NON
CIRCULATING
QU
NS
DIEU ETAT
MON
ז

1
OF
University of
Michigan
Libaaries
༨་༡
1817
ARTES SCIENTIA
VERITAS
w or no dug

009
OOF
200
300
English Miles 69-1- One Degree
OOT
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
CH
I N E S E
called
SHA M 0
Grea
t
Sandy
Deser
t
K
B I
OR
Hva-vu-quan
Gate
So-chew
Tin-shan Pou
Kan-chew
ELUTHS OR
Yong kou Chin
Chin-fan W
Ning hy W
Kau-k Ching
Yong-chang W
Lyang C
TARTARS OF KOKO NOR
Koko Nor
or Tcharin Nor
by the Chinese Si-han Hae
or the Western Sea
Orin
Nor
Pe-
1
Source of the
ing
Yang tse Kiang
Chin-kyang
Sin-ning
Chong-
Hoang
Lu-kew-pu
W-chin-pu
TA R
In chin
OF
TARY
-
Khi ngan Mounts
Sreat Wall 1500 miles long, 15 to 30 feet.
Ling C
She-kewi
high, and 30 wide on the Top
Piliotai
Fu-ling W
Nar dian
Wall
Chang-kig C
Yang Ho
Great
Tushe Kew
Swen-hoa F.
Kiming W
Cha-Chin
Cool Mines
Hoa-lai H.
Yoh king c
boan
Thehoor Gehol
Imparia Palace
Kupe Kew
Chang Spin C
PEKING Tong
hyang H
0.
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fong kew
Taun hoa
Ki-C C.
Yuhen H.
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hal Hyang ho 11 Lan C
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O
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In C.
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eat
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chew
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yang
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PE CHILI
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I
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yukow H. Linping IL
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ding-sha H
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ang pin
C.
T
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A
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Tsin-kyan H
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ngan F
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lang
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Snowy
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or Pa
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an
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Ning-ho Chin
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• Пуа Н.
Ho-tsin H
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9
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Lnan H
Yong-ring H
H
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Посу По
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yo-yang H
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gling M
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O
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Queen H
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S
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H
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F
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shill I-yang
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ang tseang or Ta K
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ywen H
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C
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quan Cinven
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Mongwha Finn
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Now Isu H
N
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Ching-kang
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fitu
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Iron Chain Bridge
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MY AU
Ma kou C
TS
Wild mountainous Country and harbarous people
ng-iH
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yang C
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09
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siling C.
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N
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an Ho
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uang si F
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ngan
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tse H
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ountain
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ohhi
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ngan E
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thing I
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I
A
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tono I
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H
anglis
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A
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chewE
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vang
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ends
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H
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to Won man H
low bun II.
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I
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or the 28
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dung
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ang
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TONG-QUIN
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S
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AS
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n I
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H
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Bridge of so ard
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H
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ON
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Pridgeof
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Omer H. io-ywe H Chaw chew E
QUANG CHEW For
CANTON
Maca
Ty-lou Shan
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Nam pang Shan
Grand Ladrone
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Kyang
H
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Chang-yang
H
Quin-dew
Bay
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Amoy Harbour
Chapel I
Hoy tou shar
Bay
Lamok
Isles
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Namda I
Ma urh
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Top chi san
tong
Hi che chin Bay
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dong hong l
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0
6
Lan-ki
Song-mu
Tau Shan
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Pe-kwan-Harbour
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Fong-ho Mun
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S.
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Ting-hai
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chin
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RM
о
Pong hou
Islands
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OF
Tam-sw
25
Chow-hom
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Tatou-che
Mattan
O R
M
Tatowan
Lamay D
F
BASHEE C
South Cape
NE
Botel
Tobago
ELS
Bashee
B
25
THE INTERIOR
CHIEFLY FROM DU HALDE AND THE JESUITS
1710 To 1718
AND THE SEA COAST
FROM MODERN
AUTHORITIES
Gate or Mouth of a river
Chew (C) City of the second order Kew..
Ching Small Town
Foo
Hae. Sea
Kiang (K) River
Man Sea gate or Strait
Quan Fort
River
City of the first order
R
Shan (S) Island
Wey (W) Walled town
Ho
River
Hou Lake
Tsin fay
10%
Ouki
30 Frakaki
sa Sovel
Boung
Qui
Tan Shan
TONG-QUIN
1
GULF
Tiger I
Taya
I
Ten chang H.
Whey tong H
C
H
I
N
A
S
E
Tingan H
elin kau
Tan C.
HAP
Chang wha H
Kun nghe II.
Yay C.
Samoy
Kong C.
A N Lowhey II
Tan C
Tinhosa 1
Ting-kyau
Leong koy
Galong
Hyen (H) City of the third order
Route of Lord Macartney in 1793 and of Lord Amherst in 1816
HUE
Capital or
Cochin Cina
Touron
Cham-Collao
ISLANDS
Amphitrite
Lincoln I.
P A R A C E L
Woody I
BALLINTANG CHANNEL
OOP
OORY
0001
Babuyan
as
3
CBojeador
Lingayen
C.Bolena
G.
N
0
Z
L
U
800
GOD
120
Engraved by J. & C. Walker.
Chinese Là according to M.de Pro) 192-1 One Degree
OOF
200
02 001
CHINA;
POLITICAL, COMMERCIAL,
AND
SOCIAL;
IN AN OFFICIAL REPORT TO HER MAJESTY'S GOVERNMENT.
BY
7
R. MONTGOMERY MARTIN, Esq.,
Weigh
LATE HER MAJESTY'S TREASURER FOR THE COLONIAL, CONSULAR AND DIPLOMATIC SERVICES IN
CHINA AND A MEMBER OF HER MAJESTY'S LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL
HONG KONG.
VOL. I.
تر
LONDON:
JAMES MADDEN, 8, LEADENHALL STREET.
MDCCCXLVII.
.
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LONDON:
BREWSTER AND WEST, PRINTERS,
HAND COURT, DOWGATE.
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2v.
PET MONDROI
DEDICATION.
TO THE QUEEN.
1
MADAM,
The gracious permission to dedicate these Volumes to
Your Majesty, induces me to solicit a consideration of the great
interests involved in the British relations with China; an Empire
first opened to our commerce by the patriotic spirit of Queen
Elizabeth, and with which our intercourse has been enlarged
during the auspicious reign of Your Majesty.
To extend personal communication with nearly four hundred
million comparatively civilized people-to establish mercantile
relations with the immense regions of Central Asia-and to pro-
mote the blessings of Christian civilization among myriads of
mankind, are the principal objects of this work; and, however
imperfectly developed, I trust they will receive the favourable
notice of Your Majesty.
* Vol, ii., page 1.
1
DEDICATION.
A vast Empire, which has been almost miraculously preserved
for more than two thousand years, is now in friendly alliance with
Your Majesty, and with two of the most powerful Sovereigns of
Europe, (those of France and Russia), the isolation of ages has
been destroyed-and China is now admitted into the social
compact of the western hemisphere.
England, France, and Russia, are the representatives of three
great principles in politics—the Aristocratic-the Democratic, and
the Absolute; they are also identified with three forms of Chris-
tianity-the Protestant-the Romanist, and the Greek; they are
antagonistic in Creed, Constitution, and Character. The domi-
nions of Your Majesty, and those of the Emperor of Russia, now
adjoin those of the Emperor of China.
It is consistent with the experience of history, that at no dis-
tant period a rivalry will arise in the East, that a strenuous endea-
vour will be made to establish a dominant influence in China-
to stamp an impress on a materialist people admirably adapted
for the reception of superior intelligence, and to wield for ulterior
purposes a mighty nation which, although long dormant, is capa-
ble of producing an extraordinary influence on mankind.
It is, therefore, of great importance that international relations
be established on the most amicable basis, and that the divine prin-
ciples of Justice, revealed for the guidance of kingdoms as well as
of individuals, shall characterize every transaction with the
Chinese government and people.
It is thus only that England can possess a valuable and
}
!
DEDICATION.
permanent influence in China,—it is by such means a mutuality
of interests may best be consolidated,—and an opening intercourse
be disarmed of that fear or jealousy which destroys confidence,
and may eventually lead to hostilities between the two Empires.
The exalted character of Your Majesty precludes the idea that
any other course of policy would receive the Royal sanction; and
I am, therefore, emboldened to entreat the attention of Your
Majesty to the section in this Report on the "English Opium
Traffic in China.”* It is impossible to peruse the official docu-
ments on this point without acknowledging that Your Majesty's
subjects are engaged in the commission of a fearful crime in
China; that they are actively embarked in a traffic which is des-
troying the lives and deteriorating the morals of thousands of our
fellow creatures; and that the Emperor of China, after waging
an ineffectual war to stop this calamity, is now compelled to
endure the continued and encreasing perpetration of an offence
which would not be permitted against any Sovereignty in Eu-
rope; and which our superior strength enables us to commit
with impunity.
The island of Hong Kong was ceded to Your Majesty by the
Emperor of China, as a residence for British merchants, and as a
careening station for their ships. That island has been converted
by the Representative of Your Majesty into an Opium depôt, and
under the purchased license of Your Majesty, a drug justly deno-
minated by the Emperor of China, as a "flowing poison," is sold
in defiance of the Chinese Government, for the avowed purpose
of being smuggled into China,-or for the use of such of His
* Vol. ii. p. 174 to 262.
DEDICATION.
71
Majesty's subjects as may seek protection under the flag of
England, from the adjacent mainland, where the "opium offence"
is punishable with death!*
ና
I crave the attention of Your Majesty to another matter dis-
cussed in this Report. It is a suggestive fact that England did
not become a colonizing and commercial nation until Protestanism
was established, and the Bible translated for dissemination
in distant lands. A maritime and mercantile nation appears
to have been specially chosen by the Supreme Disposer of
Events for this hallowed purpose.
*...
$
The English language is now more extensively spoken than any
other in the World, and in due time will most probably be the me-
dium of communication among all Nations; the British Sovereignty
is more widely spread than that of any known Empire,-the richest
plains, the loftiest mountains, the largest rivers, the most
capacious lakes,-the best placed islands, the securest havens,
and the strongest fortresses are all within the dominions of Your
Majesty, the commerce and wealth of this Empire have no parallel
in Ancient or Modern record; enterprize, skill, and capital have
brought the most distant regions of the earth by steam navigation
within constant, speedy, and certain communication; and the bles-
sings of civil and religious liberty,-of political and moral freedom,
are firmly established throughout an Empire-on which the sun
never sets.
Such have been the glorious results of the principles established
* Vol. ii. p. 186, 187, 188, 221.
+ State of Religion and Christianity in China. Vol. ii. ch. 10, p. 428 to 501.
DEDICATION.
1
and inculcated by the regal predecessor of Your Majesty, Queen
Elizabeth; their operating effects were manifested in the found-
ation of Colonies,-in the extension of commerce,-and in the
dissemination of a pure Christianity to which colonies and com-
merce have largely contributed.
Yet the British Empire is but in the infancy of its power,
and we have scarcely commenced the moral and spiritual duties
for which dominion has been granted.
We are still on the threshold of an Empire, whose territory
is nearly as large as Europe, with a population equal in numbers
to one third of mankind; and we have no intercourse whatever
with the extensive and populous kingdoms of Japan, Corea, Cochin-
China, and Siam, which contain about one hundred million of
civilized inhabitants,* and which I humbly seek permission to
open to British trade and intercourse.
An interchange of the peculiar products of each Country tends
to the establishment of friendly relations, and may be made the
medium for promoting civilization. Commerce is thus rendered
auxiliary to the extension of Christianity, which rightly understood
is inseparable from the enjoyment of the highest range of earthly
power and happiness.
There is, therefore, every inducement to encourage the esta-
blishment of a pure faith in the regions recently opened, and still
to be opened, to British intercourse; it is thus only, under Divine
* Vol i., c. ix. p. 295 to p. 361.
DEDICATION.
Providence, that the sceptre of Your Majesty may be upheld,
and it appears to be for this sacred purpose that vast power and
wide spread dominion have been granted to England.
I should have been unworthy of the honourable station entrusted
to me by the Gracious favour of Your Majesty, had I failed to
prepare to the best of my ability, the statements contained in
these volumes, which have occupied my sedulous attention for the
past three years; I conceived it to be an object of national impor-
tance to examine in detail our new and complex position in
China;-to investigate the value or worthlessness of Hong Kong;*-
to check to the utmost of my power, a wasteful application of
the resources of Your Majesty's treasury;-and to point out
what appeared to be an erroneous course of national policy, which
required timely correction previous to the evacuation of Chusan.†
To accomplish these objects, I conscientiously believed that I
should most efficiently fulfil my grateful duty as a servant of the
Crown, by returning without delay to England, even at the sacri-
fice of my position in China, to lay this official report before Your
Majesty's government.‡
If it be deemed that I have erred in so doing, I trust Your
Majesty will indulgently consider the originating motive, and that
a zealous desire to promote the welfare of my country, may be
pleaded in extenuation.
With an heartfelt prayer, that it may please an Overruling
* Vol. ii. page 317.
+ Vol. ii. page 369.
Correspondence on resignation, vol. ii. p. 404 to 410, and Appendix, p. xiv. to xviii.
DEDICATION.
Providence to vouchsafe to Your Majesty a continuance of that
Wisdom which can alone benefit the counsels of a nation ;—and
a full enjoyment of those blessings which have hitherto resulted
from the admirable fulfilment of the exalted station devolving
on the Sovereign of this great Empire,-I beg permission to
subscribe myself,-
Your Majesty's dutiful subject,
London,
March 1st, 1847.
R. M. MARTIN.
+
LIST OF MR. MARTIN'S WORKS.
Copies
I. History of the British Colonies, 5 vols. ; 28 Maps, Charts, &c.
II. Marquis Wellesley's Indian Despatches, 5 vols.; Maps, Plans, &c.
III. British Colonial Library, 10 vols.; Engravings, Maps, &c.
IV. Eastern India, 3 vols.; 200 Drawings, Maps, Plans, &c.
printed
8,500
8,000
22,000
4,500
V. Statistics of the British Colonies, I large vol.; 3,000,000 Figures,
Seals, &c.
3,000
VI. Ireland as it was-is-and ought to be (1833); Tabular Charts, &c.
VII. Political, Commercial, and Financial Condition of Anglo-Eastern
1,500
Empire in 1832, 8vo.
1,500
VIII. British relations with the Chinese Empire in 1832, 8vo.
3,000
IX. Taxation of the British Empire; with Tabular Views, &c.
1,500
X. Past and Present State of Tea Trade of England, Europe, and America
XI. Analysis of Parliamentary Evidence on China Trade, 1832
XII. Colonial Policy of the British Empire; Part I., Government
XIII. Marquis Wellesley's Spanish Despatches, 1 vol., 8vo.
XIV. Colonial Magazine, 7 vols. 8vo., completed, Engravings, &c.
XV. Ireland before and after the Union; (1844) Map, Tables, &c.
XVI. Analysis of the Bible, two Editions, and a Translation into Chinese
XVII. China: Political, Commercial, and Social, with Maps and Tables,
2 vols. 8vo.
1,500
3,000
1,500
1,500
12,000
3,000
5,000
2,000
Evidence before Parliament on Taxation, in 1836-37.
Examination before Select Committee of House of Commons, on the
Commerce of India, the Subsidiary States, &c., 1839-40.
Poor Laws for Ireland, a Measure of Justice for England, &c.
Pamphlet: impressions circulated
•
10,000
East and West India Sugar Duties Equalization: impressions circulated 40,000
Monetary System of British India: impressions circulated
Analysis of the Evidence before Parliament for two Sessions, on the
10,000
Handloom Weavers; prepared at the unanimous request of
the Parliamentary Committee, and printed by order of the
House of Commons.
The Bank of England and the Country Bankers
Effects of Climate, Food, and Drink upon Man
3,000
2,000
Colonial Atlas, with Maps of each Colony, Engraving.
Various Pamphlets on Commerce, Finance, Shipping, &c.
The mere
The foregoing publications comprise about seventy thousand octavo volumes, illus-
trated by numerous Maps, Engravings, Plans, and Statistical Charts.
mechanical expenditure on those works, for printing, paper, engraving, &c., has been
upwards of twenty thousand pounds sterling, towards which not the slightest assist-
ance has been afforded by Her Majesty's Government.
9
1
STATISTICAL VIEW OF CHINA PROPER, BY R. M. MARTIN.





Population
Sea Coast,
Distance
Area
Provinces.
Provincial Capital.
Geographical Position.
or
Inland.
from
Peking.
in Square
Population.
Miles.
on each
Square
Mile.
Quantity of Land
in
English Acres.
Quantity in
Cultivation in
English Acres.
Salt Revenue
Sent to the Emperor.
‡
I
Land Tax in
Taels of Silver.
in Taels of
Silver.
Sundry Duties
Total fixed
Revenue of
in Taels.
each Province. Money in Taels. Rice in Shih.†
Remains in
the Provincial
Treasury.
Soldiers and
Militia in each
Province.
Foo
Chau
Ting
Chau
Ting
Depart Depart- Depart- Districts. Districts. Districts.
Heen
Topography of the Provinces.
Principal Productions.
ments. ments. ments.
Lat. N.
Long. E.
0 / //
0 /
in Taels.
CHIH-LE
SHAN-TUNG
PEKING.
39.54.13
116.28.00
Inland ..
TSE-NAN-FOO
36.44.24
117.07.30 Sea Coast
Le.*
800
•
SHAN-SE
TAE-YUEN-FOO
37.53.30 112.30.30
Inland..
•
HONAN
KAE-Fung-FOO
•
34.55.00 113.20.00 Inland .
KANG-SOO
NANKING.
32.04.40 118.47.00 Sea Coast
1200
1540
2400
58,949
65,104
55,268
65,104
92,661
GAN-HWUY
KIANG-SI
FOO-KEEN
GAN-KING-FOO
NAN-CHANG-FOO
•
FUH-CHOO-FOO
28.37.12 115.48.17
26.02.24 119.25.00
30.37.10 117.04.13 Sea Coast
Inland .
2700
Sea Coast
CHE-KEANG. HANG-CHOO-FOO
HOO-PIH.
HUNAN
WOO-CHANG-FOO
CHANG-CHA-FOO
30.20.20 | 120.07.34 Sea Coast
30.34.50 114.13.30
2850
4845
3300
72,176
53,480
39,150
28.12.00 112.46.57
Inland .
Inland ..
3155
144,770-
SHEN-SE
SE-GAN-FOO
34.16.45 108.57.45 Inland ..
4550
2650
154,008
KAN-SUH
LAN-CHOO-FOO
•
36.08.24
36.08.24 103.55.00
Inland ..
KWANG-TUNG,
OR CANTO
SZE-CHUEN . . CHING-TOO-FOO ·
KWANG-CHOO-FOO
30.40.41 103.10.30
Inland ..
•
23.08.09 111.16.30
Sea Coast
•
•
KWANG-SI
YUN-NAN.
YUN-NAN-FOO.
KWEI-CHOO. KWEI-YANG-FOO
KWE-LIN-FOO
25.13.12110.13.50
25.06.00 | 102.51.40
26.30.00 106.36.10
Sea Coast
Inland ..
Inland ..
4040
5700 166,800
7570 79,456
7460 78,250
8200❘ 107,969
7640 64,554
27,990,871 473 37,727,360
28,958,764 515 41,666,560
14,004,210 253 35,371,520
23,037,171 353 41,676,300
37,843,501
34,168,059
30,426,999 421 46,192,640
14,777,410 276 34,227,200
26,256,784 671 25,056,000
37,370,098
18,652,507
10,207,256
15,193,135)
21,435,678 128 106,752,000
19,147,030 214 50,851,840
7,313,895 93 50,080,000
5,561,320 51 69,100,160
5,288,219 82 41,314,560
774 59,595,040
317 92,652,800
164 98,565,120<
13,143,837 1,334,457 437,949
19,421,081 3,396,165 120,720
6,591,724 2,990,675 507,828
14,456,407 3,164,758
44,950
13,797,689 3,116,826 2,085,282 142,317
6,762,418 1,174,110
9,585,412 1,878,682
2,565,417 1,074,490
9,195,754 2,914,946
11,338,269 1,174,110
6,245,759 882,745
5,047,420 1,658,700 507,028
3,556,626 280,652 39,450
9,182,933 631,094
6,576,658 1,364,364 47,913
1,748,012 416,399 47,150
1,389,996 209,582 227,626
513,835 181,268 6,234
153,272
1,925,650 1,939,941
621,813
151,000 11
6
3
17
124
70,661 3,930,513 2,730,736 353,973 691,141
82,944 3,580,647 2,702,285 169,240 328,290
3,420,940 2,441,110 221,242 626,623
6,475,690 2,564,728 1,401,273 422,709
35,000 10
2
9 96
35,000
9
:
10
3
6 85
Very mountainous, sterile and woody.
24,000
9
4
6
97 Flat, very fertile, climate agreeable.
8
1
3
2
3 62 Very low and fertile, climate good.
132,000
1,174,110 776,173
8
5
4
50
Romantic scenery, and fertile on banks of Yang.
5,150
85,470
501,034
1,202,590 1,055,109
38,593
42,630
208,050
49,037 2,532,327 2,287,346 66,600 687,277
11,554 1,282,598 776,173 96,934 333,543
44,345 924,302 944,422 96,214 265,379
40,623 2,206,351 306,336
60,787 380,889 1,082,644
31,782 662,880
2,719,488 1,602,431 795,863 540,705
39,000 13
1
2
1
75
76,000 10
2
3
35,000
11
1
:
1
76
On the sea coast very hilly but fertile.
37,000 10
1
7
60
51,000
9
3
4
:
:
Well watered, numerous lakes and rivers.
3
265,498
104,000
7
LO
5
5
LO
5
73
64 Slightly elevated and fertile, a good climate.
Plains and mountains, cold and barren.
72,274
123,000
9
6
7
:
7
51
:
13,029
85,000 12
6
8
3
11
111
65,220 1,477,497 719,307
52,660 516,149
34,256 471,464
24,431 131,938
339,143
99,000
9
2
4
3
7
79
275,559
188,927
52,846
86,945
42,000 11
1
3
16
47
227,626 53,596
13,314
53,000 14
70,000 12
3
4
5
27
39
Bold mountains, fertile valleys, large forests.
The Switzerland of China, very wild and jungley.
3
1
LO
5
13
34
Wild and mountainous, intersected by several rivers.
Westward very flat, sloping towards the sea, sterile.
Mountainous, a bracing climate, bold and good harbours.
Sterile and hilly, climate healthy.
Millet, ginseng, fruits, tobacco, coal, saltpetre, skins.
Corn and fruits, drugs, wines, skins.
Silks, wines, iron, salt, marble, jasper, musk.
The garden of China; rhubarb, musk, indigo.
Medical herbs, China-ware, gold, tin, lead, salt.
Varnish trees, green teas, silks, rice, millet.
Coarse cloths, hemp, China-ware, drugs.
62 Very mountainous, good harbours, fertile where capable of cultivation. Black teas, camphor, sugar, indigo, tobacco.
Mountainous, fertile fields, and sandy deserts.
Bold coast, good harbours, fertile, fine climate.
Excellent harbours, fertile soil, climate good.
Silk, paper, wines, Lung-tsing-cha, a costly tea.
Teas, paper, rice, rhubarb, musk, tobacco.
Gold, silver, tin, drugs, mercury, hemp.
Woollens, iron, copper, drugs, furs, millet.
Gold, quicksilver, musk, tobacco.
Copper, iron, tin, rhubarb, rice, salt, drugs.
Rice, silks, fish, vegetables, copper, iron, tin.
Fruits, rice, cassia, iron, lead, sugar, tin.
Rich in metals, rice, musk, betel-nut.
Considerable metallic wealth, tobacco, drugs.
Total 1,297,999 367,632,907
283 830,829,100
141,119,347 | 27,854,023 | 4,618,834
991,092 35,016,023 22,445,573 3,428,955 5,569,329
|
| |
1,232,000 182
18
67
45 143
1285
This Table is prepared from various authorities: the greater portion was furnished to me in China, translated from the Official Records. Dr. Gutzlaff and other Chinese scholars considered the Population Census correct. The number of inhabitants to the square mile is about the same as in England, and less than the number in Ireland. The most dense population in China is along the banks of the great rivers, particularly near the
great Yangtzekang, and central districts of the country, where the waters, furnish large supplies of food. The fecundity of the Chinese is visible in every village, where children are grouped in considerable numbers. It is probable that the dependent Provinces of Mongolia, Mantchouria, Turkestan, and Tibet, contain a population of forty millions: thus making the inhabitants of the whole Empire more than four hundred millions!
* A Le is about 631 yards English.
+ A Shih is 160 lbs. Avoirdupois.
See Page 6, Chapter 1.
PREFA C E.
THE object of the following pages is to awaken an earnest interest
in England in behalf of one-third of the human race; to offer,
in a condensed view, the past history and present state of China
in its domestic and foreign relations; to investigate the causes
which prevent four hundred million* industrious, sober, obedient,
pacific, and educated people, holding the position to which they are
entitled among the other kingdoms of the earth; to examine our
own political, commercial, and social position in that vast country,
in order that the statesman, the merchant, and the philanthropist,
may be the better enabled to direct their course of action to the
production of some beneficial result equally conducive to the
welfare and concord of England and China.
Hitherto, we have acted in ignorance of the internal state of
China, and without any defined system. The result has been a
disappointment of sanguine expectations, and the practical exclu-
sion of Europeans from that internal communication by which
trade could be best extended, and social intercourse beneficially
promoted.
To remedy this and other serious defects in our past pro-
ceedings, all the useful information collected by trustworthy
observers at different periods, has been collated under different
* In China Proper there are 367,632,907 inhabitants, (sce Statistical Chart of
Provinces), and in the Dependencies of Mantchooria, Mongolia, Turkestan, Tibet,
&c. at least 30,000,000, making a total of FOUR HUNDRED MILLION people under one
government. The population of the whole carth is estimated at 800,000,000 to
1,000,000,000 million.
.
}
ii
PREFACE.
heads. The accuracy of this information has been substantiated
by the testimony of several learned and intelligent gentlemen,
long resident in China; and every accessible part of the country
has been visited to verify the statements subjected to examination.
The following documents were, accordingly, transmitted to Her
Majesty's Government, in the hope they might prove of some
utility; and the Lords' Committee of the Privy Council for Trade
having offered no objection to their publication, they are now
submitted for public perusal, divested of several voluminous
statistical tables and official returns.
The plan adopted has been to shew, in the first part, the
physical geography; the population, and, so far as may be
necessary to an understanding of character, their customs, habits
and classification; the agricultural, manufacturing, and mineral
products; the imperial, provincial, and municipal governments;
the monetary system; and the amount and state of the revenue
of China.
The second part contains the early history of this ancient
empire, and its intercourse with foreign nations-European and
Asiatic,-in elucidation of the line of policy which it seems
advisable to pursue.
The third part details the internal, coasting, and foreign traffic,
and the regulations under which it is conducted. To this is
subjoined a separate section on the tea trade, and another on
opium, with the state papers of the Chinese ministers and au-
thorities on this highly-important and still unsettled question.
The fourth part describes the Consular Ports of Canton, Amoy,
Foochoo, Ningpo, and Shanghai; and the stations of Hong-Kong,
Chusan, Macao, and Kiackta. To this has been added a succinct
exposition, deducible from the facts detailed, on our present posi-
tion and future prospects in China.
If wealth and power involve a responsibility to Him who per-
mits their acquisition ;-if England have been almost miraculously
raised from a small insular kingdom, to become the dominant
Empire of the earth;-if her destiny be, through the apparent
instrumentality of her commerce, to civilize mankind;—then,
indeed, a fearful responsibility attends her proceedings in China.
PREFACE.
iii
The onward progress of England, in political and commercial
freedom-in the practical application of science-in the accumu-
lation of capital-in the extension of maritime communication,—
indicates that she cannot be passive: action is essential to her
existence-it is the main spring of her life-the animating im-
pulse which produces evil or good; if not rightly directed, it
will tend to her downfal, after the manner of other states; but,
under wise and righteous principles, this very law of her being
will conduce to the establishment of her supremacy over the earth
so long as Christianity shall exist.
It is the direct interest of all other nations that this supremacy
be maintained; a republic of kingdoms is as utopian as a republic
of individuals :—some powerful Empire has always swayed the
world, but whoever possessed the dominion has unfortunately used
its power for the subjugation and enslavement, rather than for the
elevation and liberty, of weaker states.
This has not been the career of England; her insularity has
happily prevented the necessity of seeking continental European
territory; her free political institutions have naturally rendered
her desirous of extending their advantages to other nations; and
her pure and tolerant religion has made her the ark to which the
oppressed can flee for safety and repose; and, while placing a salu-
tary check on ambition or mere aggrandizement, it has inspired
the desire, and furnished the means, of contributing to the ad-
vancement of all countries.
What then have the nations of Europe to fear from the
supremacy of England? She has thrown open the ports of her
wide-spread maritime dominion to every nation; whatever new
territory she conquers, or reclaims from the desert, it is freely
opened to mercantile competition; she retains no selfish monopoly
——-claims no undue privilege,—exercises no arbitrary sway to the
prejudice of Europe. Possessed of a power, which could at any
moment arouse a general war,-with resources at her command far
greater than she ever possessed,-of a magnitude which strangers
cannot see, and which are comprehended but by few, she yet
earnestly seeks peace, because it is a Christian duty, and desires
no other rivalry with her surrounding competitors than that of
iv
PREFACE,
extending the blessings of order, industry, and intelligence,-of
promoting the interchange of commodities, and of facilitating
intercourse with the most distant regions. These unquestionable
facts demonstrate, that whatever position England may acquire in
China it will not be for her exclusive advantage; the time is
happily arriving, when nations, as well as individuals, learn that
a benefit conferred returns to the donor with a blessing,—that
injuries reflect punishment on the perpetrators,-and thus even in
a selfish point of view, the exercise of good is a far better policy
than the commission of injustice.
A conviction of the truth of this divine precept is slowly dawning
on the minds of men; it is the high behest of England to prove
the reality by its practical application. No sphere could be more
appropriate for its exercise than China, where myriads of our
fellow creatures seem specially adapted for, and prepared to receive,
the influence of a Christian civilization. It is impossible to
estimate fully the effects of such an influence on so vast a mass
of mankind;—it is difficult to calculate the extraordinary commer-
cial power which would be created by four hundred million active
and intelligent beings, with numerous desires, keen perceptions,
and indomitable industry, having full scope given to their sin-
gular energies;—it is deeply interesting to consider the physical,
moral, and intellectual results which would accrue not only to
the continent of Asia, but also to those of Europe and of America,
from the christianization of China. Under Providence, this glori-
ous consummation may be witnessed by the existing generation;
but whether this be permitted or not, it is the bounden duty of
all Christians to aid in its accomplishment.
An humble labourer in a vineyard teeming with promises,
sincerely trusts, that this truly important subject will be examined
without reference to its comparatively feeble exposition, and that
the facts submitted for consideration, may induce those who have
the means, to assist in opening China to perfect freedom of in-
tercourse with all Europe and America, for the sake of extending
the commerce, and promoting the freedom, the welfare, and the
happiness of mankind.
CHINA;
GEOGRAPHICAL, POLITICAL, COMMERCIAL,
AND SOCIAL.
CHAPTER I.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
THE Chinese Empire extends through about thirty-five degrees of
latitude, and about sixty-five degrees of longitude, bounded on the
east by the Pacific Ocean for upwards of 2000 miles; on the south by
Cochin-China, Tonquin, Laos, Siam, Birmah, Assam, and Tibet;
on the west by Independent Tartary or Great Bukhara and Tur-
kestan; and on the north by the Russian Empire, the Siberian
region, and tribes of nomadic Tartars.
The length of the territory, including the dependent provinces, is
computed at 3000 miles, the breadth at 2000 miles, and the area at
five million square miles; of which about 1,300,000 square miles are
covered by China Proper, which extends from Pekin in 40° N. to
the Gulf of Tonquin in 20° S., and from the sea coast in 121° E.
to the frontiers of Tibet in the 100th degree of longitude. There
are also several large islands attached or tributary to China; such as
Hainan in 20° N. latitude, Formosa in 25°, the Chusan Archipelago
in 30°, and Segalien in 50° N.
The physical aspect of China, so far as we know, is varied by three
great features: an elevated northern region, or plateau, on which
Pekin is situated; an alluvial plain through which the Yangtzekang
and Hwang-ho rivers flow to the sea; and a broken, undulating terri-
tory in the south, with broad valleys and lofty mountains. The coast
line from Hainan Island in 20° S., to the Quesan group of islets in
29° 22′, forms a segment of a circle, and consists generally of a
bold, rugged, mountainous sea-frontage sloping to the westward,
seldom assuming a tabular form, but frequently rising to cones, or
"haycocks" of 1000 feet, with supporting spurs or buttresses in
every direction; some connected with an inland ridge of moun-
tains, which, at a distance of about 150 to 200 miles from the
coast, traverse the provinces of Fokien and Chekeang, and is then
B
2
PHYSICAL ASPECT OF CHINA.
continued to the northern boundary of Kwantung (Canton) pro-
vince, and to the westward towards Bootan. The whole of this
coast line is broken into bays, inlets, and coves, with numerous
islands and rocks, allowing free entrance, and affording good shelter
for vessels. There are few hidden dangers; the rocks have gene-
rally deep water alongside; and as the wind seldom blows direct on
the shore, navigation is comparatively easy and safe. The aspect
of the south coast is very sterile; its geological formation appears
to consist of red and grey sandstone, intermixed with coarse granite
in various stages of decomposition. As the sea is receding from
the land, large boulder stones, and grotesquely formed rocks, worn
by wind and water, give a wild and singular appearance to the
coast. At every nook, or on any rock containing the smallest
patch of arable surface, a fishing village or small trading town is to
be found but the general feature is aridness, and its concomitant
poverty. There are, therefore, only three large maritime cities,
Canton, Amoy, and Fuchoo, in this division. The first deriving
its support chiefly from foreign, European, and American com-
merce; the second principally from its trade with Canton, Formosa,
Singapore, and the Eastern Archipelago; and the third owing its
importance to being the principal city of the large province of
Fokien.
:
Passing northward from the Quesan Group, the aspect of the
country begins to change, the land dipping to the northward as the
delta of the Yangtzekang is approached. At the Chusan Archi-
pelago, the geological structure appears to be principally a por-
phyritic claystone, tabular, and columnar; no granite is seen; the
hills and mountains are clothed with stately trees, or cultivated to
their very summits with crops requiring various altitudes; rich
vegetation and continuous grain and cotton cultivation abound;
cattle and sheep become more plentiful; the sea runs deeply into
the land, which is watered by numerous rivers, and which, together
with the adjacent seas, abound in varieties of fish.
Chekeang is indented with bays and rivers. Keangsoo is acces-
sible by the large rivers Yangtzekang and Hwang-ho or Yellow River,
so called from its immense discharge of yellow clay and sand, which
colours the neighbouring sea. Shantung is rugged, and marked
by promontories; the southern part of Chih-li province is flat and
sandy. Tientsen, or the White River, is the only port available
for vessels of burthen.
In such a vast extent of territory the aspect and climate must be
diversified :—thus there are some tracts similar to the swampy
very
plains of Holland; others like the mountains and valleys of
Switzerland,—the fertile plains of Lombardy-the champagne
country of France-the dreary steppes of Russia-the sandy deserts
of Africa-and the beautiful hills and dales, the corn and wood-
lands, of our own incomparable country.
It is difficult to trace the mountain ridges: one appears to ex-
MOUNTAINS OF CHINA.
ng.
tend from the province of Yunnan, through Canton province in a
N.E. direction, through Fokein to Chekeang; it is through this
ridge that the Meling road or pass has been cut, for interior traffic
between Canton and Keangsoo. Another chain passes from Sze-
chuen to Shense, and gives the Yellow River a northerly direc-
tion through the great wall. Two mountains extend westward of
Peking. Generally speaking, the mountains in the N.W. are not
continuous ranges, but "table lands," which extend N. and S. of
the Yellow River, over the provinces of Kansuh and Shense.
The provinces of Shanse, Shense, Sze-chuen, and Yunnan con-
stitute a part of the table land of central Asia. In Yunnan the
mountains are said to form a gigantic wall, with but one pass,
which is closed with two gates, guarded on one side by Tonquinese,
on the other by Chinese.
The three lines of mountains, which begin respectively at the
Yellow Sea, at the Yangtzekang, and at the coast of Canton, run
their course to the eastward, north-east and south-east, until they
unite in the great range of European Tibet, a spur or buttress of
the mighty Himalaya. Two great branches from the Tibetian
chain, are called by the Chinese Pih-ling (northern) and Nan-ling
(southern) chain. The Yunling, which is an offshoot of the Pihling,
separates China from Tibet, and branches to lake Kokonor (Blue
Sea.) The Yang range N. W. of Peking is a portion of the Yin
elevation, which divides China Proper from Mongolia, and which
is continued to the Corean mountains.
The three basins which determine the course of the water-
courses, are, 1st, that S. of the Nanling chain, through which the
rivers flow in the Fokeen and Canton provinces ;-2nd, the middle
basin N. of the Nanling, and S. of the Pihling mountains, which
collects the waters that become tributary to the Yangtzekang,-
the 3rd is N. of the Pihling, extending to the mountain ridges of
Tartary, called the Yang, through which the Hwang-ho flows into
the Yellow Sea.
It is estimated that two-thirds of China Proper are studded with
lofty mountains, some of which are perpetually covered with snow.
The Chinese geographers enumerate 5,270 celebrated mountains,
of which they say 467 yield copper, and 3,609 iron. There is no
known volcano in China; some natives say a lofty mountain peak
near Yunnan occasionally emits flame. In Shen-se there are
said to be two mountains which have chasms on their summits,
which give off flame and smoke when dry grass is thrown therein.
The lakes of China are of two descriptions; those of the moun-
tains, and those of the plains. The surface of the upland districts,
and especially that of the province of Yunnan, is diversified with
frequently occurring and widely extended collections of water,
lodged in the depressed and pent-up places of the glens and valleys.
The lakes of the plains are mere dilatations of the rivers, or the
estuaries in which they terminate; and they are so numerous and
B 2
4
LAKES OF CHINA.
expansive, that, inclusive of the marshy places with which they are
associated, they are supposed to occupy a fourth part of the whole
surface of the low country. The plains of China are to all appear-
ance usurpations of the land upon the once undisputed domains
of the water. This enlargement of the land is in active operation,
by the continued deposition of alluvial matter. The Yellow Sea,
with all its creeks, bays and gulfs, is daily becoming less deep, and
more broken with banks and islands. The Po-yang, the largest
of these lakes, lies between 28° and 30° North in the province of
Keang-soo, and receives rivers from most points of the compass;
the water of which collected into one stream, forms one of the
tributaries of the Yangtzekang. This lake, including its marshes,
is said to be 100 miles in length, and is called the "Inland Sea."
