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THE PLANT'S OF THE BIBLE.
TREES AND SHRUBS,
THE
PLANTS OF THE BIBLE
TREES AND SHRUBS,
BY
JOHN HUTTON BALFOUR M.A., M.D.,
F.R.S.S.I. AND E., F.L.S., F.R.C.S.E., -
Regiuz Keeper of the Botanic Gardens. and Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Edinburgh.
2 * * *
“Bohold the fig-trees and all the trees.”—LUKE xxi. 29.
LONDON:
T. N ELS ON AND SON S, P A T E R N O STER ROW;
ED IN BURGH; AND NEW YORK.
MDCCCLVII.
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PREFACE
EVERYTHING mentioned in the Bible is worthy of our atten-
tive consideration. The very words of the original text,
written by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, call for diligent
study; and the more we examine them in dependence on the
aid of that Spirit, the more light do we find shining upon
them. The student of God's Word cannot search too deeply
or too minutely into its hidden treasures. The most learned
linguist finds here ample Scope for all his lore, and the accom-
plished naturalist may bring to bear upon this work all the
resources of Science.
In the Sacred Writings there are frequent allusions made to
the Vegetable Kingdom. Our blessed Saviour drew beautiful
illustrations from plants, and he calls upon us to consider the
lilies of the field. While plants, like the other works of the
Almighty Creator, are well worthy of study, they are especially
so when we view them in connexion with Scripture. In
order to see fully the lesson which is to be taught, it is neces- -
sary that we should be acquainted with the plant to which
reference is made. Want of knowledge in this respect has hid
much of the beauty and force of many a parable.
At the time when our excellent English version was made,
iv. PREFACE.
there was comparatively little known in regard to the plants
of Palestine, and hence the meaning of the Hebrew and Greek
names was often doubtfully given. As the Science of Botany
has advanced, and more particularly as the knowledge of the
Flora of the East has increased, additional light has been thrown
on the plants noticed in the Bible. Celsius, Rosenmüller, Royle,
and many others, have done much to elucidate Scripture Bo-
tany; and although there are still many difficulties in the way
of a complete Bible Flora, still there has been a great advance
in this department of Biblical learning. It has been thought
that such a work as the present might be useful in calling
attention to this important subject, and in inducing those who
may visit Palestine to turn their powers of observation to
useful account. It is to be regretted that, of the numerous
visitors at the present day to the Holy Land, few have turned
their thoughts in this direction, and that thus many valuable
opportunities for acquiring botanical information have been
lost. The Botany of the Bible can be fully worked out only
by those who travel in Eastern countries, and who are ac-
quainted with Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, and other cognate
languages. A great deal of valuable information may be
gathered on the spot which cannot be otherwise obtained.
Let us hope that, ere long, travellers will have greater facili-
ties for prosecuting with safety their researches in that inte-
resting, although now deserted, land; and that some botanist
may soon arise who will be able to write with scientific accuracy
on all the Scripture plants, from the Cedar on Lebanon even
to the Hyssop that groweth out of the wall.
TABLE OF CONTENTS,
Almond-Tree, Shaked, (Amygdalus communis), º © º tº
Box-Tree, Teashur, (Buxus sempervirens), & g wº e o
Ashur-Wood or Box-Wood, (Do.), & tº
Bay-Tree, Ezrach, (Laurus nobilis), . & & c e &
Rose-Bay, Rhodon, (Nerium Oleander), & e tº e ©
Cedar-Tree of Lebanon, Eres or Æres, (Cedrus Libani), . wº ſº
Cedar-Wood, a kind of Juniper, (Juniperus), . * e º o
Fir-Tree, Berosh or Beroth, (Cupressus Sempervirens, or Cypress), . ſº
Cypress, Tirzah, probably (Quercus Ilex),
Gopher-Wood, probably a kind of Pine, {º g g ge e
Cinnamon-Tree, Kinnamon, (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), i.e º gº
Cassia-Tree, Kiddah, (Cinnamomum Cassia), .
Cassia, Ketzioth, (Aucklandia Costus), e e o tº gº
Fig-Tree, Teenah, (Ficus Carica), ſe tº ge e te
Hyssop, Esobh and Hyssopos, (Capparis a gyptiaca, or Caper-plant),
Aspen or Trembling Poplar, Mulberry-tree of Scripture, Becaim, (Populus
tremula), tº t t e e e e º
Oak-Tree, Allon, (Quercus AEgilops),
Mustard-Tree, Sinapi, (Salvadora persica),
Myrtle-Tree, Hadas, (Myrtus communis), tº tº g tº
Olive-Tree, Zait or Sait, Elaia, (Olea europaea), tº &e
Palm-Tree, Tamar, (Phoenix dactylifera), º e tº • * *
Pomegranate-Tree, Rimmon, (Punica Granatum), ę º te e
Shittah-Tree and Shittim-Wood, (Acacia Seyal),
Sycamine-Tree, Sycaminos or Sykaminos, (Morus nigra, or Black Mulberry),
Sycomore-Tree or Sycamore-Tree, Shikmoth and Shikmim, Sycomoros, or
Sykomorus, (Sycomorus antiquorum),
Teil-Tree, or Terebinth-Tree, and Elm, Elah or Ailah, (Pistacia Terebinthus),
Husk-Tree, Keratia, or Husks, (Ceratonia Siliqua), . ... • g
Pa
:
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31.
33
35
39
2 - TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Plane-Tree, or Chestnut-Tree of the Bible, Armon, (Platanus orientalis),
Walnut-Tree, Egoz, (Juglans regia),
Nuts, Botnim, (Pistacia vera), .
Grape-Wine, Gephen, (Vitis vinifera),
Willow-Tree, Oreb and Orebim, (Salic babylonica),
Willow, Tzaphtzapha or Zaphzapha, (Salix aegyptiaca),
Almug or Algum-Tree, Almuggim or Algummim, (Santalum album),
Aloes-Tree, or Lign-Aloes-Tree, (Aquilaria Agallochum),
Ebony-Tree, Hobnim, (Diospyros Ebenus),
Juniper-Bush, a kind of Broom, Rotem or Rothem, (Genista monosperma),
Storax-Tree, Libneh, translated Poplar, (Styraw officinale),
Oren, a kind of Pine-Tree, translated Ash,
Eshel or Tamarisk-Tree (Tamaria orientalis),
Myrrh-Tree, Mor and Myrrha, (Balsamodendron Myrrha),
Thyine-Wood, Xylon Thyinum, (Callitris quadrivalvis),
Balsam-Tree, Basam and Baal-Shemm, (Species of Balsamodendron),
Tappuach, translated Apple-Tree and Citron-Tree, (Citrus medica),
Thorns and Briers, Koz, Chedek, &c., (Zizyphus and Paliurus, &c.), .
Page
ALMOND-TREE.
(Amygdalus communis.)
“The almond-tree shall flourish.”—Eccl. xii. 5,
HE almond-tree is the Amygdalus communis of botanists. It is
referred to in Scripture under the Hebrew name of Shaked.
The Hebrew word Luz, which occurs in Genesis xxx. 37, and which has
been translated hazel, is considered to be another name for the almond.
Luz is supposed to refer to the tree, and Shaked to the fruit of the
almond. Rosenmüller thinks that the former name designates the
wild tree, and the latter the cultivated one. The tree belongs to the
class Icosandria, order Monogynia, of the Linnean system, and to
the natural order Rosaceae, or the Rose-family. It is included under
the section Amygdaleae or Drupiferae of that family,–distinguished
by the nature of the fruit, which has a kernel, enclosed in a shell or
stone and surrounded by a more or less succulent covering. In this
section are included also the peach, the nectarine, the apricot, the
plum, and the cherry. The leaves of the tree are long and narrow,
with an acute point and saw-like margin. The tree is a native of Asia
and Barbary. It is cultivated extensively in the south of Europe,
and is also met with in gardens in Britain. It grows in Syria and
Palestine. From the fact that Jacob told his sons to take almonds as
a present to Joseph (Gen. xliii. 11), it has been inferred that the
plant did not grow naturally in Egypt, and moreover, that, notwith-
standing the famine in Canaan, it continued to flourish and bear fruit.
The almond-tree blossoms very early in the season. Kitto men-
tions it among the trees of Palestine that flower in January. The
flowers are of a pinkish colour, and are produced before the leaves,
A.
2. ALMOND-TREE.
so as to be very conspicuous. This hastening of the period of flower-
ing seems to be alluded to in Jeremiah i. 11, 12—"What seest
thou? and I said, I see a rod of an almond-tree. Then said the
Lord unto me, Thou hast well seen: for I will hasten my word to
perform it.” The Hebrew name of shaked is apparently derived from
the word shakad, meaning haste or waking early.
In Ecclesiastes xii. 5, it is said, “The almond-tree shall flourish.”
This has often been supposed to *r to the resemblance between the
flowers of the almond and the hoary locks of old age. But this inter-
pretation is not borne out by an examination of the blossom of the
almond, which is pinkish and not pure white. The passage rather
appears to refer to the hastening of old age. As the almond-tree
ushers in spring, so do the signs referred to in the context indicate
the coming of old age and death. In Numbers xvii., Moses is stated
to have laid up twelve rods of the princes of Israel before the Lord
in the tabernacle of witness, and on the morrow, “the rod of Aaron
for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, and
bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds.”
The fruit of the almond was used to furnish a model for certain
kinds of ornamental carved work. Thus, in speaking of the candle-
stick in the tabernacle, Moses says, that its bowls were made like
unto almonds (Exod. xxv. 33, 34; xxxvii. 19, 20). The kernel or
seed of the almond supplies oil. Sweet almonds (Amygdalus communis
var. dulcis) contain a fixed oil and emulsine; while bitter almonds
(Amygdalus communis var. amara) contain, in addition, a nitrogenous
substance called amygdaline, which, by combination with emulsine,
produces a volatile oil and prussic acid. Bitter almonds, when eaten
in small quantity, sometimes produce nettlerash, and when taken in
large quantity, they may cause poisoning.
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BOX-TREE.
(Buacus sempervirens.)
“I will set in the desert the fir-tree, and the pine, and the box together.” —Isaiah xli. 19.
HE box-tree is the Buacus sempervirens of botanists. It is men-
tioned in the Bible under the Hebrew name of Teashur. The
tree belongs to the class Monoecia, order Tetrandria, of the Linnean
system, and to the natural order Euphorbiaceae, or the Spurgewort
family. The plants of this order have peculiar involucrate flowers,
often without any perianth, and their fruit is usually composed of
three carpels, which separate in an elastic manner when ripe. They
abound in milky juice, which has in general acrid and poisonous quali-
ties. Starch as well as oils and caoutchouc are procured from many
of the species. -
The box is a native of most parts of Europe, and grows well in
England, as at Boxhill, in Surrey. It is prized as an ornamental
evergreen; and in a dwarf state is used for garden borders. Its
wood, imported from the Levant, is used by the wood-engraver, the
turner, the mathematical instrument maker, the comb and toy maker,
and others. The wood is hard and durable, and was formerly used
for tablets which were covered with wax and used for writing. The
practice of inlaying the box-wood with ivory is noticed by ancient
authors. Thus Virgil says:– -
Aut collo decus, aut capiti; vel quale per artem
Inclusum buxo, aut Oriciá, terebintho,
Lucet ebur. AEneid x. 135.
