” style of Greek inspections was older than the “ uncial,” but that is now found to be true only as a ,eeneral proposition. The cursive Greek writing had long been thought to be scarce older than the ninth century A. D., but the potsherds of Egypt, the Rainer papyri from the Fa_v_vun1 in Egypt, and some inscriptions on pottery in the Cesnola collection in New York, show that the cursive writing was used almost if not quite as long ago as the date of our oldest uncial manuscripts. Almost, but not quite. the same may be said of the more cursive forms of Syriac writing, as compared with the ancient Estranghela alphabet. And. on the other hand, a Syriac manuscript of the twelfth century, in the library of the Union Theological Seminary, New York. contains a treatise which the scribe begins in imitation of the oldest Estranghela writing, but gradually forgets him- self, and finishes in his own contemporary Nestorian. Among Latin manuscripts. the famous Codex Amiatinus, at Florence. after having been long esteemed by the best judges as the work of an Italian scribe. then of a Swiss or German, has been demonstrated to have been written in England. As was said by Bentley (1662-1742). “it is not every one knoweth the age of a manuscript”; but now we have better helps for the diligent. The discoveries in the Fayyfim of so many Greek, Latin, Syriac. Arabic. and other manuscripts, with data to fix their age. most of which are in Vienna, but some in the British Museum, now furnish a wealth of material for students of the original. and more and more continually for the students of facsimiles pub- lished—far better data than have been accessible before. The discovery and bringing to England of the library of the Nitrian convent of S. Maria Deipara made Syriac palacog- raphy a rather more certain science than that of the Greek or Latin; although the general age and nationality of the Latin scribes had been pretty well known. and manuscripts of the Latin Bible and its parts are more numerous than any other class of ancient manuscripts. In general, the most ancient alphabetic writing was made from right to left; then boustrophedon. and then from left to right. The most ancient syllabic writing. on the other hand, generally reads from left to right. though there are exceptions. It is claimed by high authorities that the scribes of the Syriac (which reads from right to left) wrote perpendicularly, holding the sheet sidewise ; but it is doubt- ful whether that method was more than sporadic. IVith respect to writing materials—the stylus for wax tablets, palm-leaves, and lead, the reed pen for papyrus, parchment, leather. and cot-t\ Ypaper, the brush for illumination and for writing like the Chinese—such particulars belong rather to the making of books. But it is proved that the Syrians sometimes, if not often, used the quill. See ALPI-IABET. IN- SORIPTIONS, and Pmasoeaarnv. Isiiae 1-I. HALL. Writilig-lliacllines : all contrivances for recording, eith- er for mechanical purposes or for preserving language writ- , ten or spoken, as well as to aid in writing. Of the former class are all the various means for permanently recording the pressure of steam, the force and direction of the wind. meteorological phenomena, the investigations of the astron- omer, etc. Examples of this class are the steam-engine 84,6 wavxncx indicator, the meteorograph, and the delicate recording ap- paratus now used in large observatories. In the second class are what are termed TYPEWRITERS (g. ’L’.). To this class belong the marking,recording, and printing devices described in the article TELEGRAPH. (See also '.l.‘ELAUTO— GRAPH.) Several machines have been invented for the use of the blind, among which is Jol1nson’s, which enables a blind person to impress characters in rows and lines so as to be read by the sense of touch. Attempts ha.ve been made to record the spoken word by automatic means, as in the PHONAUTOGRAPH and PHONO- GRAPH (qq. ’t’.). One of these is the machine invented by M. H. I-luppinger, a Frenchman, which is about the size of the hand, and is put in connection with the vocal organs, recording their movements on a moving band of paper in dots and dashes. The person using it repeats the words of a speaker after him inaudibly, and this lip-language is af- terward written out. A stenographic machine has been invented in France which has a keyboard of twelve black and twelve white keys on a plane, arranged in three groups of four black and four white keys. The keys, operated like a piano, produce indications in ink on a roll of paper, the black keys giving long marks and the white ones simple dots. These keys may be simultaneously struck, so that the combinations may give several letters or words for every movement of the operator‘s fingers. It is said that six months’ practice Wlll enable one to follow a speaker. A similar machine, the steno-phenotype reporter, was invented by J. C. Zachos, of New York. In this the types are placed on twelve shuttle- bars, two or more of which may be simultaneously placed in position. The impression is given by a plunger or platen common to all the bars. Wryneck [named from its habit of twisting the neck in a serpentine manner]: any bird of the genus I;l/nrv, forming the sub-family Iy/ngmce. The wrynecks are closely related to the woodpeckers. from which they differ principally in the soft tail-feathers and mottled buff, brown, and gray plumage. The group is confined to Europe, Asia, and Af- rica, the best-known species being Ig/are torqzn'ZZa, a form common to all three countries, though occurring in Europe only as a migrant. It is easily tamed. It lives mostly on ants and caterpillars. F. A. L. Wulf’enite : mineral molybclate of lead, O.{MoPb, named after the mineralogist \Viilfen, who first distinguished the mineral in 1781 at Carinthian localities, where it had been mistaken by Klaproth for calcium tungstate; called also yellow lead ore. It occurs in tetragonal crystals, also granu- lar massive; has about the hardness of calcite; yellow or orange in color, sometimes red (containing then vcmadic acid) ; also green and brown ; and has a resinous to adaman- tine luster. It is found in several American localities, nota- bly in very fine crystals at Phoenixville, Pa. Wulfstan, or Wolstanz prelate; b. in \Vorcestershire, England, about 1007; educated in the monastic school at Evesham, and afterward in the seminary at Peterborough ; became a monk and prior of the monastery at Worcester ; was appointed Bishop of Worcester in 1062, on the promo- tion of Aldred to the archbishopric of York; offered a vig- orous resistance to the efforts of that prelate and of his suc- cessor to appropriate the estates of the see of Worcester; paid successful court to William the Conqueror; had the diocese of Worcester transferred to the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Canterbury; enjoyed the favor of William Rufus; defended the city of Worcester against the rebels led by Roger de Montgomery, and rebuilt Worcester Cathe- dral. He was the last of the Anglo-Saxon prelates. D. at \Vorcester in 1095. There are two accounts of him by Will- iam of Malmesbury-—one in his work, De Gestis Pomfzjficmn, the other a separate Life in 3 books, printed in Wharton’s Anglia Sacra (2 vols., 1691). He has been supposed, though not on sufficient evidence, to be the author of the conclud- ing portion (from 1034) of the Anglo-Saxon O7zrom'eZe.-—A11- other VVULFSTAN, b. about 950, Archbishop of York in 1003, was the supposed author of the Saxon Sermones Lupd Episcopi, published at Oxford by Elstob in 1701. W urmser, oo‘orm’ser, DAGOBERT SIEGMUND, Count von: .soldier; b. at Strassburg, in Alsace, May 7, 1724; entered first the French, afterward the Austrian army; fought in the Seven Years’ war and the Bavarian succession war, and was afterward appointed military commander in Galicia, and made a general of cavalry (1787). In the wars between Austria and the French republic he achieved some successes WURTEMBERG on the Rhine, and in 1796 he was sent to Italy with re-en- forcements to supersede Beaulieu as commander-in-chief. Advancing from Trent toward Mantua, which was besieged by Bonaparte, he marched his army in two columns, one on each side of the Lagb di Garda, but Bonaparte at once raised the siege, fell with his whole force on the western column at Lonato, and beat it back into the Tyrol, and then attacked the other under Wurmser himself, defeated him at Castiglione Aug. 5, and compelled him to retreat into the Tyrol. At the head of a new re-enforcement he advanced toward Mantua a second time, through the valley of t-he Brenta, but Bonaparte, who in the meantime had ene- trated into the Tyrol, now took him in the rear, beat him at Roveredo Sept. 4, Bassano Sept. 8, and under the walls of aiantua Sept. 13, and shut him up in the fortress. Alvinczy, who was sent to his rescue, was defeated at Arcola N ov. 15, and Rivoli Jan.14, 1797, and on Feb. 2 VVurmser capitu- lated. Retiring to Vienna, he was appointed military com- mander of Hungary, but died before entering his new posi- tion Aug. 22, 1797. Wiirtemberg (official German spelling Wiirttemberg, vi'1rt'te1n-barcl1): kingdom in the southwest part of the Ger- man empire; third in area, fourth in population ; area, 7,529 sq. miles. It is bounded on the N., W., and S. by Bava- ria and Baden, on the E. by Bavaria, and is separated from Switzerland by Lake Constance on its southern fron- tier. It shuts in six small enclaves of Hohenzollern and Baden, while it owns seven exclaves within these two states and Hessen. The larger part of it belongs to the western South German table-land, traversed by the Schwarzwald (Black Forest) and the Suabian J ura, or the Rauhe Alp; the rest is rather hilly than mountainous. The average ele- vation is 1,640 feet; the lowest point is situated 437 feet above the level of the sea. The country is well watered. A minor part (30 per cent.) of it belongs to the basin of the Danube ; the rest (70 per cent.) to that of the Rhine. The Danube traverses the southern part of the country for a dis- tance of 65 miles, and receives the Iller above Ulm. The N eckar, which rises in the southeastern part of the country, where the Schwarzwald and the Rauhe Alp meet, flows northward to the Rhine for a distance of 186 miles. The Tauber, a tributary of the Main, flows through the northern part of the country. All these, and some minor streams, are navigable. Of the artificial waterways, the W ilhelms Canal is the 1nost important, making the Neckar navigable from Cannstadt to Heilbronn. Lakes are numerous. The climate in the Black Forest is severe but healthful; in the other parts of the country moderate and invigorating. The soil is, on the whole, good and well cultivated; in Middle and Lower Suabia are the most fertile districts. Only 4 per cent. is untillable ground; 45 per cent. is arable soil and garden-land; vineyards, 1; meadows and pasture, 19; for- ests, 31 per cent. IncZustrz'es.—Agriculture is flourishing. Of cereals, spelt, oats, maize, rape, rye, wheat. hemp, and flax are raised in abundance, together with leguminous plants and tobacco (13,360 cwt. annually), hops, chicory, etc. The garden, fruit, and vine cultivation is famous. Cattle-breeding is extensively carried on; there are about 100,000 horses, 1,000,000 horned cattle, the exportation of which to France and Switzerland is considerable, 550,000 sheep, 292,000 swine, 55,000 goats, and 120,000 bee-hives. Several Gov- ernment stud-farms improve the race of horses. Mining, which is chiefly in the hands of the state administration, is almost confined to the production of iron and salt, the lat- ter in five great Government salt-works. The manufactur- ing industry, owing to the copious water-power, is impor- tant and steadily progressing. Noteworthy are the flax- spinning and weaving establishments; the wool, cotton, linen, and lace manufactures; the silk industry, which is the most considerable in Germany; the paper-factories, producing 58,000 cwt., valued at $1,500,000; the manu- factures of iron goods and other metalware, especially represented by the machine-factories of Stuttgart and Esslingen; the tile-works and manufactures of earthen- ware, glass, and chemicals; the dye-works, the tanneries, the sugar-refineries; the manufactures of tobacco, woodenwarc, etc. Since Wiii'temberg joined the German Zollverein, in 1834, commerce has steadily increased; it exports especially cattle, grain, wool, timber, salt, fruits, hops, cloth and wool- ens, linen, leather and paper, Black Forest clocks, gold and silverware, and chemical products. The imports are less considerable, and consist mostly of coal, cotton, porcelain, WURTEMBERG faience, and drugs. Wiirtemberg’s book-trade ranks next to that of Berlin and Leipzig. The most important com- mercial places are Heilbronn, Cannstadt, Ulm, Friedrichs- hafen, Stuttgart, Reutlingen, and Tuttlingen. In 1892 1,054 miles of railway were in operation, all belonging to the state, except 10 miles. Education.-—Education is compulsory, and there is an elementary school for every group of thirty families. The University of Tilbingen enjoys a worldwide fame ;I there are also a Polytechnic Institute, an art school, an architectu- ral school, a music conservatory, a veterinary school at Stutt- gart, an agricultural academy at Hohenheim, a military school at Ludwigsburg, 85 real-schools of various grades, 64 Latin schools, 11 gymnasia, and 4 lyeea, besides 3 Roman Catholic and 5 Evangelical seminaries and numerous indus- trial schools, as well as many charitable institutions. Pqzmlazf/£0n.—'.[‘l1is belongs in the southern part to the Allemannic, in the central to the Suabian, and in the north- eastern part to the Frankish race. There were in 1890 2,036,522 inhabitants. Five towns have each a population exceeding 20,000. According to creed, 69"? per cent. are Protestants, 299 per cent. Roman Catholics, 3'7 per cent. other Christians, 062 per cent. Jews. Government and Fincmces.—-Tlie Government is a con- stitutional monarchy with 4 votes in the federal council and 17 in the imperial diet. The- crown is hereditary. and the female line is not excluded. The constitution dates from Sept. 25, 1819, amended in 1868 and 1874. The repre- sentation consists of two chambers. The first chamber, that of the peers (Szfandesherrcn), has 45 members, of whom 36 are members by birthright, and 9 are chosen for life by the king. The second chamber (Abge02'cZnefcn7iaus) has 93 members, chosen for six years-13 by the nobility, 6 by the Protestant and 3 by the Roman Catholic clergy, 1 by the university, 7 by the cities, and 63 by the rural communities. For the members of this chamber all men above twenty-five years of age who pay taxes or in any way contribute to the public burdens can vote and are eligible. The troops form under the terms of the convention of 1870, the Thirteenth German Army-corps, consisting of 924 officers, 23,664 men, and 64 cannons in peace (Oct. 1, 1893); 69,934 men and 120 cannons on the war footing. For administrative purposes the country is divided into four circles (Kre'ise)—tl1e Neckar, Schwarzwald, Danube, and Jagst. With regard to finances, the budget for the fiscal year 1892-93 was 66,193,656 marks in receipts and expenses; state debt in 1891, 428,000,000 marks. of which 385,200,000 marks are railway obligations. The administration of justice is carried on by a supreme court (Obcrlanclesgevrzicltt) at Stuttgart and eight courts of first rank (Landgerz'ch2.‘e). Ii'istor;z/.—I1i ancient times '\Vtirtemberg was occupied by the Suevi, a Germanic race. About 84 A. D. it came under Roman authority, and out of the Roman colonies grew up the cities. About the beginning of the third century the Allemanni drove the Romans beyond the Danube and the Rhine, but they in turn were conquered by the Franks under Clovis in the battle of Tolbiacum(Zi'1lpich) in 496. About 900, under the German emperors of the Ca-rlovingian dynasty, the duchy of Suabia was formed. The family of the Counts of \Viirtemberg first appeared in the eleventh century, and grew very rapidly in power and importance. Eberhard V., surnamed “im Bart” (1457-96), one of the most energetic and illustrious Counts of Wi'ii'teinbc1'g. was made a duke by Emperor Maximilian I. in 1495. Though W'i1rtemberg tried to remain neutral during the earlier part of the Thirty Years‘ war, it suffered severely from the op- posed armies; in 1633 it entered into an alliance with Sweden against Austria, and was devastated by the imperial troops; of 400,000 people, only 50,000 were left after that disastrous war. A similar fate befell it when Louis XIV. began an unprovoked war and sent Melac to ravage all the country along the Rhine. The destructive invasion of the French (1688-92), followed by the disastrous reign of Duke Eberhard Ludwig and his mistresses (1693-1 '7 33) nearly ruined the coun- try, which invoked the intervention of Prussia and England in vain. In 17 96 it became involved in a war with France, and was compelled to cede Mdmpelgard (l\Iontbéliard), but in 1803 Duke Frederick ll. obtained as a compensation the electoral dignity and extensive territories, which were formed into a particular division of the state and called Neu-Wiir- temberg. On Oct. 5, 1805, an alliance was concluded with Napoleon I., and on J an. 1, 1806, the elector was made a king by N apoleon, and his territory greatly enlarged. The king- dom became a member of the Rhenish confederacy, and on WURZBURG 847 May 14, 1809, Ulm, Mergentheim, and other cities were added to it, but it had to furnish an army of 16,000 men for the ill- fated campaign to Russia (1812). By the treaty of Fulda (Nov. 2, 1813) Wiirteinberg broke its alliance with France and joined the other German princes against Napoleon, hav- ing all its new and old possessions guaranteed by the allies. King William (1816-64) granted the constitution of Sept. 25, 1819. His successor, Carl, married to a daughter of Nicholai I. of Russia, sided with Austria in the war of 1866, and his army was defeated (July 24) at Tauberbis- chofsheim. On Aug. 13 peace was concluded with Prus- sia. \Viirtemberg paid a war indemnity of 8,000,000 florins, and formed an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia, agreeing to reorganize its army after the Prussian model. On Nov. 25, 1870, it joined the other German states in the formation of the German empire. and had its im- portant share in the victory over France. lharles I. died without children Oct. 6, 1891, and William H., grandson of Charles’s uncle on his father‘s side, succeeded to the throne. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Dd8 Iib'm'grez'ch lViirftemlaerg. Eine Be- schreibung eon Land, Volk and Sz‘aat, Royal Statist. Office (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1882-86); Bitzer. Regierzmg /zmcl Sifincle in IViZrttemberg (Stuttgart, 1882) ; Stéilin, Gescizichte TVii-rZ- tembergs (Gotha, 1882). EIERMANN SCHOENFELD. Wurtz, eiirts, CHARLES ADOLPHE: chemist; b. at Strass- burg, Germany, Nov. 26, 1817: studied medicine and chem- istry in his native city; settled at Paris in 1843; was ap- pointed Professor of Medical Chemistry at the Institute in 1854, and received in 1865 the biennial prize of 20.000 francs: he was made dean of the faculty of medicine 1866: became Professor of Organic Chemistry at the Sorbonne 1874; was appointed senator 1881 : was first secretary of the Chemical Society of Paris. which he aided in founding. was three times its president; was vice-president of the Academy of Sciences 1880, and president 1881; was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society of London 1881. Besides contributions to the Annales de Clzz'mz'e et Pizysique and the Réjaerzfoire de C72»zT'mz'e pure, of which he was editor from 1858 until it was merged into the Bzzllefin of the Chemical Society, he pub- lished Traz'z‘é e'lémem‘az're dc 0/15’/772.6 médz'caZe (3 vols., 1864- 65); Lepons élénzem‘az'res dc Clzimie moderne (1866-68); Dic- tz'onnaz're cle Clzimie pure elf appZz'guée (5 vols., 1868-78: 2 vols. of appendix) ; T7u§orz'e atomz'gue '(187 9) : T ra ité rle Clzz'mz'e Bz'ologe'que (1885). His works translated into Eng- lish include Chemical P7zz'losopizy acco2'(Zz'ng to flloderrz Tlzeories (1867); Theo/ry from the Age ofLaroz'm'er (1869); and Elements of _dI0dern. C72/emz's2‘r;z/ (1880). D. in Paris. May 12, 1884. Revised by IRA Rnnsrnv. ‘Wurt-Z, HENRY, Ph. D.: chemist; b. at E-aston. Pa., June 5, 1828; graduated at Princeton 1848; studied at the Law- rence Scientific School at Cambridge, Mass, and also pri- vately; became in 1850 assistant in charge of the labora- tory of the Yale (now Sheffield) Scientific School at New Haven, Conn.; was State chemist of New Jersey 1854-56. being also engaged on the geological survey of that State: was subsequently Professor of Chemistry in Queens Uni- versity. Kingston, Canada, professor in the National Medi- cal College at Washington, D. C., 1858-59, and chemical examiner in the U. S. patent-oflice 1858-61: removed to New York: edited the A'n2e'r2'c(m. Gas-Ligizt Journal 1871- 75: in 1888 entered the employ of Thomas A. Edison as chemist; has made several important discoveries in chem- istry. among which are the use of sodium in the amalga- mation of the ores of precious metals, the determination of alkalies in silicates by fusion with chloride of calcium (presented to the American Association 1850), and, above all, the discovery of the geometrical laws of the condensa- tion of chemical molecules, first published in 187 6. Prof. Wurtz has published more than sixty scientific papers. He is also the originator of the dynamic theory of metamorphic heat in geology, communicated to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1866. Of this, Mallets theory of vulcanicity is only an extreme case. VViil‘Zl)ll1'§I‘, eiirts’boorch : town of Bavaria : 60 miles S. E. of Frankfort: on the Main, which here is crossed by a splendid stone bridge of eight arches (see map of German Empire, ref. 5-E). It was formerly the capital of the bish- opric of 'Wiirzburg, which (until 1803. when it was secular- ized and its territory conferred on the Elector of Bavaria) formed an independent and very wealthy ecclesiastical prin- cipality of Germany. The episcopal palace, built in 17.20. is one of the most magnificent royal residences of Europe. The cathedral, built in the eleventh century, is an elegant 848 WYANDOT INDIANS edifice. The university, with which are connected a magni- ficent hospital and a library of about 200,000 volumes, en- joys a great reputation, especially for its medical depart- ment. It had 1,330 students in 1892-93. Besides its uni- versity the city has many other good educational institutions, and manufactures of leather, tobacco. cloth, woolen fabrics, and surgical and mathematical instruments. The vicinity produces very fine wine. Pop. (1890) 61,039. Wyandot Indians: See IROQUOIAN INDIANS. Wyandotte' : city (incorporated in 1867); Wayne co., hlich.; on the Detroit river, and the Lake Shore and Mich. S., and the Mich. Cent. railways; 12 miles S. of Detroit (for location, see map of Michigan, ref. 8-K). It has a public library, high school, two State banks with combined capital of $100,000, a weekly newspaper, and extensive rolling-mills and blast furnaces, several sawmills, shipyard. large soda- ash works, rope and mat factory, st-ave and hoop works, trunk-factory, etc. Pop. (1880) 3,631; (1890) 3,817; (1894) state census, 4,207. EDITOR or “ HERALD.” Wyant, ALEXANDER H.: landscape-painter; b. at Port ‘Washington, O., J an. 11, 1836; pupil of Hans Gude in Carls- ruhe; settled in New York; National Academician 1869; member of the Society of American Artists 1878; member of the American I/Vater-color Society; received honorable mention at the Paris Exposition of 1889. His works are notable for unity of eifect and good qualities of color. D. in New York, Nov. 29, 1892. IV. A. C. Wyatt, Sir MATTHEW DIGBY, F. S. A.: architect and writer on art; b. at Bowle, \Viltshire, England, in 1820; was asso- ciated as secretary with those members of the Society of Arts who originated the project of the Universal Exposition held at London in 1851 ; superintended the fine arts depart- ment and the decorations of the Crystal Palace at Syden- ham 1852-54; became surveyor to the East India Company Dec., 1855; was architect to the Council of India; was prom- inently connected with the British Universal Exposition of 1862; received her Majesty’s gold medal for architectural excellence 1866; was knighted J an. 14, 1869, and was Slade Professor of Fine Arts at Cambridge for the first term of three years, 1869-72. Author, among other works, of Geo- metrical llfosaics of the Micldle Ages (1848); Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century (2 vols., 1851); ilfetal-I/Vorh and its Artistic Design (1852); Notices of Sculpture in Ivory, etc. (1856); Art-Treasures in the United Kingdom (1857): What Illuminating IVas— What it Should Be (1861) ; and An Architect’s Note-Boot»; in Spain (1872). D. in London, May 21, 1877. Revised by RUSSELL STURGIS. Wyatt, Sir THOMAS : sonneteer and diplomatist; b. at Allington Castle, Kent, in 1503; son of Sir Henry ((1. 1538), a prominent friend of Henry VII.; educated both at Ox- ford and at St. J ohn’s College, Cambridge; took his degree 1518 ; made the tour of Europe; married Eleanor, daughter of Lord Cobham; became a gentleman of the king’s bed- chamber; gained a high reputation at court by his poems, his skill at arms, in music, and in repartee, and his knowl- edge of continental languages ; and was sent by Henry VIII. on several diplomatic missions. D. at Sherborne, Oct. 11, 1542. He left a considerable number of poems, largely love sonnets in the Italian manner, which were published to- gether with those of his friend the Earl of Surrey 1557. and frequently reprinted. Among recent editions of his Poems, those of Gilfillan (1858) and of Robert Bell (1860) are the best. The best edition of his Complete W'orlcs is that of Rev. Dr. George F. Nott, along with those of Surrey (2 vols., 1815-16), with notes and a glossary. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wyatt, Sir TnonAs, called TIIE YOUNGER: b. at Alling- ton, Kent, about 1521; married at the age of sixteen; suc- ceeded to his father’s titles and estate 1542; led for some time a life of reckless dissipation ; raised a body of soldiers at his own expense and took part in the siege of Landrecies 1544; commanded the English forces at Boulogne 1545, and was subsequently second in command there under Surrey, remaining there until that place was surrendered to the French 1550; lived in retirement at Allington until the ac- cession of Mary, when he was involved with the Duke of Suffolk in a conspiracy against her in favor of Lady Jane Grey; assembled a body of Kentish men under pretext of resisting Mary’s marriage with Philip II.; marched upon London, but was captured, tried, and condemned to death Mar. 15, behaving with little self-control and implicating the Princess Elizabeth and others in his confessions. He WYCLIF y was executed on Tower Hill, Apr. 11, 1554. His ill-judged movement proved fatal to Lady Jane Grey, who had been some months in prison, and was brought to the block a week after the attempt upon the city. Wych-elm: See WITCH-ELM. Wycherley, wich’er-le"e, WILLIAM: dramatist; eldest son of a Shropshire gentleman of good family ; b. at Clive, near Shrewsbury, England, about 1640; educated at Angoulfnne, France, where he became a Roman Catholic; returned to England 1660; studied at Queen’s College, Oxford, where he conformed to the Church of England; produced with success in 1672 his play, Love in a Wood, or St. James’s Park, which procured him the patronage of the Duchess of Cleveland, who introduced him at court; was favored by the Duke of Buckingham and by the king, who afforded him employment at court; brought out three other plays, The Gentleman Dancing-fllaster (1673), The Country Wife (1675), and The Plain-Dealer (1677), the last two founded in some degree upon Molicire’s L’ll'cole des Femmcs and Le Jlfisanthrope ; married clandestinely, about 1680, the Count- ess-dowager of Drogheda, who soon died, leaving him her fortune, which, however, was disputed at law by her relatives. Having lost favor at court he was several years a prisoner for debt in the Fleet until after the accession of James II., by whom his debts were paid and a pension of £200 settled upon him; succeeded to his paternal estates soon after. and published dull volumes of Poems (1704), corrected by Pope. D. in London, J an., 1, 1715. His Posthumous IVorhs (1728) were published by Theobald, and his collected Plays (1712) were edited by Leigh Hunt in 1840, in connection with those of Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Farquhar. 'Wycherley’s come- dies were in prose, and were vigorous but very coarse. See Macaulay’s Comic Dramatists of the Restoration. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wyclif, Wickliife, or Wiclif, sometimes de Wyelif, JOHN: reformer; b. at Ipreswel (now I-Iipswell), near Rich- mond, Yorkshire, England, probably some years earlier than 1324; was a scholar of Baliol College, Oxford, afterward a fellow, and sometime between 1356 and 1361 master of the college. He is supposed to have published in 1356 his first work, The Last Age of the Church, in which he argued that the millennium was past, that the world was then under the reign of Satan and of Antichrist, and that the day of judg- ment was near at hand ; was soon led to identify the papacy with Antichrist ; about 1360 vigorously attacked the mendi- cant orders of preachers, whom he accused of profligacy. of false doctrine, and of undermining the influence of the regular clergy. In 1361 he accepted the college living of Fillingham, in the diocese of Lincoln, but exchanged it for the poorer living of Ludgershall 1369. In 1370 he took his degree of D. D., but he had begun to read lectures on divinity at Oxford about 1363. He was appointed chap- lain to King Edward III., and wrote against the papal de- mand for arrears of tribute from the English crown 1365. In 1374 he was appointed by the crown to the living of Lutterworth. In August of the same year was one of six commissioners sent by Edward III. to Bruges to confer with the papal delegates upon questions of ecclesiastical author- ity in England ; remained abroad nearly two years; was dur- ing his absence presented by the king with a prebend in the collegiate church of Westbury, Gloucestershire (N ov., 1375), but refused it. In 1376 his vigorous attacks on the papal pretensions caused great excitement in England, and he was accused of heresy by Archbishop Courtney, and sum- moned before aconvocation of the clergy at St. Paul’s, Lon- don; was attendcd thither (Feb. 19, 1377) by the two most powerful subjects of the kingdom, John of Gaunt and Hen- ry Percy, the earl-marshal, whose defense of hVyclif gave rise to a popular tumult in which the Savoy Palace, the residence of the former prince, was attacked; was directly accused of heresy in five bulls issued by Pope Gregory VI. May, 1377, by virtue of which he was cited before a clerical synod at Lambeth early in 1378; was saved from active persecution by the intervention in his behalf of the Princess of Wales, and especially by the breaking out in that year of the great papal schism ; was consequently allowed to depart with an admonition to refrain from preaching the obnoxious doctrines. He was not fighting these battles alone; on the contrary, he was supported by the chancellor and many of the ofiicers of Oxford University, and by a great part of the nation; and in order to deepen the impression of the move- ment he began about this time to send out many disciples, who under the name of poor priests preached his doctrines WYE in all parts of the kingdom; and further he prepared, with the assistance of his pupils, a version of the entire Bible into English (1382), which was rapidly disseminated among the people. Up to this time his teaching related mainly to the religious life, to the sins of monks, and to the Independ- ence of the English people from papal dom1n_at1on, especially pecuniary; but in 1381 he made a more decisive break with the Roman Church, for he lectured at Oxford against tran- substantiation. In so doing he braved fiercer opposition and could no longer count upon royal protection. He was con- demned by a synod of twelve doctors; was summoned be- fore a clerical convocation at Oxford 1382, when he defended his opinions, presenting two confessions of faith in which they were reaffirmed, but in-a conciliatory manner; was de- barred by royal command from lecturing further at Oxford ; retired to his living at Lutterworth, where he continued preaching and writing controversial and expository treatises until his death, which ensued two days after suffering a stroke of paralysis (Dec. 28) while celebrating mass. D. Dec. 31, 1384. His doctrines had many supporters in Eng- land (known as Lollards or W'yclifiites) for two generations, and being carried to Bohemia by the members of the suite of Queen Anne, gave rise there to the formidable‘ Hussite movement. His opinions coincided in great part with those of Luther and Calvin, and he is justly called “ the morning- star of the Reformation.” The Council of Constance, as a reliminary to the martyrdom of John Hus and Jerome of Prague, examined and condemned forty-five articles of the doctrines of Wyclif (May 5, 1415), formally declared him a heretic, and ordered his bones to be removed from conse- crated ground and cast upon a dunghill. This sentence was not executed until thirteen years later, when, on the de- mand of the anti-pope Clement VI II., his remains were burned and the ashes thrown into the Swift, a tributary of the Avon. Wyclif’s writings were very numerous, more than 200 pieces being ascribed to him, chiefly brief tracts. Few of them were printed until recently, and many are still un- ublished. His translation of the Bible was first edited by. ev. Josiah Forshall and Sir Frederick Madden for the University of Oxford (4 vols., 1850). His Last Age of the Church (Dublin, 1840) was edited by James Henthorne Todd, D. D., who also issued his Apology for Lollard Doctrines (1842) and his Three Treatises (1851). A collection of his English Tracts and Treatises, with Selections and Transla- tions from his Latin lVorhs (1845), was edited for the Wy- cliffe Society by Robert Vaughan, D. D., who was the author of the best biography of the Reformer up to that time (2 vols., 1828; new ed. 1853). His Select English W0?‘/as (includ- ing numerous sermons) were edited by Thomas Arnold (3 vols., Oxford, 1869-71) ; his English Worlrs, hitherto un- printed, by F. D. Matthew (London, 1880). In 1882 the lVy- clif Society was founded by F. J . Furnivall, to take away the reproach that the most important of Wyclif’s Latin writ- ings should still be unprinted. These writings are very nu- merous, and are found in foreign libraries, particularly in Vienna. The explanation of this anomaly is the dissemina- tion of Wyclif’s writings among the Hussites after they had been put under the ban in England. The society issued its first volume in 1884. It was then hoped to present the Latin writings complete in twenty volumes in ten years’ time, but the nineteenth volume appeared in 1895, and the end is only in sight. Until the Latin writings are published, no complete study of Wyclif’s theology can be made. The best biography of Wyclif is by G. V. Lechler (2 vols., Leipzig, 1873 ; Eng. trans. of vol. i. London, 2 vols., 1878 ; new ed. with summary of Lechler’s vol. ii., 1884, 1 vol.). A good book is Lewis Ser- geant, John Wyclif (London and New York, 1893). See also W. W. Shirley, Catalogue of the Original IVorhs of John Wiclif (Oxford, 1865). For the connection between lV_vclif and Hus, see J . Loserth, W'iclif und Hus (Eng. trans., Lon- don, 1884). SAMUEL Mxcxurmv J ACKSON. Wye: river of England and Wales, a tributary of the Severn. It rises on Plimlimmon, near the head water of the Severn, and flows for 150 miles through or adjoining Mont- gomery, Radnor, and Brecknock, in Wales. and Hereford, Monmouth, and Gloucester, in England, reaching the Severn below Chepstow. The part dividing Monmouth and Glouces- ter is famed for its beauty. Wylie, JAMES AITKEN, LL.D.: clergyman and author; b. at Kirremuir, Forfarshire, Scotland, Aug. 9, 1808; edu- cated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, 1822-25, at the Uni- versity of StfAndrews 1826, and in Original Secession Hall, Edinburgh 1827-30 ; was minister of the Original Secession WYNANTS 849 congregation at Dollar 1831-46; associate editor with Hugh Miller of the Witness, Edinburgh, 1846-56; editor of the Free Church Record 1853-60; professor (of the distinctive principles of the Roman Catholic and Protestant ’theologies) to the Protestant Institute of Scotland, in Edinburgh, from 1860 till his death there May 1, 1890. He wrote mostly upon the subjects connected with his professorship and on the fulfillment of biblical prophecy. Of his many books may be mentioned Jlfoclern Judea compared with Ancient Prophecy (London, 1841); A Journey over the Region of Eul- filled Prophecy (Edinburgh, 1845; 2d ed. under title Ruins of Bible Lands, 1857; 14th ed. 1881) ; A Pilgrimage from the Alps to the Tiber, or the Influence of Romanism on Trade, Justice, and Knowledge (1855) ; lrVanderings and Jllusings in the Valleys of the IValdenses (1858); The Ter- Centenary of the Scottish Reformation (1860) ; The Awaken- ing of Italy and the Crisis of Rome (1866); The Road to Rome rid Oa;ford, or Ritualism identical with Romanism (1868); Daybreak in Spain, a Sketch of Spain and its _New Reformation (1870): The .History of Protestantism (3 vols., 1874-77); The Jesuits: their ilforal Alaxims and Plots against Kings, l\/Iations, and Churches (1881); History of the Scottish lVation (2 vols., 1886) ; The Papacy (1889). SAMUEL MAcxUI.RI' J ACKSON. Wylie. ROBERT: genre-painter; b. in the Isle of Man in 1839. He was taken to the U. S. when a child, and studied at the Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia; he was sent by the trustees of the academy to France to study in 1863. He took up his residence at the little village of Pent-Aven in Brittany, and was the founder of a colony of painters there. He received a second-class medal at the Salon of 187 2, and after his death his works were exhibited in Paris, where they attracted much attention. D. at Pent-Aven in 1877. One of his most important works, Death of a Ven- dean Chief, painted in 1876-77, is in the Metropolitan Mu- seum, New York. WILLIAII A. COFFIN. Wy1nan,JEFFRIEs, M. D.: anatomist; b. at Chelmsford, Mass., Aug. 11,1814; graduated at Harvard 1833, and at the Harvard Medical School 1837; became demonstrator of anatomy and curator of the Lowell Institute 1839; delivered a course of lectures there in 1840; spent two years study- ing medicine in the hospitals of Paris and natural history in the J ardin des Plantes; was Professor of Anatomy in the Hampden-Sidney Medical College at Richmond, Va., 1843- 47, and thereafter until his death Hersey Professor of Anat- omy in Harvard University. He soon began the formation of the Museum of Comparative Anatomy, to the increase of which he devoted most of his energies for many years. mak- ing extensive journeys; delivered before the Lowell Insti- tute in 1849 a second course of Lectures on Comparative Anatomy and Physiology (1849); became Professor of Com- parative Anatomy in the Lawrence Scientific School at Cam- bridge ; was successively secretary of the Boston Society of Natural History, its curator in different departments, and its president 1856-70; was president of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science 1857 ; became cura- tor of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology at Cambridge 1866, and laid the foundation of its remarkable collections; published over sixty papers in the scientific journals and in the Transactions or Proceed ings of the numerous societies to which he belonged; made the first anatomical investiga- tion of the gorilla, and gave it its scientific name. In con- junction with Dr. Savage he investigated the question of spontaneous generation with great carefulness and impar- tiality; made curious researches in regard to the action of light and other forms of force in embryology, and especially in teratology; exposed the spuriousness of the famous skeleton called the I:[ydra-rchus Sillimani, alleged to be that of an extinct sea-serpent, and discovered in Florida and elsewhere prehistoric human remains in fresh-water shell-heaps. D. at Bethlehem, N. H., Sept. 4. 1874. “’ymore: city; Gage co., Neb.; on the Big Blue river, and the Chi., Burl. and Quin. Railroad; 62 miles S. of Lin- coln, the State capital (for location, see map of Nebraska, ref. 10—G). It is an important grain and stock shipping- point, and has three weekly newspapers, and railway-shops and roundhouses. Pop. (1890) 2,536. Enrron or “ REPORTER." Wynants, or Wijnants, JAN: landscape-painter: b. at Haarlem, Netherlands, somewhere about 1600 or later. He lived at Haarlem until 1660 or 1665, and afterward estab- lished himself at Amsterdam, where he is supposed to have died after 1679. Elouverman inserted figures in YVynants’s 451 850 VVYNKIN DE WORDE landscapes while the latter lived at Haarlem; A. van de Velde or Jan Lingclbach while he was at Amsterdam. His works are dated from 1641 to 1679. He is well represented in foreign galleries, especially at Amsterdam, Munich, and St. Petersburg, the National Gallery of London, and in the collections of Sir R. IVallace, Lord Northbrook, and the Earl of Ellesmere. \V. J . S. Wynkin de Worde: See WORDE. Wynne, EDWARD: b. in England in 1734; became an eminent lawyer, and was author of Ennomas, or Dialogues concerning the Law and Constitution of England ,' with an Essay on Dialogue (4 vols., 1767; 5th ed. 2 vols., 1822). This work was at first published anonymously, and is gener- ally cited as Ennomns simply. Some shorter and less known and rare works by him which were privately printed were also published anonymously. D. at Chelsea, near London, in 1784. Revised by F. STUReEs ALLEN. Wyntoun, ANDREW or: rhyming ehronicler; b. in Scot- land about the middle of the fourteenth century ; became a canon regular of the priory of St. Andrews, and was chosen prior of St. Serf’s Inch (or Island), Lochleven, before 1395. D. after 1420. He wrote The Orygynale Cronyloil of Scol- lanol, in rhyme, five books of which relate to ancient history and geography. The part devoted to Scottish history was first edited, with notes and a glossary, by David Macpher- son (London, 2 vols., 1795). See the complete edition by Laing, Historians of Scotland Series (3 vols., 1872-79). Revised by H. A. BEERS. Wyo’ming [: Amer. Ind. (Del.), liter., Great Plains]: one of the U. S. of North America (\Vestern group); the thirty-first State admitted to the Union: capital, Cheyenne. Location and Area.—It is situated between lat. 41° and 45° N. and lon. 104° and 111° VV.; bounded N. by Mon- tana, E. by South Dakota and Nebraska, S. by Colorado and Utah, W. by Utah, Idaho, and Montana; length from E. to W., 355 miles; width from N. to S., 276 miles; area, 97,890 sq. miles, of which 315 are water surface. Physical Features.-—The general appearance of the State is mountainous, with valleys, foothills, and rolling plains. The mean elevation is 6,000 feet, extremes ranging from 3,400 to 14,000 feet. The continental divide or main range of the Rocky Mountains enters the State about midway on the southern boundary, and extends in a N. W. direction through the State into Montana and Idaho. \Vind River Mountains. snow-capped the year around, and with altitude of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet, are the culminating crest of the main range of the Rocky Mountains in the northwest, fill“ ‘iiiirllllllfllltgg 'l'“.“\\\,I /_ , nu ii!l||ll\llll\\l§l))\“\}‘\‘ :, .\ l ' },;..:;‘.l . \\\$\\\\\‘ _|'I|l . "I " #5 I lllllllmfgy" V and are paralleled on the W. by the Teton and Gros Ventre ranges. The Shoshone Mountains, with a general elevation of from 10,000 to 11,000 feet, lie N. of the VVind River range, and the Big Horn Mountains extend from the middle of the northern boundary S. to nearly the geographical center of the State. The Rattle Snake Mountains, together with the Casper and Seminoe ranges, are S. of the Big Horn range, while the Black Hills, which constitute the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains, occupy part of the eastern section, extending from South Dakota in a S. W. direction. The Medicine Bow and Sierra Madre ranges are in the southern part and extend into Colorado. The Sweetwater range lies on the southern side of Sweetwater river. The vast plain WYOMING between the Sierra Madre Mountains and Green river is designated the “Red Desert.” The highest peaks in the State are Fremont’s Peak, in the Wind River range, eleva- tion 13,790 feet; Grand Teton Peak, of the Teton range, 13,690 feet; Mt. Sheiidan, of the Yellowstone range, 13,691 feet; and Atlantic Peak, of the Wind River range, 12,700 feet. Mt. Washburn, Elk, Laramie Mountains, and Index, Wyoming, and Gros Ventre Peaks all exceed an elevation of 10,000 feet. The most important rivers are the North Platte, rising in Colorado and flowing N. into Wyoming, through the southeastern part of the State and then into Nebraska; Green river, flowing S. in the western part into Utah; Snake river, rising in the southern part of Yellowstone Park and flowing S. E. into Idaho, eventually joining the Columbia; the Yellowstone, Big Horn, and Powder rivers flowing N. into Montana; and the Cheyenne and Belle Fourche, flow- ing E. into South Dakota. Yellowstone Lake, situated in the YELLowsToNE NATIONAL PARK (g. o.), in the northwestern corner of the State, is the largest body of water in VVyo- ming, being 22 miles long and 15 wide. Jackson’s, Sho- shone, Lewis, and Madison Lakes lie S. and S. E. of Yellow- stone Lake and N. W. of the Wind River range. Fremont and Boulder Lakes lie near the base of Fremont’s Peak, where the Green river, one of the largest tributaries of the Colorado, rises. Geology.-The earliest geological explorations in Wyo- ming were made by Prof. F. V. Hayden. The State is an interesting field for geological research. Though not as yet extensively explored, Wyoming has been found to contain Tertiary, Carboniferous, Cretaceous, Eozoic, Silurian, Trias- sic, Jurassic, Devonian, and Volcanic formations. The min- eral deposits include a large percentage of coal, iron, gold, silver, graphite, asbestos, gypsum, bismuth, arsenic, alum, sulphur, copper, and red oxide of iron. Building-stones of high commercial value are also found, comprising sandstone, limestone, granite, and marble. They have not as yet been extensively worked, but at Rawlins, on the line of the Union Pacific Railway, there has been opened a large quarry of su- perior gray sandstone. North of Cheyenne are shipping quar- ries of excellent stone, ranging in color from light gray to dark red. Iron ores have been found in every county, but mining is not developed. The largest known deposits are at Hart- ville, Laramie County, where the ore is found associated in many instances with copper. At Rawlins, Carbon County, deposits of red oxide of iron are mined for use as mineral paint and as flux for the reduction of silver ores. Gold and silver are mined at Atlantic, in the Sweetwater region, in the Seminoe, Sierra Madre, and Big Horn Mountains, and in the Silver Crown district W. of Cheyenne. The total valuation of the gold and silver product III 1890 was $14,572. Soda is found in Carbon, Albany, and Natrona Counties, and is mined principally near Laramie, where the deposit is 12 feet thick. Petroleum has been found in many localities, and recent de- velopment has placed VVyoming oils on the market. The most extensive development has been in Fremont and N a- trona Counties, where many wells have been bored and plugged, awaiting transportation facilities. Oil from the Salt Creek field, in Natrona County, is refined at and shipped from Casper. It is estimated that \Vyoming has 20,000 sq. miles underlain with coal. The first utilization of this product was by the Union Pacific Railway in 1868, when it mined 650 tons at Carbon in a single month. The total production in 1893 was 2,439,311 short tons, valued at $3,290,904, of which 2,280,685 tons were loaded at the mines for shipment. The coal-producing counties, with their production in 1893, are: Sweetwater, 1,337,206 short tons; Carbon, 395,059; Weston, 310,906; Uinta, 292,374; Converse, 56,320; Sheridan, 35,920; and Johnson, 10,126. The variety is lignite of a high order, containing from 50 to 55 per cent. of fixed carbon, and being equal to many of the bituminous grades. Soil and Pro¢lilolions.—The soil of the uplands and pla- teaus of Wyoming is a light sandy loam, and of the val- leys a black loam, in some instances alkaline, but yield- ing bountifully when reduced by water. About 10,000,000 acres are suitable for agricultural purposes by irriga- tion, 22,000,000 acres are mountainous, 18,000,000 acres consist of high table-lands, and approximately 30,000,- 000 acres are covered with grasses and suitable for graz- ing. The native and cultivated grasses of Wyoming are highly nutritious, and by reason of the dry climate cure naturally, thus retaining their nutritive properties. Below the timber-line, which in Wyoming varies from 9,000 to 11,000 feet, the mountains are covered with a thick growth 1/ "*~ ‘~.. 'v.' \ 4 I'M!‘ \ ‘ ~‘ D ‘ H :' T ',’8 F0!‘ \ 4'-‘ db’ /A’ Y '. L, "la 4 1fl'¢h Bqttes i . ‘ J ‘ *5 ' ' 5 I J j /1 Iv‘ _ e Scale of Miles L 9 V-~5"—T§=’il6——20k '-0 4r§m?0"~ L 2 ' Ea " I ’_\V8)nI‘|30 ., County Towns Q I \\ i ) ) “r-*% ' IHIIi;|HI '-f- Z -_ Railroads I’-~-‘-‘_. v ____ "~'ernflllion ggil-kn Horne! Mr, --.''4 Longi§ude 9*} "'1; - ‘er ‘one '16» ,8 ' LL \ “ i : mi , ' Ila Réd Bank-'I 4;‘ ‘ G . M hug \V utur ,\';-_{/w W‘? -"'G0od\\'in's I{um'l\ To1'r'§‘1)gtonV I‘ . /I;;m‘;}h/M‘/\L|ltl I L mlz v\' I 7-! -I I t‘ | I WYOMING of pine, spruce, and hemlock trees of large size, more dense on the western than on the eastern slope ; the foothills have some pine, spruce, aspen, walnut, elm, ash, box-elder, and red cedar ; and along the rivers and creek bottoms are found two species of cottonwood and thickets of willows. Many hundreds of flowering plants, mosses, and lichens are indigenous to the State. By the aid of irrigation, abundant crops of tame grasses, such as alfalfa (lucerne), red clover, bluestem, redtop, and timothy are grown. The agricultural productions include wheat, oats, barley, rye, buckwheat, and Indian corn. Po- tatoes are an important crop, of superior quality, and yield- ing liberally. Other roots and vegetables are sugar-beets and the ordinary farm products of lower altitudes. Hardy fruits and berries thrive, and in the mountains raspberries, strawberries, currants, gooseberries, choke-cherries, and buffalo-berries are native. The following summary from the U. S. census reports of 1880 and 1890 shows the extent of farming operations in the State : FARMS, ETC. 1880. 1890. Per cent.* Total number of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 3,125 5838 Total acreage of farms . . . . . . . . . . . . 124,433 1,830,432 1,3’/1'0 Value of farms, with buildings and fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8835.895 814,460,880 1,630'0 * Increase. The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of the principal crops in the calendar year 1894: CROPS. Acreage. Yield. Value Indian corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.257 67,710 bush. $44,012 heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,082 99,607 “ 62,752 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,677 506,981 “ 243,351 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,554 383,100 " 229,860 Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224,765 361,872 tons 3,618,720 251,335 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. —- Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $4,198,695 On J an. 1, 1895, the farm animals comprised 82,524 horses, value $1,589,457 ; 1,505 mules, value $50,618; 18,706 milch cows, value $397,503: 767,193 oxen and other cattle, value $10,562,332; 1,222,538 sheep, value $2,004,107; and 15,834 swine, value $102,417; total head, 2,108,300; total value, $14,706,434. Fanna.—About thirty species of mammals, including the grizzly, black, brown, and cinnamon bear, wolf, coyote, mountain lion, wild cat, wolverene, otter, beaver, porcupine, mink, skunk, little ermine, elk, moose, white and black tailed deer, mountain sheep, cotton-tail and jack-rabbit, squirrel, prairie dog, gopher, and muskrat are found. The buffalo, formerly common in Wyoming, is only found in the Yellowstone National Park, where it is protected. About 125 species of birds, including several birds of prey, many song-birds, and game birds of the duck and grouse family, are also found. are mountain trout (which is native in many of the moun- tain streams), several kinds of suckers, catfish. bass, pick- erel, sunfish, pike, etc. For the propagation of food-fishes a State fish-hatchery is maintained at Laramie, and also two branch hatcheries, one at Sheridan and the other at Sundance, in the northern part of the State. There are stringent laws for the protection and propagation of game and fish. Clic/nate.—The average mean temperature for the year in the State is about 44°, ranging lower in the mountains and higher in the valleys, according to the elevation. The at- mosphere is pure and rarefied. and cloudless days predomi- nate. In the southern pa.rt of the State high winds sometimes prevail during the spring and autumn, but cyclones and tornadoes are unknown, and thunder-storms infrequent. In Dec., 1894, at Cheyenne, the wind attained a velocity of 72 miles per hour, which was the highest for the year, and the highest ever recorded. The average annual velocity is 1181 miles per hour. The thermometer during the winter months sometimes records very low temperature, but the dryness of the atmosphere tends to ameliorate the effects of the intense cold. and the storms of winter are not generally more violent and destructive than those of lower altitudes. Occasionally, when accompanied by high winds and low temperature, the air becomes so filled with particles of frost and dry snow as to endanger life; but such storms are unu- sual and of short duration. Generally speaking, the cli- Of the fifty or more species of fishes there. 851 mate of Wyoming is dry, mild, pleasant and healthful. The following tables give extremes and average of temperature and of rainfall by months for 1894: TEMPERATURE. RAINFALL. MONTHS. , 1 Highest. Lowest. Average. 1 Highest. Lowest. Total. January . . . . . . . . .. 59° F. 17° F. 25° F. 0'15in. Trace. 0'20in. February . . . . . . . .. 50 13 20 0'23 0'04in. 0'72 March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4 33 0'36 0'02 0 '93 April . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73 16 44 0'58 0'01 1'64 May . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82 7 54 0'38 - Trace. 1'24 June . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86 40 61 0'33 0'O4in. 0'64 July . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94 46 68 1'14 0'03 3'25 August . . . . . . . . . . .. 89 44 67 1 '61 0'05 2' 17 September . . . . . . . . 85 32 56 0'44 0'02 1'23 October . . . . . . . . . .. 7 21 49 0'16 0'01 0'18 November . . . . . . . . . 68 3 41 0'14 0'01 0'08 December . . . . . . . .. 58 13 28 0 18 0'01 0'7 Annual average. i 45'5 Total . . . . . . . .. 1298 Divisions.—For administrative purposes the State is di- vided into thirteen counties, of which one is unorganized (1895), as follows : COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWNS, VVITH POPULATION. COUNTIES. I 2‘ Ref. 1123: COUNTY-TOWNS. Egg: AlbaHny . . . . . . . . . . 1%-1}?I 4.626 8.865 Laramie . . . . . . . . . . 6,388 Big orn ‘r . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carbon . . . . . . . . . . 12-J 3.438 6.857 Rawlins . . . . . . . . . . . 2,235 Converse T . . . . . . . 9-L . . . . . 2.738 Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Crook . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-L 239 2.338 Sundance . . . . . . . . . 515 Fremont 3“, . . . . . . . 10-H . . . . . 2.463 Lander . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Johnson . . . . . . . . . 9-J 637 2.357 Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . 1.087 Laranne . . . . . . . . . 12-L 6,409 16.7 7 Cheyenne . . . . . . . . . 11,690 Natrona i . . . . . . . . 10-J . . . . . 1.094 Casper . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 Sheridan 1 . . . . . . . 8-J . . . . . 1,972 Sheridan . . . . . . . . . . 281 Sweetwater . . . . .. 12-H 2.561 4,941 Green River . . . . . . . 723 Uinta . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-]? 2.879 7.881 Evanston . . . . . . . . 1.995 Weston 1: . . . . . . . . 8-L . . . . . 2.422 Newcastle . . . . . . . - . 1,715 Totals . . . . . . . .. .. 20.789 60.705 * Reference for location of counties, see map of YVyoming. t Unorganized, 1895. It Unorganized, 1880. Principal Cities and Towns, with Population in 1890.— Cheyenne. 11.690; Laramie, 6.388: Rock Springs. 3,406; Rawlins, 2,235; Evanston, 1.995: Newcastle, 1,715: Carbon, 1,140; and Buffalo. 1.087. Population and Ra/ces.—In 1870, 9.118: 1880, 20.789; 1890, 60,705 (native. 45.792; foreign, 14,913; male, 39.343; female, 21,362; white, 59.275: colored, 1,430. including 922 persons of African descent). lVithin the limits of Fremont County is the Shoshone Indian reservation, containing 1.520.000 acres of excellent land. It is occupied by the Shoshone and Arapa11oe Indians, numbering about 2.000. The Shoshone Indian agency and Fort IVashakie military reservation are located on this tract. Fort D. A. Russell military reservation is 3 miles N. IV. of Cheyenne. Fed- eral troops are also stationed at Rock Springs, in Sweet- water County. but other military reservations in IVyoming have been abandoned. Industries and Business Interests.—The most important industries of lVyoming are coal-mining, stock-raising, and banking. The coal-mining industry is largely controlled by the Union Pacific Railway Company. Probably stock- raising in its various departments absorbs the attention of more of the people than any other industry. In 1890 there were 190 manufacturing establishments. employing 1,144 persons. paying in wages 8878.646, using materials that cost $1,084,432, and having an output valued at $2,367,601. Finance.-The total taxable valuation of property in 1894 was $29,198,041: bonded indebtedness, 3320.000: re- ceipts, $237.626; expenditures. $196,381; tax rate. 5.85 mills. VVyoming had $546,567 invested in public buildings. The constitution provides that the annual levy for State purposes shall not exceed 4 mills on every dollar, excepting for charitable and educational purposes; and the county levy shall not exceed 12 mills, excepting for State revenue and public debt. The State can not create an indebted- ness exceeding 1 per cent. of its assessed valuation, and no county an indebtedness exceeding 2 per cent. of it. The total number of real estate mortgages in 1890 was 3,028, rep- resenting 34.7 67,065. or a per capita indebtedness of $82. Banleing.——I11 1895 there were 11 national banks with a total capital of $1,060,000, 3 State banks with a capital of $52,000, and 4 privat-e banks with a capital of $137,900; 852 WYOMING total banking capital, $1,249,900; total deposits in all banks. $3,294,913.07; total loans and discounts, $3,376,211.39. _ Means of Communication.-\Vyoming has no shipping, the rivers and lakes not being navigable, and internal trade is conducted by railways or horse-power. From railway terminals to interior towns a considerable tonnage is trans- ported by means of cattle, mule, or horse equipment. The total railway mileage is 1,157‘34 miles, of which the Union Pacific Railway had 53377, and the Grand Island and North- ern, 23659. The railways are practically without branch lines or feeders. _ Churches.-—The census of 1890 gave the following statis- tics of the religious bodies : . Value of DENOMINATIONS. O‘t'a”““' Chumhes Members. church tions. and halls. property‘ Roman Catholic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67 67 1,185 $173,450 Latter-day Saints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6 1,336 11,700 Methodist Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 11 773 48,700 Protestant Episcopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 19 594 . . . . . . Lutheran, General Council . . . . . .. 5 .. 580 . . . . .. Presb. in the U. S. of America... . . 6 6 364 52,250 Congregational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6 339 44,550 Baptist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9 262 27,870 Lutheran, General Synod . . . . . . . .. 3 3 141 6,100 African Methodist Episcopal. . . . 3 3 139 4,000 Disciples of Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 48 . . . . . . Schools.—The number of pupils of school age enrolled in 1894 was 10,310; number of schools taught, 379; number of school buildings, 257; cost of buildings, $381,914; out- standing bonded school district indebtedness, $199,223 ; number of teachers, male 96, female 311; average monthly compensation of male teachers $66.70, female $49.15 ; amount expended for support of public schools during the year, $240,023. A Congregational college is located at Big Horn, Sheridan County, and the State University and Agri- cultural College, at Laramie, Albany County. The State University is maintained from the proceeds of a State levy, and the Agricultural College is supported from the proceeds of an appropriation by the Federal Government. Public buildings are located in Wyoining by vote of the people, and in compliance with this provision of the constitution an agricultural college has been located at Lander, Fremont County, but is not yet (1895) constructed. Post-ofiices and Perioclicals.