Two hundred miles westward of this lake, in the province of
Hunan a labyrinth of lakes spreads over an extensive surface on
both sides of the river Yangtzekang.
Of this group the lake Tong-ting is said to be the largest; it is esti-
mated at nearly 300 miles in circumference. It form is irregular,
and it receives the waters of many rivers of various sizes.
A great portion of the Imperial Canal lies through a dreary waste
of morass, which occasionally assumes the appearance of a sea,
interspersed with islands.
When the floods subside, the district still retains numerous
groups of large and permanent lakes; among which are the Po-yang,
and the Lemaare to the west of the canal; the Tai, extended at the
feet of picturesque hills; together with many more dispersed over
the space which intervenes between the two great rivers.
The Si-hu Lake, situated in the department of Hangchoo, in the
province of Chekeang, covers an area of about four miles in dia-
meter. Barrow says, its natural and artificial beauties far surpass
any others he met with in China. The lake extends from the
walls of the city to the foot of the mountains, spreading its arms
here and there into the wooded valleys. The margin of the lake
is adorned with summer houses, grottoes, and light fancy buildings,
and it is covered with innumerable pleasure-boats; the lake teems
with fish, is not deep, has a gravelly bottom, and excellent water.
The Great River, Yangtzekang, is the largest in Asia, and is
scarcely inferior to any in America; it is said to measure 2,283
miles in length. It is seen in the western part of the Kokonor
country, the southern division of Mongolia. Its sources are pro-
bably in the mountain ridge that furnish the Bhramaputra, and
Irrawaddy. There seem to be three branches, which flow in an
easterly direction and unite at a place called Woo-shoo-too-sze-too,
in latitude 26°; from thence the river runs south-east and enters
Szechuen province. Even in Tsing-hae many places are situated
on its banks; which proves that the region around it must be fer-
tile, and the river navigable. This river, by means of canals and
lakes, stands in connection with the whole empire; it is the key to
RIVERS AND GREAT WALL.
10
5
China and central Asia, and has been aptly named the "girdle of the
empire." The mouth of the Yangtzekang is about thirty miles
wide, between the 31° and 32° N. latitude, divided into several
channels by low islands, defended by dykes and cultivated by
Chinese. The largest, Tsungming, lying W. N. W. and E. S. E, is
thirty miles long by six to nine broad, and richly productive. We
know, from our fleet under the able command of Admiral Sir Wil-
liam Parker, that this noble river is navigable 200 miles for the
largest class vessels. Coal abounds everywhere on its banks; and
under a wise policy, our steam-boats would be freely traversing this
vast artery to the rich central regions of China, and spreading civi-
lization, peace, commerce, and science among millions of mankind.
The Hwang-ho, or Yellow River, affords inland communication
for nearly 2,000 miles; but from its low and loose banks and rapid
floods, the country on its margin is subject to frequent inunda-
tions. From both these great rivers we are still excluded.
The Grand Canal, called in Chinese the Yunho, or "Transit River,"
is a stupendous work-especially when we consider the period at
which it was finished; namely, in the fourteenth century. It con-
nects the Yangtzekang and Hwang-ho Rivers at a point near
their embouche, where they are about 100 miles apart. The canal
passes through the great plain which extends from Peking through
the deserts of Chihli, part of Shantung, and Keangsoo, to Hang-choo
in Chekeang. We are excluded from traffic on this canal, and have
no port or trading station on its banks. The canal is about 800
miles long, and, in Shantung, where it is fed at its greatest eleva-
tion by the Wien-ho, the banks are protected by strong masonry.
Vessels of large burden are raised over the sluices (which serve
instead of locks) by rude but effective machinery constructed in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Chinkeangfoo, on the Yang-
tzekang, communicates with the Grand Canal, and would be an
excellent station for our trade.
The far-famed Great Wall of China was commenced by the Em-
peror Hwangte, who reigned B.C. 246. His reign may be justly
termed an iron rule, that drew forth sufficient means and men to
complete in a few years this gigantic work. The intention and
object of this wall was to fortify China against the inroads of the
Tartars. The wall is 1,500 miles long; in height varying according
to the locality—in some parts the elevation is twenty-five feet, with
towers forty feet high erected at not more than 100 yards distance
from each other, for a considerable portion of the entire wall. The
country on which a portion of the wall is erected is hilly and wild;
it is built on the steep sides of mountains, between five and six
thousand feet above the level of the sea; it surmounts their sum-
mits, and again descends into the valleys: on crossing a river it
forms a ponderous arch. A large mound of stone erected in the
province of Chih-li, east of Peking, formed the beginning of this
mighty bulwark. Its principal direction is from E. to W.; the ram-
6
TOPOGRAPHY OF PROVINCES.
part runs along the northern confines of three provinces, Chih-li,
Shan-sc, and Shen-se; and thus defends in some measure a popula-
tion of fifty million of inhabitants, which are scattered along the
whole northern frontier of the empire. This great wall terminates
in latitude 40° 4′ N., longitude 120° 2′ E. A sketch was taken of
its termination by one of our war-party in 1840. The wall, after
descending from the highlands, which are very rugged, stretches
northward a few miles across a narrow plain to a ledge of rocks,
with which it seems to unite, and there loses itself in the waters of
the gulf of Leaontung. The celebrated passes through the Great
Wall, proceeding westward from the coast, are the following:
Hifung-kau, lat. 40° 26′ N., Kupe-kau, lat. 40° 43′ N., (Lord Ma-
cartney's embassy passed through Kupe-kau gate), Tushi-kau, lat.
41° 19′ 20″ N.: the fourth gate is the key of the commerce of Russia
and China; it is called Chang-kau, in lat. 40° 51′ 15″ N. and is the
fixed residence of a great number of merchants, who carry on a large
trade with Mongolia. It is the residence of the Commander-in-
Chief, or the Keeper-General of Chahar, who has a large military
force at his command at all times.
In order to convey some idea of the topography of the different
provinces, the following abstract is subjoined.
CHIH-LI OF PE-CHELE has had its northern boundaries greatly ex-
tended. It was anciently called Yu and Yen, and is now the capital
province of the Empire. The sea coast forms the boundary from
Shan Tung Province to the Great Wall, which for a short dis-
tance divides Chih-li; thence a palisade is the separating line, to
the River Hwang-ho. This river marks the northern boundary of
the province from the palisade to its source among the peaks of the
Hingan. Thence the boundary runs nearly due east and west, in
lat. 42° 30′ N. The western boundary running nearly N. and S.
extends over more than seven and a half degrees of latitude, and
divides Chih-li from Shense and Honan. The western parts of the
province are flat, and slope towards the sea, but the country towards.
Shan-se rises and is hilly. There are two lakes in the E. and S.
division of the province. The great canal passes through the E.
part, and falls into the Pei-ho in lat. 39° 11', long. 0° 48′ east of
Peking. The Pei-ho river takes its rise a little beyond the Great
Wall and disembogues in the gulph of Pe-chele. It has no tides,
but flows very rapidly. The entrance to the river Pei-ho is rather
shallow, in consequence of a bar which stretches for a considerable
distance into the sea. The province is divided into districts and
and departments, called foo, ting, chaw and heen. A foo is a large
portion or department of a province. A ting is a division of a
province smaller than a foo. A chaw is a division similar to a ting,
and, like it, independent of any other. A heen may be called a
district, or small division of a department, whether of a foo, or of
an independent chaw or ting. Each foo, ting, chaw, and heen,
possesses one walled town, which is the seat of its government.
TOPOGRAPHY OF PROVINCES.
7
This province contains eleven foo, six chaw departments, three
ting districts, seventeen chau districts, and one hundred and
twenty-four heen districts; and is compared in size with England
and Wales united, or to Michigan, Illinois or Arkansas in the
United States.
SHANTUNG (i. e. "East of the hills") province, anciently called Tsi
and Lu, bounded by Chih-li, is a mountainous country, the coast
bold and well indented. The whole surface of the province is
intersected by rivers, at no great distance from each other. The
Tatsing-ho is the largest river in the province, the Yu-ho, is a
branch of the Pei-ho. The rivers are short. The grand canal
commences at Lingsing-chau; from this point north to Tientsin,
the communication is along the channel of a branch of the Pei-ho.
The native maps point out numerous harbours and bays, which
are almost unknown to foreigners. Shantung is about the size
of Wales in Great Britain, or of Georgia in the United States.
SHAN-SE province, called "West of the Hills," anciently Tsin
and Chau, is one of the central divisions of the Empire. It is
bounded on the east by Chih-li and Honan; on the south by Honan;
on the west by Shensi; and on the north by Chahur in Mongolia.
The whole western, and half of the southern boundary, are formed
by the Yellow River. The province is nearly in the form of a
parallelogram, of which the river is one of the longest sides. Its
boundaries are marked to the north by the Great Wall, which sepa-
rates the province from Mongolia. Shan-se is mountainous, has
no lakes, but numerous rivers; the Hwang-ho runs for 180 miles
through the province.
HONAN province, anciently called Yen and Yu, the centre region
of China, borders to the north on Chih-li, Shan-se, and Shan-
tung, south upon Hoo-pih, east upon Keang-nan, (Keangso and
Anhwin), and west upon Shan-se. Its greatest limits to the north,
are lat. 37°; to the south, 31° 30′; to the west, 6° 20′ west of
Peking; to the east, 25' long. east of Peking. The northern part
stretches into the provinces of Chih-le, and Shan-tung. The river
Hwang-ho runs through its whole breadth. The rivers in the
north are the Chang-ho, Hin-ho, and Ke-ho; in the south there
is the Foo-ho, with several others. Ho-nan-foo, in lat. 34° 43′ in
the western part of the province, near Hwang-ho river, is surrounded
with mountains, and lies between three rivers, which disembogue
into the Hwang-ho.
KEANG-SOO AND GAN-HWUY provinces were formerly united
under the name of Keang-nan. On the north they border Shan-
tung and Honan; on the south Keang-si and Che-keang; on the
east the Yellow Sea; on the west Hoo-pih and Hu-nan. The coun-
try extends from 29° to 35° 8′ lat. N., and from 5° 10′ E. of Peking,
to 1° 30′ W. The rivers are mostly tributary to the Yangtze-
kang, or to the river Hwai. Those that flow into the last, come
from Honan, and run to the S.E. Mountains are seen in the
8
PROVINCES.
TOPOGRAPHY OF PROVINCES.
southern part of the province; and the ranges form the high
lands on each side of the Great River, where many of the streams
have their sources. The coast is low and flat. The country, for
ten miles inland, is alluvial soil. The only island along the sea
coast of any height is Tac-shan, to the north of the Yellow River,
in lat. 34° 40'; and this is intersected by a double ridge of hills.
The province is about half as large as Spain.
KIANG-SI (west of the river) extends from lat. 24° 30' to 30° 10″,
and from long. 1° 50′ E. of Peking; bounded on the N.E. by Hu-
pih and Anhwui; on the E. by Che-kiang and Fo-Keen; on the
S. by Kwang-tung; and on the W. by Hunan. Its shape is irre-
gular, about 400 miles up the Yangtzekang, in a north-westernly
and then in a south-westernly, direction, through the united pro-
vinces of Keang-soo and Anhwui. On the north-eastern borders
of Kiang-si, the river leaves the province, after a course of about
eighty miles along its northern frontier, through a part of which
distance it forms the boundary line. The country is hilly, but not
mountainous. The south-western hills separate it from Kwang-
tung Province. The province is about the size of Virginia, U.S.,
or twice the size of Portugal.
Foo-KEEN, anciently called Min or Ho-Keen, borders towards
the N. upon Che-Keang, S. upon Kwang-tung (Canton), E. upon
the Ocean and Formosa Channel, and towards the W. on Keang-se.
It extends from lat. 25° 35' to 28° 47', from long. W. of Peking
0° 22′, to long. E. of Peking 4°, (the Formosa island not included).
The province is very mountainous. Its sea-coast abounds with
harbours, many of them spacious and safe; the whole coast is more
indented than any other maritime province. Not far from the
main are several islands, the principal ones are Namoa, Tungshan,
Heaman, Kinmun, and Haytan. The Min is the chief river; its
branches extend over half the province, and unite into one channel
near the city of Fuchoo. Nearly every branch of the Min has its
fountain-head within the boundaries of the province. A high
range of mountains extend from S. to the N., the highest form-
ing the line of demarcation between Kiangse and Foo-keen.
its general features it presents very little level ground.
CHEKIANG province, originally the country of Yue, is of a
circular form, extending from lat. 27° 20′ to 31° 20′ N., and from
long. 1° 48′ to 6° 30′ E. of Peking, and includes the principal
islands of the Chusan Archipelago. On the N. it is bounded by
the province of Kiang-see, E. by the sea, S. by Foo-keen, and W.
by Kiang-si and Anhwui. The country is in general hilly. The
rivers of the province are numerous, and all of them have a westerly
course. The chief river is the Tang-keang, a navigable river, near
the mouth of which Hang-choo, the capital, is situated; further
to the S. the Gow-keang and Nan-keang flow into the sea. Its
coasts are studded with islands, which extend as far as the Great
Yangtzekang; the most important are the Chusan group, of
TOPOGRAPHY OF PROVINCES.
9
about seventeen or eighteen islands; the largest island is Ting-hae,
or the Great Chusan. The harbours are Cha-poo, Hang-choo,
Ning-po, Ting-hae, Ship-po, Wan-choo, and Tae-choo.
HOO-PIH AND HU-NAN, formerly Hoo-kwang, borders to the
N. on the province of Ho-nan; the S. on Kwang-tung (Canton)
and Kwang-se; to the E. upon Kiang-nan andKiang-si; and
the W. upon Shen-se, Sze-chuen, and Kwei-choo; and extends
from lat. 24° 45′ to 33° 20', and from long. W. of Peking,
0° 20′ to 8°. It is divided by the Yangtzekang into two
parts, the northern being called the Hoo-pih, the southern the
Hu-nan. The former is the largest. The Yangtzekang in
its serpentine course receives the Han-Keang: there are several
rivers, which flow near the city of Han Yang, into the same river.
The large and numerous lakes in the neighbourhood of the Yang-
tzekang have given the name to this province. This province is
as well watered as any in China.
SHEN-SE AND KANSUH (west of the Pass) previous to the reign
of Keen-lung, were only one province. These provinces extend
from lat. 32° to 40′ and from longitude W. of Peking, 5° 25′ to
17°. They border to the N. upon Mongolia, to the S. upon Hoo-
pih and Sze-chuen, to the E. upon Shan-se, and to the W. upon
Mongolia and Soungaria; the Great Wall runs along its northern
frontiers. Several mountain ridges pass through Shen-se. The
river Hwang-ho flows along the great wall, crossing it twice before
it takes its course into Mongolia. The Wei-ho, one of the large
rivers in China, flows into the Yellow River in lat. 34° 40′. The
Han-ho, and Kin-tsin-ho rise in Shen-se and run into Hoo-pih.
r
SZE-CHUEN, anciently called Sishu, the westernmost and largest
of all the Chinese provinces, extends from lat. 25° 57′ to 33°, and
from long. W. of Peking, 6° 50′ to 15° 43'. It borders to the N.
upon Shen-se; to the S. upon Yun-nan and Kwei-choo; to the
Ŵ. upon the territory of the Kokonor Tartars and the country of
the Tufans; and the E. upon Hu-nan and Hoo-pih. The Yang-
tzekang river travels all through this province. All the other
rivers in the province, (which are numerous) fall into that noble
stream.
KWANG-TUNG, (i.e. Canton, "Eastern-breadth,"-also called Yue-
tung,) extends from lat. 20° 13′ to 25° 34′, and from long. E. of
Peking 0° 53′ to long. W. of Peking. It borders to the N. upon
Keang-se and Fo-keen; S. upon the ocean; E. upon Foo-keen; W.
upon Hu-nan, Kwang-se, and Ton-quin, from which it is separated
by the Gan-nan River, the natural boundary.
The south-western chain of mountains runs along its northern
boundaries and the Mei-ling mountain, through which a road is
cut. The principal islands along the coast are Hae-nan, to the
south, and the Ladrone group, to which Hong-kong belongs. The
island of Hae-nan is mountainous, extends about fifty leagues in a
N.E. and S.W. direction, and is about thirty-five leagues in breadth;
+
10
TOPOGRAPHY OF PROVINCES.
وو
its N.W. and W. coasts are said to be skirted with shoal banks
extending six or seven leagues from the shore. There are seve-
ral fine harbours on the south coast. The island of " Namoa,'
(under the government of Canton), is thirteen miles in length, and
about three in breadth. The eastern point of the island is in lat.
23° 28′ N., and long. 116° 59′ 30″ E.; it has two mountains, con-
nected by a low isthmus. The province is well watered; the chief
river is called Choo-keang, (Pearl River,) on which the capital
(Canton) is situated. East of Canton is the Tung-keang; W. the
Yang-keang; Chaou-choo-foo is situated on the Han-keang, a con-
siderable river.
KWANG-SE (called formerly Yuesi) extends from 21° 50′ 15″ lat.,
from long. W. of Peking, 4° 10' to 12°. It borders towards the
N. upon Kwei-choo and Hu-nan; E. upon Kwang-tung (Canton);
W. upon Yun-nan; and S. upon Canton and Ton-quin, a province
in Cochin China, formerly in the possession of the Chinese; brass
pillars mark the boundary. The chief river is the Sang-koi, which
annually overflows its banks. Kwang-se has numerous small rivers
which flow between its mountains.
YUN-NAN (anciently called Tien) extends from lat. 21° 40′ to 28°;
from 10° 30′ to 18° 50′ long. W. of Peking. It borders towards
the N. upon Sze-chuen; towards the E. on Kwei-choo and Kwang-
se; W. upon Tibet, and the territory of savage nations; S. upon
Ava, Laos, and Ton-quin. Yun-nan is separated from Sze-chuen
on the N. by the Kin-sha-keang. The Mei-nan-korn, Kew-lung-
keang, are all rivers of considerable breadth, and disembogue them-
selves, the former in the gulph of Cambodia, the latter near Bang-
kok. In the centre of the province are four lakes, the largest,
Shang-kwan, is about thirty miles long. The mountains are bold
and steep. The westernmost city is called Ta-le, situated in the
Se-urh, a lake which gives rise to the Ho-te River. It runs into
Ton-quin.
KWEI-CHOO (or "rich district," anciently Land of Kien,) extends
from lat. 24° 40' to 29°, and from long. W. of Peking 7° 17′ to
12° 36'. It borders towards the N. upon Sze-chuen; S. upon the
Kwang-se and Yun-nan; towards the E. upon Hu-nan; and to-
wards the W. upon Sze-chuen. It is a wild mountainous coun-
try. There are several large rivers which intersect the province.
The principal rivers are the Woo-keang, Chang-keho, and the
Shin-ho. It may be seen from the foregoing how little we really
know of this vast Empire, but a few remarks on some of the cities
in the north of China will indicate how erroneously we have re-
stricted our intercourse to Canton, and the more southern pro-
vinces.
Not less than five cities of the first order, among which are the
celebrated ones of Su-chaw and Hang-Chew, are situated on the
banks of that part of the Grand Canal, between the basin at Hang-
Chew, and its junction with the Yangtzekang, a distance of only
CHIEF CITIES-SUCHAW.
11
200 miles; besides Nankin, and Tong-Kiang foo, and Hew-Chewfoo,
with many other innumerable cities and towns.
Suchaw was recently visited by one of the commercial deputies
attached to the French mission, and ought to have been explored
by British enterprize. It is two days distant from the sea, acces-
sible only by inland water communication; is the second city of
the province of Kiangsoo, and the residence of a governor. Shang-
hai is merely its port, and may be compared to Gravesend or
Greenock, in comparison to London or Glasgow. Yet our inter-
course is restricted to Shanghai. The situation is beautiful; the
country all around very pleasant; the climate delightful, and it is
represented to be the most populous city of the empire. From
Shanghai the route is through cities and villages; not a yard of
ground is left uncultivated. The country around is flat, the soil of
a rich alluvial character. Cotton, silk, rice, wheat, rye, barley,
and vegetables, are the productions. The intercommunication is
carried on by means of rivers, canals, and lakes, surrounded by
the most flourishing vegetation.
The mulberry, the tallow tree, the black bamboo, green willow,
the paper tree, cypress, the pine, and the wide-spreading banian
tree, all flourish. Machines, moved by men or buffaloes, keep up
constant irrigation: granite sluices are constructed for the same
purpose: all the canals are full of boats, lighters, and junks,
laden with grain, fruit and other products. Suchaw, like
Hangchew, is not only a town of large commerce and silk-manu-
factures, it is also devoted to pleasure. The Chinese say, "Above is
Paradise, below Suchaw; to be happy on earth, one must be born
here, live in Canton, and die in Lian-chau." Suchaw has a high
reputation in every part of China for its splendid marble buildings,
the elegance of its tombs, the number of its granite bridges, and
artificial canals, gardens, streets and quays; as also for the
politeness of its inhabitants, and especially for the beauty of the
female sex.
It is said that the city contains one million of inhabitants,
and that there is another million in the vicinity. Indeed there
are several towns included in one, comprising what is called
Suchaw the city proper, is inclosed with high walls, which are
about ten miles in circumference; the suburbs are four dis-
tinct towns, about ten miles in length, and nearly the same in
breadth; the population living on the waters is also very great.
Lord Macartney passed through this beautiful city, and fully
confirms the foregoing statement. His boats were nearly three
hours passing the suburbs before they reached the city walls. In
one building-yard, not less than sixteen vessels of 200 tons each
were observed on the stocks. The intelligent and adventurous
Mr. Fortune, agent for the Horticultural Society, whom I had
the pleasure to meet in the North of China, and to accompany to
Ningpo, attempted to enter the city, without success, The French
12
CHIEF CITIES-HAUCHEW.
government were anxious to learn some information on the mul-
berry, and silk-manufacture, and a Mr. Isadore Hedde traversed
the city and suburbs in a silk dress, and was not discovered.
He visited the Mint, and all the public buildings, examined
the great and extensive manufacturing locality in the western
portion of the city, where there are manufactories of iron, ivory,
bone, gold, silver, glass, paper, cotton and silk; and saw them
making that beautiful silk called (Keh Sz',) the knowledge of
which is confined to Suchaw: M. Hedde says it surpasses any
thing known in Europe in its representation of figures and flowers.
M. Hedde ascended the Tiger-nose hill Pagoda, from whence he
had a good view of the town, the fortifications, the great imperial
canal, rivers, streams, and pools which intersect the city; at the
foot of the hill he saw beautiful shops of every description.
The enterprizing Frenchman who undertook this interesting
exploration (for which an Englishman would be liable to deporta-
tion and penalties by his own government, under our mistaken
policy,) passed along the imperial canal, among elegant boats
conducted by young girls, richly dressed, and having their heads
decked with gold and flowers and among several junks laden
with the imperial revenues. He saw fields of mulberry trees, and
learned the mode of their cultivation, visited several establishments
and observed the ingenious apparatus for avoiding double cocoons,
the simple process for reeling the fine white silk, named t's ih li,
and the well known seven cocoon thread.
The city of Hang-chew is situated between the basin of the
Grand Canal and the river Yangtzekang, which flows into the
sea about sixty miles eastward of the city. The tide, when full,
increases the width of the river about four miles opposite to the
city. At low water there is a level strand two miles broad. All
goods brought by sea into the river from the southward, as well as
whatever comes from the lakes and rivers of Che-kiang and Fo-
kien, must be landed at this city in their way to the northward;
the city is therefore the general emporium between the northern
and southern provinces.
The population of this city is supposed to be equal to that of
Peking. It is the residence of the viceroy, and the capital of the
province of Che-keang, which produces more silk than all the other
districts of the empire; not less than 60,000 workmen of this
article are said to be employed within the walls of the city.
The town of Han-ken, situated in the northern division of the
province of Hou-quang, i.e. Hoo-pih, ranks next the above-named
cities, in the estimation of the Chinese at Canton, as a place of
trade. The city of Vu-chang, is the centre of China, and the
place from whence it is the easiest to keep open a communication
with the rest of the provinces. This city, in conjunction with
Hang-yang (only separated by the Yangtzekang) forms the most
populous and frequented portion of China. The two cities may
CHAPOO AND CHAUCHEW.
13
be compared to Paris and Lyons in size, &c. The Yangtzekang
is here 150 leagues from the sea, yet it is three miles wide, and
deep enough for vessels of any size; the number of vessels navi-
gating the river is incredible.
CHAPOO is situated on the northern side of the great bay of Hang-
chew, in the province of Che-keang, it is a place of considerable
trading importance, and the only port from which the trade between
China and Japan is permitted.
During the war, when our troops took possession of this place,
the well-known policy of the Chinese government was clearly
developed. Like all the considerable cities of China, the Tartar
troops had a portion of the city allotted to themselves, which is
surrounded by a wall. The style of the houses are of mixed cha-
racter, some being small and others of a more spacious dimension.
One, in particular, was every way suited as a residence for some
distinguished personage. Each is detached, and surrounded with
a wall of about seven feet high, and almost every yard has a well
sunk very deep. The walls of the houses are constructed of brick,
which is plastered and whitened. The average number of the
houses consisted of only two apartments, with a kitchen at the
rear; the furniture consisted of tables, chairs, and a kind of side-
board, together with presses, and wardrobes which were well sup-
plied with female habiliments. Every where was seen the comforts,
if not the elegancies, of life.
The Mantchou Emperor, Yung-ching, in 1730, devoted great
attention to the defences of Chapoo, and provided it with a garrison
of 2,000 men, 1,500 matchlocks, 30,000 arrow-men, and a regular
armoury.
CHANG-CHEW, is a large city in the province of Foo-keen, about
thirty-six miles from Amoy, which is merely the port of Chang-
chow, from which we are excluded—or, rather, from which we have
voluntarily excluded ourselves. The city lies in a valley nearly em-
bosomed in hills, with a river running through it, surrounded by a
wall, inside of which it is thickly planted with trees of large dimen-
sions. The population is said to exceed 800,000, independent of
the suburbs.
From an eminence near the city a large plain may be seen,
about thirty miles long and nearly twenty broad, on which there
are not less than eighty villages teeming with an agricultural popu-
lation. The streets of the city are from ten to twelve feet wide, some
of them well paved.
The shops are numerous, and appeared well stocked with a
coarse description of goods much resembling those of Canton.
The houses are fronted with wood, with brick side-walls, and gene-
rally about two stories high. The crowds and bustle in the streets
prove the city to be populous. The bridges over the river are two
in number; one of them is built on twenty-six piles of stone about
thirty feet apart and twenty feet each in height; beams are laid
>
14
PEKING THE CAPITAL.
from pile to pile, and others across, and then paved with granite
blocks, some of which extend from pile to pile in length; a few
may be seen full forty feet long and two-and-a-half broad: the
width of the bridge is about nine feet, and full one half is covered
with shops and cooking stalls. The temples are large, and spacious
grounds are attached to them; they are said to be one thousand
years old, and have every appearance of great antiquity: the idols
are large, averaging from ten to sixteen feet high, cut out of granite.
There are two large cities on the Canton River of which we know
nothing, and there must be many wealthy and populous towns of
which we are entirely ignorant, and likely to continue so unless we
adopt a wiser policy.
Peking, the capital of the Chinese Empire, stands on a
vast plain in the interior of the province of Chih-li, the most
northern province of China Proper. It is situated in lat. 39° 55′
N., and in long. 116° 45′ E. from Greenwich and about 3° 30′ E.
of Canton. On the E. and S. the sandy plain extends farther
than the eye can reach; on the W. and N. hills begin to rise
above the plain only a few miles from the walls of the city; a
short distance beyond, the prospect is bounded by mountains
which separate Chih-li from Mantchouria. From the Great Wall,
which passes along upon this ridge of mountains, Peking is about
fifty miles distant; and about 100 miles from the gulph of Chih-li.
The Pei-ho river rising in the N. near the Great Wall, flows within
twelve miles of the city on the E. and passes down in a S. E.
direction by Tientsin into the sea. Some small rivers issuing
from the mountains on the N. W. water a part of the plain; one
of them, Tunghwuy, descends to the city and supplies its numerous
canals and tanks; it then flows eastward, and uniting with one of
the larger rivers, forms an extensive water communication, by
which the city is supplied with provisions. The style of the archi-
tecture and general appearance of the buildings is similar to that of
Canton, except that the streets are rather wider, and generally run
straight, but they are not paved. The multitude of moveable work-
shops of tinkers, barbers, cobblers, and blacksmiths; and the tents
and booths where eatables are exposed for sale, contract a spacious.
street to a narrow path.
The northern division of Peking, consists of three inclosures, one
within another, each surrounded by its own wall. The first con-
tains the imperial palace and the abodes of the different members
of the imperial household; the second was designed for the resi
dence of the officers of the court, but is now occupied by Chinese
merchants; the third consists of the space inclosed by the outer
walls, and was formerly inhabited by Tartar soldiers; but is now
in the possession of Chinese shop-keepers and traders.
The first enclosure ("forbidden city") is the most splendid and
important part of Peking. It is situated nearly in the centre of
the northern division of the city. It is an oblong parallelogram
PEKING PALACES.
15
about two miles in circumference, and enclosed by a wall nearly
thirty feet high. This wall is built of polished red brick, sur-
rounded by a ditch lined with hewn stone, and covered with
varnished tiles of a brilliant yellow, which gives it the appearance,
when seen under the rays of the sun, of being covered with a roof
of gold. The interior of this inclosure is occupied by a suite of
court-yards and apartments, which, it is said, for beauty and splen-
dour cannot be surpassed. It is divided into three parts, the
eastern, middle and western. The middle division contains the
imperial buildings, which are subdivided into several distinct
palaces. They are represented by the Jesuits as perfect models
of architecture.
The gates and halls are thus described:-
1. The Meridian Gate! Before this gate on the E. is a lunar
dial, and on the W. a solar, and in the tower above it a large bell
and gong. All public officers enter and leave the palace by the
eastern avenue; none but the princes of the imperial blood are
permitted to pass the western, and none but the emperor the
southern avenue. At this gate are distributed the presents to
embassies; and all war captives are here received by His Majesty
in person.
2. The Gate of Peace has five avenues, and is a superb building
of white marble. The height of the basement is twenty feet, and
the whole edifice one hundred and ten. The ascent to it is by
five flights of forty steps each, and it is highly ornamented with
tripods and other figures in bronze. Here, on all the holidays
and on the anniversary of the emperor's birth-day, he receives the
congratulations of his officers, who prostrate themselves to the
earth before him, and strike the ground with their foreheads.
3. The Hall of Perfect Peace. Here the emperor comes to
examine the implements prepared for the annual ceremony of
ploughing.
4. The Hall of Secure Peace; in this the Emperor gives a banquet
to his foreign guests on new year's day.
5. The Tranquil Palace of Heaven, i.e. of the Emperor. This is a
private retreat, to which no one can approach without special per-
mission. This palace is described by the Russians, who have had
many opportunities of seeing it, as "the loftiest, richest, and most
magnificent of all the palaces." On each side of the tower is a
large copper vessel, in which incense is burnt day and night.
6. The Palace of Earth's Repose, i.e. of the Empress, which is said
to be very beautiful; adjoining this is the imperial flower garden,
which is laid out in walks for Her Majesty, who being a Tartar,
has not adopted the Chinese custom of crippling her feet, and
therefore is said to enjoy herself in what is called "Earth's Repose."
In this garden is a library, said to contain a collection of all the
books published in China.
Hwang-ching, another imperial city, constitutes the second en-
16
PEKING PALACES.
closure, and surrounds the "forbidden city." It is about six miles
in circumference, and surrounded by a wall twenty feet high. It
has four large gates. Tae-meaou, "the great temple," is dedicated
to the ancestors of the reigning family. The outer wall, which
includes several buildings, is about 3,000 feet in circumference.
Near the eastern gate of the forbidden city is a depository of
military stores and a vast number of workshops for their manu-
facture. Northward from these is the Russian College, designed to
furnish interpreters for the government in its intercourse with
Russia.
Kingshan, an artificial mountain, is situated directly N. from
the imperial palace. Its base is said to consist of coal, which is
kept in reserve in case of siege, and its surface is the earth dug
from the ditches that surround the walls. It is about 150 feet in
height, and encircled by a wall. It has five summits lying east
and west from each other. This mountain is planted and laid out
in shady walks.
The western part of this enclosure is ornamented with an arti-
ficial lake, more than a mile in length, and about one-eighth of a
mile in breadth. The lake is crossed by a bridge of nine arches,
200 paces in length, and ten feet wide, built of white marble.
This lake is represented by the Missionaries as "a most enchanting
place."
Near the western gardens is a temple consecrated to the
discoverer of the silk worm, reputed to have been the wife of
the Emperor Hwang-te, who, according to Chinese history,
reigned long previous to our era. The empress, and other great
ladies of the court, assist in tending the worms, in order to encou-
rage this branch of industry. The moveable type printing office
is on the east side of the gardens; these types were formerly cast
in copper, like so many seals. In the reign of Kang-he, a collec-
tion of books was printed with these types, forming in all 10,000
sheets, which is bound into 500 volumes.
The imperial city contains a great many palaces, temples, and
other public edifices, independent of those noticed here. The
Roman Catholic Missionaries reckon the number of palaces alone
in this division, and in the forbidden city, at two hundred;
"each
palace large enough to accommodate the most wealthy European
nobleman!" In the third and outer inclosure, which constitutes
the remainder of the northern division, are situated five of the six
supreme tribunals of the empire; the Board of Civil Office; the
Board of Revenue; the Board of Rites; the Board of War; the
Board of Public Works; and the Board of Punishments.
At the distance of about ten miles west and north-west from
the city are several extensive gardens, with thirty distinct places
of residences for the emperor and the officers of state, whose pre-
sence is occasionally required. Each of those constitute a con-
siderable village, which are occupied by eunuchs, servants, and His
PEKING AND TIEN-TSIN.
17
majesty's artificers: but these imperial abodes scarcely deserve the
appellation of palaces. All the palaces of the emperor are filled with
eunuchs, who are required to look after the gardens, and attend
on the harem.
Peking is sustained by its being the seat of government. It
has no trade, except that which is produced by the wants of its
numerous inhabitants, who are said to amount to between two and
three millions, including those that live in the suburbs. The
country around Peking is less productive than many other parts
of China. The provisions and manufactured goods required by
the inhabitants are conveyed by the Grand Canal. Beef and
mutton are brought from Mongolia; and coals from the mountains
of the north-west. A considerable portion of the taxes levied
upon the productions of the whole empire, is paid in kind, and is
here stored up; the amount of rice alone in these granaries, at one
portion of the year, is enormous; but they are often empty before
the new crop is gathered, so that a great many die for want of
food. The large establishment of the emperor, and the numerous
persons in the employment of the government, who are paid out
of the public revenue, absorb a great portion of the grain.
Tien-tsin, situated in the province of Chih-le, on the right bank
of the Peiho, about thirty miles up the river, is the emporium of
the capital, not two days' journey from Peking, and is one of
the richest trading places in the empire. The junks of Siam,
Cochin-China, and the south of China Proper, (Keang-nan and
Shan-tung), may be seen here for miles together, as close as they
can possibly stow, from June to October. Near the city, the
Great Canal joins the Peiho, and thus it is the resort of some
thousands of grain junks. The chief article for sale here is salt,
which may be seen piled in mounds for miles, on the north side
of the river; it is chiefly procured in the eastern and southern
provinces, several thousand boats are constantly engaged in its
transport. Mr. Barrow calculated the quantity he saw in 1816, to
be six hundred millions of pounds in weight.
The land in the vicinity yields few productions, and the only
articles manufactured are a coarse kind of woollen cloth, tapestry,
and glass. Woollens and furs are large articles of import, and all
transactions are paid for in silver and in bills of exchange on the
southern provinces. The few privileged salt merchants who reside
here live in the style of princes. The city, with all its wealth and
extensive trade, has a miserable appearance, from the government
prohibiting the use of bricks in building their houses. Tien-tsin
ought to have been one of our consular ports; and by prudent
negotiation we may yet be enabled to establish a trade there, to
supply Peking and Tartary with our manufactures, and especially
with woollen cloths, which are worn for six months, at least, by
those who do not use furs, skins, or wadded garments.
C
18
CLIMATE OF CHINA.
The varied latitude and elevation of China must necessarily pro-
duce great difference of temperature; but China, being situated on
the eastern side of a great continent, is subject to the usual ex-
tremes of heat and cold. Peking is said to be most salubrious ;
the frost usually sets in about the middle of December, and remains
for about two months. The heat in June and July is very great;
in September the thermometer is 96 in the shade, yet this month
is considered the most pleasant in the year. The refreshing
showers that fall during the hottest weather mitigate the direful
effects of the intense heat: altogether the climate of China may
be said to be as varied as its surface. The rivers of the northern
provinces, and particularly the Yellow River, are covered with ice,
(which becomes an article of commerce) and communication to the
interior is stopped by the frost. Europeans who have lived in China
for years, feel the cold weather much more penetrating than what
is experienced in Europe, which is accounted for by the large
quantities of nitre with which the earth is charged. The heat in
summer causes, in the south, a dampness on the walls and pillars
of most buildings. Canton and Macao are the only portions of
China in which Europeans have had a long opportunity of judging
of the climate; and it appears that 70° of Fahrenheit is the average
temperature of Canton and Macao: October and April give nearly
the mean heat of the year. Vegetation ceases from the first week
in November to February, during which period scarcely any rain
falls. In the month of May the fall of rain has exceeded eighteen
inches, being a fourth of the year. On the whole, the climate of
China Proper is much the same as that of Asia in general. The
number of people met with of an advanced age in the northern pro-
vinces, is the best proof that the air is salubrious and bracing; it
neither approximates to the rigour of the northern regions, nor to
the wasting influence of the southern. The tropical monsoons do
not extend much beyond Canton City. The ty-foons only occur
during the hottest months, about August or September: they are
equally as destructive as the West Indian tornadoes, the extensive
sea-coast appears to conduct the wind. Along the extensive chan-
nel of Formosa, N. E. winds are prevalent for full eight months
out of twelve. The winds in the interior are conducted by the
vast chains of mountains.
CHINESE DEPENDENCIES.
The provinces or countries dependent on or contiguous to China
are so little known that a connected statement may be useful.
Soungaria and Eastern Turkeston, called Chinese Tartary, is
separated from China by the Teenshan, or Celestial Mountains.
The district extends from lat. 47° 30′ N. to 33° 30′, and from 22°
DEPENDENT PROVINCES OF CHINA.