The prophet Isaiah refers to the box as one of the trees fitted to
beautify the wilderness and the desert: “I will plant in the wilder-
ness the cedar, the shittah-tree [Acacia Seyal], the myrtle, and the
4. BOX-TREE.
oil-tree ſolive-tree]; I will set in the desert the fir-tree, the pine, and
the box-tree together ” (xli. 19). Again, in referring to the glory of
the latter days, be speaks of the box as adorning the Lord's temple:
“The glory of Lebanon' shall come unto thee, the fir-tree, the pine-
tree, and the box together, to beautify the place of my sanctuary"
(lx. 13). Royle says, “The box-tree, being a native of mountain-
ous regions, was peculiarly adapted to the calcareous formations of
Mount Lebanon, and therefore likely to be brought from thence with
the coniferous woods for the building of the temple, and it was well
suited to change the face of the desert.” The prophet's prediction,
however, seems to have reference io the trees of righteousness, the
planting of the Lord (Isa. lxi. 3), and to bring before us the members
of Christ's true Church, differing in many particulars, but all enjoy-
ing sweet communion, and worshipping the Lord together.
The prophet Ezekiel (xxvii. 6), when describing the commerce of
Tyre, uses the word ashur, which, by most commentators, is sup-
posed to be a contraction of teashur, or box. The translation of the
passage should probably be—“Of the oaks of Bashan have they
made their oars; the benches of the rowers have they made of
ashur-wood (box-wood), inlaid with ivory, brought out of the isles of
Chittim” (the isles of Greece). Thus, in place of ashurites, as in
our authorised version, the word ashur-wood ought to be substituted.
It is conjectured that Corsica and Sardinia may have been included
among the isles of Chittim whence box-wood was brought to
Judea.
BAY-TREE.
(Laurus nobilis.)
“Spreading like a green bay-tree.”—Ps, xxxvii. 35.
HE plant called Bay-tree in the Bible is supposed to be the
sweet-bay,+the Laurus nobilis of botanists. It belongs to the
class Enneandria and order Monogynia of the Linnean system, and to
the natural order Lauraceae, or the Laurel family. The laurels are
aromatic and fragrant plants, yielding fixed and volatile oils, as well
as camphor. They have dotted leaves, stamens partly fertile and
partly abortive, the former having anthers opening by valves, and
their fruit is a berry or drupe. The sweet-bay, the Ezrach of the
Hebrew, is an evergreen tree, attaining the height of twenty or
thirty feet, common in the south of Europe, and found also in Pales-
time. At the present day it is said to luxuriate in the old gardens of
Tyre and Sidon, and beside some forgotten towers and deserted wine-
presses in the Holy Land.
The tree yields a green oil, denominated oil of bays. Its branches
were used for crowning the victors in the ancient games of Greece
and Rome, as well as for decorating the brow of the poet.
This and the other species of true laurel must not be confounded with
the plants commonly called laurels in gardens. The latter consist of
the cherry laurel and the Portugal laurel, which belong to a totally
different order of plants, namely, to the same section of the rose-
family as the almond and plum. The ratafia odour emitted by the
bruised leaves of these garden laurels is very different from the
aromatic perfume given out by the sweet-bay leaves. The cherry-
Taurel water furnished by the large-leaved bay-laurel contains prussic
acid, and has consequently poisonous qualities. In this respect the
6 BAY-TREE.
plant resembles the bitter almond. Another garden plant, denominated
Laurustinus, must also be distinguished from the sweet-bay; it is
Viburnum Tºnus of botanists, and belongs to the natural order
Caprifoliaceae. *
The Psalmist, in Psalm xxxvii. 35, thus alludes to the laurel now
under consideration—“I have seen the wicked in great power, and
spreading himself like a green bay-tree.” The vigour and beauty of
the tree made it a fit emblem of prosperity, and its association with the
fame of the victor and the poet suggested the idea of the honour which
cometh from man.
Royle says—“The cause why the laurel is not more frequently
mentioned in Scripture is probably because it was never very com-
mon in Palestine; as otherwise, from its pleasing appearance, grate-
ful shade, and the agreeable odour of its leaves, it could hardly
have failed to attract attention.” In the neighbourhood of Antioch
the tree is said to be abundant. Hasselquist suggests that the
rose-bay, the Nerium Oleander of botanists, might be the plant
referred to by the Psalmist. It grows by the sides of streams in
some parts of Judea, and is conspicuous alike for its foliage as for its
showy flowers. The perfume of the oleanders around the Lake of
Tiberias has attracted the notice of travellers. Royle and others think
that the oleander is the Rhodon, or rose, of the Apocrypha.
C E D A R - T R E E O F L E B A N 0 N ·
B A Y – T R E E.
ſaevae mae


CEDAR-TREE OF LEBANON.
(Cedrus Libani.)
“The boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars.”—Psalm lxxx. 10.
HE cedar-tree of Lebanon is noticed in the Bible under the Hebrew
name of Eres or Æres. It is probable, however, that this name was
also applied to other allied plants. The Arabs call the tree arz or ars.
It is the Cedrus Libani of botanists, and belongs to the class Monoecia
and order Monadelphia of the Linnean system, and to the natural
order Coniferae or the Cone-bearing family, in which it is associated
with the pines, firs, spruces, and larches.
In early times, the cedar appears to have grown abundantly on Leba-
non, and to have proved its distinguishing feature. Hence it was called
“the glory of Lebanon” (Isa. xxxv.2; lx. 13). In various passages
of the Old Testament, we read of the cedars of Lebanon sent by Hiram,
King of Tyre, for the building of David's house, of the temple at
Jerusalem, and of Solomon's house (2 Sam. v. 11; vii. 2, 7; 1 Kings
v. 6, 8, 10; vi. 9, 10, 15, 16, 18, 20; vii. 2, 3, 7, 11, 12; ix. 11; 1
Chron. xvii. 6; 2 Chron. ii. 8). Beams, boards, pillars, walls, floor,
ceiling, throne, and altar of cedar are mentioned. This timber was
employed in coffsequence of its superior quality. It is stated that
Solomon “made cedars to be as the sycomore trees [sycomore fig-
trees] that are in the vale (or in the low plains), for abundance”
(1 Kings x. 27; 2 Chron. ix. 27). In later times, there has been a
great diminution in the number of cedars on Lebanon.
The cedar of Lebanon is a wide-spreading evergreen tree, from 50
to 80 feet in height, with numerous large horizontal branches. Ezekiel,
when describing the cedar, speaks of its high stature, its top among
the thick boughs, its multiplied boughs, its long branches, and its
8 CEDAR-TREE OF LEBANON.
shadowing shroud (Ezek. xxxi. 3–9). The goodly cedars, or cedars
of God, are mentioned in Ps. lxxx. 10, and excellent cedars, in Song of
Sol. v. 15. Isaiah speaks of the cedars of Lebanon being high and
lifted up (Isa. ii.13); and of the tall cedars, xxxvii. 24. As the branches
extended, so did the roots, and thus the tree was firmly fixed in
the soil, and enabled to withstand the violence of storms. Hence the
prophet Hosea says, “He shall cast forth his roots as Lebanon” (Hos.
xiv. 5). The watering of the roots by means of the streams of
Lebanon is referred to by Ezekiel in the passage already noticed.
The tree was distinguished for its exalted and vigorous growth;
hence it is singled out among those on which Solomon wrote: “He
spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is in Lebanon, even unto the
hyssop ſcaper-bush] which springeth out of the wall” (1 Kings iv. 33).
The righteous are represented as growing like the cedar-trees of Lebanon
(Ps. xcii. 12); and Israel like the cedar-trees beside the waters (Numb.
xxiv.6). The wood of the cedar is reddish-white, and is easily worked.
The tree yields a sweet-smelling resin, which is alluded to in Scripture
as “the smell of Lebanon” (Song of Sol. iv. 11; Hos. xiv. 6).
It has been supposed that the cedar wood mentioned in Leviticus
xiv. 4, and Numbers xix. 6, was the produce of a fragrant species of
juniper plentiful in the desert, and growing in crevices of Sinai. The
cedar-wood used for pencils at the present day is the produce of
Juniperus bermudiana, a native of the West Indies. In some heathen
countries species of juniper are used as incense on account of their
fragrance. *
Among other passages in the Bible where cedar occurs, may be
mentioned;—2 Kings xix. 23; Ezra iii. 7; Song of Sol. v. 17;
viii. 9; Isa. ix. 10; xiv. 8; xliv. 14; Jer. xxii. 7, 14, 23; Ezek. xvii.
3, 22, 23; xxvii. 5; Amos i. 9; Zech. xi. 1, 2.
CINN AMON-TREE.
(Cinnamomum zeylanicum.)
“Calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense.”—Song of Sol. iv. 14.
INNAMON is mentioned in several places in the Old Testament,
under the Hebrew name of Kinnamon. The plantis Cinnamomum
zeylanicum of botanists. It belongs to the class Enneandria and order
Monogynia of the Linnean system, and to the natural order Lauraceae
or the Laurel family. In this order are found many aromatic fragrant
plants, yielding volatile oils and tonic barks. (See the description of
the Bay-tree.) The plant grows in India, and its bark, under the name
of cinnamon, is imported at the present day from Ceylon, and also
from the Malabar coast, in bales and chests, the bundles weighing
about one pound each. It is distinguished from other allied species
by its acuminated tricostate leaves, the ribs coming into contact at
the base, but not uniting. The best cinnamon is procured from branches
three years old. Oil of cinnamon is obtained from the bark by distil-
lation, after it has been macerated in sea-water; and a fatty matter is
procured from the fruit by boiling. This fat was used by the Portu-
guese in makiºandles.
Cinnamon was highly valued as a spice and perfume. It was one
of the principal spices employed in the manufacture of precious oint-
ment for the tabernacle (Exod. xxx. 22–25). Solomon speaks of it
also as one of the frankincense plants: “ Calamus and cinnamon, with
all trees of frankincense” (Song iv. 14). Its use as a perfume is
referred to in Prov. vii. 17: “I have perfumed my bed with myrrh,
aloes [Aquilaria Agallochum, and cinnamon.” And the merchandise
of it is noticed in the account of the destruction of the Apocalyptic
B
10 CINNAMON-TREE.
Babylon: “Cinnamon, and odours, and ointments, and frankincense”
(Rev. xviii. 13).
Besides the true cinnamon plant, we must also refer to another
species known under the name of Cassia. It is mentioned in Scrip-
ture as Kiddah. It constituted one of the ingredients in the holy
ointment already referred to (Exod. xxx. 24); and it is recorded
by Ezekiel among the merchandise of Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 19). The
plant referred to in these passages appears to be the Cinnamomum Cassia
of botanists, which is distinguished from the Cinnamomum zeylanicum
by its oblong-lanceolate triplicostate leaves, the three ribs uniting
together for some extent at the base of the leaf. The bark of the tree
is known as cassia-bark. It is inferior to cinnamon, being coarser and
more pungent, with a certain amount of bitterness. The leaves when
chewed have a true cinnamon flavour, while the leaves of Cinnamomum
zeylanicum when similarly treated taste like cloves. Cassia-oil and
cassia-buds appear to be produced by the same tree. It grows in India
and China.
The word ketzioth, translated cassia, in Psalm xlv. 8, is by Royle
conjectured to mean the costus of the ancients, the koost of the Arabs,
and the Aucklandia Costus of botanists.
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FIR-TREE.
(Cupressus sempervirens, or Cypress.)
“I am like a green fir-tree.”—Hos. xiv. 8.