—lri J an., 1895, there were 258 post-oflices, of which 8 were presidential (1 second-class, 7 third-class) and 250 fourth-class. Of the total ofiices 39 were money-order offices and one was a limited money-order of- fice. There were 38 newspapers and periodicals, comprising 5 daily, 1 semi-weekly, and 32 weekly publications. Charitable, Reformatory, and Penal Institutions.-'Wyo- ming maintains a State penitentiary at Laramie, an Insane Asylum at Evanston, a State Hospital at Rock Springs, and a Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Home at Cheyenne. The blind, deaf mute, feeble-minded, and juvenile delinquents of the State are sent to the Colorado institutions for such unfortunates, as the number does not justify special arrangements for their care in Wyoming. The poor farm is at Lander, but is not in operation, and paupers are supported by the several coun- ties. A new penitentiary is (1895) in course of construction at Rawlins. All of the above institutions are supported by special tax levy, and are under the general control of a State Board of Charities and Reform, consisting of the Governor, Secretary of State, auditor, treasurer, and superintendent of public instruction. Political Organization.-The legislative department is composed of a State Senate, whose members are elected for four years, and a House of Representatives, whose members are elected for two years. Each county is entitled to at least one member in each body, and additional members are al- lotted according to population. The Legislature meets on the second Tuesday in January of odd years, and sessions are limited to forty days. The compensation of members, excepting officers, is $5 per day. The elective State officers are the Governor, Secretary of State, auditor, treasurer, and superintendent of public instruction, all elected for four years. Appointive State Oflicers are the attorney-general, engineer, adj utant-general, mine inspector, fish commissioner, examiner, veterinarian, and librarian, whose terms vary from two to six years. All State otlicers have fixed salaries and fees received by them go to the State. The courts comprise the Supreme and district courts, and justices of the peace. The Supreme Court consists of three justices, elected for eight years, the senior member by rotation becoming the chief jus- WYOMING VALLEY tice. There are four judicial districts, the judges of which are elected for six years. Justices of the peace are elected for two years. Under the constitution the right of citizens to vote and hold ofiicercan not be abridged on account of sex, and male and female citizens enjoy equally all civil, po- litical, and religious rights and privileges. Before voting, electors must have resided in the State one year and within the county sixty days, and be able to read the constitution, unless prevented by physical disability. The Australian ballot system is used. History.-On July 25, 1868, Congress authorized the seg- regation of a part of the Territories of Dakota, Utah, and Idaho, and the organization of the territory so segregated into the Territory of Wyoming. The territorial form of government was maintained until July 10, 1890, when Wyo- ming was admitted into the Union. Probably the oldest white settlement is at Fort Laramie, on the Platte river, in the eastern part of the State, where a fur-trading post was established in 1834, rebuilt by the American Fur Company in 1836, and sold to the U. S. and garrisoned in 1849. It was for years an important base of military operations against the Indians, but is now abandoned. Fort Bridger, probably the second settlement, was established in the south- western part of the State some time in 1842. Although the early settlers experienced the usual frontier contests with the Indians, in which many lives were sacrificed, there have been no serious outbreaks since the Custer massacre by the Sioux of Dakota in 1876, and the Meeker massacre by the Utes of Colorado in 1878. GOVERNORS OF WYOMING. Territorial. State. John A. Campbell . . . . . . .. 1869-75 Francis E. Warren* . . . . .. 1890 John M. Thayer . . . . . . . . .. 1875-78 Amos W. Barber . . . . . . . .. 1890-93 John W. Hoyt . . . . . . . . . . .. 1878-82 John E. Osborne . . . . . . . .. 1893-95 William Hale . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1882-85 William A. Richards . . . .. 1895- Francis E. Warren . . . . . .. 1885-86 George ‘V. Baxter . . . . . . . . 1886 Thomas Moonlight . . . . . .. 1886-89 Francis E. Warren . . . . . .. 1889-90 * Elected U. S. Senator while Governor. AUTHoR.I'rIEs.—Bancroft, History of ‘Wyoming; the re- ports of Prof. F. V. Hayden, U. S. geologist; Ralph, Our Great West; the reports of Gov. Vllarren, and the annual reports of State offieers. CHAR-LES W. BURDICK, Wyonlingz town (settled in 1837); Stark co., Ill.; on the Burlington Route and the Rock Id. and Peoria railways ; 6 miles S. E. of Toulon, 30 miles N. by W. of Peoria (for loca- tion, see map of Illinois, ref. 4-D). It has 5 churches, 2 graded schools, 2 fiour-mills, 3 grain elevators, a private bank, 2 weekly newspapers, and several large machine-shops, and is principally engaged in mining and agriculture. Pop. (1880) 1,086; (1890) 1,116; (1895) estimated, 1,500. EDITOR or “ Pos'.r-HERALD.” Wyoming: village; Springfield town, Hamilton co., O.; on the Cin., Ham. and Dayton Railroad ; 12 miles N. by E. of Cincinnati (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 7-C). It is principally a residential place, has several churches, graded school, and public library (founded in 1882), and does its banking in Cincinnati. Pop. (1880) 840 ; (1890) 1,454. Wyoming: borough; Luzerne co., Pa.; on the Susque- hanna river, and the Del., Lack. and VVest. Railroad ; 3 miles S. W. of Pittston, 5 miles N. by E. of VVilkesbarre, the county- seat (for location, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 3-1). It takes its name from the valley in which it is situated, and is chiefly notable because of the massacre within its limits. (See WYOMING VALLEY.) It is engaged in farming, mining, and manufacturing; does its banking in Pittston ; and has a monument, commemorating the massacre, about half a mile S. of the actual scene, a public high school. and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,147; (1890) 1,794; (1895) estimated, 3,000. HARRY Haxns, M. D. Wyoming Valley: a fertile valley in Luzerne co., Pa.; traversed by the north branch of Susquehanna river. It was settled in 1762 by people from Connecticut, which colony claimed this region by virtue of its ancient charter, notwith- standing the protest of the government of Pennsylvania. In the following year the settlers were either driven away or slain by the Delawares, but other Connecticut colonists went there in 1769, and for several years were embroiled in a contest with other citizens, who recognized the government of Pennsylvania. In 1771, the British Government having confirmed the Connecticut claim, peace was restored, but in 1775 a force of Pennsylvanians attacked the settlements WYSS without success. During the Revolutionary war a large number of Tories from New York settled in the valley, which, from its seclusion, could not well be protected from hostile arms. The greater proportion of the able-bodied men were on duty with Gen. Washington when on June 30, 1778, a body of 400 British troops and 700 Seneca Indians, with some Tories, invaded the valley. On July 3 the battle of Wyoming was fought between this force and a body of some 300 settlers, chiefly boys and old men, who were driven into a fort, and after a desperate resistance, in the course of which about two-thirds of their number were killed by the Tories and Indians, not even the prisoners being spared, were forced to capitulate, but the terms of the capitulation were not observed, and the greater part of the Inhabitants were soon compelled by the Indians to fiee from’ the valley. In 1782 Congress decided the dispute as to Jll1‘1Sd1Ct1OH in favor of Pennsylvania; but when the authorities attempted to eject the Connecticut people from the property they had acquired in the valley, they again took up arms, andthe contest lasted until 1788, when the Pennsylvania Legisla- ture confirmed the titles of the residents; but for some twenty-five years there was much litigation in regard to the conflicting claims. This long series of contests was known as the “Pennymite wars,” the settlers calling their oppo- nents “Pennymites.” The valley includes parts of the townships of Pittston, Jenkins, Plains, Wilkesbarre, Han- over, Plymouth, Kingston, and Exeter, but the Connecticut colony occupied a large tract in Luzerne and several other counties. The picture of the massacre of Wyoming given by Campbell in his Gertrude of W?/oming is greatly exag- gerated in respect to the cruelties practiced by the Ind- ians. Above Kingston, opposite Wilkesbar1'e, stands a granite obelisk which commemorates the slain in the con- test of July 3, 1778. See Charles Miner’s Hist. of IVyo- ming (1845); George Peck, Wyoming, its History and In- cidents, etc. (1858). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Wyss, J OHANN RUDOLF: author; b. at Berne, Switzerland, Mar. 13,1781; studied philosophy at various German uni- versities ; was appointed professor in the academy of his na- tive city in 1806, later chief librarian also. D. there Mar. 31, 1830. He published Vorlesungen itber alas hbchste Cut (2 vols., 1811) ; Idytlen, Vollcssagen, Legencten and Erza'hZangen aus der Schweiz (3 vols., 1815-22); and Reise im Berner Obertand (1808); edited the series entitled Alpenrose (20 vols., 1811-30). His Der Sohweizerische Robinson (The Swiss Family Robinson, 2 vols., 1812-13). was translated into many languages. Revised by J . GOEBEL. Wythe, GEORGE: signer of the Declaration of Independ- ence; b. at Elizabeth City, Va., in 1726; educated at Will- iam and Mary College; inherited a large fortune by the death of both of his parents before reaching mature age, and led for some time a life of extravagance, but when thirty years of age devoted himself to legal studies ; was ad- mitted to the bar 1757; soon became eminent as a lawyer; was chosen to the house of burgesses as the representative of William and Mary College 1758; drew up in 1764 a re- monstrance addressed to the British Parliament against the Stamp Act; was elected to the Continental Congress Ang., 1775; signed the Declaration of Independence; was ap- pointed Nov., 1776, along with J eiferson (who had been his WYTTENBACH 853 pupil), to revise the laws of Virginia; was chosen speaker of the House of Delegates and appointed judge of the high court of chancery 1777; became sole chancellor on the reor- ganization of that court 1786, filling that post twenty years; was Professor of Law at VVilliam and Mary College 1779-89 ; emancipated his slaves toward the close of his life, and fur- nished them with the means of subsistence. D. by acci- dental poisoning at Richmond, June 8, 1806. Author of De- cisions of Cases in Virginia by the High Court of Chancery (1795; 2d ed., with illemoir, by B. B. Minor, 1852). Wytheville: town (founded in 1835); capital of Wythe co., Va.; on the Norfolk and \Vest. Railroad; 80 miles W. of Roanoke, 131 miles W. of Lynchburg (for location, see map of Virginia, ref. 7—D). It is a popular summer resort, in a lumbering, mining, and stock-raising region, and con- tains 13 churches, Trinity Hall Female College (Lutheran), Wytheville Seminary (Protestant Episcopal), 2 State banks with combined capit-al of $150,000, 4 weekly newspapers, and manufactories of woolen goods, iron, and wood work. Pop. (1880) 1,885 ; (1890) 2,570; (1892) 3,144. EDITOR or " SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA ENTERPRISE.” Wyttenbach,oit’ten-ba‘akh, DANIEL: Greek scholar; b. at Berne, Switzerland, Aug. 7, 746; studied at Marburg; went thence, in 1768, to Gbttingen to enjoy the instruction of Heyne. at that time the most celebrated classical philologian of Germany. Before this I/Vyttenbach had begun to read through all the Greek authors in chronological order down to the later philosophers and rhetoricians. In 1769 he attracted the attention of the famous Ruhnken by his Epistcla Criti- ca super nonnnltis Zocis Juliani inzperatoris ; visited Leyden (1770) to attend the lectures of Valckenaer and Ruhnken. Through their influence he obtained the chair of philoso- phy and literature at the college of the Remonstrants in Amsterdam; was transferred in 1779 to the Athenzeum of that city. and in 1799 was called to Leyden as the successor of Ruhnken. Among his writings are Prcece_yata Philoso- phioe Logicee (1781): Selecta princ/ignmi Groecice Histori- corarn (1793); but his great work, upon which he bestowed the labor of nearly thirty years and upon which his endur- ing fame rests, was his exhaustive critical and exegetical edition of Plutarch’s llforatia (text. commentary, and in- dex : new ed. in 12 vols., 1834). His Vita Ruhnlrenii (1799, pp. 240, edited with copious notes by ergman, 1824) is a biographical masterpiece. His Opusonla (2 vols.) were pub- lished shortly after his death J an. 17. 1820. See G. L. Mahne, Vita D. Wyttenbaelzi (1823). ALFRED GUDEMA-N. Wyttenbach, THOMAS: Reformer: b. at Biel, canton of Berne, Switzerland, 1472 ; studied theology at Basel and Tiibingen, and was appointed preacher in his native city in 1507. In 1519 he began to preach against the saleof in- dulgences, the mass, and the celibacy of the priests, and in 1524 he, together with seven other priests from the vicinity, married. Although he had gained many adherents among the citizens, the Roman Catholic party. the council of Berne. and the Bishop of Basel were nevertheless powerful enough to drive him from his ofiice and expose him to poverty and many persecutions. He continued, however, to preach ac- cording to his convictions, and two years after his death, which took place in 1526, Biel accepted the Reformation. Revised by S. M. J AOKSON. X : the twenty-fourth letter of the English alphabet. Form.-—The form is the same as that of the twenty-first letter of the Roman alphabet, representing the twenty-fourth letter of the so-called Western Greek al- phabet. In this alphabet it was the first " " of the signs added to the original body of twenty-three letters, and had the value ks. In the Eastern or Ionic alphabet it held the twenty-fifth place, being preceded by phi, and had the value eh. In form it is probably an old variant of tau (T, +, X), just as the next letter of the VVestern alphabetY (ch) was a variant of apsilon. lVame.—The name elcs has displaced the earlier ties (ix) : O. Fr. : Lat. ex (ex), on the analogy of ef, el, em, en, es. S0an¢l.——Generally a double consonant: (1) 108, in tax, axle, exile; (2) gz before an accented vowel, as in exam/tne, example, exist, exhoxt; (3) lash (705), as in anxious, luxury; (4) gzh (gé), in lnxn1n'0ns,'l'zlxn1"lant; (5) Z initially, as in Xerxes, Xenophon, xebee. Sonrees.—Chief sources are: (1) Teutonic hs < Indo- Europ. /es; ox < O. Eng. oxa : Germ. oehse, Sansk. nlesan-; six < O. Eng. slex : Germ. seehs, Lat. sex; wax (verb) < O. Eng. weaxan:Germ. wachsen, Gr. ab£dvw, Sanskr. va7e_s-; next < O. Eng. ne'xt:Germ. ntiehst; axe < O. Eng. cex: Germ. axt, Gr. &£l1/17; flax < O. Eng. fleax : Germ. flaehs. (2) Union of c + s in English by syncopation : sexton < M. Eng. seerestetn; proxy < M. Eng. proleeeye. (3) Loan- words from Latin : noxious (noxlas), text (textws), lax (laxns), _7'/zlxtaposetlon (jnxta), fix (fixns), extra (extra), explode, exist, etc. (4) From Greek: climax, calyx, exoclns, larynx, ong/x, elixir (via Arabic), etc. BENJ. IDE WHEELER. Xalapa: another spelling of J ALAPA (q. 1).). Xalisc0: See Jxmseo. Xanthin, or Xanthine [from Gr. gal/66s, yellow] : a name given to the yellow principle contained in flowers, to a yellow coloring-matter found in madder, and to a com- pound found in some rare urinary calculi, and as a normal constituent of urine in very small quantity. I. R Xan’th0phyll [Gr. Ea:/Bcis, yellow + ¢z5AAoz/, leaf] : a modi- fied form or product of transformation of ehlorop/2.yll, the green coloring-matter of leaves. Little is known about it chemically as yet, more than the fact that by some chem- ical change in the leaf, generally before separation from the tree, the green matter is changed into other compounds, sometimes yellow and sometimes red, this being the first stage of decay, the final product being brown. Xanthopro’teic Acid [xanthoprotee'e is deriv. of xantho- protetn; Gr. 5a:/66s, yellow + protein] : an acid formed by the action of nitric acid on albuminoid substances. When the fingers are wetted with nitric acid they become stained of a deep and indelible yellow, which becomes orange-red on the subsequent application of an alkali. This phenome- non was investigated by Miilder, who found that the action of the nitric acid was upon the albnme'noe'cl matter of the skin, and he isolated the yellow substance, to which he gave the above name. He attributed to it the composition C34H2.,N4O14. White of egg and other albuminoid matters give the same compound. The stain produced upon wood by nitric acid is due to a similar compound formed with albuminoid mat- ter in the wood. The indelibility of the stain on the fingers is due to the fact that this substance is soluble only in acids and alkalies so concentrated as to destroy all organized sub- stances, and which hence can not be applied to the skin with safety. Boiling potash solution dissolves xanthopro- teic acid with a deep red color ; hence the darkening of the stain by alkalies. From this solution xanthoproteates of other bases may be precipitated. Xanthorham’nine [Gr. Ea:/66$, yellow -|- (50611/as, buck- thorn (whence Mod. Lat. Rham'nns)]: a yellow coloring- matter, contained in the ripe Persian or Turkey berries and in Avignon grains. It appears to be formed by the decom- position of ehrg/sorhamm'ne (C231-I 22011), which is present in the unripe berries. Its extraction is effected by boiling the ground berries with alcohol, allowing the decoction to stand until the various impurities present settle, then allowing the xanthorhamnine to crystallize, and afterward purifying it by recrystallization from alcohol. It is also obtained upon boiling chrysorhamnine with water. It forms yellow crystals, which are easily soluble in water and in alcohol, but do not dissolve in ether. It probably has the composi- tion C23H28O14. although, according to some authorities, it is identical with qaerevJtrz'ne, CSSHSOOI-,. VV hen treated with dilute acids, xant-horhamnine yields glucose (CGHIQOG) and 9‘/tamnetlne (C111-I1oO5). It forms precipitates with several metallic salts, and imparts a yellow color to fabrics mor- danted with alumina, and a black color to those mordanted with iron salts. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Xantlloxyluin : a genus of plants of the family Rurxcnzs (q. 1).) containing the PRICKLY-ASH (Q. 1).). See also SATIN- woon. Xanthus : city of Lycia. Xantippe: See Socaxrns. Xaraes: See CI-IARAES. Xauxa: See J AUJA. Xavier, FRANCISCO, de : See FRANCIS Xxvma. Xebec Ijfrom Span. jabeqne, xebeqae, Fr. ehebee, of doubt- ful source : a small, three-masted vessel, carrying lateen and also sometimes square sails. It is sharp fore and aft, has low sides and a high, cambered deck. The xebec is a fast sailer and was the favorite vessel of the Mediterranean pirates. It is still employed in commerce along the south- ern and eastern Mediterranean. E. A. G. Xenia, zee’ni-a“a: city (incorporated in 1808); capital of Greene co., O. ; on the Shawnee creek, and the Cin., Ham. and Dayton, and the Pitts., Cin., Chi. and St. L. railways ; 55 miles S. W. of Columbus, 65 miles N. E. of Cincinnati (for loca- tion, see map of Ohio, ref. 6-D). It is in the Miami valley-, 3 miles from Little Miami river and 12 from Big Miami river: is laid out with broad macadamized streets; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of cordage, paper, shoes, pumps, carriages, machinery, and powder, and in marble and granite work. In the center of the city is a park containing the county court-house, and opposite the park is the municipal building. There are 16 churches, of which the Baptists and Methodists have 4 each, the United Presbyterians 3, and the Protestant Episcopal Church, the German Reformed, the Lutheran, the Presbyterian, and the Roman Catholic 1 each; 3 new public-school buildings, a. business college, and a parochial school. A city workhouse and the county jail are within the corporate limits, and about 2 miles from the city is a county infirmary with a large farm. In 1894 the city receipts were $73,902 ; expen- ditures, &t55,943 ; the net debt was $133,511 ; and the prop- erty valuation, $387,012. It has 5 hotels, 2 national banks with combined capital of $200,000, a monthly, 5 weekly, and 2 daily periodicals. It is the seat of the Ohio Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Orphans Home, which has 917 children, 31 teachers, and 39 matrons; and of the United Presbyterian Theolog- ical Seminary, which has an endowment of $119,000, and (1894) 4 professors and 44 students. In the suburbs is Wil- berforce University, a coeducational institution for colored students, which has an endowment of $128,000, literary, sei- entific, theological, law, and industrial departments, a train- ing—sehool for nurses, and (1894) 18 professors, 250 students, and 5,500 volumes in its libraries. Pop. (1880) 7,026 ; (1890) 7,301 ; (1895) estimated, 8,500. M. C. KINNEY. Xenocrates, ze-nok’ra“a-te"ez (in Gr. E61/0lcpoi'r77s): philos- opher; b. at Chaleedon in 396 B. 0.; became a pupil of Plato, and gained his favor by his earnestness and energy, though the master was well aware of his slowness of com- prehension and lack of elegance in manners. He accompa- nied Plato to Syracuse, and went after his death, together with Aristotle, to Asia Minor. Afterward he returned t-o Athens, and succeeded Speusippus as chief of the Academy (in 339 B. 0.), which position he occupied till his death, 314 . 854 See Lvom. XENOPHANES OF COLOPHON B. c. He was highly respected by the Athenians for the in- tegrity of his character, and was repeatedly sent as an am- bassador to foreign princes—Philip of Macedon, Antipater, etc. Aristotle respected him for his insight and knowledge, but of his works none has come down to us.—To be distin- guished from him is XENOCRATES the physician, a native of Aphrodisias in Cilicia. A little essay by him, Hep) T1“); éwrb T611 ’Euz58pwu Tpo¢fis (De Altmento eo: Aqaat'llt'b'as), is very interesting on account of the picture it gives of the state of natural history at that time. It has been edited by De Ancora (1794), by Franz (1774), by Coray (1814), by Matthtii (1808), and by Ideler in his Physz'ct et filed/lei G-’rcecz' 'm/lnores (Berlin, 1841). Revised by J . R. S. STERRETT. Xenophanes (zen-of’an-e”ez) Of Colophon: founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy; flourished in the second half of the sixth century B. c., and brought to Elea (Velia), in Lower Italy, his philosophic doctrines and his poetic art. His epic poems have for their themes The .Fozmol»m,g_ of Colophon and the O’olone'zate'on of Elea, but l11S reputation rested on his didactic poem On Nature (Hepl ¢z5aews), and on his Sallres (2i7\7\m), in which he attacked the doctrines of other philosophers and poets. He was a zealous upholder of monotheism, and accused Homer and Hesiod of ascrib- ing to the gods actions that were a shame to men. The fragments of his elegies show a high moral standard, and have the true poetic ring. They are contained in Bergk’s Grceot Poetce Lym' Dutch jagt, liter., chase, deriv. of jagen, hunt, chase]: a yacht is a vessel of any size, propelled by sail, steam, or other motive power, and used exclusively for pleasure pur- poses. The name was first applied to small vessels of ex- ceptional speed and handiness compared with the war and trading vessels of the day, and thus specially adapted for chasing smugglers and pirates. The use of large and elegant pleasure craft specially de- voted to royalty may be traced back to a very remote pe- riod; but yachting in its true sense began no earlier than the seventeenth century, while its establishment as a rec- ognized sport falls within the nineteenth century. Mention is made of a small yacht, called the Rat of VVight, built at Oowes, Isle of Wight. in 1588, and in 1604 a small vessel was built for Henry of Wales ; but it is not until the reign of Charles II. that a definite record of the building and use of yachts is found. Through the early part of the seven- teenth century the small jagt was found in Dutch waters, in model very similar to the Dutch craft of to-day. and the vessel was introduced into England some time prior to 1660. In the diary of Samuel Pepys, secretary to the admi- ralty, under date of July 15, 1660, is found mention of the king, Charles II., going to inspect a “Dutch pleasure-boat ”; and for the next five years the same diary alludes to the building of various small vessels for the king, and of races sailed on the Thames between them and difierent Dutch craft. The word yacht, in its present form and meaning, was prior to that time incorporated into the English lan- guage, and at a later date into French, German, and other continental languages. No hard line of demarkation can be drawn between the small sail-boat or launch and the yacht; while at the other extreme are found the larger class of steam-yachts which differ but little in model and build from passenger steamers, but which are yachts by virtue of their use. The sailing yacht, as distinguished from the larger boats and from canoes, may be defined as a craft of from 20 to 100 feet water-line length, wholly or partly decked, and with stand- ing spars and rigging. The steam, naphtha, or electric yacht, as distinguished from the simple launch, is a craft of from 50 feet water-line length upward, completely decked, and with permanent cabins. The upper limit of length in private steam-yachts is about 250 feet water-line and 1,000 tons displacement. VARIETIES or SAILING Yacnrs.—Sailing yachts may be divided into three types, according to the shape of the hull: (1) the keel yacht, with a deep body of which the keel is an integral part; (2) the fin-keel, with a very shoal body to which is attached a deep fixed fin, usually a plate of metal, with the ballast in the form of a cigar-shaped mass of lead attached to the lower side; and (3) the centerboard yacht, also with a shoal body, but relying for lateral resistance on a movable plane of wood or metal so pivoted in a vertical plane as to drop through the keel and below the bottom of the vessel. Almost every variety of rig is used on yachts, and although there is not of necessity a close connection between model and rig, it is frequently the case that cer- tain rigs have been so closely associated with certain types of hull that the name of the rig is applied to both, as in the case of the cat-boat, the sloop, the cutter, and the lugger. Catboat.—The simplest form of yacht is the centerboard catboat, the hull being wide, shallow, and usually lightly .-/F l l l \, FIG. 1.—-American catboat with centerboard. built, with no overhang at the ends. a wide rectangular rud- der hung outside the transom, a large centerboard. and with but one sail set on a gatf and boom, the mast being stepped as far forward as possible. These boats, ranging in length from 12 to 40 feet, are used in all the waters of the U. S. for racing. pleasure-sailing, fishing, and general service ; and. though easily capsizable, their light draught and speed make them adaptable to the shoal waters which abound. Sloop.——The sloop rig, the boom and gafi mainsail with the addition of a large jib, is used on the same type of hull as the cat rig. but on larger as well as the smaller sizes, up to yachts of '70 feet water-line. It is mainl_v used on the shoal centerboard type, the cutter rig having been adopted with the introduction of the keel yacht. In its simplest (S57) 858 form, with a pole-mast and only a jib and a mainsail, as used on the older racing-boats, it is known as the “ jib-and- mainsail ” rig, but on decked yachts a topmast, a pole- mast in the smaller, and a housing topmast in the larger, serves to carry a top- sail and jib-topsail. The cutter rig is still more complicated than the sloop, in that it has two headsails, a fore staysail in addition to the jib. Since 1885 the cutter rig in a mod- ified form has become al- most universal on decked yachts other than schooners in the U. S., being used on both keel and centerboard craft. The advantages of this rig in speed and hand- iness in all save some of the smaller racing-yachts are generally recognized. YawZ.—-The yawl rig is similar to the sloop or cut- ter except that it has a short main boom and a second and much smaller mast (stepped just abaft the rud- der-head), on which is car- ried a mizzensail, sometimes a leg-o’-mutton and some- times a lug sail. The rig is specially adapted for cruising. K.'etch.-—.Tl1e ketch rig is similar to the yawl, but the rnammast 1s farther forward and the mizzenmast is stepped forward of the rudder-head, giv- ing a much larger mizzen in pro- portion to the mainsail than in the yawl. This rig was used in the third Valky- rie in her ocean passage in 1895. Lugger.-—The lug rig has a yard on the head of the sail, slung by a single halyard made fast near the middle, in- stead of a gaff with jaws which slide on the mast. In the true lug the fore end of the yard and the upper fore angle of the sail project forward of the mast. The rig is used on yachts of all types, being the favorite racing rig for the smaller yachts in Great Britain; but it is chiefly associated with the fast smugglers of the early part of the nineteenth cen- tury, the lugger having two or three masts with very long yards. Sh0w'pt'e.—-The sharpie is a shoal draught vessel, extensively used in the U. S. for oystering as well as for pleasure- sailing. The bottom is flat, the sides slightly flared out- ward at the deck, the stem straight, and the stern is carried out into a long counter with a round end. The centerboard is long rather than deep, and the rudder is of the balance variety, there being no rudder-post or scag. The rig is pe- » 4!_¢". ‘ ‘ u ' x - _ _ 9 Jr" 1 _ FIG. 3.—Yaw1 rig with lug mizzen. ‘T FIG. 4.—Ketch rig. vmnrs AND YAOHTING I ouliar to the boat and shares the name with it; there are two masts, each long and flexible and carrying a leg-o’- mutton sail extended by a long sprit running across from the mast to the clew, instead of a boom on the foot. The foremast is stepped in the bows and the mainmast just abaft the middle of the boat. Cazf-yawl.--The cat-yawl or dou- ble-cat rig, the latter name being peculiar to the Great Lakes of North America, has the larger mast stepped in the bows, as in a catboat, but a mizzen is also carried, as in a yaw], though there is no bowsprit or jib. 6 FIG. 6.—Modern schooner rig. B \/J FIG. 5.—Sharpie. Schooner-—The schooner rig is used on yachts of from 60 feet upward; it has two masts, the fore and main, the latter carrying the larger sail ; the bowsprit and head sails are rigged like those of a cutter. The barkentine and brigantine - rigs are no longer seen on sailing yachts. Ice - yacht or Ice-boat.-—This is not properly a vessel, but a ma- chine for sailing on ice. It con- sists of a light framework of wood resting on three large skates or runners, the , after one movable and fitted with a tiller for steering. A mast is stepped in the center of the framework, on which one or two sails are car- ried, the sloop rig being the most _ common, though the cat rig is sometimes used. Under favorable conditions the boats are capable of very high speed, and they are used throughout the Northern U. S. for racing in winter. The main member \4l / FIG. 7.—Hudson river ice-yacht (with plan). YACHTS AND YACHTING of the boat is a long stick of timber forming keel and bow- sprit in one piece. At right angles to it, and forward of the middle, is the runner plank, on which it rests and is secure- ly bolted. The frame is stiffened by four wire-rope stays which connect the four ends. Under each end of the run- FIG. 8.—Mala.y racing “ kolek.“ Crew suspended by lines from masthead. ner plank is an oak shoe with a a sharp steel runner. The crew, usually two, lie in a small oval box near the after end of the keel. Early Yachts and Yacht (]Zubs.—The first yacht club, the “ Water Club of the Harbour of Cork” (Ireland), was founded in 1720. The beginning thus made at Cork was not followed by a regular. growth of yachting, and the sport had made little progress up to 1812, when the “ Yacht Club ” was founded at Cowes, Isle of Wight. In 1815 the club was reorganized, and after the prince regent became a mem- ber, 1817, it was renamed the “Royal Yacht Club,” con- tinuing under this name until 1833, when W'illiam IV. al- tered the name to the “Royal Yacht Squadron,” under which it still exists. The yachts of 1800 to 1830 were of all sizes, rigs, and models, following closely after the faster types of fishing-boats, smugglers, and revenue cutters, and rigged as sloops, cutters, yawls, ketches, brigs, and schoon- ers. They were built primarily for cruising, and such rac- ing as they did was merely incidental, all sizes and rigs being classed together, with only the crudest attempts to compensate for difference in size by time allowance. After the peace of 1815, with the waters of the globe thoroughly explored, with the American continent fully colonized, with buccaneering and privateering abolished and the great powers exhausted by a long and expensive series of naval wars, there was little of their old occupation afloat for the descendants of Drake and Frobisher and Raleigh, and the new sport of yachting soon became exceedingly popular. Up to 1840 yacht building and racing were carried on in an irregular and unsystematic manner, but the love of the sport was spreading rapidly in British waters, and a number of clubs were formed. The first yacht club in the U. S. was the New York Yacht Club, founded in 1844, mainly through the efiorts of Col. John C. Stevens and his brother Edwin. For over a century no attempt was made to allow time to the smaller craft. It was only with the formation of yacht clubs and the general popularity of yacht-racing, subsequent to 1815, that this difierence in size was first appreciated and attempts made to measure and allow for it. The first meas- urement was naturally based on the tonnage of the yachts, as ascertained by the old custom-house rule described in the article TONNAGE (q. ’t‘.), and though modified in various ways from time to time, this same tonnage rule held sway over British yachts down to 1887. This rule did not take into account the actual depth of a vessel. but rated all vessels of the same length and breadth at the same tonnage. About 1820 the dimensions of a yacht of about 80 tons measurement were 55 feet water-line, 18 feet beam, and 10 feet draught. The model was marked by a long straight keel, but slightly deeper aft than forward, stem-piece and stern-post but slightly raked. a round and full midship sec- tion, and a very full bow and disproportionately fine after- body, the center of buoyancy being placed forward of the mid-length of the water-line. The first improvements on this model were the deepening of the midship section, giving a larger vessel on the same nominal tonnage an easier form to propel, and a larger and 859 much more effective lateral plane to hold the vessel to wind- ward. The loss on the score of stability, which was one marked result of the change, was met by substituting iron ballast for the stone previously used. The quarter century from 1820 to 1845 was marked by the building of a number of cutters and schooners of this general type, and by a very general interest in yacht-racing. The IVave-Z/tne Theory of Scott RasseZZ.—-It was about 1840 that John Scott Russell first pointed out the faults of the bluff bow, the errors of the “ cod’s-head and mackerel’s- tail " theory, then followed by all builders, and the advan- tages of a new method devised by himself, in which the pro- portions of length between the fore and after bodies were reversed, the bow being made long and fine and the run shorter and quite full in the water-lines. In 1848 a yacht (the Musquito) was built on the Thames which was remark- able as being constructed of iron in place of wood, and as having a very fine bow and relatively full after-body. In many features of design and construction the Musquito was far ahead of her time, but yachtsmen were slow to appreci- ate her true merits. The British Cutter and the Gutter R/tg.—The great variety of rigs prevalent in the early days disappeared prior to 1850, leaving two principal rigs, the schooner and the cutter. The schooner rig was found only on the largest yachts, the cut- ter being the popular rig. The mast was comparatively short and strongly stayed by several shrouds to a side, a stout forestay, leading from masthead to stemhead, and by masthead runners. The topmast was very long, and so fitted as to be readily housed or even struck en- tirely and stowed on deck. while the heavy round bow- sprit was similarly fitted to house or run in on deck in bad weather. The mainsail was not laced to the boom, but was loose on the foot, confined only at the tack and clew. and there were two headsails—a jib, set on its own luff, so that it could be readily taken in and replaced by a smaller one, the bowsprit being at the same time fidded in, and a fore-staysail run- ning on the forestay. The cutter rig was essentially a seagoing one, its princi- ples being those of a ship applied in the simplest for1n. In fair weather a very large spread of sail could be set on the long topmast and bowsprit, and with the big yard-topsail; but this area could be rapidly and conveniently reduced as the wind increased, the topsail taken in, the topmast housed, the bowsprit run in to carry a smaller jib, and the mainsail reefed, until in extreme weather the yacht, with topmast lashed on deck and bowsprit run in, was under only a small storm-trysail set in place of the mainsail, with a diminutive storm-jib or the corner of the staysail. Ame'rqIca'n I'ac7ztz‘ng—The Ce/nterboami Type and Sloop R’2Tg.—Tl1e establishment of yachting in the U. S. dates from about 1840-45, the prevailing model being very sim- ilar to that of the British yachts. The conditions, however, were very different from those governing British yachting. The waters of the North Atlantic coast were essentially dif- 4-—-—-'-""2 \ / L‘ \/ JV FIG. 10.—An1erican centerboard sloop (1860 to 1880) with midship half- section. FIG. 9.—British keel ygrézoht with “ cutter “ rig, 1 . ferent from the English Channel, there being a large avail- able area of calm, landlocked, and readily accessible water about New York, the cradle of the sport, and also about the ports of Long Island Sound. The physical geography of New York harbor was, from 1840 to 1880, one of the 860 controlling factors in the development of the American acht. Y While in Great Britain tl1e tonnage rule placed a pre- mium on great depth, and local conditions in the form of deep and rough waters also favored it, about New York and Boston, where the rule exerted no influence, the local con- ditions all tended to produce a shoal vessel. Though originally of British origin, the centerboard had received little attention from British yachtsmen from the days when its progenitor, the Dutch leeboard, was seen on the jagts of the Merry Monarch. It was, however, well known in the U. S. in the coasting and river vessels, and its adoption by yachtsmen came as a matter of course as soon as the fact was appreciated that the very shoal craft could not go -to windward with keel alone. Aided by a large centerboard, though at the expense of valuable room in the cabin, it was found possible to build very large and fast craft on a limited draught, the great sloop Maria, built for Commodore John C. Stevens in 1847, having a draught of but 5 ft. 2 in. on a water-line of 92 feet and a beam of 26 ft. 6 in. The Sloop R/£g.—Even before the days of yachting the single-masted rig was found in two different forms—the cutter of the English Channel, already described, a strictly seagoing rig, and the sloop, the product of the local con- ditions prevailing on the narrow inland waters of Holland. This rig, brought over by the early Dutch settlers, had been developed to a high degree of perfection in the passenger- packets and freight-boats of the Hudson riv- er and Long Isl- and Sound be- fore the days of yachting, the ves- sels being also of Dutch model, shoal, wide, and bluff in the bows, first with lee- boards and after- ward with cen- terboards. As yachts increased in number sub- sequent to 1845, a national type was developed, based on the working sloop. Keel boats were few in number; the cutter rig was unknown; there was little difierence in model between the largest and the smallest yachts, but those over 50 feet were, as a rule, rigged as schooners, while the smaller ones were sloops. In the U. S. the fastest yachts of the day were produced by George Steers, the son of an English shipwright, a young builder of remarkable ability, who turned out the finest pilot- boats, yachts, and war-ships of his time. The early Steers yachts and pilot-boats, up to 1846, were all of the “ cod’s- head ” type, but in the pilot-boat Mary Taylor, built in 1848, he made a notable departure from the conventional ‘model in the direction of a fine bow. In 1851, in conjunction with C01. Stevens, he planned a new yacht, the famous America, with the object of visiting England on the occasion of the World’s Fair at the Crystal Palace in 1851. This yacht was a keel schooner of 170 tons, 90 feet water- line, 23 feet beam, and 11 feet draught. Her general con- struction, rig, and fittings were similar to the pilot-schoon- ers of the day ; she had a deep outside keel of oak, and was ballasted by iron stowed on the inner skin. The passage across the Atlantic was safely made, and on Aug. 22, 1851, the America sailed as one of a fleet of 17 yachts—8 schoon- ers and 9 cutters—2 schooners and 1 cutter being larger than she and the rest smaller. The course was around the Isle of Wight, the wind being light and variable. The America came in ahead of all her rivals. The race was sailed without time allowance, and the prize was a silver tankard of the value of 100 guineas. Contrary to‘ a wide- spread belief, this cup, long known as the “ Queen’s Cup,” was not given by Queen Victoria, but by the Royal Yacht Squadron. The cup, by common consent of the five owners of the America, remained in the possession of Col. Stevens. and was held by him until 1857, when it was dedicated by CI___K7/-J FIG. 11.—American centerboard yacht with “ sloop " rig, 1880. I YACHTS AND YACHTING the five original owners of the yacht to the purposes of a perpetual challenge cup for international competition, bemg first intrusted to the care of the New York Yacht Club to hold under certain specified conditions until won by a for- eign challenger. The victory of the America gave a new impetus to yacht building and racing, and the defeat of their crack yachts set the British yachtsmen at work to imitate her two prom- inent features-—the hollow bow and flat sails. Old yachts were altered and new ones built on both sides of the Atlan- tic to conform to the new theories. The tonnage rule was never adopted by the yachtsmen of the U. S., but many different rules were tried from 1850 on- ward, based on displacement, on length taken in various ways, on sail area, and other factors of advantage real or imaginary. From 1850 to 1880 the development was al- most exclusively under a length rule, producing a wide and shoal boat; and the length on deck was taken, wholly or in part, instead of the length on water-line, thus producing a craft with square ends and no overhang. The progress of British yachting during this ' eriod was far more varied and interesting. The adoption, t irough the America and l\lus- quito, of finer bows and better general form was followed by a further contraction of beam, to save tonnage, to offset which an outside shoe of cast iron was added below the keel, in addition to the heavy weight of shot carried in the weather bilge. To such a dangerous extreme was this latter practice carried that in 1856 it was rigidly prohibited by a rule which has been in existence ever since in Great Britain, forbidding the shifting of any weights during a race. This restriction stopped for a time the process of decreasing the beam a little in each successive yacht to gain more size 011 the same nominal tonnage, the narrow yachts having in- sufficient stability when deprived of the weight to wind- ward. The inventive powers of owners and builders soon disposed of this difficulty by using a heavier iron shoe, and filling every inch of space between the floors and keelson with lead accurately moulded to fit. About 1870 a great change was made in the placing of a very large proportion of the ballast in a lead keel outside the oak keel. The extent of this change is shown by a comparison of the racing-yawl Florinda, built in 1873. with the cutter Gal- atea, built in 1885. The Florinda, of 125 tons, yacht measure- ment, was 85 ft. 9 in. on the water-line, 19 ft. 4 in. beam, and 11 ft. 9 in. in draught, with 54 tons of ballast, of which but 8 tons were on the keel ; the Galatea, of 90 tons measure- ment, was 86 feet on the water-line, 15 feet beam, and 13 ft. 3 in. draught, her ballast, 78 tons, being all carried at the lowest possible point, in her trough keel, the hull being of iron. For a long time yacht-builders were, as a rule, men of large practical experience but little technical education, planning their yachts by ways of their own, and knowing little of the accepted methods of the trained naval architect. It was about 1870 that they began to feel the first competition from young men of thorough technical education, who, giving no thought to the business of yacht-building, devoted them- selves seriously to the work of producing designs on paper from which yachts could be built with some reasonable cer- tainty of good performance. The work of such men as Wat- son, Richardson, Beavor-Webb, Clayton, Paton, all of whom VALKYRIE III. DEFENDER. International yacht-race off Sandy Hook, N. Y., Sept. 7, I895. The start. (From a photograph.) AMERICAN. DRITISII. G THI‘-‘KLE- : VIII Vl('-HLANT. I H VALKYRlE- ‘ \ V- CARMITA, (BULB FIN CUTTER)189I-L MISLH|EF,\SLOOP) 1876. F DEFENDER. VALKYRIE Ill. Typical British and American racing-yachts, I851-1895. YACHTS AND YACHTING are distinctively designers, received recognition in Great Britain prior to 1880; and from that time onward all yachts have been built from plans carefully worked out _on paper after a recognized method, whether by a professional de- signer or by one who combines the two occupations of de- signing and building. . _ The first yacht built from a design in the U. S. was the iron cutter Vindex, designed by A. Cary Smith in 1871. In spite, however, of the success of the Vindex, and of other yachts designed by Smith, it was not until 1884 that the old method of building from a wooden model carved out by the builder was finally abandoned. Though the Vmdex was a very successful yacht, her building had no effect on the na- tional type. The visit of the America in 1851 was returned in 1870 and 1871 by the English schooners Cambria and Livonia, each of which sailed at New York and was defeated in the attempt to regain the America’s cup .; and then all interest on the part of yachtsmen of the U. S. in the progress of the sport across the sea ceased entirely, and the develop- ment of the national type proceeded independently on the lines already indicated. In the fall of 1880 James Coats, of Paisley, a wealthy Clyde vachtsman, sent to New York on the deck of a steamer a very successful 10-ton cutter, the Madge, the work of the young Scotch designer, George L. Watson, in every respect a perfect craft of the type. A number of matches were made with representative sloops as nearly as possible of the same size, and seven races were sailed oflc New York and Newport, in which Madge scored six victories, being once defeated by the famous Boston sloop Shadow, the deepest yacht of her type, and the most successful. The other sloops, Schemer, W&\’6, and Mistral, were badly defeated by the little Scotch boat. The victory of the Madge proved the merits of_ her type in many points, if not her all-around superiority ; in partic- ular were her rigging, sails, and the handling of her Scotch crew superior to those of her opponents. In 1881 was built the cutter Oriva, of 50 feet water-line, and next year the Bedouin, of 70 feet, and the \/Venonah, of 60 feet, all built by Piepgrass from designs by Mr. John _I-Iarvey, the English designer. These three yachts were wider by 1 to 2 feet than the British cutters of the day. Several cutters were imported from England, and, with those built in the U. S., gave battle to the sloops, through 1882, 1883, 1884, the result being that while certain faults, notably the lack of beam, were plainly apparent in the cutters, the superiority of the cutter rig, of the lead keel, and of other important features was conceded very practically by the process of rebuilding and rigging the sloops; while many new yachts of wide beam but much greater depth, and With a centerboard working through a lead keel, were built under the general name of “ compromise sloops.” _ Zlloder-n International Races.—This process of reconstruc- tion and modification found its most successful embodiment in 1885, in which year a challenge was received by the New York Yacht Club for the America’s cup, on behalf of the British cutter Genesta, of 80 tons, 81 feet water-line, a fast and fitting representative of the extreme cutter type. Of the two yachts built to defend the cup, the successful one, both in the preliminary trial races, and the final races with the Genesta, was the Puritan, a centerboard yacht with a deep outside keel of lead and a cutter rig modified in mechanical details, the cotton mainsail being laced to the boom, and the bowsprit being permanently fitted. The Pu- ritan’s designer, Edward Burgess, of Boston, was practic- ally an amateur, though an old and experienced yachtsman. she being the first yacht of any size which he produced after adopting the profession of yacht-designer. _ In 1886 there came a new challenge from the Galatea, a sister ship to the Genesta, and she was in turn defeated by an enlarged Puritan, the Mayflower, also designed by Burgess. In the periodic discussions over the tonnage rule which at 111- tervals disturbed British yachtsmen, the suggestion was made about 1880 by I)ixon Kemp. a designer and yacht.- ing writer, that length combined with the sail area should be employed in place of the rule which was producing‘ nar- rower and deeper yachts each year. In 1882 this rule was adopted in a primitive form by the Seawanhaka Corinthian Yacht Club of New York, and in 1883 it was remodeled into what has since been known as the “ Seawanhaka rule,” the length on the water-line being added to the square root of the sail area, and the sum divided by 2. At the same time the New York Yacht Club adopted the rule in a slight- ly different form. The Seawanhaka rule has since been 861 adopted by nearly every North American yacht club. The movement for the adoption of the length and sail-area rule had been gaining strength in Great Britain for some years previous to the defeat of the Genesta and Galatea, and in the winter following the victory of the Mayflower over the Galatea the change was made, the old tonnage rule being finally abandoned, and what has been since called the “rating rule” adopted. By this rule the length and sail area are multiplied together, and the product divided by 6020, tge quotient being the “rating ” of the yacht ( X A 6000 adopted merely to conform in a measure to the established custom, British yachtsmen having for two generations been accustomed to a cubic form of measurement rather than to a lineal form, as used in the U. S. This change of rule gave new liberty to the designer, leaving beam entirely untaxed, and he was not slow to ap- preciate the situation. Between 1886 and 1890 there grew up a fine fleet of yachts, of excellent design, light and elab- orate construction, and great speed. The first large yacht built under the new rule, the Thistle, designed by Mr. Wat- son to challenge for the America’s cup in 1881~ , though very successful against the older cutters at home, was badly de- feated by a new champion, the Volunteer, a still deeper centerboard yacht built of steel from Burgess’s design. V/7 :R>. This particular form of the rule was FIG. 13.—Kee1 yacht (1890) with midship half-section. The influence of the three years’ racing for the America’s cup was strongly felt on both sides; in the U. S. the keel cutter came to the front very rapidly in the smaller classes, and some very exciting races were sailed in 1889-90 in the 30 feet and 40 feet classes. These yachts were of consider- able beam and even more draught than the old cutters, with very large sail plans, rigged as cutters save that the main- sail was laced to the boom, the sails being all of cotton in- stead of hemp, and the bowsprit was a fixture. In the larger classes the deep centerboard yacht was still success- ful, for the reason that yachtsmen were reluctant to take the extreme draught essential to a perfect keel yacht ; but in the classes up to 53 feet water-line the keel yachts were al- most uniformly successful against both the old sloops which had been remodeled and the more modern “ compromise ” sloops. The year 1891 was marked by the production in the U. S. of two noted yachts. both designed by N. G. Herreshofi. The first of these, the Gloriana, was a keel cutter of 45 feet water-line, 18 feet beam, and 10 feet draught, with a sail plan of 4,000 sq. feet by the Seawanhaka measurement, a very large rig. \Vhile of the general form of the yachts of the day, she carried to an extreme degree two details of modern designing. The water-line was excessively round and full at both ends, with no suspicion of hollow at the bows, giving a large area of water-line plane and corresponding stability, the hull below the water being boldly cut away into a hol- low S-section. In consonance with this form below water, the topsides were carried out by the prolongation of the under water-lines until they reached their natural limits by converging at bow and stern, giving very long and full overhangs at each end. The “ wave-line ” theory of Scott Russell, in 1840, called for excessively fine water-lines in the bow. involving a great amount of deadwood and wetted surface that was detri- mental to speed. The true application of Scott Russell’s theory was first developed by John Hyslop about 1875, his proposition being that the true wave form demanded not that the water-lines of a vessel should be of any one form, but that the growth of the bulk, from the bow to the mid- ship section, and its decrease then to the stern, should fol- low a certain distinct rate of progression, the “ curve of areas” of the transverse sections, representing this growth and decrease of bulk, being a curve of versed sinesgin the fore-body and a trochoid in the after-bodv. So far from conflicting with the elaborate investigations and deductions of Scott Russell, the discovery of Hyslop served to complete and perfect them and to make them for the first time of practical application in designing. It is remarkable that 862 YACHTS AND YACHTING this “ wave-form ” theory was discovered simultaneously by Hyslop, working in New York, and a Norwegian naval arch- itect, Colin Archer, living in Laurvig, Norway; they were unknown to each other and worked on original and distinct methods to the same end. By this new theory, accepted by all yacht-designers, the form of the water-lines could be materially modified, pro- vided the volume of the immersed body at any point was properly proportioned. In the early yachts the full round water-lines were carried down to the full depth of the keel, making a bow that was excessively bulky. In the Gloriana only the loadwater-line was full, the hull being cut away excessively below, so as to preserve the fineness of bulk de- manded by theory. Apart from the special features of the full water-line and long ends, the yacht was a masterpiece of light construction, on the composite system, with a beau- tiful outfit of sails, and a rig that included many new me- ‘\\—//'7 W FIG. 14.—Fin-keel yacht (1891-95) with lead bulb and balance rudder, with midship half-section. chanical devices invented by the clever designer, who also sailed her in many of her races. The fame of her success was emphasized by her peculiar features, and she will al- ways stand in yachting history as a remarkable craft. In the fall of the same year Herreshofi? designed and built a small experimental craft, in which the tendencies al- ready noted--toward a very hollow section and reduced lateral plane—were carried to an extreme degree. the hull being that of a canoe about 39 feet over all, 25 feet water- line, 7 feet beam, and but 2 feet immersed depth. To this shoal hull was attached a fin of steel plate about *3 inch thick, the lower edge of the fin carrying a cigar-shaped bulb of lead. The Dilemma, as she was called, was a great suc- cess, and in 1892 she was followed by others of her type from the Herreshoff shops—the firm being both designers and builders—several of them going to British waters and racing with hardly a defeat. The interest in racing being still maintained, the models of each successive year showed a closer approach to the fin- keel type in the larger classes, and when a challenger came in 1893 for the America’s cup, two of the four large yachts built for the defense, of 87 feet water-line, were fin'keels, one, the Pilgrim, an extreme fin, drawing 22 feet, the other, the Jubilee, having a shoaler fin but 13 feet extreme draught, but with a centerboard working through the fin. The successful yacht, both in the trial and cup races, was the Vigilant, designed by Herreshofi, of 87 feet water-line, 126 feet over all, 26 feet beam, and 13 feet draught, with a very hollow section and a deep keel that was virtually a fin, to which was added a centerboard weighing 4 tons. The frames of the yacht were of steel, and the plating of an alloy—Tobin bronze. Opposed to her was the Valkyrie II., designed by Watson, a keel cutter of composite build, of the same length, but under 23 feet beam, and drawing 17 feet of water. The result of her racing in the U. S. was the same as in previous years—she was defeated by the Vigilant in three races. The season of 1894 was a most interesting one. The Val- kyrie II. was sailed home and thoroughly refitted with a larger rig and more ballast, and the Vigilant, purchased by George J . Gould, was sent across to take part in the British racing. After only two trials the Valkyrie II. came to an untimely end, being sunk by collision with the Satanita in the Mudhook regatta on the Clyde on July 4. The Britan- nia, Vigilant, and Satanita sailed out the season with the result that the first named scored a wonderful success, win- ning 12 out of 17 races from the Vigilant. Again, in 1895, came another challenge from the owner of Valkyrie II., the Earl of Dunraven. and a still larger yacht (Valkyrie III.) was designed for him by \Vatson, her length on water-line being 90 feet, beam 26 feet, and draught 20 feet. This time but one yacht was built to meet her, the Defender, designed and built by N. G. Herreshoif, of 90 feet water-line, 23 feet beam, and 19 feet draught. While nominally keel cutters in model, both possessed the extreme draught and the small area of midship section characteristic of the fin-keel type. The races were most unsatisfactory; in the first Defender won, in the second YAKUTSK Valkyrie was disqualified as the result of a foul, and Lord Dunraven declined to sail the third. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-—Small Yachts, their Design and Con- strnctlon, by C. P. Kunhardt (2d ed. New York, 1890); Yacht Destgntng, by Dixon Kemp (London, 1875); Yacht and Boat Sc/zile'ng, by Dixon Kemp (London, 8th ed. 1896); Yacht Archttectnm, b Dixon Kemp (London, 2d ed. 1891); Steam Yachts and annches, by C. P. Kunhardt (New York, 2d ed.1890); Canoe and Boat Building for Ama- teurs, by W. P. Stephens (revised ed. New York, 1892); Le Y aeht, by Philippe Daryl (Paris, 1892); Yacht Bntlcl/lng, by P. H. Marett (London, 2d ed. 1872); Yachtsman’s Guide, Capt. Howard Patterson (New York); Y achtsman’s Hancly Book, by \/V. H. Rosser (London) ; Amateur Sailing in Open and Half-cleched Beats, by T. E. Biddle (London, 1886); Y achttng, in the Badminton Library (2 vols, London, 1894). W. P. STEPHENS. Yak [from Tibetan gyag or gg/ah]: the Bos grnnntens, a bovine animal of Tibet. It is about the size of a small ox, very hairy, and has a long sweeping tail. The legs and neck are short, horns small and half hidden in the long hair; the shoulders bear a great mass of hair which suggests a hump. The wild yak is much less shaggy than the domes- ticated variety, and of a nearly uniform deep brown or black- ish color. The domesticated animals are generally black or white, or black and white, the latter most commonly. Its hair is not coarse, though long and thick; and though the creature, when wild and disturbed or wounded, may prove terribly fierce, yet it can be easily tamed and domesticated. Its hair protects it from the cold of the great mountain- heights which it loves to frequent. It is a sure-footed ani- mal, climbing over rocks with the agility of a chamois. It is found only in the plateau region between the Altai and Himalaya Mountains, ranging upward to a11 altitude of 20,- 000 feet. The Tibetans frequently keep large domesticated flocks of yaks, and the milk is much prized. It is very rich and yellow, and has a strong but pleasant odor. The yak does not low like an ex, but has a peculiar sharp, quick, deep voice, very similar to the grunt of a bear. It is some- times hunted by large dogs. Sportsmen declare that its flesh is superior to venison. The Tibetans frequently use its skin for clothing, and often take long journeys on yaks. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Yako’nan Indians: a family comprising four tribes of North American Indians, whose name is a corruption of that of the leading tribe, the Yaquina, or Yakwina. This family was based by Hale upon a single tribe, then num- bering 600 or 700, who lived on the coast, N. of the Nsiet- shawus ( robably the N tsi-ya’mis, a village of the Ku-itc, or Lower mpqua), from whom they differed merely in lan- guage. Hale calls the tribe Iakon, or Yakones, or Southern Killamuks. The Siuslaw language has usually been as- sumed to be distinct from all others, but there is unques- tioned evidence of relationship between the Yaquina, Alsea, Siuslaw, and Ku-itc, or Lower Umpqua, the four tribes that constitute the Yakonan family. The Yaquina tribe must have been of importance in early days, as it occupied fifty- six villages on both sides of Yaquina river, from the site of Elk City, 30 miles down to the Pacific Ocean. The Alsea formerly occupied twenty villages along both sides of Alsea river and on the adjacent coast. Most of the Alsea are with the Yakwina on the Siletz reservation, Oregon ; but a few of them are on the Grande Ronde reservation, in the same State. The Siuslaw used to inhabit thirty-four villages along Siuslaw river. The Ku-itc, or Lower Umpqua, had twenty-one villages along both sides of Umpqua river, from its mouth up the stream for about 30 miles. Above the Ku-itc villages on the Umpqua river were the Upper Ump- qua villages, occupied by Athapascan Indians. See INDIANS or NORTH AMERICA. J. OWEN Donsnv. Yakutsk’, or J akutsk : Russian province (Oblast) of East Siberia, embracing almost the entire basin of the im- mense Lena river ; bounded W. by the Yeniseisk, N. by the Arctic Ocean, S. by Irkutsk, the Transbaikal and the Amur provinces, and E. by the narrow strip of the maritime district of Ochotsk, which separates it from the Pacific. The im- mense province with an area of 1,533,397 sq. miles (nearly one-third of Siberia) has a population of 280,000, mostly Yakuts, Yukagirs, and Tunguses who live as hunters and fishers, partly still as nomads with large herds of cattle and horses. The Russians, mostly exiles or descendants of exiles, living in about twenty villages, number some 2,000 soldiers and 4,100 artisans, merchants, and oflieials. The south- YAKUTSK eastern part of the province is a high plateau, an immense desert of forests and of marshes frozen several hundred feet deep; but the wealth of the forests in fur-bearing animals and of the rivers in fish is unbounded. In the southwest gold-mining is growing. H. S. Yaklltskz capital of the province of Yakutsk, Siberia; on the Lena, in lat. 62° 2’ N., and 129° 44' E. lon.; founded in 1632 as a Cossack station (see map of Asia, ref. 2-H). It is the seat of a governor and the provincial authorities. The place has straight, unpaved streets, wooden houses, a cloister, a cathedral, 3 churches, a pro-gymnasium for boys and one for girls, and 2 primary schools. It is the center for the North Siberian trade in furs, mammoth-bones, reindeer- hides, tallow, and fish, which are exported for groceries and manufactured goods. The great fair, frequented by the na- tives all over the province, takes place from June 22 to Aug. 13 (new style), with an estimate of returns amounting to $2,250,000. Pop. 5,698. H. S. Yale, ELIHU, E. R. S. : philanthropist; b. in or near Bos- ton, Mass., Apr. 5, 1648; son of Thomas Yale, one ofthe original settlers of New Haven, Conn., 1638, who soon after removed to Massachusetts and in 1651 returned to England, followed in 1652 by the rest of his family. Elihu went to India to engage in trade about 1670; was governor or presi- dent of the East India Company’s settlement at Madras 1687-92 ; amassed a fortune; returned to England 1699. He never went back to New England, but he became inter- ested in the “Collegiate School” at Saybrook, Conn.; fa- vored it instead of bestowing a charity upon a college at Oxford as he had intended to do, and at different ti1nes— 1715, 1718, 1721—sent over books and goods valued at more than £600 sterling. The largest remittance—1718—-was in response to a hint to the effect that by making further do- nations he might have the college building, then in process of erection at New Haven, named after him. In 1745 the name Yale College was extended to the whole institution. Yale died in London, July 8, 1721, and was buried at \Vrex- ham, North Wales, the ancient seat of his family. Yale University (formerly Yale College) : an institution of learning chartered as “the collegiate school of Connecti- cut ” by the General Assembly of the colony of Connecticut Oct., 1701. From the first settlement of New Haven (1638) it had been intended to set up a college there, and it was in execution of this design that the minister of New Haven, James Pierpont, in concert with nine other Congregational ministers, most of whom were of the Connecticut seaboard, effected in Sept., 1701, the foundation of the collegiate school. The ten ministers made trustees by the charter were empow- ered to set up and carry on the school where they should see fit, and to perpetuate their own body. By an additional act (1723) the rector or head master of the school was made a trustee ea; 0177060. The school was formally established at Saybrook in Nov., 1701, though the classes until 1707 were taught at Killingworth (now Clinton), an adjoining town, where Abraham Pierson, the first rector, was pastor. After long dissatisfaction and amid much opposition the school was permanently settled in New Haven in 1716, and in 1718 its name-was changed to Yale College in recognition of a large gift from ELIHU YALE (q. v.), of London. In 1745 the pres- ent charter was granted by the General Assembly, confirm- ing the trustees in all their powers under the title of “the president and fellows of Yale College in New Haven.“ Down to the period of the Revolution the college received from the colonial Government stated or occasional grants of funds, without which it could hardly have survived. In 1792 the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, and six senior Senators of the State were made, 02: ofiicz'zis, members of the corporation, the State making at the same time a grant val- ued at $30,000 to the college funds. The constitution of Connecticut, adopted in 1818, expressly confirms the char- ter of Yale College. In 1871 the Assembly, with the assent of the corporation, substituted for the six Senators six gradu- ates of the college, who were chosen. as their successors (one vacancy occurring annually) are also chosen, by the votes of a plurality of graduates of the first degree of five years’ standing. In Jan., 1887, the use of the title Yale University was authorized by the General Assembly. For the first 100 years instruction was given chiefly by the rector or president, assisted by two or three tutors chosen from among the recent graduates and serving for brief periods. A professor of di- vinity (or college pastor) was appointed in 1755, and in 1770 a professor of mathematics, though the chair was not per- manently occupied till 1794. It was not until the nine- YALE UNIVERSITY 863 teenth century that the system of permanent professors, as- sisted still by temporary instructors, was fully established. There are over 200 instructors, nearly one-half of whom are permanent ofiicers. The presidents from the foundation of the institution have been Abraham Pierson (1701-07), Sam- uel Andrew (1707-19), Timothy Cutler (1719-22), Elisha Williams (1726-39), Thomas Clap (1740-66), Naphtali Dag- gett (1766-77), Ezra Stiles (1777-95), Timothy Dwight (1795- 1817), Jeremiah Day (1817-46), Theodore D. Woolsey (1846- 71), Noah Porter (1871-86), Timothy Dwight, elected in 1886. The president is the presiding officer of the board of trustees and of every board of instruction. He has no re- quired duties of teaching. There are four departments of instruction grouped under the name of Yale University, viz., the departments of philosophy and the arts, of theol- ogy, of law, and of medicine, the first of these including the academical department (the original Yale College, around which all the others have been developed). the Sheifield Sci- entific School, the School of the Fine Arts. the musical de- partment, and the courses of graduate (or advanced non-pro- fessional) instruction. Degrees in arts were first given in 1702, in medicine in 1814, in law in 1843, in philosophy in 1852, in theology in 1867, in fine arts in 1891, and in music in 1894. The whole number of graduates is (1895) 16,737. of whom about 7,800 are deceased. The annual commencement is held on the last Vi/Tednesday in June, and the college year begins thirteen weeks later. The number of students en- rolled on the annual catalogue for 1894-95 was 2,350, of whom 1,812 were undergraduates or candidates for the first degree in arts or philosophy (1,150 in the academical depart- ment and 662 in the Sheifield Scientific School). The course of study in the academical department, now known as Yale College, extends through four years, and leads to the degree of bachelor of arts. The requirements for ad- mission are mainly in Greek, Latin, and mathematics, and the first two years of the course are given largely to further drill in these branches ; while the studies of the last two years take a wider range, the most of the time in these two years being given to advanced courses in subjects in which the student has already made some progress, and which he chooses from among a larger number offered to his option. The annual charge for tuition and incidental expenses is $155. Benefi- ciary funds help to meet this charge for those who need such relief to the extent of over $20,000 yearly. Nearly 8310.000 is also disbursed yearly to graduate and under- graduate students in premiums for the encouragement of scholarship. The permanent funds of the department (ex- clusive of real estate, buildings. and apparatus devoted to academical uses) are about $1,500,000. The oldest college buildings occupy a square (about 850 feet by 400) in the center of the city, and on the west side of the public green, but the growth of the college has caused the erection of buildings for this department on adjoining squares also. There are nine dormitories, built from 1752 to 1894. and ac- commodating about 700 persons. There are also on the cen- tral square a chapel, a library. an art school, a building for the use of the Young Men‘s Christian Association. and six other buildings used as halls, recitation-rooms, and ofiiees. The buildings form a quadrangle inclosing an open space. A very fine gymnasium, for the use of all the students of the university, was erected in 1893 immediately to the N. W. of the college square. There is a well laid-out athletic field about a mile and a half \V. of the university buildings. The Sheflield Scientific School. begun in 1847 as a school of applied chemistry, was gradually expanded until in 1860 it received its first considerable endowment from Joseph E. Sheflield, of New Haven. who afterward largely added to his original gift. The school provides for advanced and special students in the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, and also for undergraduates who wish a training leading chiefly in this direction. It has five buildings, situ- ated two squares N. of the college square. The State Legis- lature appropriated to the school in 1863 the national grant of 1862 for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts, the income from which amounts to $6.530 annually. besides the additional appropriations by Congress. In 1893 the Legislature passed an act taking this appropriation away from the Sheffield School. but this led to litigation. The course of instruction leading to the degree of bachelor of philosophy occupies three years. The degrees of civil and mechanical engineer are given to bachelors of philosophy after a higher course of two years. and the degree of doctor of philosophy after a three years’ course. The charge for tuition is $150 a year. The degree of Ph. D. is also given 864 YAM to bachelors of arts who have pursued advanced studies at the university for two years, and the degree of M. A. is given for one year’s similar study at the university or elsewhere under the direction of the faculty. Women are admitted to the courses for the degrees of Ph. D. and to the School of Fine Arts, but not to other departments. The School of the Fine Arts was founded in 1864 by Au- gustus R. Street, of New Haven, who erected a building on the college square for its use and otherwise endowed it. In- strur-t1on is provided in drawing, painting, sculpture, archi- tecture, and copper-plate etching. The degree of bachelor of fine arts is conferred on students who have fulfilled the requirements of an advanced course. The annual fees are . 100. $ The theological department was founded in 1822 in con- nection with the Congregational denomination, and pro- vides a three years’ course of study. There is also a gradu- ate course of one year. There is no charge for instruction or for room-rent in the buildings belonging to the school. It is open on equal terms to students of every Christian de- nomination. It possesses two dormitories, a library build- ing, and a chapel, situated immediately N. of the college s uare. qThe law department, begun as a private school soon after 1800, was not recognized as part of the college until 1824. It now ofiers a three years’ course for the degree of LL. B., and also advanced courses with appropriate degrees at the end of one and two years. Special courses of one and two years are also provided for persons desiring acquaintance with law as a preparation for business life, or with political and legal systems and the rules by which they are governed. The annual tuition fees are $100. For many years the school found quarters in the county court-house. In 1895 it occupied a building erected for it on the north side of the public green. The medical department was organized in 1813, and in 1814 received a grant of $30,000 from the State. It was originally conducted under a charter obtained in 1810, which placed the school under the joint control of Yale College and the Connecticut Medical Society. III 1884 the medical society withdrew from the control. The requirements for a degree include attendance on three yearly courses of lec- tures. The building of the school is situated about a block and a half to the S. W. of the college square. Students in the medical department have the advantage of clinical in- struction, etc., at the New Haven Hospital. The annual lecture-fee is $140. The University Library, which is open to students in all departments, contains about 175,000 volumes and many thousands of unbound pamphlets. In the same building is a separate library of about 30,000 volumes, supported by the undergraduates and devoted to general literature. There are also special libraries belonging to the theological, law. medical, and scientific schools. The total number of volumes in the several libraries of the university is about 225,000. The Peabody Museum of Natural History, devoted chiefly to zoology, geology, and mineralogy, was established by a gift of $150,000 from George Peabody, of London, in 1866. One wing of the proposed museum has been erected, directly W. of the college square. The university possesses an excellent observatory situated about a mile and a half from the college grounds. It was built from funds given by Hon. Oliver F. Winchester, and largely endowed by Prof. Elias Loomis. F. B. DEXTER. Revised by BERNARD C. STEINER. Yam [from Span. vi/flame, flame : Portug. inhame, from Afr. ng/ame]: the tuberous root of species of Dioscorea, climbing vines of the family Dioscoreacece. Yams are ex- tensively grown in all warm countries as food. Some of the wild sorts are nauseous and even poisonous. Yams are suc- cessfully grown in the southern parts of the U. S., and the Chinese yam (D. batatas, or properly D. (M/vam'cata) thrives in the northern parts, but its great roots, though often of excellent quality, have a tendency to bury themselves so deeply in the earth that they can only be reached at consid- erable trouble. The air-potato is a Dioscorea (D. bulbifera) which bears large edible tubers in the axils of the leaves. The term yam is also applied to various forms of the sweet potato. See Foon. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Yama: a Hindu deity, represented in the earliest legends as the first man who died, and the guide to the land of spirits of the spirits of other mortals. At a later date he is represented as presiding over the spirits of the just who YAMAJ I dwelt in the upper sky or the heaven called Yama. (See DEVALOKA.) In the Puranas he appears as the judge and punisher of the dead, awarding heaven or hell according to the balance of merit or demerit shown on the books kept by Chitragupta, his recorder. Death is his messenger. Two hideous dogs, each with four eyes, guard the approaches to his abode. In painting and sculpture he is generally repre- sented as seated on a buffalo; he is four-armed and of austere aspect. In one hand he holds a mace and in another a noose. His eyes are inflamed and bloodshot and his teeth are like those of a tiger. His twin-sister is Yami. In Bud- dhism Yama becomes the monarch of hell. (See N ARAKA.) Originally, it is said, he was a king of Vaisfili, who having expressed a wish, while engaged in a bloody war, to be the ruler of hell, had his wish granted. He was reborn as Yama, along with his eighteen officers and his whole army of 80,000 men, who now serve under him as assistant judges, jailers, and executioners. By way of punishment for past offenses, however, ademon three times a day pours boiling copper into their mouths and squeezes it down their throats, causing them intense suffering. When Yama’s sins have been ex- piated he will be reborn as Buddha under the name of the Universal King. His sister Yami controls all the female culprits. See Monier—Williams’s Bmhmam'sm and Hindu- ism (Oxford and New York, 1891) and Eitel’s Ha7tdb007s of C'he'nese Budclhdsm (Hongkong, 1870). R. L. Ya1nacl1i'cl1e : post-village; St. Maurice County, Que- bec, Canada; on Yamachiche river, and Canadian Pacific Railway (see map of Quebec, ref. 4—B); near the St. Law- rence; 15 miles W. S. W. of Three Rivers. It has an acade- my, a convent, trade in grain and lumber, and some manu- factures. Pop. (1891) about 2,700. J . M. H. Yamagata, yaTa’ma“a’gaa’ta”a, Aarromo, Marquis : Japanese soldier and statesman ; b. 1838, in the province of Ohoshfi; entered the army and took a leading part in the suppres- sion of the shogunate; was appointed second vice-minister of war in the new government, and in 1869 was sent on a mil- itary mission to Russia and France. In 1876 he was in com- mand of an army ready to embark for Korea to avenge an insult to the Japanese flag, but the trouble was patched up. As a strict disciplinarian he took a leading part in abolishing the custom of wearing swords, since 1876 reserved for the services. (See SAMURAI.) He added to his reputation by the ability he showed in the Satsuma rebellion campaign of 1876-77. In 1878 he was appointed commander of the im- perial guard and head of the general military staff. Since then he has served as Minister of the Interior, as Prime Min- ister (1889-91), and as Minister of Justice (1891-93). In 1884 he was created a count in the new order of nobility. I/Vhen the war with China broke out in 1894, he was given command of the First Army-corps, and by his brilliant and effective strategy expelled the Chinese from the Korean peninsula in a few weeks, receiving a marquisate in recognition of his services, 1895. His policy all along has been in favor of a thorough assimilation of European methods. He is noted for his indomitable resolution, ardent patriotism, and strict integrity ; and as a general is considered the ablest strategist in the empire. J. M. DIXON. Yamaguclli, ya“a'ma'a’goo’cl1e“c’ : the most important town in the province of Suwo, Southwestern Japan; situated in a plain surrounded by mountains, about 15 miles from the sea. It was formerly the castle-town and residence of the powerful Mori family, lords of Choshii, and is now the seat of the local government. Ito, Inouye, Yamagata, and others of the leading men of the new era were born in this city or the vicinity. It possesses a higher middle school established and endowed by the former lord. In the sixteenth century the Christian Church here, founded by Xavier in 1550, was strongly organized, and was finally crushed after a hard struggle. Pop. (1894) 14,418. Until 1860 Hagi, 20 miles to the N., was the capital of the province. J . M. DIxoN. Yamaji, ya"a’maa’je"e’, l\/IOTOHARU, viscount: Japanese sol- dier, and perhaps the most popular hero of the China-Korean campaign of 1894-95; b. in the province of Tosa, Shikoku, about 1840. When a boy he lost an eye through an acci- dent, and now goes by the name of the One-eyed Dragon. He served with distinction in the Satsuma campaign of 1877, and in due time became lieutenant-general and a peer. When the Japanese forces invested Port Arthur, Nov., 1894, the conduct of the attack was intrusted to him by Gen. Oyama, his superior, and he carried it out with wonderful pluck and vigor. He was advanced from baron to viscount in the distribution of honors in 1895. J . M. DIXON. YAMASKA RIVER Yamas’ka River: a river of the province of Quebec, Dominion of Canada; rises in Brome Lake, Brome County, and flows westerly as far as West Farnham, Missisquoi County, from which point its course is northerly until it empties into Lake St. Peter, an expansion of the St. Law- rence. The length of the Yamaska river is about 100 miles, and it flows through a fertile country. The towns on its many branches are Granly, Waterloo, Cowansville, Farn- ham, and St. llyacinthe. Revised by J . M. HARPER. Yamato, ya“a’maa't6’: the “home” province of the Jap- anese empire, having NARA (q. o.) as its chief town. The name was once applied to the whole, empire, as it still is in poetry. The “Yamato” language is Japanese free of all Chinese admixture, and is used in poetry and the composi- tions of literary women. The phrase Yamato-Damashii is employed to signify the chivalrous and cultured spiritof old Japan, and has often been used by the conservatiye party. jealous of the intrusion of a mean, commercial spirit. The Yamato school of painting corresponds to the Tosa (see TOSA-RIU), which is a development of it, and has been of great service in preserving a record of the costumes, man- ners, and ceremonies of old Japan. J . M. D. Yam’bu, Yanbu, or Yembo: town in E1 Hedjaz, Arabia; nearly 100 miles W. S. \V. from Medina, of which it is the port (see map of Persia and Arabia, ref. 6-C). It has a good though exposed harbor, and is important as one of the prin- cipal stations of pilgrims to the holy places of Arabia. Pop. about 5,000. E. A. G. Yanan (yaa'nan) Indians [in their language Yana means people]: a family of North American Indians, represented by a single tribe, the Yana, chiefly known to the settlers by the name N oje or N ozi. They formerly occupied the terri- tory from Round Mountain, near Pitt river, Shasta County, to Deer creek, Tchama County, Cal. The western boundary from Redding southward was on an average 10 miles to the E. of the Sacramento river, both banks of that river being held at that time by the \Vintun, with whom the Yana were in frequent warfare. The Yana have a tradition that they came to California fron1 the Far East. They are said to differ markedly in physical traits from all California tribes, and their language seems unrelated to any other. They are reduced to two little groups, one at Redding, and the other in their original country, at Round Mountain, Cal. In 1884 they numbered thirty-five persons. J . O. D. Yana (yaa’na"a) River: a river of Siberia, 1,000 miles long. with its tributaries Adiga, Dulgalak, Shemanova, and Butaktai, and one of the most considerable Arctic rivers in the Yakutsk province. It rises on the north side of the Tukalan Mountains between 61° and 62° N. lat., where also the Indighirka (950 miles) and Kolyma (1,000 miles) have their origin, flows N. and N. E , and empties into the Arctic Ocean by several months in lat. 72° N. H. S. Yang and Yin: in Chinese cosmogony, the positive and negative essences evolved by the T’ai-k’i or Ultimate princi- ple of Being, by the action and interaction of which all things are produced. Yang is the male or masculine es- sence, Yin is the female or feminine; Yang is light, Yin is darkness; Yang is heaven, Yin is earth. Yang-tse-Kiang (literally, the Yang-tse river): the name by which the principal river of China is known to foreign- ers. See CHINA. Yanina: another spelling of J ANINA (q. ea). Yankee Doodle: a national air of the U. S.: originally known under the title of The Yan7ree"s Return from Camp. It is reported to have been a popular tune in England dur- ing the Commonwealth, at which time its doggerel words originated. Others say that it was the tune originally set to the old English song, Lydia Locket lost her pocket, and that the words now used were composed in 1755 by Dr. Schuckburgh, a British surgeon who served under Gen. Amherst during the French and Indian war in North Amer- ica, and who took,this means of ridiculing the colonial militia. Still other accounts of its origin are given. It was introduced by Samuel Arnold into his opera Two to One (London, 1784). See I-Ielen K. Johnson, Oar Farniltar Songs (New York, 1881). Yankton: city; capital of Yankton co., S. D.; on the Missouri river, and the Chi. and N. W., the Chi., Mil. and St. P., and the Great North. railways; 61 miles N. W. of Sioux City, Ia., and 140 miles N. W. of Omaha, Neb. (for location, see map of South Dakota, ref. 8-—G). It is in an YARMOUTH 865 agricultural region, and is connected by stearnboat and stage lines with the principal ports on the Missouri river and the military posts and Indian agencies on the upper_M1ssour1. It has 8 churches, Yankton College (Congregational), the Academy of the Sacred Heart, the State Insane Asylum (cost $300,000), 2 national banks with combined capital of $100,- 000, an incorporated bank with capital of $25,000, a State bank with capital of $8,250, a daily, a monthly, and 6 week- ly periodicals, and 12 artesian wells. The city has a pork- packing establishment, woolen-mill, several breweries, and Portland-cement works with capacity of 300 barrels per day, and a large trade with the interior in general supplies. Pop. (1883) 3,431; (1890) 3,670; (1895) estimated, 4,900. PUBLISHERS or “ Pnnss AND DAKOTAN.” Yankton Indians : See SIOUAN INDIANS. Yantie River: a stream which unites at Norwich, Conn., with the Shetucket river, about 3 miles below the junction of that stream with the Quinebaug river. These three rivers form the Thames. The Yantic affords large and well- utilized water-power. Yapock: See Cnmnonrcrns. Yapura: See JAPURA. Yaquina Head: See CAPE FOULWEATHER. Yard [M. Eng. yerd < O. Eng. giercl, gyrd, rod, stick, measure, yard : O. H. Germ. gartia (> Mod. Germ. gerte, switch, rod : Goth. gazds, goad. Cf. Lat. hasta, spear]: the fundamental British statutory unit of length. Its proto- type, for an account of which see Whsicirrs AND Mnxsunns, is in actual use at the Standard Office, London. Yarkand' : Chinese city of Eastern Turkestan ; lat. 38° 22’ N., lon. 77° 15’ E., about 130 miles S. E. of Kashgar; on a canal derived from the river Yarkand (see map of China, ref. 3-A). It is surrounded by an earthen wall and defend- ed by bastions at the angles. The citadel is outside the walls. Caravans from India arrive at Yarkand, carrying with them the manufactures of Manchester, and through Russian Turkestan lines of commerce connect it with the Caspian Sea and Moscow. Its manufactures of silks, cot- tons, linen, and woolens are important. The city is well built; the houses are mostly of stone; the streets are very narrow, frequently intersected by canals; the bazaars. cara- vanserais, and mosques are numerous. The population was estimated at 35,000 to 40,000 by Roborovsky in 1891. Yarmouth. yaa.r'mtith: town; in the counties of Nor- folk and Suffolk, England: 122 miles N. N. E. of London (see map of England, ref. 9-M). It stands on a tongue of land between the North Sea and the Yare. along the bank of which runs a quay nearly 2 miles long. It is the principal seat of the English herring-fisheries on the east coast. and a considerable deep-sea fishing is also carried on, the produce of which is daily carried to London. Silk goods, ropes. sails, and iron are manufactured. and coasting vessels are built here. The church of St. Nicholas, founded by Her- bert de Losinga early in the twelfth century and restored 1847-84, is one of the largest parish churches in England. Yarmouth returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1891) 49,318. R. A. R. Yarmoutli : town and port of entry; Yarmouth County. Nova Scotia. Canada; on the seacoast at the entrance of the Bay of Fundy, and on the Dominion Atlantic Railway; 90 miles S. of St. John, N. B., and 205 miles S. IV. of Halifax (for location, see map of Quebec. ref. 3—A). It is principally engaged in shipping. fishing. and manufacturing. and has a semi-weekly and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1881) 3,485; (1891) 6,089. Yarnloiitll: town (incorporated in 1849) ; Cumberland co., Me; on Casco Bay, the Royals river, and the Grand Trunk Railway; 11 miles N. by E. of Portland (for location. see map of Maine, ref. 10—C). It contains the villages of Yarmouth. North Yarmonth. Yarmouthville. and Cousen's Island, and has four churches. high school, academy. public library, granite quarries, foundry, and cotton and paper mills. Pop. (1880) 2,021; (1890) 2,098. Yarnioutli : town (incorporated 1639) ; Barnstable co., Mass; on the N. Y., N. H. and Hart. Railroad; '75 miles S. E. of Boston (for location, see map of Massachusetts. ref. 5-K). It extends across the peninsula from Cape Cod Bay to Nantucket Sound: contains the villages of Yarmouth. Yarmouthport, South Yarmouth, \Vest Yarmouth. and Yarmouth Farms; and has 5 churches. high school, 9 dis- trict schools, public library, a national bank with capital of. 452 866 YARMUK $350,000, and a weekly newspaper (both in Ya-rmouthport). It is principally engaged in agriculture, cranberry-culture, and navigation, and in 1894 had an assessed valuation of $1,970,777. Pop. (1880) 2,173; (1890) 1,760. Yar'muk [from Talmudic Yarmohh, whence Gr. 'Iep6,ua£, whence Lat. file’/romaa; (mod. Sherlat-el-]l1andhur)] : a river of Eastern Palestine. It has a strong current, is about 130 feet wide, and empties into the Jordan 5 miles S. of the Sea of Galilee. It is not mentioned in the Bible; but with its tributaries drains the ancient Bashan and Ituraea, the modern Hauran, and Djolan. It is full of fish, and is lined with oleanders. On its banks near Gadara, called by Pliny in his natural history “ Gadara, before which the river Hieromix flows” (Gaclara Hleromlce prre_fl/aente), about 8 miles from Jordan, are hot sulphur springs mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome. EDWIN A. Gnosvnxoa. Yaroslav, ya“a-r5-slaav’. or Yaroslavl: government of Great Russia; originally an independent principality, but annexed by Moscow in the thirteenth century. Area, 13,- 751 sq. miles. The surface is level, and is irrigated by the Volga and its tributaries, the Mologa and the Sheksma. in the west, where ponds and marshes abound, the chief being Lake Nero near Rostov, from which the Weksa flows. Con- siderable tratfic is carried on by way of the Volga and the above-named tributaries which connect it by two canals with the Neva. Timber and fuel are exported, the fir and pine forests covering one-third of the area; only 27 per cent. of the total area is under cultivation, but market-gar- dening is extensively carried on. Yaroslav is, however, one of the chief manufacturing governments in the empire; cotton and linen, chemicals, machines and metallic wares, flour, spirits, and tobacco are abundantly produced. The villages carry on domestic trades in great variety. The en- tire commerce of the government amounts to 1,600,000 tons annually, one-half being carried by the two railwayr lines—- Rybinsk-St. Petersburg and Yaroslav-Moscow-Vologda. Pop. (1886) 1,071,518. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Yaroslav : capital of the government of Yaroslav, Rus- sia; at the confluence of the Kotorost and the Volga; 173 miles N. E. of Moscow (see map of Russia, ref. 6-E). It is the seat of the civil governor and an archbishop, and had a population of 80,336 (with suburbs) in 1891. The right bank of the Volga is bordered by a beautiful quay for nearly 2 miles; the suburbs are on the left bank. The city has 66 churches, the Uspenskij Cathedral (begun in 1215) and several very old churches, a theological seminary, 3 monasteries, a lyceum with a law faculty, and 3 gym- nasia. There are many factories for linen and cotton goods, bell-foundries, silk-factories, and a very active trafiic with Moscow and St. Petersburg. The village Velikoje Selo with 3,849 inhabitants in the district of Yaroslav is the center of linen manufacturing which is famous all over Russia. It produces goods valued at 6.000,000 rubles an- nually. The town of Jaroslav in Austrian Galicia, on the Cracow-Lemberg Railway, must not be confounded with Russian Yaroslav. H. S. Yarra-Yarra: river of Australia, in the colony of Vic- toria; passes Melbourne and enters I-Iobson’s Bay, the nortl - ern point of Port Philip, 3 miles below. It has a bar at its mouth, with originally but 9 feet of water at high tide ; but improvements have deepened the passage until vessels draw- ing 16 feet can go up to the city. Above l\Ielbourne it is not navigable. Revised by M. W. I'.lARRING'l‘ON. Ya1‘rell,WILLIAM, F. L. S.: naturalist; b. at Westmin- ster, England, in June, 1784; formed an important collec- tion of British fishes; was one of the originators, and long a vice-president, of the Zo6logical Society, and communi- cated over eighty papers to various societies with which he was connected. He published The Iflslory of Brltls/L Fishes, 'lllu.stratecl by 400 lVooclcu2fs (2 vols., 1835-36), of which the third edition was accompanied by a ]l[em0'l'r of the Aazfhor by Sir John Richardson (2 vols., 1859 ; Supple- ment, 1860), and The He'sto-r;z/ of British Blrcls with 520 Wbocl Engraeings (3 vols., 1839-43; 4th ed. 1881-85). D. at Yarmouth, Sept. 1, 1856. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Yarriba: See YORUBA. Yarrow, or Milfoil [yarrow is M. Eng. 3/arowe, yarwc < 0. Eng. garwa, garawa : O. H. Germ. gara/wa, garba > Mod. Germ. garbe ; milfo/ll is via 0. Fr., from Lat. me'lle_fo- Ziam : me'l’le, thousand + fo’l/lam, leaf] : the Achlllea malle- follam, a European plant of the family C’ompom'lce, nearly allied to camomile, wormwood, and tansy ; found as a com- YAWNING mon weed in Great Britain and the U. S. It produces leaves and flowers which have a bitter, astringent taste and an aromatic odor, and yields a blue volatile oil. It was for- merly mueh used as a vulnerary, and in Sweden is em- ployed by brewers as a substitute for hops. Yarrow : a river of Scotland. It rises at Yarrow Clough, near Loch Skenc, flows N. E. 25 miles through Loehs Lowes and St. Mary, and falls near Selkirk into the Ettrick, a tributary of the Tweed. On its banks are the ruins of the famous Castle of Newark, and Bowhill, the family-seat of the Dukes of Buecleuch. Its current is rapid, and it af- fords many picturesque views, which are commemorated in three well-known poems of Wordsworth. Yaruma1’: a town in the northern part of the depart- ment of Antioquia, Colombia; in a valley of the Central Cordillera; 7,470 feet above the sea-level; 320 miles N. W. of Bogot-.3. (see map of South America, ref. 2-B). It is the center of a rich grazing district, and in the vicinity are im- portant gold-washings in which many of the inhabitants are employed. Pop. (1892) 10,000. H. H. S. Yassy : another spelling of J assv (q. ea). Yates, EDMUND HoDesoN: journalist and novelist; b. in Edinburgh, Scotland, July 3, 1831 ; son of an actor; was ed- ucated at H igh gate and I)iisseldorf; was for many years con- nected with the London post-oflice, but resigned in 1872 in order to devote himself exclusively to literature; made a lec- turing tour in the U. S. (1872-73); was for some time the Lon- don representative of the New York Ileralcl, and established with Grenville Murray, in 1874, the lVorlcl “a journal for men and women,” which proved a most extraordinary success. He was the author of a great number of successful novels and works of a miscellaneous kind-Broken lo Harness (1864) ; Lcmcl at Last (1866) ; Black Sheep (1866-67) ; W/vrechecl in Port (1869); Castaway (1872); A Silent Wil- ness (1875); and two volumes of Recollections and l1}a;pc'm'- ences (1884). For a libel on Lord Lonsdale he was impris- oned for two months in 1884. D. in London, May 20, 1894. Revised by H. A. BEERS. Yates, RICHARD: politician; b. at Warsaw, Ky., J an. 18, 1818; became a resident of Springfield, Ill.; graduated at Illinois College, Jacksonville, 1838; studied law and prac- ticed at Springfield; served in the Illinois Legislature 1842- 49; and in 1850 was elected to Congress on the Whig ticket; was Governor of Illinois 1860 and 1862; took an active part in raising troops for the Union army; appointed U. S. Grant mustering officer for the State and subsequently colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois Regiment ; served as U. S. Senator from Illinois from 1865 to 1871. D. in St. Louis, Mo., Nov. 27, 1873. Yates, RoBER'r: jurist; b. at Schenectady, N. Y., Mar. 17, 1738; educated in New York city, where he was ad- mitted to the bar 1760; settled at Albany; was a member of the committee of public safety 1775, of the provincial congress 1775-77, and chairman of the committee on mili- tary operations 1776 ; served on the committee that drafted the first constitution of the State 1776; was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of New York the same year; chief justice 1790-98; was a member of the national con- vention which formed the Federal Constitution of 1787, but opposed the adoption of the Constitution in the State Con- vention ; took notes of its proceedings, which were printed by his widow (1839) ; retired from the bench 1798, and was appointed a commissioner to settle disputed land titles in the “ Military Tract ” with the States of Massachusetts and Connecticut. and also to settle claims of New York against Vermont. D. at Albany, Sept. 9, 1801. Yates Center: city (founded in 1875); capital of ‘Vood- son co., Kan.; on the Atch., Top. and Fé, and the Mo. Pac. railways; 60 miles \V. of Fort Scott (for location, see map of Kansas, ref. 7-1). It is in an agricultural and stoc.k- raising region, and has 6 churches, graded public school, a private bank, and 4 weekly papers. Pop. (1880) 350 ; (1890) 1,305 ; (1895) State census, 1,609. E-nrroa or “ Nnws.” Yaupon : a small evergreen tree, Jlew casslne. See HOLLY. Yavari: another spelling of J AVARY (q. 2).). Yawning [M. Eng. (1/cmien, gam'eh, gomien <0. Eng. gdw/lean (collat. form gm/l'ah), yawn : O. H. Germ. ginén > Germ. gcllmen : Icel. gtna; cf. Lat. hz'a’re, Gr. Xaiz/en/, O. Bulg. zvjatl, yawn]: an act consisting of a deep inspira- tion. accompanied by an involuntary opening of the jaws to the fullest extent. It differs from sighing in these points YAWS -—that it is entirely involuntary, and that it is evidence of mental weariness or ennui. Its exciting cause is imperfect aeration of the blood, and it is sometimes a symptom of cer- tain brain diseases, in which the encephalon is weakened in its functions of carrying on the operations of the organism. Yawning is performed by certain animals, as the dog, prob- ably from similar causes. Yaws [from Afr. 3/aw, raspberry, which the tumors some- tim cs resemble] : a contagious disease (Frambcesz'a) of Afri- ca, Malaysia, the Fiji islands, the West Indies, etc. It has several varieties. It closely resembles the Stbbens of Scot- land and the Scherlteoo of Illyria. Some have considered it a form of leprosy, but it is more probably syphilis. Yazoo City: city; capital of Yazoo co., Miss.; on the Yazoo river, and the Illinois Cent. Railroad; 45 miles N. W. of Jackson, the State capital, and 60 miles N. E. of Vicks- burg (for location, see map of Mississippi, ref. 6—F). It is in a rich cotton and corn growing region, handles about 75,000 bales of cotton annually, and has a large cottonseed- oil plant, several lumber-manufacturing plants, water, sew- erage, and electric-light systems, a national bank with capi- tal of $50,000, a State bank with capital of $185,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2.542; (1890) 3,286; (1895) estimated, 6,500. EDITOR or “ SENTINRL.” Yazoo Fraud: the name popularly applied to the sale by Georgia in 1795 of the greater portion of her western terri- tory. In 1789 the State of Georgia sold to certain compa- nies lands estimated at 13,500,000 acres for about $200,000. Certain difficulties both as to the Indian title and the cur- rency in which the purchasers were entitled to pay having arisen, the Legislature repealed the act. These sales, there- fore, seem to have been practically inoperative: but in 17 95, under a reorganization of the purchasers, the State of Geor- gia sold to four companies—known in history as the Yazoo Companies-for $500,000 about 35,000,000 acres of western lands. This sale naturally excited the apprehension of the Federal Government, to whose notice it was brought by a message of President NVashington; but in Georgia it aroused especial indignation, for there was strong evidence of legis- lative corruption. The members of the Legislature of 17 96 came pledged to repudiate the whole transaction. All acts authorizing the sale were repealed, the purchase-money paid was ordered to be returned, and the records of the transac- tion were publicly burned. In 1802 Georgia ceded all this western territory to the U. S., and the Federal Government subsequently recommended that the claimants be compen- sated in land or money. The popular feeling, however, against the transaction prevented any action by Congress. The claimants finally sought their remedy in the U. S. courts, and the case was carried by appeal to the Supreme Court of the U. S. In l7'Zetcher vs. Pee/.;, Chief Justice Marshall in 1810 held that the original sale by the State of Georgia must be sustained; that the allegation of corrup- tion on the part of the Legislature could not be entertained by the court; that purchasers from the land companies were innocent holders without notice; that the repealing act of the Georgia Legislature could not divest them of the rights thus acquired. Consequently, in 1814 Congress ap- propriated $5,000,000. to be raised by the sales of the lands, to quiet and extinguish all the Yazoo claims. Revised by F. M. COLBY. Yazoo River [the name signifies “River of death ” in the Choctaw language, alluding to the malarial diseases which prevailed upon its shores] : a navigable stream of Mississippi. It originates in the Yazoo Pass, Coldwater river, Beaver Dam river, and other bayous and sloughs springing from the east bank of Mississippi river. These join the Tallahatchie, a navigable stream from the N. E., at Polkville, Miss., where the Y ockeney also comes in from the E., but the united stream is generally called the Talla- hatehie down to the junction with the Yalabusha, which is also navigable. The Yazoo proper below this point is 290 miles long, deep, serpentine and sluggish, and navigable the year round. It joins the Mississippi 12 miles above Vicks- burg. Revised by I. C. RUSSELL. Yberii, or Iberfi, Laguna: See COR-RIENTES. Yberville: another spelling of Iberville. See IBER- VILLE, D’. Yea: another form of IOA (q. 1).). Year [M. Eng. fl/er < 0. Eng. yéar: O. H. Germ. jdr (> Mod. Germ. ja/10') :Icel. ctr < Teuton. yér- < Indo—Eur. giér-, g.'5r- > Gr. iépa, season, Zipos, year:Zend. 3/dre]: a full YEAR AND A DAY 867 round of the seasons. .While this, the original conception of the year, remains unaltered, as defining the principal year still used in astronomy, circumstances have led to a num- ber of different years which we may regard as branching off from the main conception. YVhen a system of astronomy was first formed it was seen that the solar year was deter- mined by the apparent revolution of the sun around the earth, which we now know to be due to a real revolution of the earth around the sun. But this revolution may be reckoned in various slightly different ways. according as we refer the motion of the earth to the equinox, or to the earth‘s perihelion. Again, the year was found to be approximately twelve months, and thus various years were formed from the length of twelve months of difl'erent kinds. On the subject of the years practically used in chronology information will be found in the article CHRo.\'oLocY (q. en). The present article is limited to a brief statement of the characteristics of the principal years. First of all, there is the solar, tropical, or equinoctial vear, defined as the mean interval between two returns of the sun to the vernal equinox. The length of this year is 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds, and it diminishes about half a second in a century owing to a change in the annual precession of the equinoxes. Since the apparent motion of the sun or the real motion of the earth, relative to the equinox, determines the changes of the seasons, we may regard this year as the principal one for the practical purposes of life. It is also the principal year for astro- nomical purposes, because it corresponds to one revolution of the earth in longitude. In consequence of precession the equinoxes are in con- stant motion from E. toward IV. among the stars. Hence the return of the sun (or earth) to the equinox takes place in a somewhat shorter space than its return to a line drawn toward the same star. The former period is a little less than 365;} days; the latter a little greater. The mean in- terval between the return of the sun to the same star is called a sidereal year, and its length is 365 days 6 hours 0 minutes 9'5 seconds. The anomalistic year is the interval between two returns of the earth to its perihelion; it has no special importance in ordinary life. The years which have branched off, as it were, from the solar year are, principally, our “common year ” of 365 days, and leap-year, or bissextile year, of 366 days. The J u- lian year is one-fourth the length of four consecutive years of the Julian calendar, or 365% days. A “lunar year” of twelve lunar months, or 354 days nearly, was sometimes used by nations whose religious feasts were regulated by the moon, notably by the Mohammedans. Different peoples have difiered widely as to the place among the seasons of the beginning of the year. The Roman year, before the time of Julius Caesar. began on Mar. 1. The civil year of the Jews began at the autumnal equinox, though their sacred year began at the vernal. The Greek year, before the time of Met-on, began at the winter solstice; afterward at the summer solstice. The Egyptians, Per- sians, and other Eastern peoples began, like the Jews, at the autumnal equinox. The Mohammedan year, being a lunar year, has no determinate epoch, but continually goes back- ward among the seasons. Sept. 1 was the beginning of the year in the Eastern empire, and the same was true in Rus- sia before the time of Peter the Great. In France. under the Merovingian kings, the year began Mar. 1; under the Carlovingians, Mar. 25; under the Capetians. at Easter; and after 1564 on Jan. 1. The ancient northern nations of Europe placed the beginning of the year at the winter solstice. In England the year began on Mar. 25 previ- ously to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar. which took place in 1752. The same usage prevailed in the Brit- ish American colonies from Nova Scotia to Georgia, and was abandoned at the same time. For the Church year, see CALENDAR (Ecclesiastical Calenciar). S. Nnwcone. Year and a Day: a complete calendar year. The day was added because the common law recognized no parts of a day, and therefore treated the last day of any period as ending at the very moment of its beginning. In accord- ance with this rule an INFANT (g. e.) attained full age at the beginning of the last day of his twenty-first year. The pe- riod of a full year, or of “ a year and a day," was adopted as an arbitrary limit in many cases. By the feudal law the heir of the tenant was required to claim within that eriod, or he lost his land. The same limitation was impose upon the claim of a tenant against his disseisor; and upon that 868 YEAR—BOOKS of the owner of an estray, or of the owner of wrecked prop- erty, or upon the issuing of an execution on a judgment. In order to make felonious killing murder, the common law required that the injured party should die within a year and a day after the mortal injury was inflicted. The reason assigned for this rule was that if the person alleged to have been murdered die after that time it can not be discerned, as the law presumes.whether he died of the injury or a natural death; and in a case involving life a rule of law ought to be certain. This rule has no application to a civil action for damages sustained by the widow and next of km of one whose death was negligently caused by the defend- ant. FRANCIS M. BURDICK. Year-books: the oldest English law reports extant, so called because published annually, and termed by old writ- ers “books of the years and terms.” They are valuable and interesting from an antiquarian and historical point of view, and to some extent to the practicing lawyer, though seldom resorted to as guides for modern decisions. Instances, however, may be found in which they are consulted. (See the cases of Lamley vs. G}/e, 2 Ellis & Blackburn, 216 ; Cur- tis vs. H'ubZmrcZ, 4 Hill (New York), 437; Althorf vs. Wolfe, 22 New York Reports, 366, 367.) Until recently the year- books, as generally known to the legal profession, consisted of an edition in the Norman French published by Ser- geant Maynard (1678-80), beginning with the reign of Ed- ward I. and coming down to the time of Henry VIII. The collection was an imperfect one, a number of the early reports still remaining in a manuscript form; but the re- ports for a number of the years have now been carefully edited and published in English. Revised by F. Srunons ALLEN. Yeast: See FERME.\"l‘ATIO-N. Yeast-plants: the Srtoo/mromycezfacece; much degraded and simplified sac-fungi, found abundantly in fermenting fiuids. They are usually reduced to single, rounded cells, although under favorable conditions they may form several —-or many-—celled threads. They increase by pullulation from the end or side of the cell, the outgrowth eventually separating as a new cell. This process may take place with much rapidity, as in case of ordinary bakers’ yeast. Occa- sionally the cell becomes an ascus and forms four ascospores. The family is now placed in the order Disoomyocfeaa, near to the GILI/772/Il06l/SOC!/(JGCO. It includes the single genus Scoo- oharomyocs, with about twenty-five species. One of the most common is that used by bakers and brewers, S. cere- 'vz'st'te. See l3‘EaIIEN'rA'rIoN, FUNGI, and VEGETABLE KING- DOM. CHARLES E. Bnssnv. Yedo: See Tome. Yeisk : another spelling of JEISK (q. 2).). Yekaterinboorg,_Yekaterinodar, Yekaterinoslav, Ye- letsz another spelling of EKATERINBURG, EKATERINODAR, EKATERINOSLAF, ELETs (qq. v.). Yelk : See YOLK. Yellow-bird: the common name given in the U. S. to two varieties of birds, the American goldfinch (Spinas tristis) and the yellow warbler or summer yellow-bird (Denclroiccz, cestvloa). Yellow-eyed Grass: the common name of the Xym'da- ceoe; a family of monocotyledons chiefly consisting of the X]/'rt's, a genus of biennial or perennial rush-like plants with two-edged, sword-shaped leaves. More than fifty species have been described, and fifteen are found in the Northern U. S., chiefly in sandy swamps and pine-barrens. Yellow Fever: a disease so called because of the peculiar yellow tinge of the skin characterizing it, and for the same reason technically designated ty/plms e'ctcrocZe, /ioterus being the classical name of “yellow jaundice.” It is not a form of typhus fever, but resembles it in the prostration, blood- disorganization, and softening of internal organs which are features in both. Yellow fever prevails chiefly in tropical and warm climates. NVhen occurring in temperate or cold zones, it has been imported in the course of commercial travel. It is indigenous chiefly in the West Indies, upper coasts of South America, and the borders of the Gulf of Mexico. It occurs in isolated, sporadic cases at all seasons in seaports, to which it has been transported in ships. Rigid quarantine of all ships coming from yellow-fever localities, and their fumigation before disembarking passengers and cargo, have averted the epidemics formerly so frequent. It is generally conceded that there is a specific morbific ele- YELLOWLEGS ment, a portable fomcs or infectious agent, which propa- gates this disease. This materées mov'Z)i, when imported and let loose, will prove innocuous unless the weather be warm or mild and the air moist. It rarely develops when the mercury is below 70° F., and frost or freezing' weather ef- fectually terminates its career. Insalubrious, damp, low, and filthy localities are more likely to be its points of suc- cessful lodgment. By the intercourse of business and per- sonal visits it may be carried from the infected localities to other points, which in turn become foci of contagion. But there is no general atmospheric contamination, no infection, no contagion necessary, except as the air vitiated by the breath, vomit, and stools of the patient is inspired. The question of the direct contagiousness of yellow fever is still an open one. Opinion and what evidence there is upon this point would indicate that the disease is not directly trans- mitted from the sick to the well. Some intermediate devel- opment of the infectious agent in the soil or air seems to be necessary before it passes from one to another person. Yel- low fever is not now regarded, as formerly, a fever of mala- rial origin, allied to intermittent and remittent. It prevails on the coasts and in large cities, sparing the contiguous country, which is often swampy and afllicted severely by malaria. The Negroes of the South, although susceptible to malaria, enjoy a relative immunity from yellow fever. Qui- nine and other anti-malarial remedies do not control it, or especially relieve it beyond their general tonic effect. In some cases, for two or three days or more, there will be gen- eral lassitude, loss of appetite. and sense of debility. In graver cases the attack may be precipitate and speedily fatal; revcrsely, there are “ walking cases,” in which, with jaundice and even mental disturbance, the muscular power is retained. There is usually an initial chill, headache, pains in the back and limbs, and slight increase of temperature. Exceptionally, the thermometer in the mouth or axilla will register a high degree, as in other fevers—103°, 104°, 105° F.--but more often the body-heat is but little elevated, and iii some cases is lowered. After a few days, two or three, the temperature subsides and the symptoms abate. The patient may consider himself well, and indeed in abortive cases the disease terminates at this point. In 1nost instances, however, a recrudescence follows after a day or two, and the graver symptoms of the disease, black vomit and delir- ium with general prostration, supervene. The pulse is but little accelerated. The stomach is irritable at an early date. The mind may be mildly or actively delirious. The skin grows yellow, and, when vomiting causes exhaustion and wasting, is often shriveled. The blood has become seri- ously impaired by the morbific poison, and its decomposed and watery elements tend to transude the coats of the ves- sels. Hence, with the effects of vomiting, vessels in the congested stomach are unloaded, and the already disorgan- ized blood, being further perverted by the action of gastric juice, presents a coffee-ground, or again a tar-like, appear- ance, known as black vomit. This is regarded as a crit- ical or even fatal sign ; and with reason, since it is an evi- dence of serious destruction of red blood-cells. Exhaustion and collapse are the result of such conditions unless stimu- lating and sustaining treatment is assiduously adhered to. The average duration is a week. There is no specific treatment, but the bichloride of mercury has appeared to exercise some beneficial action. No depressing remedies should be employed. Cold and evaporating lotions to the head may prevent brain symptoms; ice, effervescing waters or champagne in small quantity, and other remedies for composing the stomach are valuable. Ammonium carbo- nate may help to oxygenate the blood. But quiet, dis- creet nursing, warm drinks, and blanketing, and, later, abundant nutrition, are found to be the most successful means of cure. The mortality varies with the character of the epidemic, the class of persons it has attacked. their hygienic surroundings, and the discretion with which cases are treated; it may be as low as 5 or as high as '75 per cent. See FILTI-I DISEASES. Revised by VVILLIAH PEPPER. Yellow Fibrous Tissue : See ELASTIC TIssUE. Yellow-hammer: the E'mbem'za ozI.‘m'neZZa, a very com- mon and handsome bunting of Europe and western Asia. In Italy it is fattened and eaten. In the U. S. the name is sometimes applied to the flicker, or golden-winged wood- pecker, Coloqptes a/umtus. Revised by F. A. Lucas. Yellow1egs: the Totcwms flam'yaes, a North American snipe found all along the Atlantic coast of the U. S. It is a fine game-bird, and is esteemed by epicures. YELLO W METAL Yellow Metal : See Bmss. Yellow River (in Chinese Ifwang-H0 ; sometimes former- ly spelled IV/¢cm_g-ho and Hocmg-ho): one of the principal rivers of CHINA (q. 12.) ; sometimes called “ China’s Sorrow,” from its unruliness, and the destruction and loss of life caused by its frequent change of course and the bursting of its banks. Its principal affluent is the Wei. See Snnnsr. Yellows : See CHLoaos1s. Yellow Sea (in Chinese Hwamg-hai; formerly sometimes written W hang-ham) and Hoavtg-lzai) : those waters’ of the Pacific Ocean which border on the Chinese provinces of Cheh- kiang, Kiang-su, Shantung. and Chih-li, and are discolored by the large amount of yellowish mud which the Hwang-ho and the Yang-tse-Kiang carry with them to the ocean. It is rather shallow and its depth is steadily diminishmg. Yellow Sp1‘ings: village; Greene co., O.; on the Pitts., Cin., Chi. and St. L. Railway ; 9 miles S. by W’. of Spring- field (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 6-D). It derives its name from several mineral springs which have made it popular as a summer resort, and is the seat of A.