19
23′ W. of Peking to 42° 25'. It is bounded on the N. by the
Altai Mountains, which separate it from the Kirghis territory, the
Chamor Mountains, and River Irtish; on the N. E. from the
Mongolian district, Oulai-Soutai; to the E. it borders on Kansuh,
in China Proper; the Kwanben and Kobi separate Turkestan from
Tibet; and the Belour Mountains from Buckharia.
The whole of this territory, up to the year 1772, was in the pos-
session of the Kalmucks, or Eleuths; and each district was
governed by a chief (turah). The Emperor Keen-lung conquered,
and successfully governed the whole province. In 1833, a descend-
ant of the ancient princes, Jehangir Khojeh, took advantage of
the unpopularity of the Chinese government, and rose in rebellion,
aided by a large body of Khirgiz, and 8,000 troops from the Khan
of Kokan. Kashgar was taken from the Chinese, who, it is said,
lost a large army. One victory followed another, so that the whole
of the territory was in Jehangir's possession for more than seven
months.
From the tyranny and oppression practised by the new ruler,
he became unpopular; and the Chinese returning with a large
force, Ishak Khojeh, a chief of some Kashgar tribes, betrayed his
ally to the Chinese, who sent him to Peking, where he was exe-
cuted. The betrayer was made Prince of Kashgar by the Emperor
of China; and on visiting Peking, the following year, never re-
turned. He is said to have been poisoned, the government being
afraid of his influence.
Chinese Tartary contains many towns, the chief are: Yarkand,
Kashgar, Oksei, Ele, Yengi Hissar, Ooch Turfan, and Koneh Turfan,
(called Hami,) Gummi, and Lopp.
Yarkand is the capital of a large territory. The population of
Yarkand is said to be 80,000 families: there are resident in Yar-
kand 200 Chinese merchants; but many others visit it at stated
times. A considerable number of Tungani merchants are perma-
nently settled there. The Tungani are Mussulmans, and said to
be descended from the soldiers of Alexander the Great, who pushed
his conquests as far as Solar. (Tungani signifies "left behind," or
looking back.") It has two forts of large extent; one of them sur-
rounded with a mud wall. There are 300 Tartar, and 600 Chinese
soldiers. Horse-flesh sells for the same price as mutton. Yarkand
is surrounded by a number of towns and villages, which are very
populous. Traffic is very active, as Chinese traders from Shanse,
Shense, Keagnan, and Chekeang, proceed thither to meet traders
from various countries not governed by China.
66
The productions of Yarkand are wheat, rice, barley, and a variety
of seeds, from which oil is extracted. Fruit and vegetables are very
abundant. Raw silk is cultivated in large quantities: but the
staple article is the wool of the shawl goat (aklehah); the dumba,
sheep with a large tail, is abundant. The celebrated jade-stone is
found near Yarkand in large quantities. About 10,000 lbs. weight
c 2
20
DEPENDENCIES-KASHGAR, ELE.
of the spotless yu is sent annually to the Emperor, from a neigh-
bouring mountain. Private individuals are prohibited trading in
this gem. The customs produce 35,000 taels of silver annually;
30 taels of gold, 35,000 sacks of corn, 800 measures of oil, and
1649 taels for military expenses. The Mahomedans furnish 57,569
pieces of linen, 15,000 lbs. of cotton, 1,400 linen sacks, 1,300
hempen ropes, and 3,000 lbs. of copper; all of which is sent to
Ele.
Kashgar is a large frontier town on the N.W. extremity of
Se-Yu, beyond the snowy mountains, distant about five days'
journey from Yarkand, and was the ancient capital of the province,
until the late rebellion, since which time it is declining. The city
contains about 15,000 inhabitants. There are constantly 8,000
Chinese troops quartered in and around the city. It has also an
Usbeck chief, with a nominal authority. The Chinese government
keep a close watch on the Khan of Kokan. The country is fertile :
the Mahomedans contribute every year 3,600 small carpets; 3,600
taels of silver; 14,000 sacks of grain; and 10,000 pieces of linen;
all of which are sent to Ele. Large quantities of gold and silver
brocades are manufactured and sent to the emperor. Merchandise
pays a custom-duty of one-tenth. There are eight towns dependent
on the chief officer of Kashgar.
Yengi Hissar lies half way between Yarkand and Kashgar.
Oksu is N.E. from Yarkand, and distant about twenty days'
caravan travelling. It is a large commercial mart, for the produc-
tions of China and Russian Tartary. Coined silver is the circu-
lating medium (tankeh). There are 2,000 Chinese troops stationed
here. The population of the town is said to be 20,000 families.
The country around produces great abundance of provisions;
there are large herds of cattle, sheep, camels, and horses; the
Mahomedans collect from every quarter for trade, and much com-
fort prevails among the people.
Eela or Ele is situated N. of Oksu, distant twenty-five days'
journey, and forty from Yarkand. It is a walled town, and is the
penal settlement of China. The climate is destructive to the con-
stitution of the Chinese; a Tartar general has charge of the civil
as well as military administration.
Kouche is N.W. of Oksu, and S. of Ele, and three months'
journey from the Russian frontier. The inhabitants are chiefly
Kalmuks, who follow a pastoral life. Great quantities of cattle
are reared. It is called the eastern gate of China.
Ooch Turfan is two days' journey from Yarkand. Konih Turfan,
called Hami, two months' journey from Yarkand, is a place of
great trade in all kinds of merchandize; it is governed by two
great officers and 1,000 soldiers, and is four le* in circumference.
* The Chinese le, or measure of distance, varies in the north and south of China,
those of the south being the longest: 200 le are said to be equal to a degree of latitude.
DEPENDENCIES, GOVERNMENT.
21
Lopp is two months' journey from Yarkand, and is inhabited by
Chinese principally.
Gummi lies between Yarkand and Eelchi (in Khoten).
Khoten. This country contains many large towns, Karakash,
Eelchi, and Kirrea, with many others. Karakash is the capital,
within ten days' journey from Yarkand, and twenty days' from
Tibet. It is governed by two Chinese Umbauns, or residents, to
whom are subordinate two Usbeck Karims; one in Eelchi, and the
other in Kirrea. The taxable subjects are estimated at 700,000.
The military force is 2,000. The country is flat, and the soil very
productive. The Yu (jade) is found in considerable quantities.
Eelchi is twelve days' journey from Yarkand.
Kirrea is about five days' journey from Eelchi. The Chinese
government work the gold mines here, and monopolize the pro-
duce. The sand of the river is said to contain a large portion of
gold. The commercial intercourse is with Yarkand, and is very
considerable in silk, gold-dust, grapes, raisins, &c. Caravans come
from the Russian frontier vid Eela, Oksu, and Kouche, and bring
broad cloth, brocades, furs, and steel; and take in return, tea,
rhubarb, sal-ammoniac, &c.
About ten days' journey from Oksu are two very high moun-
tains; the valley between them is covered for a considerable depth
with sal-ammoniac. During the eruptions, (the natives call it
God's fire), the sal-ammoniac falls like a mist, and in winter be-
comes crystallized.
Near Yarkand is a river called Zurufshan, which is frozen over
three months in the winter.
Chinese Tartary is subject to the extremes of cold and heat; but
except on the mountains snow is never seen in the capital.
does not fall more than three or four times in the year.
Rain
About the year 1832 the country was much ravaged by earth-
quakes and the cholera.
We know very little of this region, which separates China
Proper from the Russian territories, and may ere long be the
battle-field between the two empires, if Peking be made the "Con-
stantinople," or place of intrigue, for the Muscovite policy.
The government of Soungaria and Turkestan is of three kinds:
-1st. In the easternmost districts of Soungaria, Barkoul, and
Orountchi, it is much the same as China, and these districts have
been incorporated with the province of Kansuh; 2nd. In the west-
ern districts around Ele, where the Chinese convicts are sent, it is
strictly military, being occupied by Mantchou troops, who are
considered as inhabitants of the soil; they are commanded by a
general and subordinate officers, whose authority extends to the
eastern districts, and to Turkestan; in Turkestan, the government
is left in the hands of the native nobles, who are Begs of different
degrees of rank, under the control of Chinese residents at the
principal cities.
22
MONGOLIA DEPENDENCY.
MONGOLIA.—The eastern boundary of Mongolia is the Tchitchi-
har district of Mantchouria; to the N. it is separated from Siberia
by the Altai Mountains; to the S. it has the Chinese Great Wall;
to the W. it borders on the government of Ele and Kan-suh pro-
vince. It is situated to the N.W. of Tibet, whilst Kokonor stretches
along the western boundaries of Sz-chuen province. It extends
from lat. 34° to 55° N., and from east of Peking, 5° to 20° W.; it is
about 1,400 miles in length, and 1,000 in breadth.
The government of Mongolia remains, for the most part, in the
hands of the native princes. The male population is enrolled, and
formed into bodies called Ke, the same as the Mantchou troops,
who are called Pa-ke. Each ke is under a tchassak, or dzassak,
who is hereditary. The tchassaks are all nobles. The ke, or stan-
dards, are united into corps, over which a commander-general
and a deputy preside. There are six such corps in Inner Mongo-
lia, four in Outer Mongolia, and eight between Kokonor and Ou-
liasoutai on the Russian frontier. The ke are sub-divided into
companies. In a few districts in Mongolia, in place of the tchassak,
either generals or residents are put at the head of the government.
There are two residents in Outer Mongolia, at Kourun, for regu-
lating the intercourse of the Chinese, Mongols, and Russians.
Notwithstanding their anxiety, the Tartar government are quite
ignorant of the amount of the population of the Mongols. Each
Mongol prince engages to furnish to China from four to twenty
squadrons, each consisting of 150 horsemen. Taking thirteen
squadrons as an average for each banner, it appears that the
forty-nine banners of the southern Mongols, or Kalkas, formed a
total amount of 260,000 men; and eight banners of the Tsakhars,
which are estimated at 24,000 men. This return was made after
the great struggle between the Soungarians and Chinese; ever since
that period (1696) the Mongolians have had uninterrupted peace,
and the population must have increased.
It is said there are at least 500,000 tents, each of which contains
a soldier; reckoning four to each family, the total population would
be 2,000,000.
In the northern part of Mongolia there is an abundance of tim-
ber, such as the pine, fir, larch, and poplar; the elm is very com-
mon. The Selengar, Orchou, Iro, Khara, and other rivers abound.
in fish; such as salmon, sturgeon, trout, pike, and various other
kinds. The quadrupeds are wild boars, wild horses, bears, wolves,
hares, sables, foxes, and squirrels. The birds are cranes, geese,
ducks, quails, and swans. The horse is small, but strong.
the camels of Mongolia have two humps; those of Gobi are very
large and strong. The sheep, which are all white, constitute the
riches of the Mongols, and supply them with milk and meat, their
only subsistence. Millet, barley, and wheat, are sown in small
quantities.
All
MANTCHOURIA.-The Mantchous, who now govern China, are
MANTCHOURIA DEPENDENCY.
23
said to be of Tongouse origin; and have scarcely existed more than
three centuries as a distinct and independent nation. Their coun-
try is mountainous and barren, and thinly populated. It was for-
merly divided among a number of petty chieftains, who seldom
remained long at peace with each other. Hence, the people be-
came more hardy and vigorous than their neighbours, the Chinese;
and at a period when the empire was torn by dissensions be-
tween the imperial princes, and revolts among the people, a Mant-
chou chieftain began to attack China, over which, after thirty
years' warfare, in the middle of the seventeenth century, the Mant-
chons obtained the dominion they now hold, under the title of the
Tat-sing dynasty.
The Mantchou territory is divided in three provinces, viz.:
Shingking, or Moukden (the ancient Leaoutung); 2. Kirin; and
3. Kihlung-keang, or Tsitsihar. The first of these borders on
China, Mongolia, and the gulf of Pechilee, or of Leaoutung; the
second on Corea, and the sea of Japan; and the third, on Siberia
and Mongolia.
Mantchouria is situated between 29° and 55° north lat. and from
the meridian of Peking to 30° 20′ E. To the north it borders Si-
beria, from which it is separated by the Daourian Mountains; the
River Kerbechi constitutes the natural boundary. The boundary
line between Mantchouria and Mongolia is a wooden wall, running
from the Great Wall along the N.E. boundaries of Leaoutung;
the frontiers take then a N.W. direction, along the Songaria and
other rivers, to Kobi, and the territory of the Kalkas. On the E.
it borders on the channel of Tartary and the Japan Sea; on the S.,
the Yellow Sea and Corea. The extent from N. to S. is about 700
miles; from E. to W. 900. The principal rivers are the Amour, or
Segalien, Songari, the Noun, or Nonni, and Ousouri. The Sega-
lien rises in Mongolia, and forms the boundary between Mongolia
and the Siberian province of Nertchinsk. The Songari rises in the
Chang-pih-shan, near the northern frontier of Corea; running
N.E. by E. it unites in lat. 47° 50′, long. 16° 10′ with the Sega-
lien. The Nonni rises near the inner Daourian Mountains, and
falls into the Songari. The Ousouri rises in the Seih-hih-tih
Mountains, and falls into the Amour.
The lakes of Mantchouria are the Hin-ka, situated in Kirin;
the Hoo-rien and Pir, and several smaller ones. The Seih-hin-tih
Mountains lie along the sea-coast.
The Daourian Mountains are
branches of the Stanovoy chain. These mountains form the
northern boundaries: they are high, and are covered with perpe-
tual snow.
Between Leaoutung and Corea are several other high
mountains.
The description of Mantchouria as given by the Emperor Keen-
lung, may be correct, but it has been greatly improved since the
present dynasty came on the throne. He commences thus: "In
a space of ten thousand le (Chinese mile) you find a succession of
24
MANTCHOURIA, MOUKDEN,
hills and vallies, parched lands and well irrigated territories, ma-
jestic rivers, impetuous torrents, graceful streams, smiling plains,
and forests impenetrable to the rays of the sun. The Iron Moun-
tain and the Ornamented Mountain are seen from a great distance.
Wheat returns the labour expended on it one hundred-fold; fruits
are produced in great abundance. Gin-seng grows on all the
mountains. Leaoutung exports large quantities of wheat, peas,
rice, and rhubarb." The population are returned at 943,000,
which is considered too little. The Chinese residents far outnum-
ber the Mantchous, who are both proud and indolent.
Moukden, the capital, is built on an eminence, in lat. 41°56′, and
7° 11′ E. of Peking. Great efforts have been made by the Chinese
Sovereigns to make this a large and elegant city.
Kin-choo is a considerable emporium, in lat. 40° 10′, long. 4° 55'
E. of Peking. As a market, it ranks high for drugs, peas, and flour;
upwards of 1000 junks obtain cargoes. Kae-choo, in the neigh-
bourhood of the capital, in lat. 40° 30′, long. 6° E. of Peking, is a
place of great trade; the produce of the surrounding country is
collected here, and exported to Fo-keen, Canton, and Keang-nan.
In the season, the mercantile activity is very great: the town is
nearly eight miles from the sea, and the merchandize is sent
thither by horses and carts. Fung-hwang-ching is the only em-
porium between Manchouria and Corea. The Coreans are per-
mitted this for the purpose of exchanging their paper and raw
produce for Chinese manufactures. The Corean commerce is so
much fettered by restrictions and heavy duties, that the trade is
almost stationary. The Chinese merchants have engrossed nearly
all the commerce of the place.
The government of the provinces of Mantchouria consists of a
supreme government at Moukden, and three provincial govern-
ments. That of Moukden is the same as in China Proper, while
that of the other provinces is wholly military. The province of
Moukden includes two departments, that of Fungteen-foo, the
metropolitan department, and Hingking, or Kinchou-foo. These
are sub-divided into chow and heen districts, as in China. The
City of Moukden is not under a che-foo, but one of higher rank,
called foo-yuen, who cooperates with one of the Boards in the govern-
ment of the metropolitan department. His assistant has the direc-
tion of the literary branch of the administration. The three eastern
provinces, Moukden, Kirin, and Tsitsihar, are under the govern-
ment of a general, who is always a Mantchou. His subordinate
officers are lieutenant-generals, at the head of each principal divi-
sion of the province. Subordinate to these are garrison officers, of
rank varying according to the importance of the districts under
them; these delegate their authority to officers, or assistant direc-
tors. The frontiers are under a separate class of officers.
The emigration to Mantchouria, from the province of Shan-
tung, is very great, so that, in a few years, there will not be a spot
TIBET DEPENDENCY.
25
uncultivated. The summers are short, but very hot. The cold
weather commences in October, and the whole country is one sheet
of ice until March. The changes of heat to cold are sudden;
within a few hours the thermometer falls from 40° to 10°. Fruits,
and even tropical productions, are grown to perfection. The
Chinese and Mantchoo languages are in use; the latter is the lan-
guage of the court.
Sagalien Island, or Tahoka, on the coast of Mantchouria, is repre-
sented in Chinese maps as an island, with a small islet between it
and the main land. Late travellers represent the intervening
water to be so shallow, that the natives ford it. On the northern
side of the mouth of the river Amour, the Tartar-Chinese have a
town, and general mart (Tsetaleho), to which the Chinese resort,
and carry on a large trade.
The extent of the rivers which disembogue at the mouth of the
Amour, is amazing; and all the principal cities of eastern Tar-
tary are accessible by them. They extend to upwards of 30° of
longitude. The river, nearest the sea, runs N.E. and has two
forked branches; the one in the E. and W. direction, and the
other in the same direction, nearly, as the trunk or stem; in Eu-
ropean maps, it is called Songari. The stem and branch Songari,
which communicates with Kirin Ula, and Ningkuta, the principal
cities in Mantchou Tartary, the Chinese call Hwan-tung-keang,
and the Japanese give the same name to the great stem which
enters the sea at Okotsk. The branch which lies E. and W.
extends beyond the Russian city Nipcha, and is called Hilung-
keang (Dragon River). This is the Amour of the Russians, and
the Sagalien of the Tartars.
TIBET DEPENDENCY.
TIBET may be considered as comprehending all the tract of
country from the eastern boundaries of Cashmere to the frontiers
of Kokonor, from long. W. of Peking 18° to 42°, and from lat. 28°
to 35°, Ladhak included. Its eastern frontiers are Sefan, Kokonor,
and Turkestan; its northern, the government of Ele and Great
Bukharia; its southern, Nepaul, Sikkim, and Bootan; its western,
Bukharia and Cashmere. Its divisions are two, Anterior and
Ulterior Tibet; by the Chinese it is called Se-tsang. Anterior
Tibet, called Lassa, is the most eastern part; it borders upon
China, its capital is Lassa, and it contains eight cantons. Ulterior
Tibet, called Tes-hoo, Loomboo, and the Umdes, contains six
cantons, all situated to the west of the capital.
LASSA, in 30° 43′ north latitude, the chief city of Anterior
Tibet, is situated in an extensive valley, which is forty le from
N. to S., and about 450 le from E. to W. Under this name
is understood all the country Yuiba, which runs eastward to
Kamba, the greater part of which is incorporated with China.
26
LASSA, CAPITAL OF TIBET.
The district of Lassa is bounded on the east by the province of
Sze-chuen and Yun-nan; in China proper, on the N.E., by Ko-
konor; on the N. by the Hwang-ho, or Yellow River; on the
W. by the Western Sea, or Lake Terkiri; on the S. by Tako. It
is stated that the numerous temples and splendid edifices, noble
strects, and large market places, prove it to be one of the most
flourishing cities of the West.
The next considerable city in Tibet to Lassa is Jiga-gounggar,
in the province of Wei, 104 le S.W. of Lassa, which contains 20,000
families. Its position is 29° 58′ N. lat.
The government of Tibet, like Turkestan, remains in the hands
of native authorities, but with an inferior degree of control on the
part of the Chinese residents. The chief native authority lies in the
dalai lama for Anterior Tibet, and in the bantchin-erdeni lama for
Ulterior Tibet; both these have secular deputies. There is a
Chinese resident at the court of each lama, who is consulted in all
important affairs. There are also feudal townships, called Toosze,
and some Mongols in Tibet, entirely under the authority of the
residents.
There are said to be upwards of 60,000 soldiers in Tibet; at
Lassa, 3,000 cavalry; 2,000 in Dzang; 5,000 in Ngari; 1,000 in
Koba; 3,000 in Tardzi, Landzi, Lanmautso, and among the Mon-
gols living in black tents in Ngari. The troops are recruited by
taking one man out of ten or five; the same with horses.
FORMOSA, ("the beautiful island"), or Tewan, is about 300 miles
long. A chain of mountains runs through its centre, from N. to
S.; beyond this on both sides there is a continued flat, and towards
the sea a barren alluvial sand, nearly four miles in breadth. The
south-east point of Formosa is in lat. 21° 53′ 30″ N., and in long.
120° 57′ E. Ke-lung, the most northern point, is 25° 16' N., and
121° 4′ 3″ E. from Greenwich. The channel which separates For-
mosa from the Chinese coast, is from 70 to 100 miles in breadth;
about 24 miles from the island lie the Pang-hoo, or Pescadore
islands. The position of Formosa for trade is excellent, within one
day's sail of the port of Amoy, within thirty leagues of the coast of
China, about 150 from Japan, and nearly the same distance from
the Philippines, Except Ke-lung harbour, there is no other that
has yet been explored. Nieuhoff visited the island, and states that
Pang-hoo-ting has several good harbours, and two commodious
bays, where ships may ride safely in eight or nine fathoms of
water. The islands are numerous; the best is Fisher's Island
(western).
The aborigines of the island of Formosa are divided into three
classes-first, those who have not only submitted to the Chinese,
but have advanced towards civilisation. This class was instructed
by the Dutch, when they had possession of the island; many of
them still have some slight knowledge of the language, although a
period of 170 years has elapsed since the Dutch occupied part of
FORMOSA ISLAND.
27
the island. The second class is composed of aborigines, who sub-
mit to the Chinese authority, yet retain their own habits and
customs; these are styled "raw natives." The third portion in-
cludes all the unsubdued tribes, whose number is unknown. They
are ruled by a chief and elders, and are of a slender shape, and
olive complexion; live in wretched huts, have no written language,
or established religion.
Formosa, together with the Pescadore islands, forms one foo, or
department, of the province of Foo-keen, which is subject to the
foo-yuen of that province. The departments comprise six heen, or
districts; five of which are in Formosa, the other includes the Pes-
cadore isles. Tae-wan, the chief district, is a narrow tract of land,
in lat. 23° N., and is considered equal to the first-class cities of
China in wealth and appearance. Attached to it are twenty
Chinese and three native villages. Its harbours are not good, one
of the entrances being closed with sand. To the north of Tae-wan,
is Choo-lo-heen, which comprises one town, four Chinese and
thirty-two native villages, with a tolerable harbour (Lo-kang);
next is Chang-hwa-heen, which has one good town, fifteen villages,
and 132 Chinese farms, and 51 native villages.
Tan-shwuy-heen has one town, 133 farms, and 70 native vil-
lages. Fung-shou-heen lies in a southern point, and has one
town. The native villages are 73, of which eight only are occu-
pied by civilised natives. The Pescadore, or Pang-hoo, constitutes
the sixth heen, or district. This cluster of islands, 36 in number,
although barren, forms an important naval and military station for
the Chinese government, who find it necessary to watch the in-
habitants, as they have a reputation for lawlessness, occasioned it is
said by the unjust extortions of the Mandarins, on the thousands
of emigrants who come from Foo-keen, Canton, and Che-keang
provinces. The eastern part of the island of Formosa is still in
possession of the native chiefs. The revenue of Formosa exceeds
1,000,000 taels of silver, and the whole population is between two
and three millions of inhabitants.
The portion of Formosa under the government of China is most
fruitful and healthy. The vast plains of the southern part may
justly be called a garden. Every kind of grain and fruit may be
produced on the island; but rice, sugar, tobacco, and camphor,
are the chief articles of export. The number of junks employed
in conveying rice to Fo-keen and Che-keang provinces is upwards.
of 200. For sugar, more than 70 junks are annually employed
between the single port of Tein-tsin. The camphor is sent to
Canton, and the quantity is very considerable. Cattle, sheep,
goats, and poultry, are abundant. The mountains produce gold,
silver, cinnabar, copper, and coal, of which latter some excellent
specimens have been recently sent to England. Formosa exceeds
Manilla and Java in the quantity of its exports; and the circu-
lating capital is in proportion to the commerce.
28
POPULATION OF CHINA.
The whole of the preceding details must necessarily be con-
sidered as vague in many points; they are derived from various
sources, which will be particularized at the end of the work; and
they are given rather as an incitement to further inquiry, and as
illustrative of the vastness and importance of the empire of China,
than from any implicit reliance on their accuracy. At any rate,
this imperfect description may awaken investigation, by showing
what immense regions yet remain for exploration, and it is to be
hoped for commercial profit.
CHAPTER II.
POPULATION, CHARACTER,-MANNERS, &c.
THERE is no country in the world where there are more opportu-
nities of knowing the amount of the population than China, as
every district has its officer; every street its constable; every ten
houses, its tything-man; and every family is required to have a
board always hanging up in the house, ready for the inspection of
the regular officer, on which the name of every man, woman, or
child, in the house, must be inscribed. There is even a law to
constrain Chinese householders to give a faithful return. All per-
sons are required to be registered according to their several avo-
cations.
When the master of a family, who holds land that is chargeable
with contributions to the revenue, omits to make any entry in the
public register, he is liable to be punished with one hundred blows;
but if he possess no such property, with eighty blows. When any
master of a family has strangers, who constitute, in fact, a distinct
family, he shall be punished with one hundred blows, if such
strangers possess taxable property; and eighty, if not. In all cases,
the register must be immediately corrected.
The reigning dynasty has adopted a system, that a reasonable
proportion of money and grain shall be retained by each province
for the use of the state, to meet the wants of the people: the
government could not know the amount to be reserved, if they did
not know the average amount of inhabitants; so that, it seems
most likely that it is to help the government, and not to impose
on foreigners, that the census is taken. The following table is from
Chinese authorities.
POPULATION CENSUSES.
YEAR OF
DYNASTY.
EMPEROR.
A. D.
POPULATION.
REIGN.
Ming
Tsing
Tae-tsoo
27
1393
60,5 15,811
Shun che
18
1662
21,068,600
""
Kang-he
6
1668
25,386,209
49
1710
""
""
23,312,200
50
1711
28,605,716
Keen-lung
18
1753
102,328,258
Kea-king
རྒྱལ་
57
1792
307,467,200
16
1812
361,221,900
29

The first period of 60,000,000 was under the peaceful rule of
the old Ming dynasty. The falling off in the second period may
be occasioned by the sanguinary wars that took place between the
Tartars and Chinese, before the accession of the former to the
Chinese dynasty; and from the want of knowledge of the state of
the country, which the Chinese themselves were not inclined to
give willingly to their conquerors; it may likewise be accounted
for by emigration, and because the Tartars could not reckon the
people of the western and southern provinces as their subjects, as
they were not subdued for several generations: moreover, the
present dynasty levied a capitation tax and many evaded enrolment.
In the year 1710 the capitation tax was annulled, and a land tax
substituted; and in year 1711, according to the census returns,
there is an increase of upwards of 5,000,000, and it is very likely,
had there been a return for the following year, there would have
been four times as large an increase. The increase from 1711 to
1753 may be accounted for by the increasing power of the Tartar
dynasty, and partly by the facts above mentioned. The next in-
crease is from 1753 to 1792, which seems enormous; the length of
peace that was enjoyed for years, and the encouragement given to
cultivate waste lands, which the terrified people had abandoned,
and now received bounties to cultivate and re-inhabit, render it by
no means improbable.
The increase from 1792 to 1812 seems very inconsiderable when
compared with former years, scarcely one per cent. per annum;
this may be accounted for by the large number of inhabitants now
in the country, and as a matter of course, by emigration; and
likewise, in the opinion of Mr. Medhurst and others, by the intro-
duction of the opium to an enormous extent, sufficient to check
population, for it ruins the constitution, the health, and energies,
and cuts off in a few years all those that indulge in it.
In the statement given to Sir G. Staunton, in 1795, by Chew-
ta-jin, a Mandarin of high rank, the population of Fokien pro-
vince is stated to be 15,000,000; and that of the whole empire
330,000,000. In the Appendix to the Report of the Anglo-Chinese
College for 1829, it is stated, on the authority of the Tae-Ch'heng-
30
LONGEVITY OF THE CHINESE.
hwuy-teen, or collection of statutes of the Tae-Ch'heng dynasty,
in 261 volumes, that the Emperor Keen-lung, in his 57th year
(A.D. 1793), found the amount of the whole population to be
307,467,200.
The Jesuit Missionaries, and those who have traversed various
parts of China, see no reason to doubt the accuracy of these
statements: indeed, if we examine the amount of population in
China, in proportion to the area of surface, the density of indi-
viduals to each square mile will be found less than it is in Ireland,
and not much greater than in England.
Father Alvarez Semedo, a Portuguese, who resided twenty years
at Peking and various other parts of the empire, in his History of
China, published in London in the year 1655, thus speaks of the
population: "I am amazed at the great population of this empire;
it is not alone in cities, towns, and public places, but also in the
highways, there is as great a concourse of people met with every
day, as you may only occasionally see in Europe on some particu-
lar festival-day and by a reference to the general register-book,
wherein only the common men are enrolled, leaving out women,
children, eunuchs, professors of letters and arms, there are reckoned
of them to be fifty-eight millions, fifty-five thousand, one hundred,
and fourscore."
:
China is not remarkable for longevity. An examination was
made in 1827, by the Emperor Kang-he, to ascertain how many
persons were above seventy years of age, that they might be
exempted from the public service and nourished by the state.
Those of eighty, ninety, and one hundred were successively
honoured with higher rewards.
In nine provinces, containing 158,793,306 inhabitants, there
were but 194,086 of seventy and upwards-which latter sum is the
eight hundred and eighteenth part of the former.
In sixteen provinces-the number of people at eighty years of
age was 168,850; at ninety years, 9,996; and at or above one
hundred years of age, but 21. Not a two-thousandth part of the
whole empire reached the age of eighty years; not the thirty-six-
thousandth part, ninety years; and only about one in seventeen
million inhabitants reached the age of a century.
Only three provinces evince this longevity; viz.: Shan-tung, 9;
Ho-nan, 5; Hu-nan, or Hon-quang, 4; Keang-nan, 3=21.
In the Canton province, on a population of 19,147,030, but
9,415 reached the age of eighty, and only 519, that of ninety
years: none attained a century.
Amidst such a vast mass of human beings there must necessarily
be a very great variety of individual character; but the Chinese, in
general, may be said to be mild, laborious, and patient. No occu-
pation is considered mean, provided they can become rich by it;
this desire for riches is so great that it is generally asserted they
will lie and cheat any one with whom they have dealings. The
CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.
31
vicissitudes of life are very marked: the children of men who have
held the highest offices under the government, are often reduced
to poverty.
The poor are divided into two classes: the labourer
and the mendicant; the latter are a most degraded class, resem-
bling somewhat the gipsies, and may be seen in the streets almost
in a state of nudity; no one will shelter them, lest they should rob
the house. They sleep at night on bridges, and in public places,
being denied even the caves of rocks, lest they should die there,
for, in that case, the proprietor would be obliged to pay the officer
whose duty it is to inter the corpse. The love of gambling is said
to be the cause of great destitution: the poorest labourer will
gamble for his breakfast or dinner, and may be seen doing so at
the road-side.
I visited various parts of the country, and found the inhabitants
in the north of China much more civilised and social than those in
the south. Dr. Gutzlaff, who has examined a great portion of the
empire, thus writes of the population on the coast :-" I invariably
"I
found the people civil and obliging, but for the most part poor and
wretched, and dreadfully diseased. Books and medicines were
received with avidity. What appeared most surprising was, their
submitting to surgical operations by barbarians." The villages a
few miles from the coast, visited by the medical Missionaries, were
not much better than those along the coast. The houses, built of
red and white bricks, have a neat appearance at a distance; but
on entering them, a bedstead and one or two stools constitute the
whole of the furniture.
The government, in theory at least, allot waste lands for the
poor; but local extortions prevent such proclamations as the follow-
ing being carried into effect:-
"Loo, Governor of Canton, &c. &c.
"Choo, the Foo-yuen, &c. &c.
A.D. . 1834.
"Hereby issue a proclamation to make known the regulations to
be observed on commencing the cultivation of waste lands. In
government there is nothing so important as a sufficient supply of
food for the people. In villages the most honourable occupation
is agriculture. In Canton province thieves and robbers are ex-
ceedingly numerous, which no doubt have originated from the
want of a suitable employment. In endeavouring to eradicate evil
practices, the first thing is to provide the means of subsistence.
"The plan is to invite poor people to locate themselves on waste
spots of land, wherever they may find them, on hills or plains, and
cultivate them in any way of which the land is capable, and for
the cultivators' sole benefit, without land-tax or quit-rent, or any
charge whatever from the local officers. The land thus cultivated
may be liable to land-tax hereafter, but the land itself is to become
the freehold estates of the occupants for ever. Government will
give a grant or deed of occupation to the settlers. Only small lots
are granted, and none but poor people need apply. The local
32
STATE OF THE TOWNS AND HOUSES.
magistrates are strictly charged not to extort money from the
settlers."
The Missionaries, who travelled through the province of Shau-
tung, in 1837, thus write:-"We saw nothing of the squalid
misery that was every where to be met with in many of the
other provinces. The men were robust, and apparently well fed
and cheerful. We saw no beggars, and very few ragged people;
their clothing was chiefly cotton, sometimes doubled and quilted;
most of the people wore shoes and stockings. Some wore coats
made of skins, with the hair or wool inside. Every one carries a
smoking pipe, and a bit of steel, and as the ground is covered with
a kind of quartz, a light is easily procured. The females were
pale-faced, and had an unhealthy look, with any thing but pleasing
features. The poorer sort of females work in the fields up to their
knees in mud, and with truth may be said to drag out a miserable
existence. The majority of the houses are about thirty feet
long, ten wide, and eight high. The streets are from ten to
twenty feet wide, running parallel to each other, crossed by narrow
dirty lanes. Each village is supplied with a temple; small shrines.
may be seen in fields, with a simple inscription on them. The
houses of the better class are built of granite; those of the poor,
of mud. The people possess few of the comforts of life; neither
table, chair, nor any article of furniture can be seen in the dwell-
ings of the poor."
Nowhere did I observe great individual wealth, property seems
much subdivided. The Chinese buildings have a striking appear-
ance, which is more from their extent than their magnificence.
Those of the princes and great men contain four or six outer
courts, in each of which is a separate building, with three gates.
The halls set apart for receiving visitors are provided with chairs
and tables; but there is an absence of all grandeur. The chambers
appropriated for the females and children, are inaccessible to even
the most intimate friend. The beds of the opulent are furnished
in winter with curtains of double satin, and in summer with white
plain taffety. The common people use curtains of linen, with
mattrasses stuffed with cotton; in the northern provinces, they
sleep upon beds constructed of brick. These beds are larger or
smaller in proportion to the family. They are kept warm by
means of a small stove, placed on one side, in which a coal fire is
lighted, while a small funnel, that rises above the roof, carries off
the smoke. Some place over the bricks a mattrass, which is re-
moved in the day, and the bed becomes a couch, upon which the
whole family work.
Among other indications of an altered state of society in China,
the following lamentations of a Chinaman at Whampoo may be
quoted:-"The times are changed, and the people are rapidly
growing worse. The people of frugal and honest habits are fast
disappearing; a new and bad race is growing up. Formerly it
THE CHIN-CHEW MEN.
33
was not the rage to gain wealth, but when a man carned a sub-
sistence he retired, and thus gave an opportunity to others.
Thus, when a ferryman had earned sufficient in the morning to
support him for the day, he retired, and made room for others who
were not so fortunate. The thirst for gain is so great, that the
people will work both day and night, and yet are not satisfied.
Robberies, kidnapping, and keeping the well-disposed in alarm,
are more and more frequent. The common crime is carrying off
young girls, and selling them as slaves, unless ransomed by their
friends. These kidnappers treat in the most open manner with their
parents, and fix a price, which averages from 15 to 100 dollars."
There is, however, much difference in the character and con-
dition of the people, and no general description will suffice to
pourtray them. For instance, the men of Chin-chew are the
most industrious and independent people in China. The "celes-
tial empire" has few spots so remarkable as the territory situ-
ated between the 23° and 26° of lat., and the 116° and 119°
of longitude. It is divided into three districts, or fooritz :-Tseun-
choo (Chin-chew), about 54 miles in length, and 24 in breadth;
Chang-choo, 65 miles in length, and 83 in breadth; and Chau-
choo, 90 miles in length, and 50 in breadth: the two former
are the south-westernmost parts of Fokeen; the latter, the
easternmost of Canton. The mountains are barren, the tracts
along the sea-coast are sterile in the extreme, and only yield by
dint of hard labour a scanty crop of sweet potatoes. With the
exception of sugar, this country has no staple article of export;
the rice cultivated is not sufficient for the consumption of the
population, which is immense. The territory, being indented, has
many good harbours, and nearly the entire of the maritime com-
merce of China is in the hands of the Chin-chew men. Almost
the whole of the imperial and mercantile navy is manned by
natives of this territory, and there are not less than 150,000 sailors
amongst them. The number of fishermen is not inferior. In the
interior cities there are tens of thousands of the natives of this ter-
ritory; they do not confine themselves to the coast. The bankers
of the capital, the pedlars, the actors in all hazardous under-
takings, are natives of Chin-chew. They cultivate the most barren
soil, and may be seen perched on rocks, that would not apparently
yield a blade of grass; yet, from those mountains and rocks, by
labour and attention, they extract three crops annually.
In Canton almost every article of traffic is under their direction.
They have penetrated to the Woo E. tea-hills, planted the Ankoi
regions with this shrub, and nearly engrossed its commerce.
More than a million of these people are scattered over China; the
island of Haenan was reclaimed by them. Formosa has only for
the last two centuries become the scene of their industry, and is
now the most productive island in Asia. There are about two
million of their tribe, who, as peasants and merchants, have pos-
D
3.1
TRADING CHARACTER OF PEOPLE.
sessed themselves of the fairest portion of that island. It is said
that the fecundity of this tribe is so great, as to furnish a suf-
ficient number of inhabitants for all the islands of the Indian
Archipelago; yet they have never been encouraged to emigrate in
so large a number as to Formosa. The Chin-chew men, who
inhabit Siam, Annam, and Tonquin, with the other parts and
isles of Southern Asia, cannot be less than two million. They
are in those countries, as well as in all Chinese locations, the very
soul of commercial enterprise. In examining the districts from
whence these swarms issued, there is no diminution of the popula-
tion; on the contrary, those regions are teeming with human
beings. Thus, a district not larger than a county in England,
pours forth thousands of colonists, in defiance of the laws of their
country. The fecundity of population must be very great, which
can establish colonies greater in extent some hundred times than
the native land. It is not by the sword, but by the plough that
they conquer and they are still opening new roads for other
needy adventurers, from China.