HE fir-tree is noticed in the Bible under the Hebrew names of
Berosh and Beroth. Most commentators believe that the tree
alluded to is the cypress, Cupressus sempervirens of botanists. It be-
longs to the class Monoecia, order Monadelphia, of the Linnean system,
and to the natural order Coniferae or the Cone-bearing family, section
Cupressineae. These coniferous trees are resinous in their nature, their
leaves are very narrow and sharp-pointed (hence called needle-trees
by the Germans), their staminate flowers are in deciduous catkins, and
their pistillate flowers in cones, the scales of which cover one, two,
or more naked seeds. The wood of the tree is marked with remark-
able dotted discs, which are easily seen under the microscope. The
tree has a tapering form not unlike that of the Lombardy poplar,
and in southern latitudes it attains a height of fifty or sixty feet. Its
fruit is a more or less rounded cone, flattened at the apex, and com-
posed of peltate scales, covering numerous winged seeds. Its timber
is durable. The gates of Constantinople, which stood for more than a
thousand years, were made of it. The tree is a native of Greece,
Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine. The Mohammedans plant it in
their burying-grounds.
Allusion is frequently made in the Bible to the vigorous growth of
the fir-tree. Thus Ezekiel, when describing the power of the Assyrian,
selects the fir-tree on account of its noble growth, and says, “the fir-
trees were not like his boughs” (xxxi. 8). For the same reason it is
associated with the cedar of Lebanon. Sennacherib, the King of
12 FIR-TREE.
Assyria, is represented as saying, “With the multitude of my
chariots I am come up to the height of the mountains, to the sides of
Lebanon, and will cut down the tall cedar-trees thereof, and the choice
fir-trees thereof.” (2 Kings xix. 23; Isaiah xxxvii. 24).
The wood was used for various purposes, such as in house-building,
ship-building, the formation of musical instruments, &c. It was one
of the kinds of timber sent by Hiram to Solomon for the construction
of the temple (1 Kings v. 8, 10; ix. 11; 2 Chron. ii. 8). The floor
of the house was covered with planks of fir, and the two doors at the
entrance of the temple, and the ceiling, were made of the same kind of
wood (1 Kings vi. 15, 34; 2 Chron. iii. 5). Rafters of berosh are
also referred to (Song of Solomon i. 17). David and all the house of
Israel played on musical instruments made of berosh wood.
Fir-trees are mentioned in connexion with the future renovated
earth. Isaiah says, “I will set in the desert the fir-tree” (Isaiah
xli. 19); “Instead of the thorn shall come up the fir-tree” (Isaiah
lv. 13); “The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir-tree, the
pine-tree, and the box-tree together, to beautify the place of my
sanctuary” (Isaiah lx. 13).
The word Tºrzah, translated cypress, in Isaiah xliv. 14, is supposed
by many to mean the evergreen oak, Quercus Ilea, the wood of which
was constantly employed by the ancients in making images.
The gopher-wood, of which the ark was constructed (Gen. vi. 14), is
supposed to be the produce of the cypress, or of some other tree belong-
ing to the pine tribe.
FIG - T.R.E.E.
(Ficus Carica.)
“Learn a parable of the fig-tree.”—Matth. xxiv. 32.
HE Hebrew word Teenah, and the Greek word Sycé or Sucé, are
translated Fig and Fig-tree in Scripture. The tree is called by
botanists Fious Carica. It belongs to the class Polygamia, order
Dioecia, of the Linnean system, and to the natural order Artocarpaceae,
or the Bread-fruit family, and the suborder Moreae, which includes
also the mulberry. The tree is characterised by its fruit, which is
formed by an enlarged succulent hollow receptacle, containing the
flowers in its interior. Hence the flowers of the fig-tree are not
visible until the receptacle is cut open. The tree is a native of the
East, and has been transported into Europe. It is grown in the south
of Europe, including Greece and Italy, and in northern and western
Africa. A wild type is known in Italy by the name of Caprifico.
Figs have been cultivated from the earliest times. The fig is the
first tree mentioned by name in Scripture (Gen. iii. 7). The figs of
Athens were celebrated for their flavour. Figs at the present day are
brought to this country from Smyrna in small boxes called drums;
the quantity imported in 1851 was nearly seven hundred tons.
The fig-tree was common in Palestine, which was described as
being “a land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig-trees, and
pomegranates” (Deut. viii. 8). The parties who went from the wil-
derness of Paran to search the land “brought of the pomegranates
and of the figs” (Numb. xiii. 23). The fig-tree is employed to indicate
the peace and prosperity of a nation (1 Kings iv. 25; also Micah
iv. 4). Sennacherib, king of Assyria, employs the same metaphor in
14 FIG-TREE.
order to induce the inhabitants of Jerusalem to surrender (2 Kings
xviii. 31; Isa. xxxvi. 16). Figs constitute an important article of
food in eastern countries, and are eaten both in a fresh and in a dried
condition. In the latter state they are spoken of as being made into
cakes, called debelim. Abigail brought two hundred cakes of figs to
David and his men (1 Sam. xxv. 18); and the armies that came to
David in Hebron brought cakes of figs (1 Chron. xii. 40). A piece
of a cake of figs was given to the Egyptian who was found in a
famishing state in the field (1 Sam. xxx. 12). Good and bad figs are
used by Jeremiah as emblems of good and evil (Jer. xxiv.)
The failure, destruction, and falling of the figs are mentioned as
indications of the judgments of the Lord (Ps. cy. 33; Isa. xxxiv. 4;
Jer. v. 17, viii. 13; Hosea, ii. 12; Joel i. 7, 12; see also Rev. vi. 13).
Figs were used as a laxative, and also as a poultice. Thus Isaiah
ordered a lump of figs to be laid on the boil with which Hezekiah
was afflicted, and he recovered (2 Kings xx. 7; Isa. xxxviii. 21).
Different crops of figs are produced during the year. Early figs
appeared in spring (Jer, xxiv. 2). Isaiah, Hosea, and Nahum refer
to the early or first ripe figs, or the hasty fruits before the summer
(Isa. xxviii. 4; Hosea'ix. 10; Nahum iii. 12). The early green fruit
is alluded to in the Song of Solomon ii. 13. Besides the forward
figs of spring, there were also summer and autumn figs. When
Jesus was proceeding from Bethany to Jerusalem, “He hungered,
and when He saw a fig-tree in the way, He came to it and
found nothing thereon but leaves only” (Matt. xxi. 18, 19). The
period was early, and, according to Mark, “the time of figs was not
yet” (Mark xi. 13); still, as the tree was in full leaf, it might have
been expected that some early figs would have been found. Finding
no appearance whatever of fruit, however, our Saviour said to the
tree, “Let no fruit grow on thee henceforward for ever; and presently
the fig-tree withered away.”
f. || 0 – T R E E H Y S S 0 P.



HY S SOP.
(Capparis a gyptiaca, or Caper-plant.)
“He spake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon, even unto the hyssop that
Springeth out of the wall.”—l kings iv. 33.
HE Hebrew word Esobh and the Greek Hyssopos are translated
hyssop in the Bible. There have been great differences of
opinion regarding the nature of the plant thus mentioned by the
sacred writers of the Old and New Testament. Some have thought
that it was a minute moss or fern, or some other wall-plant; others,
that it was the plant called hyssop at the present day, or one allied to
it, such as rosemary, marjoram, or thyme. After a careful exami-
nation, Dr Royle has come to the conclusion that the hyssop of
the Bible is one of the caper plants (Capparis spinosa or Capparis
agyptiaca of botanists); that the name of the plant, Azaf, in Arabic
corresponds with the Hebrew Esobh, and that the shrub is fitted for
all the purposes mentioned in the Scriptures.
The Caper-bush belongs to the class Polyandria and order Monogy-
nia of the Linnean system, and to the natural Order Capparidaceae or
the Caper family. The plants of this order have pungent, stimulant,
and antiscorbutic qualities. The caper-bush grows in Lower Egypt,
in the deserts of Sinai, and in Palestine. The localities in which
the plant delights are barren soils, rocky precipices, and the sides
of walls.
Hyssop is mentioned in several passages of the Old Testament in
connexion with cleansing and purification. The first mention of it is
in Exodus xii. 22, at the institution of the passover, where it is
directed that the blood of the lamb shall be sprinkled by means of
16 HYSSOP.
hyssop on the dwellings of the Israelites. In the cleansing of the *
leper and of the house affected with the plague of leprosy, hyssop was
also employed in a similar way (Lev. xiv. 4–7, 49–52). It was also
used in the burning of the heifer, from the ashes of which the water
of separation was prepared, as well as in the sprinkling of the water
(Numb. xix. 6). It seems to be in allusion to this sprinkling that the
Psalmist says, “Purge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean’” (Ps.
li. 7). Royle, however, thinks that David here refers to the deter-
gent quality of the flower-buds of the plant, which constitute the
capers of commerce, and are supposed to have cleansing properties.
Reference is made to hyssop in the New Testament also. Thus
St Paul alludes to the use of it in purification (Heb. ix. 19–21). The
evangelist John, in the account which he gives of the crucifixion of
our Lord, says, “Now there was set a vessel full of vinegar; and they
filled a sponge with vinegar, and put it upon hyssop, and put it to
His mouth" (John xix. 29). Here we have vinegar mentioned along
with hyssop, probably as being the material used in the preparation
of capers. It is obvious, also, from this passage, that the hyssop
must have been a plant capable of furnishing a rod of moderate
length, so that the sponge might be raised to the Saviour's lips.
Such a statement, then, seems to exclude all those translations which
would make the hyssop a minute plant or a small herb. The Caper-
bush would suit the purpose, as a stick of three or four feet long could
be obtained from it. In the parallel passages of the Gospels accord-
ing to Matthew and Mark, it is said that the sponge was put on a
reed (Matt. xxvii. 48; Mark xv. 36), and the word hyssop is not
introduced. This may be explained either by supposing that the
Word Kalamos, translated reed, was a stick of hyssop, or that part of a
hyssop-bush was fastened upon the end of a reed or stick, and the
Sponge placed on it.
ASPEN OR TREMBLING POPLAR.
(THE MULBERRY-TREE OF SCRIPTURE.)
(Populus tremula.)
“The sound of a going in the tops of the mulberry trees.”—2 Sam. v. 24.
HE Hebrew word Becaim has been translated mulberry trees. It
is the plural of the word Baca, which occurs in Psalm lxxxiv. 6.
It is supposed by able commentators that the trees noticed under
these names were poplars, several species of which occur in the Holy
Land. Kitto says, “We know that the black poplar, the aspen, and
the Lombardy poplar grew in Palestine. The aspen, whose long and
flat leaf-stalks cause the leaves to tremble with every breath of wind,
unites with the willow and oak in overshadowing the water-courses
of Lower Lebanon, and with the oleander and acacia in adorning the
ravines of Southern Palestine. The Lombardy poplar is described as
growing with the walnut-trees and weeping-willow under the deep
torrents of the Upper Lebanon.” The Arabic word Bak, which
means Poplar, is very similar to the Hebrew Baca.
The aspen (Populus tremula of botanists) is supposed to be the
tree indicated by the Hebrew words we have noticed. The quaking
of its leaves has given origin to the name of trembling poplar,
which is applied to it. The moving of the leaves seems to be
referred to in the following passage:—“And the Philistines came
up yet again, and spread themselves in the valley of Rephaim.
And when David inquired of the Lord, he said, Thou shalt not
go up; but fetch a compass behind them, and come upon them
C
18 ASPEN OR TREMBLíNG POPLAR.
over against the mulberry-trees [becaim]. And let it be, when
thou hearest the sound of a going in the tops of the mulberry-trees,
that then thou shalt bestir thyself” (2 Sam. v. 23, 24; 1 Chron.
xiv. 14, 15).
The poplar gave the name to the valley of Baca, which is some-
times called the Walley of Weeping. Here the tree was associated with
the willow and other plants which delight in a moist soil: “Who
passing through the valley of Baca, make it a well; the rain also
filleth the pools” (Psalm lxxxiv. 6). In this shady valley the fra-
veller to Zion was refreshed by the wells and pools of water.