\"r1ocH CoL- LEGE (q. 0.). Pop. (1880) 1,377; (1890) 1,375. Yellowstone National Park : a reserved tract situated in the northwest corner of the State of \Vyoming, with a strip of country less than 2 miles in width lying on the N. in Montana and a still narrower strip extending westward into Idaho. Its boundaries as determined by act of Con- gress setting apart the park are ill defined. That portion of the park which is most frequented by travelers lies S. of the 45th parallel of N. lat. and between the 110th and 111th meridians. It is a rugged country, embracing a little more than 3,300 sq. miles. For a long time it had remained an inaccessible land which had defied all efforts of explorers to cross it. Occasionally a venturesome mountaineer or trapper entered the country, but not until 1870 was there any trustworthy account of a journey through the central portion. Up to that time it remained the largest tract of unexplored country in the Rocky Mountains. In the sum- mer of 1870 H. D. I/Vashburne, surveyor-general of Mon- tana, accompanied by Lieut. G. C. Deane, traversed the togion and published the first detailed account of its mar- vels and scientific curiosities. In the following year Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden, U. S. geologist, accompanied by a corps of scientific assistants, among whom were several topo- graphical engineers and a photographer, visited the region. Upon his earnest solicitation Congress passed a law dedicat- ing the park and defining its boundaries as a public park or pleasure-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people. The act was approved Mar. 1, 1872. The central portion of the park is a broad volcanic pla- teau between ’7,000 and 8,500 feet above sea-level, with an average elevation of 8,000 feet. Surrounding it on all sides are mountain ranges with prominent peaks and ridges ris- ing from 2,000 to 4,000 feet above the general level of the inclosed table-land. The Gallatin Range shuts in the park on the N. and N. ‘W. Electric Peak, in the extreme northwest corner of the park, forms the culminating point in the range, and attains an elevation of over 11,000 feet above sea-level. It affords one of the most extended views to be found in this part of the country, not only over the park but the broad valley of the Yellowstone. The range is one of great beauty, of diversified form, and picturesque scenery. Sedimentary rocks from the Cambrian to the top of the Cretaceous are represented. Large masses of erup- tive rocks have penetrated through sedimentary strata. South of the park the Tetons rise grandly above the sur- rounding country, and for1n the highest peaks in the north- ern Rocky Mountains. East of the Tetons across the broad valley of the upper Snake, generally known as Jackson Basin, lies the \Vind River Range. Only northern outlying spurs of both these ranges extend into the park. Along the east side the Absarokas stretch for 80 miles, a bold unbroken barrier to western progress. They are made up of volcanic rocks, the highest peaks and crags attaining elevations ranging from 10.000 to 11,000 feet above sea-level. At the northeast corner of the park an irregular mass of mountains unites the Absarokas with the Snowy Range. The latter incloses the park on the north. and is an ex- ceptionally rough. broken country. with elevated mountain masses formed of Archzean crystalline sc-hists and Tert-iary lavas. These ranges are all geologically older than the relatively depressed region which they inclose. designated as the Park Plateau. This plateau is by no means a level YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 869 country, but is accidented by broad shallow basins, and deeply scored by narrow gorges and cafions. The plateau represents a vast pile of lavas, in places 2,000 feet in depth, resting against and in part concealing the flanks of en- circling mountains. Out of this plateau rise two prominent peaks, Mt. Washburne and Mt. Sheridan, from both of which have poured forth enormous masses of lavas. Across the plateau from the S. E. to the N. W. stretches the Con- tinental Divide, separating the waters of the Atlantic from those of the Pacific. Several large bodies of water, nota- bly Yellowstone, Shoshone, Lewis, and Heart Lakes, form such characteristic features on both sides of this divide that the southern end of the plateau has received the ap- pellation of the lake region of the park. Hundreds of smaller lakes occupy irregular depressions either in lava flows or in shallow basins of glacial origin. Numerous streams coming down from the high mountains supply large quantities of water to these lakes and ponds. The Yellow- stone and the Snake carry off the greater part of these waters, the former draining more than one-half the area of the park. and the latter the entire western side of the divide. The Yellowstone river, the longest branch of the Missouri, finds its source in Yellowstone Lake: the Snake, in Sho- shone Lake. A volcanic ridge about 250 feet in height separates the two lakes. Bechler river drains the Pitch- stone Plateau, a part of the Park Plateau lying W. of the main Snake. The Firehole and Gibbon unite to form the Madison, which carries off the greater part of the water upon the western side of the park. ultimately running into the Missouri. The Gardiner drains the eastern slopes of the Gallatin Range and adds its water to the Yellowstone, joining the latter near the northern line of the park. Flora and Fazma.—About 85 per cent. of the park is for- est clad : the bare portions are mainly areas above timber- line, steep slopes. and wet marshy bottoms. The forest is essentially coniferous. A few groves of aspen (Populus z"remuZ02'cZes) add brilliancy to the autumnal foliage. but are insignificant in number. Over two-thirds of the trees are black pines (Pinus '/nurirazyrma). On moist ground and where the snows remain late in the season this species gives way to the balsam (Abies subaZpz'na) and the spruce (Pz'n»us cngclnzamzzi). In a few localities the red fir (Pseuclofszlga douglassi) is conspicuous by its height and vigor. The black pine rarely attains any great size, trees more than .2 or 3 feet in diameter being exceptional. while over considerable areas they are so diminutive as to be locally known as lodge-pole pine. The young forest is made up of graceful trees. but the maturer growth is not specially attractive. The charm of the forest is found in the natural groupings and park-like arrangement of the trees in the open country, many of those on the mountain slopes being of exquisite beauty. For grandeur these forests are not to be compared with those of the Sierra Nevada or Cascade Ranges. In the pine tim- ber over much of the plateau there is little vegetation other than a low but luxuriant growth of blueberry (l'(zccz'mI'mn mg/rtill us). From middle July to late September flowering plants everywhere abound. except in the forest. A peculiar flora is found in the region of the geysers and hot springs, due to the exceptional heat and moisture or to peculiarities of alka- line soil. lVith the exception of the Rocky Mountain goat. all the larger game of the Rocky Mountains roam in the park. Elk, deer, and bear abound. antelope are found in the open val- leys, sheep in the high country, and moose in the more marshy bottoms. A few small herds of buffalo roam over the park. grazing most of the time in out-of-the-way places. Since their protection by the Government, they are rapidly increasing. Yeliozestone Loire and Cafio/a.—-Yellowstone Lake is a grand sheet of water, measuring 20 miles in length. with a breadth across its broadest expansion of 15 miles. It has an elevation of 7,741 feet above sea-level, and is the largest lake at so high an altitude in North America. Only a few lakes in the world at this altitude surpass it in size. It em- braces an area of about 140 sq. miles, and it requires a ride of nearly 100 miles along the shore to complete the circuit. After leaving the lake the Yellowstone river winds across Hayden valley, and then suddenly enters the canon. a deep. narrow gorge cut in the plateau. The upper falls of the Yellowstone measure 110 feet. and a quarter of a mile be- low, the river plunges over the rocks in one bound for 310 feet. The canon of the Yellowstone far excels in beauty all other marvelous sights in the park. From the lower 870 YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK falls for 8 miles down the river the abrupt walls on both sides of the canon, nearly 1,000 feet in depth, present a brilliancy and mingling of color beyond description. The caiion varies in width from a quarter to three-quarters of a mile. From the brink to the water’s edge the walls are one mass of decomposed lava, presenting varied tints of orange and red, the result of steam and acid vapors upon the rhyolite. A number of small hot springs may still be seen in action in the bottom of the cafion only a short dis- tance above the river. Numerous other deep gorges pene- trate the lavas, carrying the waters of the plateau to the lower valleys. Geologically speaking, all these gorges are of recent origin. In most of them may be found waterfalls of great beauty; among them may be mentioned Tower, Undine, Osprey, Gibbon, Mystic, and Terrace falls. Geysers and Ifot Sp1'z"ngs.-—'l‘he natural objects that have made the Yellowstone region famous are mainly connected with its unequaled manifestations of thermal activity. Eruptions of lava ceased long ago; nevertheless over the Park Plateau evidences of internal heat are everywhere to be seen. Surface waters in percolating downward have be- come heated by relatively small quantities of steam rising through fissures from deep-seated hot rocks. Geysers and hot springs return these meteoric waters to the surface. (See T HERMAL SPRINGS.) Geysers, mud-volcanoes, thermal springs, solfataras and steam-vents remain as active evidences of the dying out of volcanic energy. Innumerable localities of hot springs indicate the wide distribution of underground heat over the park. Large areas of decomposed lavas and extinct solfataras show the former existence of still greater thermal activity. The number of hot springs scattered over the park is nearly 4,000. If to these be added the fumaroles and fissures from which issue in the aggregate enormous volumes of steam, the number of active vents would be more than doubled. In the four principal geyser basins fre- quented by tourists (Norris, Midway, Upper and Lower Geyser Basin) eighty-four geysers are known to have been active since the days of the earliest exploration. To these may be added the geysers of the Shoshone Basin on the shores of Shoshone Lake, the Union Geyser. only a short distance from the lake, ranking among the finest in the park. In the neighborhood of Yellowstone and Heart Lakes are found a number of other geysers. Probably there are 100 geysers within the park. All the thermal waters of the park may be classed under three heads: First, calcareous waters carrying calcium car- bonate in solution ; second, siliceous alkaline waters, rich in dissolved silica; third, siliceous acid waters, usually carry- ing free acid in solution. Only at the mammoth Hot Springs do calcareous waters present an important feature. These springs lie in the ex- treme northern end of the park, just N. of the plateau. The waters reach the surface through Jurassic and Creta- ceous limestones, and are strongly charged with calcium carbonate, which is rapidly deposited as travertine. The travertine covers an area of about 2 sq. miles, occupying a narrow valley lying between Sepulehre and Terrace Moun- tains. A continuous deposit extends from Gardiner river up to the top of Terrace Mountain, a vertical distance of 1,300 feet. The brilliant white travertine with its abrupt terraces presents the appearance of a glacier occupying a narrow mountain gorge. A series of terraces extend all the way from the river to the top of the mountain. The hotel terrace is the broadest of these level areas, and contains 83 acres. There is considerable range in temperature of the waters, the hottest springs reaching 165° F. The siliceous waters are found mostly on the volcanic plateau issuing through cracks and fissures in the rhyolitic lavas from which they derive their mineral contents. Acid waters occur in the Norris Basin, Crater H ills, High- land Springs, and on the slopes between Mt. Washburne and the Grand Oafion of the Yellowstone. They may be recognized by the elllorescent deposits of alum and salts of iron, and in general have an astringent taste. They are of less general interest than the alkaline siliceous waters, as it is only with the latter that the geysers are associated. Alka- line waters deposit mainly silica as siliceous sinter. It oc- curs as a surface incrustation of amorphous silica, and is usually spoken of as geyserite. It is white in color and cov- ers large areas in all the geyser basins. Geyser Bc.s£1'is.—Tl'1e Norris Basin is situated 22 miles from the Mammoth Hot Springs. There are fourteen gey- sers in the basin, but none of them so impressive as those in the other basins. YEMEN The Lower Basin is 20 miles S. of the Norris Basin, and is the largest of all the geyser areas. It is roughly rectangular in shape, and contains innumerable hot springs and seven- teen geysers, the larg.est of which is the Great Fountain. This is a typical geyser in every way. On the west bank of the Firehole river, about 3 miles from the hotel in the Lower Basin, is l\lidway Basin. It is much the smallest of all the geyser areas, but contains the grand- est geyser and the most picturesque hot lake to be found in the park. Excelsior Geyser is the most powerful geyser in the park. It throws into the air an enormous column of water 250 feet in height, measuring nearly 20 feet i11 diame- ter at the base, breaking into a fan-shaped body above. It rises from the center of a seething caldron of boiling water, the level of which lies about 20 feet below the surface of the sinter plain. At every eruption the amount of water thrown out reaches many thousand barrels. Frequently large blocks of sinter are hurled violently into the air by the force of the explosion. Prismatic Lake is unsurpassed for brilliancy of color and for the exquisite beauty of its rim. From the Excelsior to the head of the Upper Geyser Basin, geysers and hot springs line the Firehole river. The Upper Basin is about 24; miles long by 1% miles wide, and contains the greatest number and, with the exception of the Excel- sior, the grandest geysers in the park. There are over forty, of which nine are of the very first order. The Giant, Giantess, Grand. Splendid, Grotto, Castle, Bee-hive, Ob- long, and Old Faithful are all within a short distance of each other. Old Faithful was so named on account of its great regularity; for over twenty years it has been playing at intervals averaging sixty-five minutes. All the larger geysers throw columns of water varying from '70 to 250 feet. Gover/mnent of the l)cm"7c.—The Yellowstone Park is under the supervision of the Secretary of the Interior, who is an- thorized to make all necessary rules and regulations for its government and rotection. The superintendent is an army ol’ficer, with hea quarters at the Mammoth Hot Springs. Nobody is allowed to reside permanently in the park with- out special permit. All shooting is strictly prohibited, and the capture and trapping of game is forbidden. Fishing for pleasure and for food while in the park is permitted, but is strictly prohibited for commercial purposes. Every pre- caution is taken to prevent forest fires. ‘There are several hotels in the park, and these are connected by good roads, maintained by the Government. ARNOLD HAGUE. Yellow-wood : the valuable yellow timber of Flindersia (formerly Ozvleg/a) orrleg/cma, a noble cedrelaceous tree of Eastern Australia. Also the wood of (]Zadrastz's t’£ncz‘07'1.’a (once called V7,'rgz'Zt'a,), a beautiful leguminous tree, a native of Tennessee and Kentucky. L. H. B. Yembu: See YAMBU. Ye’ men [Arab. Yamrm, liter., on the right hand. south (to one facing east), hence the land south of Syria. The an- cient mistranslation, as Am’Zn'a Fe’Zi:2; (Gr. eb8a£/.iwv), arises from the further meaning of lucky, fortunate, in the Arabic word]: a vilayet or province of the Ottoman empire in Arabia. It is bounded N. by Hedjaz, W. by the Red Sea, S. by the British protectorate of Aden. Its indefinite east- ern boundaries are Hadramaut and the great Arabian des- ert. The coast-line is about 500 miles in length, and the total area between 70,000 and 80.000 sq. miles. It consists in part of a maritime lowland belt from 10 to 30 miles broad, mostly sandy and sterile, but in places tropically fer- tile, in part of table-land some 4,000 feet above the sea. and between these two of a chain of heavily wooded mountains running N. and S.. with peaks from 6,000 to 8,000 feet high. Among these mountains are well-watered valleys and ter- raced slopes of great fertility. The population is vari- ously estimated by conjecture at from 500,000 to 2,500,- 000. About 100 miles from the coast is the nominal capital, SANAA (q. 1).), whose hereditary imam, a subject of the Ot- toman empire, shares dominion with numerous chieftains more or less independent and powerful. The former capi- tal, Hode'ida. a most unhealthful city, is the principal port of the vilayet. Other ports are Mocha, famous for its cof- fee, but now almost abandoned, and Loheia. Zebid, 15 miles from the sea, the seat of an influential Sunnite col- lege, is the most important manufacturing town, supplying large quantities of colored cotton fabrics. In the highlands are the towns of Belt el-Fakih, an ent-rep6t of coffee, Ta'iz, Dhamar, Mareb, Khamir, Saadeh, and Abu Arish. The prin- cipal exports are coffee, skins, senna, indigo, gums, dates, tamarinds, and ivory. YENIKA LE The history of Yemen goes back to remote antiquity. The earliest inhabitants are supposed to have belonged to the I-Iamitic race. Descendants of the Semitic Sheba (Gen. x. 28) came afterward. From their amalgamation arose the celebrated Himyaritic kingdom about 700 B. 0. The high civilization of this kingdom is attested by hundreds of in- scriptions, coins, and works of art. Various attempts at con- version of the country to Christianity, as by Theophilus, a missionary sent by Constantius II. in 356, had small perma- nent result. The king Abu Novas, who reigned toward the end of the fifth century, professed Judaism and massacred the Christians. In consequence he was conquered by the Negus of Abyssinia (525), whom Justin I. had instigated to revenge his coreligionists. The Persians replaced the Abyssinians in 575, and the whole province submitted to Mohammed and Islam in 628. The Ottomans have exercised a precarious au- thority over Yemen since 1538. EDWIN A. Gnosvnnon. Yenikale, or J enikale, yen-ee-kaa'lcZ, Straits of (anc. C’z'nwncm'as Bosphoras)z the body of water connecting the Sea of Azof with the Black Sea. It is 19 miles long, about 3 miles wide where narrowest, and very shallow. The southern part is called Strait of Kertch. E. A. G. Yenisei, yen-eve-s€i’e”e: the longest of the great rivers of Siberia, watering the immense Yeniseisk province through its whole length. It rises in the N. W. of Mongolia in sev- eral branches, the chief of which is the Ulukhern to the W. of Lake Kossogol, separated from it by the Khangai Moun- tains. Below Krasnoyarsk it receives a great tributary, the Kan, and farther N. the Angara, the Podkamennaja (“ stony ”), and the Nishnaja Tunguska, and empties into the Arctic in a deep estuary, the Yenisei indentation or the Liman of Seventy islands, ice-bound almost all the year round. Its total course is more than 3,000 miles long, and is navigable from Minusinsk, though there is a series of rapids in the middle course between Krasnojarsk and Yeni- seisk. HERMANN SOHOENFELD. Yeniseisk, yen-eve-sa’isk: one of the two great govern- ments of Eastern Siberia (see SIBERIA) on both sides of the Yenisei river, extending from the Chinese frontier to the Arctic Ocean. Area, 987,186 sq. miles. It is very sparsely inhabited in the north by the Yuraks of Samoyede race and the Yakuts, in the south by Ostjaks, Tunguses, and Tartars. The northern part is mostly a frozen swamp or a desert plain; the southern part is very mountainous. The Sayans Mountains, connected with the Altai, which form the frontier between Russia and China, are very rich in gold, silver, iron, and all kinds of metals and minerals. The very common salt lakes yield about 50,000 cwt. of salt every year. Fish- ing in the great streams and lakes and hunting are the chief occupations of the half-savage natives. The Russian inhabitants are partly exiles, among whom there are nearly 50,000 so-called “ settled” exiles, but mostly voluntar_v set- tlers, and are chiefly engaged in agriculture, cattle-raising, and the fur-trade. The total population of the government in 1890 was 458,572. Minusinsk is the granary of the prov- ince, and from it the gold-fields of the Yeniseisk Taiga are provided with grain and cattle by boats. The enormous government is divided into six districts. The capital is Krasnoyarsk, with 17,155 inhabitants; but perhaps more im- portant is the town of Yeniseisk (see map of Asia, ref. 2-F), which has given its name to the government, being the chief entrep6t for the gold mines. At its fair in August the larger part of the Siberi~;1-ii fur-trade is concentrated. The town has a public library and a natural history museum created by exiles. Pop. (1888) 7,382. HERMANN Sononnrmn. Yeomanry Cavalry: a body of British volunteers. not reckoned as militia, and liable to duty only in Great Britain. They are organized by counties under the lords-lieuten- ants, and can be called out to assist the civil power or to serve against an invader; while serving they are on the same footing as regular soldiers. The yeomanry were first organized in 1797, and originally comprised infantry, but are now composed entirely of cavalry. In 1894-95 they numbered 11,790. Yeomen Of the Guard: properly “His (or Her) Majes- ty’s Body-guard of the Yoomen of the Guard,” a body of 100 veteran soldiers. commanded by a captain (a nobleman), a lieutenant, an ensign, an adjutant, and four exons (prob- ably a form of the word exempt), all old soldiers, besides non-commissioned oificers. They were instituted in 1485 by Henry VII., and are employed on special occasions as a bodyguard of the sovereign. YGDRASIL 871 Yes’ digerd III.: Persian king; the last of the dynasty of the SASSANIDE (q. en); b. in 617; ascended the throne in 632. In 634 he repulsed the Mussulmans under Abou Obei- da, but was defeated in the three days’ battle of Cadesiah (636), after which his capital, Ctesiphon, was taken and de- stroyed. Again defeated at the decisive battle of Neha- vend (641), all Persia was subdued by the caliph. Yesdi- gerd maintained a hopeless resistance till 651, when he was assassinated by a perfidious host. E. A. G Yesso : See Ynzo. Yew [M. Eng. ew < O. Eng. éow, 520 : O. H. Germ. Ezra (> Mod. Germ. eibe) : Icel. 377'. Fr. if, Span. tea, yew, are of Teuton. source]: the common name of evergreen conif- erous trees of the genus Tarcus, and sometimes extended to others of the family Taasecc, now generally included in C’ - mlferre. Thus TORREYA (q. 2:.) is called stinking yew, etc. The common yew-tree (T. baccata) of Europe is often planted in churchyards, and, like the cypress and willow, has a funereal character well supported by its gloomy ap- pearance. Its leaves and seeds are poisonous. Its tough wood was once in great repute for bows. It is very hard, elastic, and durable. The tree is slow-growing and is famous for its longevity. Of its varieties the Irish yew is the finest. T. canadensis is a prostrate American sort, very common northward. Yezd, or J esdz town ; in Central Persia (see map of Per- sia and Arabia, ref. 3-1). It is situated in a small oasis, watered by the river Mehris, and produces excellent fruits and vegetables. Grain has to be brought from Ispahan. Though the town appears a mass of ruins, it manufactures arms and silk and velvet stufl°s, and has well-stocked ba- zaars. It is the junction of the main Persian caravan routes. Among its inhabitants are Parsees and numerous Jews. Pop. about 40,000. E. A. G. Yezidees: See DEVIL-‘WORSHIPERS. Yezo, ya/z5, less correctly Yesso, and known by the Jap- anese as Hokkaido: the most northerly of the great isl- ands of Japan, and until recently treated as a colony; ex- tending from the Straits of Tsugaru on the S. to the Soya Strait on the N., i. e. between parallels 41-.}° and 451}°, N. lat. and 139-}° and 146° of E. lon. Its area, with small adjacent islands, is 30,276 sq. miles. The surface 'of the country is broken and mountainous, and a large portion remains im- perfectly explored. The highest summit, forming the center of the river system, is Mt. Tokachi, 8,200 feet in height. The chief river is the Ishikari, flowing W. into the Japan Sea, a stream abounding in salmon. About the year 1600 A. D. the southwestern peninsula began to be settled by Japanese, and the town of MATSULIAYE (g. e.) remained the center of rule until the year 1868. HAKODATE (q. tn), how- ever, with its magnificent harbor, is the most important town on the island. It was thinly settled, and the new rulers of Japan, fearing Russian aggression, undertook a comprehensive colonization scheme. A special department, the Kaitakushi. was founded, and a number of Americans, with Gen. Horace Capron at their head, were in 1871 en- gaged as advisers. Making Snrrono (q. 1*.) its headquarters, the department spent large sums on internal improvements, but as no adequate returns followed this expenditure, and few colonists were attracted. the Kaitakushi was dissolved in 1881, and the island divided into prefectures like the rest of Japan. Military colonists were settled all around Sap- poro; a penal settlement was established close to Poronai; Mororan on Volcano Bay. with its landlocked harbor, be- came a naval station, and considerable progress was made in opening up the island. But the interior still remains for the most part covered with primeval forest, inhabited by deer and bears. For six months of the year the island is under ice and snow, the depth of the snow ranging from 2 feet in Hakodate to 6 or 8 feet on the N. and W. of the isl- and. The summers though short are hot, and insect life abounds in the shape of mosquitoes and gadflies. The chief Aino villages are found on the southeast coast. the west coast immediately N. of Matsumaye being settled by a J a- panese fishing population. Pop. (1894) 339,455, of whom about 14,000 are Ainu or Amos (g. ’L‘.). J. M. DIXON. Yg'drasil [from Icel. Yggdra S3/ZZ: (apparently) Yggr, a name of Odin + 81/”, sill. support]: in Scandinavian my- thology, the greatest and most sublime of all trees. the ash, whose branches spread over all the world and aspire above heaven itself. It is the symbol of the universe. Beneath one of its roots is the fountain of wisdom and beneath 872 YNOAS another is the meeting-place of the gods. _ Odin once hung nine days and nine nights in this tree sacrificing h_nnselt to himself. It is believed that Ygdrasil is the origin of the Christmas-tree. See SCANDINAVIAN MYTHOLOGY. See also Anderson’s Norse Jllythology. RAsMUs B. ANDERSON. Yncas: another spelling of INCAS (q. 1).). Yoga Philosophy: one of the six orthodox systems_of India. (See NYAYA, VAICESI-IIKA, l\liiiII\Ns§i,VEDANTA, SAN- KHYA.) Since ancient times, the belief has passed current in India that by the practice of asceticism or self-castigation a man could acquire supernatural powers, by wlnch he could change at will the ordinary course of nature. Indeed, this idea has possessed the Indie Aryans as have few others; and they have accepted it quite as a matter of course. rIhe Sanskrit word for asceticism is tapas, literally; heat, then pain, torment, and so self-torment; and it occurs as early even as in the younger hymns of the Rigveda, and then more frequently in the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda; while the word and the thing are in full vogue in the liter- ature of the next period, the Brahmanas and U_pamshads. Here, indeed, tapas is often treated as a cosmogomc potency, by means of which the creator of the world produces thmgs and living beings. This is the best proof we could have of the fact that even in these ancient times the power ascribed to tapas was hardly less than that claimed for it in the later or classical Sanskrit literature. Here the belief finds most extravagant expression; even the gods fall a-trembling with horror and fear before the power of the ascetic (trlpasa), who is depicted as an omnipotent magician. Originally, the Indie tapas consisted doubtless merely in continence, fasting, and mortification. Later the religious needs of the people were no longer to be satisfied by the performance of endless ceremonies and by innumerable outward observ- ances; and these changes are duly reflected in the system of tapas, whose principal features came to be meditation and intent contemplation. This spiritual tapas gets the name of yoga, and comes into the foreground; while the word tapas continues to mean as before, simply bodily mor- tification, and tapas itself is relegated to the subordinate position of an auxiliary, or of a means for the intensifica- tion of yoga proper. We may note in passing that Buddhism rejected tapas altogether, but laid great weight upon the intent contemplations. Naturally the ideas proper to the words tapas and yoga were not in the sequel always sharply distinguislied. The word yoga, as meaning the closing of the senses to the outer world and the introversion and con- centration of the mind, does not occur until considerably later than tapas; but it does indeed occur with tolerable frequency in the Upanishads, which are of the middle class as respects their age; and in the Maitri Upanishad (at vi., 18), we find almost completely developed the technique prescribed for the practice of yoga by the later system. The establishment of the Yoga philosophy is ascribed to Patafijali, but his work was in part simply the reduction to fixed literary form of views that had long prevailed in India. This reduction the writer of this article would refer to the second century before Christ, being persuaded of the correctness of the Indie tradition which identifies the phi- losopher Pataiijali with the grammarian of the same name who flourished about 143 B. C. (See SANSKRIT LITERATURE.) His doctrines are contained in the compendium called Yoga- shtra; and doubtless this is older than any of the compen- diums of the five other systems. And this is to be in- ferred from the fact (until new unnoticed) that the Yoga- shtra is the only one among the philosophical Sutras which develops its system without entering into polemics against the other systems. Since now the oldest two of the other five, namely, the Miniansa-si'itra and the Vedanta-sfitra, date from the beginning of the vulgar era, or from a time not long anterior (see VEo.KN'rA), and since the Yoga-sutra ante- dates them, it is clear that the time of the great grammarian is an extremely probable one for the composition of the Yoga—si'1tra. And this consideration greatly strengthens the probability of the correctness of the native identifica- tion. The basis of the Yoga system is the Sitnkhya philosophy. (See SANKHYA.) Indeed Pataiijali has appropriated Sankhya doctrines to such an extent that his system is generally and justly designated in Indie literature as a branch of the Sankhya. All.of the most important Sankhya doctrines, except the denial of a God, are transferred to the Yoga system; to wit, the Sankhyan theory of cognition, the San- khyan cosmology, physiology, and psychology, and the San- YOGA PHILOSOPHY khyan theory that the deliverance of the soul from the round of existences is to be attained only by direct recognition of the absolute difference of spirit from matter. (The belief in the metempsychosis and in karma belongs, of course, to Aryan India in general.) The admission of the doctrine of a personal God into the Yoga system became in later times a fact of decided importance in determining the character of the system. But its original insertion by Patanjali, to judge from the Yoga-siitra, was made in a way so loose- jointed as not to involve any essential modification of the contents and aim of the Szinkhyan system as a whole. In- deed, we may make the downright assertion that the Yoga- sfitras, i., 23-27, and ii., 1 and 45, which treat of God, are quite out of connection with the remaining portions of the compendium, and even in contradiction with the funda- mental principles of the system. The ultimate end of human strivings is, according to the Yoga-sfitra, not union with God or a merging into God, but rather, as in the Sankhya, simply the complete isolation (lraexalycl) of the soul from matter, and the bringing about of an absolutely unconscious condition after the mundane existence. The statement is sometimes found in works on the history of Indie thought that the Yoga system is purely theistic, and that it assumes a primeval spirit from which the individual spirits originate, and the like. But this is completely erro- neous. The individual souls are as truly without beginning and eternal as is the “particular soul” (purasha-m'gcsha), called “God.” It is probable that Patafijali, by his very superficial erasure of atheism, simply intended to render the originally non-Brahmanical S-ankhya system more accept- able to his countrymen. In this connection we must add that there is a large number of Upanishads which treat of yoga, and which are all much posterior to the oldest Upanishads, and probably even to the Yoga-sfitra also. They are those which Prof. YVeber, in his Htstory of lncltan Literature, designates as the second class of Atharvan Upanishads. They have for their subject the sinking of the soul in contemplation of the Atman (that is the divine soul); and are, for the rest, somewhat affected by V edzintic views. The conception of a personal God is well developed in them; and the like is true in still larger measure in the third and most recent class of Upanishads, the sectarian Upanishads, which sub- stitute one of the forms of Vishnu or Shiva for the Atman, while still following in essentials the Yoga doctrine. There is one other important matter, besides that of the admission of a personal God, in which the Yoga is distin- guished from the Sankhya, to wit, the doctrine of yoga, from which the system receives its name. Pataiijali treats this subject systematically ;. describes the means for attain- ing to this condition of concentration of thought or absorp- tion, and the means for intensifying it to the highest degree, and the supernatural powers which are the reward of the practice of yoga. The practice of yoga has eight component parts (yogarga): (1) Self-control and the repression of all sensual impulses (yama); (2) the keeping of prescribed ob- servances (ntyama); (3) the remaining in certain bodily postures (ctsana); (4) artificial restraint or regulation of the breath (pranayama); (5) the diversion of the senses from the objects of sense (pratyahc'tra); (6) the composing of one’s self, or attainment of self-composure (clharana); (7) medita- tion (olhyctna); and (8) intent or profound contemplation (samacl/t/t). The belief prevails even to this day in Brah- manical India that by the successful practice of yoga one can attain the supernatural powers (sz'cldhz', a'z'§'varya). The Yogins, i. e. the ascetics who practice yoga, do not, it is true, give any public proof of their possession of supernatural powers; but this is easily explained by the fact that it is an essential condition of their attainment that the Yogin be absolutely indifferent to the world of sense, and hence have no motive for exhibiting the miraculous powers. These are eight in number: (1) The power of making one’s self infini- tesimally small, or invisible (antman); (2, 3) the power of making one’s self exceedingly light (laghtman), or heavy (gartman); (4) the power of reaching anything whatsoever, for example, the moon, with the tips of one’s fingers ( prcip- tt); (5) irresistible power of will ( prd./rclonya); (6) “lordship” (tgttoa) over all beings; (7) the power of changing the course of nature (oacttoa); (8) the power of transporting one’s self to any place soever by mere exercise of the will (yatra/a2m*-rooms, roon1s for boys’ department. kitchen, and janitors quarters. There are 305 buildings, many of them elegant and complete in their appointments, the total value of real estate being over $17,000,000. (5) Or- ganized departments: (a) Business, general supervision, mem- bership ; (I1) Religious——Bible and workers’ training-classes, evangelistic and devotional meetings, work in behalf of per- sonal purity, temperance, etc., systematic invitation work, distribution of religious literature, and a specially empha- sized personal work. There is also a worldwide observance of an annual week of prayer in November. (c) Educational --library and reading-rooms, evening classes in commercial, industrial, scientific, literary, political and social-economic subjects, literary societies, and lectures. (cl) Physical-—gym- nasium, athletic games, cycling, boating, swimming, etc., with instructors qualified to make physical examinations and pre- scribe and direct safe and beneficial exercise. Athletics are conducted in connection with an international athletic league. Emphasis is given to an all-round work, and on a scientific basis, as against specialties, and the associations lead all other organizations in the line of plfysical culture. (e) So- cial——a pleasant resort with companionable supervision, music, recreative games, social gatherings and entertain- ments, combining the attractions and the restraining influ- ences of a Christian home. (f) Information and relief-— 879 employment bureau, boarding-house register. savings fund, medical club, visitation of the sick. (g) A work more or less complete along all these lines for boys. The following are statistics of the associations in North America, and relate exclusively to work for young men: Religious—610 associations report 27,710 Bible class ses- sions, with a total attendance of 282,176; 448 report 13,910 Bible training-class sessions, with a total attendance of 119,950; 1,093 report 67,612 religious meetings, with a total attendance of 2,913,770. Secular—-639 associations report an average daily attendance at rooms of 71,965; 840 report reading-rooms; 67 6 report libraries. containing 500,000 vol- umes, and valued at $422,536; 349 report educational classes, with 22,800 different students and 955 teachers; 230 report literary societies. with a total average attendance of 5,200; 568 report 5,062 lectures, etc.; 897 report 4.292 social entertainments; 493 report gymnasiums, 316 other means of physical culture. For current expenses 1,030 associa- tions expend $2,250,240. Careful management and the amount of volunteer labor afforded yield large returns for the financial investment. lVo1-It among Special Classes.—At first a work among mer- chants’ clerks, with only moral and religious aims and few attractive appliances, the organization has so grown and widened in scope that, with its present equipment and ver- satile and flexible methods, it is able to touch young men of every class and on all sides of their nature. This is shown in the physical department with its broadly adaptive recre- ative, hygienic, and educative features, and in the evening classes, aggregating seventy-five lines of study, including the rapidly developing industrial work which is interesting large numbers of young mechanics. It is still more forcibly illustrated in the evolution of such strikingly dissimilar de- partments as the college and the railway work. ll'or/e among College Sz‘ucle/nz‘s.—Th_e present movement began in 1877. at which date there were a few college asso- ciations, but little activity or uniformity in methods, and no intercollegiate relations. Under the new international su- pervision the organizations have increased to more than 500, including the leading state and denominational schools, and, with a membership of over 33.000, form the largest col- lege fraternity in the world. The associations are strongly knit together by a system of correspondence, visitation, and conferences, and are working with a definite and thoroughly outlined plan. Many convenient buildings are being erect- ed for their use, and the larger societies employ a general secretary. Several men also give their time to this depart- ment in connection with the international and State com- mittees. Summer schools are held for the study of the Bible, missions, and association methods. and through series of presidential and deputation conferences men are trained for leadership and visitation work. The student class in large cities is affiliated through an intercollegiate organization connected with the city association. Among important outgrowths of this work are: (1) The summer schools, or Bible conferences, beginning in 1885, and spreading from Northfield over many lands. (2) The student volunteer movement, through which many have pledged themselves to foreign mission work, and more than 700 are already on the field. (3) The foreign work of the American committee, placing experienced secretaries at strategic cen- ters to establish model associations and train native Chris- tians for association work. Eight men have been sent out for this purpose to Japan, India, China, and South America. (4) The spread of atliliated Christian work to the colleges of other lands; the attendance of students from foreign univer- sities at Northfield, and several tours of visitation abroad by college secretaries of the American committee have contrib- uted to the establishment of the intercollegiate movement in Great Britain and to more or less progress toward organ- ization in Germany, Switzerland, France, Scandinavia, India, Japan. and South Africa. The introduction of the English Bible as a department of study in colleges, the drawing of more students into distinctively religious call- ings. an impetus to Bible study, and a greatly increased religious activity among college students are among the direct local results. lVorl;_for Rail'wa,z/ Jlfen.-—Originating in 1872 and pass- ing slowly through the experimental period, this work has developed into over 100 organizations at railway centers, with nearly 25,000 members, 126 employed olficers, 3,000 men on working committees, and an annual current ex- penditure of $215,000. Nearly 40 buildings are either owned by them or set apart for their use. The corporations 88() YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS contribute generously both to building funds and current expenses, and in every way promote and encourage the work. Ordinary methods, which are all well represented, are supplemented by certain distinctive agencies—rest-room and baths (day and night), lunch-counter, instruction in “first aid,” emergency hospital, visits to sick and injured, and railway library. Membership tickets are reciprocal. Three international secretaries give their entire time to the supervision and extension of the department. Associations of German-speaking young men have been formed in several cities having a large German population. There are in all 12 such associations and 8 well-equipped buildings. An agent for work among colored young men was placed in the field in 1879, since which 49 associations have been established, 29 being in colleges. The total membership is 2,800. The first association among the American Indians was organized by the Dakotas in 1877. The number has increased to 40, 4 of which are in Indian schools. An educated Sioux is the international secretary of the department. Work is also carried on among lumber- men, sailors, and soldiers, etc.; also among destitute young men in the large cities and the male inmates of hospitals, prisons. and reformatories. The associations are alert to enter any field where they can be helpful to young men; as far as practicable men are reached through members of the association of the same class or employment. THE WoRLD’s Comrrrrnn.—The first world’s conference was held in Paris in 1855, at which was adopted the basis on which the associations of all lands have since afiili- ated: “The Young Men‘s Christian Associations seek to unite those young men who, regarding Jesus Christ as their God and Saviour, according to the Holy Scriptures, desire to be his disciples, in their doctrine and in their life. and to associate their efforts for the extension of his kingdom among young men.” Similar conferences have since been held, triennially as a rule, in the capitals of Europe. In 1878 there was constituted a “central international com- mittee,” composed of representatives from all the afliliating national organizations, and with its executive quorum resi- dent in Geneva, Switzerland. The thirteenth world’s conference was held in London in J une, 1894, coincident with the fiftieth anniversary of the association of that city, the pioneer organization. Two thousand delegates were present, representing twenty-six nationalities. Among the civic and religious functions were an official reception at the Guildhall; public services at St. Paul’s Cathedral and Westminster Abbey, with sermons by the Bishops of London and Ripon; a reception at Royal Albert Hall; and an excursion to Windsor. George VVill- iams, the founder, was knighted by the Queen, and voted the freedom of the city by the London council. Commem- orative services were held in nearly 1,500 Anglican and Nonconformist churches of Great Britain. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—S66 Stevenson, Historical Records of the Young ]l[eu’s Clwishlau Assoovjcttiou 1844-84 (London, 1884); Shipton, The Elislorg of the Louclon Young .ll.’[eu’s O'lzre'stlau A.ssooeMe'ou in Etveter Hall Lectures (vol. i., Lon- don, 1845-46); Fifty Years’ W'orh amongst Young J11/eu in all Lands (Eng. ed. London, 1895); Ifauclboolc of the His- tory, 0/rgam'zaz‘e'on, and ./lfethocls of IVorh of the Young ]l[eu’s Clvm'stlan Assooeat/ions (New York, 1892); Wishard, A New Programme of ]lIe'sse'ous (New York, 1895); Report of the 13th Tre'enue'al Iuteruaz‘e'oual Conference and Julrllee Celelnution (London, 1895) ; Year-Boole of the Young ]l[eu’s Chrz'ste'au Assoee'alz'ons of North Amer/lea (New York, 1895) ; Brlllslt Y. M’. U. A. Y ear-B0070 1893-94 (London, 1895). HENRY S. N INDE. Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor: See CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR. Yollngstown : city: capital of Mahoning co., 0.; on the Mahoning river, and the Eric. the Lake S. and Mich. S., the Penn., the Pitts. and Lake Erie, and the Pitts. and West. railways; 67 miles S. E. of Cleveland, and the same dis- tance N. W. of Pittsburg, Pa. (for location, see map of Ohio, ref. 3-J). The business portion of the city lies in a valley on the north side, and the residential streets extend up and beyond the surrounding hills on both sides of the river. The most attractive residence thoroughfare is Wick Avenue. Two public parks are (1895) in process of development; one, Wick Park, a natural grove of 48 acres in the north- ern part of the city, presented by the Wick family: the other. Mill Creek Park, comprising 460 acres, and contain- ing Mill Creek, with the valley, bluffs, and ravines on both YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS sides, from its mouth to Mahonin g Falls, a distance of more than 3 miles. The city derives its supply of water from the river, and has good sewerage, gas and electric-light plants, and an electric street-railway traversing the business sec- tion, extending from the suburb of Brier Ilill on the \V. to Haselton on the E., and making the circuit of the north and south sides. For manufacturing purposes, coal from near Pittsburg is used, and for domestic purposes, natural gas from Allegheny and Washington cos., Pa. The notable buildings are the county court-house, city hospital, Public Library, Y. M. C. A. building (cost $90,000), jail, opera- house, and hotels. Youngstown has 42 churches, viz.: Methodist Episcopal, 10; Presbyterian, 5; Roman Catholic, 5; Baptist, 4; Lu- theran, 4; Protestant Episcopal, 3; Congregational, 2; Dis- ciple, 2; Reformed, 2; Swedish, 2; Hebrew, 2; and Evan- gelical, 1. There are 20 public-school buildings, with over 100 teachers and 6,000 pupils, the Raven High School with large endowment, 5 Roman Catholic parochial schools, 3 Lutheran parochial schools, several business colleges, pri- vate and free kindergartens, and classes for self-supportin g women maintained by the Women’s Industrial and Educa- tional Union. In 1894 the municipal receipts were $234,368; disburse- ments, $200,828; the assessed valuation was $13,314,710; net debt, $429,096; value of water-works, owned by the city, $750,000. In 1895 there were 5 national banks with com- bined capital of $1,429,000, and a savings-bank with capi- tal of $90,000. The total deposits were $3,900,000; loans, $4,700,000. In 1890 the census showed that 245 manufacturing estab- lishments reported. These had a combined capital of $7,- 542,742, and employed 5,843 persons, to whom $3,607,659 was paid in wages. The total output was valued at $14,- 667,260. The city has large wholesale and retail mercan- tile establishments foundries, machine-shops, lumber-yards, flour-mills, bridge, car, tube, and boiler-works. Its princi- pal industry is the manufacture of iron. The annual ca- pacity of 5 blast furnaces is over 320,000 tons, and of 6 rolling, puddling, and finishing plants, 981,000 tons. In 1895 there were 86 incorporated companies in the city, with aggregate capital of $14,377,900. The site of the present city and township of Youngstown was purchased from the Connecticut Land Company in 1800 by John Young, who settled there in 1799. The first rolling- mill (the second in the State) was erected in 1845-46, and the first furnace in 1846. Pop. (1880) 15,435; (1890) 33,220; (1895) estimated, 43,000. SARAH J . PETERSON. Young Women’s Christian Associations: organiza- tions devoted to the physical, social, intellectual, and spirit- ual development of young women. The first of these asso- ciations was founded in London, England, in 1855. In the U. S. they were the outgrowth of the Ladies’ Christian Union established in New York in 1858. The object of this organ- ization was to further the welfare of women, especially of young women dependent on their own efforts for support. To attain this _it was designed to for1n an association on the model of the Young Men’s Christian Association, and an attempt was made in Boston in 1859, but the opposition of members of the clergy, who feared that the creation of this new field of activity would withdraw the energy of young people from church work, discouraged the originators of the plan, and nothing was done until 1866, when a Young Women’s Christian Association was founded in Boston— the first association organized under that name. By 1871 there were in the U. S. three organizations bearing that name and twenty-seven with other names, mostly Women’s Christian Associations, all doing kindred work. In that year, in order to give mutual encouragement and promote harmony of action, there was instituted the practice of hold- ing biennial conferences which have met regularly since that date. The conference of 1879, at which delegates from Canada and Europe were present, adopted the name of Inter- national Conference, which has since been changed to the In- ternational Board of \Vomen’s and Young Women’s Chris- tian Associations; but this body has merely a deliberative character and exercises no control over the individual asso- ciations. It admits as members all organizations for im- proving the condition of women, especially those who are self-supporting. There is also a distinct organization of Young Women’s Christian Associations that originated in the colleges. In N ov., 1872, the first college Young Women’s Christian As- YPRES sociation was organized in the State Normal University, Normal, Ill., and by 1885 there were about one hundred as- sociations in various colleges in the U. S., under nine State organizations. A national organization was formed in 1886, and in 1889, on the union with Canadian associations, this was merged into the International Association of Young Women’s Christian Associations, which holds biennial meet- ings and extends its membership to any association in either city or college which does a work for and by young women, and whose voting and office-holding membership is com- posed of women who are members of Protestant Evangelical churches. Young Women’s Christian Associations have been established in several European countries, and in 1892 a world’s committee was organized with its headquarters in London. In the latter city, in 1894, the membership of the associations was estimated at 14,000. While at first the work of the organizations was modeled on that of the Young Men’s Christian Associations, it was soon found that among women the requirements were more varied. A valuable and important feature of their work is the maintenance of boarding-homes for young women. In addition to these, the city associations have gymnasiums, educational classes, entertainments, lectures, employment bureaus, and other means for promoting the intellectual and social interests of their members. Since their foundation they have increased steadily in number. In 1895 there were about eighty associations represented in the International Board of \Vomen’s and Young Women’s Christian Associa- tions, and their membership was estimated at 23,000. In the International Association of Young Women’s Christian Associations in 1895' there were 61 city associations, 280 col- lege associations, and the total membership was over 24,000. Yp1'es,ee’p’r : town ; province of West Flanders, Belgium ; on the Yperlee; 30 miles S. S. W. of Bruges by rail (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 10-B). It was in the four- teenth century one of the leading manufacturing centers of Europe, and had about 200,000 inhabitants. A splendid monument of that time is the cloth-hall, a large structure in Gothic style, built in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- turies, and now occupied by different public establishments. In the sixteenth century Ypres began to decline, and its present manufactures, though very varied, comprising linen, woolen, cotton, and silk, lace, and ribbons, oil, soap, salt, and leather, are comparatively of little consequence. Its former fortifications are now dismantled and transformed into promenades. Pop. (1891) 16,505. Ypsilan’ti : city (site of Indian trading-post in 1807, lo- cated in 1824, chartered as a city in 1858); )Vashtenaw co., Mich.; on the Huron river, and.the Lake S. and Mich. S. and the Mich. Cent. railways: 8 miles S. E. of Ann Arbor, 30 miles \V. by S. of Detroit (for location, see map of Michi- gan, ref. 8—J). The city is laid out chiefly in regular squares. is on both sides of the river, and owns the water-works and electric-light plant. A peculiarity of the water system is the use of an elevated tank with capacity of 250,000 gal., iii- stead of the usual stand-pipe. The tower is of stone and the tank of steel. There are 10 churches and places of wor- ship, State normal school, St. J olm’s Academy, 4 public schools, business college, a national bank with capital of $75,000, a State bank with capital of $350,000, and 3 weekly newspapers. The manufactures include underwear, paper, tags and labels, flour-mill machinery, agricultural imple- ments, pumps, and sash, doors, and blinds. In 1895 the city had an assessed valuation of $2,420,000, and a bonded debt of $148,500, all of which, excepting $19,500, was for its water- works and lighting-plant. Pop. (1880) 4,984; (1890) 6,129; (1894) State census, 6,111. EDITOR or “ SENTINEL.” Ypsilanti: name of an illustrious Greek family of prince- ly rank, descendants of the Comneni of Trebizond and prominent as champions of the emancipation of Greece. (1) ALEXANDER: statesman; b. at Constantinople 1725; hospo- dar of \Vallachia 1774-82, and again 17 96-98, and of Mol- davia 1784—92. Executed, for treason, at Constantinople in 1805.—-(2) CONSTANTINOS2 statesman and writer; son of (1); b. at Constantinople, 1760; hospodar of Moldavia 1799- 1801, and of Wallachia from 1802 to 1806, when he was re- moved on account of his Russian proclivities. Soon rein- stated, he was forced to flee to Russia in 1808, and died at Kiev in 1816. He was an able linguist and prolific writer. He left eight children.-—(3) ALEXANDER! revolutionist ; son of (2); b. at Constantinople, Dec. 12, 1792; served in the Russian army and lost his right hand at the battle of Dres- den (1813); was made adjutant to Alexander I. and major- YRIARTE 881 general in 1817. In 1820 he was chosen chief of the hetzeria, a secret association, the object of which was the liberation of the Greeks from the Ottomans. He invaded Moldavia with a force of Greek and Russian volunteers, but was en- tirely defeated at the battle of Dragashan (June 19, 1821). Escaping to Austria, he was arrested by the Austrian au- thorities, and confined for six years in the fortress of Mun- kacs. D. in Vienna, J an. 31, 1828.—(4) DEiiETRIL'S: revolu- tionist; son of (2); b. at Constantinople, Dec. 25, 1793 ; served in the Russian army ; joined the Greeks in the Morae in 1821, and distinguished himself at the capture of Tripolitza, the defense of Argos, and the battle of Lerna against Ibrahim Pasha. In 1828 he was appointed com- mander in chief of the Greek army. but disagreement with the president Capodistrias caused his resignation in 1831. D. in Vienna, J an. 3, 1832. Enwnv A. Gnosvnxon. Yquitos: another spelling of Ionrros (Q. ea). Yreka, wi-ree’ka“a: city (founded in 1851); capital of Sis- kiyou co., Cal.; on the Yreka creek, and the Yreka Rail- road ; 25 miles S. of the Oregon State line, 360 miles N. of San Francisco (for location, see map of California, ref. 2—B). It is in an agricultural, fruit and stock raising, and lumber- ing region, and has 3 churches, high school, grammar school, a State bank with capital of $100,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,059; (1890) 1,100; (1895) esti- mated, 1,500. EDITOR or " J OURNAL.” Yriarte, Span. pron. e"e-re“e-a‘ar’ta, CHARLES EMILE : writer; b. at Paris. Dec. 5, 1832, of a family of Spanish de- scent. He studied architecture at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and in 1856 became inspector of the imperial asylums, and a little later of the Opéra at Paris. Attracted, however, by the freer life of the journalist, he went in 1859 as corre- spondent of the llloncle I llustré to the Spanish war in M0- rocco. In 1860—61 he followed the war in Italy in the same capacity. Returning to Paris in 1862, he became editor-in- chief of the journal. In 1871 he resigned this position and for several years devoted himself to travel and the study of the history of art. In 1881 he was appointed inspector of the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Yriarte's literary works fall into several very distinct groups. First, we have a series of impressions of war and of society in and out of Paris. Here belong La socie'z‘é 68])((g7lOZ8 (1862); Sous la ienz‘e: soiwenirs da 1l1aroe(1862) ; Paris grotesque, les eélébrziés de la rue 1815-68 (1864); Les cereles de Paris 1838-64 (1865) ; Portraits parisiens (1865); lVoureamr portraits parisiens (1869); Portraits cosmo_poliies (1870); Tableaua; cle la guerre (1870) ; Les Prussiens cl Paris ezf le 18 1I[ars (1871) : Cam- pagne de France 1870-7'1 (1871); La Bosnie ez‘ l'Herzégo- oine pendant‘ l'insuzv-eez‘ion (1875). In the second place, we have a series of studies of life and society in Italy during the Renaissance : La rie d’un paz‘ricie'n dc Venise au X1116 sie‘cZe (1874; crowned by the French Academy); Fa condo!- tiere au XVB siecle : Rimim' (1882) ; Fran goise dc Riminzi (1882): flfazffeo Ciritali (1885): Ce'sar Borgia (2 vols., 1888): Au2‘o/ur des Borgia, les monuments, les _/_vo'rz"ra2'z‘s (1890). In the third place stand several contributions to the history of art: Goya, sa rie et son oeuvre (1867); La scuZpz‘are itali- enne an X It siéele (1885) ; J. F. Jfillei (1885). Closely allied to these last are the magnificent illustrated works: Venise: Z71 isfoire, Tart, l‘imlusi/rie, la ville ei la rie (1 ‘77 : Les bords de l'Arlrim‘iqzw et le .1[om‘éne'gro (1877); Florence et Z71 istoire ales .Zl[éclieis (1880). Last we may mention the historical sketches Les princes d‘O2-léans (1872) : La ba- iaille dc Doflrz'ng (1872); Le Puritaiii (1873). Over his own name and the pseudonyms Junior, Marquis de Ville- mer, etc., Yriarte has written much for the Figaro and other Parisian journals. A. R. Mxnsn. Yriarte. or Iriarte, J UAN, dc: Spanish scholar; b. Dec. 15, 1702, at Orotava on the island of Teneriife; d. in Ma- drid, Aug. 23, 1771. After studying the ancient languages at Paris and jurisprudence at Madrid, he obtained a posi- tion in the royal library at the latter place. In 1732 he be- came chief librarian. In 1742- he was appointed also official translator for the ministry of Foreign Affairs. His most im- portant literary work had to do with the library in which he worked, and particularly valuable was his ("oclices g-roeci mamlscripz‘i, of which, however, but one volume ever ap- peared (hladrid, 1769). As purer-ga. he wrote many epigrams and proverbs in both Latin and Spanish, narrative poems in Latin, etc. All were published in his Obras suelfas (4 vols., Madrid, 1774). Selections from his poems and letters are printed in volumes lxii. and lxvii. of Rivadeneyra’s Bi- blioteoa de Aazfores Espmtoles. A. R. Manse. 453 882 YRIARTE Yriarte, or Iriarte, ToMAs, de: Spanish poet and dram- atist; nephew of Juan de Yriarte; b. at Orotava (Tenerifie), Sept. 18, 1750; d. in Madrid, Sept. 17, 1791. He went in early childhood to Madrid, and was there educated under the eye of his learned uncle. As a mere boy he began to write verses, and when only eighteen he had completed the come- dy Hctcer qwe haccmos, published in 1770 under the 11ame Tirso Ymareta. In 1771 he was given the otfice left vacant by his unele’s death, and in 1776 he became also archivist of the ministry of War. In 1780 appeared his excellent di- dactic poem La mltsicct, which attracted attention outside of Spain. In 1782 he published his Fdbulas Zz'teram'as, which still remain the best poetical fables in the Spanish tongue. He also has the distinction of having written the first regular comedies in Spanish, the best specimens being El seitorito mimado (1778) and La scltoflta mal criada (1788). He translated into Spanish several French plays, Horace‘s Ars poetica (1777), and four books of Vergil‘s rlfl'neicl. I-laying become involved in literary animosities, he was toward the end of his life charged with leaning toward the recent French philosophy. For this cause he was summoned before the Inquisition in 1786, but no harm ensued. The first collection of his Ob)-as, edited by himself, appeared in 6 vols., Madrid. 