It is truly observed, in an official report to the British government
in 1837, that the Jews perhaps excepted, no nation is so much
influenced by the love of gain; and at the same time, so utterly re-
gardless about the means to attain this end. The more wealthy
classes absorb their very existence in trade. Commerce is the in-
variable topic of conversation, the most important pursuit, the
highest object of pleasure, and the goal of all their wishes. Trade
is the first and last word in which all unanimously join, whilst the
energies of mind and body are consumed in following up this bent.
Trade is not here confined to one class of men, but to all ranks
and ages. Scarcely can a boy lisp, when he begins to sell a few
cakes, or a little sugar-cane. The poorest try to gain a subsistence,
if it be only to dispose of a few rags. There is nothing in all
nature which a Chinaman might not turn to advantage, and trade
in. All recesses are ransacked to find a few trifles which may
be sold to advantage, and he would rather procure a pittance in
this way, than receive the money without displaying his inventive
genius.
The Chinese may justly be termed the pedlars of the world;
wherever you go, there seem to be more sellers than buyers.
Nothing can exceed their affability if they think you are going to
purchase anything from them: they will refuse no money if they
can be ever so little gainers; they are therefore quite the reverse of
the Japanese, who are rough, disobliging, and positive; and when
they ask a price, will not abate their demand. But the Chinese
turn every thing to advantage that offers, and undertake the most
difficult things for the least hope of gain.
The Chinese maxim is, that he who buys is for getting things as
cheap as he can, and would give nothing, did the seller consent to
it; upon this principle, they think they have a right to ask the
F
CEREMONIAL AND CUSTOMS.
35
greatest price. The dealer does not deceive, say they; it is the
buyer who deceives himself. The buyer is under no compulsion;
and the profit which the merchant gets is the fruit of his industry.
In all ranks of life, but more especially among the magistrates
and officers of government, vivacity and activity are less esteemed
than sedateness and deliberation; gravity is considered as the test
of wisdom, and silence of discretion. A magistrate should never
attempt to joke, and should forbear to talk; he should "resemble
great bells, which seldom strike, and full vessels, which give little
sound." He should never show his anger, as this would put the
person that has offended him on his guard. If two persons meet
they know, from the button on the cap, their respective ranks. If
any of the poor people should fail to pay proper respect in meet-
ing a superior, he is instantly ordered fifteen or twenty blows of
the bamboo.
Amusements, when resorted to, are either childish, or have re-
ference to gambling. Kite-flying, and shuttlecock (played with
the feet) are favorite pastimes with the men. Among the amuse-
ments to which they are addicted, notwithstanding the doctrine of
Buddah, is cricket-fighting. While the British are preparing for
the Derby and Epsom, the Chinese are matching their crickets.
About Midsummer the cricket fights commence; and all classes,
young and old, rich and poor, take part in this sport. The species
selected is the male of the common gryllus campestris, which is
found on the neighbouring hills; their price varies from one cash
to fifty dollars; and the wagers on favorite crickets amount to an
incredible sum.
In the higher circles of society the mode adopted of cultivating
friendship with foreigners (and probably amongst themselves) is
the day after a visit is paid, to send a present of tea, fruit,
and sweetmeats, in separate baskets; the total of the lots being
even, and the contents of each made up of an even number of
packets; a superstitious idea is very prevalent against an odd num-
ber. The contrary is practised on the occasion of a death in a
family. If the present sent is of any magnitude in size, it is ex-
pected that only a portion of it will be retained, and the remainder
returned with your card as an acknowledgement. The persons
who convey the presents must be handed a gift in money; and not
unfrequently three or four will accompany the gift, each of whom
must get an equal sum.
Ceremonial is the most essential branch of education, and is the
study of a life. The master of a house meets an approaching
guest half-way, with his head covered. At entertainments, the
guest is always at the upper hand. If the guest is from the south-
ern provinces, he sits on the right; the northern, the left the
guest takes the right or left hand of his host, (according to the
difference in north and south,) who consequently stands on the
other hand; they bow very low three or four times, with their
D 2
36
POLITE INVITATIONS.-
-GUESTS.
hands towards the head; some are so polite as to change places
right and left on meeting.
In the house the guest is conducted to the upper seat, foreigners
in preference to all others. The forms observed at departure are
still more ceremonious, as the servants have their part to go
through. After paying a visit, the visited sends his card, and
messengers to enquire if the visitor has got safe home. The size of
the card, or coloured paper, (some are a foot long and upwards,) in-
dicates the rank and respect paid; but a smaller card accompanies
the large, to shew independence.
Interviews and social visits between officers of government, are
conducted with minute regard as to ceremony and dress; the offi-
cial robes are always at hand, as they never appear to each other
en déshabille; nor do they travel any distance without them.
An interview, after a long absence, is usually on the knees, or
three bows with the fingers touching the ground.
An invitation to an entertainment is not supposed to be given
with sincerity, until it has been renewed three or four times in
writing. A card is sent on the evening before the entertainment;
another on the morning of the appointed day; and a third when
every thing is prepared and nothing to do but sit down to table.
A Chinese classical book prescribes the following rules: "When
you entertain any one, or eat at his table, pay the strictest atten-
tion to decency; be careful not to devour your victuals greedily;
never drink at long draughts; avoid making a noise with your
mouth or teeth; never sup up the broth that is left when every
one is done; nor testify, by exterior signs, the pleasure you receive
from any particular kind of food or wine; neither pick your teeth,
nor blow upon wine to cool it; take small bits at a time; chew your
victuals well, and never let your mouth be too full. The ancient
Emperors established it as a law, for those who might give enter-
tainments, that they should salute each guest, separately, every
time they drank."
. Previous to the Tartar dynasty, the Chinese allowed their hair
to grow, both men and women, without ever cutting; and being
almost universally black-haired, were called the black-haired people
by foreign nations. When the Tartars obtained dominion, they
introduced many changes, and among others, barbers, a calling pre-
viously unknown in China. At the first city taken by the Tartars
a proclamation was issued, which declared that none of the inhabit-
ants should be killed, if they would cut their hair and beard, and
use the Tartars' dress, viz.: garments, or long robes, falling down
to the feet, with sleeves not so wide or large as the Chinese use.
No difference is perceptible between the male and female garments.
As in all countries devoid of a true knowledge of God, supersti-
tion has strong hold on the people. When the father of a family
is at the point of death, they put a piece of silver to his mouth,
and cover his nose and ears, which must really hasten his death.
1
DEATHS AND BURIALS.
37
The moment life departs, they make a hole in the roof of the house,
to permit the spirits that leave his body a free exit; then the
priests are brought in, and prayers commence. A tablet is first set
up (beside the coffin) to keep away evil spirits; and beside it, on a
table, a quantity of eatables, perfumes, and lamps. If the family
are not too wealthy, every visitor is expected to bring some presents.
The Buddhist priests call on the visitor to assist them in weep-
ing and wailing; this lasts several days, until the priests, by the
dint of prayers, make a breach in the "nether world," for the es-
cape of the departed spirit: when the soul is released from purga-
tory, the priests give it a letter to Buddah, which procures it a
residence in the "western heavens."
When the interment takes place, the corpse is dressed in the
best clothes the family can afford. All who attend the funeral
must be dressed in mourning (white), or, at least, some conspicuous
part of their dress must be white. The body is laid in the tomb,
under the discharge of rockets and fireworks.
After the interment all return to the house of the deceased,
where feasting and enjoyment is carried to an excess.
The doctrine preached by this sect, is that every man has three
souls the first comes to live in the body; the second goes to
Hades; and the third resides in the tablet which has been pre-
pared for it.
They regard the perpetuation of their names to posterity as an
important matter. Daughters inherit nothing from their parents,
and anything bestowed is in the nature of a present. The eldest
son of the principal wife, or the grandson of this eldest son, if he
be dead, becomes the head of the family at the death of the
father; it is his duty to support the other children of the two beds
as if he were their father. If the principal wife has not had a son
when she is fifty years old, the husband can choose as his heir the
eldest son of any of his other wives: but the eldest only. If there
are no sons from the first or second beds, the husband can adopt
the son of one of his relations, provided he bears the same name as
himself.
So stringent is custom, a Chinese is less the master of his
own movements than any other part of mankind. When born,
if a boy, he is taken care of; if a girl, she stands a chance of being
drowned. Infanticide is not confined to the poorer classes: as a
proof of the existence of that crime, foundling hospitals are erected
in all large towns to receive girls only, in which they are kept
until they are fourteen years of age. Some contend that child mur-
der does not exist to a great extent, in some provinces, as the fe-
males are more numerous than the men in several districts. The
crime, however, is not held in the abhorrence it should be. The
first instruction of a boy consists in making obeisance and pros-
trating himself in company; this ceremony is instituted at an early
period, and not forgotten in old age.
38
DECEIT.-WOMEN.-MARRIAGES.
دو
Rich and poor are polite in the extreme, until their interests or
passions are disturbed; then they are equal to the savage, and
their manners coarse and insulting; but they are early taught to
hide their real sentiments; their politeness and meekness are only
assumed, the better to enable them to overreach their fellows. Their
minds are perverted by unmeaning compliments, and truth is sacri-
ficed to gain their object; deceit and hypocrisy seem the ruling
passions of their nature. When a boy goes to school he is taught
nothing but the classics of Confucius, as whatever was not taught
by the ancients is not fit to be learned by any of the " sons of Han;
by this means, the Tartars are better enabled to rule and oppress
the Chinese. To attain this end, the system of education is the
same all over the empire; so that when all minds are tutored in
the same mould, the restraining powers, when necessary to be en-
forced, answer for the whole community. The officers of govern-
ment keep the people in constant terror; and having no opportu-
nity of resisting or revenging by open force, they resort to crafti-
ness, deceit, and lying, to escape the myrmidons of the law. To
this may be traced the cause why the Chinese character is pro-
verbially deceitful.
A Chinese woman spends her time at home, and, if poor, works
at the loom. Ladies prepare embroidery, and are fond of gaudy
dress. Girls get little or no education, and boys are sent to school
at an early age. Match-makers are in much repute, as ladies are
not allowed to make a selection for themselves. The marriage-
vow is said to be strictly observed on the female side, but the
same cannot be said of the men. A small foot and a pale com-
plexion are the tests of beauty. Celibacy is only known to a poor
man who cannot buy a wife: all parents expect a dowry for their
daughter, to repay them the expense of bringing her up.
The suspicion of the Chinese character is manifest even in their
marriages. The wedding-day being fixed on, the bridegroom sends
a sedan (a particular kind is made for this purpose). The mother
of the bride puts her in the sedan, securely locks the door, and
sends the key to the mother-in-law. On the arrival at the
bridegroom's house his mother unlocks the door, and delivers
her to her intended husband, when both repair to the chapel of
the idols, where are kept the names of their ancestors. In the
outer temple they bow themselves four times upon their knees,
and then enter the inner temple where their parents are sitting,
to whom they make the same reverences. All parties then re-
tire to the bridegroom's house, where a private room is set apart
for the bride, into which no male relative can ever enter, not
even the father of either parties. Should the father have occa-
sion to chastise his son, which is not uncommon, the son con-
trives to get into this private apartment, and is safe.
Marriage appears to have been a formal ceremony in use from
the earliest time. There are two kinds of marriage: the first is
CLANS AND FEUDS.
39
called a true marriage and lasts for the life of both parties, un-
less causes of divorce can be shown, which are numerous and
trivial. The second marriage is permitted by the laws in case
they have no sons; these concubines, or second wives, are regu-
larly purchased from their parents, or some other person who
has brought them up from childhood with that object. The price.
obtained for an accomplished female is very considerable. As
soon as she brings forth a son she is probably parted with, and
disposed of to another; the first wife takes the son, and the real
mother never sees it again. There is no prohibition against
widows marrying; but the higher classes never do.
Clanships in China are very general, and many small islands
and villages are solely inhabited by one or more clans, and probably
only two surnames among them. By this means feuds are perpe-
tuated from one generation to another, and occasionally break out
into fatal quarrels. Two families, Chung and Chuy,—the former
inhabits Dane's Island at Whampoa, and the latter the second
Pagoda-have for years been on the most unfriendly terms with
each other. The head of the Chung family at the near approach
of death bit off his finger, and with the blood wrote the wrongs
which had been perpetrated by the other clan, enjoining on them
to exact full vengeance. From that day to this, if any member of
either clan is found alone, he is sure to be robbed and beaten.
On the north side of the river, their lands adjoin each other. The
watercourses are generally a fruitful source of contention. If
death ensues, it is rigidly kept secret from the authorities, as their
mutual interests are concerned. But if the affair gets wind, and
an investigation takes place, to meet the charge, a society is
formed, the members of which voluntarily surrender themselves to
government as the real perpetrators. The society then employs
lawyers, and makes the case out one of homicide, which is pun-
ished by fine or banishment. The society lay a tax on the mem-
bers of the clan, to provide support for the families of the con-
victed. The guaranteed amount is 300 dollars when capital pu-
nishment takes place.
There is a strange mixture of self-government mingled with the
despotism of the Pekin government.
Many villages in China are without a single government-officer
or policeman; and in that case the inhabitants combine together
and select a head-man, pay him a yearly salary, and depose him
and elect another should his conduct not meet the wishes of the
majority of the inhabitants. Custom has given this head-man a
degree of authority. Although unconnected with government, as
the head of the village he is held responsible. His duties are
chiefly arranging petty disputes, but his powers extend to flogging.
The salary of this head man, in the village of Whampoa (7,000
inhabitants) is 300 dollars per annum: and he has under him
fourteen policemen. Appeals from the decision of the head-man
40
DIVORCE CAUSES.
are to the seunkeen, the chief officer of a sze, which is the name of
the subdivisions of a heen or district. Of these sze, the district of
Pinanyu has four; and the sze which includes Whampoa com-
prises 164 villages, each having a head-man.
Secret societies (the triad) have lately caused a great increase of
crime among this population. And for the better government of
its affairs, twenty villages have subscribed, and built a court-house
in a market town on the island of Honan. A president is elected
with a salary of 400 dollars per annum, who is chairman over the
other head-men, when they deliberate in secret.
When a man is
selected for prosecution, he is forwarded to the cheheen, and
seldom returns.
Moral apothegms are much in favour among the Chinese,
although there, as elsewhere, not carried into practice. These
inculcations are painted on their temples, on tablets hung up in
halls, on pictures, vases, &c. A few examples will indicate their
nature. "A woman has merit no longer than while she applies
herself to the virtues proper to her rank in society; and these are,
filial reverence, respectful fear, sweetness, modesty, gravity, sin-
cerity, complaisance, a spirit of economy, and a compassion for the
wretched. What she ought to shun is, levity, pride, anger, indis-
cretion, and a hardness of heart towards the unhappy, idleness,
&c.; but most particularly, not to be guilty of anything which
gives her husband a right to divorce her."
The faults authorizing divorce according to ancient laws, are seven
in number:-1st, To be otherwise than submissive; 2nd, to be
barren; 3rd, to be guilty of adultery; 4th, to be jealous: 5th, to
have some grievous disease; 6th, to talk too much; 7th, to steal.
Any of these gives a husband a right to put away his wife. The
fourth article is such as would cause a primary or legitimate wife,
to hinder her husband taking a second wife or concubine. The
fifth is meant by such a disease as leprosy, epilepsy, and the like.
The four other articles require no explanation. Theft is a sub-
ject of divorce only when a wife robs her husband to enrich her
relations. Among other aphorisms we find-
"Learn to conquer your passions, to regulate your heart, and
form it to virtue. Should you commit any crime, be very careful
never to do it any more; the dike once broken, you can never
stem the torrent. The desire of gaining riches never ceases but
with life, which men are very often indifferent how they accumu-
late, and which extravagant children soon squander.
"Do not be one of those gloomy spirits that everything dis-
pleases, and who dislike everything belonging to the whole human
race; but at the same time do not give your heart up to everything
tender, nor trust to slight protestations of fidelity. In the ways of
civil life observe a just road, and you will escape a great deal of
trouble and repentance.
"You have secret dislike to good men, and you do not like their
MORAL APHORISMS.
41
conversation; a certain proof of the depravity of your heart, and a
disordered understanding: you are richly clothed, you ride fine
horses, nothing disturbs your tranquillity; your table abounds in
delicate meats, you swim in joy and pleasure; death will come
and surprize you in the very midst of your delights, and perhaps
asleep, and you will cause passengers to say, 'Whose son was this
young man ?'
"If your friend has different notions from you and won't give
the least concession, if it only relates to indifferent things, let him
indulge in them; if, on the contrary you always contradict him,
what will you gain? You will breed ill-blood between you, and
will lose by little and little his affection and confidence.'
""
The following are classed as rules of conduct relative to ourselves :
"Never employ your authority in its full extent; temper what-
ever is severe in it by an air of sweetness and goodnature. Neither
abuse the fear and respect which your rank and dignity inspire.
It will do you honour to adapt the exercise of your power to the
circumstances and situation of the persons with whom you live.
"If some disaster or great misfortune befall you, and you see no
means to extricate yourself; submit to the will of Heaven. To
complain, to sigh, to bemoan youaself, to strike the earth with
your foot, is not to diminish but increase the evil. No one is
ignorant of this truth: but how seldom do we see it regarded in
men's practice?
"Think much and speak little. A great parade of words only
dazzles the eyes of fools; and is far inferior to a judicious silence.
There are especially certain occasions, when a wise man, how fine
a speaker soever he be, and whatever inclination he may have to
speak, will always put a seal upon his lips.
"Forget the services you have done to others: it is their business
to remember them. Do not point out the shining advantages
which distinguish you from the common run of mankind: it is the
part of others to find them out. The peach and the plumb speak
not, they naturally leave traces of their worth.
"If you have a sharp, subtle, penetrating spirit; only apply it to
the well governing of your domestic affairs: in your commerce
with the world study simplicity and plain-dealing. If you affect
to appear more cunning than others; if there are discovered in your
air and expressions, constraint and artifice; you will always be
distrusted, and will never acquire sincere friends.
"Do you love sweet things? Taste first those that are sour. Do
you seek repose and pleasure? First experience fatigue and toil.
He that would take a high leap, must first of all stoop and bend
his body.
"It is not enough to study the world in order to adapt yourself
well to it; study yourself, and examine every evening what you
have done during the day. If any action hath escaped you which
you have reason to be sorry for, take proper means to correct your-
42
SELF DISCIPLINE AND REGULATION.
self, and commit it no more. If, on the contrary, you have no-
thing to reproach yourself with, taste the sweet pleasure which
arises from the testimony of a good conscience.
"If you hear the praises, which are bestowed on you, with a
modest simplicity, you add a new lustre to your merit. If, on the
contrary, you are puffed up with this slight mark of esteem, and
are seduced to assume an important and supercilious air, the
favourable opinion that was entertained of you is instantly con-
verted to prejudice, and people retract in secret the applauses of
which they think you no longer worthy.
"Ruin follows gain very near: and misery is at the tail of good
fortune. He alone leads a tranquil life, who is content with a
decent mediocrity.
"How difficult it is to live in the world and to preserve therein
irreproachable manners! It is nevertheless possible; but for this
end one hath need of a continual attention and watchfulness over
one's self.
"The soul ought to rule the body. How unhappy is he who
suffers himself to be governed by his passions and irregular desires!
You see that great man: he is an hero, that hath not his equal
among all our warriors: his name makes the earth tremble; he
hath crossed the four seas, he hath subdued all before him; him-
self is the only one he hath not been able to conquer; for he is
still a slave to his body.
"You employ yourself in study, with outendeavouring to compre-
hend what you study: the time you spend therein, is to you so
much time lost. When you read the books which the sages have
left us, read them with reflection: every letter, every expression,
ought to appear precious to you: the doctrine ought to be deeply
engraven on your heart: that which goes no farther than the eyes
and ears, is like a repast which one only makes in a dream.
"A kindness or favour opportunely done, may procure sometimes
to him who did it a considerable fortune. A trifle often occasions
great joy. Excessive love frequently turns to bitter hatred.
An
"Neglect not an affair because it appears of small importance: a
slight chink may cause shipwreck to the greatest vessel.
insect never so small may by its bite occasion your death.
"If you are charged with an important and difficult employ, away
with sound and colour; but on the other hand, imitate not those
senseless young men, who take their pleasure, and at the same
time make complaint; who are overpowered with the slightest
business, and who trouble their neighbours incessantly about it.
"If you have but a small share of genius and virtue, and have
nothing to recommend you but a self-sufficient and decisive air,
your fall is certain: of ten, who resemble you, nine fall.
If you
have never seen the heavens, but from the bottom of a pit; if you
can only show the road by the direction of a wall, the best advice
is never singly to undertake any great affair.
DUTIES OF CHILDREN AND PARENTS.
43
"Propose great models for your imitation. Yao, Shun, Yu, Ven-
vang, Chew-cong, Cong-tse, differed not in shape from common
men, but in the qualities of the mind and heart, which have
rendered them famous to ten thousand generations. Form your-
self after the pattern of their integrity, their greatness of soul,
their sweetness, their facility of pardoning, and their other virtues,
and you will become a real sage: but if you neglect to improve
the talents you have received from nature; if you are blunt, impe-
rious, and harsh to others, you will only be a despicable creature.
"Do you see this frantic person-this madman? he tears his
clothes, he runs about everywhere, he would get upon the top of
the house naked, he bites, he tears those who endeavour to stop
him. It is the picture of a hair-brained man, who will do every-
thing head foremost, and in the manner he likes best; that is to
say, in the most unreasonable manner in the world. If you make
the least remonstrance, he chafes himself, he is in a heat, he flies
out into a rage, and only repays the affection you show him, with
ingratitude and hatred.
"One of the best actions we can do in this life is to succour the
afflicted and to relieve the indigent. If Heaven did not send cala-
mities into the world, we should have no opportunity to exercise
mercy.
"Three things are absolutely necessary to him who addicts him-
self to study. In the first place, to conquer his passions, and to
render himself their master. Secondly, to have a sweet, tractable,
complying temper. Thirdly, to hold all bad doctrines in abhor-
rence, and never to engage in any false sect.
"Who hath loved you more than your father and mother? What
inquietudes hath your infancy caused them? What pains have
they taken to bring you up? How many kinds of labour and toil
have they endured to place you in your present condition? And
can you carry your ingratitude and harshness so far, as to displease
and afflict them?
"Yet this will be the consequence, ye fathers and mothers, if you
do not pay attention to the faults of your children, and if you
neglect to correct them in their tender age. Above all, never per-
mit them, under a pretence of showing their wit, to answer you
pertly, or to contradict those whom they ought to reverence: if
this is permitted, you must never expect to see them obedient and
respectful when more advanced in years.
"What shall we say of that person, who labours under great igno-
rance; who knows but imperfectly the nature of things, and the
true principles of morality, and who nevertheless appears with his
head lifted up, opening great eyes, bridling his chin, thrusting out
his belly, marching haughtily and as if he counted his steps? Is
there an object more worthy of compassion? Were he a hundred
years upon the earth, could one say of such a one he had lived a
day?
44
BASENESS OF THE HEART.
"If you have reason on your side make it appear with a soft and
gentle air; to what end those emotions of anger? This is not the
way to persuade a reasonable mind. But if you have not reason
on your side, and yet would carry it by downright force, you are
no better than the public robbers.
"Your neighbour hath acquired a large fortune; gold and silver
melt in his house; everything prospers with him, and you are
ready to burst with spite. Another groans under a weight of
affliction which overwhelms him, and you feel at the bottom of
your soul a secret joy at it. Sad effects of the malignity and base-
ness of your heart!
"You are only employed in procuring for yourself all sorts of
pleasures, and in leading a sensual and voluptuous life; you enjoy
calmly all the favours of fortune, think yourself secure from
hunger, thirst and poverty; senseless, as you are, are you igno-
rant that heaven endures not the wicked, and leaves not any evil
unpunished?
"Would you become skilful in the administration of public affairs?
Apply yourself to the reading of our history. But if you have an
antipathy to books, if you cannot endure them in your house, your
children will be worse than if they were born blind.
"In a famine the sourest and bitterest things are pleasant to your
taste. Are you in abundance, the best meats seem to you tasteless
and insipid. The heart of heaven cannot content your heart.
Did you ever see any one die of hunger, who knew how to be con-
tent with what little he had?
"There are three things you should always have before your eyes:
the law of heaven, the law of the empire, and the honour of your
neighbour. If you neglect these three articles, go wherever you
will, you must not hope to live at ease.
"Study, science, and virtue, make whole families shine: applica-
tion and economy serve to govern them: complaisance and pacific
disposition, to keep them united: tranquillity and conformity to
reason, to preserve them. A man who hath neither equity, appli-
cation, nor politeness, is a savage beast, whose head is covered with
a bonnet.
"However dexterous a man may be, whatever service he may have
performed, if he is vain enough to make it the subject of his con-
versation, if there escape a single word in his own praise, it is all
over with him, he loses all the merit of it. If, on the contrary, he
chance to fall into any fault, and do but acknowledge it and
humble himself, his fault is repaired.
"If the father of a family bathe every day, his children will be
skilful swimmers. If the father steal melons or fruits, his sons will
be assassins and incendiaries. One is apt to spare a child, and
laugh at his faults, instead of correcting them; it is pretended he
is still young; and while this is incessantly said and repeated, the
child grows up; he is now a great boy and becomes your punish-
TREATMENT OF BRUTES.
45
ment. People torment and afflict themselves when they have no
children, and yet they frequently suffer much more when they have
them.
"How hard is it to escape a bad character? It is still more diffi-
cult to deserve general esteem and approbation.
"Be not too eager and lively, have no precipitation in your words
and in your motions; he who is least pressing often arrives first at
the goal; too much vivacity only serves to perplex affairs. When one
swallows whole morsels, one is liable to cast them up: when one
runs too fast, one is liable to fall headlong to the ground.
"What end do you think can be answered by that blunt and
haughty air, which distinguishes you? Be good and severe at the
same time; eternal peace shall reign in your family. Put a seal
upon your mouth, and guard your heart as you would guard the
walls of a city. Above all, do not become a relater of false reports,
nor of all you hear said at random.
"Suffer not yourself to be hurried away by excess of joy for any
unforeseen good luck. Be always equal and cool at either fortune."
The rules of conduct relative to the brute creation, translated
from the Kung-Kwo-Kih, evince an excess of amiability; and yet
there is scarcely any nation more cruel or indifferent to human or
animal suffering.
The rewards and penalties, are thus estimated by comparative
numerals
1. To save from death an animal that is unable to render any
service by way of recompense. (e. g. swine, sheep, geese, &c.) 1
2. To save the lives of an hundred insects.
1
1
1
3. To bury an animal that has died of itself
4. To relieve a brute that is greatly wearied with work
5. To purchase and set at liberty, animals intended to be
slaughtered. (For each hundred STSEEN so employed.)
1
6. Not to eat the flesh of an animal killed on purpose for our
own use. (Perhaps so killed without thought-or by the kindness
of a friend.)
2
7. To abstain for a whole year from the flesh of oxen and dogs 5
8. To save the life of a brute, which, by its services, can re-
compense us. (e. g. the dog, the ox, the ass, the horse, &c.) 20
9. To abstain from killing every kind of animal for one whole
20
10. To take the lead in exhorting men from the slaughter of
animals, and in advising them to set free those which are appointed
for slaughter.
year.
A LIST OF ERRORS ON THE SAME SUBJECT.
1. To confine birds in a cage.
2. To kill ten insects.
100
1
1
3. To be unsparing of the strength of wearied animals. 1
4. To kill an animal that is without the power of remunerating
kind treatment. (e. g. poultry, sheep, &c.)
3
46
SLAVERY AND ITS LAWS.
5. To disturb insects in their holes, and to frighten away birds
perching on the boughs.
3
6. To despise those persons who compassionately set at liberty,
brutes that were intended for the shambles
3
7. To stop up the dens of wild beasts, and destroy the nests of
birds.
20
8. Without great reason to kill and dress animals for food 20
9. Secretly to butcher oxen and dogs.
10. To be the foremost to encourage the slaughter of animals,
or to hinder persons from setting them at liberty.
100
100
Notwithstanding this apparent sensibility, one of the ordinary
punishments for criminals is to place them in the town square, fixed
in a wooden collar, with a guard to prevent any food being given
them, and nothing but a little water allowed daily, in order to
render their sufferings more severe. The torture is thus prolonged
for ten or more days, until death releases the victims of barbar-
ism. A people who would suffer this mode of punishment must
be as cruel as they are selfish and sensual.
There can be no doubt that slavery exists in China. Several of
the Europeans engaged in the opium trade on the coast, buy Chi-
nese girls, at a price from 100 dollars and upwards according to
their beauty.
Mr. Biot has minutely investigated the laws relative to the hired
servant and the slave. The law protects the two last classes against
their masters. The punishment varies according to the condition
of the parties, for the purpose of keeping up the distinction. Mar-
riage between slaves and free persons is strictly forbidden, and
punished by banishment, and the marriage is declared null and
void. A slave guilty of criminal intercourse with a wife or daughter
of a freeman, shall be punished more severely than a freeman would
have been under similar circumstances. The punishment of a free-
man under similar circumstances, is much lighter, as it is con-
sidered he has disgraced his character. The penal code lays down
responsibility on all parties of the social circle, for the concealment
of the untimely death of either master or slave.
The laws are severe against slaves, and decree that any slave who
purposely strikes his master shall be beheaded. All slaves design-
edly killing, or striking their master, with a design to kill, shall
suffer death by a slow and painful execution. All slaves who ac-
cidentally kill their masters, shall be strangled after having been
imprisoned the usual time. Every slave who shall accidentally
wound his master, shall suffer one hundred blows, and perpetual
banishment to the distance of three thousand le.
Every hired servant who strikes his master, or the maternal
grandfather or grandmother of his master, shall be punished with
one hundred blows and three years banishment; if he wounds the
said persons, he shall be punished with one hundred blows, and per-
petual banishment to the distance of 3,000 le.
SLAVES AND EUNUCHS.
47
Section 314 of the penal code decrees, that in case of theft or
adultery committed by a slave, if the master or one of his near
relatives secretly beats the slave to death, instead of informing the
magistrate, this master or his relation shall be sentenced to receive
one hundred blows. If the master of a slave, or the relation of a
master in the first degree, intentionally kills this slave, or beats him
to death; the slave not being guilty of any crime, the delinquent
shall be punished with 60 blows and one year's banishment. The
family of the slave killed have a right to be affranchised. A master
can beat his hired servant without being punished; but if he kills
him he is punished by strangulation.
Section 322 relates to a master who strikes his late slave, and re-
ciprocally. Both shall be punished as equals, the tie between them
having been broken by the sale of the slave; but if the master
has freed his slave, his right is not transferred to any other, and
thus the sentence is pronounced as if the slave had not been set
free.
Section 328 provides against abusive language from a slave or
hired servant to his master or his relations. If the words are ad-
dressed to his master, the slave is punished with strangulation. If
they are addressed to the relations of his master in the first degree,
the slave receives 50 blows and two years banishment. In all cases
the language must have been heard by the person so insulted, and
such person must always complain of it publicly.
There can be no doubt, from a perusal of these laws, that slavery
is general is various parts of China, but it appears specially so in
the southern provinces. The number of slaves that are annually
sent to the island of Formosa from Fookeen is very great. The
Chinese when spoken to, gravely answer, "What can poor people
do that have no rice?" It is possible that the Chinese authorities
are disposed to subdue the whole island to themselves: lately they
have formed new settlements on the N.E. and E. side of Formosa.
An eye-witness who had seen 150 slaves shipped by natives of
China, says, the junk was only about ninety tons burthen, divided
into compartments. Previous to the celebration of the new year,
children are regularly sold, and the money is squandered. The
prices average from twenty to fifty dollars each: elderly women
bring about thirty dollars; female children, who are goodlooking,
bring very high prices, from 500 to 5,000 dollars. The price is
said to go towards foundling hospitals, in which many of them
have been brought up.
The Emperors of the Han, Tang, and Sung dynasties bestowed
most of the civil offices of state on the eunuchs: there is no doubt
that political principles governed their choice; in this they were
disappointed, as the eunuchs have often excited the greatest dis-
sension in the Chinese empire. Since the Mantchou dynasty, the
number of these dependents has been reduced: according to law,
there can be no eunuchs in a private house; this right is only con-
48
INFANTICIDE-PROCLAMATION.
ferred on the princes of the imperial family; the number at pre-
sent in China is about six thousand. By law castration is per-
formed on the children of rebels, under sixteen years of age. All
the male relations of criminals guilty of high treason suffer death,
if over sixteen years of age; and all under that age are made
eunuchs of, to be employed in the palace.
The existence of infanticide in China has been often asserted;
and either doubted or totally disbelieved, especially by those who
extol Chinese civilization. In proof of its existence, the annexed
proclamation from the Governor of Canton is given:
February 19, 1838.
"Lieutenant-Governor Ke, to the People of Canton.
"Whereas heaven and earth display their benevolent power in
giving existence, and fathers and mothers exhibit their tender
affection in loving their offspring; it is, therefore, incumbent on
you, inhabitants of the land, to nurse and rear all your infants,
whether male or female. On inquiry, I find that the drowning of
females is quite common, and practised by both rich and poor.
Had there been no mothers, whence would you have obtained your
own bodies? If you had no wives, where will be your posterity?
Reflect consider what you are doing. The destruction of female
infants is nothing less than the murder of human beings. That
those who kill shall themselves be killed, is the sure retribution of
omniscient Heaven. And you, elders and gentry, ought by ex-
hortations and kindness to prevent the destruction of human life.
Hereafter no clemency will be shown to such offenders: so give
heed to these instructions."
The medical missionaries, since the opening of the northern
ports, have been ceaseless in their endeavours to check this cruel
system, and have endeavoured to trace the probable extent to which
it is carried.
The excellent missionary, Mr. Abeel, who was for several years
at Koolungsoo and Amoy, says, that from a comparison with many
other parts of the country, there is reason to believe that a greater
number of children are destroyed at birth in this district, than in
any other department. By an inquiry of persons from forty dif-
ferent towns and villages (of which the names are here omitted),
the number destroyed varies exceedingly in different places; the
extremes extending from seven to eight tenths (Chinese mode), i.e.
seventy or eighty per cent. to one-tenth, or ten per cent.; and the
mean of the whole number, the average proportion destroyed in all
these places, amounted to nearly four-tenths, or exactly thirty-nine
per cent.
In seventeen of these forty towns and villages, the informants
declared that more than one-half of the children born are deprived
of existence. Taking eight other places, as a standard, it lies be-
tween one-fourth and three-tenths, or near thirty per cent.
According to the opinion of the inhabitants of eighteen towns
FOUNDLING HOSPITALS.
49
and villages in the department of Changchaw, the number killed is
more than one-fourth, and less than three-tenths. From inquiries
made of the inhabitants of Fuchou-foo, the existence of the crime
is admitted, but its prevalence is not so extensive. An examina-
tion which was held at Amoy, in 1843, to confer literary honours,
brought many hundred candidates from various districts, who were
asked as to the extent of the crime; they all deplored it, and ex-
pressed themselves freely on the subject. But, as suicide is no
crime in China, and self-destruction is even regarded as a favour
by the government to an alleged criminal, so the taking of the life
of an infant, especially that of a female, is not generally regarded
as murder.
To check this brutal custom, efforts are made in large cities, by
the erection of foundling hospitals by benevolent individuals, but
they are too limited in number and resources. There does not
appear to be any disgrace connected with infanticide, except an
exposure of their poverty; what excuse the rich make it is diffi-
cult to know, but avarice must be the mainspring in their cal-
culations.
Foundling hospitals are met with in the large cities of China.
One in Ningpo accommodates from sixty to seventy children of
both sexes: outside the building is placed a wooden cradle, and
over it an inscription: Kian-ching-pau-ch-ih, "Nurture to maturity,
and protect the babes." Each nurse has the charge of two children.
Male children remain until they are fourteen years of age; girls
until they are sixteen. This institution is upwards of 100 years
established. The six districts connected with Ningpo are taxed in
kind for its support; it has a yearly income from land and money
funded. It is presided over by a superintendent and a government
inspector.
Extreme poverty is often the cause of infanticide; but as a
nation or people, the Chinese have more food than the Hindoos.
The labouring classes have two meals in the day, at ten o'clock, A.M.,
and five, P.M. The table furniture is uniform among the several
ranks of society: a large bowl for rice, several small dishes for fish,
and a small bowl for each person, with a pair of chop-sticks, com-
plete the requirements of the poor. In eating, each person holds
the small bowl up to his chin, and shovels the rice, or whatever it
is, into his mouth. What most surprises a foreigner is the number
of dishes at a rich banquet. But one kind is brought to table at
once, and probably there will be thirty courses. Fruit is often
served first; fish, or soup, last; there does not appear to be any
fixed rule. The Chinese custom, when giving a large party, is to
provide each guest with a separate table. Games of chance are
often introduced between the courses. An ordinary feast will
occupy five or six hours at least. In feasting out, the Chinese are
proverbial for eating voraciously. If an invited guest is prevented
from attending, his share is carefully sent to his house. The
E
50
ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE FOOD,
female portion of a family is always excluded; among the higher
ranks, males and females sit at separate tables.
The domesticated animals used by the Chinese as food, comprise
most of those known in Europe, but inferior in size. Cattle for
agricultural purposes are plentiful; the pasture ground is usually
on the hills among the graves. The broad-tailed sheep is known
all over China, the mutton is tender and well-flavoured; goats are
abundant, but of all quadrupeds the swine is most common and
esteemed for the fat; horse-flesh is found in the markets of the
north, and brings a good price: dogs, cats, rats, mice, snakes,
toads, and other reptiles, are eaten by those who can afford to buy
little; indeed every thing that is found, even to the elephant, is
eaten by the poor.
The beverages of the Chinese are few in variety, and every thing
is drunk warm, but tea is used by every one even at dinner, and
without sugar or milk. On all complimentary visits tea is pre-
sented instead of wine.
The castor oil plant and camellia oleifera, or oil-bearing tea-
plant, are in great demand. The Chinese use the castor oil in
cooking, as its purgative qualities are not great when fresh. The
oil is obtained from the seeds by parboiling them and then press-
ing them in a cylinder. The young shoots of the bamboo, as a
vegetable, are in more extensive use than most other vegetables.