The aspen belongs to the class Dioecia, order Octandria of the Lin-
mean system, and to the natural order Salicaceae, the Willow family.
The plants of the order have their flowers in catkins, and their seeds
covered with silky hairs. The trembling of the aspen leaf in the
slightest breeze seems to depend on the flattening of the petiole or
leaf-stalk in a vertical direction. The tree extends to northern coun-
tries, and is found in the alpine districts of Scotland.
A S P E N O R T R E M 8 L | N O PO P L A R.0 A K – T R E E.
|-/////^： /ºº ，ſºwº，，
-|-


O A K-T R. E. E.
(Quercus Zgilops.)
“And he [the Amorite] was strong as the oaks.”—Amos ii. 9.
HE Hebrew word Allon has been translated oak. It is probable
that under this name were included several species, such as
Quercus Ilea, or evergreen oak, Quercus coccifera or Kermes oak, and
Quercus AEgilops or Valonia, the great prickly-cupped oak. The last
mentioned is that which we have figured. It is a handsome tree,
common in the Levant. It belongs to the class Monoecia, order Poly-
andria, of the Linnean system, and to the natural order Corylaceae or
Cupuliferae, the Hazel and Oak family. The plants of this order have
their flowers in catkins, and their fruit is a nut having a cup-like
covering, as in the acorn, or a husk-like covering, as in the hazel nut.
The cups of the Quercus AEgilops are used by dyers under the name
of valonia. It is said that valonia is annually imported into Britain
to the extent of 150,000 cwt.
Another Hebrew word, Elah or Ailah, has also been translated
oak in the Bible, but it is more properly considered as meaning the
Terebinth-tree. Our translators have also rendered other Hebrew
words by the name oak. The word translated plain, for instance,
in some passages, means an oak grove. Thus, in 1 Sam. x. 3, in place
of “the plain of Tabor,” the translation ought to be, a grove of oaks
at Tabor. Also in Judges is. 37, instead of “plain of Meonenim,”
we should read an oak or oak-grove of the magicians. Other texts
in which “plain” occurs in place of “oak” are—Gen. xii. 6; xiii. 18;
xiv. 13; xviii. 1; Deut. xi. 30; Judges iv. 11; ix. 6.
In some parts of Palestine, oaks must have occupied a conspicuous
20 OAK-TREE.
place in the landscape. We read of the oaks of Bashan as being
famous for strength, beauty, and utility. When the children of Israel
departed from the Lord, they appear to have performed idolatrous rites
in oak groves. Thus we read in Hosea iv. 13 of the burning incense
upon the hills and under oaks. Isaiah (xliv. 14) speaks of the people
taking the oak to make a god. When the Lord threatens judgment
upon the nations, he refers often in a special manner to the oaks, “The
day of the Lord shall be upon all the oaks of Bashan” (Isa. ii. 12, 13);
“Howl, O ye oaks of Bashan” (Zech. xi. 2).
Solemn covenants were made under an oak. Joshua, when he
solemnly charged the people, and announced to them the law of God,
put up a stone of witness under an oak (Josh. xxiv. 26). In old times
persons were sometimes buried under the shade of an oak. Thus it
is stated in regard to Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, that she was buried
under an oak in Bethel, and the name of it was called Allon-bachuth,
or the oak of weeping (Gen. xxxv. 8). The strength of the oak is
referred to by Amos in speaking of the Amorite (Amos ii. 9). In the
maritime city of Tyre, in its days of prosperity, the oak was used for
making oars (Ezek. xxvii. 6).
MU STARE) - T.R.E.E.
(Salvadora persica.)
“A grain of mustard-seed, when it is grown, becometh a tree.”–Matt. xiii. 31, 32.
HE word Sinapi is met with in the Gospels according to Matthew,
Mark, and Luke, and it has been translated Mustard-tree.
Much difference of opinion has existed as to the plant here intended.
It is obvious that it cannot be the common mustard of this
country, which is an herb of annual growth; whereas the evangelists
speak of the plant as a tree having branches on which the fowls of
the air lodged. Thus, in Matt. xiii. 31, 32, it is said, “The king-
dom of heaven is like to a grain of mustard-seed, which a man took
and sowed in his field; which indeed is the least of all seeds: but
when it is grown it is the greatest among herbs, and becometh a tree,
so that the birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof.”
Again, Mark describes it as a tree “shooting out great branches; so
that the fowls of the air lodge under the shadow of it’’ (Mark iv. 31);
and Luke says, “The kingdom of God is like a grain of mustard-
seed, which a man took and cast into his garden; and it grew, and
waxed a great tree; and the fowls of the air lodged [or built nests] in
the branches of it” (Luke xiii. 19). Our Lord also alludes to the
smallness of the seed in Matt. xvii. 20, and Luke xvii. 6. The
mustard plant then was a branching tree with a small seed. Dr
Royle has examined this subject with his usual care and acuteness,
and finds that the mustard plant of Palestine at the present day is a
tree which answers in every respect to the description of the sacred
writers. The tree grows near Jerusalem, and most abundantly on
the banks of the Jordan, and round the sea of Tiberias. The seed
22 MUSTARD-TREE.
is called chardal or khardal, which is the Arabic name for mustard.
It is known to botanists as Salvadora persica, and belongs to the class
Tetrandria, order Monogynia, of the Linnean system, and to the
natural order Salvadoraceae, which is considered as being nearly allied
to the Olive family. It is found in Persia, Arabia, Palestine, and
North Africa. An Indian species, S. indica or Koenigii, has similar
qualities, and receives the name of kharjal.
The mustard plant of Palestine is a tree twenty-five feet high, pro-
ducing numerous branches and leaves, among which birds take shelter
and build their nests. Its seeds are small, have a pungent taste, and
are used as mustard. In every respect, then, this plant corresponds
with the description given in the Scriptures. The parable illustrates
the increase of Christ's kingdom, which from small beginnings is
destined finally to extend over the whole earth.
M U S T A R D — T R F E -
M Y R T L E – T R E E.



MY RTL E-TR. E. E.
(Myrtus communis.)
“Instead of the brier shall come up the myrtle-tree.”—Isa. lv. 13.
HE Hebrew word Hadas,translated Myrtle, occurs in a few passages
in the Old Testament. Royle says that the berries of the myrtle
are at the present day sold in bazaars in India under the name of hadas.
It is the Myrtus communis of botanists, and belongs to the class Icosan-
dria, order Monogynia, of the Linnean system, and to the natural order
Myrtaceae, or the Myrtle family. The pomegranate belongs to the same
order, but is well distinguished from the other plants by the character
of its fruit. The common myrtle is the most northern species of the
order. It seems to have been in high repute in eastern countries on
account of its beautiful snow-white flowers, its dark green foliage, and
its pleasant odour. Its buds and berries have been used as spices, and
a fragrant distilled water is prepared from its flowers. The bark and
root are used for tanning Russian and Turkish leather, to which they
communicate a peculiar odour. The leaves are also used to dress skins.
It grew abundantly in Palestine and Syria, and it is noticed by Nehe-
miah as one of the trees which supplied branches for the construction
of booths: “Go forth unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and
pine branches, and myrtle branches, and palm branches, and branches
of thick trees to make booths, as it is written” (Neh. viii. 15).
Zechariah in his vision speaks of the angel of the Lord standing
among the myrtle-trees, implying that the were well known and
common in the country (Zech. i. 8, 10, 11). The myrtle is not a
native of Britain, although it is generally cultivated in greenhouses.
In this country it rarely becomes a tree, and does not blossom freely.
º
24 MYRTLE-TREE.
In the north of Europe it is frequent. At the present day it occurs on
the hills around Jerusalem, and in the valley of Lebanon, and it
sometimes forms extensive thickets. Harris mentions myrtles growing
in the valleys to the height of ten feet, and emitting an exquisite per-
fume. The tree sometimes attains a height of twenty feet. Horace
speaks of myrtle crowns, and mentions the myrtle as a garden plant;
and Virgil states that the odour of Corydon's garden arose from the
laurel and myrtle that were planted together (Ecl. ii. 54). Milton,
describing the bower of Paradise, says—
º º º “ the roof
Of thickest covert was in woven shade,
Laurel and myrtle, and what higher grow
Of firm and fragrant leaf.”
The tree is used by the prophets to indicate a change on the face of
the earth, when the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the earth as
the waters cover the sea. Thus Isaiah, when speaking of that blessed
epoch, says, “Instead of the thorn shall come up the fir-tree, and
instead of the brier shall come up the myrtle-tree; and it shall be to
the Lord for a name, for an everlasting sign that shall not be cut off.”
(Isa. lv. 13). Again, the Lord says by the prophet, “I will plant in
the wilderness the cedar, the shittah-tree, and the myrtle, and the oil-
tree” (Isa. xli. 19). -
It has been stated that Hadasseh, the original name of Esther, is
derived from the word Hadas, meaning myrtle. It has also been con-
jectured that Esther is formed from the word as, an Arabic name for
myrtle, and tur meaning fresh. The Jews employed the myrtle as an
emblem of justice.
O LIW E-TR. E. E.
(Olea europaea).
“His beauty shall be as the olive-tree.”—Bios. xiv. 6.
HE olive-tree is frequently mentioned both in the Old and in the
New Testament. It is one of the earliest of the plants noticed in
the Bible. In Genesis viii. 11, the dove is described as bringing the
olive-branch to Noah. Being thus associated with the assuaging of
the waters of the flood, the olive-branch is used as an emblem of
peace. The name of the tree in Hebrew is Zait or Sait, or in Greek
Elaia. It is the Olea europaea of botanists, and belongs to the class
Diandria, order Monogynia, of the Linnean system, and the natural
order Oleaceae, or the Olive family. The plants of this order have
four divisions of their corolla, usually two stamens, a two-celled and
two-seeded ovary, and a fleshy or dry fruit, which is often by abortion
one-seeded. The olive-tree has a drupaceous fruit, which was gathered
for the purpose of furnishing oil, and seems to have been shaken off
by beating the branches; hence in Deut. xxiv. 20, it is said, “When
thou beatest thine olive-tree, thou shalt not go over the boughs again;
it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow.”
Isaiah also alludes to the shaking of the olive-tree and the fruit left
(Isa. xvii. 6). The outer fleshy part of the fruit yields the oil under
pressure. The finest oil at the present day is imported from Florence
and Provence.
The olive-tree is common in the south of Europe, and it abounded
in the Holy Land, which was hence called a land of olive-trees, of olive-
yards, and of oil-olive (Exod. xxiii. 11; Deut. vi. 11; viii. 8; xxviii.
40; Josh. xxiv. 13). Solomon gave to the servants of Hiram twenty
D
26 OLIVE-TREE.
thousand baths of oil (2 Chron. ii. 10). The Mount of Olives, so
called from the abundance of these trees, is often referred to as the
spot to which our Saviour retired alone or with his disciples (Matt.
xxi. 1; xxiv. 3; xxvi. 30; Mark xiii. 3; xiv. 26; Luke xix. 29;
xxi. 37; xxii. 39; John viii. 1); and it was from the Mount Olivet
that the disciples witnessed the ascension of their Master (Acts i. 12).
In the prophecies regarding the glorious latter days, allusion is also
made to the Mount of Olives (Zech. xiv. 4). Some very old olive-
trees still exist on the Mount. The tree is of slow growth, and seldom
attains a greater height than twenty or thirty feet.