1787. More complete is the edition in 8 vols., 1805. His poems are printed in vol. lxiii. of Rivadeneyra's B'L'bZ£0zfcc(1, dc Aatores E15-iva170Zes. Ysaye, eve-za’, EUGENE: violinist; b. iII Liege, Belgium, July 16, 1858; studied in the Conservatory of Liege till 1874, then received private lessons from Wieniawski at Brussels. He made concert tours over Europe with great success. In 1884 he was decorated Knight of the Royal Oak by the King of Holland; in 1886 was appointed high rofessor in the Royal Conservatory of Brussels; went to ondon for the first time in 1889, and in the autumn of 1894 visited the U. S., playing with immense success every- where. D. E. I-Inavnv. Ysleta. e'es-la/ta“a: city; El Paso co., Tex.; on the Rio Grande river; and the South. Pac. and the Tex. and Pac. railways; 12 miles E. of El Paso, the county-seat (for loca- tion, see map of Texas, ref. 3—A). It is in the heart of the fertile Rio Grande valley, has large agricultural and fruit- growing interests, and does its banking in El Paso. Corona- do’s expeditioncf 1540 discovered a settlement of Pueblo Indians here, established a colony, and built a church. De- scendants of these Pueblos still occupy part of the city, which is believed to be the oldest in the State. Pop. (1880) 1,453, nearly all Mexicans and Indians; (1890) 1,528, about one-third citizens of the U. S. G. \V. WAHL, crrv CLERK. Yssel, i'sel, or Ijssel : a branch of the Rhine, separating from it near Arnhem in the Netherlands. It receives the Old Yssel, which comes from Rhenish Prussia, and enters the Zuyder-Zee after a course of 80 miles. Yttrium [Mod. Lat.; so named because first detected in gadolinite found at Ytterby, in Sweden] : a rare metal be- longing to the cerium group; atomic weight (Cleve) 896, or, according to Bunsen and Bahr, 92'5, symbol Y. Cleve prepared the metal by the electrolysis of the double chloride of yttrium and sodium, and also by fusing this salt with so- dium. It was thus obtained as a dark-gray powder with a metallic luster under the burnisher. It decomposes cold water slowly and boiling water more quickly. It is most easily recognized by the spark spectrum of the chloride (YCl8), which contains a large number of bright lines. Of these, two groups near the sodium line toward the red are characteristic. _ Yttrium oxide (YQOQ), or yttria, is obtained as a yellow- ish-white powder by igniting the oxalate or hydroxide. It is not directly soluble in water, but dissolves slowly in nitric, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acids, forming sweetish salts- namely, Y(NO3)3 + 6l-BO, YCl3 + 6l~l2O, and Y2(SO4)3 + 8I-LO respectively. Pure yttrium and erbium salts were prepared by Bunsen and Bahr, who first decomposed the mineral gadolinite by heating it with strong hydrochloric acid and then precipitated the chlorides of the contained metals with oxalic acid. By further treatment they sepa- rated out the salts of cerium, lanthanum, etc., and formed oxides, nitrates, and oxalates alternately. Yttrium occurs as a silicate and as yttria in gadolinitc, a mineral with a vitreous luster, usually found in masses of a black or greenish-black color; as a phosphate in XENO- TIME ((1. *0.) ; and as a fluoride in yttrocerite, a mineral found near Fahlun, Sweden; at Amity, Orange co., N. Y.; and at Paris, Me. R. A. Roenars. YUCCA Yuba River : a river of California, rising by three forks, (the North, Middle, and South), which flow through deep, cafion-like gorges in the Sierra Nevada. The united stream joins Feather river at a point just below Yuba City. Yucatan, yoo-ka"a-taan’ 2 a peninsula of Southeastern Mex- ico, projecting northward between the Gulf of Mexico and the taribbean Sea, and separated from the western extrem- ity of Cuba by a channel about 140 miles wide. It embraces the two states of CAMPEAGI-IY (q. ’U.), occupying about one- fourth of the peninsula in the southwest, and Yucatan. The latter has an area of 28,180 sq. miles and an estimated pop- ulation (1893) of 365,810. Unlike the main body of Mexico, Yucatan is not mountainous except in the southern part, which is physically a portion of Central America. The sur- face is generally rolling or hilly. There is comparatively little heavy forest except in the southern mountains or on swampy flats adjoining the coast. Though rains are abun- dant in their season, many districts are almost without run- ning water. For this reason much of the land is unfitted for ordinary agriculture; but it is well adapted for grazing and for the cultivation of sisal hemp, which is now the staple product and export. The mines are unimportant. The climate is warm and somewhat insalubrious. The civ- ilized population is gathered in the northern part. Merida, the capital, and its seaport, Progreso, are the most impor- tant towns. The southern districts are still held by Indi- ans, who are only nominally subject to the Mexican Gov- ernment. Yucatan was the first portion of Mexico visited by the Spaniards 1517-19. (See CoanovA, FRANCISCO HER- NANDEZ, de, and GRIJALVA.) It was crossed by Cortés on his way to Honduras (1525), and was partly conquered by Mon- tejo 1527-49. The Indian inhabitants of the Maya race (see INDIANS or CENTRAL AMERICA) had attained a considerable degree of civilization, and their skill in architecture is still shown by the ruined cities of UXMAL, CHICHEN, etc. (qg. 0.). They resisted the Spaniards bravely. but eventually the north- ern tribes were subdued and their descendants form a large portion of the inhabitants. The Maya language is still in general use in the interior, and is spoken even in Merida. Yucatan was attached to New Spain or Mexico, and followed its revolutions more or less willingly until 1839, when it sc- ceded and formed an independent state. It was reunited to Mexico in 1843. In 1847 the Indian population revolted, holding a large part of the peninsula for several years and even threatening Merida. See Fancourt, The I-Ie'story of Yucatcm (1854); Baqueiro. Ensa-_1/0 7m's2f(')m'c0 sabre Zas ’re'v0- Zuciones dc Yucatcin (3 vols., 1871-72); the works of Ste- phens, Brasseur de Bourbourg. and Le Plongeon; also see CENTRAL AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. HERBERT I-I. SMITH. Yucatecs: inhabitants of Yucatan; a name often given to the Mayas (see INDIANS or CENTRAL AMERICA). Yucca [Mod. Lat.. from Yuca, the native (San Domingan) name]: the aboriginal and also the botanical name of a genus of peculiar liliaceous plants, species of which have the English names of bear-grass, dagger-weed, Spanish bayonet, etc., natives of North America from New Jersey and from Iowa to Yucatan, but most abundant between the 25th and 35th degrees of N. lat. From fifteen to twenty species are well characterized (by Dr. Engelmann and Dr. Trelease), with many varieties, and various doubtful forms are in cul- tivation. The stems of the more northern species are sub- terranean, so that the tuft of bayonet or dagger shaped leaves is next the ground; of the more southern, arbores- cent, and palm-like in some species, forming a trunk 10 to- 20 feet high, crowned by a dense tuft of prickly-pointed leaves. In Y. fi-lumcmfosa and some other species delicate threads separate from the edges of the needle-pointed leaf, whence the popular appellation, Adam's needle and thread. The framework of the leaves affords a valuable fiber, which is used for cordage by the Mexicans. The root-stocks are replete with mucilaginous and saponaceous matter, which, under the name of “ amole,” serves as a substitute for soap in many a l\Iexican household, is also used by the Negroes of the Southern U. S., and gives the common name of soap- plant to Y. glazlca (Y. ang'usi'L'f0Zz'ct of the books), which abounds between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. A stalk rising from the center of the crown of foliage bears an ample panicle of large and white lily-like blossoms, showy at all hours, but most so at evening, when the blos- soms fully spread. The fruit is dry and capsular‘ in some species, fleshy and baccate in others. The latter are edible and savory. That of Y. ((,Z02T_f0Zt'a,, the “Spanish bayonet," is eaten by the Negroes of the coast of South Carolina and YUCHEE INDIANS Georgia under the name of banana, which it somewhat re- sembles in appearance; that of Y. baeeata of Arizona, etc., is largely consumed when fresh by whites and Indians, and is cured by the latter for winter I)1‘OVlS1OIlS._ Seyeral species are planted for ornament, and are much prized in landscape gardening. Revised by C. E. Bnssnr. Yuehee Indians : See UCHEAN INDIANS. Yu'kian Indians: a family of North American Indians. Yuki, the name of one of the tribes, is of Wintun_ origin, signifying stranger or enemy, secondarily bad or the'ecz'ng. The principal tribes are the Yuk1, whose pnscan home was the territory now known as Round valley, Mendocmo co., Cal. ; the Chumaia, in Eden valley and on Middle Eel river; the Tatu, or Huchnom, in upper Potter valley; the Asho- chimi, or \Vappo, whose ancient range e_xtend_ed from the geysers to the Calistoga Hot Sprmgs and 1n Kmghts valley; and the Napa, in upper Napa valley. . _ _ The physical appearance of the Yuk1 Is not pl_easmg. They have disproportionately large heads, small bodies, and rather protuberant abdomens; their eyes are small,_ but keen and restless; their noses stout, short, and straight, with expanded nares. They have heavy shocks ‘of bristly hair, which they cut short, and their complexion varies from yellowish buff to almost black. The women tattoo the cheeks, nose, mouth, and chin with pitch-pine soot and a sharp-pointed bone. Stephen Powers describes this tribe in 1877 as “ a truculent, sullen, thievish, revengeful, and every way bad, but brave race.” The Tatu, on the contrary, were regarded as remarkably timid. The Ashochimi are of finer physique than the Yuki, having less angularity and coarse- ness of feature, more prominent chins, and brighter eyes. Before being confined to a reservation these tribes built conical lodges of poles, bark, and puneheons on elevated ground. The dwellings of the Tatu, or Huchnom, were sometimes oblong and very large, with sleeping room for thirty or forty persons. Their ceremonial lodge or tribal assembly-hall is a dome-shaped structure covered with thatch and earth, and is capable of containing probably 200 persons. In this lodge the Yuki perform their annual green-corn dance, engaged in by both men and women. The Tatu observe an open-air acorn dance, in which both sexes also participate. The men of all the tribes of this family are fearless hunters, entrapping even grizzly bears in snares made of wild flax, then killing them with sharp, fire- hardened sticks. The Ashochimi cremate their dead, casting the ashes, which are believed to contain the spirit, to the wind. The Tatu bury their dead usually with the head to the N., while the Yuki Indians inter the corpse in a sitting posture. The Yuki recognize a Supreme Being, the creator of the world, and its first inhabitant. but it is probable that this belief is the result of Christian contact. Both the Asho- chimi and Tatu regard the owl and the hawk as potent and malignant spirits, which they conciliate by offerings and by wearing mantles of their feathers. Snakes are also an object of superstitious belief and awe. Like most primitive peoples, the Yuki have a deluge legend.‘ AUTHoaI'rIEs.—Stephen Powers, Trzbes of Oa.le'forn2Ta (Contr. N. A. Eth., iii., VVashington, 187 7 ); H. H. Bancroft, I-Iistory of Californz'a (vols. i.-viii., San Francisco, 1884- 90). See INDIANS or NORTH AMERICA. J . W. POWELL. Yukon River; one of the great rivers of the world. Of the streams of North America it is second in drainage area. and probably second in volume. Its length is about 2,000 miles, and its hydrogra hie basin, one-half of which lies in Alaska, approximately 40,000 sq. miles in extent. The position of its source has been variously reported by explorers, and is not yet definitely determined. The main valley leads to Lake Teslin, in Northwestern Canada, lat. 60°, lon. 132°. On its head waters there are numerous large lakes, in the midst of grand scenery. some of which are clear, while others are turbid with glacial mud. The tribu- taries from the N. traverse a forested and moss-covered region, and are mostly clear and limpid; while the larger branches from the S. flow from glaciers on high mountains, and are turbid and heavy with silt throughout the year. The Yukon is a.n intensely muddy stream, except near its source, and is building an immense delta where it enters Bering Sea. The head of the delta, or where the river first divide-s, is more than 100 miles from the sea; and its sea- ward margin measures about 70 miles. The delta has not been surveyed. For this reason, and also because of the shallowness of the sea near where the river discharges, YUMA 883 oceangoing vessels do not approach it. The transfer of goods intended for the Yukon trade, to river steamboats is made at St. Michael’s, 70 miles to the N. The Yukon river has been ascended by small, stern- wheeled steamboats as far as Selkirk House, 1,500 miles, but this is not the head of navigation. Several of the tributaries of the main stream are also navigable. The Porcupine, which comes in from the N. E. and joins the Yukon near Ford Yukon, under the Arctic Circle, has been ascended by steamboats 150 miles. Other tributaries, several of which are larger than the Porcupine, have not been ex- plored. The season of navigation is usually from the middle of June to the middle of October. The climate of the lower Yukon is exceedingly humid, but grows drier on ascending the river. E. of the 141st meridian, the eastern boundary of Alaska, the summers are dry and hot, and the winters intensely cold. with a light snowfall. The delta of the Yukon is treeless, and forms a part of the tundra that fringes the coast of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean. About 70 miles from the sea spruce forests begin and continue all along the river and its many branches to near its head waters. As the climate becomes drier toward the interior of the country, the forests on the uplands are less dense. In Eastern Alaska and adjacent portions of Canada the hills are grass-covered and separated by belts of spruce, cottonwood, willow, and other trees. which grow along the streams. The river is solidly frozen in winter. In spring, thawing begins first on its head waters, and great floods occur on account of the ice gorges that are formed. On the banks of the river layers of ice are exposed in many places. beneath the moss that covers the ground in the forests, solid ice of unknown thickness may frequently be found even on hot summer days. The Yukon is a highway of travel for the natives. The Eskimos use skin boats, /ryalrs, and the In- dians birch-bark canoes. In winter long journeys are made on sleds drawn by dog-teams. Gold is found in the river gravels of the upper Yukon, and along many of its branches. The center of this indus- try is now on Forty-mile creek. just within the eastern boundary of Alaska. About 1.000 miners were at work in that region in the summer of 1894. The gold is obtained by washing the gravel in sluices. - See Dal], Alaska and its Resources (1870) and Report in Eleventh U. S. Census. Isnarm C. RUSSELL. Yule [M. Eng. yol < O. Eng. geol : Icel. j5l : Swed. jwl : cf. O. Eng. géola, December or January. Icel. I'lz'r, a winter n1onth, and Goth. jizzle/2's, November or December]: the old Teutonic name of Christmas. or. properly speaking, of the religious festival of the winter solstice. Though the nature of the festival has been completely transformed by Chris- tianity, and though the mode of celebrating has also been much changed, in the greenery with which we still deck our houses and temples of worship. and in the Christmas-trees laden with gifts, we still have relics of the symbols by which our heathen forefathers signified their faith in the power of the returning sun to clot-he the earth again with green and hang new fruit 011 the trees. Yule. Col. Sir HENRY, K. C. S. I., C. B.: Anglo-Indian official and scholar; b. at Inveresk, Midlothian, Scotland, May 1, 1820, and educated at the Edinburgh High School. In 1837 he entered the East Indian Company‘s Military School at Addiscombe, and at the end of 1858 was appointed to the engineer service. After the usual period of instruc- tion at Chatham he was sent to India, and was there em- ployed on public works in different parts of the country. until 1862, when he retired and went to reside in Italy. D. Dec. 30, 1889. His principal works are Il[z'ss2'0n to the Court of Am (1858); an edition of the .l[zT2'al2z'l£a Descrz‘pz‘a of Friar Jordanus (1863); C(lz‘hag/ and the Ilhy Thfilzer (1866) ; the Book of Ser ilfarco Polo (2 vols., 1871 ; new ed. 1875): Glossary of An glo-Ind [an Terms. begun in concert with his friend Burnell (1886); and the Dz'ary of ll'z'llz'am Hedges (3 vols., 1889), besides many papers in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, etc. Ymna: city: capital of Yuma co.. Ariz.: on the Colorado river, and the South. Pac. Co.‘s railway: 150 miles \Y. by S. of Phoenix and 250 miles S. E. of Los Angeles. Cal. (for lo- cation, see map of Arizona, ref. 13—J). It is principally en- gaged in mining, agriculture, fruit-growing. and general trade, and has 2 public-school buildings and 2 weekly news- papers. Pop. (1880) 1,200: (1890) 1.773. Enrron or “ ARIZONA SE.\'TINI5I..“ 884 Yuman Indians [Yama, the name commonly applied to the Cuchan tribe, is said to mean “sons of the river”]: a family or linguistic stock of North American Indians. The tribes composing it occupied an area extending from the Cataract Cafion of Colorado river, Northern Arizona, to the southern extremity of Lower California. including the great- er portion of the lower Colorado and Gila river drainage in Western, Central, and Southwestern Arizona, the larger part of California S. of lat. 35°, and a small area in Western Sonora, Mexico. The divisions of the stock are: Cochimi. The most populous of the Lower California groups, embracing a number of small tribes, formerly be- tween lat. 26° and 31°, principally about Loreto Mission. In the eighteenth century they numbered probably 7,000 or 8,000 in about sixty settlements. Only a few new survive. Cocopa. This tribe, including seven bands of indeter- minate status, in early historic times held the valley of Colorado river from its mouth almost to the Gila junction, as well as the mountains of Northern Lower California. They are of more peaceable character than the Cuchan and Mohave, but like them are agriculturists, their principal roducts being corn, wheat, pumpkins, and melons. Popu- ation about 500, mostly in Mexican territory. Oomeya. A term formerly of indefinite application, being used collectively to designate the tribes from San Diego for 100 miles inland, and even to Colorado river, thus including the Dieguefios, but now applied to a group of six insignifi- cant tribes about New river on both sides of the California and Lower California boundary. The name is now obsolete, the Indians apparently being classed otficially as “ Yuma.” Cuchan, more commonly called Yuma; a tribe north of the Cocopa, on both sides of Colorado river from 50 miles above its mouth to 60 miles above the Gila confluence. Phys- ically the Cuchan are much superior to the Cocopa, though perhaps inferior to the Mohave. They are peaceable yet brave, and excepting the Tulkepaia division are agricul- turists, raising crops similar to those of the Cocopa. The Tulkepaia, numbering 240, are now under the San Carlos agency, Southeastern Arizona. There are also 760 “Tonto Apache” under the San Carlos agency, part of whom be- long to this tribe. The population of the “ Yuma ” (mainly Cuchan) of Yuma reservation, California, is 1,208. Dicgacflo (so named from San Diego mission, established in their midst in 1769). The name has no ethnic significance, being a collective term for several small tribes (at least one of which belonged to the Comeya) formerly in a number of rcmc/ierias in Southern California. They are now classed as Mission Indians under the Mission Tule agency. Popu- lation about 410. Hcwcsupai, also called Avesupai, Cosnino, Supai, etc. An isolated tribe, numbering 224 souls, who make their home in the gorge of Cataract creek, a side canon of Colorado river, Northwestern Arizona. They bear closer linguistic atfinity to the VValapai than to any other Yuman tribe. though in everything save language they resemble more closely the Pueblo tribes than their kindred. Jtlaricopa (formerly called Cocomaricopa). The priscan habitat of this tribe was the Gila and the western bank of the Colorado, near their confluence in Southwestern Arizona and Southeastern California; but for mutual protection they joined the PIMAN INDIANS (q. 1).), with whom they have resided in historic times on the Gila and Salado between lon. 112° and 113°. They are an agricultural tribe, their principal product being wheat, which is raised by irrigation. Their customs are similar to those of the Pima, with whom they intermarry, but they retain their native language. Population, 309 in 1891. ]VI0/rave, or Jlfojave (from hamo/c, three, and habi, big rock or mountain, hence “three mountains,” in allusion to the rocky buttes or The Needles, on the eastern side of Colo- rado river, about lat. 34° 41’, Western Arizona, which. so far as known, was their earliest habitat). This is the largest of the Yuman tribes. Physically the Mohaves are among the finest specimens of the North American Indian. They live in commodious, well-made houses of thatch and earth supported by posts, each house being supplemented by a large wickyup or ramada. So far as known the tribe has fourteen clans, one of them being an adopted band of Mari- copa. They are now mainly under the Colorado river agency, California, where they numbered 1,991 in 1891. Yavapai (from e-ng/ae’ea, sun + pai, people); also, but improperly, called Yampai. These are the N ijora (Pima for captive) of the early Spanish missionaries, and the so-called Apache-ll/Iohave (i. e. wild Mohave) of the present time. The YUMAN INDIANS Yavapai are strictly Mohave who left the main tribe in the Colorado river valley, and occupied the range of country be- tween Bill VVilliams Fork and the Rio Santa Maria as far as the Castle Dome Mountains near the Gila. When they were removed to the Camp Verde agency in 1873 they claimed the tie Verde country and the Black Mesa from the Rio Salado northward to Bill VVilliams Mountains. Since 1875 they have been under the San Carlos agency, where they num- bered 557 in 1891. They have intermarried extensively with the Apache. Perieu. This linguistic division of indefinite status in- cluded a number of small tribes formerly in Lower Cali- fornia from La Paz, about lat. 24°, to Cape St. Lucas. So far as known there are no survivors. Seri (also Ceri). This is a small semi-nomadic tribe oc- cupying an area on the coast of Sonora, Mexico, about lat. 29°, and the adjacent island of Tiburon in the Gulf of Cali- fornia. They subsist chiefly on fish, turtles, and waterfowl, generally eaten raw, using pelican skins as clothing and bedding. They are of fine physique, and are noted as run- ners. In the seventeenth century they gained an unenviable reputation for ferocity and cruelty, and while a part of the tribe were subdued by the Mexicans and surrounding Piman tribes in 1770, the remnant retain their savage character. They are probably the most primitive and bloodthirsty Ind- ians remaining in North America. Their principal inland settlements in early days were about El Populo and the pres- ent Hermosillo, but these localities have long been aban- doned. In 1852 they were said to number 500 on Tiburon island; in 1894 they were visited by McGee, when for the first time extensive collections and photographs were made among them, and found to number about 75 warriors with some 200 women and children. The Seri have been classed as Yuman on meager linguistic evidence, but the latest re- searches indicate that they probably form a distinct family. Tonto (Spanish “foolish,” “ stupid”). A name inappro- priately and indiscriminately applied (1) to the Tulkepaia or “ Apache-Yuma,” on San Carlos reservation ; (2) to an Athapascan tribe commonly known as the Coyotero Apache; (3) to the Pinal or Pinalefio of the same stock; (4) to a body of Indians mostly Yavapai men and Pinal women who have intermarried. The term is applied more particularly to the last-mentioned class, who, before their removal to the Rio Verde reservation and afterward to the San Carlos agency, made their home in Tonto Basin and the Pinal Mountains in Eastern Central Arizona. They speak a Yuman-Apache jargon, and number 750. l'Vai7r11/m. A collective term applied to the tribes of Lower California, formerly between the Cochimi on the N. and the Perieu on the S., or from lat. 24° to 26°. They spoke four dialects—Cora (distinct from the Piman Cora), Uchiti, Aripe, and Callejue, none of which probably now exist in their native mrity. l'VaZa])a.i (also Hualapai,VVolapai, from a term said to sig- nify “pine people ”). This tribe originally occupied the mid- dle Colorado river, above the Mohave territory, from the great bend eastward into I/Valapai, Yavapai, and Sacramento valleys. The southern boundary of their range was the Cerbat and Aquarius Mountains. They are physically in- ferior to the Mohave. Population, 700. Missions were established among the Lower California tribes by the Jesuits in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies, when the native population of the peninsula was estimated at about 12,000. In 1769 the first mission of Northern California was founded at San Diego, and in 1780 two missions were established among the Cuchan near the present Fort Yuma, but the latter were destroyed and the missionaries killed by the Indians the following year. During the mission period the Yuman stock doubtless numbered at least 20,000 souls. The present population within the limits of the U. S. is 6,400, and a few are still to be found in the California peninsula. See INDIANS OF N ORTH AMERIeA. AUTHORITIES. J . Baegert, lVachrichten von der amcrileam ischen Halbinscl Californian (Mannheim, 1772); ibid., Rau’s trans., Smithsonian Inst. Reports for 1863-64; Pacific Rail- road Reports, iii. (Washington, 1856); Ga-tschet. Der Yama- Sprachstamm, in Zeitschrift filr Etlmologic (Berlin, 187 7- 92); Orozco y Berra, Gcografia dc las Zenguas y carta cinc- _(/rci/ica dc Jlféazico (Mexico, 1864); H. H. Bancroft, Arizona and N020 Jtleccico (San Francisco, 1889); M. Venegas, Ifist. Calm, vols. i.-ii. (London, 1759); F. S. Clavigero, Hist. ]|[e:v., Cullen’s trans., vols. i.-ii. (London, 1807). J . W. POWELL. YUN CAN ANTIQUITIES Yuncan Antiquities : The Yuncas or Chimus inhabited the coast of Peru, and were a different stock from the Ke- chuas of the interior. (See INDIANS or Sourn AMERICA.) They were conquered by the Kechuas about a century before the arrival of Pizarro, but they did not owe their culture to that people, having independently reached a comparatively close approximation to a civilized condition. (See INCAN AN- TIQUITIES.) One of the most celebrated localities is Pa- chacamac, 20 miles S. of Lima, on the river Lurin. It was the capital and sacred city of the natives before their con- quest by the Incas. The ruins consist of walls and terraces covering 8 or 10 acres. The material is usually large adobe or sun-burned bricks, and many of the structures are still in a fair state of preservation. A remarkable feature is the presence of the true rounded arch, probably the only correct example of this architectural element to be found in America. It is not confined to Pachacamac, but occurs in other Yuncan ruins along the coast. In this, in the use of undressed stones laid in a mortar of tenacious clay, in the extensive use of adobes, and in the style of mural ornamentation, the Yuncan method of building shows differences from the Incan which are readily recognized. They were, however, able to handle stone to advantage, as is testified by the re- mains of the Castle of Cafiete in the valley of Guarco and elsewhere. In the vicinity of Lima there are many ruins attributable to this people. One of the most extensive are those of Caxa- marquilla, about 15 miles from Lima, in a side valley of the river Rimac. They cover an area of about 3 miles square, and are a complicated mass of adobe walls, streets, narrow passages, subterranean chambers, and mounds. Much more extensive are the remains of the city called El Gran Chimu, on the plain of that name, not far from Truxillo. They cover the ground with a wilderness of walls, inolosures, mounds, and passageways, over an area 12 to 15 miles long and 5 to 6 wide. Several miles of the massive wall of defense which once protected the inhabitants are still standing. The trun- cated pyramids which supported the foundation of these structures were of imposing size, measuring, one 162 feet square, another 210 by 240 feet, a third 172 by 152 feet, and in height from 40 to 50 feet. Most of them are built of rub- ble, that is, of tenacious clay mixed with broken stones, so as to form an indurated mass, which in that dry climate be- comes almost as hard as mortar. Not far from Chimu is the great pyramid of Moche, sometimes called the Temple of the Sun. Its base covers an area of more than 7 acres, and its height is upward of 200 feet. It is constructed throughout of large adobes built around a central core, and cased ex- ternally with others laid flat upon the sides. Near by is an- other pyramid of smaller size and similar construction. The purposes of these laborious structures is not known, but it is conjectured that they were the supports of religious edi- fices which have now wholly disappeared. From the pottery, ornaments of metal, and domestic uten- sils which have been exhumed in this vicinity the inference is fair that the Yuncas were as highly developed in their culture as any other of the Peruvian peoples. See E. G. Squier, Travels in Peru, (1877) ; dc N adaillac, Ancient America (1882) ; Rivero and Tschudi, Peruvicm Antiqztiiies (Vienna, 1851). D. G. Bamrou. Yun-I10 (literally, transport river), or Yun-liang-ho (grain-transport river): the names by which the Grand Canal of Cl1ina is known to the Chinese; so called because originally intended, and for centuries used, for conveying Ehe tribute rice and other grains to Peking. See GRAND ANAL. Yunnan, yfm'naan' (literally, south of the clouds. in allu- sion to the great banks of clouds which hang over the high- lands of Sze-chuen on the north) : a southwestern province of China, bounded on the N. by the province of Sze-chuen, E. by Kwei-chow and Kwangsi, S. by Burma and the Laos, and W. by Burma; area, 107,969 sq. miles; population, 11,- 721,576. Capital, Yunnan-foo, situated on the north shore of Lake Chin, one of the two great lakes of the province (see map of China, ref. 7—F). It is described by Baron von Richt- hofen as consisting for the most part of an extensive plateau containing extensive valley-plains at altitudes of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, overtopped by ridges which separate them and rise to a nearly uniform level. In these valley-plains most of the great cities are situated. He also mentions some very elevated mountain ranges, situated in the northwest, whose snow-covered summits tower high up above the plateau. Yunnan is rich in minerals. Coal occurs on the borders of YZABAL 885 the plateau; gold is washed on many of the rivers; silver is also found, and has been worked to some extent; spelter is plentiful, and is extensively worked. Tin is extensively mined in the southeastern portion of the province, and iron is widely distributed. The most important, however, is copper, which is found in great abundance. Yunnan is the chief source of supply for the empire. Lead is also of fre- quent occurrence. Among the other products of the province are medicines and opium, and the famous Puh-wih tea. which is said by natives to be more refreshing than any other kind. R. L. Yupanqui, yoo-pa”an'ke”e, called Yupanqui Pachacu'ti, or Paehacutec Yupanqui : the ninth and one of the great- est of the Inca sovereigns of Peru ; second son of the Inca Viracocha ; b. about 1380. It is related that Urco, his elder brother and heir to the throne, was incompetent and was either forced to resign or was killed at a critical moment,- when Cuzco was threatened by the powerful Chanca tribe. Yupanqui assumed the government (about 1400), defeated the Chancas in a great battle, and annexed their territory. Subsequently he continued his conquests during a long reign, and at his death (about 1440) the Inca empire embraced nearly all of the territory now included in Peru. Yupanqui is a favorite hero of Quechua tradition, and many institu- tions are traced to him. H. H. S. Yusuf-hen-Ayuh-Salah-ed-Din : See SALAHDIN. Yusuf-ben-'I‘axfyn' : second prince of the Almoravide dynasty ; b. at Velad Sahara in 1006 : gained great military renown. Crossing to Spain as the ally of the Moorish king against Alphonso VI. of Castile, he powerfully contributed to the victory of Zalaca near Badajoz (1086). Dissensions arising among the Mussulmans, he gradually became master of the kingdoms of Malaga, Granada, Murcia, Cordova, Seville, Almeria, Badajoz, and Valencia. Though so power- ful, he was content with the title of emir. His son Ali was acknowledged in 1103 as successor to both his Moorish and Spanish possessions. D. in 1106. E. A. G. Yverdun, eVe'v'ar'd51'1’ (ancient EZmr0du'mm) : town ; can- ton of Vaud, Switzerland; at the mouth of the Thiele, in Lake Neuchatel ; 20 miles by rail N. of Lausanne (see map of Switzerland, ref. 5-13). It was the seat of the celebrated institute of Pestalozzi (1805-25) ; has a library with Roman antiquities. a school for deaf mutes, and a gymnasium. Pop. (1888) 6,330. Yves d’Evreux, e”ev'dev-1'6’, PIERRE : missionary and au- thor; b. at Evreux, in Normandy, about 157 7. He entered the Capuchin order in 1595, and was superior of the four missionaries sent with a French colony to Maranhao, Brazil, in 1612. He returned about 1614, and shortly after wrote an account of the mission intended as a continuation of the work of CLAUDE D’ABBEVILLE (q. 0.). The printer who had charge of this was bribed, for political reasons, to destroy it; but some of the sheets, including all except the preface and a few chapters. were saved. From these a new edition was prepared in 1615, with the title Srz'z‘fe dc Z‘7z-isto/£'2'e des chases plus memo/rables adrenues en ilfaragnan es amzees 1613 cf 1614. From the single known copy, in the Bibliothéque Na- tionale of Paris, a modern edition, with notes. was published by Ferdinand Denis in 1864. Yves d‘ vreux was alive in 1620, but the date of his death is unknown. H. H. S. Yvetot, e"ev't6’: town; department of Seine-Inférieure, France ; 24 miles N. W. of Rouen by rail (see map of France, ref. 2-E). It manufactures cotton and linen fabrics, silk. and velvet, and trades in corn and wine. The lords of Yvetot were clothed with the title of king in the fifteenth and six- teenth centuries, and this has given rise to many humor- ous references in French literature, notably a song of Beranger. Pop. (1891) 7 ,007. Yvon. e"e'v6n’, ADOLPHE : historical and portrait painter: b. at Eschwiller, Moselle, France, Feb. 1, 1817; pupil of Paul Delaroche; received a first-class medal at the Salon of 1848, second-class medals at the Paris Expositions of 1855 and 1867, and a medal of honor at the Salon of 1857 ; be- came an oiiicer of the Legion of Honor 1867; Professor of Drawing in the cole des Beaux-Arts, Paris. In 1855 he was sent by the Government to the Crimea to paint pictures of the war. Six large battle pictures by him are in the Versailles Museum. WILLIAM A. Corrnx. Y’ylang-Y’ylang: another spelling of IHLANG-IHLANG (Q. v.). Yzabal, or Ysabal : See Iz.~i13l\.L. Z : the twenty-sixth letter of the English alphabet. “ Form.—It has the form of the final letter of the Roman alphabet, which was simply the Greek letter zéta, introduced at the same time as Y, late in the first century B. 0., to aid in transliterating the ' ~' '" ‘ numerous Greek loan-words and proper names which were establishing themselves in Latin usage. The older Latin alphabet of twenty-one letters had no sym- bol for the voiced sibilant z. .Name.-—-The English name, zee (phonet. zi), is a late in- vention adapted to the sound and following the analogy of bee, cee, clee, gee, pee, tee. An older name is zed or i'zeol, often written izzarcl; cf. the proverb “ from a to izzard.” This represents 0. Fr. zecle, Lat. zeta, or an et zr2de—i. e. “ and z ”-—which was pronounced ézede, and regularly be- came izecl in English. Soands.—(1) The voiced dental sibilant z in zone, zephyr, mazy. The same sound is frequently expressed by s, as in lose, nose, reason. (2) The voiced dental wide sibilant zh (Z) in azure, seizure, a sound correlative to the voiceless sh (5) of sugar, sure, cc-nsare. The sound zh is frequently ex- pressed also by s, as in pleasure, leisare. - Sonrces.—The chief sources of the sound z, whether de- noted by s or z, are the following: (1) 0. Eng. s, which became voiced to z when unaccented and in contact with voiced sounds. As Teutonic z had become r in 0. Eng., z is not found there. English words beginning with z are therefore all foreign. Cf. freeze < 0. Eng. fréosan: Germ. frieren, frost, Lat. praina; sneeze < 0. Eng. snéosan, akin to Germ. niesen; choose < 0. Eng. céosan:Germ. hiesen, Lat. gastare; weasel < 0. Eng. wesle : Germ. /wiesel; wise < 0. Eng. wis : Germ. weise. Illustrations of the contrast s :z are found in grass : graze, brass: brazen, ase (noun) zase (verb) < M. Eng. asen, hoase (noun):hoase (verb), abuse (noun) : abuse (verb) ; also in cats, tacks, maps, versus lacls, pigs, cabs. As is seen in use, abasc, as well as in reason, mis- ery, ete., the change s > z affects the French as well as the native element. (2) In loan-words from various sources: zeal, from Fr. zele, from Gr. §'?)/\0s, zooliae (Er.-Lat.-Gr.), zenith (Span.-Arab.) BENJ. IDE WHEELER. Zaandam, zzfan-daam’, or Saardam: town; province of North Holla11d, Netherlands; on the Zaan; 5 miles N. W. of Amsterdam by rail (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 4—E). It has numerous flour, oil, and saw mills, exten- sive paper manufactures, and a little ship-building. The house in which Peter the Great lived while he worked here as an artisan is still preserved. Pop. (1890) 15,604. Zabism : See SABISM. Zacateeas, tha”a-l1'17S, deriv. of §f;7tos, zeal; cf. {dz/, boil]: a fanatical Jewish sect which struggled desperately against the Romans from about 6 A. D., when Judas the Gaulonite headed a revolt, till the fall of Jerusalem, in the year 70. Beginning as intense Jews, they became robbers and murderers of their political opponents, and after Felix had cruelly endeavored to suppress them by crucifying all he could catch of them they armed themselves with short dag- gers (siooe) and continued their murderous work on a larger scale. Hence they are known as the Sicarii. They kept alive the hatred of the Romans, which flamed out in the Jewish war, and they contributed much to the horrors of the siege of Jerusalem. Their literary memorial is the As- sumptlo Jllosis. See Josephus, lVar, iv., and Schiirer, Jew- ish People, passim. Zeballos, that-baal’y5s, PEDRO, de (often written Ceballos ; in full, Zeballos Corzfés g Calderon): general and adminis- trator; b. at Cadiz, Spain, June 29, 1715. He entered the army as captain of cavalry in 1738, distinguished himself in Italy and elsewhere, and became lieutenant-general in 1755. In 1766 he was sent to the Rio de la Plata as gov- ernor of Buenos Ayrcs, taking out a considerable re-enforce- ment of troops. I/Var having broken out with Portugal and England in 1762, Zeballos laid siege to the Portuguese post of Colonia de Sacramento, near the mouth of the Uruguay, forcing its surrender Nov. 2, 17 62 ; twenty-six English ships were captured in the harbor. Zeballos was relieved in Aug., 1766, and returned to Spain. In 1776 he was \appointed viceroy of the newly created viceroyalty of La Plata. On his way out he took Santa Catharina from the Portuguese (Feb., 1777), and retook and destroyed Colonia de Sacra- mento, which had reverted to Portugal. He governed wisely until relieved in 1778. D. at Cordova, Spain, Dec. 26, 1778. I-IRRBERT H. SMITH. Zebi(1(Subea Regia of Ptolemy) : town in Yemen, Arabia ; on the Zebid; 60 miles N. of Mocha. It is the seat of a Sunnite college, and manufactures colored cotton fabrics. In consequence of inundations and of the obstruction of its harbor by silt, its prosperity and trade have greatly di1nin- ished. Pop. about 5,000. E. A. G. Zeb0'im [from Heb. Ts¢b5’tm; cf. l8”l)6l”l7)t, gazelles, and tseb5‘im,l1yaa1ias]: (1) one of the five “cities of the plain ” (Gen. x. 19, xiv. 2; Hosea xi. 8)—-Sodom, Gomorrah, Zoar, Admah, and Zeboim—all of which, except Zoar (See ZOAR), were destroyed (Gen. xix. 28, 29; Deut. xxix. 23). (2) A place of unknown locality. The name is differently spelled from (1). It is mentioned only in Neh. xi. 34. (3) A valley in Benjamin near Gibeah (1 Sam. xiii. 18), perhaps identical with the “valley of the hyaenas ” near Jericho. S. M. J . Zebra [ = Portug. zebra, from African name] 2 any one of the striped wild asses of Africa, but more particularly the mountain or true zebra (Equus zebra), a species found in the mountainous regions of South Africa, and in danger of extermination. It is about 4 feet high at the shoulders, of a creamy white color, cross-striped with black on the head, trunk, and legs, except on the belly and inside of thighs; the tail is tufted and blackish at the end. A closely related species (E. Q7'(”UfZ/’l:) occurs in Northeast Africa. Burchell’s zebra (E. Zmrchellwi) is a commoner animal, occupying the central regions of Africa, readily distinguished from the true zebra by its larger size and the absence or faintness of the cross stripes on the lower part of the legs. It is known as DAUW (g. o.) by the Dutch colonists. The quagga (E. quuggu) has no bands on the hinder portion of the body nor on the legs. The name quagga is also employed for Burchell’s zebra. Although so conspicuously marked, the zebra is said to readily escape detection when lying down, as the stripes of the legs then blend with those of the body. the general effect being that of flecks of shadow on a light ground. Zebras are very wild and untamable, although occasionally broken to harness. F. A. LUCAS. Zebra Wolf: See TASMANIAN WOLF. ZECHARIAH Zebra-wood : a beautiful striped wood : used for veneer- ing; is produced in Guiana by Couuarus guviauemsis (or ()mp/talobe'um larnbe7*lqh'), a large tree of the family Cou- nameece, and in the West Indies by Eugenia firagraus of the family illgrlaoeee. L. H. B. Zebu: book-name for the common domesticated ox of India, found also in China and East Africa, the name not being used in India. It differs from the common ox of Eu- rope and America in having one, or more rarely two, humps of fat on the shoulders, and in having 18 caudal vertebrae, while our cattle have 21. The Brahman cow goes with young 300 days, the common cow 270. Hence the zebu is assigned to another species, B08 Qiuclvjeus. Nevertheless it breeds freely with the common cattle. The zebu‘ is of sev- eral breeds, varying much in size. The beef is of fair qual- ity, and the hump is prized. Zebus are trained to draw carriages, to plow, and to serve as beasts of burden. To this stock belong the Brahminy or sacred bulls of Shiva. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Zebfi. or Cebfi, Span. pron. thd-boo’: one of the Visaya group of the Philippine islands; in the Malay Archipelago, E. of Negros; in lat. 9° 20’ N., lon. 113° E., and forms, to- gether with the islands of Matan and Bohol, a province with about 430,000 inhabitants. The capital, Zelni, is a large and well-built town, with 34,000 inhabitants, a fine cathedral, a handsome episcopal palace, and a good trade in the products of the islands. It is an open port. Zeb'ulon [from Heb. Zebuluu, Zebuluu, Z buluu, liter., habitation, deriv. of zeb/a"Z, habitation]: the tenth of the twelve sons of J aeob, the sixth and last by Leah. His per- sonal history is a blank. In the exodus from Egypt the tribe of Zebulon marched in the van, next after Judah and lssachar, just ahead of the six wagons which carried the hangings, planks, and pillars of the tabernacle. The terri- tory of the tribe in Palestine was bounded on the E. by the southern half of the Lake of Galilee, beginning just above the site of Tiberias, and included Nazareth and Rimmon, but especially the very fertile plain of Buttauf (10 miles from E. to \V. and 5 from N. to S.), on whose northern edge, according to Robinson, stood Cana of Galilee (Josh. xix. 10-16). It disobeyed the divine command, and did not drive the Philistines from its territory, but brought them under tribute (Jud. i. 30). It answered the rallying-cry of Gideon (Judges vi. 35), and joined in the crowning of Kind David (1 Chron. xii. 33, 40). It ceased to exist as a tribe when Tiglath-Pileser carried the principal people of it into cap- tivity (2 Kings xv. 29). But in its territory Jesus preached the most of the time (Matt. iv. 12-16), fulfilling Isa. ix. 1, 2. Revised by S. M. J ACKSON. Zechari’ah [from Heb. Zelrhon'g/clh, liter., whom Jehovah remembers]: the eleventh in order of the twelve minor prophets in the Old Testament. In its text the book is formally divided into five discourses. The first (i. 1-6) is dated the eighth month of 13.0. 520 (ver. 1). The second (i. 7-vi. 15) is an account of a series of eight visions seen the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month of the same year (i. 7)—that is, the latter part of Feb., B. c. 519. The third discourse (vii.-viii.) is dated two years later, the fourth day of the ninth month, and is perhaps a summary of several prophecies. There is, of course, no doubt that these three discourses belong to the time when Zerubbabel and J eshua were building the second temple. The fourth discourse (ix.-xi.) is not formally dated, but is entitled The Burden of the Word of Jehovah in the Land of Hadrach. The fifth is without date, entitled The Burden of the I/Vord of Jeho- vah upon Israel (xii.—xiv.). The fourth and fifth discourses differ linguistically from the first three. They present a situation in which Northern Israel is yet in existence, sepa- rate from Judah, as a political power, and in which Assyria is the great national enemy (ix. 10, 13, x. 6, 7, 10-11, xi. 14, etc.). The details of the fourth discourse fit a time in the later years of Uzziah (2 Kings xv. 17, seg.), and those of the fifth discourse fit the time after the death of Uzziah and just before the accession of Ahaz (2 Kings xv. 37 ; Zech. xiv. 5, etc. . On )this showing the opinions of scholars are divided. Many insist upon the unity of the book, whether they can reasonably account for the differences or not. Others re- gard the last two discourses as some generations later than the first three, and consider the allusions to Ephraim and Assyria as allegorical. Far more simple and probable, however, is the theory that the fourth and fifth discourses are genuine earlier prophecies (perhaps by the Zechariah of ZEDEKIAH 2 Chron. XXVl. 5 or of 2 Chron. XXlX. 13 [cf. Isa. viii. 2], or by the two), which have been appended to the book of the prophecies of the post-exilian Zechariah. The witness named in Isa. viii. 2 was the son of J eberechiah, and the prophet named in Zech. i. 1 was the son of Berechiah, a mere variant of the other. As to the personal history of the post-exilian prophet Zechariah, we only know that he was active, along with his colleague Haggai, in encouraging the leaders of the Jews in the work of temple-building (Ezra v. 1, vi. 14). Perhaps we should infer from Matt. xxiii. 35, Luke xi. 51 that he met later a tragic death at the hands of the people to whom he prophesied, though many think this reference to be to the earlier prophet of the days of J cash of Judah (2 Chron. xmv. 20-22). That he was a priest is to be inferred from Neh. xii. 16. It is probable that there existed, early in the Christian era, copies of the major and minor prophets, bound up to- gether, some of them having Jeremiah for the first book in the volume and some having Isaiah for the first; and that it was a frequent thing to call the whole volume by the name of the book that was placed first. This affords the best explanation of the fact that Zech. Xi. 12-13 is quoted as from Jeremiah in Matt. Xxvii. 9-10. This is altogether arallel with the citing of a passage from Malachi as from saiah (Hark i. 2, Rev. Ver.). Of commentaries on Zechariah, one of the fullest is that by Charles H. H. W1'ight, Zechariah and his Propheez'es (1879). See also that by the Von. T. T. Perowne, D. D., in the Cambridge Bible for Schools. 'W. J . BEECHER. Zedekiah: See J EWS (Kingdom of Judah). Zedoary [ : Fr. zédoalre : Ital. zedoairla, from Arab. zed/wdr] : the warm aromatic root (rhizome) of certain East Indian plants of the family Zlaglberaeere. The long zed- oary is from Cwrcwrna zerambet. Round zedoary is from Uwrcama zedoaria and K'(enz;fere'a rotunda. Zedoary, like cassimuniar, galangale, and zerumbet, considerably resem- bles ginger, but the latter is so much superior to them all as to have crowded them entirely out of general commerce. Revised by L. H. BAILEY. Zee'land, or Zealand: province of the Netherlands; bounded S. by Belgium and W. by the North Sea; consists of the islands of \Valcheren, Beveland, Tholen, Duiveland, and Schouwen; between the mouths of the Maas and the Scheldt. Area, 690 sq. miles. The ground is very low, and must be protected against inundation by dikes, but the soil is very fertile. Large crops of wheat, oats, potatoes, beans, madder. and tobacco are raised, and cattle, sheep, and pigs are extensively reared. The fisheries are valuable and the manufacturing industry is considerable. Pop. (1893) 204,- 561. Middelburg is the capital. The other important towns are Flushing, Zierikzee, and Goes. Revised by M. W. Ilannrxeron. Zeilah, z:'i’la‘a: an African port on the southwest side of the Gulf of Aden (Somali coast); ceded to Egypt by Tur- key in 1875 (see map of Africa. ref. 4-—H). Since 1890 the whole north coast of Somali Land has been under British protection, and the two ports of Zeilah and Berbera are now ield by the British, and are of much importance as gate- ways for the growing commerce of Northern Somali Land, a considerable part of which is fertile and populous. Though Zeilah is inferior to Berbera in position and advantages, it has greatly improved since the advent of the British made trade safe in the surrounding region. Pop. about 16,000. Revised by C. C. Anans. Zeisberger, tsis'barg-er, D.-WID: Moravian missionarv; b. at Zauchtenthal, Moravia, Apr. 11, 1721; in 17-10 enii- grated to Georgia. After studying Indian languages at Bethlehem, Pa., he began in 1743 his missionary work among the Indians, which he continued with unabated en- ergy for more than sixty years. In 1771 he established a mission on the lliuskingum river in Ohio, but ten vears later the settlements of Christian Indians were broken up by VVyandot warriors. When, in 1796, Congress granted to the Moravian Indians the tract of land in Ohio which theyr had formerly occupied, Zeisberger was able to return to the place with a considerable number of converts and built the town of Goshen, where he died Nov. 17, 1808. He published a spelling-book (Philadelphia, 1776); a collection of hymns (1803); Sermons to Ohe'Zd're'n. (1803); and a Ifav-mow-y of the Four Gospels (1821), in Delaware. A DL'elfionar_1/ in German and Delaware was published in 1887 (Cambridge) and Essay ZENANA 891 toward an Onondaga Grammarin 1888 (Philadelphia). See de Schweinitz, Life and Tz'mes of David Zelsberger (Phila- delphia, 1870), and Diary of David Zeisberger 1781-.‘/8 (Cincinnati, 1888). Zeitz,tsits: town; in the Prussian province of Saxony, in the circuit of Merseburg; on the White Elster, right affluent of the Saale; station of three state railways, 22 miles S. W. of Leipzig (see map of German Empire, ref. 4—F). The river is here crossed by four bridges, two of iron, one of stone, one of wood. The upper and the lower town are connected by a cable line. Zeitz has numerous manu- factures of cottons and woolens, carriages, machinery, pianos, vinegar, sugar, spirits, cigars, and extensive wood- carving: dyeing and calico-printing are carried on. Con- siderable lignite deposits in the vicinity are utilized by mineral-oil factories. The city has four old churches, a gymnasium in the ancient Franciscan cloister with a library of 20,000 volumes, and other educational and chari- table institutions. The bishopric Zeitz was founded by Otto I. in 968 for the conversion of the pagan VVENDS (Q. ea). Pop. (1890) 21,680. IIERMANN SCHOENFELD. Zelzi : See RABAT. Zelaya, thcl-li’_va'a, J osf: Sanrosz general and politician; b. at l\Ianagua, Nicaragua, about 1845. He was educated in England, joined the Nicaraguan army, was commissioned general in 1885, and was a man of wealth and a leader of the liberal party. In Apr-June, 1893, he joined Zavala in the revolt by which President Sacaza was overthrown; but Zavala having been made provisional president, Zelaya re- volted and forced him to resign at the end of July. A con- vention was then called which promulgated a new constitu- tion, and under this Gen. Zelaya was elected president, with practically dictatorial powers, Sept. 17, 1893. In 1894 he occupied the Mosquito territory, and in May, 1895, the port of Corinto was held for a few days by a British force, in se- curity for payment of indemnity claimed on account of the murder of a British subject ; Nicaragua agreed to make the payment, and the force was withdrawn. H. H. S. Zelle : See CELLE. Zeller, tsel'ler, EDUARD : philosopher and theologian ; b. at Kleinbottwar, a village of \Viirtemberg, Jan. 1814: studied theology and philosophy at Tiibifngen under Baur and Strauss (whose life he subsequently wrote), at Berlin under Marheinecke, Neander, and Gans; privat docent at Tiibingen in 1840, where he founded the Theologisclze Jaim- l2z"zc7ze'r, which was continued till 1857, and formed the prin- cipal organ of the so-called Tiibingen school of theology; called to Berne in 1847. to Marburg in 1849, to Heidelberg in 1862, and finally to Berlin in 187 2. He resigned in 1894, retiring to Stuttgart. His Plzilosoplu'e der Griechen (5 vols.; translated into English, French, and Italian) is a masterpiece of classical scholarship. A compendium of this large work, for the use of younger students, was published in a third edition in 1889. ALFRED GUDEMAN. Zeller, Fr. pron. ze1’lar’.JULEs SYLVAIN2 historian; b. in Paris, Apr. 23, 1820; studied in his native city, and sub- sequently in Germany; taught history in the lyeeums of Bordeaux. Rennes, Strassburg, and Aix, and was appointed Professor of,I-Iistory at the Normal School of Paris in 1858, and of the Ecole Polytechnique in 1869. He wrote Ulrich de .Huz‘z‘en (1849); Hls1.‘oe're de l‘]fal£e (1852; 3d ed.1875); Episodes dramaz"z‘qu.es de l‘Hz'sz‘oire d'Italz'e (1855): L’An- wée hz'sz‘orz'que (4 vols., 1860-63); Les Enzpereurs romaz'ns (1863) ; I-Izlstoire dL:lllemagne (187 2, et seq.) : and other works. Revised by A. G. C.-\i\'FIELD. Zena’na [= Hind. zendna, zanavm : Pers. zandna, deriv. of zaa, woman : Gr. 'yw/1'). woman : Eng. queen] : that por- tion of the house of a high caste family of India which is devoted entirely to the use of the women and girls. Like the portion which belongs to the gentlemen, the zen-ana, or inner portion. is in the shape of a hollow square. with an open court in the center—the men’s building toward the street, the women’s back of it. The house is usually from two to three stories high, with verandas on each story run- ning round the inner part opening on to the open court in the center. In the zenana there will sometimes be fro1n fifty to a hundred ladies, or even more, all belonging to one family, yet all of them wives of diiferent individuals. They have no common parlor or sitting-room elegantly furnished, like the ladies of the Turkish harem, but each one has her own little room. where she lives all her life and brings up her children, though she is permitted to go into any room 892 ZEND-AVESTA to visit the other women in the zenana. and the work-rooms and open court in the center of the building are free to them all. But she must never go out into the outer portion of the building, that which belongs to the gentlemen, as it is considered the greatest disgrace to be seen by any other man besides her own husband. Therefore, too, no man can enter the zenana, except that late at night he may go to his wife's room, after every woman has retired to her own apartment. The lower rooms of the building are used as cooking- rooms and cow-sheds. When the birth of a child is ex- pected, the poor mother is not allowed even the poor com- forts of her own room, but is brought down and made to share the cow-shed with the cow, simply a strip of matting being placed between them, and here she has to remain for twenty-eight days. All this time she is considered polluted, and no one must speak to her but the low-caste coolie- woman who has acted as midwife. She must never have a doctor, no matter how great may be her sufferings. The little girls are married when they are six or seven years old, and most generally are mothers before they are quite eleven years of age. The son always lives in his father’s house, and his little bride is taken there, so that often there are five or six generations living in one house. If the quarters become too straitened, another hollow square is built on, or another story is added to the buildings; some of the larger buildings have three or four of these inner courts, all be- longing to the one zenana. Revised by R. LILLEY. Zend-Avesta : See AVESTA. Zenick: See SURICATE. Zenith [from O. Fr. cem'th, from Span. zenit, O. Span. zem'th, from Arab. semi in semt urras, zenith, liter., way of the head]: the point in the celestial sphere directly over the head of the observer ; the opposite of the nadir. Zenith Telescope: an astronomical instrument for measuring small differences between the zenith distances of two stars passing the meridian on opposite sides of the zenith; the one north, the other south. It was de- signed by Capt. Andrew Taleott, U. S. Engineers, about the year 1834, and the method of determin- ing the latitude, in which it is principally used, is hence known as Talcott’s method. The principle of the method, however. is two centuries old, having been conceived and pub- lished by the Danish as- tronomer,Horreboe. The results obtained with this portable instrument rival in accuracy those of the instruments of a fix'ed ob- servatory. The figure represents a zenith tele- scope of the Coast Sur- vey, having an aperture of about 3% inches, a focal length of about 45 inches, and a magnifying power varying between 120 and 160. The tube rotates around a horizontal axis. Q, and is counter poised by a weight at O. A strid- ing-level at S indicates the deviation of this axis from horizontality. The essen- tial parts of the instru- ment consist of the sensi- tive level, L, and the mi- crometer, E. The level is connected with the telescope, so that the inclination of its line of collimation may be known. The graduated semi- circle K is attached to the tube, and by means of the ver- nier H, which is attached by an arm to the movable level L, zenith distances can be read to within 30". The microm- eter-screw is used for measuring apparent differences of zenith distance when the telescope is pointed alternately from the first star to the second star of a pair which culmi- nate at opposite zenith distances, differing from each other Zenith telescope. ZEN 0 OF ELEA by less than the diameter of the field of view of the tele- scope. The value of one revolution of the screw is about 45", and the value of one division of the level L is about three-fourths of a second. In recent times the instrument has acquired new impor- tance from its use in measuring the minute changes of lati- tude to which all places on the earth’s surface are now known to be subject. Revised by SIMON Nnweomn. Zenkoji, zen’k5’je”e’, or Nagano : town of Central Japan ;. on the through railway from Tokio to the west coast ; the capi- tal of the province of Shinshu. It is finely situated close to- the swift Nagano river, and at the foot of lofty mountains. Its Buddhist temple is one of the most famous in Japan, and resorted to by thousands of pilgrims; it is dedicated to Amida and his two followers, Kwannon and Daiseishi; the sacred group of their images is a treasured relic. The greatest feast is held on July 31. In 1847 a desolating earthquake visited the city and neighborhood, ruining 15,- 000 acres of arable land, blocking up the river, and causing the death of 30,000 persons. Zenkoji has considerable trade in woven goods and agricultural implements. Pop. (1894) 28,751. J . M. DIXON. Ze’ no : emperor of the Eastern empire (474-491); was an Isaurian by birth ; married in 469 Ariadne, a daughter of the Emperor Lee I. On the death of Lee I. the succession was fixed on Lee II., a son of Zeno and Ariadne, but as Leo II. died in the same year as Lee I., in 474. Zeno came into pos- session of the crown. His reign was disturbed by contests with his rivals and by several revolts. The Goths were espe- cially troublesome, but the emperor finally got rid of them by commissioning their chief, Theodoric, to conquer Italy and expel the usurper Odoacer. An important event of his reign was his issuance of the Hevzoticon or decree of union (482) designed to put an end to the M onophysite con- troversy. It reaffirmed the doctrines of the Nicene Creed, and renewed the condemnation of Nestorius and Eutyches, but was ambiguously worded on the main point at issue, i. e. the duality of natures in Christ. D. in 491. Zeno, Arosrronoz dramatist and historian; b. at Venice, Dec.11, 1668; devoted himself to literature, and acquired great fame by his dramatic compositions ; founded in 1710 the celebrated periodical, Giornale def Lefleraltvi d’Ital£a; went in 1718 to Vienna as court-poet and historiographer; returned in 1729 to Venice, and died there Nov. 11, 1750. His dramatic works were published in 10 vols. at Venice in 1744. Among his other works are De'ssertaze'om' e'sz‘orico- 0/m'te'c7te (2 vols., 1752-53), and lfl'pe'stole (6 vols., 1785). Revised by A. G. CANFIELD. Zeno'bia : Queen of Palmyra. The daughter of a Syrian chieftain, she married Odenathus, who from a private sta- tion became Prince of Palmyra, and virtual master of the East, and who, because of his brilliant campaigns against the Persians, was declared Augustus and coregent of the empire by Gallienus. In 267 Odenathus was murdered by his nephew Maeonius. Thereupon Zenobia assumed the title of Queen of the East, asserted her independence of Rome, defeated the Roman general Heraclianus, and extended her authority over Syria, parts of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Aurelian marched against her in 272. He won the two itched battles of Antioch and Emesa, where she commanded in person, and then besieged Palmyra. which she defended with desperation. Finally, Zenobia fled from her capital to seek the assistance of the Persians, but was captured on the Euphrates. Her subsequent history is involved in obscurity. The commonly received account represents her as a captive, laden with jewels and silver chains, and walking before Aurclian’s chariot on his tri- umphal entry into Rome in 273; then as living as a Roman matron in a villa near Tibur. and marrying her daughters to Roman patricians. Another account says that she starved herself to death after her capture. Her son received a principality near the Armenian frontier. Zenobia was a woman of extraordinary beauty and accomplishments. She spoke Greek, Latin. Syriac, and Coptic. She was brave and wise in battle, judicious in the council chamber, and eco- nomical and shrewd in administration. She is perhaps the only woman in the East “ whose superior genius broke through the servile indolcnce imposed on her sex by the climate and manners of Asia.” EDWIN A. Gaosvmvoa. Zeno Of Elea; philosopher; b. about the beginning of the fifth century 13. c. at Elea; a friend and disciple of Par- menides, whose doctrines he supported by indirect demon- ZENO RIDOLFO stration ()'ccZuct'i'0 ad absurdum); is reported to have been adopted as a son by Parmenides, who was twenty-five years his senior. Aristotle names him as the father of dialcctics, from the circumstance that his arguments in favor of the Eleatic doctrine of Being were based upon the self-refuta- tion of its opposite. This negative dialectic established the truth of Being as One, by showing the contradiction inher- ent in the hypotheses (ca) of motion, (b) _of multiplicity, (c) of sense-perception: “The flying arrow is at rest, because at every moment it is only in one place ” ; “ Achilles can not overtake the tortoise, because as often as he reaches the place occupied by the tortoise the previous moment, the lat- ter has left it”; “Motion can not begin, because a body -can not arrive at a given place before it has passed through an infinite number of intermediate spaces.”