Tobacco is almost universally smoked by men and women; and not
unfrequently mixed with opium. The rivers, lakes, and canals,
teem with fish, and the millions of people who live on the water and
near the shore, wholly live on fish, the right of fishing being
open to all. They have a species of bird like a cormorant which
is trained to dive for fish; all the other modes, such as hooks,
nets, and snares, are in use. All the water-products known are to
be found in China; and fish is more or less an ingredient in every
dish among rich and poor.
The grains which are cultivated include all those used for food,
rice, wheat, rye, &c. Rice is the chief article of diet, and is raised
in almost every part of the empire. The southern parts are best
adapted; but it has been found growing in the extreme northern
part of China. Wheat and millet appear to be the most general
crop in the region north of the Yangtzekang. Millet is the
great staple on the banks of the Pei-ho; there are several species
of plants under the name of millet, the seeds of which differ
much in size and taste; the Barbadoes millet is most common:
panicum, which is planted much later, is also called millet. Rice
and millet are generally boiled together. Wheaten flour is pre-
ferred for pastry, cakes, &c. Bread is prepared from wheaten flour,
but without leaven: bread is rarely seen in shops or houses, so
that it is not a common article of food, among the Chinese, Maize
grows to great perfection in the nothern regions, and is most gene-
COOKING AND EATING HOUSES.
51
rally eaten green. Oats and barley are known, but not esteemed
for food. Garden vegetables of some sort, always form a part of
the Chinese meals. Leguminous and cruciferous plants are culti-
vated in every portion of China that has been visited by Europeans.
The kidney-bean and horse-bean are well known; the whole plant
is frequently boiled. From the dolichos soja, or soy-bean, is
manufactured the condiment called soy. The white bean, when
ground with water, appears like the curd of milk, and in that state
is hawked about the streets. Peas are in season in February.
Among cruciferous plants, cabbage and turnips are the most ex-
tensively cultivated. One description of white cabbage grows
upwards of three feet high, and will weigh twelve or eighteen
pounds. Onions and garlics are pickled, boiled, and fried; carrots,
asparagus, melons, and cucumbers are esteemed. Edible tubers are
cultivated in lakes, rivers, and wherever they will grow. The Irish
potatoe is chiefly confined to the vicinity of Macao. The nelum-
bium roots are frequently seen five feet long, and nearly three inches
thick; in taste they resemble a turnip. They are eaten raw and
cooked, generally boiled. The cooking and mode of eating among
the Chinese are peculiar: cooking is uniform from the governor to
the cooley, as far as regards the preparation of the staples: as to
the mode of eating with two smooth sticks, it is thoroughly na-
tional, and unlike any other people in the world. Oil is universally
used in cooking, also garlic or onions; the most common mode is
stewing and frying. There is no limit to the number of ingre-
dients in a single dish, which will often amount to ten or twelve
different substances. The entire body of an animal is sometimes
baked whole; the outer side is first made clean, and the body
pierced with holes into which salt is rubbed; this is the common
mode of dressing hogs and dogs. Roasting is hardly known in
Chinese cookery. Puddings, custards, pies, or such like, so much
esteemed in Europe, are nearly or altogether unknown in China.
All attempts to introduce European wines among the Chinese
have hitherto failed. They make a wine from rice, by putting yeast
in it, but it soon turns sour, and is then converted into vinegar.
An ardent spirit (samshoo) is distilled from millet and rice, and
has a smoky flavour somewhat like Scotch whisky. Rum is distilled
from molasses, and is an abominable drink. Cherry brandy (im-
ported) is a favourite drink with the rich. If inebriety be prac-
tised among the Chinese, it is done in private, for to see a drunkard
in the streets is very unusual. Complimentary healths are drank
at dinner, and the cup is generally drained.
Eating-houses and taverns are numerous in large towns and
cities; board and lodging are reasonable. The number of taverns
in Canton is very great; but the greater number of eating-places
are in the principal thoroughfare in the streets, where the provisions
are cooked and vended. The average price for a meal is from two
E 2
52
SPIRITS.-PUBLIC GRANARIES.
mace to three candereens. Every thing is hawked about the
streets; the markets are merely open spaces near the temples.
Fuel is expensive, and only used for cooking and manufactures; in
cold weather the cheerful fire is dispensed with, and an additional
number of garments, sometimes five or six in number, are worn
over each other; in warm weather almost every garment is dis-
pensed with: body linen is by no means in general use.
Spirits are used extensively, but drunkenness is very rare. The
spirit termed "samshoo" is drank hot at the principal meal.
The following extracts from a native work called "Tung-shen-
luh," or "Essays to Good," show how sobriety is inculcated:-
(c
Spirits are maddening medicine. They destroy virtue, and
throw man's nature into confusion. Unless men possess sage-like
virtue, they can never control themselves when under the influence
of spirits. The officer who indulges freely in their use, blindly and
sluggishly conducts the duties of his office. The learned and un-
learned when steeped in spirits, turn all things upside down. The
licentious and lewd it leads on, acting as their go-between. They
excite anger, and induce quarrelling-they darken and mislead the
intelligent, and make the careful and discreet careless and disor-
derly. There are miseries without and diseases within. Spirits
ulcerate the stomach, destroy the intestines, and eventually cause
death."
The dissimilarity in the style of living, between the extremes
of wealth and poverty, is remarkable: the rich Chinese collect
on their tables everything that is curious and expensive; and
the cost of a dish enhances it in their estimation. On the other
hand, it would be difficult to know what it is the poor of China
do not eat and it is not in times of famine only, but at all
times, they consume food that no other people would eat from
taste or fancy, but from sheer necessity. The principles of the
Chinese law are to admit of no distinctions among the subjects,
except those of learning and office; and the most rigid laws have
been imposed to check vanity and splendour which wealth is
apt to assume; but with regard to diet, the difference between
rich and poor is more marked than in any other country.
Public granaries are established in every province. Those of
the government are presided over by an officer who has the
charge of them, and complaints are made of the misappropria-
tion of the provision only intended for the poor in times of fa-
mine. There are other granaries, which belong to individuals
who have raised a fund for that object. When once filled, the
surplus incomes go to the expenses of the district. In years of
abundance they loan or sell the rice, and at the harvest cause it
to be returned with interest. The Emperor in times of famine
sends a subscription. There is a description of almshouses or hos-
pitals, chiefly supported by government, but they only admit the
aged and infirm. The abuses of these desirable institutions are
WAGES.-BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS.
53
very great; it is said not one-half the incomes are expended on
the poor.
Under the head of manufactures, the rates of wages and prices
of provisions are given. Many of the most skilful men do not
earn a guinea a month; the most industrious manufacturers get
only three dollars monthly, on an average, and with this they
are content.
Rice, salt, and a few vegetables, with some fish, are their daily
food. They work from daylight to sunset, and have no holiday
except at the new year. There are very few large manufacturing
establishments; the artizans work on their own account, and sell
their work when it is finished.
Notwithstanding the rudeness of their looms, yet in several
articles of silk and cotton manufactures, the Chinese compete with
European skill and capital, as regards cheapness of production:
and certainly their products are superior in durability, in soft-
ness, and frequently in brightness of colour.
The wages of mechanics and skilful workmen are very low,
and seldom exceed one-fourth of a dollar per day; those engaged
by the month still less. The number of itinerant tradesmen,
that hawk their labour and tools through every part of China,
is incalculable: they very much resemble the gypsies. A common
labourer's wages average about thirty cash (fourpence); ordinary
servants about three and a half dollars per month.
When very
poor and not able to work, many turn Buddhist priests.
The laws and custom require all cities and towns to be built on
a plan laid down by government. The first is, they must be
square, as far as the ground will admit; this is in order that the
gates on each side may face the cardinal points. They are, when
built, divided into four nearly equal divisions, and then subdivided
into smaller divisions, each not to have more than ten houses; over
each subdivision an officer presides, whose duty is to take notice
of the most trifling circumstance that occurs, such as contention,
or the visit of strangers: all is reported to the Mandarins. This
inquisitorial system commences in the capital of each province, and
descends, step by step, down to the father of every family, who is
held answerable for the ill-conduct of either his slaves, servants, or
children.
Dwelling-houses must be built according to a law which regu-
lates the height only. If built in any respect to cope with the
temples, the owner exposes himself to punishment, and the house
is liable to be pulled down. In some of the provinces where wood
is abundant, the houses are chiefly composed of wooden posts,
covered with a coarse kind of mat-work, plastered and whitened.
In Canton the houses are chiefly built of brick, and are only one
story high; in large cities they are generally two stories high.
The windows are chiefly carved latticed-work, and covered with silk-
paper, or split oyster-shells. When viewed from the exterior, the
54
-
DWELLINGS AND TEMPLES.-FAIRS.
Chinese dwellings have a neat appearance; but they will not bear
examination as compared to the internal arrangement of similar
houses in Europe.
The temples in China have generally a handsome front, with a
stage for theatrical performances. The corners of the roof are
more pointed than those of private houses, and no limit is placed to
their height. The interior of these temples are very extensive, as
they serve for a dwelling-place for the priests. Figures in wood
and stone, are very numerous throughout the principal edifice.
Before these are placed dishes and large vases, bearing lights and
incense, which are burnt in honour of the gods. An iron bell and a
large drum are requisite to complete the furnishing of a Chinese
temple. On festival days, after the good things are first offered to
the idols, they are then partaken of by the worshippers; and sen-
suality of the grossest nature often closes the "religious" duties
of the day.
Fairs and markets are held at stated times. In small towns
there are nine fairs every month; in second-rate towns, fifteen;
and in large cities there is a fair or market every day-besides
fairs which are held specially for the sale of cattle. At the Chinese
fairs, every thing in use amongst them is sold. Any considerable
quantity of goods is usually bought on credit, and security given
for the payment at a stated time. There is a class of men,
are called mediators, whose duty is chiefly to reconcile two parties
who cannot agree as to the real value of a commodity. These
"go-betweens" are very numerous, and generally make both
parties pay them for their services.
who
Inns of a miserable description are to be found in all great
thoroughfares. The beds are very uncomfortable; the Chinese
generally carry a blanket with them when they travel any distance
from home. Inns on the road-side seldom or ever have sleeping
accommodation for travellers, so that nothing is to be had in
them but boiled rice or vegetables, except tea, which is the usual
beverage.
The military roads are made at the government expense; and
are rarely laid out in a straight line for any considerable distance,
their direction depending entirely upon the owner or occupier of
the land through which they are made. The provinces that have
no rivers or canals, are intersected with roads, the average breadth
of five or six feet. It is said, that in the provinces of Honan,
Shense, and Chih-li, there are waggons and public conveyances.
In districts that produce salt and coal, and that have no rivers, the
narrow roads are covered for miles with porters, who divide their
burdens into two equal parts, which they attach to each end of a
bamboo pole. Asses and mules are generally made use of in
mountain districts.
The dikes in the low sea-board districts of China, require con-
stant repair and attention; as also the banks of the great rivers.
1
POOR-LAWS.-BEGGARS.-ROBBERS.
55
Applications are very numerous to government, which are answered
by calling on those who have received imperial favours for subscrip-
tions those who seek promotion in office, generally give liberally:
when this amount fails to finish the works, a grant of money is
given, to be restored by means of a sinking fund, within a number
of years. But a free grant for this most necessary purpose is a
rare occurrence. Great damage is done from time to time to large
districts of country by the overflowing of the rivers; which one of
our ordinary engineers, if in the service of the Chinese govern-
ment, would effectually prevent.
Many of the enactments of China read well on paper, but are
never acted upon, and are practically inoperative: thus, for instance,
by the laws of China it is enacted, that all widowers and widows,
the fatherless and childless, the helpless and infirm, shall receive
sufficient maintenance and protection from the magistrates of their
native city or district, whenever they have neither relations nor
connexions upon whom they can depend for their subsistence; any
magistrate refusing such protection shall be punished with sixty
blows. But as no funds are provided for the maintenance of the
indigent, no mandarins thinks it requisite to attend to the enforce-
ment of the law: the poor are, however, permitted to beg from
door to door, and to beat a small gong, or drum, in or at every
house or shop, until they receive some alms, however small. À
beggar may be seen keeping up a hideous din in a shop in Canton
for half-an-hour, without receiving the slightest attention from the
shop-keeper, until some customer comes in, when the noise of the
beggar is quelled by a "cash," the (seventh part of a farthing,) and
he goes off to another door.
The Chinese are probably the most expert robbers, pirates and
burglars, in the world. Thieves are divided into two classes:
pickpockets and housebreakers. The first are migratory, and
visit every fair; when they arrive, they call on the chief officer,
and request permission to trade (plunder), which is readily granted,
with the caution not to make a noise. Should they be caught in
the act, they get a few blows. This fraternity have strict laws,
which are rigidly obeyed.
Should two bands meet at one fair,
they must fight for the day, or surrender. They have regular
places for depositing their plunder. These bands are very numer-
ous, and are subject to the direction of chiefs, some of whom have
600 men under them. The farmers all keep dogs to protect their
property.
The maritime population are much addicted to piracy; the Foo-
keen men and those of Canton, are famed for their lawless daring.
In various places along the coast, and on the islands, villages are
plundered by piratical junks, who carry off not only goods, but
young girls. The people are surprised that we do not plunder them
also, and that we pay for whatever we require.
The first foreign ships that visited China, anchored near Macao,
56
PIRATES, THEIR STRENGTH, ETC.
and were attacked by pirates; from that time to the present, no
boat's crew or junk is safe going any distance along the shore or
from port to port. The East India Company's ships were all fully
armed, a circumstance well known to the pirates, as they never
ventured an attack, The numerous edicts issued by the Emperor
against the pirates, read well on paper but have no effect. The pre-
sent mode of hunting them is to start at an appointed time, first
letting off fireworks, and making a great sound of music, to give
them timely warning to hide. But if the government were really
disposed to destroy the pirates, it could soon be accomplished,
by the authorities quietly embarking on board a merchant vessel, as
their haunts are well known. From Turner's account, who was
compelled to live with them in 1810, their junks amounted to up-
wards of 500, the average size of them from 100 to 300 tons, the
largest carried from 150 to 200 men with guns, (some of British
manufacture) and long pikes, swords, &c. It is to be regretted
that the mandarins are too ready to compromise the matter. With
all the boasted severity of the laws, these miscreants continue along
the coast and put the Imperial forces at defiance. The ancient
mode was to appoint the leaders of the band of robbers to some
important office; that was not found to answer well, as Ching, the
notorious pirate, who was made admiral of the sea, afterwards
aimed at the throne of China unsuccessfully, but obtained for his
son one of the princesses of the blood in marriage. His position
was of great importance to the contending parties in China at that
time.
The daring acts of piracy committed on the Chinese coast, are a
source of much uneasiness, particularly to merchants who find it
necessary to ship treasure from one port to another. It appears to
be essential that all vessels coasting should be well prepared with
fire arms. The first mode of attack with the pirates is to throw fire-
balls on deck, which causes confusion. Captain Kelly, of the Isa-
bella Robertson, and four of his men, were overpowered, and plun-
dered of three boxes of money, of the value of 7,440 dollars, at ele-
ven o'clock in the forenoon.
:
The province of Fookeen is allowed by all writers to be more
independent than the others, and the coast is the stronghold of
the pirates the people are bold, fearless of their own autho-
rities, of a shrewd character, with but little knowledge of trade as
connected with European foreigners. The quarrels in the interior
are very frequent, and savage encounters take place between whole
villages and towns; clanship being most prevalent; several fierce
attacks were made on towns close to Amoy during the residence
of Captain Gribble, and many lives were lost. The sea-board is
infested by pirates, and may be considered under no control
whatever. Our Consul was informed of the capture and destruc-
tion of a war-junk within six miles of Amoy, and partly from
curiosity visited the place; he succeeded in driving off about 400
RELIGION.-CONFUCIANS.-CREATION.
57
pirates, and delivered her over to the nearest mandarin; in twelve
hours the pirates re-appeared, and the war-junk was destroyed.
No notice was taken of this capture by the authorities, although
detection was easy. Our Consul, Captain Gribble, had only five
armed-men in the boat when he drove off the pirates.
RELIGION OF THE CHINESE.-It is difficult to convey a distinct
idea of the religion of the Chinese. The higher classes are Deists;
and I heard their learned men express an utter disbelief of a future
state. In order that we may be the better enabled to see the pros-
pects which pure Christianity would have in China, the following
explanation of the Confucian and other systems is given; for
which I am indebted to Drs. Medhurst, Gutzlaff, Bridgeman, and
others. While in China, I was favoured by Dr. Gutzlaff trans-
lating my "Analysis of the Bible" into Chinese, which I caused
to be printed; it is now extensively circulating throughout China,
and said to be producing a good effect.
The Confucian system of religion, if religion it can be called, for
it has little or nothing to do with theology, is merely a scheme of
ethics and politics, from which things spiritual and divine are gene-
rally speaking excluded. In the works of Confucius, there are
some allusions to Heaven as the presiding power of nature; and to
Fate as the determiner of all things; but he does not appear to
attribute originality to the one, or rationality to the other. "Life
and death are decreed by Fate; riches and poverty rest with Hea-
ven."
ma-
The Book of Odes, speaks of the Imperial Supreme, as r
jestic in his descending and surveying the inhabitants of the world,
and promoting their tranquillity;" who is to be worshiped and
served with abstinence and purification; while he views the affairs
of men, and rewards or punishes them according to their deeds.
"The principle of order, which regulates the universe," is called
the soul of the world. The heavens and earth, together with all
animate and inanimate things, are, according to them, but one
principle; which is as universally diffused through nature, as wa-
ter through the ocean.
Their description of the creation of the world is as follows:
"Before heaven and earth were divided, there existed one universal
chaos; when the two energies of nature were gradually distin-
guished, and the yin and yang, i. e. the male and female princi-
ples, established. Then the purer influence established, and became
the expansive heavens; while the grosser particles descended, and
constituted the subjacent earth. From the combination of these
two, all things were produced; and thus heaven is the father, and
earth the mother of nature."
Hwaenantze, an ancient author of China, whose works are in
great esteem, writes thus :-"Heaven was formless, a chaos; and
the whole mass nothing but confusion. Order was produced in the
pure ether; out of the pure ether the universe came forth; the
58
COSMOGONY.-TRINITY.-MAN.
universe produced the air. When the pure male principle yang,
had been diluted, it formed the heavens. The heavy parts coagu-
lated and formed the earth. The refined particles united very
soon, but the thick and heavy went on slowly; therefore the
heavens came into existence first, and the earth afterwards. From
the subtile escence of heaven and earth, the dual principles, yang
and yin, were formed; the joint operation of yang and yin pro-
duced the four seasons, putting forth their generative power,
gave birth to all the products of the earth. The warm air of
yang produced fire, and the finest parts of fire formed the sun.
The cold air of the yin, being condensed, produced water; and
the finest parts of the watery substance formed the moon.
Their system of cosmogony is connected with a scheme of dia-
grams, which consists of a square, according to the following
form :-

4 9
2
35
7
8
1
6
Of these every odd number represents heaven, or the superior
principle; and every even number earth, or the inferior principle:
the odd numbers combined make 25, and the even ones, with the
decade, 30; and by these 55 numbers, they imagine that all trans-
formations are perfected, and the spirits act.
Another portion of their faith is in a material trinity, called
heaven, earth, and man; meaning by the latter sages only. Hea-
ven and earth produced human beings; but without communicating
instruction, their work was incomplete. Thus the sages aided na-
ture in teaching the principles and correct forms for the govern-
ment of the world; and thus a triad is established of equal powers
and importance.
An extract from one of the Four Books, will better illustrate their
belief.
"It is only the thoroughly sincere, who can perfect his own na-
ture; he who can perfect his own nature, can perfect the nature of
other men he who can perfect the nature of men, can perfect the
nature of things; he who can perfect the nature of things, can
assist heaven and earth, in renovating and nourishing the world."
Of Confucius, it is said by his followers, that his fame overflowed
China like a deluge; wherever there is blood and breath he has
been honoured, and therefore he is equal to Heaven. There are
1550 temples dedicated to him; 62,600 animals annually sacri-
ficed to his manes; and 27,000 pieces of silk offered; all of which
are paid for by government.
BIOGRAPHY OF CONFUCIUS.
59
Confucius was born in the year 550 ь.c.; his father was a magis-
trate in the then petty kingdom of Lu, now the province of Shan-
tung. At the early age of seventeen, he was appointed as a clerk
in the grain department; which was then, as it is now, a govern-
ment tax. When he was twenty-four years of age, he lost his
mother, and resigned his appointment in order to mourn for her
three years, according to ancient custom. This sacrifice on the
part of a young man, in imitating and reviving the ancient custom,
made a great impression on his neighbours, and they all succes-
sively followed his example. From this province the practice
spread throughout the empire, and it is at present strictly adhered
to, even by the emperor.
During the three years he paid great attention to the customs
of the ancient kings, Yau and Sheen, in order to ascertain how
perfection in morals was attained. In order to carry out his
principles, he composed a series of works which set forth his
doctrine. His next plan was to establish schools, for which pur-
pose he traversed the whole empire, and became a favourite at
court, so that free admission to the archives of the kingdom was
given to him.
66
Confucius had great aptitude for illustrating his doctrine from
the works of nature; one of his dissertations will give the reader an
idea of his style. On one occasion, when walking with some dis-
ciples, he perceived a fowler catching birds with a net. Confucius
asked him how it was he had caught no old birds.
"The old
birds," said he, are too wary to be caught, and the young ones
that follow them attentively, likewise escape; but the young ones
that separate from the flock are what I generally catch. Occa-
sionally I catch an old bird, but only when he follows the young
ones. "Now," said Confucius, "attend to my instruction: the
young birds escape the snare only when they keep with the old
ones; the old ones are taken when they follow the young; thus it
is with mankind. Presumption, hardihood, want of forethought,
and inattention, are the principal reasons why young people are led
astray. They rashly undertake acts without consulting the aged
and experienced, and thus, following their own notions, are misled,
and fall into the first snare that is laid for them.”
>>
Confucius, after many years' travelling, settled in his native
state, Lu, where he established a kind of college, which taught and
disseminated his doctrine, by the aid of 3,000 students, who col-
lected his sayings, and called them Lun-yu, now one of the Four
Books.
Every district in the empire has a temple dedicated to Confu-
cius; and every school-room has a tablet with his name on it, be-
fore which incense is burnt by the scholars twice a day.
The writings of Confucius are held in great veneration, and
consist of nine books, five of which are called the canonical works.
The Four Books must be committed to memory by all who attain
60
PHILOSOPHY OF CONFUCIUS.
to distinction in literary rank. The first of the Four Books is the
Ta-heo, which endeavours to show that in the knowledge and
government of one's self the economy and government of a family
must originate; and from thence to a province; and that the same
rules and maxims should be practised in governing the empire.
The whole work has a political tendency; one extract will readily
show this: "Let those who produce revenue be many, and those
who consume it few; let the producers have every facility, and let
the consumers practise economy; and thus there will be at all
times a sufficiency of revenue." The leading features of his
morality are subordination to superiors; kind and upright dealing
with our fellow-men; children to obey parents, who, in their turn,
are to obey the king, who is himself to obey Heaven-whose son
the king is.
It is recorded of Confucius, that the Prince of Lu dying, his son
called on Confucius to take the entire management of the state.
The wisdom of the philosopher was very soon apparent in the good
government of the state, and the happiness of the people was
greatly augmented.
There was one of the nobles of this state who had hitherto com-
mitted great crimes with impunity. Confucius had him tried and
executed; this courageous act made him still more popular.
His austere and truly moral principles, and the propriety and
decorum that were observed at court, procured him many enemies;
and his prince once more relapsing into a licentious state of life,
Confucius left the helm of affairs, and took again to travelling, and
writing his books, which, when completed, (at the age of sixty-
eight,) he dedicated with great solemnity to Heaven. He died in
479 B.C. in the seventy-third year of his age. His posthumous
honours are numerous, and his descendants continue to dwell in
Shantung province to this day; and the heads of the family are
the only hereditary nobility in the empire. The chief is called the
holy duke. The Emperor Kanghe had a correct list made out of
the descendants of the sage, and they numbered 11,000 males: the
present is the seventy-fourth generation.
A few of the select sayings of Confucius illustrate his doctrines.
The Seaou King, a treatise on filial duty, was written by Confu-
cius; a work in more general circulation than any other in the
Chinese empire.
Section the first is on the origin and nature of filial duty.
Question." How did the ancient kings render the kingdom so
obedient that the people lived in peace and harmony, and that no
ill-will existed between superiors and inferiors?—A.-Filial duty
is the root of virtue, and the stem from which instruction in moral
principles springs forth. Filial duty requires of us to carefully pre-
serve from injury the bodies which we have received from our
parents; and to acquire for ourselves a station in the world, thus
regulating our conduct by correct principles, so as to transmit our
FILIAL DUTY IN ALL CLASSES.
61
names to future generations, and reflect glory on our parents :
this is the ultimate aim of filial duty.
Think always of your ancestors;
Talk of, and imitate their virtues."
Section 2nd.-Filial duty as practised by the Son of Heaven.
"If he loves his parents, he cannot hate other people; if he
respects his parents, he cannot treat others with neglect. When
his love and respect towards his parents are perfect, those virtues
will be extended to the people, all will imitate his example.
When the one man is virtuous,
The millions will rely upon him."
Section 3rd.-Filial duty exhibited on the part of nobles.
"When those who are above all others are free from pride, they
are not in danger from exaltation. To be elevated, and yet secure
from danger, is the way in which continually to maintain nobility;
and of abundance to have nothing wasted. Thus preserving their
nobility and riches, they will be able to protect their ancestral
possessions, and keep their subjects and people in peace and quiet-
ness.
Be watchful, be very watchful,
As though approaching a deep abyss,
Or as when treading upon thin ice."
Section 4th.-On the practice of filial duty by ministers of state.
"No robes but those which were allowed by the laws of the
ancient kings should be worn: language opposed to their usage
should not be employed. If ministers of state speak only accord-
ing to the rules, and act only in harmony with the principles of
those ancient kings, their words will be unexceptionable, and their
conduct irreproachable.
Morning and evening be watchful :
دو
And diligently serve the one man.'
Section 5th. On the attention of scholars to filial duty.
"With the same love that they serve their fathers, they should
serve their mothers likewise; and with the same respect that they
serve their fathers, they should serve their prince; unmixed love,
then, will be the offering they make to their mothers: unfeigned
respect the tribute they bring to their prince; and towards their
fathers both these will be combined.
From the hour of early dawn, till late retirement at night,
Always be careful not to dishonour those who gave you birth."
Section 6th.-On the practice of filial duty by the people.
"To observe the revolving seasons, to distinguish the diversities
of soil, to be careful of their persons, and practice economy. There-
fore, from the Son of Heaven down to the common people, whoever
does not always conform to the requirement of filial duty, will be
overtaken by calamity: there can be no exception."
Section 7th.-Filial duty is the grand law of heaven, the great
bond of earth, and the capital duty of man.
62
THREE THOUSAND CRIMES.
How glorious was the good master Yin,
All the people anxiously looked up to him."
Section 8th.-The influence of filial duty on government.
"In ancient times, the illustrious kings governed the empire on
the principles of filial duty. They would not treat with disregard
even the ministers of small countries, how much less dukes, counts,
and barons of every grade; hence all the state gladly served the
ancient kings. The masters of ancient families would not neglect
even their servants and concubines, much less their wives and
children.
They exhibited a pattern of virtuous conduct,
And the nations on all sides submitted to them."
Section 9th.“ Of all things that derive their notions from hea-
ven and earth, man is the most noble; and of all duties which are
incumbent on him, there is none greater than filial obedience. The
feelings which ought to characterize the intercourse between father
aud son are of a heavenly nature, resembling the bonds which
exist between a prince and his ministers.
The great and good man,
Is never guilty of an error."
Section 10th. Of crimes and punishments.
"There are three thousand crimes to which one or the other of
the five kinds of punishment is attached as a penalty; and of these
no one is greater than disobedience to parents. When ministers
exercise control over the monarch, then there is no supremacy.
When the maxims of the sages are set aside, then the law is abro-
gated; so are those who disregard filial duty, as though they had
no parents."
Section 11th.-The best moral principles explained.
"In teaching the people to love one another, there is nothing so
beneficial as a proper understanding of filial duty. In teaching
them the rules of politeness and obedience, there is nothing so
good as a thorough knowledge of the duties which brothers owe to
each other; for improving their manners, instruction in music is
the most efficient means that can be employed. Nothing is equal
to properly inculcating the principles of propriety. Now, propriety
of conduct has its foundation in respect. When princes respect
their parents, children take pleasure in imitating them. When
respect is shewn to elder brothers, the younger will rejoice to follow
the example. When the sovereign is respected, his ministers will
be delighted. Thus when one is respected, thousands and tens of
thousands receive pleasure; and the few by paying respect, render
the many happy."
Section 12th.-On remonstrance.
66
Formerly, if the emperor had only seven ministers who would
remonstrate with him, though he were destitute of virtue, yet he
lost not his empire. The nobles, though they might be devoid of
principle, yet if they had five servants who would remonstrate with
STATE RELIGION OF CHINA.
63
them, lost not their countries. And if a scholar had faithful friends
to remonstrate with him, he would not lose his good name."
Section 13th.-On the retributive results of filial duty.
"The ancient kings served their parents with respect; hence
they could serve heaven intelligently. With them concord and
obedience were maintained between seniors and juniors; hence
superiors and inferiors moved in their respective spheres. Even the
Son of Heaven (emperor) must have some one above him, namely his
father; some one senior to himself, to be regarded as his eldest bro-
ther. But it is in the ancestral temple that he displays the most per-
fect degree of reverence for his parents, adorning himself with virtue,
lest he dishonour his progenitors; it is while worshiping with rever-
ence, that the spirits of his ancestors manifest themselves to him.”
Section 14th.-On the death of parents.
"The sages taught the people, not to destroy the living on ac-
count of the dead, nor to injure themselves with grief. The time
of mourning is limited to three years, to show the people it must
have an end. When a parent dies, a coffin and case is made ready,
and the corpse wrapped in a shroud is laid therein. The male and
female members of the family, moving by the side of the coffin,
weep as they advance. A felicitous burial-place is selected, and
the body laid down to rest. And in spring and autumn, sacrificial
rites are performed, to keep the dead in perpetual remembrance.
This is the fulfilment of all filial duty.”
There is a state religion practised by the court, at Peking, and by
all provincial governments. The objects of worship are things and
persons; the sacrifices are thus divided. 1st, great sacrifices; 2nd,
medium sacrifices; 3rd, small sacrifices for the multitude. In the
following list, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th, are the objects to which the
great sacrifices are offered. From the 5th to the 13th are those to
which the medium sacrifices are offered; from the 14th to the 30th
they are only entitled to small sacrifices. 1st. The heavens or sky,
called also the imperial concave expanse. 2nd. The imperial earth.
3rd. The great temple of ancestors. 4th. The gods of the land
and grain. 5th. The sun, called the 'great light.' 6th. The moon,
'night light.' 7th. The names of the emperors of former ages.
8th. The ancient master, Confucius. 9th. The first patron of agri-
culture. 10th. The ancient patron of silk manufacture. 11th.
The gods of heaven. 12th. The gods of the earth. 13th. The
god of the passing year. 14th. The ancient patron of the healing
art; and the ghosts of faithful statesmen, scholars, &c. 15th. The
stars. 16th. The clouds. 12th. The rain. 18th. The wind.
19th. Thunder. 20th. The five great mountains of China. 21st.
The four great seas. 22nd. The four rivers. 23rd. The famous
hills. 24th Great streams of water. 25th. Military flags and
banners. 26th. The god of a road where, any army must pass.
27th. The god of cannon. 28th. The gods of the gate. 29th.
The queen goddess of the ground. 30th. The north pole, &c. &c.
64
EMPEROR THE HIGH PRIEST.
The priests of this state religion, are the emperor, (who is high
priest,) kings, nobles, statesmen, and an indefinite number of civil
and military officers. When the "high priest" worships heaven, he
wears robes of azure colour; for the earth his robes are yellow; for
the sun his dress is scarlet; for the moon, a pale milky white. The
nobles wear their court-dresses. The altar on which the sacrifice to
heaven is laid, is round; the altar dedicated to the earth is square.
It is only when the sacrifice to the patron of silk manufacturers
takes place, that the empress, princesses, and imperial concubines
are permitted to take part. All who take part in the first order of
sacrifices, are required to fast three days. They must abstain from
listening to music; from cohabitation with wives or concubines;
from mourning for the dead; from eating onions or garlic, or drink-
ing wine. The victims offered are bullocks, cows, sheep, and pigs.
There is no particular rule for killing them, but they are all cooked
and made ready for eating when blessed. The sacrifice to Heaven
is offered on the day of the winter solstice; to earth on the day
of the summer solstice; and the remainder at fixed periods.
The ceremonies consist in kneeling, bowing, and knocking the
head against the ground. When the Emperor officiates, this cere-
mony is partly dispensed with; the nine knockings of the head
are turned into bows.
Any informality in attending to the state religion is punished by
a fine; but as none but high officers of state are permitted to take
part, this is of small moment. The punishment awarded to com-
mon people for holding communion with the gods, or announcing
their wants in the same manner as the emperor, is, for the first
offence, 70 blows; and for a repetition, strangulation. According to
the 161st section of the criminal code, if the priests of Budha and
Yaou imitate the state religion, it shall be deemed a profanation of
the sacred rites, for which they shall be expelled.
On occasions of drought, pestilence, famine, war, or any other ca-
lamity,the Emperor alone prays to heaven for the people. The fol-
lowing prayer for rain was made by the Emperor, in 1802.
"Kneeling, a memorial is hereby presented, to cause affairs to
be heard.
"Oh, alas! Imperial Heaven, were not the world afflicted by ex-
traordinary changes, I would not dare to present extraordinary
services. But this year the drought is most unusual. Summer is
past, and no rain has fallen. Not only do agriculture and human
beings feel the dire calamity, but also beasts and insects, herbs and
trees almost cease to live.
"I, the minister of Heaven, am placed over mankind, and am res-
ponsible for keeping the world in order, and tranquillizing the people.
Although it is now impossible for me to sleep or eat with compo-
sure; although I am scorched with grief and tremble with anxiety;
still, after all, no genial or copious showers have been obtained.
Some days ago, I fasted, and offered rich sacrifices on the altars of
}
EMPEROR'S PRAYER FOR RAIN.
65
the gods of the land and the grain; and had to be thankful for
gathering clouds, and slight showers; but not enough to cause
gladness.
"Looking up, I consider that Heaven's heart is benevolence and
love. The sole cause is the daily deeper atrocity of my sins; with
but little sincerity and little devotion. Hence, I have been unable
to move Heaven's heart, and bring down abundant blessings.
"Having respectfully searched the records, I find that in the
24th year of Keen-lung, my imperial grandfather, the high, honor.
able, and pure emperor, reverently performed a 'great snow ser-
vice.' I feel impelled, by ten thousand considerations, to look up
and imitate the usage, and with trembling anxiety, rashly to assail
heaven, and examine myself, whether in sacrificial services I have
been disrespectful? Whether or not pride and prodigality have had
a place in my heart, springing up there unobserved? Whether from
the length of time, I have become remiss in attending to the affairs
of government; and having been unable to attend to them with
serious diligence, and strenuous effort, I deserve reprehension?
Whether perfect equity has been attained in conferring rewards or
inflicting punishments? Whether in raising mausoleums and lay-
ing out gardens, I have distressed the people and wasted property?
Whether in the appointment of officers, I have failed to obtain fit
and proper persons, and thereby the acts of government have been
petty and vexatious to the people? Whether punishments have
been unjustly inflicted or not? Whether the oppressed have found
no means of appeal? Whether in persecuting heterodox sects,
the innocent have not been involved? Whether or not the magis-
trates have insulted the people, and refused to listen to their
affairs? Whether in the military operations on the western fron-
tiers, there may have been the horrors of human slaughter, for the
sake of imperial rewards? Whether the largesses bestowed on the
afflicted southern provinces were properly applied, or the people
left to die in the ditches? Whether the efforts to exterminate the
rebellious mountaineers, or to pacify them, were properly conducted;
or whether they led to the inhabitants being trampled on as mire
and ashes? To all these topics, to which my anxieties have been
directed, I ought to lay the plumb-line, and strenuously endeavour
to correct what is wrong; still recollecting that there may be faults
which have not occurred to me in my meditations.
"Prostrate, I beg Imperial Heaven, (Hwang Teen) to pardon my
ignorance and stupidity, and to grant me self-renovation; for
myriads of innocent people are involved by me, a single man. My
sins are so numerous, it is difficult to escape from them. Summer
is past and autumn arrived; to wait longer will be impossible.
Knocking head I pray, Imperial Heaven, to hasten and confer
gracious deliverance, a speedy and divinely beneficial rain, to save
the people's lives; and in some degree redeem my iniquities. Oh,
F
66
PRAYER BEFORE WAR.
alas! Imperial Heaven observe these things, be gracious. I am
frightened. Reverently this memorial is presented.”
The following is a copy of the prayer of the Emperor Kang-he
before going to war:-
"Sovereign Lord of Heaven-the supreme Ruler-receive my
homage, and grant protection to the humblest of thy subjects.
With respectful confidence, I invoke thy aid in the war, which I
am compelled to wage. Thou hast heaped on me thy favours, and
hast distinguished me by thy special protection. A people without
number acknowledges thy power. I adore in silent devotion thy
manifold kindness, but know not how to manifest the gratitude
which I feel.
"The desire of my heart is to give to my people, and likewise let
strangers enjoy, the blessings of peace; but the enemy has put a
stop to this, my most cherished hope. Prostrate before thee I im-
plore thy succour, and in making this humble prayer, I am animated
with the hope of obtaining thy signal favour. My only wish is to
procure a lasting peace throughout the immense regions over which
thou hast set me.
دو
One of the sects of religionists into which the inhabitants are
divided is called Taou, signifying a way or path, a principle, and
the principle from which heaven, earth, man and nature emanate.
Laou-tan or Laou-tsze, the founder of this sect, was a contempo-
rary with Confucius; but the Taou, or Reason itself, they assert is
uncreated and underived. His fabulous incarnation is as follows:
"The venerable prince existed before the creation, but was incar-
nate in the time of Yang-kea, of the Shang dynasty, в.c. 1407;
when from the regions of great purity and eternal reason, a subtle
fluid descended from the superior principle of nature, and was
transformed into a yellow substance, about the size of a pill; which
rolling into the mouth of a pearly damsel while she was asleep,
caused her to conceive: the child was not born till eighty-one
years afterwards, and on his appearance was grey-headed, and was
called Laou-tsze, 'the venerable one.' The second appearance of
this wonderful individual was in the person of Laou-tan, who was
visited by Confucius B.C. 500. The third appearance was in a.D.
633, when a man reported he had seen an old man, who said.
and tell the Emperor that I am Laou-keuen his ancestor.'