There are two varieties of olive-tree, distinguished as the long-leaved,
which is cultivated in the south of France and Italy, and the broad-
leaved in Spain. The wild olive, called by the Greeks Agri-elaia, was
a low spiny tree, the branches of which were grafted on the cultivated
olive. Hence the allusion by St Paul in Romans xi. 17, 24. The
evergreen nature of the tree causes the Psalmist to exclaim, “I am
like a green olive-tree in the house of God” (Ps. lii. 8); and Jere-
miah says, “The Lord called thy name A green olive-tree” (Jer. xi. 16).
The timber of the tree was used for furniture, and for ornamental
carvings. In the temple it was used in the carvings, in forming the
posts of the doors, and in the construction of the cherubim (1 Kings
vi. 23, 31, 32). Its branches were employed at the Feast of Taber-
nacles (Neh. viii. 15). The bark of the tree has tonic properties. The
oil expressed from the fruit was used in the temple and for anointing
(Exod. xxv. 6; xxx. 23–25; xxxv. 14; xxxix. 37; Lev. viii. 12).
The treading of the olive, and the expressing of its oil and the col_
lecting of it in vats, are alluded to by Micah and Joel (Mic. vi. 15;
Joel ii. 24; iii. 13). The fatness of the olive-tree is noticed in Judges
ix. 9, and in Romans xi. 17. The value of the trees required that
there should be overseers to attend to them (1 Chron. xxvii. 28).

PAL M-T R. E. E.
(Phoenix dactylifera.)
“The righteous shall flourish like the palm-tree.”—Ps. Xcii. 12.
HE Palm-tree of the Bible, called in Hebrew Tamar, is the Phoenic
1- dactylifera, or Date-palm. It belongs to the class Dioecia and
order Hexandria of the Linnean system, and to the natural order Palma.
The plants of this interesting family are characterised by their tall,
usually unbranched stems, their pinnate or fan-shaped leaves, their
flowers growing on a single or branched spadix, covered by a spathe,
their fruit being a nut, drupe, or berry, and their seeds containing car-
tilaginous or hard albumen, with a small embryo in a cavity remote -
from the hilum. It has been calculated that some spathes contain
two hundred thousand flowers. Palms are valuable plants, and furnish
to man most important products, such as starch, sugar, oil, wax, fruit,
coverings for habitations, materials for manuscripts, &c.
Date-palms were common in Palestine; and some cities were famous
for the abundance of them. Jericho was called the city of palm-
trees (Deut. xxxiv. 3; Judges i. 16; iii. 13; 2 Chron. xxviii. 15).
The name Tamar is applied to a city in Palestine, probably from
the palm-trees near it (Ezek. xlvii. 19; xlviii. 28). Some say that
T. mar was Tadmor in the wilderness (2 Chron. viii. 4). Hazezon-
Tamar and Baal-Tamar are also mentioned. The tree extends along
the course of the Euphrates and Tigris, across to Palmyra and to the
Syrian coast of the Mediterranean. It grows also in the northern
parts of Africa. When growing in the desert, it indicates the presence
of water. The Israelites in their journey “came to Elim, where
were twelve wells of water, and threescore and ten palm-trees, and they
encamped by the waters” (Exod. xv. 27).
28 PALM-TREE,
The stem of the date-palm exhibits what is called the endogenous
mode of growth, the hardest part being on the outside. The leaves
are pinnate, and are sometimes called branches in Scripture (Lev. xxiii.
40; Neh. viii. 15). They were used at the Feast of Tabernacles for
covering the booths. They are also used as emblems of victory or
triumph. Thus palm-leaves were employed by the multitude when
they went forth to meet Jesus coming to Jerusalem (John xii. 13).
In the heavenly Jerusalem, the great multitude who stood before
the throne and before the Ilamb are represented by the apostle
John as “clothed with white robes, and palms in their hands” (Rev.
vii. 9). The flowers are produced on a branching spadix covered
by a sheath. The fruit hangs in clusters. This is supposed to be
alluded to in Song of Solomon vii. 7, “This thy stature islike a palm-
tree, and thy breasts to clusters of dates,” (not grapes, as added by our
translators). Dates constitute an important article of food. It is said
that nineteen-twentieths of the population of Fezzan, in Africa, live on
dates during nine months of the year, and that many of the animals
also feed on them. It is also stated that in Fezzan every door and
every post is made of date-palm wood, and the poorer classes live in
huts (booths) entirely made of date-palm leaves. Dates are imported
into Britain from Barbary and Egypt, and are usually of the variety
called Tafilat.
Figures of palm-trees were introduced by Solomon into the carvings
of the temple (1 Kings vi. 29, 32, 35; vii. 36; 2 Chron. iii. 5); and
they are also referred to by Ezekiel in his description of the second
temple (Ezek. xl. 16, 22, 26, 31, 37; xli. 18–20, 25). The palm-tree,
from its erect and noble growth, and its heavenward direction, is used
in Psalm xcii. 12 as an illustration of the righteous.
POME GRANATE-TREE.
(Punica Granatum.)
“Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits.”—Song of Sol. iv. 13.
HE pomegranate-tree and its fruit are noticed in Scripture under
the Hebrew name of Rimmon. The plant is the Rhoa of Dioscor-
dus and the Sidé of Homer. It is a native of Asia, and, according to
Royle, may be traced from Syria through Persia and the mountains
of Northern India. It was common in Palestine. Thus Moses,
speaking of the promised land, calls it “a land of wheat and barley,
and vines, and fig-trees, and pomegranates” (Deut. viii. 8); and the
spies who searched the land “brought of the pomegranates and of the
figs” (Numb. xiii. 23). Several towns and villages in Palestine bore
the name of Rimmon or Pomegranate (Josh. xv. 32; 1 Chron. iv. 32;
1 Chron. vi. 77; Zech. xiv. 10). Saul tarried under a pomegranate
tree (1 Sam. xiv. 2); and the prophets Joel and Haggai refer to the
pomegranate (Joel i. 12; Haggai ii. 19). The tree must have grown
in Egypt during the time of the Israelites' sojourn there, for when in
the wilderness of Zin, they lamented the loss of the pomegranates
(Numb. xx. 5).
The tree is the Punica Granatum of botanists, the generic name
indicating an African origin. The English name pomegranate is
derived from the words pomum granatum, or grained apple of the
Romans. The tree belongs to the class Icosandria, order Monogynia
of the Linnean system, and to the natural order Myrtaceae or the
Myrtle family. It has a dark green foliage resembling that of the
olive and myrtle; its flowers are of a beautiful crimson colour; and
its fruit is red-coloured, as large as an orange, and contains a juicy
30 POMEGRANATE-TREE.
pulp, which is particularly refreshmg in warm countries. The calyx
forms part of the fruit. Delicious seedless pomegranates are grown
near Cabul.
The beauty of the flower and fruit, and the use of the latter as an
article of food, caused the plant to be cultivated in gardens (Song of
Sol. iv. 13; vi. 11; vii. 12). The delicate colour of the pulp of
fruit is referred to in the following passage:—“Thy temples [or rather
thy cheeks] are like a piece [section] of a pomegranate within thy
locks” (Song of Sol. iv. 3; vi. 7). The pulp of the fruit is eaten
alone or with sugar, and the juice is expressed to furnish a refreshing
drink, or to form wine. The wine of the pomegranate is mentioned
in Song of Sol. viii. 2.
The pomegranate was selected as a pattern of various ornamental
carvings and embroiderings in ancient times. The fruit and the flower
furnished beautiful models for the purpose. The chapiters or capitals
of the pillars in the temple were covered on the top with carved
pomegranates (1 Kings vii. 18, 20, 42; 2 Kings xxv. 17; 2 Chron.
iii. 16, and iv. 13; Jer, lii. 22). Embroidered pomegranates, with
golden bells between them, were put on the bottom of the high priest's
blue robe and ephod (Exod. xxviii. 33, 34; xxxix. 24-26).
Various parts of the pomegranate-tree have been used medicinally,
especially for the cure of tape-worm. The bark of the root, the
flowers, and the rind of the fruit, have been used for this purpose. The
latter was employed for tanning and preparing the finer kinds of
leather in early times. The rind is the principal material used at the
present day in the manufacture of morocco leather.
zº
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SHIT TAH-TREE.
(Acacia Seyal.)
“I will plant in the wilderness the cedar, the shittah-tree, and the myrtle, and the oil-tree.”
—Isaiah xli. 19.
HE Shittah-tree of the Bible is the plant which yielded shittim-
wood. This wood is mentioned among the offerings of the
children of Israel (Exod. xxv. 5; xxxv. 7, 24.) It was used in
making the various parts of the tabernacle in the wilderness, such
as the ark and its staves (Exod. xxv. 10, 13; xxxvii. 1, 4; Deut. x. 3);
the table for the shew-bread and its staves (Exod. xxv.23,28 ; xxxvii.
10, 15); the boards for the tabernacle and their bars (Exod. xxvi. 15,
26; xxxvi. 20, 31); the pillars for the veil and for the hanging of
the door (Exod. xxvi. 32, 37; xxxvi. 36); the altar of burnt-offering
and the altar for incense and their staves (Exod. xxvii. 1, 6; xxx. 1, 5;
xxxvii. 25, 28; xxxviii. 1, 6).
Considerable differences of opinion have existed relative to the
tree which is referred to in these passages of Scripture. It grew
apparently in abundance in the desert, so as to be easily procured by
the Israelites. Dr Shaw, in speaking of Arabia Petraea, says, “The
Acacia tree, being by much the largest and most common tree in
these deserts, we have some reason to conjecture that the shittim-
wood was the wood of the acacia, especially as its flowers are of an
excellent smell; for the Shittah is, in Isaiah xli. 19, joined with the
myrtle and fragrant shrubs.” Kitto thinks that the tree is the Acacia
Seyal of botanists. This tree belongs to the class Polygamia, order
Monoecia, of the Linnean system, and to the natural order Leguminosae,
and suborder Mimoseae.
32 SHITTAH-TREE.
The plants of this suborder of Leguminosae produce a legume
or pod, and their flowers are regular, their petals being valvate
in aestivation. They yield gummy and astringent matters. Gum
arabic is furnished by this species of Acacia, as well as by others.
The tree is a native of Egypt and of the deserts of Arabia, and it
would also appear to have grown near Jerusalem, for Joel, in speak-
ing of the glory of the latter days, says, “And it shall come to pass
in that day that the mountains shall drop down new wine, and the
hills shall flow with milk, and all the rivers of Judah shall flow with
waters, and a fountain shall come forth of the house of the Lord,
and shall water the valley of Shittim,” probably so called from the
shittah or acacia trees growing in it (Joel iii. 18). Shittim is also
noticed by Micah (vi. 5); and in the journeyings of the children of
Israel a place named Abel-Shittim is mentioned in the plains of Moab
(Numb. xxxiii.49).
The Acacia tree is thorny, and bears pinnate leaves. Its flowers
grow in round yellow clusters, and the long thread-like projecting
stamens give a peculiar character to the inflorescence. The poet
speaks of the Acacia as waving “its yellow hair.” Its wood is hard
and durable, and is susceptible of a fine polish.
SY C A M IN E – T. R. E. E.
(Morus nigra, or Black Mulberry.)
“If ye had faith . . . . ye might say to this sycamine-tree, Be thou plucked up by
the root.”—Luke xvii. 6.
HE Greek word Sycaminos, translated “Sycamine-tree,” occurs in
one passage in the New Testament, viz., in Luke xvii. 6:
“And the Lord said, If ye had faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye
might say unto this sycamine-tree, Be thou plucked up by the root,
and be thou planted in the sea; and it should obey you.” The tree
must not be confounded with the Sycamore. It is obvious from
Dioscorides, Galen, and other Greek authors, that by Sycamine the
mulberry-tree was meant. Celsus states this also very distinctly.