_ Aristotle in his Physics (vi.) pointed out the fallacy in his arguments against the reality of motion. In Plato's Parmcmdes a writing of Zeno’s is referred to as containing a prohx argu- ment to prove that Being is One, but this writing has been lost. Strabo reports him to have participated in the etl_nco- political efforts of Parmenides, and we are told by Dioge- nes Laertius that, being unsuccessful in that, he was taken by Nearchus the tyrant and put to a cruel death. Zelle_r’s P1'e-Socratic Pln'losophy, vol. i., gives what is known of him and his doctrines. WILLIAM T. HARRIS. Zeno Ridolfo : See SCHADOW, RUDOLPH. Zenos, ANDREW CONSTANTINIDES, D. D.: educator; b. at Constantinople, Turkey, Aug. 18, 1855; was educated at Robert College, Constantinople, Princeton College and Sem- inary; pastor of the Presbyterian church at Brandt, Pa., 1881-83; Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in Lake Forest University 1883-88; of New Testament Literature and Exegesis in Hartford Theological Seminary 1888-91; of Biblical and Ecclesiastical History in HcCor- mick Seminary 1891-94, and since 1894 Professor of Biblical Theology. Dr. Zenos has published an edition of Xeno- phon’s Anabasis (Boston, 1888) and a translation of Socra- tes’s EccZesiastc'caZ lTistor_z/. in vol. ii. of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (New York, 1890). C. K. HOYT. Zeno the Stoic: b. about 350 B. 0.; son of a Phoenician merchant residing in Cittium, a Greek city on the island of Cyprus ; was occupied in commerce until near his thirtieth year. when a shipwreck caused him to visit Athens, where he read the works of Xenophon and Plato, and conceived a great admiration for their master, Socrates, and according- ly became a disciple of Crates the Cynic, who imitated the external peculiarities of Socrates. Becoming sated with this phase of the Socratic school, he resorted to Stilpo the Megarian, who initiated him into the dialectics by which the nugatoriness of sense-perception is exhibited. He after- ward joined Xenocrates and Polemon of the first Academic school, and about the year 310 B. c. founded his own school in the 27021 vrouciim (porch adorned with paintings by Pol- ygnotus), whence the name “ Stoic ” arose. He taught fifty- -eight years, according to Apollonius, dying about 258 B. c., by his own hand. Diogenes Laertius (vii.) mentions a num- ber of works attributed to him, but none of them have been preserved. I-Iis doctrines were considered by the ancients to be not so much new in substance as new in terminology. He combined the ethics of the Cynic school with the physics of Pythagoras and I-leraclitus, and introduced a modified logic. See S'roIcs. WILLIAM T. HARRIS. Ze'0lite [from Gr. (six/, to boil + M603, stonej : the name -of a large group of minerals which swell up unc er the blow- pipe, whence the name. They are generally hydrated dou- ble silicates in which the principal bases are sodium or alu- minium and calcium; are decomposed by acids, sometimes with gelatinization; and are mostly crystalline or sub-crys- talline. They are often deposited in cavities in plutonic rocks, and have been found infiltrating ancient walls built by man. They are formed from watery solutions. Zephani' ah Lfrom Heb. Tsiphang/dlz, liter., whom Jeho- vah hid, i. e. delended]: the ninth in order of the minor Hebrew rophets; was great-great-grandson to Hezekiah, perhaps tie king of that name, and prophesied under J o- siah 688-608 B. c. (Zeph. i. 1). The book, like Joel and Oba- diah, is a monograph on “the day of Jehovah” (i. '7-11, 14-18. iii. 8, 11, 16, 19, 20), containing a threat of judg- ment (i.), an exhortation to repentance (ii. 1—iii. 8), and a promise of salvation (iii. 9-20). It probably belongs to the early reign of Josiah, after the partial reformation of the ilater years of Manasseh. \V. J. B. ZERUBBABEL 893 Zerafshan' : one of the gold-bearing rivers of Bokhara; the main stream of the Russian district of Zerafshan, which was formed in 1868, enlarged in 1870, and now comprises an area of 1,756 sq. miles. It rises under the name of Hasja at the foot of an immense glacier of the Alai range, and passes through the Lake of Iskander. In its upper course it is a wild mountain stream; during its middle course it irrigates extensive rice and cotton fields, orchards and mulberry plantations, for which purpose it is led into numerous canals above Samarkand to the city of Bokhara. A little to the E. of Samarkand it sends out a northern branch, which after several miles of fertilization is absorbed in the sand ; the southern branch, which is connected with the Amu by irrigating canals, has recently lost itself also among the steadily extending sand wastes ; consequently the country is being more and more depopulated, about 100,- 000 Tajiks (of Persian orgin) and Uzbegs (of Turkish ori- gin) having removed since the Russian dominion over the country. Since the capture of Tashkend by the Russians in 1865 and of Samarkand in May, 1868, and through the command of the upper Zerafshan, the whole country has been practically under Russian sway, and has belonged to Russian Turkestan since the annexation of Merv in 1884. Revised by HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Zeram : See CERAM. Zerbst, tserbst: district town; in the duchy of Anhalt, Germany; formerly capital of the principality of Anhalt- Zerbst; on the Nuthe; 11 miles N. \V. of Dessau, on the l\'Iagdeburg-Leipzig railway line (see map of German Em- pire, ref. 4-F). It has manufactures of gold and silver ware, machinery, carriages, chemicals. soap, spirits, and beer; market-gardening is extensively cultivated. The beautiful castle (built 1681-1750) was the residence of the ruling family till 1793 ; it now contains the ducal archives with documents dating back to 941. There are five churches, a gymnasium, a quaint old town-hall which contains a parchment Bible of 1541 with paintings by Lukas Cranach and others. Zerbst is an ancient town, which became part of the Brandenburg bishopric in 949. Pop. (1890) 16,181. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Zero [from Fr. zéro, from Ital. zero, zifro, from Arab. 9/z.'_f2'zzn, gafrim, empty, cipher, zero]: in physics, the point in space or time which serves as the origin or base of meas- urements. Thus upon a linear scale there is always a zero reading from which the count is made. It follows that the zero is always arbitrary and relative, although in some cases it takes on a semblance of absolute character. An example is the so-called alzsolufe scale of temperature (see articles THERMOMETER and THERMOMETRY), which is defined as follows: Suppose a cylinder to contain a perfect gas. If the volumes of the gas at the tempera- tures of melting ice and of boiling water respectively be noted and the same be indicated by lines upon the cylinder at proper distances from the closed end. and if the interven- ing space be divided into one hundred parts, each of these will be a degree of the centigrade scale. The division may, however, be carried downward, in which case it will be found that the 273d division below that corresponding to the ice- point coincides with the bottom of the cylinder. The point - 273° C. is therefore called the absoZuz‘e zero. Familiar examples of purely arbitrary zeros are that of the Fahrenheit thermometer, the various meridians from which longitude is counted, the zero of the daily counting of time, etc. The choice of such points of reference is some- times dictated by considerations of syin1net1‘y, sometimes by practical convenience; the most important considera- tion being that the zero should be capable of definition in a simple and unmistakable manner. E. L. N. Zerrahn, CARL : orchestral conductor; b. at lllalehow, l\Iecklenburg, Germany, July 28, 1826 : removed to the U. S. in 1848 as fiutist in the Germania Orchestra. a body of young musicians, the majority of whom had left their na- tive land on account of the revolution of 18-18. Zerrahn was appointed conductor of the Boston Handel and Haydn Society in 1854, a position which he still retains. Until 1882 he was conductor of the Harvard symphony concerts. He is conductor of the annual festivals at \Vorcester, Mass. and his influence has been widely felt throughout New England as a promoter of choral and orchestral societies. D. B. Zerub' babel [from Heb. Ze1'ubZ)(Zb72eZ, either from 2*rz'zb- hciblzel, scattered to Babylon, or from z@2"z7,‘a, bdbizel. born at Babylon] : the prince of the tribe of Judah and civil (Joshua 894 ZETLAN D ISLANDS being the sacerdotal) head of the first Jewish colony return- ing from the captivity in Babylon by permission of Cyrus, 536 B. c. (Ezra ii. 2, 64), under whom the second temple was built. Zetland Islands: See SI-IETLAND IsLANDs. Zet'terstedt, JOIIAN WILIIELM: naturalist; b. in the circle of Ostergotland, Sweden, May 20, 1785; studied nat- ural history, especially botany, and subsequently also ento- mology, at the University of Lund : began to lecture there in 1810; was appointed professor in 1839; ret1red1n 1853. He visited Oland in 1811 and 1817, Gotland in 1819 and 1841, and made extensive travels in Lappmark in 1821, 1832, and 1840. Besides reports of his travels and minor essays, he published De PZam‘is eibariis Rom(1.no'r'um (1808) ; Di.sse'2'iai'i0 de FeeuncZa2fione Planter/2"wm. (3 vols., Lund, 1810-12); Orzfhoptem Sueeire (Lund, 1821); Fazma Insec- ioram L(t]J]90’IL'iC(‘b (Hamburg, 1828); illonoglraphia Seate- phagorum Secmci'ina'vi(e (Paris, 1835); _Inseeta Lappomea (Leipzig, 1838-40); Diptera Scrmclmarzce (14 vols., Lund, 1842-60). D. at Lund, Dec. 23, 1874. Zettinie: See CETTINJE. Zeuglodon’tia [Mod Lat. ; Gr. feziq/IU7, strap or loop of a voke + 550153, 6561/ms, tooth]: a group of extinct mutilate inammals, generally regarded as a sub-order of the order Cete, but sometimes raised to independent ordinal rank. The distinctive characters were as follows: The skull was much more like the ordinary mammalian type than it is in either of the existing sub-orders; the intermaxillaries were expanded forward, normally interposed between the supra- maxillaries, and formed the terminal as well as anterior portion of the lateral margins of the upper jaw; the nasal apertures opened more or less anteriorly, and never so far backward as in the Denticete or Mysticete: the olfactory organs must consequently have been moderately developed ; the lower jaw had the rami connected by suture at the sym- physis; the teeth approached to the normal mammalian type. the dental formula being I. C. -{~ PM + M 21%,’-, and those of the supramaxillary were mostly two or three rooted ; the roots were so large and connected by the crowns in some of the species to such an extent as to have pro- duced the resemblance to a yoke to which the ordinal name alludes. The fore limbs were modified into short paddles; no traces of hind limbs have as yet been found. The rep- resentatives of the order existed during the Tertiary epoch, and ranged from the Eocene to the Pliocene. They are supposed to have been derived from the same common progenitors as the seals, but this supposition remains to be verified. Some of the species attained a gigantic size; e. g. Zeaglodon eetoides of the Jackson beds (Middle Eocene) of the U. S., of which remains found indicate a length of over 70 feet, while others were little larger than porpoises. They were prevalent in ancient times almost if not quite as ex- tensively as the living cetacean types, remains having been found in North and South America, as well as Europe and Asia. They have been differentiated into two families— Zeagloclontidce and Oynoreidce. Revised by F. A. LUCAS. Zeus (in Gr. Zez5s): the chief god of the Grecian my- thology. He is fundamentally the god of the light of day; he reigns in heaven the king of gods, and sits enthroned in ether on high mountains, where he gathers the clouds and sends forth the rain and the storm. He is the son of Cronus and Rhea. Cronus had been warned by the Titans that he would be robbed of throne and virility alike by his children. He therefore swallowed his children as they were born. But when Rhea was delivered of Zeus. she followed the advice of GAIA (q. '0.) and substituted a stone for the child, who was secretly reared in a cave on Mt. Ida in Crete by a nymph, Amalthea, while the Corybantes and Curetes clanged their weapons in order to prevent the cries of the infant god from reaching the ears of Cronus. At the end of one year Zeus was powerful enough to attack his father, to whom, at the suggestion of Metis (wisdom), he gave an emetic, and thus caused him to vomit forth the elder brothers and sisters of Zeus. \/Vith the help of the I~Iundred-handed and the Cyclopes the youthful gods overcame the Titans. and Zeus unmanned and deposed his father Cronus. The Titans were banished to the abyss of Ta-rtarus, and Zeus apportioned out the empire of the universe, rcservingto himself the realm of heaven, while he gave the empire of the sea to Poseidon, and that of the lower world to Hades. By the machinations of Gaia the GIANTS (q. '11.) were created in order to avenge her children the Titans, and to dethrone the new gods. But, ZIEGENBALG chiefly owing to the personal prowess of Zeus, the Giants were overcome, and the new order of things was firmly established. Zeus is the father of gods and heroes. His first wife was Metis, who foretold to him that the child in her womb would dethrone him. Zeus therefore swallowed her, and himself shortly thereafter gave birth to the child of Metis, Athene, who sprang full-armed from her father’s head, which had been cloven by Hephaestus. The second wife of Zeus was Themis (right), who bore to him the Hours (sea- sons) and the Fates. His third wife was his own sister Hera, who bore to him Ares, Hebe, Ilithyia (and Hephaestus). By other goddesses and mortal maidens he became the father of a numerous and important progeny: by Mnemo- syne, of the Muses; by his sister Demeter, of Persephone; by Dione, of Aphrodite; by Leto, of Apollo and Artemis; by Eurynome, of the Graces; by the Argive N iobe, of Argus and Pelasgus; by Maia, of Hermes; by Taygete, of Lace- daemon; by Electra, of Dardanus; by Semele, of Dionysus; by Europa, of Mines, Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus; by Io, of Epaphus; by Danae, of Perseus; by Leda, of Pollux and Helen; by Alcmene, of Heracles, etc. In addition to being the god of the storm-cloud, Zeus, be- cause of his prowess in the wars with Titans and Giants, is the god of p iysical vigor, and therefore he was the patron of the Olympic games. He was furthermore the god of prophecy, though he spake his oracles chiefly through the mouth of Apollo. He also presided over purificat-ions and atonements, and over the life of the family and of the state. I-lis accompanying attributes are the scepter, the thunder- bolt, and the eagle. The chief seats of his worship were Dodona and Olympia, though he was worshiped at a great number of other places. For the temple of Zeus at Olympia Phidias made a statue of the god in gold and ivory that was renowned throughout antiquity. For a masterly analysis of the functions and character of Zeus, see Preller’s G1'iech.iseh.e ilfythologie (edited by Carl Robert, Berlin, 1887), and for an account of Zeus in art, see Baun1eister’s De/Mrméiler, s. v. Zeus. J . R. S. STERRETT. Zeux' is: painter; of whom many anecdotes are told by Lucian and Cicero. and especially by Pliny in his 1Va.tm'(1l Ifistory. His birthplace is stated as Heraclea, but which city of that name is not known. The date of his birth is uncertain; it is only known that he was painting and al- ready famous in 424 B. c., and very probable that his career was in the years 450-400 or thereabout. There is no painter of antiquity of whom more or stranger anecdotes are told, but a real knowledge of what his art was like is not pos- sible to moderns. RUSSELL STUReIs. Zhitomeer: another spelling of J ITOMIR (q. '21.). Zl1ukov'Ski'I', VASILII ANDREEVICH: poet; b. in the gov- ernment of Tula, Russia, Jan. 29, 1783; d. Apr. 12, 1852. His mother was a Turkish captive. and he was brought up largely by and among women, which may have helped to give his character the softness which diétinguished it. He served in the campaign of 1812 against Napoleon, later lived for a time in Dorpat; in 1816 was given an imperial pension. and in 1826, on the accession of Nicholas I., was made the tutor of the future emperor, Alexander II. The last ten years of his life were spent in Germany. As an original poet Zhukovskii does not rank very high, though his ballad Limimilla (an imitation of Burger’s Lenore) was the first national effort of its kind. His The 1l[insfreZ in the Russia/it Camp also had a great success at the time.'and others of his attempts have merit. His importance is as a translator, for it was he who by first making known to his countrymen the romantic writings of England and Ger- many led the way for the romantic school in Russia. He translated with great success poems of Gray, Byron, Moore, Scott. Goethe, Schiller, Ruckert, etc., also Don Quixote and the ()dyssey (from a German prose rendering). The sixth edition of his works appeared in 1859. Some of his own pieces have been put into English verse in Specimens of the iussicm Poets by John Bowring (2 vols., 1821-23). ARcI-IIBALD CARY Coomnen. Zia: See Zea. Zic-zac : See CRocoDiLE BIRD. Zidon: See SIDON. Ziegenbalg, tsc‘e'gen-baaleh, BAR'rIIoLoMEw: first Prot- estant missionary to India: b. at Pullsnitz, Saxony, June 24, 1683. After a gymnasium course at Gtirlitz he formed the acquaintance of Spener and Baron von Canst-ein, through ZIEGLER whom he entered the University of Halle in 1703. Re- sponding with another Halle student, Henry Plutschau, to the call of Frederick IV. of Denmark for missionaries to the Danish possessions in India, he embarked at Copen- hagen Nov. 29, 1705, and reached Tranquebar, in Southern India, July 9, 1706. Although opposed by the authorities, being imprisoned for four months, he laid the foundation of an extensive mission work, learning the Tamil language, compiling a grammar and two lexicons, and within two years after his arrival beginning the translation of the Bible. The New Testament was completed in 1711. The Pentateuch, Joshua, and Judges were also translated. On his return in 1715 he met with a warm reception in both Germany and England, where the Society for the Propaga- tion of the Gospel gave him its encouragement. Return- ing to Tranquebar in 1716, he died Feb. 23 (0. s.), 1719. See Germann, Ziegenbalg u. Plutzschau (Erlangen, 1868); Plitt, Kwrze Geschichte der Z/u.thcrt'sche'n 171$-si0n(E1*langen, 1871). For his journals, letters, and contemporaneous and nearly contemporaneous accounts, see the Halle Rejiorts, ed- ited by G. A. Francke. H. E. J ACOBS. Ziegler, tseech’ler, Eaxsr, M. D.: pathologist; b. at Messen, Switzerland, Mar. 17, 1849; studied at Berne and at Wiirzburg, where he graduated M. D. 1872; subsequent- ly received the appointment of assistant in the anatomico- pathological institute of the university; in 1878 was made assistant in the pathological institute of the University of Freiburg, subsequently Extraordinary Professor of Pathol- ogy in that institution ; in 1881 was Professor of Patholog- ical Anatomy and General Pathology in the University of Zurich, and in 1882 accepted the same chair in the Univer- sity of Tiibingen. His most important work is Lclzrbwch der pathologtlschcn Ancufmm'e, which has passed through a number of editions. S. T. ARMSTRONG. Ziem, zeem, FELIX: marine and landscape painter; b. at Beaune (C6te-d’Or), France, Feb. 25, 1821: studied at the Dijon Art School; received a third-class medal at the Salon of 1851, a first-class medal in 1852. and a third-class medal at the Paris Exposition of 1855; became an officer of the Legion of Honor 1878. Most of his pictures represent scenes in Venice, and as he is a most prolific painter he has a wide reputation. His View of Venice, painted in 1852, is in the Luxembourg Gallery, Paris. I 72Jt7td(l,Z‘I;O72/ of Piazza San Marco, Venice, is in the VVolfe collection, Metropolitan Mu- seum, New York. Studio in Paris. VVILLIAH A. Corrnv. Ziemer, tseem'er, HERMANN: classical philologist; b. at Neustettin, in Pomerania, May 12, 1845: studied at the University of Berlin; teacher in gymnasium at Stargard 1870-73 ; professor in the gymnasium at Colberg since 1873. Author of Psychologtschc Erkliirzmg sym‘a].'1.t'scher Er- scheinungen (1867); Das peg/chologzische rllome/at in der Bildwng synta7.;2fz.'sclz.er Sprachformen (1879); Jzmggram- matische SI."re£fz'iZge rim Gebicte der Syntax (1882; 2d ed. 1883); Vergl. 5';2/ntaw der t"nd0ge'rm. C0m.pamz‘z,'0n, (1884); also various articles and reports in journals. His work is characterized by much freshness and vigor, and has served to advance the science of comparative syntax rather by its suggestiveness and its sympathy with new endeavors than by its precision. B. I. W. Zierikzee, zee’rik-zct : town; province of Zeeland, Neth- erlands; on the island of Sehouwen (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 7—D). It has a good harbor, extensive ship-building, shipping, and fishing, and a large trade in agricultural products. Its walls, behind which its citizens made an obstinate resistance to the Spaniards in 1576, are now transformed into promenades. Pop. (1890) 7.060. Revised by M. W. Ilxaanverox. Ziethen, or Zieten, tsee’ten, llxxs Joxomn. von: gen- eral; b. on his paternal estate of IVustrau, Prussian prov- ince of Brandenburg, May 14, 1699; received a military education, and entered a regiment of dragoons as lieutenant in 1726, but became entangled in the difficulties of one of his comrades, and was cashiered. In 1730, however, he was reinstated in the army as lieutenant in a regiment of hus- sars just then forming, and served in the campaign against France in 1735. Soon after the outbreak of the first Sile- sian war he became lieutenant-colonel, and early in the sec- ond Silesian war was made major-general. In 1745 he made his famous march to J itgerndorf through the Austrian lines, and distinguished himself at Hohenfriedberg and at Hennersdorf. Shortly after the peace some disagreement arose between him and the king, and a reconciliation did ~ respect to lead. ZIJSr C not take place until 1755, but in the Seven Years’ war he took a most brilliant part, as commander of the cavalry, in the battles of Prague, Kolin, Leuthen, Liegnitz, and Tor- gau, rendering es ecially valuable service in the last-named battle, which he ecided in favor of the Prussians by storm- ing the heights of Siptitz, and after the peace he retired to his estates as the most popular and one of the most cele- brated of the generals of Frederick the Great, though he had many peculiarities approaching closely to the ridicu- lous. D. at Berlin, Jan. 26, 1786. His Life has been writ- ten by Halm (5th ed. 1878) and by Count Lippe-W'eissen- feld (2d ed. 1886). Revised by F. M. COLBY. Zikr : See Dnnvrsnns. Zileh (anc. Zela) : town; in the vilayet of Sivas, Asiatic Turkey. _Here Mithridates defeated the Romans (67 B. 0.). Here Caesar conquered Pharnaces (47 B. C.) and sent the fa- mous dispatch, “ Vent, vidi, 'vz'c'z'.” The present town is life- less and decaying, though still maintaining the annual fair in November, which was formerly frequented by 50.000 or 60,000 persons. Pop. 5,000. Enwnv A. Gnosvnxoa. Ziller. tsil'ler, TUISKON: educator; one of the foremost exponents of the Herbartian pedagogy; b. in IVasungen, Saxe-Meiningen, Germany, Dec. 22, 1817; became in 1864 professor in the University of Leipzig, where he founded a pedagogical seminary modeled after that of I-Ierbart at Ktinigsberg. His most influential work, Grzuzcllegmzg zur Le/we com erzz'eizerzden Unz‘e'rrz'c7zt (Basis of the Doctrine of Instruction as a Moral Force), appeared in 1865, and from its appearance dates the beginning of popular interest in I-Ierbart. Ziller’s other important works are E-z'nlez'z.‘mz g in die allgemeivze Pc'idagcgz'k (1856) ; Die Rcgte'i‘2l7Zg der K'z'nder (1857); AZZgemez'ne l’('i(Zc1g0gz'7.: (2d ed. 1884): Aligeme-ziize ]9lz'zFZ0s0;/Jlrische Eilzik (1880). De Ga.rmo characterizes Zil- ler’s work as follows : “It deserves respect as the most thor- oughgoing attempt ever made to answer the question, How may instruction in the common school become an instru- ment for the development of moral character?” See De Garmo, .Herbar2! and the I-[e'rbcu'f2.'ans (New York, 1895). D. in Leipzig, Apr. 20, 1882. C. H. THURBER. Zillerthal, tsil’ler-ta“al: one of the principal valleys of the Tyrol, 50 miles long, inclosed bylofty glaciers and open- ing N. into the valley of the Inn. Rearing of cattle and manufactures of gloves and essences of herbs are the prin- cipal occupations. In 1837 399 persons. who had left the Roman Catholic Church, were compelled to leave their homes and emigrated to Prussia. Pop. 14,000. Zimmer1nann, tsim'mer-ma‘.Zm, J OHANN Gnone, von: phy- sician and philosophical writer; b. at Brugg, canton of Berne, Switzerland, Dec. 8, 1728; studied medicine at G6t- tingen ; began to practice at Brugg in 1751 ; was appointed court physician at Hanover in 1768. D. Oct 7, 1795. He had a great reputation ; was invited to the court of Catha- rine II.; attended Frederick the Great in his last illness; published Vom 1Va.z‘i07z,a.Zsz‘oZ2e (Zurich, 1758); On Soliz‘-ude (Ueber die Einsamkeit, Zurich, 1755; 2d ed., Leipzig, 4 vols., 17841-85)f, v]v:;Jl1ich mark his I1&EI'Il€;c (;lelebrat_eddtlirqpglioult thg w 10 e o 'uro e; /on er 1: a rung an er -r2'n.e'1. mas (Leipzig, 2 vols., 1764), which was translated into several foreign languages; Ueber Frz'ecZrz'ch den G'r0sse'n. and 'mez'n.e Unterreclung mif ihm lrurz vor seinem Tode (1788); and Fra._qmen-2.‘e iiber FNedrz'ch den Grossen (3 vols., 1790), which implicated him in some very bitter controversies. A collec- tion of some of his letters was published at Aarau in 1830. See also Z'zInzme'r'nzamzs K1'cmke')zgesc7t£c7zfe (1786), by ‘Wich- mann. Revised by S. T. ARMSTRONG. Zinc. sometimes called Spelter [zinc = Fr., from Germ. zzinlt ; with spelier, cf. Germ. and Dutch sp2T(mI‘er. and Dutch pia/ate)‘, pewter, whence Eng. pewz‘cw]z one of the metallic elements, very abundantly distributed. comgarable in tliis It was not known in metal ic form to t re ancients. though they knew how to make alloys of it with copper (common brass) by adding zinc ores to melted cop- per. Zinc being one of those metals. however. which must be procured by a process of dz's1"zTZZc2‘2'0n, was doubtless be- yond the skill of the metallurgists of old. It was first, and for a long time, brought into Europe from the East, and it is not much more than 100 years since zinc was first snlielt- ed in Euro e. The ores of zinc are not numerous. here being onlypsix mineral species which furnish all the zinc a.nd zinc-white of com meree. These are Bnsxnn. 0.-\LA~.\lL\*E, WILLr..\u'ru, Smrnsomrn. FRANKLIl\'I’I‘E, and Zmxrrn (qq. 12). including sulphide, silicates. carbonate, and oxide. The sul- 895. 896 znve phide and carbonate are first roasted to expel sulphur and carbonic acid. Calamine also contains water, which must be expelled by roasting. The ores, thus prepared, are dis- tilled, in admixture with carbon, in retorts, or furnaces of special construction, the zinc-vapor generally carrying with it some lead. sulphur, and arsenic. Most commercial zinc, when required pure, must be redistilled. That which is made from calamine, or from the willemite, franklinite, and red zinkite of New Jersey, is free from arsenic, and generally quite pure. When made from blende it sometimes contains cadmium, and more rarely traces of indium. The metal zinc is one of much hardness, with a bluish color, with a brilliant luster when freshly cut, but soon taking a tarnish. from the formation of a film of suboxide or carbonate, which protects it quite strongly from further oxidation, so that it is an extremely durable metal, resisting both air and water very persistently. When cast, it is highly crystalline in structure, and somewhat brittle, though at the same time sectile; but by heating to a temperature somewhat below 300° F., it may be rolled into very thin plates, passing into a modification which is quite malleable, so that sheets as thin as tin-foil may be obtained. The best way to obtain it pure is by electrolysis. At a temperature but little higher than that mentioned still another allotrop1c modification appears, which is very brittle and fragile, and in a mortar heated to 400° F., or a little higher, the metal may be crushed to powder. It melts at about 780° F., and boils at about 1900° F., yielding a vapor which takes fire in the air and burns with a dazzling light to zinc oxide. (See ZINC-WHITE.) The relations of zinc to acids and other solv- ent liquids are highly interesting. \Vhen chemically pure it dissolves readily in nitric acid, but not so in dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric. Even ordinary commercial zinc, con- taining lead, iron, ete., may be almost absolutely protected from the latter two acids by the thinnest film of mercury, which in voltaic batteries is used, therefore, for this purpose. On contact, however, with most other metals, and other sub- stances capable of conducting electricity, voltaic circuits are set up, and the zinc dissolves, hydrogen being evolved from the surface of the other metal. Hence, through the formation of such circuits with its metallic impurities, com- mercial zinc is readily soluble in acids, and even in solutions of neutral salts. These same relations explain the well- known protective action of zinc upon iron or copper, even in sea-water (as in the case of sheathing of ships). The film of hydrogen formed upon the surface of the other metal pre- vents all oxidizing action thereon. Zinc is largely used for coating iron and copper, exerting a protecting influence, both as a mere coating or impervious varnish, and through its voltaic relations. (See ZINCKING or ME'rALs.) Zinc dis- solves also in alkalies, whose compounds with its oxide are soluble, in a manner similar to that above described, its re- lations to other metals in such alkaline liquids being alto- gether similar to those in acid and saline solutions. ALLOYS or Zmo.—Almost all the other common metals, except lead and bismuth, alloy readily with zinc, forming alloys that generally partake of the hardness of the zinc, and, when the latter is in excess, of its brittleness also. Under BRASS will be found some mention of the highly im- portant alloys with copper, these being by far the most valuable of zinc alloys. With lead, zinc will not unite un- less through intermediation of some other metal, such as ti/i, which alloys with both; with lead and bismuth also, equal quantities of each of the three metals, a fusible alloy is obtained which melts in boiling water. Bronze, which properly consists of tin and copper, is often alloyed with zinc, and triple alloys of these three metals are used for journal-boxes and some other purposes. An alloy with eleven times its weight of tin is beaten into leaves and used as a spurious substitute for silver-leaf. Amalgams of zinc have little interest except in connection with voltaic bat- teries. Conrouxns or ZINC. —Zinc forms a number of com- pounds which are useful in the arts. For the oxide, see ZINC- WHITE. The sulphide of zinc is found constituting two mineral species, identical in composition, but differing in crystalline form—blende or sphalerite, which is of the reg- ular system, and wurtzite (named after the French chemist, Adolphe Wurtz), which is hexagonal. Hydrous silicate of zinc is found in nature as calamine. It is used as a pigment for producing a brilliant green in glazed pottery. Zinc-vitriol, White Vitriol, or Zinc-sulphate.-—This is a familiar commercial compound, also occurring in nature as goslarite. For commercial use it is prepared by roasting \ ZINCOGRAPHY and then lixiviating blende, or by dissolving metallic zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, and crystallizing. lts composition is ZnS().;.7I-120. Crystals right-rhombic, efflorescing in the air, with loss of.part of their crystal-water. At 212° F. they lose 61120, the seventh equivalent requiring a much higher temperature. White vitriol dissolves in 233 times its weight of cold water, and less than its weight of boiling water. It has an acrid metallic taste, and is very power- fully emetic in its effect when swallowed in any quantity. It is used in medicine, both directly and as a material for preparation of other medicinal zinc compounds. Zinc Chloride (ZnCl-2), Butter of Zinc.—-Zinc combines powerfully with chlorine, thin foil taking fire therein spon- taneously. The substance formed is whitish, translucent, of the consistence of wax, melts at a low temperature, and sublimes at a red heat, condensing in white needles. It is highly deliquescent, and soluble in water and alcohol. 'The aqueous solution has several uses in the arts. It is used for “ burnettizing” wood (see PRESERVATION or TIMBER) and as a disinfecting agent. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Zincking of Metals: the plating of metals with a thin layer of zinc, by which they are protected from the oxidizing action of the air. Iron is the metal oftenest coated, but copper is also sometimes treated in the same manner. In the preparation of zincked iron (so-called “ galvanized iron ”) the metal is first cleansed by immersion in a warm bath of equal parts of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid and water, after which it is cleaned by rubbing with emery; it is next dipped in a bath of equal parts of saturated solutions of chloride of zinc and chloride of ammonium. then into a metallic bath consisting of 640 parts by weight of zinc, 106 parts of mercury, and about §~ part of sodium, where it is allowed to remain until it acquires the temperature of the melted metal (680° F.). In order to avoid the partial solu- tion of the iron by the action of the molten zinc, it is ad- visable to add pieces of wrought iron to the bath, so that it may previously become partially saturated. Iron castings are treated by a somewhat similar process: they are first cleaned by rubbing with sand, then heated, and immersed while still hot in a concentrated solution of chloride of zinc containing sulphate or chloride of ammonium, after which they are dipped in a bath of molten zinc, the surface of which is kept free from oxide by means of a little sal- ammoniac. The protective action of the zinc coating ob- tained as above described is said to exceed that of the tin upon ordinary tinned iron; increased strength is also im- parted to the iron by the zinc, and its welding properties are not impaired. Copper objects can be zincked by im- mersion in a concentrated and boiling solution of chloride of ammonium, in which granulated or powdered zinc has been placed, or by simply clipping them in a boiling solution of chloride of zinc. Zincked iron is extensively employed for telegraph wires, roofing purposes, water-coolers, etc. Zincog'raphy [zinc + Gr. 'ypd¢eu/, write. engrave]: the art of producing impressions of prints and other designs on zinc, from which a facsimile on paper can be made. It is very analagous to LITI-IOGRAPHY (q. ’U.); the term is applied to the processes of anastatic printing (anastasis, resuscitation), zinc-printing, paniconography, and photozincography. In anastatic printing, first used in Germany in 1840, a printed sheet is moistened with water containing nitric acid, which affects only the parts where there is no printing, being re- pelled from the letters by virtue of the oily matter in them. The sheet is then pressed on a prepared zinc plate, whereby a typographical surface is produced, from which impres- sions can be printed on paper. Zinc-printing consists in first etching designs in the metal with the needle, cleaning them with acid, and covering the entire plate with a layer of fusible metal, which is afterward removed by planing until the etched lines appear at the surface; the plate is then dipped in an acid bath, when the surface of the plate will be dissolved, but not the fusible metal which fills the lines; in this way a relief-drawing, suitable for the printing of maps, plans, ete., can be obtained. In the process of paniconography, crayon drawings, proofs of wood or copper plates, ete., are transferred to a zinc plate, a damp mked roller is passed over it to deepen the impression, and pow- dered rosin then spread on it, which adheres only to the parts that were moistened by the ink. Upon now placing the plate in a bath consisting of diluted nitric acid, the un- protected surface is etched, and a relief surface formed which can be used for printing. Photo-zincography is ac- complished by first preparing a photograph, then trans- ZINC-WHITE ferring it to zinc, from which copies can be multiplied as from a lithographic stone; it is based upon the fact that bi- chromates render gelatin insoluble when a mixture of the two is exposed to the action of light. The paper used is prepared with a solution of bichromate of potassium and gelatin, and exposed together with the negative of a draw- ing or other design to the light, the outline of the same being thus obtained in insoluble lines. On then covering it with printer’s ink and wetting it at the back, the soluble portion swells up, and allows of the removal of the ink from this part, but not from the insoluble lines. A copy of the object photographed is thus produced in ink, which can be easily transferred to zinc. See PHOTO-ENGRAVING. Zinc-white: a commercial product used largely as a pig- ment, formerly made by the combustion of metallic zinc and collection of the fumes, but of late years obtained di- rectly from zinc ores by a process which combines the reduction of the zinc from the ore to a metallic vapor, and the subsequent burning of this vapor in the same apparatus. The general plan of the apparatus used consists in'a perfo- rated hearth, with a closed ash-pit below, upon which hearth is spread the charge of mixed ore and anthracite coal. The latter is kindled, and air blown in through the ash-pit. The products of combustion, containing an excess of air with vapor of metallic zinc, undergo another combustion after leaving the charge, forming fumes of zinc oxide, which, after cooling, are caught by being forced through very long bags of some textile fabric, through which the gases gradually filter, leaving the finely divided oxide within. Zinc-white is ex- tensively used as a substitute for white lead in painting woodwork. Revised by IRA REMSEN. Zinder: a fertile district in the northwest corner of the Mohammedan sultanate of Bornu, a little S. of the do- main of the Tuareg nomads of the Sahara. Its chief town, Zinder, on the main trade-route through the Northern Su- dan, is surrounded with walls and ditches, which also in- close many gardens and orchards. It carries on a consider- able trade. Pop. of the town, estimated, 10,000. C. C. A. Zinkite: a native zinc oxide. It is very rare in Europe, but found in abundance at Franklin Furnace and Sterling Hill, near Ogdensburg, N. J . It is of a deep-red color, oc- casionally with a yellowish tint; is brittle, and in thin scales is transluscent. Zin’nia [Mod. Lat., named from Dr. J. G. Zinn (1727- 59), professor at Gtittingen]: a genus of showy American. chiefly Mexican, herbs of the composite family. much culti- vated in flower-borders. The finest are varieties of Z. ele- gans, a Mexican plant. Z. ,’0aucifl0m (often called Z. muZtz:fl0m) grows abundantly in parts of the Southern U. S., where it was doubtless introduced from farther south. Zinzendorf, tsin’tsen-d5rf, NICHOLAS LEWIS, von, Count : leader of the Moravians; b. at Dresden, May 26, 1700. He attended the Pedagogium at Halle under A. H. Francke 1710-16, and against his own inclinations was a law stu- dent at Wittenberg 1716-19, devoting two years to travel in order to complete his education. Whithersoever he went he found himself more interested in religious than in the higher social circles that were open to him. From 1721 to 1727 he occupied a civil ofiice in reluctant compliance with the ambitious projects of his relatives. In 1722 he settled a colony of Moravian refugees on the Berthelsdorf estate in Lusatia, which he had purchased. This colony (Herrnhut) became a center of attraction to persons of Pietistic antecedents. This interest growing, in 1727 he fully identified himself with it, and became the great organ- izer of the Moravian Church. Zinzendorf’s original concep- tion was not that of a separate denomination, but a union of all the followers of Christ and advocates of a religion of the heart within the bounds of the various confessions. Hence he continued to claim his loyalty to the unaltered Augsburg Confession and Luther’s Catechism, and to affirm that he still remained a Lutheran. Ordained a minister at Tiibingen in 1734, he was consecrated a bishop by the B0- hemian bishops J ablonsky and Nitschmann in 1737. Ban- ished from Saxony in 1736, he lived in Germany, Holland, England, St. Thomas, Pennsylvania, again in England, various parts of Germany, and in Silesia. everywhere active in preaching the Gospel. While in Pennsylvania (1741-42) his work was around Bethlehem and Germantown as centers. He pressed forward missionary activity among the North American Indians, and aimed at the bringing of the various churches into a union by means of numerous conferences. He ZIRKNITZ, LAKE OF 897 acted as pastor of the Lutheran church in Philadelphia, and used the title of inspector-general. The sentence of banishment being removed in 1749, he returned to Herrnhut, where he died May 9, 1760. Zinzendorf’s sermons preached in Pennsylvania were published at Biidingen in 1744. His chief claim to literary recognition rests upon his 2,000 hymns, a number of which are in common use in English transla- tions of John Wesley and others. See Life, by Spangen- berg (8 vols., 1772—75; condensed translation by Samuel Jackson, London, 1838), and Z/z'nzendor_f vim Verha"Ztm'ss Z. Philosophie u. Kc'rchenthum seiner Zed, by B. Becker (Leip- zig, 1886). For additional literature, see extensive bibliog- raphy appended to Becker’s article in the Herzog-Plitt- Hauck, Real-E-nay/clopddie. HENRY E. J AC‘-OBS. Zion, or Sion [Zion is from Heb. Tsifin, liter., sunny place, sunny mountain ; Scion =Lat.=Gr. Eiwv, from Heb.] : an eminence in Palestine, on which a part of Jerusalem is built. It rises 2,540 feet above the level of the sea. W. and S. it faces the valley of Hinnom with a steep precipice 300 feet high. On the northern slope stands that part of Jerusalem which was called the “city of David ” or the “ upper city ”; hence Jerusalem was often called the “ daughter of Zion.” See JERUSALEM. Zipaquir5., thee-pa"a-kee-raa’ (often written Cipaquird): a town of the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia; on a high plain, about 25 miles N. of Bogota-i. The name means dwelling of the Zipas, and this was in fact a residence of the Zipas, or ancient kings of the Chibcha Indians. It is now important for its manufactures, and especially for a rich bed of salt found in the vicinity. This is worked by the national Government, and two-thirds of the salt used in Colombia is obtained from it. Beds of coal and iron occur in the same region. Zipaquiré. has an active trade, the agri- cultural products of Cundinamarca and Santander being ex- changed here for salt. Pop. about 11,000. H. S. Zircon [: Fr., from Arab. zar/min. cinnabar, vermilion, from Pers. zwgfm, gold-colored. whence Eng. jargon or jargoon, a kind of zircon] : a silicate of zirconium, occurring in crystals, generally four-sided prisms terminated by four- sided pyramids, and also in grains of a white, red, brown, yellow, green, or reddish-orange color, the last being some- times called hyacinth or jacinth. It is found in the sands of rivers of Ceylon, in the sienite of Norway, at Strontian in Argyleshire, Scotland, and i11 streams of the Croghan Kin- shela Mountains in Ireland. Zi1‘c0'nium[Mod. Lat., from Eng. zircon]: an element having characters approaching those of a metal, found prin- cipally in the mineral called ZIRCON (Q. ’U.). Its chemical re- lations are very close and parallel to the important element sc'Zz'con, which gives to its study great interest. Like silicon and carbon, which also belong to the same natural group, it assumes different allotropic forms. widely varying in their physical characters. The amorphous allotrope of zirconium was obtained in 1824 by Berzelius by a method similar to that which yields amorphous silicon, by the action of an alkaline metal on the 2"z.'rc0_fl'uor'z'de of ]90z‘assz'um, F6ZrK2. It assumes a graphite-like luster under the burnisher. It is unchanged by ignition apart from the air, but in air burns to zirconia. Adamantoz‘d 2'£7~com'u'm was obtained by Troost by fusing potassium zircofiuoride in a crucible with an ex- cess of metallic aluminium and dissolving the latter metal out of the fused mass with hydrochloric acid. It resem- bles metallic antimony in appearance, and is very brittle and hard. It is incombustible except by Hare’s blowpipe, and soluble with difliculty in acids, except hydrofluoric and nitro-hydrochloric. Z2"rc0nia, is the anhydrous oxide of zirconium, ZrO2. It is made from zircon. In many re- spects zirconium oxide is analogous to silicon dioxide. It forms salts with bases, and these resemble the silicates in composition. Revised by IRA Rnnsmv. Zirknitz. tsirk’nits (or Czirknicz), Lake of: a body of water in a deep valley in Carniola, Austria, between Laibach and Trieste. famous on account of the occasional disappear- ance of its waters. It is 6 miles long, 3 miles broad, and 15 to 50 feet deep. At intervals——generally in August, though not regularly—its waters are entirely drawn off through a number of fissures in its bottom, and a harvest of hay or even of buckwheat, is gathered in its bed. After the lapse of four or six weeks, or when the wet season sets in, the water pours into the lake from a number of other fissures; but while it generally takes from twenty-two to twenty-five days to empty the lake, it takes often only twenty-four hours to fill it. 454 898 ZISKA Zis'ka, J omv: leader of the Hussites; b. at Trocznow, Bohemia, in 1360; was educated at the court of Prague, and fought with the Teutonic Knights against the Lithuanians and Poles, in Hungary against the Turks, and on the Eng- lish side in the wars between England and France. He had embraced the doctrines of Huss, and was conspicuous in the great commotion which was caused by the execution of Huss and Jerome. He was present on the famous July 30, 1419, when the thirteen Roman Catholic magistrates of Prague were thrown out of the windows and massacred. The outburst spread rapidly over the whole country, nego- tiations from the side of \Venceslas and his successor, Sigis- mund, failed, and under the leadership of Ziska the Hus- sites formed a fortified camp on the top of Mt. Tabor. They were in possession of the city of Prague, though not of the castle, and in order to defend it against the Emperor Sigismund, who approached with an army of 30,000 men, Ziska took up a position on the hill of Witkow, just outside the city. He had only 4,000 men, but such was the fanat- ical enthusiasm with which the Hussites fought that the emperor was unable to remove them, and had to retire with an immense loss after a most sanguinary struggle, July 14, 1420; the hill has since that day borne the name of Ziska Hill. In the autumn of the same year Ziska conquered the castle of Prague, but in the next year became blind. While a boy he had lost one eye, and now, while besieging the castle of Raby, also lost the other. But he continued, nevertheless, to command. Such was his knowledge of his country that from the descriptions of his lieutenants he was able to make his dispositions and conduct the battle. In 1422 the emperor returned with another great army, and on J an. 18 the battle took place at Deutsch-Brod. The emperor was completely routed, and, unable to raise a third army, he now began to negotiate. He was willing to grant liberty of conscience, to make Ziska governor of Bohemia, etc. ; but before the negotiations could be brought to a close Ziska died at Przibislaw, Oct. 11, 1424. He was buried at Czaslau, but in 1623 his tomb was disturbed and his bones removed on an imperial order from Vienna. See Tomek, Johann Zizka (1882). Zither: an instrument of very ancient origin; in its primitive form supposed to be identical with the psaltery mentioned in the Bible, and known among the Greeks by the name of hithara. In its modern shape it consists of a shallow box, somewhat in the form of a lyre, upon which are strung some thirty strings. These are technically di- vided into 5 melody-strings, 12 accompaniment-strings, and 13 bass-strings. The melody-strings lie straight across the zither, and are tuned thus: n The two A-strings are of __ ::j——-—— steel, the D of brass, the I N, i i W I G of steel wound with sil- *1 ' ver wire, the C of brass with copper wire. The other strings are partly of gut and partly of silk wound with silver wire, and are placed beside these over a lower cross-piece of wood called the tail-piece. In playing the zither the thumbs of both hands are used, also the first, second, and third fingers. The thumb of the right hand is provided with a partially opened ring with which to strike the melody-strings. This is to the zither what the bow is to the violin. The real home of the zither seems to be Austria and the Tyrol, where it may almost be called a national instrument. Zittau, tsit'tow (Slav. Zitwva) : the most populous city in the circuit (Ki'eisliauptmcmnschaft) of Bautzen, kingdom of Saxony; close to the Bohemian and Silesian frontier; on the left bank of the Mandau; station of the Saxon Railway and of the Prussian railway G6rlitz-Zittau (see map of Ger- man Empire, ref. 5-H). The inhabitants are mostly Protes- tants, and carry on a brisk commerce and extensive industries in cotton, linen, and cloth, which are manufactured in the factories of the town and by the weavers of the surrounding villages. The transit traffic to Bohemia is very consider- able. In the suburbs and near villages there are numerous mills of all kinds, iron-foundries, machine-shops, brickworks, and earthenware factories. The great lignite deposits in the neighborhood occupy about 1,000 laborers. Thirty-seven villages, with more than 70,000 inhabitants, mostly weavers, and rich forests extending to Bohemia, belong to the city commune. Zittau has seven churches, a gymnasium (found- ed 1586), with which is connected a real-school and a com- mercial school, an important city library with an historical museum, and several industrial schools. Pop. (1890) 25,394. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. ZODIACAL LIGHT Zlatust, zla"a-toost': town; in the government of Ufa, Russia; on the AI‘, left tributary of the Ufa (Volga-Kama Basin) ; in the Ural Mountains; terminus of the Ufa railway- line and starting-point of the Transsiberian line (see map of Russia, ref. 7-1). It is the center of a rich mining district, and manufactures guns, sword-blades, and various articles of steel, which are noted. In the vicinity there are rich iron and gold mines, partly worked by a numerous German colony. There is also a brisk trade in agricultural produce and cattle. Pop. (1891) 21,105. H. S. Znaim, formerly Znaym (Slav. Znojmo)z town ; in South- ern Moravia, Austria; afertile region on a mountain on the left bank of the Thaya(see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 4-F). It has four suburbs and 14,515 inhabitants (about 90 per cent. Germans), with tanneries and manufactures of leather goods, earthenware, saltpeter, and vinegar, and important trade in grain and fruits. Important buildings are the St. Nicolas church, of Gothic architecture, built in 1348 by Charles IV.; the pagan temple, the oldest architectural monument in Moravia (tenth century); the Thaya viaduct of the Vienna-Teschen Railway; and a monument to the German-American author Charles Sealsfield (Carl Postl). Several higher schools, large hospitals, and barracks are in the city. Pop. of district (1890) 96,785. H. S. Z0an: See TANIS. Zoantharia: See HEXACORALLIA. Zoar [from Heb. Ts6‘ar, liter., smallness. Cf. Gen. xix 20] : the only one that was spared of the five “ cities of the plain.” Originally it was called Bela (Heb., “swallowed, devoured,” Gen. xiv. 2), Jerome says, because, according to Hebrew tradition, it was destroyed for the third time by an earthquake (Com. in Isaiam, xv., 5). The four cities that perished were Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim. Ztickler, OTTO, Ph. D., D. D.: theologian; b. at Griin- berg, Hesse, May 27, 1833; educated at Giessen, Erlangen, and Berlin (1851-56) ; became privat decent at Giessen (1857); professor extraordinary there 1863; Ordinary Pro- fessor of Theology at Greifswald 1866. His numerous writ- ings include commentaries upon Chronicles, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song, and Daniel, in Lange; Acts, Galatians, and Thessalonians, and on the Apocrypha in the Kurzge- fasster Kommentar (1886, seq.), edited by him in conjunc- tion with H. L. Strack; and contributions in the Handbuch der Theologisehen Wissenschaften, which he edits alone. All his works display great industry and extensive informa- tion. Besides these may be mentioned Kritische Geschichte der Askese (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1863); Iiierong/mus (1864); Das Ifreuz Oh/risti (Bielefeld, 1875; Eng. trans., The Cross of Christ, London, 1877) ; Geschichte der Bezieh- ungen zwischen Theologie and Naturwissenschaft (2 vols., 1877-79) ; Gottes Zeugcn im Reich der Natur (2 vols., 1881) ; Biblische wncl Kirchenhistorische Studien (5 parts, Munich, 1893). SAMUEL MACAULEY J ACKSON. Z0'diac via 0. Fr., from Lat. zocli'acus: Gr. §w8wuc6s (sc. miaitos, circle), circle of animals, zodiac, liter., masc. adj., pertaining to animals, deriv. of §q58wv, dimin. of (view. ani- mal]: an imaginary zone or belt in the heavens, extending from 9° N. to 9° S. of the ecliptic, and comprising that region of the heavens within which the apparent motions of the sun, moon, and all the greater planets are confined. It is divided into twelve equal parts, called “ signs,” which are designated by the names of the constellations Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces, which are supposed to have been invented in Egypt, and refer to the division of the seasons and the agriculture of that country. See SIGN and CONSTELLATION. Z0di'acal Light: a faint illumination of the sky in the region of the zodiac visible in the evenings of winter and spring after the end of twilight, and in summer and autumn before daybreak in the morning. It can be well seen only when the sky is perfectly clear, and the moon below the horizon. When seen in the evening it appears as a faint column of light, rising from the W. and inclining toward the S., which can sometimes be traced nearly to the meridian. Atmospheric vapors obscure the view of it near the horizon; it attains its greatest visible breadth and brilliancy at an elevation of perhaps 15° or 20°, where it may be as bright as the Milky Way. It differs from the Milky Way, however, in its extremely soft appearance. Under a very clear at- mosphere, near the equator, it may sometimes be seen by keen eyes as an arch of light extending all the way across ZOEA the heavens, near the ecliptic. Whether the central line of the arch coincides accurately with the ecliptic does not seem to have been well determined. In northern latitudes it always appears N. of the ecliptic, but this may be due in part to the absorption of the light by the atmosphere. Con- nected with this light is said to be the mysterious phenome- non known as the Gegensoherln, consisting in a faint glow at that point of the heavens which is directly opposite the sun. No complete and satisfactory explanation of the zodiacal light has yet been given. The best opinion is that it is caused by a mass of nebulous gases, or finely divided mat- ter, surrounding the sun near the plane of the ecliptic, and extending out a little beyond the earth’s orbit. The general aspect of ' the light shows that its form must be somewhat that of a lens, having the sun in its center. If this view be correct, the illumination is due to reflected sun- light. If such were the case the spectrum of the light should not differ from the solar spectrum exce t in intensity. The careful observations of Prof. Wright, 0 Yale, seem to show that such is the case. The phenomenon, however, is one on which there is still a want of accurate observations at ele- vated stations under the equator. S. Nnwoonn. Z0e’a [Gr. (£15011, animal]: a name given to one of the stages in the development of crabs, under the impression that it was an adult. At present the term is used to indi- cate one of the free-swimming stages, the constant charac- ters of which are a large carapax usually armed with spines projecting from the back, sides, and front; a well-developed abdomen, which is divided into segments, but which lacks appendages, and a usually forked caudal lobe. Under the carapax are seven pairs of appendages, the posterior six segments and the corresponding appendages of the adult cephalothorax being rudimentary or not developed. The zoea varies greatly in size and in the development of the spines, etc., but only in rare instances is it larger than a pea. This stage is usually succeeded by one known as the megalops. J . S. K. Zoetropez See Sraonosoorn. Zola, EMILE: novelist; b. at Paris, Apr. 2, 1840; passed his youth in Southern France, but finished his studies at Paris at the Lycée Saint-Louis; became a clerk in the pub- lishing-house of Hachette, using his leisure for writing for the newspapers and composing novels. He showed the character of his talent in the Oontes d Ninon (1864), La Confession de Claude (1865), Therese Raquin (1867), and Madeleine Férat (1868), which exhibit a violent realism marked by a materialistic conception of life, the promi- nence of the physiological element, the choice of vice and disease as objects of observation, and a brutal frankness, and often a great power of statement. This realism, which he called naturalism, he defended with great acrimony in critical articles collected in the volumes Mes Hairtes (1866) ; Le Roman expérimental (1880); Documents Zittérair-es (1881); Les Romanoiers naturaZz'stes (1881); Une Carnpayne (1882), etc. It was exemplified especially in the series of twenty novels under the general title Les Rougon-Mae- quart, historlre naturelle et sooiale d’une famtlle sous Ze second Empire (1871-93). Some of the novels of this se- ries have enjoyed a very wide sale and popularity: L’As- som/moz'r(1878); Nana (1880); Pot-Bouille (1882); Germinal (1885); La Terre (1888); La Débdcle (1892). He has had much influence upon younger writers, but since 1888 there has been a pereeptable recoil against his school. Since completing the Rougon-Jllacquart series he has published Lourdes (1894). A. G. CANFIELD. Zollverein, ts6l’var-‘in [= Germ.; zoll, toll, tax + verez'n, union]: a union of the German states, according to which all custom duties along the internal frontiers of the states belonging to the union were abolished, and the revenues pro- ceeding from the custom duties levied along the external frontiers of the union were artitioned among the members according to population. russia was the first to propose such a customs union, but at first only the minor states would enter it. By 1834 eighteen states had become mem- bers, and others joined from time to time till in the period from 1854 to 1865 all states had entered it except transle.i- than Austria, the two duchies of Mecklenburg, Liechten- stein, Schleswig-Holstein, and the Hanse towns. It proved eminently beneficial by throwing down vexatious and mis- chievous barriers to communication, and by reducing the cost of collecting the revenues. Upon the formation of the German empire in 1871, there was no longer any reason for the separate existence of the Zollverein. ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY 899 Z0m'b0r, or S0mb0r: royal free town of Hungary, in the Serbian woiwodina; capital of the county of Bacs; on a wide plain near the Francis Canal, which connects the Theiss with the Danube, and is a station of the Szegedin- Essegg line of the Hungarian state railway (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 8-H). The city has extensive silk manufactures and a large trade in corn and cattle. Pop. (1890) 26,435. Revised by H. SCHOENFELD. Zona Libre : See TAMAULIPAS. Z0na’ras, IOANNES: historian ; b. in Constantinople in the first half of the eleventh century. He was commander of the imperial body-guard and private secretary to Alexius I. Comnenos. In consequence of domestic afflictions he be- came a monk, and withdrew to Mt. Athos, where he died at the age of eighty-eight or eighty-nine, in 1118. In his retire- ment he composed many works, some of which still exist, both printed and in manuscript. The most important are his Chronilcon or Annales, a history of the world from the creation to 1118, edited by Du Cange (Paris, 1686) and by Dindorf (Leipzig, 1868-75), and his Lexikon, edited by Tittman (Leipzig, 1808). E. A. G. Zotilogical Geography, or Zofigeography: that branch of geography which treats of the distribution of animals and of the division of the earth’s surface into areas charac- terized by the presence of distinctive species or groups of animals. These associations of species are termed faunas. While it is not to be expected, nor necessary, that all the species occurring within a given area should be restricted to it alone, a sufficient number of species, genera, or families, should be peculiar to the region to give it a distinctive character. While a fauna is the sum total of animal life in any given division, all animals are not of the same impor- tance in the definition of zotilogical regions, or life areas, as they have aptly been called. Fresh-water fishes have been regarded as among the best animals for this purpose, be- cause, in the nature of things, they are less liable to be dis- persed by accidental causes. It may be said against the choice of fresh-water fishes that they define great drainage areas rather than zoiilogical areas, and also that it is be- coming more and more evident that terrestrial and aquatic life must be studied independently, as their areas of distri- bution are not the same. Mammals have been accorded first rank in determining faunal areas of terrestrial life, and zotigeographers have re- lied largely upon them to characterize their divisions, check- ing them by other animals. The causes of the distribution of animals are many, the prime factor being, of course, the past geological history of the globe, including, as it does, those changes which have affected the continuity, extent, and elevation of former and existing land areas. The question of continuity is most im- portant, since it practically controls the dispersal of land animals over large areas—a fact well illustrated by New Zea- land and the islands of Polynesia, where there are no indige- nous mammals save bats, whose power of flight has caused them to be very widely distributed. Next in order comes temperature, which is the most important controlling agent in the distribution of life over existing areas. Its efiect has long been recognized, and it is very obvious that it acts directly by limiting the range of many animals, and indi- rectly by its influence on vegetation. That temperature acts in other and more subtle ways than these has long been acknowledged, especially by bota- nists, but no satisfactory explanation has been offered until recently, when Dr. Merriam enunciated two principal “laws of temperature control” for the northern hemisphere. These, deduced from a careful study of the fauna of North America. are as follows: “The northward distribution of animals and plants is determined by the total quantity of heat, the sum of effective temperatures. The southward distribution of species . . . is determined by the mean tem- perature of the hottest part of the year.” After temperature come other climatic factors, especially humidity, physical characters, contour and configuration of the land. all of which have a greater or less eifect on the distribution of animals. Humboldt and Buifon may be credited with having laid the foundations of zotigeography, for while other writers had remarked certain peculiarities of distribution, they were the first to make any general deductions on the sub- ject. Humboldt drew attention to the effects of heat and cold on the dispersal of animals, and mapped out zones of animal life. Buffon knew “that the inhabitants of the 900 ZOOLOGICAL tropical and southern portions of the Old and New Worlds were entirely different from each other; that those of the northern portions of the two were to a considerable extent identical; and that the confluence of the two was most ap- parent toward the proximate portions of America and Asia.” Although Buffon recognized these facts, Swainson was perhaps the first to divide the earth into zoological re- gions, proposing five “ranges,” practically corresponding to the main continental masses. Since his time various di- visions have been proposed, authorities differing very con- siderably, not only in respect to the number and importance of the various zoological regions, but in the matter of their boundaries, although a comparison will show certain gen- eral agreements in regard to many of the principal divi- sions. These differences are partly due to a lack of positive knowledge respecting the actual distribution of animals, and partly to the class or to the combinations of animals selected to define the regions, there being a natural tendency on the part of each zotigeographer to consider as distinctive those groups of animals to which he has paid the most at- tention. The difiiculty of establishing zoiilogical regions is enhanced by the fact that their boundaries are not sharply defined, since there will be more or less overlapping of spe- cies, forming what have been termed transitional zones. Among the more important contributions to zo5geog- raphy are those of Sclater, Wallace, Allen, and Gill. The first, basing his divisions on birds, makes six regions, which have been widely accepted by European zoiilogists and were adopted by Wallace, who divided them into sub- regions. Dr. Allen’s system differs radically from those of Sclater and Wallace in that he insists on the distribution of life in circumpolar zones “which conform with the climate zones, though not always with the parallels of the geog- rapher.” He also carries his subdivisions a step further, recognizing three grades of zoological regions, termed in the order of their importance realms, regions, and prov- inces. The realms are eight in number: 1. The Arctic, in- cluding that part of the globe N. of the isotherm of 32° F., a boundary which is practically coincident with the north- ern limit of trees. 2. North temperate. This extends southward in North America to the isotherm of 68° or be- tween 68° and 70° F. This line begins on the Atlantic coast Vjust below the northern boundary of Florida, and runs . along the Gulf coast to Southern Texas and thence to the Pacific, following approximately the Mexican border. In the Old World the southern boundary of the north tem- perate realm is pretty nearly the same as that of the Palae- arctic region of other writers. In both hemispheres there is a considerable tract of debatable territory. 3. American tropical realm, bounded on the N. and S. by the isotherms of 70° F. The southern boundary leaves the Atlantic coast about lat. 30° S. and bends to the N. until it nearly or quite reaches the tropic of Capricorn in the northeastern corner of the Argentine Republic; thence it turns southward and runs to the base of the Andes, follows them N. to Ecuador, and crosses, bending southward again so as to include a strip of Northern Peru. This very nearly coincides with the southern boundary of the Brazilian region of Wallace. 4. South American temperate realm. This includes all South America and the adjacent islands below the line just de- scribed. 5. Indo-African realm, including all Africa S. of a strip along the Mediterranean, and intertropical Asia, in- cluding the adjacent islands S. to New Guinea and W. to the Moluccas. 6. Australian realm, comprising Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Guinea, and the Moluccas and Polynesia. 7. Lemurian realm, consisting only of Mada- gascar and the Mascarene islands. 8. Antarctic realm, mainly oceanic, but comprising also Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland islands. The following arrangement is in the main that of Wal- lace, but certain emendations have been made by Dr. Gill, notably the recognition of the temperate South American, New Zealand, and Polynesian regions. The number and boundaries of these divisions will undoubtedly need to be modified as we obtain a better knowledge of the distribu- tion of animals. I. The North Amervican or Nea/rete'e realm embraces North America from its northern boundaries, where it is fused into the European, southward into Northern Mexico, projecting into that country to a considerable distance, and ceasing near the southwestern borders of the U. S. on the lowlands. It has representatives of 26 families and about 750 species of mammals, exclusive of the marine types; 60 GEOGRAPHY families and about 760 species of birds; 25 families and about 250 species of reptiles; 14 families and about 100 species of amphibians; 17 families and about 650 species of fresh-water fishes; 'and 1 family and 6 or '7 species of mar- sipobranchiates. Of these several are peculiar to the region. The realm has been variously subdivided into sub-regions by different authors, notably Agassiz, Baird, Verrill, Allen, Cope, and Merriam, each of whom has based his divisions primarily upon special classes, though availing himself of his knowledge of other vertebrates. The division made by Dr. Merriam is based on a larger amount of material than was available to other writers, as well as on a better knowl- edge of the laws of distribution. These regions are founded on the distribution of plants as well as of animals, and are three in number : 1. The Boreal region extends obliquely across the entire continent from New England and Newfoundland to Alaska and British Columbia, and from about lat. 45° N. to the Polar Sea, conforming in general direction to the trend of the northern shores of the continent. It recedes to about lat. 54° on the plains of the Saskatchewan, and gives off three long arms or chains of islands, which reach far south along the three great mountain systems of the U. S. Twenty gen- era of mammals are peculiar to this region, or do not ex- tend beyond the transition zone which lies between it and the next division. 2. The Austral region covers nearly the whole of the U. S., except the mountains, and reaches northward considerably beyond the boundary on the Great Plains and Great Basin. It is invaded from the N. by the three boreal intrusions mentioned above. To the southward it occupies the great interior basin of Mexico and extends into the tropics along the highlands of the interior. It covers also the peninsula of Lower California, the southern border of which seems tinged with a tropical fauna. Twenty genera of mammals are confined to the austral region. This region is divided by temperature into three transcontinental zones, named transition, and upper and lower austral, and these in turn are subdivided into arid and humid divisions, the most im- portant of which are the arid lower Sonoran, and humid austro-riparian, which together make up the lower austral zone. 3. The T9'0}n'ca.Z 0'egz'o'n., which occupies the remainder of North America, reaches the U. S. at two points--Florida and Texas. In the former it exists as a narrow belt encircling the southern half of the peninsula from Cape Malabar on the E. to Tampa Bay on the W. In Texas it crosses the lower Rio Grande from Mexico and extends N. to the neighborhood of the Nueces river. In Western Mexico the tropical region reaches Mazatlan. Fifty-three genera of mammals, the majority bats, are exclusively tropical. II. The 1Z'm'o])ean or Palcearctie realm is the largest of all, and embraces the entire northern portion of the Old World. lts southern limits nearly coincide with the tropic of Cancer in the lowlands, and its isotherm projected there- from in the more rugged countries. In Africa it extends into the Desert of Sahara, and in Asia it is limited by the Himalaya Mountains and their spurs. It possesses members of 31 families of terrestrial mammals, 55 of birds (according to Wallace), 25 of reptiles, 9 of amphibians (according to Giinther), and 16 of fresh-water fishes. None of these fami- lies, however, are continuous over the entire area and at the same time peculiar to it. According to Wallace, there are four regions, or “ sub-regions,” which he contends are "in the present state of our knowledge at once the most natural and the only practicable ones.” These are (1) the Euro ean, (2) the Mediterranean, (3) the Siberian, and (4) the Jan- churian. 1. The European region coincides with the continent of Europe and its outlying islands northward, but is limited southward by the Pyrenees and the Alps, the Balkans, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus range. A few genera of verte- brates are peculiar to the region, among which are those in- cluding the chamois and the desman. 2. The Mediterranean region includes the countries bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Caucasus Mountains, and on the S. by the great desert of Africa; it also embraces Asia Minor, Persia, and part of Af- ghanistan, as well as the northern part of Arabia. It is the richest of all the European regions in the number of species, and herein forms of North and South Europe meet on com- mon ground, and a few African types have wandered into it. It has been subdivided into (co) “ the Mediterranean sub-re- gion ” and (b) “ the Persian sub-region.” ZOOLOGICAL 3. The Siberian region includes the whole of Northern Asia from the Arctic Ocean southward to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan, the Himalaya Mountains, Northern China, and the Amoy river. A number of peculiar genera are present, but these are quite limited in their range, and none extends over the entire area. It is divisible into (a) “the Siberian sub-region ” and (b) “ the Tartarian sub-region.” 4. The Manchurian region includes Manchuria, as well as the Chinese empire and the Japanese islands, and is charac- terized by quite a large number of peculiar species of the several classes of vertebrates, which, however, are mostly quite limited in their distribution, and few, if any, extend over even the greater part of the territory. It has been dif- ferentiated into (a) “the Manchurian sub-region ” and (Z2) “ the Japanese sub-region.” III. The Indian or Oriental realm is of less extent than either of the two preceding ones, but is nevertheless richer than either in the number of species. It extends from the Himalayan range southward to the Indian Ocean, and toward the southeast is limited by the narrow but deep strait which intervenes between Celebes island and its dependencies on the S. and Borneo on the N., and between the islands of Lumbok and Sumbawa on the one hand and Bali and Java on the other ; it thus includes the peninsulas of Hither and Farther India and the Indo-Malayan Archipelago and Philip- pine islands. In it are found 33 families of terrestrial mam- mals, 71 families of birds, 25 families of reptiles, 9 of amphib- ians, and 15 of fresh-water fishes. Of these, 12 are peculiar. Four subdivisions are admitted by Wallace, but these will probably need revision. They are as follows: 1. The first or Hindustan region includes the Indian Pen- insula from the Himalayas on the N. to the delta of the Ganges and its approximate isotherm on the S.; “ and it probably reaches to“about Kashmir in the N. W., and per- haps to the valley of the Indus farther S.; but the great desert tract to the E. of the Indus forms a transition to the south Paleearctic sub-region.” Its zotilogical peculiari- ties consist rather in the development of the types than in the exclusive presence of any one. 2. The Ceylonese region—so called because its character- istics are exhibited in the highest degree in the island of Ceylon—-includes not only that island, but also the southern portion of the Indian Peninsula to the confines of the first, or Hindustan, region. According to Wallace, “ the main features of this division are—the appearance of numerous animals allied to forms only found again in the Himalayas or in the Malayan sub-region, the possession of several pe- culiar generic types, and an unusual number of peculiar species.” 3. The Indo-Chinese or Himalayan region includes the peninsula of Farther India and Southern China, and extends from the Himalayas in the N. southward to the Malaccan peninsula. “ Taking this sub-region as a whole,” says ‘Val- lace, “ we find it to be characterized by 3 genera of Mam- malia [ U rca, Aretong/az, and zElaras], without counting bats. and 44 genera of land-birds, which are altogether peculiar to it; and by 13 genera of Mammalia and 36 of birds, which it possesses in common with the Malayan sub-region." This region, according to some authors, admits of a further sub- division into three—(a) Southern and Central China, (b) Bur- ma, Siam, and Cochin, and, as an appendage, (0) the An- daman and Nicobar islands. 4. The Indo-Malayan region includes all the islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago and the Philippine islands, as well as the Malayan Peninsula. The region is capable of subdivision into several others; Sclater, e. g., has distin- guished (a) the Malay Peninsula, (b) the Indian islands, and (0) the Philippine Archipelago. The last is remarkable for the exuberant development of the terrestrial gasteropods. The Andaman and Nicobar islands have been combined by some naturalists, as already indicated, with the Indo- Chinese region, but by Wallace have been referred, one (the Andamans) to the Indo-Chinese, and the other (the Nicobars) to the Indo-Malayan. IV. The Afmlean or Etlz-e'opian realm, as the name indi- cates, includes the greater part of the African continent, but not all, it being limited on the N. by the Desert of Sa- hara, although on all other sides bounded by the ocean; but it also comprises, according to most recent authors, the island of Madagascar and the Mascarenes, as well as the peninsula of Arabia. It is distingui_shed especially in that it possesses the highest types, after man, of the order Primates, these being in all respects the most anthropoid. This region is also further distinguished by the restriction to it of as many GEOGRAPHY 901 as 9 isolated families of mammals. The most marked, how- ever, are the fishes, of which there are 14 families; of these, five are peculiar. This realm, like all the others, has been subdivided by Wallace into four regions, or, as he designates them, “ sub-regions ”--viz. (a) the East African, (b) the West African, (0) the South African, and (cl) the Malagasy. 1. The East African sub-region, or that of Central or East Africa, includes “all the open country of tropical Africa S. of the Sahara. as well as an undefined southern margin of that great desert.” It embraces Nubia and the country toward the S., as well as the entire width of the continent between about the 10th degree of S. lat. and the tropic of Capricorn. It is mostly distinguished by negative characters in contrast with the others. 2. The West African region comprises the western half of the continent at its greatest width, and is bounded on the N. by the Desert of Sahara, and on the E. and S. by the East African region, its southern bounds being nearly coincident, toward the coast, with the river Congo, but further inland with about the 10th degree of S. lat. Among the characteristic animals of the region are the go- rilla. the chimpanzee, and two genera of Lemuridce (Pero- d/z'etleus and Arefoeebus), constituting a peculiar section of the family Lemuridze. 3. The South African region embraces the southern por- tion of the continent, and its limits toward the N. are nearly coequal with the tropic of Capricorn, except along and near the eastern coast, where it extends northward to the vicinity of Mozambique ; on all other sides it is bounded by the ocean. To this region, so far as known, are limited several of the forms that are peculiar to Africa—viz. the Protelldce. the Chrysochloridoe, and the Or_2/eteropodildce. A large number of genera in various classes of animals are also peculiar to it. 4. The Malagasy region comprises the island of Mada- gascar, as well as the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius, Rodri- guez, and the Seychelles. These, however, exhibit remark- able differences among themselves. (a) Madagascar is dis- tinguished by the development of several peculiar types of mammals—e. g. Drmbentom'z'dre, Crypzfoprocte'dre, and Gen- tet£dce;* birds and invertebrates of remarkable character further specialize it as an independent region. (12) The Mascarene islands include all the small ones enumerated, and several of them are remarkable for the large birds provided with imperfect wings which formerly existed on them, but which through the agency of man have now be- come extinct. V. The Souz‘h Amerzban or Neoto-op'z'eal realm extends from the N. near the northern boundaries of Mexico in the lowlands, and lower down in the highlands, to the irregu- lar line which marks the northern boundary of the South American temperate realm and runs from lat. 30° S. on the east coast of South America to lat. 5° S. on the west coast. \Vith it are also generally associated the West Indian isl- ands. It has 30 families of mammals, '73 of birds, 35 of rep- tiles. 16 of amphibians, and 1'7 of fresh-water fishes. An unusual proportion of these are peculiar to the region, or nearly so. This realm has been subdivided into four regions. 1. The Mexican or Central American region extends from Northern Mexico near the coast, and from Central Mexico in the highlands, southward to about the Isthmus of Panama. It is distinguished by the intermixture of North and South American types; but quite a large number of species and not a few genera are peculiar to the region. 2. The Antillean, \Vest Indian, or Caribbean region, as it has been variously called. includes most of the islands of the Caribbean Sea. On the whole, the types found on the several islands are most closely related to those of the Mexi- can region, and there are many species and quite a large number of genera peculiar to it. Undoubtedly the most noteworthy feature of this region is the great development of terrestrial gasteropods: these exhibit an extraordinary range of variation, both specific and generic. The larger islands (Cuba, Haiti, and Jamaica) are especially remarka- ble for the manifestation of this form of animal life. The region is susceptible of subdivision into several others well defined by differences in the combinations of land-shells. Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Porto Rico, etc., are all centers of peculiar combinations of species. 3. The Brazilian or Amazonian region embraces the most of tropical America, and its limits are coextensive with the Atlantic Ocean on the N., and generally also on * An aberrant type of this family (Solenodontinoe) is represented in t-he West Indian islands. 902 zoonoe-IGAL the E., while toward the S. it extends into Uruguay, and toward the W. terminates in the highlands of the Andes. It is extremely rich in re resentatives of almost every class of terrestrial animals. t is the headquarters of the pla- tyrhine monkeys, the Oavitdce, the spiny rats, the ant-eat- ers, the sloths, the armadillos, and the opossums among the mammals; the toucans, the curassows. the tinamous, and many other families among the birds; and the Polycen- trlclce and Gymnottdce among the fishes; the insects and terrestrial as well as fiuviatile mollusks are also as a whole characteristic. 4. The Galapagos region includes the archipelago so named, with about fifteen islands situated on either side of the equator and distant about 600 miles westward from South America. Perhaps it is properly a mere faunal dis- trict of the Chilian region, and as such Wallace has con- sidered it. VI. The South American temperate realm coincides very nearly with Wallace’s Chilian sub-region, its northern limit on the Atlantic coast being near the 30th parallel. On leaving the Atlantic coast, the northern boundary passes obliquely northwestward, rising in the region of the Chaco Desert to, or possibly a little beyond, the tropic of Capricorn. Again descending to about the 25th parallel, It turns abruptly northward and eastward, along the eastern border of the Andean chain, nearly to the 5th degree _of S. lat., near which point it strikes the Pacific coast. It thus em- braces a large part of the great Andean plateau, with the neighboring coast region to the westward, nearly all the La Plata plains, and the region thence southward to Tierra del Fuego, which belongs also to this realm. Within its limits occur representatives of several peculiar groups; there are 18 families of terrestrial mammals, 2 of which (the Oh'lnchtll'ld¢e and Ohlamyclophomlclce) are almost confined to it; 42 families of birds, 3 of which (Uhz'one'dtdce, The'nocom'dre, and Rhetdce) hardly occur farther N.; 15 families of reptiles; 11 families of amphibians; 5 families of fishes, two of which are shared with New Zealand and Tas- mania, and scarcely extend into tropical America; and 1 family of Myzonts, also shared with New Zealand and Tasmania. VII. The Australian realm is of all the most distinctly defined by its fauna. As here limited, it comprises Aus- tralia and the immediately outlying islands and the Austro- Malayan Archipelago ; it is limited northward by Wallace’s line or strait, which separates Lombok from Bali and Celebes from Borneo, including Papua or New Guinea and the Solomon islands to the eastward, and southward embraces Tasmania or Van Diemen’s Land. It is especially distin- guished by its numerous marsupial mammals, and by the almost complete restriction of the class to representatives of that order ; the monotremes are also characteristic of the realm, and entirely confined to it. The class of birds likewise has a number of very characteristic types. The reptiles and amphibians are perhaps less noteworthy, although they present some interesting features of detail. The fresh-water fishes are, however, especially remarkable; while many of what may be called marine families are represented by fiuviatile species. there are several that are peculiar to it or found elsewhere only in South America. Among the for- mer is the family Oeratodonttdm, which in former geolog- ical epochs was extensively represented in other parts of the world, but is now peculiar to Australia. The articu- lates and mollusks also afford a large number of character- istic forms. The primary subdivisions of the realm are two: 1. The Australian region includes the continent of Aus- tralia and the island of Tasmania, as well as several smaller ones near the coast. This is especially the home of the existing types of marsupials, and all the surviving families, with the exception of Dtdelphtdtdce, are here best exempli- fied, and several of them are peculiar. To this region also the family Ornt'th0r7tyn07te'dce of the monotremes is re- stricted. 2. The Austro-Malayan or Papuan region includes the island of Papua or New Guinea, and likewise Celebes and the multitudinous islands lying toward the S. and between it and Papua, as well as the Solomon islands. Among the mammals there is one species of the genus St!/8 known, and one species of Murtdm, but all the others belong to the orders of marsupials and monotremes. Among the birds the most noteworthy forms are those of the family Para- Zlpisetdw, which are developed to the greatest extent in New umea. GEOGRAPHY Both of the above-specified regions of the Australian realm, but especially the Papuan one, are susceptible of subdivision into well-marked faunal districts; but for in- formation respecting these reference must be made to Wal- lace’s work, as well as to memoirs by Australian and other naturalists. VIII. The New Zealand or Orntthogean realm comprises New Zealand only. It has 21 peculiar genera of birds, including the remarkable apteryx, which is by many considered as the type of an order. Moreover. the moas (D'ln0rne'th't'dae) are only recently extinct, and these were restricted to New Zealand. Here also is found the only surviving genus, Sphenodon or Hatterta, of the order Rhychocephal/t'a, a group of reptiles whose fossil remains are widely distributed. IX. The Polynesian realm includes all the islands of the tropical Pacific E. of New Guinea and the few small islands belonging to it. It is very largely distinguished by its negative characters, indigenous mammals being all but ab- sent; there are something like 50 genera and 150 species of birds, including a considerable number of fruit pigeons and small parrots; and the gasteropod fauna is rather char- acteristic. This realm may perhaps be best considered as provisional, and its exact limits or relations to be determined in the future. While much has been done in determining the zotilogical regions of the land, comparatively little has been done with those of the sea, because the data are much more meager. and the difficulties in the way of plotting the boundaries of the regions are much /greater in the latter case than in the former. As stated by Dr. Gill, there is no relation between the marine faunas and those of the land, for while the geo- logical changes which have affected the elevation of the land have to some extent influenced the character of the marine faunas, yet the two faunas have developed independ- ently of each other. Prof. Dana, so early as 1853, divided marine life into three zones, these being subdivided into nine “regions ” limited by isocrymes, or lines connecting points at which the surface temperature averaged the same “ for the coldest consecutive thirty days of the year.” Prof. Dana’s arrangement was as follows: I. Torrtcl or Coral Reef Zone. Regions. Isocrymal or temperature limits. Supertorrid (Equatorial) . . . . . . . . . . . . 80° to 80° F. Torrid (North and South) . . . . . . . . . . . 80° to 74° Sub-torrid (North and South).. . . .. . II. Temperate Zone. Warm Temperate (North and South). 74° to 68° 68° to 62° F. Temperate (North and South) . . . . . . . 62° to 56° Sub-temperate (North and South). . . . 56° to 50° Cold Temperate (North and South). . 50° to 44° Sub-frigid (North and South) . . . . . . . . 44° to 35° III. Fm'ge'ol Zone. Frigid (North and South) . . . . . . . . . . . 35° to 26° F. Three great divisions or “kingdoms” were admitted: “ the American or Occidental, including East and West Amer- ica; the Africo-European, including the coasts of Europe and Western Africa ; and the Oriental, including the coasts of Eastern Africa, East Indies, Eastern and Southern Asia, and the Pacific. Besides these, there are the Arctic or Ant- arctic kingdoms, including the coasts of the frigid zones, and in some places, as Fuegia, those of the extreme tem- perate zone.” Dr. Gunther in 1880, treating of marine fishes, divided them into three categories--shore, pelagic, and deep-sea fishes. The distribution of the last two groups was not touched upon, but the shore fishes were distributed in zones, and the zones divided into districts, thus: I. The Arctic Ocean; II. The Northern Temperate Zone, subdivided into (A) the Temperate North Atlantic, comprising British, Med- iterranean, and North American districts, and (B) the Tem- perate North Pacific, com rising Kamchatkan, Japanese, and Californian districts; II. The E uatorial Zone, subdi- vided into (A) the Tropical Atlantic, ( ) the Tropical Indo- Pacific, and (C) the Pacific Coast of Tropical America. the last named comprising three districts—Central American, Galapagos, and Peruvian; IV. The Southern Temperate Zone, comprising four districts-—Cape of Good Hope, South Australian, Chilian, and Patagonian; V. The Antarctic Ocean. ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY Dr. Gill in 1883 considered that the primary marine re- gions, or realms, were five in number: (1) The Arctalian, (2) the Pararctalian, (3) the Tropicalian, (4) the Notalian, and (5) the Antarctalian. The Arctalian or Arctic realm comprises the northern seas, extending southward approxi- mately to the isocryme of 44° F., or about to Cape Cod on the eastern coast of North America and the Straits of Juan de Fuca on the west, but these boundaries are said to be provisional. The Pararctalian or North Temperate realm includes the various coast-lines between the isocrymes of 44° and 68°, the latter being the northern limit of reef- growing corals. The Tropicalian realm is the same as Dana’s Torrid Zone, including the seas between the iso- crymes of 68° N. and S. The Notalian or South Tem- perate realm extends from the isocrymes of 68° to 44° S. While differing from the -Pararctalian there are neverthe- less a number of genera common to the two which are ab- sent from the intervening Tropicalian realm. The Ant- arctalian or Antarctic realm covers the antipodal ocean up to the isocryme of 44°, the only continental area in- cluded being part of Patagonia, from the Rio Negro on the east coast to lat. 50'5° on the west. All the deep-sea fishes were relegated to a Bassalian realm with the qualification that the data on which it was based were insufficient, and that its limits would probably need to be better defined in the future. The statement was, however, made that “ one of the characteristic features of the Bassalian animals appears to be their wide dispersion and range, . . . and they appear to be restricted less by latitude and longitude than by bathymetrical influences.” Subse uently to this came the publication of the Chal- lenger Reports and the unsurpassed deep-sea work of the U. S. steamer Albatross, which, together with other less pre- tentious researches, furnished Dr. Goode with the material for papers presented by him in 1895. In these papers Dr. Goode shows that the ideas that the fauna of the deep sea is characterized by its uniformity and that the distribution is in horizontal zones are incorrect, and that instead of being limited by temperature a number of deep-sea faunal regions can be characterized as bounded in some instances by submarine plateaus. These regions are eleven in num- ber, and the best defined of them are distinguished by the possession of not less than 25 per cent. of peculiar genera and 33 per cent. of peculiar species. They are (1) the Boreal Atlantic; (2) Eastern Atlantic, or Lusitanian, with a Mediterranean sub-region; (3) Northwest- ern Atlantic, or Virginian, with a Caribbeo-Mexican sub- region; (4) Southwestern Atlantic, or Brazilian; (5) Boreal Pacific, or Aleutian; (6) Eastern Pacific, or Galapagean; (7) Northwestern Pacific, or Japanese; (8) Polynesian; (9) New Zealandian; (10) Antarctic; (11) Indian. The fishes inhabiting the open ocean are termed oceanic fishes to distinguish them from the shore-frequenting or littoral species. They are divided into two general groups : 1. Pelagic fishes, or those which live near the surface; many of these descend to considerable depths and are called bathy-pelagic. 2. Bathybial fishes, or those which frequent the great depths of the ocean and are not found at less than 1,000 feet below the surface. A large number of species -dwell at or near the bottom between the littoral and bathyb- ial zones, often descending to considerable depths; they are mostly allied to littoral forms which have made their way down the continental slopes, and are termed hemi- ‘bathybial or semi-littoral. They constitute more than half the inhabitants of the eleven bathybial regions, and many -of the peculiarities of these divisions are due to the con- tingent of hemi-bathybial fishes, which in turn are related to those of the adjacent coast faunas. It is still a moot question whether the intermediate depths of the ocean are or are not inhabited by fishes or in- vertebrates. Prof. Haeckel, of Jena, assuming that life oc- curs at all depths, has proposed an elaborate scheme of nomenclature for the various deeps and for the animals as- sumed to dwell in them. Other naturalists, the most promi- nent among them being Alexander Agassiz and Victor Hensen, maintain, on the other hand, that life is limited to the strata directly adjacent to the surface and to the ocean bottom, and that the region between is practically lifeless, although no doubt many forms pass through these depths, at least from below upward, while many bathybial forms reside at the surface during the early stage of their lives. The Plankton expeditions of the Germans and French, and the elaborate experiments of Prof. Agassiz with his trap-nets, tend to confirm these views, and indicate that zooLoeY 903 pelagic life is normally confined to the upper strata of the ocean, and that many forms which have been brought up in deep-sea nets and supposed to have come from great depths were really taken near the surface, and that pelagic life in the open ocean is confined, at most, to depths of 200 to 300 fathoms. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—SWaiI1SOl'1, A Treatise on the Geography and Classification of Animals (London, 1835); Sclater, On the Geo raphical Distribution of the Members of the Class Aces ( our. of the Proc. of the London Socl, vol. ii., Zoology. pp. 130-139, 1858) ; Murray, The Geographical Distribution of Mammals (London, 1866); Huxley, On the Classification and Distribution of the Alectoromorphce and Hetero- morphw (Proc. Sc. Meetings Zo5l. Soc. London, for 1868, pp. 294-319, with map) ; Sclater, On the Geographical Distribu- tion of Mammals (Science Lectures for the People, 6th se- ries, No. 5,1874); Cope, On Geographical Distribution of the Vertebrata of the Regnum lVearcticum (Bull. U. S. Nat’l Mus., 1, Washington, 1875): Wallace, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, with a Study of the Relations of Living and Extinct Faunas as elucidating the past changes of the Earth’s Surface (with maps and illustrations, 2 vols., London, 1876) ; Allen, The Geographical Distribution of the lllammalia (Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geograph. Sur. of Terri- tories, vol. iv., Washington, 1878); Gill, The Principles of Zo'o'geography (Proc. Biol. Soc. of Washington, Washington, 1885) ; Heilprin, The Geographical and Geological Distribu- tion of Animals (New York, 1887); Merriam, The Geo- graphical Distribution of Life in lVorth America (Proc. Biol. Soc. of Washington, Washington, 1892); Laws of Temperature Control of the Geographic Distribution of Terrestrial Animals and Plants (lVat. Geog. Mag., vi., Washington, 1894) '; Dana, On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating the Geographical Distribution of fllarine Ani- mals (Am. Jour Sci. and Arts, 2, vol. xvi., New Haven, 1853); Giinther, An Introduction to the Study of Fishes (London, 1880). F. A. Lucas. Z061’ 0g)’ [Gr. (<',6ov, animal + A61/os, discourse, reason]: that part of biology which relates to animal life : the science which treats of the structure, development, classification, distribution, habits, and derivation of animals. Zo6logy properly includes the study of extinct animals as well as those now living on the earth, but the former branch of the science is considered by itself under the title PALEON'1‘OL- oev (q. 12.). HIs'roRY.—The science of zotilogy begins with Aristotle (B. 0. 384-322), whose works include the comparative anat- omy of animals, together with the first-known ‘classification. He mentions about 500 species of animals, and had dis- sected, studied, and described many forms which were not re-examined until recent times. His interest in the science was pre-eminently anatomical, although his influence at the Renaissance was chiefly systematic. No other ancient writer contributed much to the advancement of the science. The work of Pliny (23-79 A. D.) is distinguished by wide and entirely uncritical knowledge. It is a collection of mingled facts and fables about animals. Other ancient writers treated of human anatomy rather than zoiilogy. During the earlier Middle Ages no interest was shown in zotilogy for its own sake. In the fourteenth century a work appeared in various languages entitled Physiologus, treat- ing chiefly of the natural history of Bible animals. It de- scribed about seventy species, including among them fabu- lous forms like the griffin and the phoenix. The Arabian naturalists of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries translated Aristotle, and in some degree intro- duced him to the knowledge of the Western world. Among these may be mentioned Abd-el-Latif, Avicenna, Abd-ul- Faraj, and, in less degree, Averroes. At the revival of learning, zoiilogy recommenced by the translation and com- mentary on Aristotle by Albertus Magnus (1193-1280). No advance in the science, however, was made either by him or by his contemporaries, whose interest did not lie in the direction of scientific study. The zotilogy of modern times is divided into four periods —that of the encyclopeedists, that of Linnaeus, that of Cu- vier, and that of Darwin. The Encyclopoedists, 1500-1750.—The first new impetus to the study of zoblogy was given by the discovery of the Indies, East and West, and the animals which these discov- eries brought to the notice of the Europeans. In the latter part of the sixteenth century A. Gesner published, in his Historia Animalium, the work from which modern zoiilogy 904 may be dated. It described all the animals known to his time, with illustrations, 1nany of them given to the world for the first time. The work of U. Aldrovandi is of a simi- lar character, less critical, but still of great value in extend- ing the knowledge of the new animals discovered in Asia and America. The Englishman Wotton (1492-1555), by his translation of Aristotle, revived the Aristotelian zoology, stripped of mediaeval fables, but his work had little influ- ence as compared with those already cited. It began, how- ever, the systematic work which led through Bay to Linnaeus. The Linnazan Period, 1750—1800.—These eneyclopaedic works gave the world that knowledge of facts which must precede‘the scientific handling of a subject, and prepared the way for Linnaeus, with whom modern scientific zoology and botany began. To the forces aiding in the accumula- tion of these facts must also be added the development of human anatomy and of microscopy in the fifteenth and six- teenth centuries. Linnaeus (1707-78) first constructed a complete system in which all animals were to be enrolled. It was superficially constructed, indeed it was largely artificial, and yet the very fact of its completeness aided in making his work the point of departure for scientific zotilogy. His method was equally important. He introduced the binary system of nomencla- ture, which, although apparently a small thing, was in real- ity of the first importance in contributing to the clarifica- tion of knowledge in zoology, and he introduced also the diagnosis, as distinguished from the description, of the ani- mal. In Linnaeus’s method every animal was to receive its proper names—generic and specific-—and was to be briefly characterized in terms which should distinguish it from all other members of the same genus, and each genus and other higher group was to be similarly characterized. In order properly to characterize a new animal, it had to be exam- ined in all particulars, so as to find its diagnostic charac- ters, and to determine its place in the system; and this study led to increasing knowledge of the characters of ani- mals, and made necessary a continual revision and correc- tion of the system itself as knowledge enlarged. With the work of Linnaeus the conception of the animal kingdom was developed for the first time, and zotilogy became an account of this kingdom rather than a mere description of individual animals. Linnaeu.'s's Systema Natnrce was published about the middle of the eighteenth century, and the next half century was mainly occupied with applying to the animal kingdom the principles which he had established, and widening the knowledge of the animal kingdom on lines which he had laid down. Among the distinguished zoolo- gists of this period are Buffon, Bonnet, Fabricius, O. F. Miiller, Lacépéde, Trembley, Spallanzani, and G. F. Wolfi. ' The Cnvierian Period, 1800—60.—Important as were the ideas contributed to zoiilogy by Linnaeus, they were not without danger to the .science. Men forgot that “ species ” was merely a collective term, and ascribed to it a certain kind of real existence. They looked on the system as the structure into which newly discovered knowledge was to be fitted, not as the constantly changing expression of increas- ing knowledge. The Linnaean system, too, was especially deficient on the side of the higher classification, and the method included no criteria for grouping animals under the higher categories. A knowledge of comparative anatomy was needed in order to bring into view the points on which higher classification rests. With the nineteenth century began a new development of zoology in the direction of comparative anatomy. The leader in this movement was George Cuvier (1769—1832), who possessed an extraordinary knowledge of the facts of comparative anatomy, based largely upon his own re- searches, and at the same time was able so to handle these facts as to establish three zoological principles of the first importance. The first of these was the law of the correlation of parts——-the law that each organism is not a mere aggre- gate, but forms a complete whole, in which single parts can not be altered without changing all of the others; so that from the presence of certain characters the presence of others may also be inferred. This principal underlay his study of paleontology, which science he started, and his famous reconstructions of fossil animals. The second prin- ciple was that of subordination of characters——that certain characters are leading and others subordinate to these. From these he developed his third idea—that of types of structure in the animal kingdom. He conceived that under the principle of subordination of characters animals were built upon certain plans of structure, according to which ZOGLOGY they might be arranged in great types or branches (em- branehmnents). These were four in number—vertebrates, articulates, mollusks, and radiates. The animals in each branch were built on the same plan, and corresponding or homologous parts might be found in them. Animals in different branches were built on different plans, and showed no correspondence of structure, only likeness of function, analogy. Previous to Cuvier’s establishment of the type theory the animal kingdom had been divided into classes of very unequal value, based on complexity of structure, and the idea was generally maintained, as by Lamarck, that the animal kingdom formed a series ranging from the high- est and most complex to the lowest and most simple. The type theory was vigorously opposed by E. Geoffrey Saint- Hilaire, but unsuccessfully, and it dominated the zoiilogy of the next half century. The first half of the nineteenth century was devoted to working out and enlarging the ideas in anatomy and classi- fication given to the zoiilogical world by Ouvier, and a host of students developed the science both on the systematic side and in comparative anatomy. Embryology, founded by O. F. Wolif in the middle of the eighteenth century, be- gan its real life with the work of Pander, von Baer (1792- 1876), and other embryologists of the first part of the cen- tury, whose embryological work aided greatly to confirm the type theory as established by Cuvier. Histology origi- nated with Bichat in the first years of the century. Of the host of distinguished men of this period only a very few may be named, an account of whom may be found under their respective names : Johannes Miiller, perhaps the most influential comparative anatomist next to Cuvier, Ehren- berg, d’Orbigny, von Siebold, who corrected the Cuvierian types by the separation of the Protozoa, and Leuckart, who still further separated the Cuvierian types into seven divisions, substantially as indicated in the article ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE. In comparative anatomy no name is more distinguished than that of Richard Owen. In the U. S. the greatest name of this period is that of James D. Dana. The Darwinian Period, 1860 to the Present.-—The publi- cation of The Origin of Species in 1859 by Charles Darwin worked a more rapid and complete change in zoology than in any other science—even the sister science of botany-— (see EVOLUTION and DARWINISM), and under the stimulus afforded by the evolutionary conception of the animal king- dom, zoiilogy has developed with great rapidity, has special- ized in many different directions, and has claimed the labors of a host of men of the first ability. It is only possible here to sketch the directions in which zotilogy has moved, without attempting to name even the most important works and scientists. The idea of descent gave for the first time a point from which all branches of the science could be viewed. The facts of systematic zoology, comparative anatomy, embryol- ogy, and the biological relations of animals could now be handled together for a common end, and their own inter- relations could now be seen. As a result, all the older de- partments of the science have been developed with marvel- ous rapidity, and many new and formerly unsuspected directions of investigation have appeared. CZa.ssificati0n.—Tl1e number of species of animals known to science has increased with great rapidity. Linnaeus rec- ognized about 6,000 species. In 1830 the number of known species was estimated at 50,000. Thirty years later, in 1860, I. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire estimated the number at 140,000. In 1875 Pagenstecher gave 300,000 as the number then known. At the present time 400,000 to 500,000 would be a conservative estimate. Good authorities suppose that there are at least 1,000,000 species of insects, including those un- described as well as those now known. The handling of this vast and rapidly increasing mass of material has called for a corresponding increase in the complexity and perfec- tion of the methods of classification. At this place, how- ever, only the changes in the higher classification can be noticed. As already stated, the type theory of Cuvier as modified by Leuckart and others, was the dominant theory -of classification until the acceptance of the theory of evolu- tion. The type theory is still practically dominant, although not interpreted to-day as it was by its adherents in the first half of the nineteenth century. The conception of descent which evolution introduced has not been used successfully as a basis of the wider classification, although many at- tempts have been made to do so. Our knowledge of the in- ter-relationships of animals is still so incomplete and the relations are so complex that it has been nnpossible to ZOOLOGY group the larger divisions of the animal kingdom on this basis. It is only in the past few years that there has been any marked tendency to break away from the seven types of animals established more than a half century ago by Leuckart, substantially as given in the article on ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE. The idea of plan of structure has been abandoned, although the name type or branch is still re- tained for the primary divisions of the animal kingdom. Recent classifications depart from older ones chiefly in the multiplication of new primary groups and in the redistrib- uting of groups of doubtful affinities. The most impor- tant change is the establishment of groups higher in rank than that of type. The most generally accepted division of this sort is that of series, under which the animal king- dom is divided into two great groups, the Protozoa, or one-celled animals, and the flletazoa or many-celled ani- mals. Less generally accepted is the division of Metazoa into Accelomata or Ooelentera and Gwlomata, or Metazoa devoid of a body-cavity and those possessing one. The most important modifications of the limits of the types or branches are as follows: (1) The old group Vermes has been abandoned and a number of groups have been substituted for it. Per- haps no two high authorities agree as yet in regard to the number, limits, or affinities of these groups. (2) The separa- tion of Bryozoa and Brachiopoda from Mollasca, leaving, however, their affinities in doubt. (3) The sponges are placed in connection with the Cwlenterata, either as a group sub- ordinate to that or correlative with it. (4) The division of Arthropocla into at least two branches. (5) The union of Tunicata and perhaps other groups with the Vertebrata. Sciences relating to the Structure anal Development of Animals.—llforphology.—-A general account of the morphol- ogy of animals is given under ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE, and reference is made here only to the changes in the science accomplished by the introduction of the doctrine of evolu- tion. Comparative anatomy, founded by Cuvier, had at first two aims: first, the description of the structure of ani- mals, and second, the handling of these facts so as to work out the types of structure upon which animals were built. With the abandonment of the type theory this second pur- pose has been abandoned, and the science has been han- dled with a view to discovering the afiinities between groups of animals, the origin of the structures possessed by the higher animals, and the lines of development by which they have reached their present condition. Carl Gegenbaur, whose anatomical work extends over the whole period from 1860 to the present time, has doubtless contributed more than any other one man to this philosophical handling of the subject. Histology.—An account of the tissues of animals will be found under the heading HISTOLOGY. Physiology/.-While the study of the physiology of man and the higher animals, especially the mammals, has devel- oped greatly within the last quarter century (see PHYSIOL- OGY),13l16 study of the physiology of the lower animals, es- pecially the invertebrates, has been comparatively neglected. The doctrine of evolution, emphasizing the genetic affinities of animals, has diverted attention from the subjects of his- tology and physiology, which have contributed least to the working out of the questions arising from evolution. Embrg/ologg/.—Tl1e science of embryology, which had de- veloped very slowly before The Origin of Species appeared, rose at once into a place of the first importance on the in- troduction of the idea of evolution. In the article El\IBRY- OLOGY an account is given of the development of the higher vertebrates, particularly the mammals. This field had been partially explored before 1860, although immense additions to our knowledge of embryology have been made since that time. The study of the embryology of the invertebrates, which is not discussed in that article, has been of even greater service in advancing our knowledge of zoiilogy. This is especially true of the study of the larval forms of in- vertebrates, to which reference is made in the several arti- cles on these groups. The nauplius larvae of the Urnstacea (see CRUSTAOEA), the trochosphere of the worms, the veliger larvae of the mollusks, and the larvae of the Tnnicata (see TUNIOATA) have been of the first importance in determining the internal and external relationships of these groups. The results of the study of these developments led to the establish- ment of the so-called biogenctic law, first stated by Haeckel. This law asserts that the embryology of any group is a re- capitulation of the history of its descent, and that from the study of the developmental changes of the individual there can be learned a summary of the developmental history of 905 I the group to which it belongs. This law, however, is subject to important modifications, since, first, many features of em- bryological development have been acquired by the larvae and do not show the past history of the group to which it belongs; and, second, many stages of development which must have been present in the history of the group are not represented in the development of the individual. While these modifications were recognized by Haeckel, they are undoubtedly given more weight at the present time than formerly, and it is not thought that embryology offers such clear indications of phylogeny as was once believed. Since 1880 the science has developed in other directions, especial- ly in the knowledge of the more minute facts of develop- ment, the study of the process of fertilization and of cell di- vision in the egg, and the history and fate of each of the primary parts into which the cell segments. These studies have led in recent years to a rediscussion of the facts and methods of heredity. (See HEREDITY.) In these discussions the Hertwig brothers and Weismann have taken a leading part. Still more recently experimental methods have been introduced into embryology. In these, the egg or young embryo is exposed to changed or abnormal conditions, sepa- rated into its primary parts, etc., and the effect of these changes on development is noted. From this work impor- tant conclusions have followed as to the powers and capa- cities of the original cells of which the germ is composed. As leaders in this work the names of Driesch and Roux, in Europe, and of Loeb, Morgan, and Wilson, in the U. S., may be mentioned. Sciences which deal with the Relation between Animals and their Snr/rounclings.—The science of geographical dis- tribution of animals (see ZOOLOGIOAL GEOGRAPHY) has been entirely remodeled since 1860. Previous to that time the distribution of animals was regarded as a simple matter of fact. It is now interpreted in the light of the possibili- ties of distribution and the hindrances ofiered by mountain barriers, seas, etc., and has become an important constitu- ent of zoiilogical science. The study of the relations exist- ing between individual animals and their immediate sur- roundings has led to the development of the doctrine of mimicry and other general questions related with the color of animals. (See EvoLU'rIoN.) The study of variations is a department of zoiilogy in which investigation has recently commenced. While the fact of variation has long been known and has been used as a factor in theoretical zoiilogy, very little accurate study of the effects of variation has as yet been made. The first systematic work on the subject is that of Bateson. Animal Biology.—The systematic and morphological sides of zoiilogy found their best expression in the museum (see MUSEUM) and in the zotilogical gardens. Of the latter by far the largest is that at London, founded in 1828. In Paris is the Jardin des Plantes, founded in 1794, and in most of the capitals and larger cities of Europe smaller zotilogical gardens are maintained. In the U. S. there are such gardens at New York, at Philadelphia, and at Cin- cinnati, and less important ones elsewhere. Modern zo6logy has found it necessary to supplement the museum by sta- tions where marine or fresh-water animals can be studied under their natural conditions. and numerous marine zo- Ological laboratories or stations have been established since 1870. The oldest and the best known is that at Naples, founded in 1872 by Dr. A. Dohrn and supported mainly by the German Government. This has been followed by labo- ratories in all the chief countries of Europe. On the Adri- atic there is the station of the University of Vienna at Tri- este, on the Mediterranean the French Government station at Banyuls and one at Marseilles, and the Russian station at Villefranche. There is a station on the Atlantic in France, at Roscoif, under the direction of Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers. In Great Britain the chief station is at Plymouth, opened in 1888. There are others less important at Liverpool and at. St. Andrews, near Edinburgh. In Holland there is a sta- tion at the Helder. opened in 1890. In Germany the only station is that of the laboratory of the University of Kiel. A Government station has recently been established in Heli- goland. Germany has also at Pliin, in Holstein, the first per- manent fresh-wat-er station ever established, although a sec- ond is being established at Havana, Ill., by the University of Illinois. Norway has two stations and Sweden has one. Russia has a station at Sebastopol and one on the White Sea near the convent Solvotsky, besides the station on the Medi- terranean. Japan has a station at Musaki. In the U. S. the oldest station is the private laboratory of Prof. Alexander 906 zodenvrns Agassiz at Newport. The Johns Hopkins University has maintained a marine laboratory since 1877, but it has not been permanently located, frequently changing its place of work, although usually on the southern Atlantic coast of the U. S. or in the West Indies. There are marine laboratories also at Woods Hell, Mass., and Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. The Leland Stanford Junior niversity maintains a marine laboratory near Monterey, Cal. These, however, are for instruction, both elementary and advanced, as well as for research, and they do not maintain a corps of observ- ers throughout the year. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—C&I‘\lS, Geschichte der Zoologie (Munich, 1872); Taschenberg, Bibliotheca Zoologica (1886 to date); H. G. Bronn and others, Die Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs; Claus and Sedgwick, Elementary Text-book of Zoblogy (2 vols., London, 1885) ;-Lang, T e./vt-booh of Com- parative Anatomy (2 vols., 1895); Gegenbaur, Elements of Comparative Anatomy (1878); J . Leunis, Synopsis der Thierkunde (Hanover, 3d ed. 1886; Systematic Zoblogy); Wiedersheim, Anatomy of Vertebrates (London, 1886; the larger German edition is better); Hertwig, Lehrbuch der Zoologie (Leipzig, 1892) ; Shipley, Zoblogy of the Invertebrata (London, 1893) ; McMurrich, Invertebrate Zoblogy (New York, 1894); Balfour, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology (2 vols., London, 1881) ; Hertwig, Text-book of the Embryology of M an and Marnmals (London, 1872) ; Korschelt and Heider, Teast-book of Embryology, Invertebrates (translation not yet issued); Minot, Human Embryology (1891); Marshall, Verte- brate Embryology (London, 1893); Hertwig, The Cell: its Anatomy and Physiology (London, 1894); Griffiths, Physi- ology of the Invertebrata (London, 1892); Milne-Edwards, Legons sur la Physiologic (14 vols., Paris, 1857-81) ; Wallace, The Geographical Distribution of Animals (2 vols., New York,1876); Beddard,Zobgeo raphy (London,1895); Brehm, Thierleben (10 vols.; no Eng ish equivalent for this work is yet issued); Kingsley and others, The Riverside Natural History (6 vols., Boston, 1885); Lyddeker, R., The Royal Natural History (now being issued, 1895); Bateson, Ma- terials for the Study of Variation (London, 1894). Zoiilogical Journals.—Zoologischer Anzeiger, bi-weekly (established in 1879). This and the following two journals give summaries of important papers, with an account of cur- rent literature: Zoologisehes Centralblatt, bi-weekly (1894); Biologisches Centralblatt, bi-weekly (1881). The following journals devoted to zoiilogy and allied sciences are pub- lished in the U. S.: American lVaturalist (1867); Studies from the Johns Hopkins Biological Laboratory (1879) ; Jour- nal of Morphology (1887). E. A. BIRGE. Zo'tiphytes [from Gr. §q:d¢v'ro1/; §c§o_v, animal + ¢vr6u, a plant]: a name formerly in use for the fixed forms of the Coelenterates. See HYDROIDS, etc. Zotipraxiscope : See S'rRoBoscoPE. Z0'iispores [Gr. §q3ov, animal + aardpos, seed] : minute naked masses of protoplasm escaped from plant-cells, which move about in the water by means of one or more cilia. On account of their activity they are easily mistaken for animals, which fact has suggested their name. They are common in many of the lower orders of plants, where they serve as reproductive bodies. In most cases each zodspore is provided with two cilia near one extremity; sometimes, however, there are four, and in some cases there are a great number-—e. g. in Vaucheria they cover the whole surface. CHARLES E. BESSEY. Zorgitez See SELENIUM. Zorilla [= Span., dimin. of zorra, fox] : a name given in Spanish America to certain skunks of the genus Conepatus, but transferred both as a popular and generic name to cer- tain skunk-like Mustelidm of South Africa, for a long time confounded with the South American skunks. The typical species, Zorilla striata, is somewhat smaller than a cat, black, with a white spot on the forehead and each temple, and four white stripes on the back. The bushy tail is black and white. F. A. L. Zorndorf, ts5rn'd5rf: village of Prussia, province of Brandenburg; famous for the battle fought here on Aug. 25, 1758, between the Russians under Fermor and the Prus- siarésdunder Frederick the Great; the Russians were de- fea e . - Zoroaster, Z6-r5-ets’ter (Gr. Zwpodorpns, Lat. Zoroastres, Pers. Zardusht, Avestan Zarathushtra): the prophet of an- cient Iran, whose teachings are preserved in the AVESTA (q. v.). The era at which this religious leader flourished ZORILLA Y MORAL has been open to discussion and controversy. Persian tra- dition is probably nearest the truth when it claims the sixth century before Christ as the period of his mission, although the writers of classical antiquity vary between B. c. 1000 and B. c. 6000 in giving his date. There is good authority for believing that the district of Atropatene in Western Iran was his native place, but the scene of his preaching and teaching was Bactria in Eastern Iran. King Vishtaspa of Bactria was his religious patron, but the consensus of schol- arly opinion is rather against identifying this ruler with Hystaspes, the father of Darius, notwithstanding the identity of the names. Regarding the life of Zoroaster, there is no doubt that he was an historical personage in spite of numerous legends that have gathered about his name. The tradition, more- over, is probably authentic that he began his ministry at the age of thirty, that he was forty-two when be converted King Vishtaspa, and that when seventy-seven years old he was slain, apparently in a storming of Balkh by the Turanians. He is commonly regarded as a Magian, a reformer of the old Iranian faith, and as the founder of a new creed. Dual- ism was one of its characteristic tenets (see ORMAZD), a be- lief in angels and archangels (yazatas amesha spentas) and in demons and fiends (daevas, drujes) was recognized; the doctrine of a bodily resurrection was taught; the practice of agriculture and husbandry enjoined; and the care of useful animals, as well as keeping pure the fire, water, and earth, was inculcated. The power of Zoroastrianism as the national religion of ancient Persia was first broken by the invasion of Alexander the Great, and although restored under the SASSANIDZE (q. v.), it was overthrown by the rise of Mohammedanism. To-day the faith is professed by about 90,000 PARSEES (q. v.). See also PSALMS OF ZOROASTER. A. V. WILLIAMS J ACKSON. Zorrilla y Moral, th5r-reel’ya"a-ee-m5-raal’, J osE : poet; b. at Valladolid, Spain, Feb. 21, 1817. After receiving his youthful education in the seminary for nobles at Madrid, he yielded to his father’s wish that he should study juris- prudence, and passed two years at the universities of To- ledo and Valladolid. Even as a-boy, however, he had be- come an ardent admirer of Sir Walter Scott, Cooper, and Chateaubriand. After holding for a brief time a post in the magistracy at Valladolid, he set out for Madrid (1837). Shortly after his arrival there the brilliant Larra committed suicide, and at his funeral Zorrilla, unknown and unan- nounced, read some verses that set the whole town talking of him. His first collections of verse, published in 1837 and 1839, show too much the influence of his favorite authors, the French romanticists; but in the Cantos del trovador; coleccion de leyendas y tradiciones (3 vols., Madrid, 1840- 41) his peculiar and original qualities are more plainly to be seen. Here his aspiration to be the Spanish Lamar- tine, a romantic yet Christian poet, begins clearly to reveal itself. This volume was followed by Flores perdidas (1843); and in 1844 he had completed what is in some ways his best work, the strange religious drama Don Juan Teno- rio, in two parts, in which this traditional villain is repre- sented as saved at last through the intercession of his own victims. The piece contains obvious reminiscences of Faust and is in many ways fantastic; yet it has proved one of the most popular of modern Spanish plays. The poet, deriving little money from the sale of his works in Spain, was encour- aged by the wide sale of Parisian editions to think that he could better his fortunes in the French capital. He under.- took a long epic poem, Granada, poema oriental, two vol- umes of which appeared in Paris in 1853-54. The work was pecuniarily'a failure, and has never been finished. In his discouragement Zorrilla determined now to go to Mexico (1854). He was received with enthusiasm, and, after Maxi- milian had established himself, the poet was put in charge of the court theater. Obliged to return to Spain in 1866, as he supposed temporarily, he there learned of Maximilian’s fall and execution (June 19, 1867). There was nothing to do but work for a scanty livelihood with the pen. Finally, the Government gave him a sinecure literary mission to Italy; and when this also had been forsome time with- drawn he was given a pension of 7,500 pésetas (1889) and made chronicler of his native province. Of his later works we may mention Album de un loco (1867); Poema reli- gioso (1869); Composiciones varias (1877); Leyenda del Cid (1880); Recuerdos del tiempo viejo (3 vols., 1880-83); and a volume of lectures delivered at the Ateneo in Ma- drid, Lecturas piiblicas (1877). Several of his comedies, ZOSIMUS inspired by the great playwrights of the seventeenth cen- tury, have had considerable success, notably El Zayaatcro 3/ cl ray and A (man juez major testigo. In 1889 Zorrilla was crowned poet in the Alhambra at Granada. D. at Madrid, Jan. 22, 1893. A. It. ll/IAasi~I. ZOS’ilIlI1S: pope 417-418; first noted for his relations to Pclagianism, his restoration of the African priest Apiarius, and his adjudication on the question of the jurisdiction of Arles over Vienne. In the beginning,of his pontificate he was deceived by the orthodox-sounding protestations of Coelestius and Pelagius, so far as to desire judgment with- held by the African bishops until the personal guilt of the heretics should be proven. He was shortly undeceived as to the heretical notions of both, and condemned them in a letter known as Epistola Tractarzia. Zosimus never sub- scribed to any Pelagian propositions, as he was certainly aware of their condemnation by his predecessor, Innocent I. St. Augustine positively says that his intervention was only in the nature of a suspension of judgment, or a correctioms olevnentvlssima suasio, non a probatio emit-z'osz'ssz'mce prrwita- tis. See Hergenroether, Kcrchengeschz'chte, vol. i., p. 424. J onn J . KEANE. Zosimus (in Gr. Za’nn,u.0s): a Greek historian of the fifth century, of whose personal life nothing is known, but whose work, a history of the Roman empire from Augustus to 410, is still extant, edited in 1837 by Bekker and in 1887 by Mendelssohn. Zosimus was a pagan, and attacks those Ro- man emperors who were Christians with great acrimony. Zouaves, zoo-aavz’ [= Fr., from Zouaoua, name of a Kabyle tribe in Algeria]: According to Ruffino, a body of Zouaves, or Zuaghi, tribesmen distinguished for bravery and skill, was in the service of the Sublime Porte in 1574. Prior to the French occupation of Algeria these Kabyle tribesmen were employed as mercenaries by the Barbary states. The French, after the conquest of Algiers, found themselves with a limited force in the midst of a hostile population, of whose manners and language they were ignorant. Gen. Clausel thereupon (1830) organized two battalions of Zouaves, de- signed at first to consist of natives only; but subsequently the otlicers, non-commissioned officers, and some of the privates were selected from French volunteers. The first volunteers of La Charte and some foreigners were also in- corporated with them. The foreigners were subsequently organized into a foreign legion, and the Zouaves remaining consisted almost entirely of young Parisians and natives from the vicinity of Algiers. They were at once put into active service, and distinguished themselves by their bravery and dash in all the subsequent battles in Algeria. Diificulty having been experienced in keeping u the mixed command, the natives were eventually organize into a separate corps known as Turcos, and the Zouaves became entirely or almost entirely French. Their organization was modified and their numbers increased by degrees; and serv- ice with them came to be regarded as the best possible school for ambitious officers of the French army. It was eagerly sought by many who subsequently rose to the highest rank and distinction. During the Crimean war the services and successes of the Zouaves were most conspicuous, and many innovations in modern drill tactics may be traced to methods introduced by them. The Zouaves served with dis- tinction in the campaign in Mexico, and participated in the war of 1870-71. T 1cir present organization consists of four regiments, each of four battalions of four companies. There are also in the French army four corresponding regiments of Turcos. In Algeria there are also ctrdres for ten battalions of Zouaves. The P()n-tlzifieal or Payval Zoumies were a body of volun- teers, principally from the noble families of France, organ- ized in 1860 by Baron Charette under the direction of Gen. Lamoriciere for the defense of the temporal power of the pope. They fought with bravery in several actions, but were unpopular with the Italians, being regarded as foreign intruders. In 1870 they embarked for France, and return- ing to Tours were under Baron Charette as colonel recruited up to two battalions. Joining the army of Orleans, they fought with distinction at Orleans and Patay. They subse- gjuently assisted the army of Versailles in sup nessing the ommune. Their organization was dissolved after the entry of the army of V ersailles into Paris. During the civil war in the U. S. several regiments of Zouaves were organized, who wore uniforms similar to that of the French Zouaves; some of them served with marked distinction. JAMES l\’[ERGUR. ZUBLY 907 Zrinyi, or Zrini, zreen‘ye"e, Count MIKLos : soldier and rul- er ; b. in 1508 of the illustrious Slovak family of the Counts of Brebir; became banus (governor) of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia in 1542; distinguished himself in the Austrian army against the Magyars under ZAPOLYA (q.v.) and the Turks under Sultan Suleiman II., and defended Croatia with great success for twelve years against the Osmans, whom he defeated at Sziget in 1562. When Suleiman in 1566 attacked Sziget from Belgrad, Zrinyi held the place with unparalleled bravery from Aug. 6 to Sept. 7 against a Turkish force of 65,000 men. Suleiman died on Sept. 4, and the final cap- ture of the ruins cost the Turks 20,000 men. Zrinyi had the powder-magazines fired in the last moment, and thus destroyed the place, the enemy, and himself. His heroic death has been repeatedly dramatized, in the most classical way by Theodor K6rner.-—Zrinyi’s great-grandson of the same name (1616-64), also a warrior, statesman, and banus of Croatia, wrote an epic S22-'get'z' veszeolelem (Fall of Sziget), in which he celebrated the great deeds of his ancestor in fifteen songs. This is the oldest Hungarian epic, and has recently been edited by K. Abafi, and partly translated by G. Steir. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Zscl1okke.tshok’ke, JOHANN HEINRICH DANIEL: author; b. at Magdeburg, Germany, Mar. 22, 1771; was educated in the gymnasium of his native city, but left it in 1788, and accompanied for some time a band of strolling actors as their play-writer. Shortly after, however, he went to the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he pursued various lines of study-—-theology, philosophy, history, polit- ical economy, and belles-lettres-—and began to give lectures in 1792. Meanwhile, his dramatic compositions, Abdllino (1793), Julius eon Srlsscwzt (1796), etc., attracted considerable attention; but in 1795 he wrote against certain religious edicts of the Prussian Government, and when he in 1796 applied for a professorship, he was rejected. Leaving Prussia immediately, he settled at Reiehenau, canton of the Grisons, Switzerland, and took charge of a large educational institution. The institution prospered, and Zschokke was made a Swiss citizen. Soon he also began to take a most active and influential part in the politics of the country, acting, however, as a mediator rather than as a partisan. In 1798 he removed to Aarau, and was made chief of the department of public education, but in 1801, when the central Government in Berne attempted to restore the old federal constitut-ion, he retired from public life and took up his residence at Biberstein. In 1803, however, he was recalled and made a member of the board of forests and mines, and from that time to his death, at Biberstein, June 27, 1848, he continued to hold various positions in the Gov- ernment of the republic. His celebrity, however, and also his influence, rest chiefly on his literary activity. He edited De-2' mlfrziclz-tzige und /u'olz»Ze'r_faJzrene Sch'zl'e27ze2'bofe (1804-07), ]lI'£szeZle-n- fzir die "n-eueste ll*"Ztl.:(zuzcZe (1807-13), and Ueberlieferzzngen zu-r Gesch-z'c7n‘e mzscrer Zeit (1817-23), which periodicals were much read; and his S61‘-'n2-mtl'z'che lVe-rice, relating to history, political economy, fiction, and devotion, comprise 40 vols. His most celebrated work is St-made-n. der A/ndacht (1806; twice translated into English, the last time in 1862 by Frederica Rowan, under the title ./lleditatzions on I)cafh and Eferrzitz/). Of his historical works the most rel/na-rkable are Gescizic-hie com Ii'am,z.)_fe and Unto/rga~n-ge der so-llwez'zerz'sclzen Berg- and l'l"ald('a'22.fon.e (1801) : G-csc-lu',ch1‘e des bayeriselzcw-1, Folks and sez?ner F27rsz‘erz. (4 vols., 1813-18); Des Sch/u'ez7ze>rl(z-ndes (¥csc7zic7zfe _fiir des Sch z.('cz'2e’1"z'ol/r (1822; translated into English by F. G. Slnnv, New York, 1855). Of his novels (10 vols.) select-ions have been made and published in English (Pliiladelpliia, 1845; New York, 1848, by Parke Godwin; and London, 1848). His autobiography, S€H)8I‘8(']l1(l‘ll/ (1842), has also been translated into English (London, 1847). See the Lz'z'es, by Emile Zschokke (3d ed, 1876), and by Borrn (1886), and Keller‘s Be'z'I‘rd_qe .2711--r _P()l‘I:li'lT8(’/]L(?7t Tlu'ifz7gkczTt H. Z.s<*lzo7s,1.*es. 1798- 1801 (Aarau, 1887). Revised by Jemns Gonean Zubly, Jenn JoAeIiI.-\.I, D.D.: elerg_vman: b. at St. Gall, Switzerland, Aug. 27, 1725; was ordained in 1744; came soon afterward to .*\meriea; took charge of the Independent Presbyterian church at Savannah, Ga., 1760; preached in English and G-erman, and occasionally in French : was ac- tive among the “ Sons of Liberty " and as a member of the first provincial congress of Georgia 1775 ; was chosen to the Contmental Congress the same year; opposed the Declara- tion of Indepem ence, after which he suddenly went to Georgia, where he took sides with the crown and had to 908 ZUOCARO conceal himself from popular resentment; was in that city during the siege of 1779; was banished from Savannah and went to South Carolina, but returned to his pulpit. D. at Savannah; July 23,1781. He was a man of learning, and published a number of patriotic discourses. Zuccaro, dzook'ka"a-1'5, FEDERIGO: painter; b. at Sant’ Angelo in Vado, Urbino, Italy, about 1542; a brother and pupil of Taddeo Zuccaro. He finished painting the fres- coes in the Church of the Trinita del Monte in Rome begun by his brother. He was then called to Florence to finish the cupola in Santa Maria del Fiore begun by Vasari. In Rome the dome of the Paolina chapel, begun by Michelan- gelo, was confided to him, but having avenged himself by a icture of Calumny on some favorites of Pope Gregory §(III., who had insulted him, he had to fly from Rome. He then traveled in Flanders, Holland, and England, after which he went to Venice, where the senate invited him to paint a fresco in the Sala del Gran Consiglio beside those of the greatest masters. He painted in S. Francesco della Vigna in oil on marble a representation of the Adoration of the Magi. He was again called to Rome by the pope, who forgave his escapade and wished him to finish the work be- gun there. Philip II. then invited him to Madrid, where his work was not liked, and what he did was effaced, but‘ he was handsomely compensated.‘ On his return to Rome he was elected president of St. Luke's Academy. He built himself a palace on the Pincio, which he adorned with fres- coes. He returned to Spain after this, but with no better success than the first time. Federigo was an architect and sculptor, and also a writer in prose and verse. D. at Ance- na in 1609. W. J . STILLMAN. Zug, Germ. pron. tzooeh: the smallest canton of Switzer- land, nearly in the center of the republic; area, 92 sq. miles (see map of Switzerland, ref. ,4-G). The inhabitants speak the German language and belong to the Roman Cath- olic Church. The southern part is mountainous; rearing of cattle and dairy-farming are the principal occupations. The northern part, along the Lake of Zug, belongs to the Swiss plain, and is covered with grain-fields, orchards, and vineyards. Some manufactures of paper, silk, and cotton are carried on. Pop. (1894) 23,167. Capital, Zug. Zuider Zee : another spelling of ZUYDER ZEE (g. c.). Zuinglius: Latin form of ZWINGLI (q. u). Zulia, thoo’le“e-a“a, formerly Jllarucaibo: the northwest- ernmost state of Venezuela, surrounding Lake I\’IARACAIBO (q u.), and bordering on the Caribbean Sea, Falcon, Lara, Los Andes (or Zamora), and the republic of Colombia. The peninsula of Guajira is now separated as a territory. After being several times united to Falcon, Zulia was separated from it by the constitution of 1893. The western, southern, and eastern frontiers are mountainous, but Lake Maracaibo is bordered by low and often swampy lands; these and the mountain sides are covered in great part with luxuriant for- est. Agriculture is almost the only industry, the chief prod- ucts being coffee, cacao, and sugar. Area, 24,969 sq. miles. Pop. about 100,000. Capital, Maracaibo. H. H. S. Zu’luland gderiv. of Zulu, from Zulu Ama-zulu, Zulus, liter., people 0 heaven, deriv. of zulu, sky, heaven]: the country of the Zulus: bordering on the Indian Ocean. and formerly extending from Natal nearly to the Portuguese possessions in Southeast Africa, and inland to the moun- tain barrier of the South African republic. As a result of the fierce war (1879) between the Zulus and British, and of the territorial ambitions of the Boers, the country has been wrested from native control. Cetewayo was the last king of the independent native dynasty. He was crowned in 1873, and his word was law from the Tugela river to Dele- goa Bay. His army of 40,000 men was a standing menace to the neighboring territories. The war of 1879 resulted in his dethronement, and though the British decided to restore him, his power and spirit were broken. He died at Ekowe, Feb. 8, 1884. All that the British have retained, about two- thirds of the country, is a protectorate under the adminis- tration of the governor of Natal. A district com rising about a third of the whole territory lying in West entral Zululand was seized (1884) by a party of Boers, who estab- lished an independent state; and when Zululand was de- clared British territory (1887) this section was handcd over to the South African Republic. Most of the country is a productive table-land with a climate not injurious to Euro- peans. Area of British Zululand, 12,500 sq. miles. Pop. (1893) 163,447 natives and 857 whites. C. C. ADAMS. ZUNIAN INDIANS Zumalacarreguy, thoo-maa-laa-kaar’rd-gee, TOMAS : sol- dier; b. at Ormaiztegui, province of Guipuzcoa, Spain, Sept. 29, 1789 ; was a leader of the guerrillas during the Spamsh war of independence 1808-14 ; served under Quesada 1822 ; was dismissed from the army as a Carlist 1832 ; on the out- break of the Carlist insurrection 1833 was appointed by the pretender Don Carlos general-in-chief of his army, and con- ducted its operations with great Skill and daring until he was mortally wounded at the siege of Bilbao, one of the principal cities of Spain, June 15, and died June 25, 1835. Zumarraga, thoo-maar’ra"a-ga“a, JUAN, de : a Franciscan ; first Bishop of Mexico; b. at Durango; in Biscay, 1468. He was long guardian of the convent of Abrojo in Spain, and was named bishop of the new see of Mexico Dec. 12, 1527. Zumarraga has been deservedly praised for his zeal and piety, and under him the missions of Mexico were widely extended with excellent results. Soon after his arrival in Mexico, he instituted a careful search for Aztec manuscripts ; these were gathered in great numbers, condemned as heretical books, and publicly burned in the square of the capital. Similar burnings took place in nearly every Mexican city, by the bishop’s order; very few of the precious documents escaped destruction, and these were hidden away during centuries. Zumarraga died at Mexico, June 3,1548, eight days after receiving the bull which raised his see to an archbishopric. H. H. S. Zumpt, tso“ompt, KARL GOTTLQB : classical scholar; b. in Berlin, Germany, Mar. 20, 1792; studied classical languages and literature at Heidelberg and Berlin, and was appointed Professor Extraordinary of Roman Literature at the Uni- versity of Berlin in 1827, and professor in 1838. D. at Carls- bad, June 25, 1849. He published editions of Curtius, Cic- ero’s De Ofiiciis, and (with Spalding) of Quintilian; wrote a Latin grammar (1818), which passed through many edi- tions and was translated into English, but it is new no longer used; published numerous essays relating to classical an- tiquity, among which are Annales Veterum Regnorum et Populorum, imprimis R0/manorum _(1819; 3d edit. 1862); Ueber den Stand der Beo'o‘llcerung und die Volhsoermehrung im Altherthum (1841); Ueber die bauliche Einrichtung des r‘o'mischen lVohnhauses (1851); and a celebrated treatise, Ueber den Bestand der ]9lL’il080it9lt’i86h6’I’l Schulen in Athen und die Succession der Scholiarchen (1843). See A. W. Zumpt, De 0. Zumptii vita et studiis narratio, Berlin, 1851. —His nephew, AUGUST WILHELM ZUMPT, b. at Ktinigsberg, Dec. 4, 1815; studied classical philology at the University of Berlin; was appointed professor at the Friedrich-Wil- helm Gymnasium in Berlin in 1851, and wrote, besides other works, Ueber die Entstehung und historische Entwickelung des Colonats (1845); C'ommentationes Epigraphicaz ad Anti- quitates Rom anas pertinentes (2 vols., 1850-54) ; Das Crimi- nalrecht der ro'mischen Republih (2 vols., 1869). D. in Ber- lin, Apr. 22, 1877. See Padeletti, August IVilhelm Zumpt, Leipzig, 1878. Revised by A. GUDEMAN. Zungaria: See SUNGARIA. Zufiian Indians : a family of American Indians, of West- ern Central New Mexico; first discovered by Fray Marcos de Niza in the year 1539, and named by him the people of Cibola or Civola. This is but a corruption of Shi’wi-nu or Shi’/wo-nu, the Zufiian name for the country they then in- habited. AS early as 1583, however, these Indians are re- ferred to by Antonio de Espejo as the pee le of the “ Province of Zufii, and by the Spaniards called libola.” This tribal name of Zufii is said to have been derived from the Keresan Sun'yi-ga or Su’inyi, signifying “ people of the long finger- nails ”-apparently referring to a custom of the native medi- cine-men. Tribes and Pueblos.—At the time of the Spanish explora- tions in the sixteenth century the Zufiian Indians were divided into seven tribal communities, occupying as many distinct pueblos. This latter circumstance gave rise to the rumor of the “ Seven Cities of Cibola.” and, combined with the pre-eminence of the Zuiiis in other ways, made them early the most widely known and respected of all the tribes of the arid region. They were regarded by nearly all tribes, from the north of Arizona and New Mexico to far into Old Mexico, as the leaders in the arts, in government, and espe- cially in magic-as the “ Fathers of the Pueblos.” Although greatly reduced in numbers, the Zufiians still maintain this septenary arrangement in their three farming pueblos as well as in the plan of their central or permanent pueblo of Zufii. For example, the latter, although appar- ently but a single-terraced mass of piled-up houses, is really ZUNIAN divided into seven distinct portions or blocks by the courts and alleys which either separate or thread its parts. These divisions correspond both in distribution and in the native nomenclature to the original pueblo or town subdivisions of the Zufiians, and each (excepting the seventh or middle division) has its own distinct kiva or estufa of one of the six regions—that is, northern, western, eastern, southern, upper, and lower. There are three summer, or farming, pueblos—-Taiakwin (“place of planting”), K’ia’pkwainakwin (“place of hot flowing waters”), and Heshotatsi'nakwm (the “ builded town of inscriptions”), so named from the petrographs on the older walls of the houses. In Taiakwin, or the pueblo of Las Nutrias (until within very recent times), the clans pertaining to the north and west had their quarters together. In Ojo Caliente those pertain- ing to the south and east were harbored; while in He-sho-ta tsi-na (at Ojo de los Pescados) those pertaining to the upper and lower regions were placed. Finally, the chief house- priests, although represented by subordinates at these out- lying places, were supposed not to leave the main pueblo, even during summer ; and during the colder season all the people returned from the farming towns and gathered about them there. I-Ialnlaz‘.-—The original seven towns of the Zufiis—the “ Seven Cities of Cibola”—and the more or less cultivated lands surrounding them occupied the whole Zufii valley (3 to 10 miles in width), from the eastern boundary of Ari- zona to the Canon Gateway of Zufii, nearly 30 miles E. N. E. from this line. This and the confluent valley of Ojos Calientes had been the abode of the Zufiis for nearly four centuries at the time of the discovery and conquest. Probably not more than a century previously to the latter events (in 1539-40) the now ruined towns farther E.--to beyond Ojo Pescado in the Upper Zufii valley, and in tributary cafiedas to the S.— had been occupied by the so-called Corn-tribes, or A'té‘.-a- kwe, division of the Zufiis; but at the time of the journey of the pioneer missionary, Fray Juan de Padilla, with Her- nando de Alvarado, of Coronado’s conquering army in 1540, these towns were already deserted and in ruins. General Oltaraeterristrios.-Two physical types of men and women occur side by side in the present tribe, notwitstand- ing generations of intermarriage. One of these may be re- garded as the more distinctly Zufiian, since it is unrepre- sented among other tribes of Pueblo Indians save through Zufiian derivation, as in Laguna and J emez. The other so closely resembles the Keresan type that it seems due to the absorption of Indians of the latter ‘stock into the suppo- sititious original Shiwian or strictly Zufiian family. Belong- ing to the distinctively Shiwian type are the majority of “summer clans” of the Zufiis-in the main one of which, the Macaw, the principal priestly oflices (the masterships of the houses or regional kivas, as they are called), are heredi- tary. Although the men of this type do not often exceed 5 feet in height, the women generally seem like young girls beside them, except for their greater breadth of shoulder and general rotundity. All have very clear-cut features, with noses straight or more or less aquiline and thin; nares moderately broad, but not fleshy; lips thin, but curved. drooping at the corners; eyes straight, chins prominent, and cheek-bones very pronounced; foreheads sloping, but broad and capacious, and ears of medium size or large. Their heads are as often long as brachyoephalic. This is the more remarkable since the prevailing cranial form of the Pueblo Indian is short, and since even the long-headed class have in common with most Indians the flattened occ1put result- ing from the cradle-board of infancy. The hair of both sexes is abundant, long, fine, and often wavy. The men of this Shiwian or pure Zufiian type are more lithe and straighter limbed than those of the general Pueblo type, and their hands a11d feet are larger. They are also slightly lighter colored, but ruddier, and the women of the same type are both taller and much fairer than those of the Pueblo variety. Although this latter variety is quite dis- tinctly Keresan, there is a greater prevalence of oblique eyes, giving them a mongoloid look, and they are not quite so dark as the Keresan women, whom they so much resem- ble. One in every 200 of the population is a ty ical albi- noid, the skin being very fair, eyes blue or pinljtisli gray, and hair flaxen, golden, or light brown. And again, so- called hermaphrodites-—monstrous, overdeveloped women (not counting men who are ceremonially relegated to their rank)—bear about a similar proportion to the population. INDIANS 909 The Zufiis are intellectual and grave, yet deliberately, almost unemotionally, witty. They are intensely mythic- minded, and hence poetic and religious to an extreme de- gree. They are peace-loving and unusually self-restrained, and in disposition are perhaps the politest of North Ameri- can aborigines, being exceedingly, because religiously, cere- monious even in ordinary intercourse. While unaggressive in both policy and tendency, yet they are intensely courage- ous and determined when defending their rights, which they guard with a jealousy more fanatical than patriotic. Until the introduction of articles of civilization a few years ago the dress of the Zufii consisted more purely of the primitive native fabrics and fashions of garment than that of any other Pueblo Indians excepting the Oraibe. The men wore the typical Pueblo pantalettes and plain, fairly close-fitting shirts, open at the armpit, all of cotton, either native or bought of the whites, as were their red or black silk or bandana head-sashes. Hrlstory/.—Tradition seems to testify, and archaeologic studies confirm the evidence, that the Zufiians in far-off times occupied the region of the Rio Colorado, and that at an even more remote period they had descended to this great valley from the northwest and west. The ancestors of the present Zuiiians gradually pene- trated the valley of the Rio Zufii, a division of them wan- dering away as far as the prehistoric Tafioan territory, to return after a long time. differentiated from their people to an extent even still slightly perceptible, and imbued with customs so distinct that they were for a long time held off from the central body, which meanwhile settled mainly in the Zufii valley. Here they built and occu- pied the Taiakwin or Las N utrias towns to the N. and E. of Zufii. Taiakwin itself they seem never to have perma- nently abandoned, and it is still held by their principal de- scendants as a farming village. Another division of the tribe (the so-called Corn-grain people, partly derived from the southern branch, from the upper Colorado Chiquito) built the long series of beautiful stone ruins beginning in Eastern Arizona, extending through valleys S. of Zufii in New Mexico, and reaching as far E. as the double pueblo on Inscription rock or El Morro, in- cluding also the circular ruins at and above and below Los Ojos Pescados. The traces of their stone-paved reservoirs, their land-tilling and irrigation operations. and the supe- rior character of their works of art, quite justifies their name as the People of Corn or People of Great Harvests. For a long time they dwelt amicably apart from their cen- tral Zuni brethren, joining them at last in a war waged upon a series of Keresan tribes in Ma-k‘y’a-ta, or l\Ia'k’yana- wan. This latter pueblo group was the “ Province of Mara- ta " of Marcos de Niza and the Zuiii name of the American valley and Salt Lake region. At the time of Niza’s visit this war was still a fresh incident, and had resulted in the subjugation of the Salinas, Keres, their absorption into the Corn and Zufii tribes, and the gathering into one set of towns-the “Seven Cities " of all the tribes. Probably these events, which are historic as well as traditional, will account for the presence of a Keresan type of people among the Zufiis to-day. In the spring of 1539 Estevan, the Negro companion of Fray Marcos de Niza. first discovered K’ia’kime, the most easterly of the seven cities, at the base of Taaiyalane or Thunder Mountain. The inhabitants of this town killed him, and the monk who followed fled for his life, but gained from neighboring Indians, and l1as left us, the first and most accurate account of the Zufiis ever until lately written. In the following year Coronado followed with his army and subdued the people of Ha'wikuh, the greater number of whom, with many of the neighboring villagers, fled to the top of their common Gibraltar, Tziaiyalane, but soon after submitted. Between 1542 and 1580 Kwakina, the western- most of the seven towns, was abandoned. Between 1598 and 1680 Hampassawan and K‘ia'nawe were also practically deserted in consequence of pressure from the predatory Apache and Navajo, and in 1672 Hawikuh was permanently abandoned for the same cause. Meanwhile the Franciscans had established missions at five, if not six, of the towns, but the isolated Zufiis were restive under this religious pressure, and in 1630 killed their friars, Francisco Letrado and Martin de Avide, and fled again to their citadel on Thunder Mountain. At the out- break of the great Pueblo rebellion of 1680-92 they were living in the three towns of Ha’lona, Ma’tsaki, and Ki’akimc, but with that uprising they again sought their mountain 910 ZUNICA refuge, and rebuilt there their sixfold citadel, adding a seventh group of buildings for the fugitive Keresans from Acoma. Here they continued to dwell until after the peace of de Vargas, when they descended and again occupied the three last-mentioned towns. In 1704 the Zufiis of the central town killed three Spanish soldiers, and retreated for the third time to their rock of refuge, after descending from which they do not seem to have permanently occupied any save Ha’lona, the midmost of their towns-the site of the present Zufii. Nevertheless, to escape espionage and to practice in the old divisional way their religious ceremonies, they built in the high mesas N. of Zufii yet seven other towns called the “ Peach ” or “ So’noli ” villages (the peach having been introduced from Sonora in the beginning of the century), maintaining the planting and care of their orchards of this fruit as their ex- cuse for dwelling as much as possible apart from the Span- iards at their central abode. The Zufiis joined in the war with Mexico, and later under Gen. Kearny and his successors in that against the Navajos, but after this they continued to tend their sheep and cattle and till their corn-fields and irrigated patches of wheat at their three summer pueblos. indifferent toward the outside world, as had for centuries been their wont. PopuZation.—At the time of the Pueblo conquest by Coronado in 1540, the seven tribes of Zufii or Cibola num- bered about 4,000. Benavides in 1630 gave the population at 10,000 souls, this, of course, being a gross exaggeration. According to Vetancurt the tribe numbered 2,500 at the time of the Pueblo revolt of 1680, and judging from a par- tial count of the houses in the ruins of the pueblos occupied at that date, the estimate is doubtlessly approximately cor- rect. In the eighteenth century the Zufiis had been reduced to about 2,000, while in 1890 they numbered 1,613. They are not rapidly decreasing. AUTHORITIES.—S66 Bandelier, in Reports, Bulletins, and Papers of the Archzeological Institute of America, 1881-92, and works cited therein ; also his Discovery of New Mexico by Fray .Marcos of Nizza in Magazine of lVestern History (Cleveland, 0., Sept., 1886); and An Outline of the Docu- mentary History of the Zuni Tribe (in Jour. Am. Eth. and Arch.,iii.,Boston,1892); Ten Kate, Somatological Observa- tions (in ibicl.); Hubert H. Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico (San Francisco, 1889; Mindeleff, Archi- tecture of Cibola and Tusayan (in Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1886-87); Stevenson, Religious Life of the Zuni Child (in Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84); Fewkes, A few Summer Ceremonials at Zuni Pueblo (in Jour. Am. Eth. and Arch., i., Boston, 1891); Gilman, Zuni Melodies (in ibid.); Cush- ing, Adventures in Zuni (in Century Magazine, Dec., 1882 ; Feb. and Apr., 1883); ibicl., Zu/hi Fetiches (in Second An- nual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1880-81); ibicl., Pueblo Pottery, etc. (in Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1882-83) ; Manual Concepts (in Am. Anthro- pologist). See INDIANS or NORTH AMERICA and PUEBLO INDIANS. FRANK HAMILTON Cusnme. Zufiiga : See ERCILLA Y ZUNIGA. Zufii Mountains: a range of New Mexico ; between the 35th and 36th parallels of N. lat. ; intersected by the 108th meridian W. from Greenwich. Fort Wingate is at its northwestern end, and old Fort Wingate at its southeastern. Its length from N. W. to S. E. is 45 miles; its breadth is 20 miles. It rises 3,000 feet above the surrounding country, which has a general altitude of 6,500 feet; broadly arched at top, and is clothed with timber. The pro ortions and scenery of the range are not imposing, an it is over- topped by the neighboring volcanic peak of Mt. Taylor, but it is of great interest to the student of “mountain- building,” on account of its simplicity of structure and its isolation. All about it the rocks lie in level strata; at its base they are bent upward. and they arch over its top in simple curves. At the southeast end erosion has removed the crest of the arch and exposed the crystalline rocks which underlie the stratified, but at the N. the continuity of the lower strata is unbroken, and they can be traced from side to side. The range is monographed by C. E. Dutton in the Sixth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey. G. K. G. Zunz, tso"onts, LECPCLD: b. at Detmold, principality of Lippe, Germany, of Jewish parentage, Aug. 10, 1794; studied hilology at Berlin ; was reacher at the synagogue of Ber- in 1820-22 ; editor of tlie Spenersche Zeitung 1824-32 ; ZUTPHEN preacher at the synagogue of Prague 1835-39; director of the normal seminary at Berlin 1839-50; became in 1845 member of the board of commissioners for the educational interests of the Jews in Prussia. His first work, Etwas ilber die rabbinische Litteratur (Berlin, 1818), attracted much attention; also his principal work, Die gottesdienst- lichen Vortrttge der Juclen (1832) ; and several others of his writings, Die N amen der Jualen historisch entwickelt (1836; 2d ed. by N. Briili, 1892); Die synagogale Poesie des Mit- telalters (2 parts, 1855-59 ; supplement, Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie, 1865-67), etc. A collected edition of his works was commenced in 1875, but never got beyond the first volume. D. in Berlin, Mar. 17, 1886. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Zurbaran, thoor-ba"a-raan', FRANCISCO: painter; b. at Fuente de Cantos, in Estremadura, Spain, Nov. 7, 1598. He studied with Juan de Roelas at Seville when quite young, painting directly from nature, a habit that procured for him the appellation of the Spanish Caravaggio. At the age of twenty-one Zurbaran had already a great reputation and innumerable orders in Seville, where he lived and worked almost all his life. The great altarpiece in the chapel of St. Peter of the Cathedral of Seville is his first important work, completed in 1625. Soon after this he pro- duced his picture for the College of St. Tomas, now in the museum of Seville, representing the Eternal Father above colossal figures of St. Thomas Aquinas and the four Fathers of the Church, with the Emperor Charles V. with his nobles kneeling in rapt devotion on one side, and on the other the archbishop with his Dominicans; also, the series represent- ing incidents in the life of St. Peter Nolasco were produced in 1629. These are now to be seen partly in Seville Cathe- dral, partly in the museum of the Prado of Madrid, and some in the Academy of St. Fernando. The subjects from the life of St. Bonaventura for the church of that name are dispersed also, two being in the Louvre, one in the Gallery of Dresden, and another in Berlin. The king, Philip IV., had him come to Madrid to decorate his palace of Buenre- tiro with the Labors of Hercules. Zurbaran had the title of Painter of the King as early as 1633, as the signature on some of his pictures shows ; but in 1650, through the inter- vention of his friend Velaz uez, he removed to the capital, where he painted in his ajesty’s service till he died in 1662. His work is to be seen in the museums of St. Peters- burg, Pesth, Munich, Paris, and London, and in many ri- vate collections. W. J . Zurich, zoo’rik (Germ. Zilrich, tsii'rich) : canton of Northeastern Switzerland, bordering on the Rhine and on Lake Zurich; area, 666 sq. miles. The inhabitants speak German and are Protestants. It consists of three elevated valleys, and contains excellent pastures. The soil is not very fertile. Grain and wine are produced, though dairy- farming and manufacturing are the principal occupations. Pop. (1894) 351,917. Capital, Zurich. Zurich: capital of the canton of Zurich, Switzerland; 43 miles N. W. of Glarus; on the Limmat where it issues from the Lake of Zurich (see map of Switzerland, ref. 2-G). It is well and substantially built, though somewhat old- fashioned in its appearance. It has a university, a public library with more than 100,000 volumes, a botanical garden, several museums of natural history, and a federal olytech- nic school to which pupils from all Europe gat er. Its manufactures comprise silk, cotton, leather, ribbons, lace, ete., and are extensive. Pop. (1888) 28,225; with the sub- urbs (1893) 103,271. Zurich, Lake of : lake of Switzerland; 23 miles long and 2% miles broad; bounded by the cantons of Zurich, Schwytz, and St. Gall, and celebrated for the picturesque beauty of its scenery. Zurita, thoo-rec’-taa, GERCNIMC: historian; b. at Sara- gossa, Spain, Dec. 4, 1512; son of the favorite physician of Ferdinand the Catholic; educated at Alcalzi; became_ a magistrate and a member of the -supreme council of Castile 1543; was employed in diplomatic service in Germany 1543- 49; became chronicler of Aragon 1549; traveled through Spain, Sicily, and Italy in search of historical data, and was afterward private secretary to the king. D. in 1580. An- thor of Anales de la Corona cle Aragrin (6 vol., 1562-79). Zut’phen: town; province of Gelderland, Netherlands; on the Yssel; 18 miles N. N. E. of Arnhem by rail (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 6-H). It is beautifully situated and well built, though an old city; its walls have ZUYDER ZEE been transformed into promenades. It has tanneries, soap- works, oil and paper mills, s inning andweavmg factones, carpet manufactories, and a arge trade in wood, bark, and grain. Pop. (1890) 17,044. Zuyder Zee, zi'der-zee’ [: Dutch, liter., So_uth'Sea]: a gulf of the North Sea, 80 miles long and 40 miles in great- est breadth. Several islands lie across its mouth, and the principal communication with the North Sea is between the Helder and the island of Texel. It receives the waters of the Yssel and of the Amstel, both delta-branches of the Rhine ; at the entrance of the latter the city of Amsterdam is situated. In prehistoric times the Zuyder Zee was larger than at present, but in the eighth century considerable por- tions of it were dry and under cultivation. The great storm of 860, followed by those of 1134 and 1164, caused it to be again inundated. It is quite shallow, and the difficulty of navigating the southern part caused the construction of the North Sea Canal and of the Holland Canal as a proaches to Amsterdam. The portion shown shaded in 1518 map has only an average depth of 10 feet. The project of draining this area of 487,500 acres has long been discussed, and in 1870 plans and estimates were prepared. A dike was pro- posed through the sea from Enkhuizen to the river Yssel, a distance of 28 miles. Along the southern edge of this dike a drainage reservoir was to be provided from which the wa- ter was to be lifted by steam-pumps. Canals for navigation and drainage were to be built through the reclaimed area, which was to be divided into drainage basins, or polders, along whose dikes railways were to be constructed. The work was estimated to cost about $50,000,000, exclusive of interest, and to require from twelve to sixteen years for its completion. The doubt whether the cost of the work would be repaid by the proceeds of the sale of the reclaimed lands has been, however, so great that this drainage plan has not been undertaken. l\’IANSFIELD BIERRIMAN. Zvor'nik (Isrorm'k): fortified town; district of Tuzla, Bosnia; on the left bank of the Drina, an afiiuent of the Save (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 9-H). It is defended by a citadel, is the seat of a bishopric, and has considerable trade in wood and timber. There are lead mines in the vicinity. Opposite, on the right bank of the Drina, lies Mali- Zvormlla (Little Zvornik), claimed by Servia according to the treaty of Berlin, July 13, 1878, which established the Drina as the frontier between Austrian Bosnia and Servia. Pop. 3,030. H. S. Z weibriicken, tsvi-briik‘en (French, Dem;-Pants): a town of the Bavarian Palatinate ; 50 miles IV. of Spires (see map of German Empire, ref. 6—C). It is finely situated at the confluence of the Schwarzbach with the Hornbach; is well built, and consists of the old town, the new town, and a new suburb. Its manufactures comprise velvet, silk-plush, cot- ton, leather, tobacco, and oil. The town is very old, and owes its name to the two wooden bridges across the Schwarz- bach. Pop. (1890) 11,204. H. S. ZWINGLI 9 1 1 Zwickau, tsvik’ow : capital of the circle of its own name in the kingdom of Saxony ; on the left bank of the Mulde, at the base of the Erzgebirge, central station of the Saxon state railways; situated in a beautiful valley (see map of German Empire, ref. 5-F). Among its six churches is St. Mary’s, built (1453-1536) in Gothic style, with a tower 314 feet high and the largest bell in Saxony (115 cwt.). The gymnasium has a library of 20,000 volumes and many in- valuable MSS. of the Reformation period; there is also a mining-school. The town has machine-shops, iron-foundries, and manufactures of chemicals, woolen goods, paper, oil, flour, porcelain and glass, etc. It lies in the center of a rich coal district, and in its vicinity are about 200 furnaces for the burning of coke. The production of coal amounts to about 2,500,000 tons annually, valued at 17,100,000 marks, and employs about 10,000 laborers. Zwickau is of Slavonic origin and is mentioned as early as 1030; it played a great rdle during the Reformation, the Thomas Miinzer (Anabap- tist) movement originating there. The circle (Krez'shaupt- mannschaft) of Zwickau forms the southwestern portion of the kingdom, and is the richest and most industrial district in Saxony. Its population (1890) is 1,310,283: that of the city 44,198. HERMANN SCHOENFELD. Zwingli, Germ. pron. tsving’leYe, ULRICH or HULDEREICH: Reformer and patriot; b. in a lowly shephcrd’s cot at Wildhaus, Toggenburg (canton of St. Gall, Switzerland), of honorable and pious parents, J an. 1, 1484 (seven weeks after Luther), studied at Wesen, Vienna, 1499-1501, and Basel 1502-06 ; was carried away with the enthusiasm for classical learning, and got an insight into the corruptions of the Church; was ordained priest by the Bishop of Constance, and elected pastor of Glarus 1506. He studied the Greek New Testament very carefully, and copied it with his own hand; preached against the mercenary service of his coun- trymen; in 1516 accepted a call to St. Mary’s at Einsiedeln, and began to attack superstitious practices, but with the consent of his superiors; he even received for a while, as one of the most popular preachers, a pension from the papal nuncio in Switzerland which aided him in his studies and secured his political influence. In Dec., 1518, he was called to the cathedral at Zurich, where he labored till his death. He preached “ Christ from the fountains ” and “inserted the pure Christ into the hearts”; broke loose gradually from Romanism; introduced the Reformation in Zurich 1524. after some public disputations with the champions of the old system; led the Reform movement in the other German cantons of Switzerland; attended the conference at Berne 1528. which resulted in the abolition of the mass. He was invited to a personal conference with Luther and Melanch- then at Marburg Sept. 1529, to adjust the only serious doc- trinal difference between them on the Eucharistic Presence. He counseled energetic measures for the promotion of the Reform in his native land, but was defeated by the policy of hesitation which prevailed in Berne. He also entered into bold political combinations with Philip of Hesse for the triumph of the Protestant cause in Germany, and addressed the Emperor of Germany and the King of France with a confession of his faith. But he was cut down in the midst of his career. At the outbreak of the war between the R0- man Catholic and Protestant cantons he accompanied the Zurich regiment as chaplain, according to Swiss custom, and was pierced by a lance in the disastrous battle at Kap- el, Oct. 11, 1531, while stooping to comfort a dying sol- dier. His last audible words were, “ What of that‘? They can indeed kill the body, but they can not kill the soul.” His remains were burned, and the ashes scattered to the four winds. A plain monument in granite, erected in 1838, marks the spot where he died. Zwingli was a bold Reformer, an able scholar, an eloquent reacher, a patriotic republican, and far-sighted statesman. Pie lacked the genius and depth of Luther and Calvin, the learning of Melanchthon and (Ecolampadius, but he was their equal in honesty of purpose, integrity of character, he- roic courage, and devotion to the cause of Reformation, and surpassed them in liberality. His prominent intellectual trait was clear, strong common sense. He loved music and poetry. but in public worship he favored puritanic simplicity, and removed all pictures from the churches to prevent the temptation to idolatry. In his theological views he was more radical than Luther, and departed further from the medias- val traditions. He differed chiefly from Luther's view of the real presence of Christ’s body and blood in the sacra- ment, and held this ordinance to be merely a commemora- 912 ZWOLLE tion of the atoning death of Christ; but notwithstanding this difference he offered Luther with tears the hand of brotherhood at Marburg, which was refused. In some points he was ahead of his age, and held opinions which were then deemed dangerous and heretical. He had a milder view on original sin and guilt than the other Reformers, and be- lieved that all infants dying before the age of responsibility, whether baptized or not, and all the nobler heathen who lived up to their standard of virtue and longed after the true religion, are saved by the grace of Christ, which may operate upon the heart without the ordinary means and visi- ble signs. His principal works are a Commentary on the True and False Religion (1525); a sermon On Providence (preached at Marburg, 1529); his Confession of Faith, ad- dressed to Charles V. at the Diet of Augsburg (1530 ; a similar Exposition of Faith, addressed to Francis . of France (July, 1531, three months before his death). This last document is clear, bold, spirited, and full of hope for the triumph of the truth, warns the king against the slan- derous misrepresentations of Protestant doctrines, and en- treats him to give free course to the Gospel, and to forgive the boldness with which he dared to approach his Majesty. It is questionable whether he ever read the document. Zwingli represents only the first stage in the history of the Reformed Church. His work was completed after his death by his successor, Bullinger, at Zurich, and still more by Calvin at Geneva. The fourth centennial of his birth was extensively celebrated J an. 1, 1884, in Reformed churches in Switzerland, Holland, and the U. S. In 1885 a life-size statue of Zwingli in bronze was erected with great popular enthusiasm before the I/Vasserkirche in Zurich. It repre- sents him with uplifted face, with the sword in one hand and the Bible in the other. LITERATURE.-I-I. Zwinglii Opera, ed. Schuler and Schul- thess (Zurich, 1828-42, 8 vols.); a popular edition of his works translated into literary German by Christoffel (Zurich, 1843, scq., 15 parts); Biographies of Zwingli by Myconius (1536; reprinted by Neander, Vitae guatuor Reformatorum, Berlin, 1841); Hess (1811 ; trans. by Aiken, London, 1812) ; Hottinger (1843 ; trans. by Th. C. Porter, Harrisburg, 1856) ; Christoffel (Elberfeld, 1857 ; trans. by John Cochran, Edin- burgh, 1858); and especially Miirikofer (Ulrich Zwingli nuch den Quellen, Leipzig, 1867-69, 2 vols.); and R. Sttihe- lin, ]Iuldreich Zwingli (Basel, 1895-96, 2 -vols.). On the theological system of Zwingli, see Zeller, Dus theolog. Sys- tem Zwinylis (1853); Siegwart, Ulrich Zwin li; der Chur- uhter seiner Theologie (1855); Spiirri, icingli-Studien (1866); and especially A. Baur, Zwinglis Theologie (Halle, 1885-89, 2 vols.). Compare the seventh vol. of Schaff’s Church History, which is devoted to the Swiss Reformation (New York, 1892). A large number of pamphlets and ar- ticles were called forth by the fourth centennial celebration, in 1884. PHILIP SCHAFF. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Zw01'le: capital of the province of Overyssel, Nether- lands ; on the Zwarte-Water; 50 miles E. by N. of Amster- dam (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 4-H). It is one of the handsomest cities of the kingdom, with broad and straight streets and many public squares. It is the seat of many educational and benevolent institutions, and has man- ufactures of oil, beer, spirits, linens, and iron goods. By canals it communicates with the Yssel and Vechte. and has a trade in grain, butter. cheese, cattle, fish, and oysters. Pop. (1893) 28,310. Revised by M. W. HARRINGTON. Zygade’nus, or, less correctly, Zygabenus. EUTHYMIUS: a Byzantine theologian, “the last of the Greek commenta- tors.” He was monk of a convent dedicated to the Virgin Mary near Constantinople, and flourished under Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118 A. D.), at whose request he wrote his Panoply against all Heresies. His commentaries on the THE ZYTOMIERZ Psalms and Gos els are still referred to by scholars. (See his works in F igne’s Pat. Grceca, cxxxviii.-cxxxi.) Other commentaries (on the Pauline and Catholic Epistles) and other works (including letters) are in manuscript in the Vatican. Revised by S. M. JACKSON. Zygae'nidae [Mod. Lat., named from Zygcc'na, the typi- cal‘ genus, from Gr. giiyawa, probably the hammer-headed shark] : a family of selachians of the order Squali, and con- taming the hammer-headed sharks. The body is moderate- ly elongated and like that of the typical sharks; the head is depressed, transverse, and extended outward or sidewise to a greater or less extent; the mouth is inferior and convex forward; the teeth are moderate and in several rows (in all the known species nearly alike in both jaws, oblique and with a notch) ; the branchial apertures are five, of moderate size, and the last are above the pectoral fins; the spiracles are nullified in the adult; the dorsal fins are two, the first between the pectorals and ventrals, the second above the anal ; the anal is normally developed ; the caudal elongated, and with a well-developed liver-lobe; the pectoral fins are moderate; the ventrals small. The family is anomalous by reason of the peculiar extension of the sides of the head. This extension is carried to its maximum in the Eusphyra blochm (Zygaznu luticeps of some authors), and is least de- veloped in the Rcniceps tiburo ; in the former it is T-shaped and in the latter kidney-shaped. The common hammer- headed shark (Sphyrna zygcenu : Zygeenu mulleus) exhibits an Intermediate condition. At least five species are known, which by some are differentiated into three genera-—Fu- sphyra, Sphyrnu, and Reniceps. The Sphyrna zygcena is not uncommon on the U. S. coasts, and the Reniceps tiburo is an occasional visitor. See also HAMMERHEAD. Revised by F. A. LUeAs. Zygobran'chia [Gr. §v-yd:/, yoke + BPGI/)/XIG, gills]: a group of simple gasteropod molluscs characterized by the posses- sion of gills on either side. It includes the abalones, the keyhole limpets, etc. See GAsTEEoI>oI)A. Zyg‘0neu’l‘a [Gr. §wy6u, yoke + I/eiipoz/, nerve] : a term em- ployed by some zoiilogists for a group including the pulmo- nate and opisthobranch molluscs in allusion to the fact that their nerves are not twisted, but have rather the ap- pearance of a yoke. See GAsTERoI>onA. Zyg'ophytes (Zr/g0phytu): lower plants characterized by the fact that two equal cells unite to form a resting spore (zygospore). The Pond Scums (Zygnemacecc) and Black Moulds (rllucoracece) are common examples of Zygophytes. In the treatment of the lower plants in this cyclopaedia the Zygophytes are not regarded as constituting a distinct group. Zygoph tic reproduction occurs in the lower families of each order 0 the Phycophyta. See VEGETABLE Kmcnom. CHARLES E. BEssEY. Zygosporez See DIAToMs. Zy’lonite: a plastic material made by treating cellulose with nitric and sulphuric acids and mixing the resulting pulp with camphor, yielding a product similar to celluloid. It is also called xylonite and parkesine. Zylonite in its liquid state, collodion, was first used in surgery by Dr. J . Parker Maynard, of Boston, in 1848, and has since been employed as a dressing in cases where an air-tight covering for light wounds is required. In 1855 Alexander Parkes, of Birming- ham, England, obtained a patent for a compound which he called parkesine—solidified or hardened collodion. This material was produced by using vegetable naphtha, alcohol, methyl, and other ethers as solvents for guncotton. Factories for the manufacture of zylonite were established in Great Britain, France, Germany, and in the U. S., but it has been superseded by CELLULOID (q. v.). Zymotic Diseases: See INFECTIOUS DIsEAsEs. Zytemierz’ : a town of Russia. See J ITOMIR. END‘ / \ .l.\ K. .J\ _ ..T .. .. _ 3“ _ V _ . ( ( . ¢\~,.4\ \: \‘ ..KQ (._/ks . .7 A n\r!.'w_1~"~’ ‘ ~ lE ‘ F ; : ~<~<<;: “< “ \.\..,w.w‘,.r\ & 7/,\\ Q . .. ~,.~%@w~&..M~w&(@@? fig Q_Q~@<.,L ‘ ( ;\ j(../\. S . C a( u x. C. 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