The votaries of Taou preach virtue, and profess to promote it by
abstraction from the world, and the repression of desire; the latter
object they think is effected by eating their spirits, i. e. stopping their
breathing for a considerable time. All depends on the subjection
of the heart; so they mortify every feeling, in order to attain unto
perfect virtue. To prevent intercourse with the world, many of
them retire to the hills and mountains. The theory of this faith
teaches the votaries to despise wealth and worldly objects. Alchemy
is a great study with them; but the frequent impositions practised
ووو
Go
THE TAOU RELIGION.
67
by them having been discovered, they have been driven from the
court. The head of this sect, professes to have intercourse and per-
fect control over the demons of the invisible world, and conse-
quently removes the deities from one temple to another, as the
Emperor does his officers.
As a matter of course, superstition reigns triumphant among the
votaries of Taou, so that ghosts and accidents are guarded against
by having possession of a charm, which this prince of ghosts
disposes of; to be efficacious they must be renewed every year. The
services of the priest, are particularly required after death has taken
place in a house, to cleanse it from evil spirits. The estimation in
which this sect is held by the government, cannot be better illus-
trated than by giving an extract from a commentary on the Sacred
Edict. The Sacred Edict was written by the Emperor Kang-he, A.D.
1723, and the commentary by his son and successor Yungching.
The 7th article inculcates the policy to degrade strange religions,
in order to exalt the orthodox doctrine.
"All these nonsensical tales about keeping fasts, collecting
assemblies, building temples, and fashioning images, are feigned by
those sauntering priests of Budha and Taou to deceive you. Still
you believe them, and suffer your wives and daughters to worship
at their temples; with their hair oiled, their faces painted, and
dressed in scarlet, trimmed with green. I see nowhere the good.
they do ; on the contrary, they do many shameful things, which give
people occasion for laughter and ridicule. All their object is
nourishing well the animal spirits, and lengthening out life for a
few years: that is all.”
1
The fundamental doctrine of Buddah is that all things originated
in nothing, and will return to nothing: annihilation is the summit
of bliss; and nonentity the future anticipation of all. The priests
are held in great respect by their adherents, but the literati
hold them in the greatest contempt. Their indolent lives and
celibacy, so opposite to the Confucian doctrine, may account
for their degradation. Taken from the dregs of society they
are what they preach, poor-from necessity not from choice.
There are several grades amongst them, and when better opportuni-
ties offer, they throw off the garb, and take some other occupation.
When strolling play-actors arrive in a city or village, they take the
chief management of the performance. The caps they wear are
made after the shape of some of the Roman Catholic sects of
Europe. The similarity of their forms of worship to the Roman
Catholic is very observable; namely celibacy, holy water, prayers for
the dead, fasting, rosaries, (beads which they reckon while repeating
their prayers), the worship of relics, together with nunneries which
are attached to their temples. From the vast number of the Bud-
dhist priests in China, they are wretchedly poor, and subsist by
begging chiefly, and are not allowed while priests to attend the
public examinations. This degraded state of the priesthood and
F 2
68
BUDDHISTICAL DOCTRINES.
the dilapidated state of their temples, intimate that the system is
on the wane.
:
The Buddhists, to reconcile the Chinese to their doctrine, have
adopted a precept of Confucius, viz. that the children are bound
to sacrifice to their deceased ancestors. Thus, those who leave
children and grandchildren endeavour to provide for them; but those
who have nothing to leave behind them, must wander about cold
and hungry in the invisible regions. To provide the hungry ghosts
who left no posterity to supply their wants, this sect have taken
advantage of this general feeling, and have a ceremony every year
during the seventh moon; and as every district, village, and street
is supposed to have hungry ghosts, there is one held in each; this
is all under the cloak of charity and benevolence, for which large
collections are made. The quantity of provisions collected for
those occasions is immense, so that one day in the year these im-
postors are sure to fare well. Money is remitted to these poor
ghosts, also clothes, furniture and houses, made of paper; for the
money a small bit of gold leaf or tin foil is attached to a bit of
paper about three inches long; clothes are drawn on or cut out
of paper, houses of card, cooking utensils of wood, all of which
are consumed by fire. The baskets, when seen on the altar, are
crammed full-to all appearance piled up: but on examination
both baskets and rice bowls have false bottoms or
are filled
with shavings. The consumption of sacrificial paper forms a
large item of trade.
Buddhism was imported into China about the year 60 of the
Christian era, by Ming-ti one of the Han dynasty. At the present
time the priests of this sect actually swarm in every province of
China. Their commandments or interdicts, are five. 1st, From
the meanest insect up to man, thou shalt kill no animal whatever ;
2nd. Do not steal; 3rd, Do not marry, or violate the wife or concu-
bine of another; 4, Speak not falsely; 5, Drink no wine or intoxi-
cating liquor.
The ten sins-1, killing animals; 2, theft; 3, adultery; 4, false-
hood; 5, discord; 6, offensive language; 7, idle-talk; 8, coveting ;
9, envy-malice; 10, following the doctrines of false gods. Their
vows are to renounce all family connexions, shave their head and
reside in temples. The gods they worship, are the three precious
Buddahs-the past, present, and future; the goddess of mercy, the
goddess of small-pox, the patroness of barren women, the god of
wealth. The three Buddahs are generally represented half naked,
with woolly hair, in a sitting position.
Their temples are adorned with images to their various gods and
goddesses; an altar on which are placed candles and incense, and
in the centre a very large iron cauldron, for burning gilt paper in;
on one side of the hall is placed a large bell and a drum, which is
only put in motion when a person of some importance comes to
adore the god; he is not to be aroused for every plebeian. They
NUNNERIES.-MAHOMEDANS.
69
have no sabbaths, but observe the new and full moon with great
solemnity; they have service every day, besides one hundred and
sixty fast days in every year.
The service consists in offering up forms of prayer in the Sanscrit
language, which few of the priests understand, and in repeating the
name of Buddah (" O-me-to-Fuh") two or three hundred thousand
times; the devotee is then at no great distance from a personal
vision of the god. The advantages promised, are that all the gods.
will protect the true devotee; all the demi-gods will attend him;
all the Buddahs will think of him; no devil can harm him; all his
former crimes shall melt away, and he shall be delivered from the
crime of murder; and when he dies he shall see O-me-to-Fuh!
What a field of promise China offers to the missionaries of the one
and true God!
Nunneries in China are numerous. They are dedicated to the
"Goddess of Mercy," and are connected with Buddhism. Vacancies
are filled up by purchase and self-dedication; and parents very
often sell their female children. The inducement held out is the cer-
tainty of being, after death, completely absorbed into the unknown
Budha. Their dress is so much like that of the Buddhist Priests,
that in the streets it is difficult to distinguish between them. The
distinction between the novice and the nun in orders is, one has
the head completely shaven and the novice only a small portion of
the crown; the other requirements are to eat and drink sparingly,
and wholly to live on vegetable diet, with a perpetual vow of
virginity; the sick and poor are to be visited. Their services are
performed morning and evening, and consist of reciting out of
their sacred books; and when specially employed to perform a ser-
vice they are remunerated by sums varying from 50 to 100 cash.
Their means of support arise from donations and subscriptions, and
letting out their nunneries into lodgings, not unfrequently for
the basest purposes. In the district of Ningpo there are upwards
of thirty of these bagnios.
The number of Mahommedans in China is said to be consider-
able. There is a large mosque inside the city of Canton. Many
learned Mahommedans, from Balk and Samarkand, accompanied
the Western Tartars when they invaded China, A.D. 1278. These
men were of infinite service to the state, particularly in imparting
to them a knowledge of astronomy, and correcting their calendar.
But still they were quite astray in their calculations until the
arrival of the Jesuits in the sixteenth century; in fact, the Chi-
nese had not proper instruments until then. Astrology appears
more sought after than astronomy, even to the present day.
The increase in the number of the Mohammedans was so great
in a few years, as to attract the attention of government; it was
discovered that their increase was owing to their purchasing chil-
dren whom their parents were unable to rear, and would other-
wise have destroyed. Many of this persuasion have held important
70
JEWS IN CHINA.
offices under government. They are still numerous about the
borders of the province of Shen-se, and generally congregate in
districts.
We have no account of the number of Jews in China; but that
there are many in the inland provinces, is very probable. There
is an early record, of Jews in China, given by two Arabian
travellers, who traded with China, A.D. 877, (see Foreign Inter-
course). Peristal, an Italian Jew, who wrote two centuries ago,
states that the Jews were at one time powerful in India and China.
"Their chief residence was Chabor, to approach which you must
double the Cape of Good Hope, enter the Indian Ocean, make the
continent of Asia, and you will find Chabor."
A Rabbi, named Benjamin of Tudela, in the 12th century,
visited many countries of the East to discover the scattered tribes.
He found them in Persia, Samarckand, Tibet, and China. He
states that part of the Ten Tribes crossed the Great Wall which
divides China from Tartary, and settled in the former. Father
Ricci, the learned Jesuit, while residing in Peking in A.D. 1610,
met with a Jew who informed him that there were ten families of
Jews residing in Keafung-foo, which is the capital of the province
of Honan; and that they had preserved a copy of the Pentateuch
600 years.
Father Ricci showed him a Hebrew Bible. The
young Jew (although a Chinese student) identified the characters.
The onerous duties of Ricci, and the distance from Peking (200
leagues), prevented him personally inspecting this Synagogue.
But three years after he sent a Chinese Jesuit with a letter to the
chief, who seemed so well aware of the fame of Ricci, that he in-
vited him to take possession of the Synagogue, as he was very old,
provided he would abstain from meats that were forbidden. On
this occasion the Pentateuch was minutely examined, and found
in every respect conformable to the Hebrew Bible.
The subsequent year, Father Aleni, a Jesuit and distinguished
Hebrew scholar, visited this Synagogue; but the chief was dead,
and nothing could induce them to show their books. They stated
that their ancestors came from a kingdom of the West; and that
their alphabet had twenty-seven letters, but that they seldom made
use of more than twenty-two; when they read the Bible they cover
their face with a transparent veil. They read a section every Sab-
bath-day, and thus read the law in the course of the year. They
call themselves Tiau-kin Kiau*"the sect which plucks out the
sinew." They date their entry into China B.C. 258. Several Jews
have been governors and ministers of state in China.
LANGUAGE. According to the Rev. Mr. Medhurst, who is in-
ferior to none of our Chinese scholars, and whose benevolent cha-
racter leads him among all classes of the people, the elements,
or radicals of the Chinese language, refer generally to well known
*The children of Israel eat not of the sinew which shrank.-Genesis xxxii. 32.
CHINESE LANGUAGE. CHARACTERS.
71
things, such as the human species, man and woman; the parts of
the body, head, mouth, ear, eye, face, heart, hand, foot, flesh, bones,
and hair; human actions, speaking, walking, and eating; things
necessary to man, such as silks, clothes, door, and city; the celes-
tial objects, sun, moon, and rain; the elements, wood, water, fire,
metal, and earth; the vegetable, animal, and mineral kingdoms.
The words referable to their substances or subjects, are classed so
as to be discernible without much difficulty; and by a nice calcu-
lation of the additional number of strokes, the position of the cha-
racter as given in the dictionary, is as well ascertained as by an
alphabet. Every character occupies an exact square, of whatever
number of strokes it be composed; uniformity is the point of ex-
cellence in which the Chinese delight, so that the page shall ap-
pear as divided into an equal number of sections. The Chinese
read from top to bottom, and commence at the right hand, going
down each column. They write and print only on one side, so
double each page. The edges are not cut in front; but on the
top, bottom, and back of the book. Each volume contains about
eighty pages, and the book is not more than half an inch thick.
Where exactness is necessary, communication by oral medium is
difficult. The sound E, for instance, has upwards of 1800
significations. When any business of importance is to be dis-
cussed, it can only be properly understood by each party writing
down his ideas. In the courts of justice, accusations and defences
are obliged to be written; even the instruction is not imparted
verbally, in the Chinese schools, and to this may be attributed the
slow march of civilization, as anything not seen is ill understood.
Nothing can more strongly prove either their want of capacity or
unwillingness, than that few, if any, of their most distinguished
scholars know anything of foreign languages, not even to pro-
nounce a double consonant.
Dr. Gutzlaff, who well comprehends the language, referring
to the roots, says a horizontal, a perpendicular, two oblique lines
drawn in opposite directions, with an acute angle and dot,
constitute the rudiments of which all Chinese characters con-
sist. Like stenography, many characters are alike in form, but
a slight stroke or dot makes the difference. It is said that the
number of words ranges from ten to sixty thousand. Morrison's
dictionary contains upwards of twenty thousand; but it is not to
be supposed that anything like this number are required either to
speak or write the language. S. G. Stanton contrived to translate
the Chinese penal Code with less than two thousand words, not
including repetitions. Morrison's Bible, consisting of twenty-one
volumes, has not more than 2,500 characters. The number of
elementary roots or characters, under which, as heads of classes,
all others are arranged, is 214. The original plan of the
framers of this system, was evidently to form a separate symbol
72
DIVERSITY OF SPOKEN LANGUAGES.
for each idea. The multitude of authors which China produced,
and the premium that was at all times held out to scholars, are
sufficient to account for the different meanings attached to one
character.
Thus there is scarcely a single character which is confined to one
meaning; but a great number which signify fifteen or twenty
ideas, either alike in some points or diametrically opposite. This
confusion and difficulty is remedied by a note, which assists
the student, in translating the numerous ambiguous characters
with which the language abounds; figures bear a resemblance
to the forms of material objects, such as the sun, moon, hill, eye,
horse, child: combinations of ideas consist of two or three symbols,
united to represent one idea. For instance, the sun and moon
express brightness; a tree or piece of wood in a door-way denotes
obstruction; two trees stand for a forest; the junction of eye and
man points out the idea of seeing. In this system of symbols, the
Chinese government have been enabled to preserve the union of so
many millions of families, otherwise the kingdom would have been
divided into many independent portions, in every way different
from the parent stock; again, their exclusive policy never could
have been maintained, if it were not for this almost unsurmountable
barrier. The Chinese are proud of possessing this advantage, and
besides, of having a universal language that speaks more distinctly
to the eye than to the ear.
The learned and amiable Dr. Bridgman says, diversities in the
modes of speech, and deviations from the most approved usages,
exist in every tongue. That most prevalent in Peking among
the people about the court, differs considerably from that once
dominant, and still extensively used, known as the Nanking dia-
lect, or the language of the southern court. In their present posi-
tion, foreigners are unable to ascertain even the number of dialects
spoken within the empire. The difference between the colloquial
style and that used in books, seems to be greater in the Chinese
than in most other languages. Standard works, which form
the great body of national literature, are read and understood
with nearly equal ease by people in every part of the empire, how-
ever their local dialects may differ from the style of those works.
The system of intonation, with few exceptions, appears to be one
and the same in all the dialects. Again, the characters preserve
an unvarying form in all parts of the empire: a partial exception
to this, however, is occasioned by the use of well-known characters,
slightly changed to express local phrases; and then regard is had
only to the sound of the characters.
The antiquity and originality of the Chinese language give it a
claim to consideration, independent of its being the standard lan-
guage throughout the empire, and also cultivated in the neighbour-
ing kingdoms and colonies; so that it may be computed as the
LITERATURE AND PRINTING.
73
spoken and written medium of communication between four
hundred millions of people, spread over a surface in extent larger
than all Europe.
The various dialects in which it is spoken, notwithstanding that
the body of the language has never been changed, is thus accounted
for: first, there is no alphabet; and, secondly, China, like other coun-
tries, has been rent into separate states, and the conqueror and
conquered prevented from all communication; and in this way the
diversity of expression and phrases must have originated.
How it has been maintained with so few changes for a score of
centuries, is still more easily accounted for; as all who are dis-
posed to improve their position must be intimately acquainted with
the writings of Confucius, and what is termed the court dialect, or
mandarin pronunciation.
CHINESE LITERATURE.-The Chinese are a reading people, and
the number of their published works is very considerable. In
the departments of morals, history, biography, the drama, poetry,
and romance, there are no lack of writings, such as they are. The
Chinese Materia Medica comprises forty octavo volumes: of statis-
tical works, the number is very large. Their novels are said to be
excellent pictures of the national manners. China is full of books;
new authors are continually springing up; the press is active, and
the traffic in books is a lucrative and most honourable branch of
trade. When examinations take place in the capital or the palace,
the most clever students are chosen to fill the office of bookmakers.
There are, however, few really new works, and all that appear are
compilations and quotations; the author never venturing an
idea of his own: and in this consists true learning according to
Chinese notions. There is one work in the Royal Library, on the
topography of China, which is said to consist of 5000 volumes;
some of the best translators that have had access to some extracts
from this giant, were sadly disappointed, as it appears to be a mass
of confusion, without any attempt at order or proper arrangement.
There are numerous small treatises, similar to our tracts, gratuit-
ously distributed by private individuals, inculcating morality and
virtue. Printing is evidently cheaper in China than in Europe,
when ten volumes, each containing 100 pages, can be purchased
for less than a dollar. Every peasant and the poorest fisherman
can read and write. Private and public schools are numerous in
every province, and entirely independent of government. Occa-
sionally an examiner visits all schools to ascertain the qualifications
of the teachers.
The third report of the "Society for diffusing useful knowledge
in China," held at Canton, 20th November, 1837, contains a re-
view of the existing literature of the Chinese, and an enumeration
of the "catalogue of works contained in the imperial library at
Peking." It concludes with these remarks :-
66
'From this cursory review which we have taken of Chinesc
74
GENERAL DEFICIENCY IN KNOWLEDGE.
literature, we are enabled to perceive what is the range of existing
knowledge in this country. A philosophy, which, leaving alone all
speculations concerning the origin and future state of man, con-
fines itself wholly to the relations between man and man in this
life, occupies one fourth portion. A history and a geography,
almost exclusively national, occupies another fourth portion; while
the existence of other nations, and the practical lessons to be
learned from the rest of mankind, are almost wholly forgotten.
With the exception of agriculture and weaving, the useful arts of
life find hardly any place in Chinese literature. Mechanical and
chemical sciences are scarcely thought of. Medicine we know to
consist, for the most part, of mere quackery. Astronomical and
mathematical sciences are chiefly derived from Europeans, and the
knowledge of them is confined to a very few persons; while the
vagaries of astrology and divination, find a place not only in their
literature, but also in the arrangements of government. Natural
history is regarded only as an adjunct to medical science, if the
practice of medicine among the Chinese can be dignified with the
name of science. Seeing that so many are the defects of Chinese
literature, it becomes our imperative duty to exert our utmost
energies to supply their lack of knowledge."
As regards their philosophy, the committee observe :—
"Several of the classical works, which form the foundation of
this first department of Chinese literature, have already, by means
of translations, been placed within the reach of the European
public. From these we are enabled to perceive to how low an
elevation in philosophy the most esteemed sages of China have
attained."
In the geography of even their own country they are almost as
deficient as they are of that of foreign countries. A map of the
province of Fokien, which I saw at the viceroy's residence at Foo-
choo, would have disgraced the New Zealanders, or any other bar-
barous nation. It had no bearings-no divisional lines-no pro-
portions; and that part which we know, the Min river, was entirely
incorrect. Yet this map was kept a secret; and our Consul at
Foochoo could only procure a copy, by paying a Chinese largely
for copying it by stealth. In astronomy, music, surgery, medicine,
chemistry, military and naval science, fine arts, &c., they are
utterly deficient.
The imperial historiographers of China, are employed to re-
late every thing said and done by the reigning Emperor, and
to record, likewise, a true account of every public event during
his reign.
These documents, when prepared, are all sealed up, and de-
posited in a large iron chest, which is placed in the prime minis-
ter's tribunal; and is not opened until after the emperor's death,
when, should there be any thing unfavourable in his biography, it
is again locked up for several generations; this is to prevent the
LITERARY EXAMINATIONS.
75
compilers being influenced by either fear or flattery of the prince
or his descendants.
Dr. Bridgman states, in his Chinese Christomathy, that there is
published in China, by order of the government, the most com-
plete topographical and statistical history of all the provinces and
departments of China, which taking the whole as a body of works
on statistics, is unequalled in any country. It is much to be re-
gretted that this work has never been translated, as it would be of
great benefit to the trading community, and a hope is entertained
that our consuls will endeavour to procure so desirable a work.
Two
It is on the literary institutions of China, the government chiefly
relies for stability and support. The military forces are not adequate
to the task; and hence the great attention and uniformity of their
system of education throughout the whole of the "Celestial"
dominions. Wealth and station have their influence here as well
as elsewhere, but learning is indispensible to attain to an office of
trust, and this is the policy of the state by opening a way to the am-
bitious, that they may attain to the highest office in the government,
and thus prevent the overthrow of the ruling powers. The governors
and all the officers under the crown have distinguished themselves
by their intellectual powers; but they must yield implicit obedi-
ence to a most absolute monarch; strict examinations are held
triennially to discover the talent of the community, and are open
to all, except priests, play-actors, and menial servants.
examiners are selected by the Emperor, and on those who come to
Canton 600 taels are bestowed for expenses; these are assisted by
ten others, who are selected from the local officers. The average
number of students in Canton on those occasions, exceeds eight
thousand, who assemble at a large hall (Kungyuen) or college
designed for the purpose. These students must have been at for-
mer examinations called Sewtsae,- and are divided in classes,
but none are admitted unless previously enrolled by the literary
chancellor, of their native province, who certifies that their family
have resided there three generations; their age, features, and lineage
are recorded. The examinations continue several days, and the
students enter the hall the day previous, and are detained there two
nights and a day without food. On the last day of examination five ques-
tions are given, relating to the history and political economy of China.
The themes must be sententious; the poetry grave and important,
and all must concern things of real importance; but any reference
to state policy must be avoided. Each thesis must be inspected by
the proper officer; the number of themes and the characters are
limited; and at the close of every theme it must be stated how
many alterations were made in the characters; and if the number
exceed one hundred the student is excluded. It appears that up-
wards of one hundred are subject to that punishment at each
examination. All intercourse with friends must cease, and if it is
discovered that any one wrote any portion of the theme of another,
76
LITERARY DEGREES.
both of them shall be severely punished. On entering the hall the
student is searched, and if any book or writing be discovered on his
person, he shall be punished, and compelled to wear the wooden
collar round his neck; his tutor and father are also severely pu-
nished. A watch is kept at the examination hall by military officers
day and night. Out of so many candidates only seventy-one can
obtain the degree (Keu-jin); the names of these are published by
proclamation, within twenty-five days after the examination has
closed. Three guns are then fired to commemorate this important
event; a banquet is prepared on a grand scale, and is attended by
all the civil officers of Canton, together with the governor. Two
lads, dressed like naiads, holding in their hands branches of the
olive tree, contribute to the enjoyment by a song from the ancient
classics, and thus closes a scene worthy of imitation in other coun-
tries.
The Chinese system of education entails great misery on those
who do not succeed; as, in their early years, all their energies are
devoted to the attainment of the degrees which qualify them for
holding civil offices.
Almost every family selects one or more of their sons to devote
their whole attention to Confucian principles. But numbers of
candidates are doomed to disappointment: on some occasions, pro-
bably only one hundred will be qualified out of seven thousand;
and many that obtain the qualification never get employment, par-
ticularly if they are without the means of interesting the man-
darins in their favour.
The first degree is conferred by an officer who is generally
resident in every considerable town, with the sanction and ap-
proval of an officer from Peking, who periodically visits each town.
The second degree (keu-jin) is only conferred at the capital city of
each province, perhaps many miles from a man's own locality. The
third degree (tsin-sze) is only conferred at Peking, which may pro-
bably be a thousand miles from his native place. Thus, the dis-
appointed spend all their energies, hoping against hope; occasion-
ally they become tutors and schoolmasters. The frequency with
which examinations are held diverts them from persevering in any
useful occupations; and the consequence is, that in the neighbour-
hood of Canton, thousands of them may be seen lounging and
begging in a most miserable state of destitution; nevertheless, they
maintain the position of "gentlemen-scholars," and refuse to
lower their diguity by turning to any useful employment.
Books of good advice are published, from time to time, by the
emperors; some of the following are said to have been composed
by the learned Jesuit, Adam Schall. The following sermons, or
instructions, were written by the emperors of the present dynasty,
on the art of governing the people, especially directed to the atten-
tion of all the officers in authority.
Hwang-te Shing-Heen.-This elaborate work consists of nearly
BOOKS OF GOOD ADVICE.
77
200 volumes, printed in very large characters, that aged statesmen
may study this vade-mecum with greater facility; each volume.
contains about twenty leaves.
The first lesson, or sermon, was written by Teen-ming, who was
the first Mantchou chief that aspired to the throne of China; it
was written before the conquest was completed.
1st. A prince is the son of Heaven; all the ministers and public
functionaries are his sons; and the people are again the children
of the former. A prince serves Heaven as a father, and never for-
getful, thinks with reverence about rendering his virtues illustri-
ous, and looking up, receives the gift (empire). The ministers
should, therefore, view the emperor as their father, and serve him
as such; never be rapacious, or play the traitor; protect the
people; observe the laws, and, above all things, see that no treason
is spreading amongst the people.
2nd. "Lasting peace." This is only to be attained by having
a wise prince and a faithful minister, who must, with united
strength, co-operate: second to these is the blessing of Heaven.
Let there be the utmost justice, in imitation of the righteous
arrangements made by heaven and earth; then prosperity and
success will prevail throughout the land. Now, when the one man
(emperor) loses his virtue, calamity spreads to all regions, and the
evil is worse than that wrought by demons. This was instanced
on occasion of the Emperor Wanluh's attacking a friendly empire,
when all the troops brought against the Mantchous were killed.
The third sermon is addressed to all kings, princes, ministers, and
those in authority. Be wise, and just in all things, do not hanker
after wealth, and your rule will be more firmly established. All
evil practices proceed from the heart, keep it therefore in a virtuous
state, and all events will prove fortunate; you will be praised, and
become popular; riches will fall to your share, and your glory will
be resplendent. On the other hand, if you harbour vicious
thoughts, the contrary will take place.
The next emperor was Shunche, who had for his adviser and
most intimate friend, Adam Schall, the Jesuit. The first volume
contains a discourse on government, piety, sacred and filial duty,
study of the sages, humility, economy, and continence. The 2nd,
instructions for ministers, on petitions or receiving reproof. 3rd,
On choosing people for officers; on restraining inferiors. 4th, On
managing wealth; on giving alms; on propriety towards the gene-
ration past and gone. 5th, On promoting literature; exhortations
to commanders-in-chief. 6th, On quietly governing the people,
avoiding punishments; repressing greedy parasites; avoiding evil,
and forgiving faults.
In his discourse on government, the emperor acknowledges the
great responsibility he is under to Heaven, to whom he is alone
accountable; and strongly inculcates the doctrine that princes
were created for the people. He duly admits the claims of the
78
THE EMPEROR'S SERMONS.
people to good government. He expatiates on the oppression of his
predecessors (of the Ming dynasty), in imposing taxes that the
people could not pay; on the usurpation of the nobles in taking
possession of the people's ground, and converting it into hunting
and pleasure grounds. The emperor's respect for the departed
was proved by his having the tombs of the Ming princes repaired
and beautified.
Kanghe, who inherited the throne of his father, Shunche, and
also his taste for writing and preaching, has bequeathed sixty
volumes. That addressed to the authorities is-for plain speaking
and good sense-a novelty in Chinese literature, and in theory
excellent.
His Majesty says: "I am at my post early in the morning;
assemble in my presence, and do not spend the time in idle foolish
ceremonies, but let business be despatched. The land is full of
robbers; the people are suffering oppression; assist to put an end
to this state of affairs, then you will be ministers indeed.'
""
Science is now at a very low ebb in China, whatever may have
been its former state.
Marco Polo states that he found in China upwards of five thou-
sand astronomers. But it has been proved that their early astro-
nomical observations were absolute forgeries-as the Jesuits found
no one able to calculate an eclipse. The instruments found by the
Jesuits must have been introduced from a distant country, as they
were only adapted to the latitude of 36° north, whereas Nankin is
32°.
The learned M. de Guignes remarks, that they never knew
anything of astronomy, not even in his day: they are astrologers,
and consult the stars for both public government and private
affairs.
EMIGRATION.-The migration of the Chinese, originated in the
Tartar conquest. The Chinese sought peace in a distant country.
Fookeen and the adjacent districts were the last conquered by the
Mantchoos, and from thence are the principal migrations.
The tide of seaward emigration from China, is principally to
Singapore, the islands and stations in the Straits, and to the Dutch
settlements of Java, Borneo, Bauca, &c. Great complaints are made
by those who return, of the Dutch system of farming the revenue
to any one who will bid most; consequently authority is conferred
without any regard to character, and the consequence is oppres-
sion and tyranny. The industrious and well-disposed Chinese
emigrants, give a sad account of the treatment they are subject to
by the officers of the Dutch government, and by secret associations
of their own countrymen. As for justice, it is out of the question
to obtain it. According to the laws, the majority of witnesses
decides the magistrate's judgment; and from the great extent of
the Triad Society throughout the Straits, there is no lack of wit-
nesses to swear against any who do not belong to their nefarious
EMIGRATION OF THE CHINESE.
79
system. The well-disposed Chinese emigrants are plundered, and
frequently murdered; but such is the pressure for food, that emi-
gration is yearly increasing to the Eastern Archipelago, &c.
Chinese emigration differs from that of all other countries in this
respect, that it is only sheer necessity that will compel them to leave
their native home, and it is always their intention to return as soon
as circumstances will permit them. But it frequently happens that
they remain and intermarry with the natives, and are at the present
day by far the most numerous colonists in the Eastern Archipelago.
The better class of Chinese settlers may be described, as enter-
prising, keen, laborious, and persevering; those in trade are expert,
speculative, and judicious. Their intelligence and activity have
obtained for them the management of the public revenue, in almost
every part of the Archipelago; the traffic with the surrounding
foreign states of the Archipelago is principally in their hands. The
majority of these settlers are in Singapore, Java, Penang, and
Borneo.
I
The number of Chinese settlers in the Straits, Eastern Archipe-
lago, Siam, Cochin and China, the Phillipine islands, is probably be-
tween one and two millions. In Siam alone the number is esti-
mated at 500,000; in Borneo at 150,000; in Java 120,000; in
Bauca at the tin mines 50,000; in Singapore 30,000, and so on.
At Singapore they are rapidly reclaiming the jungle from the abode.
of the tiger and the serpent, and substituting plantations and
manufactures of sugar, nutmeg, pepper, cathechu, terra japonica,
sago, &c. No nation is so well adapted for reclaiming and civil-
izing the beautiful, but still almost useless, regions of the Eastern
seas as the Chinese, and under our rule encouragement would be
given to their migrations. The Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese
governments are afraid of Chinese colonists.
When at Amoy, in June, 1845, I found a French barque laden with
Chinese emigrants, bound for Bourbon. I obtained an interview with
the French gentleman who was conveying the labourers, and he
favoured me with a copy of the agreement (which I have given to
Her Majesty's government), signed by himself, and a Mr. F. D.
Syme, an intelligent Scotch merchant, then residing at Amoy.
Monsieur Bocque informed me that he could have obtained any
number of able-bodied useful labourers; that the mandarins ex-
pressed themselves gratified at the poor people getting a prospect
of subsistence, and that not the slightest obstruction was offered:
quite the reverse. M. Bocque had to guard against the Chinese
running away, or jumping overboard, after they had received their
money in advance. Last year he took a cargo of emigrants from
Penang and Singapore to Bourbon, but found them rather trouble-
some characters, hence his present voyage to Amoy. Australia and
our West Indian colonies might be largely supplied with labourers
from China. A respectable gentleman, named Brown, proposed
to convey a ship full of labourers from Hong-Kong to Jamaica,
80
MEAOU-TSZE, OR ABORIGINES.
but a timid and procrastinating policy ultimately defeated the
project.
We know nothing, either as regards the numbers or the con-
dition of the dependent possessions; but among the people sub-
ordinate, allied to, or incorporated with China, one in particular
deserves special notice, viz:-the Meaou-tsze; a word said by Dr.
Morison, to signify "grain growing in a field; the first budding of
any plants; numerous descendants," &c.
These unsubdued tribes are supposed to be the aborigines.
They are divided into forty tribes, and occupy the borders of the
provinces, lying in the western part of the empire, Sze-chuen,
Kwei-choo, Kook-wang, Yun-nan, and Kwang-se. The various
tribes all differ in their way of living, as also in their language;
and although scattered over an immense territory, their national
character as to clanship, is so strong, that some of them who are
in partial subjection to the Chinese government, will forfeit their
allegiance, and openly join the unsubdued portion, in open rebellion
against the Chinese authorities.
The Meaou-tze, have been many years a great source of uneasi-
ness to the government. The Emperor Keen-lung, wasted an im-
mense army for several years, in unsuccessful contests. The Em-
peror Kea-king was compelled to sue for peace from these hardy
mountaineers. In 1832, a rebellion broke out near Leen-choo, on
the frontiers of Kwang-tung, (Canton) province, which proved most
destructive to the imperial army. One dark night the rebels fast-
ened lights on the horns of goats and sheep, and let them loose
about the mountains.
The imperial troops by this diversion were sent to attack the ima-
ginary enemy, when the real one came down in a defile, and com-
mitted dreadful slaughter. Kin-lung, the rebel chief, about the
same time, met the Viceroy of Canton in open battle, and slew
many of his troops, surprised the garrison one night, and fired the
gupowder magazines, so that many thousand Chinese soldiers were
blown up. After campaigning a considerable time, the rebels qui-
etly laid down their arms. The Peking Gazette announced it as a
victory, but the fact was that the Chinese Generals paid a very
large sum of money for this nominal victory, which is the usual
case with the Chinese government.
The Meaou-tsze are of middle-size, excellent horsemen, and have
few traces of the savage in their exterior, although the Chinese
paint them in the worst colors. They manufacture their own
clothes and warlike instruments.
The existence of such a race in the neighbourhood of Canton
province, often spreading terror to Canton city itself, is one of
the numerous proofs of the utter helplessness of the government,
general and local.
A summing up, or general examination, of the Chinese character
and state of society is reserved for the last chapter; when the in-
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
81
ferences to be drawn from the whole of the facts stated will be
more manifest, and when the Christian philanthropist will be ap-
pealed to in aid of extending the means of improving the condi-
tion, and promoting the moral and spiritual welfare, of one-third of
the human race now existing in the immense empire under review,
and with whom we must inevitably be brought into more intimate
association.
CHAPTER III.
AGRICULTURAL, MANUFACTURING, AND MINERAL
PRODUCTS.
Agriculture and Vegetable Productions.-China owes its internal
wealth and extensive population to thrifty and skilful agriculture.
Shin-ning, a celebrated inventor, is said have been the first who
substituted grain for raw meat, and taught the nation cultivation.
The Chinese sovereigns always encouraged agriculture. Wanti
(179 B.C.) even took the plough into his hand; which gave rise to
à festival and custom that is practised to the present day; and by
no former emperors has this branch of industry been encouraged
more than by the present sovereign, Taoukwang. The success of
Chinese agriculture is conveyed in the homely instructions of the
emperor to his children (subjects), viz.: "Keep your lands clean,
manure them richly, and make a farm resemble a garden." No
fields are laid down in pasture; tillage in every practicable spot is
universal: two, three, and four crops are obtained in the year from
the same ground, viz., rice, potatoes, pulse, cabbage, and turnips.
Manure in a liquid state is in extensive use; one of the modes
of preparation is to steep it several months in a reservoir, and when
in a liquid state, it is reduced to cakes, and mixed with putrid vege-
table matter, or with oil-cakes, human hair, or lime from powdered
oyster-shells, ashes, &c.
The provinces which lie to the north and west of China, such as
Chih-li, Shan-se, and Sz-chuen, produce in great abundance wheat,
barley, several kinds of millet, tobacco, peas that are always green,
also black and yellow peas for feeding horses; but in the southern
provinces, these sorts of grain are in no esteem.
The same provinces likewise produce rice, in several places where
G
82
TIMBER.-CAMPHOR TREE.
the earth is dry, but then the crop is not so abundant, besides it is
harder, and requires more boiling than the rice of the southern
provinces, especially How-quang and Che-keang, which produce
great quantities, as the lands lie lower and have plenty of water.
China produces a great variety of vegetables, including turnips
and carrots. Potatoes, except the sweet description, are not en-
couraged. White cabbage is a most excellent vegetable, particu-
larly in the northern provinces, and constitutes the food of poor and
rich; during the winter it is much improved by the frost.
Cotton is grown in Kiang-uan to a great extent: the sugar-cane
in the southern provinces, and especially in Formosa, where the
best sugar in all Asia is produced. Of grains, rice grows in most
of the provinces, except the cold ones, where wheat and barley
thrive. As the Chinese are great smokers, tobacco is cultivated
with much care. Pulse is in abundance, as food for man and
beast.
The camphor tree, a species of laurel, is peculiar to China and
Japan, for it is not known whether the camphor tree of Borneo
and Sumatra is the same. To obtain the camphor, the branches
are cut off, steeped in water, and then boiled. The camphor forms
a sediment, which is refined, and then brought to market. There
are whole forests of this tree in Formosa; in China itself, it is
found only in a few districts. Its wood makes excellent furniture,
and is proof against insects. The cassia tree grows in great abun-
dance in Yun-nan province. The bark is stripped off and dried;
that of a brownish-red colour is best. Great quantities of this
bark are exported from Canton, as it serves all the purposes of ex-
pensive cinnamon.
There is in general a great want of timber; the oak is scarce, but
the fir-tree supplies its place; the sapanwood, a tree peculiar to
China, is inferior to fir. With the exception of the mountainous
districts, there are few forests in the country, for every inch of
available ground is made into arable land. Mantchoo Tartary
abounds in primeval forests, whilst Chih-li does not produce suffi-
cient timber to make rafters for houses. In Fokien, the dwellings
are of solid granite, and sometimes not a piece of wood is to be
seen in the whole construction. The iron-wood, which is used for
anchors, and various other purposes, is met with in China; but
teak is not indigenous. The le-pih la-shoo, wax tree, is an extra-
ordinary production. The sweet blossoms attract an insect, simi-
lar to our bee, which is an industrious wax manufacturer, as long
as the blossoms remain. The tallow-tree resembles the birch-tree
the bark is white, the branches slender, and the leaves of a dark
green. The fruit grows in bunches, and is inclosed in a brown
capsule, which contains three kernels, every one of which is coated
with tallow; the kernel contains a great quantity of oil, which is
pressed out and used for the lamp. It grows in Kiang-se, Keang-
nan, and Che-keang, and is one of the most useful trees which the
RICE CULTIVATION.