Sibthorpe, who examined carefully the plants of Greece, and published
the Flora Graeca, says, that in that country the white mulberry-tree
is, at the present day, called Mourea, and the black mulberry-tree,
Sycamenia. Judging, then, from the use of the term at the present
day in Greece, it is believed that the Morus nigra, or black mulberry,
is the species referred to.
Both the white and the black mulberry are common in Palestine.
The plants are much cultivated at the present day, on account of the
leaves supplying food for silkworms. The mulberry belongs to the
class Monoecia, order Tetrandria of the Linnean system, and to the
natural order Artocarpaceæ, or the Bread-fruit family, and suborder
Moreae, or mulberry section. The leaves of the black mulberry are
large, the flowers are in clusters, and the fruit is the product of nume-
rous flowers, and thus, although it has an appearance like a bramble
berry, it is totally different in structure.
E
34 syCAMINE-TREE.
Our Lord, in the passage from Luke, refers evidently to some tree
which was well known to all His hearers, and probably frequently
met with. The mulberry would be a fit tree for such an illustration.
The black or purple, and the white mulberry, are natives of Persia
and the adjacent countries. The former produces the best fruit. The
latter is the handsomer tree, but it is pruned and lopped for the pur-
pose of furnishing a larger quantity of leaves for the silkworms which
are bred in large quantities in Syria. Lady Callcott says, that “in
the neighbourhood of Mount Lebanon, the land-tax of the peasants is
assessed according to the number of mule-loads of mulberry leaves
their little farms produce; so that the cultivation of the tree is
directed to favour the growth of the leaf, at the expense of the fruit.
In the southern part of the Holy Land, a palm-tree is
usually planted in the court; while, towards the north, it is replaced
by the purple mulberry: the pleasant juice of whose fruit, mingled
with water, in which the sweet-scented violet has been infused, forms
one of the most grateful kinds of sherbet” (Scripture Herbal, 283,284).
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SY COMORE-TR EE.
(Sycomorus antiquorum.)
“I was an herdman, and a gatherer of sycomore fruit.”—AmOS vii. 14.
HE Sycomore or Sycamore-tree of the Bible is quite distinct from
that usually called sycamore at the present day in Britain. The
latter is a species of maple, and is the Acer Pseudo-platanus of botanists,
often called in Scotland plane-tree. The specific name indicates that
the plant has some resemblance to the true plane (Platanus). This
resemblance is seen in the leaves only, for in all other respects the
trees are totally different. The sycomore of Scripture, however, is a
kind of fig-tree, producing fruit similar in structure to the common fig,
and having leaves like the mulberry. Hence the name Sycomore, which
is derived from sycon, a fig, and moron, a mulberry. It is the Ficus Syco-
morus or the Sycomorus antiquorum of botanists. In Hebrew the Syco-
more-trees are called Shikmoth and Shikmim. These are two plural
words which occur in several places in the Old Testament. In the New
Testament, the plantis mentioned under the Greek name of Sycomoros.
The tree belongs to the class Polygamia and order Dioecia of the Linnean
system, and to the natural order Artocarpaceae or the Bread-fruit family,
which by some is considered a suborder of the Urticaceae or the Nettle
family. It is separated from the latter family by its milky juice and
the nature of its fruit, which is formed by numerous flowers on an
elongated or hollow receptacle. The juice usually contains caoutchouc,
and the fruit is generally edible.
The sycomore-fig was common in the plains of Egypt, and in the
valleys of Palestine. Hence it has been sometimes called Pharaoh's
fig, and it is said that Solomon made cedar trees “to be as the sycomore
36 SYCOMORE-TREE.
trees that are in the vale for abundance” (1 Kings x. 27; 2 Chron, i.
15, ix. 27). It is still cultivated near Cairo for its shade. It was
not valued much either for its timber or for its fruit. Isaiah represents
Ephraim and the inhabitants of Samaria as saying in the pride and
stoutness of their heart, “The sycomores are cut down, but we will
change them into cedars;” or, in other words, in place of houses built
with the common sycomore fig-tree, we will build palaces of cedar
(Isa. ix. 10). The wood of the sycomore is coarse-grained. In Egypt,
where there were few native trees of value, the timber was used to
form mummy cases. On account of the dry climate of that country,
and the means used for the preservation of the timber, the wood of
these cases is very durable.
The fruit of the sycomore grows in clusters on the trunk and main
branches. It is edible, and is hence mentioned along with the
olive and vine as one of the products of Canaan,—parties being
appointed to take care of the trees (1 Chron. xxvii. 28; Ps. lxxviii.
47). It has a sweetish taste, and is still used as food. It is said to
furnish a considerable portion of the food of the field-labourers in
Rhodes, Cyprus, and Egypt. In order that the fruit might ripen well
and be palatable, it was necessary to make incisions into it or to scrape
off a part at the end of it; and this practice is supposed to be alluded
to by Amos, when he says, “I was an herdman, and a gatherer of"
(literally, one who scraped or cut) “the sycomore fruit” (vii. 149.
This mode of fig-ripening is noticed by Pliny. The tree was lofty
and shady, and hence probably was planted along the road-sides.
The stem sometimes attains fifty feet in circumference. Into a syco-
more-tree Zaccheus climbed to see Jesus, on that memorable occasion
when salvation came to him and to his house (Luke xix. 4).
TEIL-TREE, OR TEREBINTH-TREE.
(Pistacia Terebinthus.)
“As a Teil-tree [Terebinth-tree], or as an Oak, whose substance is in them.”—Isaiah vi. 13.
HE feminine Hebrew word Elah or Ailah, denoting a strong
hardy tree, occurs in several passages of the Bible, and has been
variously translated. It is rendered in different versions terebinth,
teil-tree, elm, oak, and plain. The word also occurs in the masculine
form as El or Ail. It is now generally assumed that the plant
indicated is the Terebinth-tree, the Buthma of the Syriac or Chaldee,
the Butm or Botom of the Arabs, and the Pistacia Terebinthus or
Turpentine-tree of botanists. It belongs to the class Dioecia and
order Pentandria of the Linnean system, and to the natural order
Anacardiaceae or Terebinthaceae, the Cashew family, the plants be-
longing to which abound in a resinous or milky acrid juice.
The tree is the source of the Chian turpentine, which is procured by
incisions in the trunk, and is collected chiefly in the island of Scio;
a single tree yields about ten ounces. It is common in Palestine.
Dr Robinson states that the tree is found also in Asia Minor (many
of them near Smyrna), Greece, Italy, the south of France, Spain,
and in the north of Africa; and that it sometimes attains the height
of thirty or thirty-five feet. He noticed a very large specimen between
Gaza and Jerusalem. The tree appears to be long-lived, and it was
consequently frequently employed to designate places where important
events occurred.
The valley of Elah or the Terebinth valley is mentioned in 1
Samuel xvii. 2, 19, and xxi. 9. It was by this valley that Israel
encamped, and it was in this valley that David slew Goliath. In
38 TEIL-TREE, OR TEREBINTH-TREE.
Genesis xiv. 6, El-Paran is noticed. This is rendered by the Septua-
gent the Terebinth of Paran; by some commentators it is called the
oak of Paran, and by others the plain of Paran, which is given in our
Bibles as a marginal reading. In other places the word is also
translated plain. This variety of translation has given rise to much
confusion.
It would appear also that the name has been confounded with Allon
and the feminine Allah, which mean oak. The difference between
the words is well seen in some passages where both occur. Thus in
Isaiah vi. 13 it is said, “As a teil-tree [Elah or Terebinth-tree] and
an oak” (Allon). So also in Hosea iv. 13, “They sacrifice upon the
tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, under oaks
[Allon), poplars [Libneh or Styrax], and elms [Elah].” The term Oak
is used instead of Terebinth, in many other passages, such as the fol-
lowing:—The angel appeared to Gideon under a Terebinth at Ophrah
(Jud. vi. 11, 19); idols were worshipped in groves of Terebinth
(Isa. i. 29; Ezek. vi. 13); idolaters are compared to a Terebinth,
whose leaf fadeth (Isa. i. 30). (See also 1 Kings xiii. 14; 1Chron.x.
12). In figuring the restoration of the mourners in Zion, Isaiah SayS,
“that they might be called trees [Terebinths] of righteousness, the
planting of the Lord, that he might be glorified” (Isa. lxi. 3).
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º 3 3 8 1 − × 5 m H 3 3 8 1 – H 1 N 1 8 2 8 3 1 & 0 3 3 8 1 1 1 3 1


H U S K - T.R.E.E.
HUSKS OF SCRIPTURE.
(Ceratonia Siliqua.)
“The husks that the swine did eat.”—Luke xv. 16.
ITWHE Greek word Keratia, or Ceratia, occurs in Luke xv. 16, and
has been translated Husks. The prodigal son, it is said,
“would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did
eat.” In Arabic, the word is rendered Charnub, or Charub, which
seems to refer to the pods or legumes of the Carob-tree, Caroba of
the Italians, Algaroba of the Spaniards and Moors, Ceratonia Siliqua
of botanists. The tree belongs to the class Pentandria and order
Monogynia of the Linnean system, and to the natural order Legu-
minosae or the legume-bearing family, and section Caesalpinieae, in
which the petals have a pea-like arrangement, but the upper one is
interior.
The tree is common in the south of Europe as well as in Syria
and Egypt. Its pods or husks received the name of Keratia, from
their fancied resemblance to a slightly curved horn, or keras. These
husks were formerly used in large quantity to feed cattle and swine,
and they are often mentioned in this point of view by old authors.
Horace, in his Epistles, alludes to living upon husks as upon vile
food—
“Wivit siliquis et pane secundo.”—EPIST. II. i. 123.
Persius and Juvenal also allude to them. Pliny describes them as
the food of pigs (lib. xv., cap. 23, 24). At the present day, they
are employed in Spain and other countries to feed horses, asses, and
mules; and they were frequently given to horses by the British
40 HUSK-TREE.
soldiers during the Peninsular war. The pods are imported into
Britain in small quantity, as food for horses and cattle. The locust
beans, as they are called by farmers, are mixed with oil-cake and
a little meal. They do not require to be crushed, for, being very
palatable, the animals masticate them well before swallowing them.
Camels are also fed on them. Hence they are called by the Turks
Deweh Elmeghi, or, the bread of the camel. A tree will sometimes
produce 800 to 900 pounds of pods.
The pod is 6 to 8 inches in length, and about an inch in breadth.
It is flattened on the sides, and is about a quarter of an inch in thick-
mess. The seeds are of a reddish brown colour, and are immersed in
a sweetish pulp. In times of scarcity, the pod has been used by man
as food. Some have called the tree locust-tree, and St John's
bread-tree, from a mistaken notion that its pods were the locusts
referred to in Matt. iii. 4, and Mark i. 6, as forming part of the food
of the Baptist. The German name for the fruit, for the same reason,
is Johannisbrod.
Rawolf, in his account of a journey from Bethlehem to Jerusalem,
says, “along the roads were a good many of the trees which are called
by the inhabitants Chernubi (the Arabic, Charnub), and the fruit of
which we call St John's bread; it was brought to us in great
quantities.” In the case of the prodigal son, the feeding on husks
pointed out the low and miserable condition to which he was reduced
when he wandered from his father's house. He would fain have been
content with the most miserable fare, and was in a very degraded
situation, although, in his madness and folly, he knew it not. His
condition represents that of the sinner who has wandered from God,
and who is content with the unsatisfying husks of this world's enjoy-
ments. |
PLAN E – T.R. E. E.
CHESTNUT-TREE OF THE BIBLE.
(Platanus orientalis.)
“The chestnut-trees [plane-trees] were not like his branches.”—Ezek. xxxi. 8.
N two passages of the Old Testament we meet with the Hebrew word
Armon, and in both of them it has been translated Chestnut.
Then, in Genesis xxx. 37, it is said, “And Jacob took him rods of
green poplar, and of the hazel and chestnut tree;”
and again, in
Ezekiel xxxi. 8, “The cedars in the garden of God could not hide
him: the fir-trees were not like his boughs, and the chestnut trees
were not like his branches.” The best commentators consider the
tree to be the eastern Plane-tree, the Platanus orientalis of botanists.
It is a large tree, with spreading branches. Ovid speaks of “platano
conspectior alta;” and Martial alludes to the tree thus; “ramis
sidera celsa petit.” De la Roque, in his travels in Syria and Mount
Lebanon, says, “We dined in the midst of this little forest. It is
composed of twenty cedars, of such enormous size that they far
exceeded the more beautiful Plane-trees, sycomores, and other large
trees, which we had been in the habit of seeing during our journey.”
Royle says, “It may be remarked, that this tree is in Genesis associ-
ated with such trees as the willow and poplar, which, like it, grow on
low grounds, where the soil is rich and humid. Russel names the
plane, willow, and poplar, as trees which grow in the same situations
near Aleppo. This congruity would be lost if the chestnut were
understood, as that tree prefers dry and hilly situations.”
The Plane-tree belongs to the class Monoecia and order Polyan-
F -
42 PLANE-TREE.
dria of the Linnean system, and to the natural order Platanaceae, or
the Plane-tree family, which are catkin-bearing plants, with the flowers
in clusters of rounded balls, pendulous on a common stalk. The
leaves of the oriental plane are palmate, resembling those of our common
sycamore, which is a species of maple. The resemblance in the form
of the leaves has caused the latter to be denominated in Scotland the
Plane-tree, and to be named botanically false-plane (Acer pseudo-plata-
nus). The wood of the true plane is hard and fine-grained, and when
old, it resembles walnut-wood in its dark veining. The timber was
used for making vessels for the vintage, and for other purposes.
The tree is a native of the western parts of Asia, and it extends as
far as Cashmere. It was held sacred in the East, and was valued for
its shade by the Greeks and Romans. Themisteus speaks of disputa-
tions under the lofty platanus. Belon says, that the plane-trees of
Mount Athos may be compared in height to the cedars of Lebanon,
and to the lofty pines of Mount Olympus and Aman. He also notices
the occurrence of fine plane-trees at the entrance to Antioch; and De
la Roque refers to the forest of plane-trees and cypresses which border
the river Orontes, in the plains of Antioch. Xerxes is said to have
paid homage to a large plane-tree in Lydia.
P L A N E T R E E.w A L N U T T R E !
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WALN UT-TREE.
(Juglans regia.)
“The garden of nuts” [walnuts].-Song of Sol. vi. 11.
HE Hebrew word Egoz has been rendered, in our version of the
Bible, Nuts. It occurs in the Song of Solomon, vi. 11, “I went
down into the garden of nuts to see the fruits of the valley.” It is
the Arabic Gjaus, or Ghaus, and the Syriac Gusa, which were
names given to the walnut. Hence the plant is believed to be the
Walnut-tree, the Juglans regia of botanists. The fruit is the carwon
basilicon, or royal nut of the Greeks, the nua of the Romans, and the
noic of the French. The Latin term Juglans is a corruption of
Jovis-glans, or Jupiter's nut. It appears to have been one of the
many kinds of fruits which Solomon introduced into his gardens and
orchards (Eccles. ii. 5).
The walnut-tree belongs to the class Monoecia and order Polyandria
of the Linnean system, and to the natural order Juglandaceae or the
Walnut family, in which the flowers are in catkins, and the fruit is
a drupe, usually with a two-valved endocarp, or shell, and a peculi-
arly lobed and divided seed. The latter character is well seen in the
common walnut. The tree is wide-spreading, and affords a grateful
shade. It flowers in April, and has ripe fruit in September and
October. Its leaves are fragrant when bruised. The outer covering
of the fruit is astringent, and dyes the fingers black during the
process of peeling. The thin outer covering of the seed immediately
under the shell is bitter, and in its fresh state requires to be removed
before the kernel is eaten. The seed yields a large quantity of
drying oil. The timber is valued for carpenter-work.
44 WALNUT-TREE.
The tree extends from Greece and Asia Minor through Persia to
the Himalaya. In Cashmere, walnuts are cultivated for their oil.
Josephus says, that the walnut-trees were very productive around the
lake of Gennesareth. Schulz also mentions large walnut-trees
between Ptolemais and Nazareth. Travellers record the occurrence
of the tree in Syria; Thevenot found it near Mount Sinai, and Belon
alludes to it as abundant near Lebanon.
Another Hebrew word, Botnim, has been also rendered nuts in our
version of the Bible. It occurs in Genesis sliii. 11, where Israel says
to his sons, “Take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and
carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey,
spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds.” Various plants have been
considered as yielding the nuts referred to in this passage. Con-
sidering that the fruit was the common produce of Syria, and that
the allied Arabic word, Batam, or Botin, is applied to a species of
terebinth, it is now supposed that Bochart was correct in saying that
the nuts were the Pistacia or Pistachio nuts of commerce, the produce
of the Pistacia vera of botanists. Betonim, a name applied to a town
of the Gadites (Josh. xiii. 26), is probably a modification of the same
word.
The Pistacia-nut-tree belongs to the same class, order, and natural
family, as the terebinth-tree (see page 45). The green-coloured
kernels yield oil. Royle says, “Pistachio-nuts are much eaten by
the natives of the countries where they are grown, and they form an
article of commerce from Afghanistan to India. They are also
exported from Syria to Europe. They might, therefore, well have
formed a part of the present intended for Joseph.”
GRAPE-W INE.
(Vitis vinifera.)
“I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman.”—John xv. 1.
HE vine is expressed in Hebrew by the word Gephen, and in
Greek by the word Ampelos, while the grapes or the fruit of the
vine is the anul or yayin of Hebrew, and the staphylé of Greek writers.
The plant is called by botanists Vitis vinifera. It belongs to the
class Pentandria and order Monogynia of the Linnean system, and
to the natural order Vitaceae or Ampelideae, the Wine family.
The vine, its fruit, and the wine made from it, are often referred to
in the Bible. The plant is said to be a native of the hilly region on
the southern shores of the Caspian, and of the Persian province of
Ghilan. It has been distributed extensively over the world, and its
cultivation is noticed in the earliest times. Noah planted a vineyard
after the deluge, and made wine from the grapes (Gen. ix. 20, 21).
Wine is mentioned in the interview between Abraham and Melchizedec
(Gen. xiv. 18). The vine was known to the Egyptians (Gen. xl. 9-11),
and is represented on their monuments. The Israelites in their journey
through the wilderness longed for the vines of Egypt (Numb. xx. 5);
and the Psalmist, in alluding to God's judgments on Pharaoh, intro-
duces the vines as being destroyed (Ps. lxxviii. 47; cv. 33).
Vineyards abounded in Canaan when the Israelites took possession
of it, and the vines were very productive. The men who were sent
by Moses to search the land cut in Nachal-Eshcol, i.e. the Valley of
Eshcol, or the Grape Valley, near Hebron, a cluster of grapes which
was so large that it was carried by two upon a staff (Numb. xiii. 23).
46 sº GRAPE-WINE.
In Syria, at the present day, clusters weighing ten or twelve pounds
have been gathered. When Jacob blessed Judah, he made special
reference to the vine, as indicating prosperity (Gen. xlix. 11). Fre-
quent allusions occur in the Bible to vineyards, to vine-dressers, to
the rejoicings at the vintage, the gathering and the gleaning of grapes,
the treading of the grapes, the wine-presses and the wine-fats, all
indicating the important place which the vine occupied among the
vegetable productions of Palestine. Some choice vines are mentioned
under the name of Sorek (Gen. xlix. 11; Isa. v. 2; Jer. ii. 21). The
vineyards of Eshcol, Heshbon, Elealeh, Sibmah, Jazer, and Engedi, …
were celebrated (Song of Sol. i. 14; Isa. xvi. 8-10; Jer. xlviii. 32, 33).
The grape-vine has followed the footsteps of man, and has been
transplanted by him into all parts of the world. The juice of the
young fruit, called verjuice, is very sour; that of the riper fruit is
called must, and is used as a refreshing drink in some countries.
It is probably referred to in some passages of Scripture in which
the juice of the grape and the blood of grapes are mentioned. The
dried fruit known as raisins is also noticed in the Bible (1 Sam. xxv.
18, xxx. 12; 2 Sam. xvi. 1; 1 Chron. xii. 40). Many illustrations
are taken from the vine. Israel is represented as a vine brought from
Egypt and planted by the Lord (Ps. lxxx. 8–11; Isa. v. 7; Jer. ii. 21).
Dwelling under the vine and fig-tree is an emblem of peace and
tranquillity (Mic. iv. 4; Zech. iii. 10); a fruitful vine is associated
with domestic happiness (Ps. cxxviii. 3). The production of wild
grapes, and of grapes of gall, an empty vine, and a strange vine, are
used to illustrate the departure of Israel from God (Deut. xxxii. 32,33;
Isa. v. 2, 4; Jer. ii. 21; Hos. x. 1). Wild grapes are by some trans-
lated putrid grapes. They are considered by Berkeley as grapes
affected with rot or mildew. Our Saviour calls Himself the true
vine, into which His disciples are grafted, so as to bring forth much
fruit (John xv.)
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WILLOW-TR.E.E.
(Salia, babylonica.)
“They shall spring up as willows by the water-courses.”—Isaiah xliv. 4.
HE Hebrew words Oreb and Orebim, and which are also written
Arab and Arabim, occur in the Old Testament, and have
been translated willow, or willows. Several species may have been
included under the name orebim. We have figured Salia, baby-
lonica, the weeping-willow, as being probably one of them, and as
being that more especially referred to in Psalm crxxvii. 1, 2, when
Israel in captivity says, “By the rivers of Babylon there we sat
down; yea, we wept, when we remembered Zion. We hanged our
harps upon the willows in the midst thereof.”
Willows belong to the class Dioecia and order Diandria of the
Linnean system, and to the natural order Salicaceae, or the Willow
family, consisting of useful timber trees having a tonic and astringent
bark, flowers in catkins, and seeds covered with silky hairs.
Willows are found in moist situations, beside running brooks as
well as still waters. In the Bible, the locality of their growth is
usually associated with them. Thus, on the first day of the Feast of
Tabernacles, the Israelites are enjoined to take boughs of goodly trees,
branches [leaves] of palm-trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and
willows of the brook, “and to rejoice before the Lord seven days.”
(Lev. xxiii. 40). These were employed in the construction of booths
(Lev. xxiii. 42). Job, in describing behemoth (probably on the banks
of the Nile), says—“The shady trees cover him with their shadow;
the willows of the brook compass him about” (Job xl. 22). In the
seventeenth verse of the same chapter, the word cedar ought to be
48 WILLOW-TREE.
willow—“He moveth his tail like a willow.” In proclaiming the
burden of Moab, the prophet says—“Therefore the abundance they
have gotten, and that which they have laid up, shall they carry away . .
to the brook of the willows” (Isaiah xv. 7). Again, in comforting the
church with his gracious promises, God speaks thus by the mouth of
his prophet—“And they (their offspring) shall spring up as among
the grass, as willows by the water-courses” (Isaiah xliv. 4); indicating
a constant supply of refreshing water, when the Lord “will pour
water upon him that is thirsty, and floods upon the dry ground”
(Is. xliv. 3).