83
country produces. The varnish-tree resembles the ash. When
the tree is full grown, several horizontal incisions are made in the
trunk, and oyster-shells are there placed to receive the oil deposited
during the night. The paper-tree resembles the fig-tree; the rind
is peeled off and made into paper.
The great article of consumption throughout China is rice, of
which there are three varieties; the red, the small, and the large
rice, together with the dry, and the glutinous; the two latter are
grown on dry and usually hilly spots. The great requisites in
raising rice are water and manure. The average size of the fields is
from four to six acres. After ploughing and harrowing, and com-
pletely pulverizing the soil, and reducing it to mud, it is fit for
sowing. A few days before the rice is sown, it is first steeped in
liquid manure: the shoots may be seen in three days after setting;
when the water is gradually drawn off. When about six inches
high the plants are all transplanted to fresh ground, and again
covered with water, until near harvest-time. In some districts the
division of labour is so well carried out, that the husbandmen pur-
chase the rice plant from a nurseryman, or rearer of the vegetable,
when it is ready for transplanting; thus time is saved for the land,
while it has been employed growing other crops, and the nursery-
man is responsible for the good quality of the seed-plant. The
usual period from seed-time to harvest is six months for a crop of
rice. When one crop is cut, or even before that period, another is
planted, or rather transplanted, the same day probably. The in-
crease is calculated at about thirty-fold. The average wages for
the labourer's work of transplanting (up to their knees in mud
and water) are thirteen cents per day. The straw of the rice, called
"paddy" straw, is converted into brooms and brushes, and also
largely exported. The importation of rice from America is increas-
ing; the average importation is about fifty-five million pounds.
weight.
A separate account of the growth and manufacture of tea will be
given in a subsequent part of this work, when treating of the com-
merce of China.
The Chinese may more properly be called gardeners than agri-
culturalists, as the space allotted to each family is very small, and
on this they must subsist. A Chinaman, in the country parts, is
seldom seen without a basket and rake, with which he collects any-
thing in the shape of manure; Chinese have been seen dressed in
silk, following the buffaloes and hogs, to collect whatever is dropped.
They convey sand a long distance to mix with a heavy soil, and
loam to put on that which is too loose. In winter, the soil is fre-
quently thrown up in large heaps, after being mixed with manure;
but it is never allowed to remain fallow long. A small grass bor-
der divides one field from another. Their domestic animals are
confined to one particular place at a time by a rope: only those
that are required for agriculture arc kept, as the Chiucse have a
G 2
84
CATTLE. SHEEP. HORSES.
horror of using the milk of any animal. Fowls are raised in great
quantities, and fattened to an amazing size. Domestic cattle are
scarce; the cow is seldom bred for food, but is used, as is also the
buffalo, extensively in agriculture. Horses are small, compactly
built, and hardy; they are only employed for carriage.
The Emperor of China has at all times in the country of the
Kalkas twenty thousand camels, and immense herds of horses; and
camels are furnished as tribute by the Sounites and Kalkas. These
are kept for service in time of war, and are separated into herds.
Each herd consists of three hundred camels, with one chief superin-
tendant. Every six years there is an inspection. During peace,
the camels are employed in conveying grain from Ele and Gobdo,
where great quantities are cultivated by the convicts. The average
stock of other animals in the western frontier belonging to the Em-
peror is said to be 40,000 oxen and 180,000 sheep; of horses 230
studs, each containing 300. The good horses at four years old are
sent to Peking; the remainder are at the disposal of the war de-
partment and the post conveyance.
The ox or
A farmer in China who occupies eight or ten acres of land is
considered a large cultivator; so that the implements required for
this garden, as it may be called, are not numerous, nor expensive.
The le, or plough, is made of hard wood, except the iron that de-
fends the share, and is drawn by a single buffalo; and in some pro-
vinces of China very little used, as the rice fields are too marshy
and wet to require a plough. The harrow (pa) is to divide and
pulverize the rice grounds, so as to reduce them almost to the con-
sistence of jelly; the teeth are about ten inches long.
horse, either of Europe or China, would never be able to perform
this laborious work, hence the buffalo is always employed. The
hoe (cha) is made of wood, except the guard of iron at the edge of
the blade; this implement is the most general one in use, and
women may be seen using it in angles and small places where the
harrow will not reach. The spade (reo), is made of wood and iron
like the hoe, and is chiefly used in repairing the dykes which se-
parate the fields. The bamboo rake, for gleaning the fields, or for
collecting manure in the streets, may be said to be the vade-mecum
of the Chinese. The leen, or bill-hook, in spring answers for a
pruning knife, in summer as a scythe, in harvest-time as a sickle;
the blade is about fourteen inches long and rather thick.
Irrigation is a matter of special attention; the water is conveyed
by canals and conduits to the field, from the nearest stream. The
rice is ripe in May, is cut with a reaping hook. and thrashed in
the field by striking the sheaf against the side of a large tub; the
flail is sometimes in use, and it is precisely similar to that in use
in England. It is not an uncommon thing to plant a second crop
of rice in the same ground while the first is growing, and near ma-
turity; hence the field when reaped has a fine green appearance.
FARMING IMPLEMENTS.
85
The soil is laid under heavy contribution, but it is well manured
and irrigated.
The farmers make use of a sowing machine, which has a resem-
blance to the common plough in use in Europe; it has three hollow
teeth, with iron supports. Above the wheels is placed a box, from
the bottom of which the seed falls through the teeth, which are
about nine inches in length, constantly following the motion
of the plough in the furrows. In place of a harrow is a wooden
roller, which covers the seed. The most singular feature about
their agricultural implements, is their lightness; for instance, the
plough can be conveniently carried on a man's shoulder.
Carts for carrying manure or produce are not absolutely required,
except in the northern provinces, where the canals and boats are
not numerous. Those employed by the farmers, have no spokes to
their wheels. The instruments in use for extracting the oil from
seeds are numerous. One made on the principle of a trip-hammer
falls into a wooden bowl in which the seeds are placed. The same
principle is also extended, and several hammers are elevated by a
long cylinder, which is turned by means of a water-wheel.
seeds are placed in a trough, and the machine requires very little
attention. Simplicity and cheapness are very conspicuous in all
their arts and manufactures; to economise time or labour, is quite
foreign to the Chinese.
The
The
The bridges over the canals are built of stone, some of them have
arches that are high and beautifully constructed. Those over the
grand canal would do credit to any nation. There is one that is
said to have ninety arches. To pass stationary bridges, the masts
of the boats are so constructed as to let down at pleasure.
banks of the canals, seldom require facing as in Europe, as the
boats are mostly propelled by a scull. Where the tide ascends,
sluicegates are erected in the banks of the adjoining fields, which
allow every tide to cover the grain, just as the farmer wishes, and
the water can be retained or let off at pleasure. Strength and
solidity are quite apparent in all their stone bridges; wooden bridges
are numerous over the rivers and canals.
The laws which regulate agriculture, and the transfer of lands,
&c., are the same as those laid down by Confucius. The Emperor
is the universal owner, so that all lands are held in occupation from
him. The occupier can be dispossessed at pleasure. The chief se-
curity a Chinese farmer has in the possession of his land, is his
means of cultivating it. When this is the case, a spot of land will
descend from father to son, for many generations. Many farmers
lease out a portion of their land, the rent of which is partly paid in
kind. By far more than one half of the cultivated land in China
is held in this manner. There is no law against mortgages, except
land held by soldiers, which cannot be mortgaged. On applying
for unregistered land, the applicant must prove that he possesses the
86
SILK BREEDING THE WORM.
means to cultivate it. There are no fishing privileges, nor game
laws. The land-tax is paid in kind and in money, and remitted in
seasons of distress. Evading the land-tax by a false pretence is
punished by blows and confiscation.
SILK.-The Chinese annals date their knowlege of the silk-worm
to B.C. 2,700. Marco Polo, who resided in China for a considerable
time in the thirteenth century, states that he saw, at one period,
one thousand carriages and pack horses enter Peking laden with
raw silk. This is not improbable, for at the present day, upwards.
of 300 junks are said to be sent annually to Peking from two pro-
vinces, Kiang-si and Che-Keang, alone, laden with wrought silks,
satins, velvets, and costly garments, independent of immense quan-
tities of raw silk, conveyed from other provinces as tribute.
The quantity produced must be large, as it is only the super-
abundant supply that is sent to Europe, and as it is more or
less in use by every inhabitant who lays any claim to respectability;
every government officer must have by him several silk over-
dresses, (official) independent of his private wardrobe. Three or
four silk dresses over each other is usual in winter.
Silk is the production of the phalaena, or mulberry-moth, and
its original locality appears to be China. The substance which
the animal spins to protect itself when in the pupa state, is the
silk, which before it is dyed, is a bright yellow color. The time
that elapses while the worm is undergoing its changes, varies
according to the state of the weather, and the quantity of nourish-
ment with which it is supplied. The Chinese are most particular
on this head, as on this depends the quantity of silk which the
worm will produce. The Chinese calculate that the same number
of insects, which would, if they had attained their full size, in twenty-
five days, produce twenty-five ounces of silk, would only yield twenty
ounces, if their growth occupied thirty days, and only ten ounces if
forty days. During the first twenty-four hours of its existence, the
Chinese feed it every half hour, or forty-eight times; the second
day, thirty times; and so on, reducing the meals as the worm grows,
The place selected for their habitation, must be quite free from
noise or disagreeable smell, the bark of a dog or the crow of a
cock disturbs them; females attend to the worms in China; pre-
vious to entering their chamber the woman is required to have
washed herself thoroughly, and all her clothing; and not to have
eaten anything that would cause her breath to have a disagreeable
smell, as the insects must be carefully humoured before the first
time of casting their slough.
When in the caterpillar state, the silk-worm changes its
coat four times, and previous to each moult eats nothing. When
its nest is finished, and it has changed into the pupa state, the
Cocoons are removed from the place where the animal had formed
them; and after those which it is intended to keep, that they may
perfect their changes, and lay eggs for the ensuing year, arc
+
ENCOURAGEMENT OF SILK PRODUCTION.
87
removed, the remainder are put in large earthern vessels, and
covered with a warm blanket; they are then exposed to a heat
that is sufficient to destroy the life of the pupa.
The earliest account on record, of the introduction of the silk-
worm into Europe was in 550 A.D. when two Nestorians returned
from China with some of the eggs of the insect, concealed in the head
of a walking-stick. And having got a knowledge of the process of
rearing the worm, and manufacturing the silk; they disposed of
their secret to the Emperor Justinian, so that the cultivation of the
worm became general all over Greece. The quantity to be ob-
tained from China may be very largely increased.
The Chinese government are solicitous for the extension of the
production of the raw material and the following proclamation
thereon is translated from the Chinese :
:
"Wan-choo-tung, commissioner of revenue of the Kiang-nan
provinces, hereby issues a proclamation for general information.
"It is well known that from ancient times until now, agriculture
and the cultivation of the mulberry have both been regarded as of
the highest importance; being not only the sources from which
the food and clothing of the people are derived, but the greatest
advantages accrue to the whole empire. When the produce of
agriculture is deficient, then that of the mulberry supplies it: thus
in the instruction of Tsz-yushi (one of the worthies of high anti-
quity) we read, 'let the husbandman attend to his grain, and the
women to their cloth, and the super-abundance of the one will
supply the deficiencies of the other.' The Kiang-soo province is
heavily taxed, and the population is rapidly increasing. The
extent of land remains the same; and with droughts and inunda-
tions, the calamities of war have caused the rich to become poor,
while the arrears of taxes are daily accumulating. No plan can be
better adopted than the cultivation of the mulberry.
"Also, this province is contiguous to Kia-king and Ku-chau, which
yearly reap great advantages from silk; yet the people will not
attend to their own interests. I can point out five great advantages
to be derived from it. The husbandman is heavily taxed, but the
mulberry pays no tax; and the first great advantage is, to be free
from the annoyance of the tax-gatherer. The tops of the walls,
corners of ground, and along paths, will do for planting the tree; and
this is the second advantage. The time occupied will be only two
months, and this is a great contrast to the husbandman, whose toil
is incessant, and his crops exposed to droughts, &c.; this is the
third advantage. Feeding the worm and preparing the cocoons is
suited to female labour, and will not interfere with the labour of
the plough; this is the fourth great advantage. There is free
trade at Shanghai, and the sale of silk has greatly increased; and
not, as formerly, having to wait for the silk merchants, who sold
it far away in Kwang-tung (Canton), the fruits of their labour
will be early repaid; and this is the fifth great advantage.
88
HATCHING FISH-SPAWN.
"These benefits are obvious to the dullest and most ignorant; but
people delight to gaze and look on, and are involved in doubt, in
contemplating an enterprize; but we, more alive to the hardships
of the times, do not disdain or dislike, again and again to com-
mand and exhort you. We command all our officers to assemble
the village gentry and elders, and let them admonish the people,
and lay down the best rules, and have them published with de-
scriptive plates. We in haste proclaim our commands to soldiers,
and all people of the province: do not be doubtful and slothful,
the exertion required is small; let the father instruct his child,
and the husband his wife; then shall we see the men at the plough,
and the females at the loom; and no labourer will be unemployed,
and no resources of the soil lost. The condition of the people will
improve, and the state treasury will be full; all will enjoy happi-
ness that will surpass the felicity of peace. That this will be
realized, I, the commissioner, have the most ardent expectations;
so let none oppose an earnest and special proclamation.
"Taou-Kwang, 24th year, 10th month, and 30th day.
CC
Shanghai, January, 1845."
Grossius says, there is in China an insect which resembles the
caterpillar, and is entirely different from the silk-worm. They
propagate with any care, and are very numerous in the province
of Canton. Although partial to the mulbery, they will feed on
other trees. These insects differ from the silk-worm, as they do
not spin their silk circularly; they produce it in filaments and long
threads, which being carried away by the wind, are caught by the
trees and bushes.
The Chinese collect these threads, and make a stuff called kien-
tcheau, which is inferior in lustre to those made of silk; it is like
drugget; and is much esteemed for its durability, and washing
like linen. These insects are of two kinds; one are larger and
blacker than European silk-worms; the other are smaller. The
silk of the first is of a reddish gray; that of the second is blacker;
and the cloth made of them partakes of both these colours.
Hatching eggs by artificial heat is well known, and extensively
practised in China; as is, also, the hatching of fish. The sale of spawn
for this purpose forms an important branch of trade in China.
The fishermen collect, with care, on the margin and surface of
water all the gelatinous matters that contain spawn of fish, which
is then placed in an egg-shell, which has been fresh emptied, through
a small hole, which is then stopped, and the shell is placed under a
setting fowl. In a few days, the Chinese break the shell in warm
water (warmed by the sun). The young fish are then kept in
water until they are large enough to be placed in a pond. This
plan in some measure counteracts the great destruction of spawn
by troll-nets, which have caused the extinction of many fisheries.
The introduction and use of tobacco in China are evidently of
1.
TOBACCO. LIME.
89
modern date, as it is not found in the Pun-Tsaou, or Chinese
Herbal. It is called yere (smoke), and is cultivated in every pro-
vince of China; it differs from the American materially, as it is
very mild. All classes use it, including boys, girls, and grown
females. Manufactories are numerous in Canton of what is called
paper cigars. The fibre and veins are cut out of the leaf, which is
first moistened, and put in a screw-press.
The workman has a
large plane, with an ingeniously contrived moveable box on the top,
to retain the tobacco as the plane cuts the leaves. An expert
workman will make 1000 of these cigars in one day. Their average
price is from two to five cents per hundred.
In the neighbourhood of Canton, lime is obtained, from the ani-
mal kingdom, and fossil shells furnish almost the whole of what is
used; hundreds of boats are employed in dredging for shells in the
shallows of the delta of the Pearl river. It is said they are thus
procured, everywhere between the Bogue and Macao; they would
be found elsewhere if the people had the means of procuring them
from the deep water.
The mode of calcination adopted, is to mark out a circular piece
of ground, and enclose it with a stone wall, about three feet high.
In the centre, which is lower than the sides, a fire-place is built,
connected with the outside by a draught which is underground; a
fly-wheel is hung at the outside at the mouth of the pipe, to supply
the place of a bellows, and so contrived with a treddle that a man
can keep up a draught with his feet. The fire-wood is then placed in
a pyramid from over the central fire-place; the shells are then placed
on the wood, clean and dry; by keeping up a constant blast the
shells are calcined in about ten hours; when cool it is sifted and
pounded for sale. Enquiries have been made to know if the
Chinese are aware of the true properties of limestone, and it does
not appear they are; certainly in the neighbourhood of Canton, they
are ignorant of the limestone.
MANUFACTURES AND TRADES OF CHINA.-We are unable to
understand fully the various branches of manufacture in China, by
reason of our limited knowledge of the country; and all that can be
done at present, is to collect information from every source and lay
the foundation for future observation. With the exception of por-
celain, silks, embroidery, and lacquered ware, there are few manufac-
tures conducive to luxury; but in all those branches of art neces-
sary to the comfort of life, the Chinese have made considerable pro-
gress. There is little or no machinery anywhere perceptible; all is
done by hand, even the grinding of corn is chiefly by manual
labour; but a mill for expressing oil from seeds, moved by oxen,
and a chain pump for conveying water from canals or ditches into
fields for irrigation, worked by men or oxen, are everywhere ob-
servable.
Porcelain is made of two different kinds of stone, the Pe-tun-tsze,
and Kaou-lin; the latter of a whitish, the former of a greenish
90
PORCELAIN. PAPER.
cast. They are pulverized in a mortar, and the substance refined
and made into paste. It is then kneaded, rolled, and wrought into
a solid substance, to make the ware close and compact. The potter
cither moulds or forms with a wheel, and afterwards finishes with a
chisel. When dried, the ware are painted with a white mineral oil,
which adds to their transparency and beauty. They are finally
painted with the requisite colours. To heighten or vary the glaz-
ing of the pih-yew, or white oil, it is usually mixed with oil of
lime, fern ashes, and various other mineral varnishes, according to
the design of the potter. Mineral colours alone are sufficiently
durable to stand the progress of burning in the oven. The fur-
naces in use are about two fathoms high, and four in width, with
several holes in the top, and are constructed of brick and china-
ware. The greatest art consists in baking the porcelain vessels;
for if the heat of the oven be not well tempered, the whole set is
destroyed, which with all their care frequently occurs.
It is an
article of great consumption in China, and yields a good profit to
the manufacturer.
The manufacture of paper consumes large quantities of bamboo.
The stalks are cut close to the ground and sorted; the younger the
bamboo, the better is the quality of the paper made of it. The
bamboo is first placed in a reservoir of mud and water, and re-
mains there for two or three weeks. It is then cut in pieces and
put in a mortar, with a little water, and pounded into pulp with
wooden pestles. This mass, after being cleansed of the coarse parts,
is put into a tub of water, and additions of the bamboo are made,
until the whole becomes a sufficient consistence to form paper.
A workman then takes up a sheet with a mould of the proper di-
mensions, the bottom of which is constructed of bamboo, cut in
slips and made smooth round, like wire. The pulp is kept con-
stantly stirred. When the sheets are taken up, they are placed on
tables to dry. According to some who have witnessed the manu-
facture of paper, it is said the sheets when taken up are placed on
heated plates of iron, and sized by dipping the sheets in a solution
of fish-glue and alum, either during or after the first process of
making it. The sheets are made from three to four feet long and
about two in breadth. The paper made in the northern provinces.
is whiter, and superior in every respect; it is said to be made of
cotton and some portion of the mulberry tree; the price is about
one dollar per ream, medium size; great quantities are used in their
sacrifices; it is a large item in the inland commerce.
In the suburbs of Peking is a village, entirely occupied by a class
of people who collect old scraps of paper, no matter how dirty or
stained. The coarse and fine are separated, and well washed on a
stone flag near some running stream. When well washed, they
beat them into a pulp or thin jelly; and by means of a mould
form them into sheets, and afterwards place them against the
INK. PRINTING.
ENGRAVING.
91
whitened walls surrounding their habitations, where the sun dries
them in a short time.
Chinese paper-hats are made from bamboo, which is beaten into
pulp, and then mixed with a portion of some glutinous substance,
supposed to be agar-agar, or sea-weed, the same article with
which lanterns are made. These hats from the lightness are
admirably adapted for the climate, and are preferable to straw hats,
inasmuch as the hat is less pervious to the rays of the sun. They are
covered with silk in the usual way, and sold for something less
than a dollar.
The ink universally used in China, and known in this country as
Indian ink, is made by placing a number of wicks lighted in a ves-
sel filled with oil. A cover, something like a bee-hive, is hung over
the flame, on which is collected the smoke, or lamp black: when
brushed off, it is then mixed with gum and made into paste and
formed into different shapes. There are modes of making an in-
ferior description from the smoke of the fir timber; but it is not so
intensely black nor so free from grittiness; as the Chinese write
with a brush, this ink answers all purposes. A small portion of
musk is blended with it, which preserves it and also gives an
agreeable smell.
According to the best authorities the art of printing was known
in China upwards of 900 years ago. In the time of Confucius B.C.
500, books were formed of slips of bamboo; and about 150 years
after Christ, paper was first made: A.D. 745, books were bound
into leaves: A.D. 900, printing was in general use. The process of
printing is simple. The materials consist of a graver, blocks of
wood, and a brush, which the printers carry with them from place
to place. Without wheel, or wedge, or screw, a printer will throw
off more than 2,500 impressions in one day. The paper (thin)
can be bought for one fourth the price in China that it can in any
other country. The works of Confucius, six volumes, four hundred
leaves, octavo, can be bought for ninepence. For an historical
novel, twenty volumes, one thousand five hundred leaves, half-a-
crown is the price amongst the Chinese.
K
In wood and ivory engraving, the Chinese are not behind Eu-
ropeans; and what would cost two or three pounds sterling in Lon-
don, could be done in China for three or four shillings. The beauty
and finish of their tortoiseshell, ebony, and mother of pearl, is too
well known to require description. The rapidity with which the
Chinese cut their characters for printing is truly surprising; when
a book is to be printed, the characters are written on a sheet of
paper, and transferred to a block of wood which is quite smooth,
to which it adheres; when the paper is removed, the writing is
found to adhere to the glutinous paste with which the block has
been covered. The engraver then cuts all the strokes which run
level; then the oblique, and afterwards the perpendicular ones.
92
LACQUER WARE. GLASS BLOWING.
throughout the whole line; he then cuts the centre parts, and thus
completes a block with probably one hundred characters on it, for
which he is paid sixpence; this is an ordinary day's work.
Lacquer ware perhaps is the most extensive article of Chinese
fancy wares. After the wood is joined, the seams and sometimes
the whole surface is covered with thin paper, (not canvass as in
Europe), which is made to adhere by the use of hogs-lard. When
dry this is smeared over with a paste made of clay, which when dry
is as hard as a stone: it is next smoothed with a pummice or whit
stone; the varnish is then laid on, an operation that must be re-
peated several times. The etchings for figures are done by throw-
ing a fine powder upon a piece of paper, which is drilled with
minute holes to form the outlines of the picture; and by these
dots, the shape of the several objects is traced. The gold is then
applied in a powdered state with a dossil of cotton.
Glass-blowing. The crucible is a cylindrical hole in the side of
a mass of masonry, heated by a fire below. It slants downwards
and backwards, for the sake of holding the melted glass. The
blow-pipe is about three feet long, and an inch in diameter. It
has a bulb in the lower extremity, which forms the point of attach-
ment for the glass. The workman inserts this into the melted
glass, and turns it round on it own axis several times, to collect a
certain quantity upon the end. He then takes it out, and smooths
and rounds the ball with a spatula. This process is several times
repeated before sufficient has been taken up; he then blows with
his mouth, and subsequently takes the blow-pipe to a pair of bellows
placed upon two beams, and applies its extremity to the tube that
point downwards, while a third person moves the piston.
In this way, gravity is made to accelerate the expansion of the
glass. A pit in the floor allows room for the dilation of the beau-
tiful spheroid that is soon formed by the action of the bellows.
Sometimes the spheroid of six or ten feet in length is formed by
one man with the blow-pipe, who keeps up a continued action on
the globe of solid glass until it has obtained this great size. In
an establishment which I visited at Canton, the glass-blower had
the blood vessels of his face and neck so enlarged, that instant
death will probably one day occur in the midst of his occupation.
Two persons are employed; one plies a fan to cool the man at the
furnace, the other blows the bellows to expand the glass. As char-
coal is used, it is not deemed necessary to use the bellows or blow-
pipe. The spheroid of thin glass is, by means of a paper model,
marked with ink into panes, which are flattened in an oven after-
wards; each pane of glass, when heated, being placed on a flat
stone, and smoothed with a metal rod. These panes of glass or
plates are intended for looking glasses, of which immense quan-
tities are in use. The glass is very thin, but perfectly transparent.
There are many glass establishments to be seen in and about Can-
ton, but none of them are on an extensive scale.
SPANGLES. METALLIC WARE.
93
Large quantities of flints are now imported into Canton, and
have thus almost superseded the sale of broken glass-once a con-
siderable article of export to China. The Chinese will probably
establish manufactories on a great scale. They cut and grind
glass with great dexterity, and in beautiful shapes.
Spangles as an article of ornament, are in great demand
among the Chinese, and manufactured on a very simple plan.
Copper wire is cut into lengths, and, with the aid of a pair of nip-
pers, bent into rings, which are then beaten out as our gold-beaters
do their gold leaf. Shoes must necessarily be an article of extensive
manufacture among so large a population who all cover their feet.
The shoe-shops have a very attractive appearance, from the paint-
ing and embroidery with which they are finished; and as tall ladies
are much admired in China, the shoe-maker can hide any defect in
this respect by making the soles one or two inches thick, which
is about the average size. Felted paper and the buffalo leather are
principally used. The leather is bad, porous, and ill-suited to any
but an eastern climate. A good deal of inferior-tanned leather is
imported from Manilla.
In the manufacture of pewter vessels, the pewter is first prepared
in sheets, and in this state hammered into pots, vases, tea-pots, and
every article of domestic utensil. A block of about two feet high,
and one and a half in diameter, is sunk in the floor. Upon this
the double pewter is moulded to the desired shape. Shops for the
disposal and manufacture of this article are very numerous; and
are laid out to the best advantage for display. Copper ware, such
as jars, bottles, drinking cups, and every necessary domestic article,
is made of thin copper. They are painted various colours, and
have a very tasteful appearanee, somewhat resembling porcelain.
Many articles for domestic use are made of a metal termed "white
copper," which has the appearance of silver.
Bricks and tiles are manufactured in every part of China; and
the former are invariably of a peculiar blue colour.
Fire-proof houses are used in China. The tiles are laid on the
rafters in rows, alternately concave and convex, forming ridges and
furrows, luted by a cement of stiff clay. These tiles over-lap each
other, but not so as to form two complete layers. The Chinese
consider these roofs perfectly fire-proof.
Stone-cutting is a very large branch of trade, particularly in the
southern provinces. The artizans split and shape stone with great
dexterity; some blocks of granite for pillars which I measured,
were thirty feet long, and split thus from the quarry as even as if
they had been sawn timber. The grain or vein of the stone is as-
certained, and with iron wedges along a line thus traced, the hardest
granite is split like slate.
The grinding mill is very simple, for it is without wheel or
pinion. One stone is placed upon the ground, while the upper
turns upon an axis, which passes through the centre of both. The
94
GRINDING MILL. CHAIN PUMP.
stones are about four feet in diameter. A staff is fastened to the
edge of the stone; from which the traces lead to the neck of the
ox that turns it. This staff is attached by its middle, and is
capable of revolving horizontally, to allow the ox some freedom in
his movements. Owing to the slow movements of the stones, the
flour is coarse. The hopper used for distributing the grain between
the stones, is in the shape of a funnel, with a stick placed across
the centre. This, by means of a string that confines it to the wall,
slopes and forms a hollow cone as the hopper turns round. Down
the sides of this funnel the wheat trickles, and finds its way
through the centre of the upper stone to the space between it and
the nether mill-stone. By a centrifugal force, the ground-corn is
thrown towards the circumference. and drops from between the
edges of the stone upon a ledge that runs round the nether mill-
stone. As many as five of their mills may be seen at work in one
house or yard: it is said that the operation of grinding corn by
water power is in use in the interior of the country.
A chain pump is in general use for raising water to irrigate the
fields; it consists of a hollow trough or trunk, of a square make.
Flat and square pieces of wood, corresponding to the dimensions of
the cavity of the trunk, are fixed to a chain, which turns over a
roller or small wheel, placed at each extremity of the trunk. The
square pieces of wood fixed to the chain move with it round the
rollers, and lift up a quantity of water, equal to the dimensions of
the hollow trunk. The power used in working the machine is
applicable in three different ways if the machine be intended to
lift a great quantity of water, several sets of wooden arms are made
to project from various parts of the lengthened axis of the roller,
over which the chain and lifter turn. These arms are shaped
like the letter T, and made round and smooth for the foot to
rest on. Buffaloes and men work the pumps.
Lanterns are in universal use in China, and the manufacture of
them employs many thousands of men, women, and children. The
frame is made of bamboo splinters, and woven on frames of diffe-
rent sizes, chiefly by females. The workman then arranges all the
interstices which are generally large, and stiffens them with glue,
and covers the lantern with coarse paper, which becomes trans-
parent by an application of a coat of varnish, the material of which
is found on the rocky shores of Hainan. The above are those in
common use, and are sold at the low price of six cents.
The lanterns used by distinguished officers, are made of similar
materials, but finished in the most costly style, and emblazoned
with their titles. Those carried by private persons have their
names written on them. Shop-keepers use them on a large scale,
so that at night some streets have the appearance of an illumina-
tion. There is no article probably in which the Chinese display
so much ingenuity; and at the annual "Feast of Lanterns" the
display is very striking. They are made in the shape of various
animals, fish, or birds.
CANDLES. STUCCO.
STOVES.
95
The Chinese candles are not unlike the segment of a cone, and
are lighted at the broad end: the wick is a small stick or hollow
reed, round which cotton thread, or the pith of a rush, is wrapped.
One end of the reed or stick, serves for fixing on the candlestick,
which is made with the point to enter into the hollow. The light
produced is very bright and clear; and as the wick is solid, and
changes while burning into a hard carbon, it is not easily snuffed ;
scissors made for the purpose are used.
A substitute for stone or brick pavements is made by mixing
sifted sand with quicklime in the proportion of 14 to 1, and tho-
roughly working them as if making mortar; it is then spread out
and well beaten with a broad wooden mallet, and occasionally
sprinkled with water; when dry it is a close and solid pavement.
The materials for building walls is the same, only that the gravel is
much coarser. In building a house the foundation is marked out
in the usual manner, and sunk some eighteen or twenty inches;
posts are then sunk on both inner and outer sides according to the
required thickness; into this casement, is poured the mortar, and
pressed in the most solid manner, one coat over the other, until a
sufficient height. Where bricks are scarce and dear, this mode of
building is generally adopted.
The Chinese stove called kang, consists of a furnace, a pipe for
the heat, a brick stove, and two funnels for the smoke. The fur-
nace is proportioned to the size of the stove it is intended to heat.
The lowest part is the ash-hole; next the cellar; then the furnace,
having a slit or mouth, that conveys the flame and heat into the
stove by a pipe or conductor for the heat, beginning at the mouth
of the furnace, and forming a channel which falls in a right angle
on a second, that goes quite through under the middle of the floor;
and this last pipe has vent holes here and there.
The stove is a pavement made of bricks, which being supported
at the four corners by solid piles, a hollow space is formed between
them and the under pavement, where the heat remains pent-up,
and warms the floor. The smoke funnels are at both ends of the
stove, with a little opening on the stove, and another outward, which
carries off the smoke.
The heat of the furnace, impelled by the outward air, and at-
tracted by the rarefied air of the stove, rushes through the stove by
the vent holes, heats the bricks, and from them the whole room.
The smoke which has a free passage, is carried off by the funnels.
The furnace may be placed either within or without the house;
the middle classes have it in an adjoining room; the rich have it
outside the house. The furnace is in the form of a cone some-
what arched, that the activity of the heat and flame may be all im-
pelled into the stove, and not fly off when the aperture at the top is
left open. The opening in the furnace is narrow, and the lower
end of the conductor must go quick into the stove.
The ground or flooring of the stove is generally composed of
bricks placed edgewise. The Chinese cement them with a compo-
96
PAWNBROKERS ESTABLISHMENTS.
sition, consisting of varnish and vegetable oil. The chief advan-
tage of these stoves is, that any kind of fuel will heat them; seacoal
is pounded fine and mixed with yellow clay, into the form of bricks,
by which plan there is a saving of coals; and the seacoal thus
tempered is less offensive. The stove is similar to those used by
the ancient Romans.
Pawnbrokers in China.-The establishments of Pawnbrokers are
distinct from many shops, and very numerous in China. The
licensed shops are divided into three classes.
Those who pos-
sess large capital, and are licensed to grant loans to any amount,
are placed under strict regulations. They allow three years.
to redeem pledges, with a grace of three months; and have to pay
largely for their license, besides being subject to an annual tax.
They must give three years notice of retiring from business. Infe-
rior pawnbrokers are licensed to allow only two years to redeem,
and others again of a still lower description may sell off their
pledges after one year. Persons carrying on business without a
license are liable to severe punishment. The length of time al-
lowed by law for the redemption of pledges, proves very injurious
to them, as the articles must often lose their value within such pro-
tracted periods,-the only reason assigned for this anomaly is
that such is the law. If a pawnbroker suffer from fire originating
in his own premises, he is not exonerated from the responsibility of
refunding to his customers the value of any article pledged and
destroyed by fire. But when fire is communicated to the pawn-
broker's shop from a neighbour's, he is only to make good half the
amount of loss.
The Pawnbroker, according to law can demand from the first to
the ninth month inclusive two per cent per month on sums of
ten taels and upwards; and three per cent per month on smaller
sums; but during the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth months only one
and a half per cent per month, for sums of ten taels and upwards,
and two per cent on smaller sums.
The establishments are frequently on a very large scale; one that
I minutely examined at Shanghai, required an hour to go through
the different departments; the goods were classified, and so well
arranged, that any pawned goods could be immediately found by a
wooden label hanging from the end of the compact bundle, with
the name of the person, the date of the pawn, and the amount
for which the goods were pawned. Many of the poorer classes
pawn their winter clothes when summer has arrived, and their
summer ones at the beginning of winter; their clothes are thus care-
fully preserved, and they get the use of the money thus obtained.
Whale Fishing in China.-During the months of January and
February, whales and their young resort to the coast of China,
especially to the leeward of Hailing Shain, in great numbers; and
during those months they are pursued by the Chinese belonging to
Hainen and the neighbouring islands with considerable success.
!
WAGES OF LABOUR.
97
The fish is covered with barnacles, and their object in resorting to
that coast is probably to obtain food, and to roll on the numerous
sand banks on the coast, and clean their skin of the barnacles.
Besides the coast abounds with squid, cuttle, and blubber fish.
Sixty of the whaling or fishing boats may be seen scattered over
the bays at once. The boats are well adapted for following up
the fish, as they may be turned rouud quickly, and make very little
noise. They are of different sizes, the smallest about three tons, the
largest twenty five, which carry two small boats on deck, and a
crew of twelve men. On the bow is a crooked piece of timber,
which serves as a rest for the harpoon, and enables the harponeer
to stretch well over the bow.
The harpoon has only one barb; the line is made of native hemp,
and is about sixty fathoms long, and about five inches in circum-
ference. Great length of line is not required by them, for there is
shoal water along the coast for many miles to seaward. A number
of boats start at daylight, and spread themselves in different
directions; the first boat that sees a whale blowing, lowers the
sails and unships the rudder, which is the signal for the other
boats to come to their aid. They strike the fish a little behind
the blowhole, on the top of the back. With eight or ten harpoons
in it, the whale does not live more than two hours, and is then
floated to the shore; the whales average about fifty barrels of oil.
English whalers and Americans now fish as far north in the China
seas as Japan, and it is said that this gigantic creature is taking
refuge from his pursuers in the Southern Ocean by migrating
to the Northern Pacific. I saw English whaling vessels recently
on the coast of Siam and Cochin China, pursuing their adventurous
calling with great success.
In order to ascertain the wages of labour, and cost of food, the
following answers were returned to my queries by Dr. Gutzlaff :
Wages of labour of the lowest description in Canton and in other
provinces ?—60 cash per day and food, even 40 in the north, during
bad times. Canton much better in similar cases, 80-90, as far as
400 cash, which is considered very high, and given to men that
are well versed in their profession. Not 20, however, in the
north; where I never heard of above 300 cash, even to printers,
per day.
Wages or earnings of weavers of cotton or silk in Canton and in
the northern provinces?-On an average 2-3 dollars per month,
one person.
Wages of artizans, such as carpenters, blacksmiths, &c., in
Canton and other provinces?—Five dollars per month on an ave-
rage. I have found instances of 4 and also of 7 dollars, but not
commonly.
Cost of maintaining a labourer, his wife, and three children, in ac-
cordance with his wages or earnings?-Lowest 3 dollars. Single
elderly persons I have myself maintained at the rate of 1 dollar per
H
1
98
COST OF MAINTENANCE.
month. Make for each child an allowance of 600 cash, as the
lowest; hardy boys will consume food to the amount of 11 dollar
per month.
Cost for maintaining an artizan ?-Smiths, and stone cutters, and
carpenters, at 3-4 dollars per month, in those parts per person.
Cost for maintaining a weaver?-Two dollars per person. In the
north they pay him about 80 cash, per day, and give him food;
so also to masons.
Average cost of rice in Canton and other districts ?-One and a
half dollar per month, 2 beginning to be high; in the north this
price is considered moderate.
Average cost of millet, wheat, or other grain in Canton, and in
other districts?—When cheap at one dollar per picul, often ad-
vances 300 cash, Millet of the best description, one tael per
picul, generally in the north that price, here perhaps 20 per cent.
dearer; barley 800 cash per picul, seldom one dollar.
Average cost of pulse in Canton and other districts ?—The great
pulse market is Mantchouria, where a picul in ordinary times fetches
about one dollar, never less, often one dollar and a half. In Can-
ton the lowest price is one tael, averaging, however, dollar higher,
without being called dear.
Average cost of salt in Canton and other districts?-Varying from
16-20 cash : on the seacoast, where it pays no gabel, not half its
price. In the inland districts, however, where the price is enhanced
by transportation and extortion, it is often ten times the above
price. În Peking it ordinarily fetches 150-200 cash per catty.
Cost of oil in Canton and other districts?—Tea oil averaging
for 1 tael 300-500 cash per 23 catties; earth-nut about 10-14
per cent less; mustard oil at about 2 taels; one catty hogslard, 100
cash here.
What is the oil made from that is generally used as fuel or for
food?-From the fruits of the Camelia, tea oil; for burning, from
earth-nut oil, very common, and most generally used in cooking.