Willows were thus associated both with the joyous and the sorrow-
ful days of the children of Israel. When captives in Babylon, their
grief was poured forth under the willows; and in contemplating God's
purposes of mercy towards them, they are directed to the willows as
emblems of their growth, and as recalling the willows of the brook
with which they rejoiced in their feast days of old.
Another Hebrew word, Tzophtzapha, or Zaphzapha, has been trans-
lated willow-tree. It occurs in Ezekiel xvii. 5—“He took also of
the seed of the land, and planted it in a fruitful field; he placed it by
great waters, and set it as a willow-tree.” This appears to be a
species of willow, called by the Arabs safsaf-Salia agyptiaca of
botanists. This tree was noticed by Hasselquist in his journey from
Acre to Sidon.
In addition to the plants which we have figured and described, there are
other trees and shrubs which are briefly or very obscurely alluded to in
the Bible. The following are recorded here in order to complete the list.
AL.MUG OR ALG UM TREE.
(Santalum album.)
“The navy of Hiram brought in from Ophir great plenty of almug trees.”—l Kings x. 11.
HE Hebrew words, Almuggim and Algummim, are translated
Almug or Algum trees, in our version of the Bible. The plant
referred to is supposed to be the sandal-wood of India, called Santalum
album by botanists, and belonging to the natural order Santalaceae,
or the Sandal-wood family. The wood was brought from Ophir (pro-
bably some part of India) by Hiram, and was used in the formation
of pillars for the temple, and for the king's house, as well as for harps
and psalteries (1 Kings x. 11, 12; 2 Chron. ix. 10, 11). The wood
is fragrant, and is used for incense in China. Large quantities of
Sandal-wood are cut in Malabar for export to China and different parts
of India. The outer wood of the stem is white and has no odour
while the central part, especially near the root, is fragrant.
ALOES-TREE, or LIGN-ALOES-TREE.
(Aquilaria Agallochum.)
“All thy garments smell of myrrh, aloes, and cassia.”—Psalm xlv. 8.
HE Hebrew words, Ahalim and Ahaloth, and the Greek Aloe, are
rendered Aloes, in our version of Scripture. The substance
seems to have been the fragrant wood of Aquilaria Agallochum, a plant
belonging to the natural order Aquilariaceae. Trees of lign-aloes are
referred to in Num. xxiv. 6. The use of aloes as a perfume is noticed
in Ps. xlv. 8; Prov. vii. 17; in the Song of Sol. iv. 14. The use
of aloes in perfuming the coverings of the dead is referred to (John
xix. 39, 40), where it is said that Nicodemus, after the manner of
the Jews, “brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about an hundred :
G.
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50 EBONY-TREE—JUNIPER-BUSH.
pound weight,” in order to impart fragrance to the linen clothes with
which our Saviour's body was wound. We must not confound this
aloes with the bitter aloes so well known as a medicine, which is the
produce of a totally different plant, and which does not possess the
fine fragrance of the substance now under consideration.
E B O NY - T R E E.
(Diospyros Ebenus.)
“They brought thee for a present horns of ivory and ebony.”-- Ezek. xxvii. 15.
HE Hebrew word, Hobnim, occurs in Ezek. xxvii. 15, and has
been translated Ebony. This wood appears to be the product of
various trees, more particularly species of Diospyros—such as Diospyros
Ebenus. They belong to the natural order Ebenaceae, and are valued
for their hard and durable timber. The outside wood of the Ebony-
tree is white and soft, while the central part is black and hard.
JUNIPER – BTJ SEI.
A KIND OF BROOM.
(Genista monosperma.)
“He lay and slept under a juniper-tree [Rothem].”—l Kings xix. 5.
HE Hebrew word Rothem or Rotem has been rendered Juniper in
T our version. It seems to be the same as the Arabic word
Retem, and the Retama of the Moors. These are applied to a kind
of broom. It is believed that Rotem is the Genista monosperma of
botanists, belonging to the natural order Leguminosae. It is a shrubby
plant with white blossoms. It is found in Spain, Portugal, Barbary,
Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. Elijah rested under the shade of the
Rotem or broom (1 Kings xix. 4, 5). Lord Lindsay states that, during
his travels in the valleys of Mount Sinai, “the rattam, a species of
broom, bearing a white flower, delicately streaked with purple, afforded
him shelter from the sun while in advance of the caravan.” The use
of the plant as fuel is referred to in Ps. cxx. 4, “sharp arrows of the
mighty, with coals of juniper;” and it would appear that its roots
STORAX-TREE–OREN–ESHEL, OR TAMARISK-TREE, 51
were eaten in certain circumstances, for Job says, “who cut up mal-
lows by the bushes, and juniper-roots for their meat” (Job xxx. 4).
STOR A X-TR. E. E.
POPLAR OF THE BIBLE,
(Styraa, officinale.)
“They burn incense under oaks and poplars and elms.”—Hos. iv. 13.
HE Hebrew word Libneh has been translated Poplar in Gen. xxx.
37, and Hosea iv. 13. While some translators consider that
the tree is the White Poplar, others, of greater authority, think that it
is the Storax-tree, the Syraw officinale of botanists, belonging to the
natural order Styracaceae, or Symplocaceae, or the Storax family.
The tree is a mative of Greece, Asia Minor, and Syria. It yields the
fragrant resin called storax, which is used as a pectoral remedy.
O R. E. N.
A KIND OF PINE.
(Translated Ash-tree.)
“He planteth an ash [Oren], and the rain doth nourish it.”—Is. xliv, 14,
HE Hebrew word Oren, which occurs in Is. xliv. 14, is translated
Ash in our version. It is supposed by some to mean a kind of
Pine-tree, while others look upon it as a thorny shrub, allied to
Rhamnus or Capparis. We still want information on the subject.
ESHEL, or TAMARISK-TREE.
“Saul abode in Gibeah under a tree [Eshel, or Tamarisk] in Ramah.”—1 Sam. xxii. 6.
SHEL is a Hebrew word, which occurs in Gen. xxi. 33, where it
is translated grove, and in 1 Sam. xxii. 6 and xxxi. 13, where it is
translated tree. It is said that “Abraham planted a grove (Esſel) in
Beer-sheba, and called there on the name of the Lord;” that “Saul
abode in Gibeah under a tree (Eshel) in Ramah;” and finally, that
52 MYRRH-TREE.
Saul and his sons were buried “under a tree (Eshel) at Jabesh.”
Royle considers the word as being equivalent to the Arabic, Asul or
Athul, which refers to a large species of tamarisk; and he regards
Eshel as Tamariæ orientalis, the eastern Tamarisk-tree. Bové men-
tions the tamarisk as occurring in Syria. It is a tree which thrives
in arid sandy situations.
MYRRH-TREE.
(Balsamodendron Myrrha.)
“Perfumed with myrrh and frankincense.”—Song of Sol. iii. 6.
HE Hebrew word Mor and the Greek Myrrha are translated
Myrrh in the Bible. This substance is a fragrant sort of gum,
which exudes from various trees in Arabia.
and Abyssinia, one of the chief being Bal-
Samodendron Myrrha, or the Myrrh Bal-
Sam-tree, belonging to the natural order
Amyridaceae, or the Myrrh family. Myrrh
was celebrated as a perfume, and as a sti-
mulant medicine. It was burned in tem-
ples, and was employed in embalming
šs (John xix. 39). It entered into the com-
position of the holy anointing oil (Exod.
xxx. 23). It was given as a present from
its value and rarity (Matt. ii. 11), and its
fragrance is often made mention of (Ps.
xlv. 8; Song of Sol. iii. 6; iv. 6, 14; v. 1, 5, 13).
Many species of Balsamodendron are called Balsam-trees. They are
mentioned under the Hebrew names of Basam and Baal-Shemen.
The word Tzeri, also translated balm, occurs in Gen. xxxvii. 25;
xliii. 11; Jer. viii. 22; xlvi. 11; li. 8; and Ezek. xxvii. 17. The
word Basam is often translated spices (Song of Sol. v. 1, 13; vi. 2;
Exod. xxxv. 28; 1 Kings x. 10).

THYINE-TREE-TAPPUACEI. 53
THY IN E-W O O D.
(Xylon Thyinum.)
“Merchandise of silk, and scarlet, and all thyine wood.”—Rev. xviii. 12.
HYINE-WOOD is mentioned in Revelation xviii. 12, as one of
the articles of merchandise in the Apocalyptic Babylon. This
appears to be the Citron-wood of the Romans, the Alerce of the Moors,
the Thuja articulata of Linnaeus, and the Callitris quadrivalvis of
modern botanists. This tree, called also the Arar-tree, belongs to the
natural order Coniferae, or Cone-bearers, and the suborder Cupressineae,
or the Cypress tribe. It is a native of Mount Atlas, and other hills on
the coast of Africa.
T.A. PP U A C EI.
(Translated Apple-tree, and Apples.)
“A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold [golden citrons] in pictures [baskets] of silver.”—
Prov. xxv. 11.
HE Hebrew word Tappuach occurs in Proverbs xxv. 11; Song of
Solomon ii. 3, 5; vii. 8; viii. 5; and in Joel i. 12. There have
been great differences of opinion respecting the correct translation of
this word. Rosenmüller and others render it Quince, while Royle
renders it Citron, and says that its rich yellow colour (citrons of gold,
or golden citrons), its fragrant odour (smell like citrons); and the hand-
some appearance of the tree, whether in flower or in fruit, are par-
ticularly suited to all the passages of Scripture in which the word
Tappuach occurs. The Jews use the citron fruit at the present day
at the Feast of Tabernacles. This is done from the idea that the word
Etz-Hadar, translated “boughs of goodly trees” in Leviticus xxiii. 40,
means branches of the citron-tree, which are thus associated with palm
leaves, branches of thick trees (Etz-aboth), and willows, in the Feast of
Tabernacles.
The citron is the produce of Citrus medica, and belongs to the
natural order Aurantiaceae, or the Orange family.
54 - - THORNS AND BRIERS.
T HOR, N S A N D B R IB R. S.
“All the land shall become briers and thorns.”—Is. vii. 24.
HE Hebrew words Koz, Chedek, Choach, Naazuz, Shait, Shamir,
Sillon, Sirim, Sirpad, Zinnim, &c., have been translated variously
thorns and briers in the Old Testament; and the word Akantha, is the
thorn of the New Testament. It is impossible to say whether or not
a particular species of plant was intended by each of these terms.
Most of them apply generally to thorny plants, of which there are
many in Palestine at the present day. Commentators mention among
the thorny plants of the Holy Land species of Zizyphus, such as
Zizyphus Spina Christi, also Paliurus aculeatus, Ononis spinosa, Sola-
num spinosum, Tribulus terrestris, and species of Rhamnus.
C O N C L U S I O N.
WE have thus endeavoured to give a condensed account of the trees.
and shrubs mentioned in Scripture, so far as they can be determined
by reference to the best scientific authorities. Although much has
been done of late in removing doubts, there are still many difficulties
which can only be solved by careful botanical and philological inqui-
ries in eastern countries. -
The unsettled state of Palestine renders the examination of its flora
a matter of some risk, and hence there is not an opportunity for
leisurely and carefully moting the plants which grow on spots hallowed
by associations of the deepest interest. We may look forward to a
time when that country, now so desolate, shall be again inhabited,
and when its fertile soil will bring forth a luxuriant vegetation; when
“instead of the thorn shall come up the fir-tree, and instead of the
brier shall come up the myrtle-tree: and it shall be to the Lord for a
name, for an everlasting sign that shall not be cut off” (Isa. lv. 13).
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