In the north, mustard oil much used; hogslard and other substances
exclusively for food.
:
Average cost of salt or fresh fish in Canton and other districts?---
Fresh. Cheapest, 20 cash; dearest, 200; average, 60; Salt.
40-50 cash, cheapest; 100-120, dearest; which varies accord-
ing to the quantities caught, as well as to the peculiar situation of
a place. The above, however, is a fair average per catty.
Average cost of tea drank by the poorer classes in China?-Three
cash per day furnishes to a small family a tolerable supply. The
experiment has been made by myself.
Prime cost of a large trading junk ready for sea, say of 300 tons
burthen?-Not under 10,000 dollars, when built in Siam; add in
China, 50 per cent.; at Fuhchoo, where timber abounds, only fifteen
per cent.; more on an average at other ports.
BOAT MAKING AND SAILING,
99
Expenses per month of navigating a junk of 300 tons ?-The cost
varies along the coast, and fluctuates at different periods of the
year.
BOAT MAKING
AND SAILING.-A large smuggling-boat con-
structed at Hong-kong, employed forty carpenters for one month,
and cost with rigging 1600 dollars. These boats do not last more
than three or four years without repairing; their dimensions are
about:-
•
Length
Breadth amidship
Depth of hold
•
Height of the main mast.
Do.
drawing water
70 cubits.
13
""
5
50
"
mizen do.
35
13/1/00
•
""
This boat would be only a second class; the first class would be
seventy-eight cubits long; a cubit is fifteen inches English. When
fully manned, the crew are as follows: first and second captains,
sixty rowers, and ten sailors to steer and shift sails. The crews are
residents or natives of Whampoa; and if married, their wives are
not allowed with them, lest their presence would damp their
courage in time of danger. One of these fast boats will carry 350
chests of opium, or 400 of Congo tea. The profits of each voyage are
arranged thus. Provisions, six dollars per day, or 180 dollars a
month; the proprietor then takes half, and the remainder is divided
among the crew; the first captain takes 100 per cent., and the second
captain fifty per cent above all the others on board. With a calm
sea and a fair tide the boat can go six miles an hour without using
sails, with a good breeze ten or twelve miles at the same time. At
night the "watch" consists of six men relieved every hour. Time is
calculated by burning a joss stick (if they have no watch), with four
marks at equal distances. A "watch" extends from one mark to ano-
ther, and is lighted at eight o'clock, so they burn two during the
night. The last "watch" ends at four o'clock a.m. The armament
is as follows: one cannon, twelve pounder; one do., six pounder;
twelve gingalls or small rampart pieces, on pivots; one English
musket; twenty pairs of double swords; thirty rattan shields; 200
pikes; sixty oars; fifteen mats to cover the vessel; two cables, one
of them bamboo, and the other coir, fifty fathoms long; one pump
of bamboo tubes; one European telescope: one compass, which is
rarely used, their voyages being near shore. The crew seldom go
on shore. The captain has no power to strike any of the crew nor
put a man in irons, but by common consent the disturbers are put on
shore; no articles of agreement are entered into; the captain selects
his men, and generally advances them one or two dollars. There
is no medicine on board; no one is permitted to smoke opium,
unless the boat is anchored in a safe place. All breakage and
damage are defrayed by the owner; but damage by negligence is
H 2
100
SALT MANUFACTURE.
defrayed by the crew. The powder is kept in a wooden box in
charge of the captain, and the average quantity is a picul of 133lbs. ;
the cartridges are made of Chinese bamboo paper, and resemble
silk paper; they combine strength and fineness.
Under a judicious policy, our small square-rigged coasting
vessels, or schooners, would become extensive carriers along the
whole coast of China, and be a great benefit to the Chinese by
cheapening the transit of commodities along so extensive a sea
border.
SALT MANUFACTURE.-There are more people employed in the
manufacture and conveyance of salt than in any other branch of
trade in China. The salt in use among the Chinese is manufac-
tured as follows: Over their salt-pans is spread a sandy earth,
upon which they pour in an abundance of sea-water; and when it
is entirely saturated therewith, and the water has been evaporated
by the rays of the sun, this dried earth is chipped off to about one
inch in depth. This is then trodden into vats, built of clay, about
seven feet long and four feet broad, having a sieve-like bottom
formed of canes; sea-water is then poured on the top, and allowed
to filter through this earth and cane-work into a reservoir beneath,
from which a small gutter, formed of half a bamboo, leads it into
large round pans. It is afterwards placed in earthen vessels, and
put in charcoal fires, to skim and purify the salt.
The amount of tonnage employed in the freight of salt must be
immense, when we consider the enormous population among which
it is one of the necessaries of life. The habitual use of salted fish and
rice, renders it probable that more salt is used in China in reference
to the population, than is consumed by the inhabitants of all Eu-
rope. There are salt springs in the western provinces of Sze-chuen,
and salt is manufactured there for the supply of the contiguous
country. From time immemorial in China, salt has been a govern-
mental monopoly; the mandarins employed in the collection of
salt duties take the highest rank among the imperial revenue offi-
cers; and salt merchants are, it is well known, among the most
opulent individuals in China. The duty levied it is said amounts
to nine dollars a ton, which with a population of 320 millions would
produce a revenue of £18,000,000. In passing up the river Peiho,
travellers have been surprised with the immense stacks of salt
which lined its banks.
Dr. Gutzlaff in his journal, says, "the large and numerous
stacks of salt along the shore, especially at Teen-tsin, cannot fail to
arrest the attention of strangers; the quantity seemed sufficient to
supply the whole empire; it has been increasing there during
the reigns of five emperors and is still accumulating. Assum-
ing that only two-thirds of the population of China consume sea
salt, the tonnage employed would equal the whole amount of foreign
shipping which entered all the ports of the United Kingdom, du-
ring the year 1839, and more than eight times the tonnage of all
EXPORT OF SALT FROM ENGLAND.
101
vessels built there during the same period. The principal manu-
facture of salt is on the island Hainan, and on the coasts of the
Canton and Fokien provinces. Mr. Lindsay in his narrative, says,
numerous salt-pans are to be seen in the vicinity of all towns
along the coast, laid out in plots of fifty feet square, and paved with
small red stones, which give them a neat appearance.
C6
Salt is extensively smuggled, and vended without paying the go-
vernment duty, and many salt boats make Hong-kong their ren-
dezvous. The Chinese code awards in the case of smuggled salt,
the whole of it to the informer, and of all other goods only three
tenths. The brown salt is sold in China for about twenty-seven
shillings per ton to the wholesale dealer; the white salt is retailed
at three and a half dollars per picul. The prime cost of this arti-
cle in China, where fuel is so dear, can scarcely be under one dollar
a picul; double this would be nearer the mark, but at the former
rate of one dollar, the dollar and eighteen piculs to the ton, which
is 2,600 pounds weight, such sale price (of a better article than the
Chinese), would be about £4 a ton. The Cheshire salt manufac-
turers may deem it worth while to consider whether they could
export salt to China at a profit, after paying the tax to the Chinese
government.
In a memorial from the governor of Canton to the Emperor of
China, loud complaint is made of the diminution in the revenue.
The governor states that, "The condition of things is fast retro-
grading, that salt is abundant, and no one to buy it. This (he says)
must arise from private parties manufacturing salt, which calls
loudly for increased vigilance; as the number of people employed
under the Crown in the sale, manufacture, and transport of salt is
not much under one million. Canton is supplied from the districts
of Tachow, Pomow, Teenmow, and Kanpih, and provides an exten-
sive market and wide channel for consumption; the price is always
the same, but it is quite evident that the soldiers, and all those in
authority, neglect your Majesty's interest. It appears that the
able-bodied country people band together, and convey it into the
interior."
The Coal-fields of China are extensive. It is probable that coal
was discovered, and in general use in China, long before it was
known in Europe; it is mentioned by travellers of the 13th and
14th century, as abounding throughout the province of Cathay,
of which Pekin is the capital; "black stones" are said to have been
dug out of the mountains, which stones burn when kindled, and
are used by many persons in preference to wood, of which there is
abundance."
.66
The missionaries of subsequent dates give minute descriptions of
the various coals supplied to Pekin, and with the aid of stoves and
furnaces, experimented on their qualities, with reference not only
to domestic, but for laboratory purposes.
There are three kinds in use :-
102
VARIETIES OF COAL IN CHINA.
1st. The coal used by blacksmiths, which yields a great flame,
and is fierce, but liable to decrepitate, which accounts probably
for blacksmiths using it in a pounded or powdered state.
2nd. A hard, stony coal, used for culinary purposes, which yields
more flame than the other sorts so employed; is less quickly con-
sumed, and leaves a residuum of grey ashes: there are several kinds
of this coal; the best are hard to break, of a fine grain, and of a
deep black colour, soiling the hands less than the others, and sili-
cious so as to give fire with steel. Others have a coarse grain,
and make a bright fire with a reddish ash. Another species, when
placed on the fire, falls down in scales, closes the passage of the
air, and stifles the fire.
3rd. A soft coal, gives out less heat than the second class; con-
sumes quickly, breaks with great ease, and is a jet black; this de-
scription is in most general use for mixing with coal-dust and clay,
moulded in the shape of bricks, and extensively sold in the shops
of Pekin it is thought economical.
:
Nearly the whole of the properties and applications of coal now
in use in Europe, have long been familiar to the Chinese. The
modern method of warming our dwellings, which we view as the
result of superior and scientific investigation, was in use with little
deviation many centuries ago by the Chinese: there are many
patented fuel-compounds of modern date in Europe, which have
been in practical use in China at least a thousand years ago.
An anthracite coal, abounding thirty leagues from Pekin, was
not formerly in such general use as the other kinds: it is called
by the Chinese che-tan. Che means a stone; tan is the name they
give to wood. Charcoal, according to their language, signifies a
substance having the properties of stone and wood. The Chinese
coal forms an exception to the unfavourable impression prevailing
against all other with which we are acquainted in the East: a
recent high authority ranks it very favourably. In specific gravity
it is equal to the Welsh fuel, without its spungy texture.
So late as 1841, a Russian traveller describes the coal mines,
particularly the western mountain range of China, in such abund-
ance, as to be almost incredible: not a league can be gone over
without meeting a stratum of coal. Mining is in a rude state in
China, and yet coal is a moderate price in the capital. Anthracite
may be had in the western range of mountains, twenty miles from
Pekin.
Where thick beds of coal occur, the formation is largely deve-
loped; some of this coal is completely decomposed, and its parti-
cles have so little cohesion, that they are almost reduced to a state of
powder. Beneath these coals are beds of sandstone; and below
those, a much richer seam of coal than the upper formation. In
this range are seen horizontal and vertical beds of mixed coal; it
much resembles anthracite; it is close and shining, rather difficult
VARIETIES OF COAL IN CHINA.
103
to ignite, has no flame, and yields no smoke: it is homogeneous.
This leads to a well-grounded belief that there has been great heat
at, or subsequent to, the period of its formation. The horizontal beds
are only about four feet thick, of great extent, and, owing to their
imperfect mining operations, are the most important and valuable.
Artificers and copper-smiths prefer this coal, owing to the intense
heat it yields.
In parts of China, where wood is dear, coal is worked on a large
scale for market. Mining is not understood, but in the prepara-
tion of charcoal, the Chinese excel.
As a substitute for coal or charcoal, coal-dust and clay,to the
extent of nearly one-third, was selling at Canton last year at
£1 12s. per ton. An indifferent quality gives no heat, and con-
sumes quickly; it is principally used by the poorer classes, but is
still prepared as described by ancient travellers.
There is no country in the world in which this combustible is
so common. The missionaries and Russian travellers state that
it abounds in every province of this vast empire, and along the
banks of the Yantzekang. At Nankin may be seen amazing quan-
tities of native coal, from which our steamers were supplied during
the war.
At the Gulf of Pe-tche-le pure anthracite coal was seen,
which was brought down from Pekin. Coal of a brownish colour
exists extensively around Canton. All the coals seen south of
Nankin closely resemble cannel coal: this description may be
found for general sale in Shanghai. Brown coal seems confined to
the country around Canton. Lord Amherst's Embassy was offered
coal for sale in all the cities it passed. Nearly all the brown coal
beds were horizontal, and not deep. A sulphureous coal, mixed with
slate, generally found on sand-stone strata, prevails largely around
Canton. There is abundant evidence, that extending over large
areas in China, are beds of every description of coal, consisting of
brown coal, cannel coal, and varieties of bituminous coal, all of
which have been in use for ages, and used for all domestic
purposes known to civilized nations, including gas-lighting; smelt-
ing iron, copper, and other metals.
It is rightly noted as surprising, that in China, where most of the
practical arts have been more or less in use from time immemorial,
and with the characteristic perseverance of that most industrious
people, the operations of mining are conducted without any regard
to science. At Pekin, as well as at Canton, their process is bad
in the extreme. Machinery to lighten labour is unknown: not
even the idea of pumps to draw off the water. The shovel, pick,
and hammer, are the only instruments in use amongst the Chinese
in their mining operations. The water is emptied by filling sacks,
which are brought to the surface by manual labour.
The prices of coals at Pekin averaged, in 1844, at the pit's
mouth, four dollars sixty-three cents per ton: land carriage over
104
GAS-LIGHTING IN CHINA.
mountains on camels' backs, &c., enhances the price in cities to
£2 10s. for 2,240 lbs. ; the best fuel is, therefore, expensive in
many places.
Le Compte says, no country can be better supplied with coal
than China; especially mountains in the provinces of Shen-si,
Shan-si, and Chih-le; without this convenience there would be no
living in so cold a country, where wood is scarce. Peking, he adds,
has been supplied with coal, from a mountain two leagues distant
from the city, at least two thousand years past. This coal is a jet
black, and found between the rocks in very deep veins; it is diffi-
cult to light, but casts a powerful heat, and is very lasting. This
coal yields a bad smell sometimes, which is counteracted by the
Chinese keeping a large bowl of water in the apartment, which
draws the smoke in such a short time that the water must be fre-
quently changed.
Coal of a good quality has recently been found in abundance on
the island of Formosa, in the direct tract for steamers up the coast
of China.
GAS-LIGHTING IN CHINA.-To what extent the Chinese pro-
duce illuminating gas is not known; but it appears certain, that
for centuries spontaneous jets of gas have been burning, and turned
to various useful purposes. Salt water is obtained by boring coal-
beds, and the gas is forced up thirty and forty feet high: from
these fountains the vapour is conducted through pipes to the salt
works, and used for evaporation: along-side these are gas tubes to
convey the gas to cities; and it is in general use in kitchens,
bazaars, &c. the excess is conveyed away to burn bricks and lime.
This application of gas to various purposes, is worthy of trial in
Newcastle, Durham, and other coal districts.
:
Mineral productions.-The mountainous districts of Kwei-choo
and Yun-nan are rich in mineral treasures; but mining is not en-
couraged, because it withdraws the people from agriculture, and
the greatest riches are still hidden in the earth. There are gold
mines, but no European can point out the place where they are to
be found. The quantity of gold current, in bars about the value of
£44 sterling, is considerable; it is issued from the capital and from
Shan-tung province. Tibet possesses the precious metals. The
first-rate Chinese sycee, which is the native silver of the country,
contains some parts of gold, and surpasses in fineness and purity
that of every other country in the world.
Gold-dust is found in the River Yang-tsze-keang, and in several
rivers of Yun-nan; it is also imported into China from the Laos
country, Birmah, and Borneo. Iron is found in every part of
China, but great quantities are imported. Lead, though obtained
in many places, is not sufficient for the consumption: the same may
be said of tin. Copper is imported largely from Japan. Tuten-
ague is an alloy of copper, iron, and zinc, of great whiteness; and
is a composition of Chinese invention. Mercury is common; the
MINERALS.-GOLD, IRON, MERCURY.
105
oxydation of vermilion is so great, principally for export, as to re-
quire large importation from abroad. Yun-nan furnishes the
chrystal, ruby, amethyst, sapphire, and topaz. Alum is found in
slates in great quantities; as are also rock-salt, marble, porphyry,
and jasper; several districts are impregnated with saltpetre.
are
On another authority it is stated,. that the western districts
or provinces of Kwang-se, Yun-nan, and Kwei-chow,
richer in mineral productions than any other part of China.
They possess tin, gold, silver, iron, and copper mines; also cor-
nelians, jasper, rubies, and beautiful marbles, in Yun-nan: gold
and silver exist, likewise, to some extent, in Szechuen, Canton, and
Keang-se; and to a smaller amount, in Hoopih and Fooh-keen.
Iron and lead are found, more or less, in all the southern pro-
vinces. Mercury is obtained chiefly in Sze-chuen and Kwei-chow:
and there are a few coal mines in Kwang-tung (Canton), even inside
the city itself. The yuh stone, or jade, is found in Shan-se and
Hoo-nan; the cornelian, in Chih-li; there are also extensive coal
mines in the southern portions of Chih-li and Shan-se; and also,
to a limited extent, in Shan-tung and Hoo-nan.
Dr. Gutzlaff furnished me, in China, with the following list of
mines:-
Gold mines.-Those of Oroumtsi, and in the neighbourhood of
the ceded western part of Turkestan, the districts of Teih-hwa and
Suglae.
The Chinese government does not interfere in the working of
the mines, but appoints the most experienced as head-man, who
pays for this privilege, monthly, three cordaneers' weight of gold.
All the gold obtained must be regularly stamped by responsible
shroffs, and no bars without their particular mark are allowed to
be circulated. Government sends annually considerable quantities
of the produce falling to its share to the imperial establishment at
Peking. The mines are very extensive, but as the advantages are
solely accruing to the sovereign, no public account of the returns
is ever published.
In the mines of Teen-kwang, the stated amount of workmen is
2,000; and allowing three times this number as being the actual
miners, this would constitute no trifling adventure. The head-
men pay him during the summer as well as in winter the same
sum, for the monarch's private purse. These miners are under
the special supervision of government, mandarins being especially
appointed to watch over them; and an extra tax, for defraying this
expenditure, is also put on the ore.
The largest quantity of gold is obtained from places in the
neighbourhood of Kokonor, and in that country; the principal
places to the south of the chain of mountains which abut on
the Himmalah, are Tseénfut, Tung-sha, Tsaon-tun, Keép-kan,
Keép-sik, Gokpok-pachen, Poolakik-chang, and Chang-tsze; to the
north arc Polotae, Tsing-tun, Keep-too, Yaon-tsze, Kokoshashik,
106
GOLD AND SILVER MINES.
Yintun-heén, and Tsenen-tsze. The gold is here found, both in
the bowels of the earth as well as in the sand of rivers. These
mines are only worked during the summer months, but no statement
of the average production exists.
In Shen-se are the Hoppootat and the Haehopla Mountains,
containing rich ore; and every gang of fifty men pays two mace
five candareens in weight per day, besides a premium of three cor-
doneers on each tael, to the officers of government.
In the province of Yun-nan, there are many places, and,
perhaps, the largest establishments in the world, for washing
the sand of the Yang-tsze, which here assumes the name of Gold-
dust River. For every bed (a space confined between boards where
the washing is carried on,) the owner pays, monthly, one mace
weight in gold; and, annually, seven taels, two mace, six canda-
reens besides. At other places the tax is much heavier, a clear
proof of the sand being more productive; the principal places are
Yungpik, Hok-king, Pik-ya-pootsaon, Kaehwa, and Makoo.
The richest mines, however, are in Kwei-choo Province, Sze-nan-
foo, and Teén-king, where the miners pay on each tael pure gold,
four candareens and three mace to government.
Gold-dust abounds in Assam, which adjoins Yunnan.
.
Silver mines.-Sze-chuen province has at Yenynen, Kea-tsze,
Kwapeavatze, Kowkeén-chang, Chinshakow, Ningfonying, and at
Sekoopeét, copper mines which yield a good deal of silver, paying
a duty of two mace, four candareens, and five cash for each tael.
In Canton Province, there are lead-mines producing considerable
quantities of silver, at Tsangchelin, and Taewan; in Chinping dis-
trict, at Sinshaw; in Tung-shun district, at Tungkeo-pèen and
Leshoowan; in Taepoo district, at Taetsing and Taho-ping. The
mines being very productive, the labourers pay five mace and one
cordoneer on each tael of silver.
The following are the pure silver-mines: in Kwang-se, at Nang-
tang; in Hoche country, at Kwa-hung; and in Funho district, at
Tseavurnuh-shan: the duty varies here from one-and-a-half mace
to two mace upon each tael of refined silver. The officers superin-
tending the work are made responsible for the payment of a fixed
sum, not mentioned in the statistics; and failing to collect it, must
themselves make up the deficiency.
In Yun-nan there are the following pure silver-mines: at Sha-
heén, in Tang-chuen country, where the contractor has to pay
1,302 taels per annum, and may extract as much as he can; at
Pootsaoutang, in Hok-king district, the contractor pays 421 taels
per annum; in Kaehwafoo, at Matsoote, 706 taels; at Kooheo, on
the frontiers of Birmah and Cochin China, annually paid in duties,
568 taels; in Gan-nan country, at Tookikla, 60 taels; at Tsoo-
heung, in the Yung-ching mines, 3,375 taels; at Malung, 698
taels. The Kookew mines in Mungsze district, and the extensive
silver-mines of Weseatuntsze and Pokeihtsze, on the Cochin China
THE GOVERNMENT OF CHINA.
107
frontiers (amount of duties paying to government not mentioned);
at Muhhih, in Keénshway district, and the Kinsha and Loma
mines, in Chaontung-foo, and those at Santaoukow, are under the
immediate superintendence of the Chinese government, and pay
one mace eight cordoneers duty per tael; under the same juris-
diction are the Shih-yang, the Chowcha, and Tseénlién, the Mang-
leén, and the Muhyew mines; the former pay 1-2 cordoneers
per tael, the last, 300 taels per annum.
At the Kinsha copper-
mines there is also silver ore found. In the neighbourhood are
the Teéntsae, Kaetae, Yufung, and Yuenlung mines. At Lelung-
foo are the Hwuy-lung mines, which pay one mace three cordo-
neers per tael. In Shunning-foo, there are several mines paying
annually 800 taels to government; others are not enumerated in
this list because they are met with very frequently, and being
under far less restraint than those in other provinces, are worked
by myriads of human beings.
The richest mines, however, are in Kwei-choo province, at Wei-
ning country, in Chatsze, and Chookwangtang, which pay four
mace per tael duty.
At the two Lokma and Hwuylung mines, a deputy pays, an-
nually, from 8,000 to 25,000 taels; this sum, however, is sent to
the Board of Revenue. Officers who distinguish themselves in
collecting sums from mines are rewarded by being raised in rank.
When we take into consideration, that at least ten times the
number of mines are worked clandestinely, or under the conni-
vance of the government officers, and, moreover, by the aborigines
who are in possession of the mountains, it will be apparent at a
single glance, that the precious metals gained from the bowels of
the earth, far exceed in quantity the amount of the exported
bullion.
CHAPTER IV.
THE GOVERNMENT OF CHINA,-GENERAL,-PROVIN-
CIAL, AND LOCAL.
Our knowledge of the mode in which one third of mankind
is governed in China has hitherto been very limited; it has, there-
fore, seemed advisable to collect in one view all the information
which may tend to illustrate this singular problem. So far as I have
been enabled to trace, it appears that while complete despotism
is exercised generally, there is considerable local freedom, the
remnant of the ancient Chinese institutions, which the Tartars.
108
GOVERNMENT.-IMPERIAL FAMILY.
have not been enabled entirely to crush, although they have suc-
ceeded in debasing the people.
According to the doctrine artfully inculcated throughout China,
the monarch is responsible to no one on earth; by the ruling pow-
ers of earth and heaven he is emperor of China, representative of
all living beings, and of mankind especially.
He is supposed to transact all business between man and the su-
perior beings.
As the high-priest he worships the presiding powers, and prays
for all men. He has been called a political heathen pontiff,
vested with temporal and spiritual power; his Majesty even rules
over Hades, canonizes, and can condemn and degrade, as well as
exalt and confer honors on an idiot.
He stands as an inferior compared to his ancestors; if dead he
follows their example; and provides them with paper money burnt
over their tombs, in order that they may purchase necessaries; if
alive he venerates them with the same respect as if they were su-
perior beings; as a proof, the empress mother made Taoukwang
renew the late war with the English, after the conclusion of peace
between Commissioner Keshen and Captain Elliott; she put a stop to
festivities, and ordered mourning throughout the empire, which
actually took place.
The emperor nominates his successor. The present emperor was
not the eldest son of his father.
IMPERIAL FAMILY,-The Emperor of China signs his name
Taoukwang, "Reason's Glory," and is the second son of the late
emperor Keaking; he was born in 1781; and succeeded to the
throne in 1821. His eldest son died in 1832; but he has three
other sons living. Since his accession to the throne, there has been
very little internal peace; not one year has passed, but one part or
the other of the empire has been disturbed by insurgents, and
the wide-spread influence of the numerous secret soceities that
exist throughout the empire, are a continual source of uneasiness.
The first on the list of the imperial officers is Tsungjunfu, whose
duties consist in regulating and providing for the imperial clan
who are very numerous, and divided into two classes; first, the
imperial house, (tsungshi); second, the golden tribe, (Ghioro),
the latter being the surname of the reigning family. The descen-
dants in a direct line of the first sovereign, who took the name of
emperor, are styled of the imperial house; the remainder of the
family are merely called after their surname, Ghioro. Members
of these two classes are frequently expelled for impropriety of con-
duct, but are nevertheless distinguished by wearing coloured
girdles, one red and the other pink. There are many nominal dis-
tinctions of titles among the imperial family, but their names
rarely appear in any elevated station of official employment. The
members who manage the affairs of this office, have adopted a
different line of policy, from that which was hitherto in practice,
GENERAL GOVERNMENT OF CHINA.
109
There
and the consequence is that domestic strife is unknown.
are many of the imperial kindred whose allowance from the emperor
does not exceed one pound sterling, per month; the consequence
is that they have no influence whatever over the public, with
whom many of them are compelled to associate in the capacity of
shopmen and servants.
THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT may be said to consist of two
councils, six supreme boards, a censorate, a colonial office, and an
imperial college.
The inner council (Nui Ko) is the emperor's office of business,
from which all his commands are issued. There are four chief
ministers, (ta hiasz), and two assistant ministers, (hiessan ta hiasz),
also ten ministers. (hiasz). Their united duties are to deliberate
on the affairs of the state; to declare the imperial will, and to aid
the sovereign in governing the people. From the latter ten
ministers, (hiasz) are selected the governors of provinces, political
agents in the colonies, &c.; six of them are Mantchoo Tartars,
and four Chinese. The ordinary business of the Council, Nui Ko,
is the reception of imperial edicts, and the presentation of memo-
rials, and the replies which are to be given. These documents are
all transmitted from the General Council Chamber, (Keun-kee-
Choo) for the perusal and examination of the members, previous
to their submitting the same to his Majesty; to all these documents
are attached a slip of paper, with the opinion of the council as to
the answer that should be returned written on it, to economize
time. The day following the reception of each memorial, the
council all attend on his Majesty at daylight in the morning.
A Mantchoo minister reads each document, and then hands it over
to a Chinese minister, who inscribes on it the imperial answer.
The other duties of this council, are the care and preservation of
the imperial seals, twenty five in number; they also arrange what
posthumous titles are to be conferred on deceased emperors and
their consorts, also on meritorious ministers and nobles.
The General Council, (Keun-ke-Choo,' is chiefly composed of
members chosen from among the ta heasze of the inner council,
the presidents, and vice presidents of the six boards, and the prin-
cipal officers of all the other courts in the city. All important
business that requires immediate attention is transacted by this
council, who sit daily from two until four o'clock. They attend
his Majesty when he holds a council of state; on which occasion
they are permitted to sit on low cushions, which are placed on the
ground. The commands and decisions of the Emperor are written
down and transmitted to the Nui-Ko to be made public; if the
decisions are of a secret nature, and relate to the provincial
affairs, they are sent to the board of war, who have them dis-
patched at the rate of 400 or 500 le a day. In all matters con-
cerning the government, and the decision of trials of importance,
the members of this council are engaged alone, or deliberate with
110
SIX SUPREME BOARDS.
the board or court to which the affair more properly belongs.
The Emperor, in time of war or rebellion, looks to this council for
local information, and the state of the country through which the
soldiers have to pass.
This council is bound to furnish his
Majesty with a list of all the meritorious officers, entitled to pro-
motion. They keep the map of the dependencies, and countries
inhabited by barbarians; have the appointment and removal of the
Mantchow and Chinese residents in Tibet, Turkestan, &c.; select
the presents to be given to tribute-bearers; regulate the examina-
tions at the court, and translate documents into and from foreign
languages. Thirty clerks, called changking, are attached to this
department.
The six supreme boards, (luh-hoo), are the boards of: 1, civil
office; 2, of revenue and territorial resources; 3, of ritual obser-
vances; 4, of war; 5, of punishments; and 6, public works. At
the head of each board are two presidents (shangshoo), and four
vice-presidents (shelong), who are either Mantchoo Tartars, Mon-
gols, or Chinese. The chief ministers of the Nui-ko, are often ap-
pointed superintendents over the presidents of one or other of the
boards. The boards over which such superintendents are most
generally appointed are those of war, of revenue, and of punish-
ments; sometimes a president of one board is placed as superin-
tendent of another. Each board has a subordinate department,
for attending to particular portions of the peculiar business of the
board.
The board of civil office assists his majesty in his judgments, re-
garding the promotion and degradation of officers; confers ranks of
nobility, and manages a great part of the machinery of the govern-
ment. This board has in its gift, subject to his majesty's appro-
val, all the civil appointments, from the governor of a province to a
police runner, the total of which amounts to many thousands.
There are four subordinate departments attached to the civil office;
the duties of which are to take cognizance of the conduct of all the
civil officers in the empire, to keep a strict account of all their good
and bad actions, to regulate their temporary retirement from duty,
their promotion or their degradation.
The board of revenue, (Hoo-poo), levies duties and taxes, arranges
the distribution of salaries and allowances, the receipt and expen-
diture of grain and treasure. It regulates the territory of the em-
pire, in its divisions into provinces, compiles correct censuses of all
the people in their various distinctions of classes, obtains admea-
surements of all the lands in the empire, ascertains the positions of
places by their latitude and longitude, proportions the taxes and
conscriptions, and regulates the expenditure of the empire. At-
tached to it are fourteen subordinate departments, who are charged
with the supervision of the revenue of the several provinces. A
board or court of appeal is connected with the Hoo-poo, which re-
gulates disputes respecting property and successions; also a mint
!
OFFICIAL DUTIES OF THE BOARDS.
111
under the direction of two of the she-lang, or vice-presidents of
the board, and of two other superintendents, subordinate to them;
an officer of "the great ministers of the three treasuries," viz: the
treasuries of metals, of silks, and of the material of coloring, toge-
ther with stationary, &c.; an officer for superintending the sup-
plies of grain in and about the capital, under the direction of two
officers (shelang), and thirty-two superintendents.
The board of rites (Le-poo), superintends the classes of ritual ob-
servances: 1st, those of a propitious nature, viz: festivals, sacrifices
to the gods, and state ceremonies; 2nd, those of a felicitious or
joyful nature, &c.; 3rd, those of a military character, preparations
for war, reviews of troops, &c.; and 4th, those of hospitality, and
everything relating to the intercourse of foreign states, and the pre-
sentation of tribute from abroad and the provinces.
There are four subordinate departments, besides several officers
for conducting the general business of the board of rites, the chief
duties of which are to regulate the etiquette and ceremony to be
observed between the various ranks, and the degree of attention
which is to be paid to each other, when meeting in official capaci-
ties; to attend to the governmental schools and academies; and
the public literary examinations. This department has the whole
charge of foreign embassies-attached to it is an interpreter's office.
The board grants permission to foreign astronomers, mathematici-
ans, and artists to reside in Peking. The fourth department of the
board has the superintendence of the imperial feasts, and the al-
lowances given to princes and other lords in waiting on the royal
family.
The board of music, (Yo-poo), is an office connected with the
Le-poo, and is under the superintendence of the Mantchoo presi-
dent of that board, and an indefinite number of high officers who
possess musical talents.
The board of war, (Ping-poo), has for its general duties the presen-
tations of military officers to the Emperor, and the distribution of
military commands throughout the empire. The minor duties of
the board are managed by four subordinate departments.
The board of punishments, (Hing-poo), hears causes and ap-
peals, confirms or reverses sentences, and regulates fines.
In cases
of capital crimes, with a few exceptions, the officers of this board
meet with two other criminal courts and deliberate together; and
at the time of the autumnal assizes, they meet the officers of eight
other courts, to reconsider the sentences passed by the various pro-
vincial judges. This board marks all changes made in the written
laws, and the supplementary enactments, and prepares all new edi-
tions of the penal code for publication, regulates prisons, and has
attached to it a treasury, which is supplied by fines on jailors and
others.
The board of works, (Kung-poo), regulates the erection and repairs
of all buildings for the use of the public, and the manufacture of all
112
FOREIGN AND COLONIAL OFFICES.
kinds of vessels, instruments, dresses, and imperial mausoleums;
also the regulation of weights and measures.
The subordinate departments are four: the first has charge of all
city walls, palaces, temples and altars, and estimates the value of
all buildings confiscated to government; four superintendents of
timber and two of glass-ware and pottery are appointed. The
second attends to the manufacture of military weapons, guns, shot,
&c., and has charge of the imperial pearl-fisheries. The third depart-
ment has charge of all water-ways, dikes, &c. The 4th has the
furnishing of all the palaces and temples, and the erection of tombs.
The mint is under the direction of two vice-presidents (shelang)
of the board of works, with two superintendents, subordinate to
them.
The manufacture of gunpowder is under the charge of "two
great ministers," with one subordinate superintendent.
Lefan-yuen is intrusted with the management of the Mongols,
and the government of Turkestan and Tibet, and is composed en-
tirely of Mantchoos and Mongols. The board is also entrusted
with the government of the tributary tribes in Szechuen, Formosa,
and other places; these are called fan, foreigners, to distinguish
them from the "barbarians" (all western people). These "bar-
barians" are divided into two classes, external and internal; the
latter includes all the unsubdued mountaineers, called Meaou-tze,
who dwell on the borders of Kwang-tung, Kwang-se, Kweichoo,
and other provinces; this office regulates the government of the
Nomads. The multifarious duties of the colonial office are pretty
equally divided among six subordinate departments.
The 1st has charge of the territorial limitations, and regulates the
rank and succession of the princes and nobles of the inner Mongo-
lian tribes; it arranges the marriage of the princes. and their sons.
and daughters, these being generally inter-married with the impe-
rial family; has charge of arranging the tribes into corps, and
administering to them the oath of fealty. The 2nd regulates the
salaries of the inner Mongolian princes, and their visits to the court,
which take place in regular succession. The 3rd department
exercises the same control over the outer Mongolian princes and
nobles; and over the lamas of Tibet, exercises the same restraint, as
the first department does over the inner Mongolians; fixes the
limits of the territories of each tribe, supervises their government,
issues a license to their merchants without which they cannot
trade. At Kourun, the principal city of the Kalkas, are resident
two ministers, Keepers of the Russian frontier; they have an office
at Kiachta, where the intercourse between Russia and China is re-
gulated. The chief resident of the lamas is in Tibet; here two po-
litical agents reside, connected with this department, who sit in
council with the dalai lama and the bantchinerdeni. "The tribute
of Tibet and the Gorkas," is under the direction of this department.
The 4th fixes the emoluments, tribute, &c., of the outer Mon-
1
EXAMINING COURT, OR CENSORATE.
113
golians and the lamas. The 5th arranges the government of the
Mohammedan princes and Begs, also those tributary unsubdued
tribes of Pourouths, Kassaks, and Turkomans, of Khokand, Bad-
akshan, Belaur, Tashkend, and Aakhan, in independent Tartary.
The 6th regulates the penal discipline of all the tributary tribes;
has attached to it a translator's office, a treasury, and an office of
supervision.
The Examining Court, or Censorate, investigates into the character
and conduct of all the public officers in the empire. When any
important affairs of government are submitted to the consideration
of the six boards, the censorate is one; and in all important cri-
minal cases this board is consulted. The members of this court are,
two chief censors, and four deputy censors; these are called censors
of the left; the governors of provinces are ex-officio censors of the
right; and the lieutenant-governors, with the governors of the
rivers, are ex-officio deputy censors, also, of the right.
bers of this court, when in the presence of his majesty, give expres-
sion to their sentiments very freely. They are required to point
out to the emperor his faults, and the law makes them responsible
for every bad action he commits without a remonstrance on their
part.
The mem-
The present emperor differs from his predecessors, inasmuch as
he has frequently commended them for their homely truths; but
under former reigns, particularly during that of Keenlung, many
censors were ordered for execution for only performing their duty.
This anomaly in government was very objectionable to the Tartars,
who had no idea of any restraint on their despotic sway.
In July, 1843, one of the imperial censors addressed a strong
rebuke to the emperor, which shows the bold free language now
used, and at the same time the hatred of the English. He says:-
"That which the people love is good, that which they hate is bad.
Do they not love truth and virtue-and do they not hate iniquity
and falsehood? If, then, you (the emperor) reward not the right-
eous and punish not the evil-doer, verily it will become a sore sick-
ness to the land.
"When the disobedient barbarians (the English), like foul birds
and unclean beasts, wrought strife in the land, did not civil and
military authorities and their men flee away. Many reasons were
given for this disgraceful conduct; but although their ships were
strong and their cannon great, yet are not the laws of the emperor
stronger and his wrath greater. How much better to risk life in
battle than death in flight. Although the barbarians returned to
their own country, yet the emperor was so justly incensed at his
officers, for having violated the law, by fleeing from the barbarians,
that he commanded their conduct to be investigated. The said
officers were disgraced, degraded, and condemned to death; among
them was Yu-poo-yuen, who was executed; none were to be found
who did not clap their hands and rejoice at his punishment. Great
I
114
COURT OF REPRESENTATION.
as was his crime, how much greater were the crimes of Ke-shen,
Ki-king, Woo-wee, and others, who have not received like punish-
ment.
Surely the hearts of people are sorry, and men cry out, that is
by reason of their being Tartars, and not Chinese like Yu-poo-yuen.
"The censor implores the emperor to listen to the peoples'
prayers, and to degrade Ke-shen to the lowest rank, never again to
be employed in a service he has betrayed,-then will the people's
hearts be glad; and true it is that they hate Ke-shen, and would
tear him in pieces for selling them to the barbarians.
"The secret of rightly governing, is to know when and how to
reward, when and how to punish."
The subordinate departments of the censorate are, the luh-ko, six
classes, the censors of the fifteen taou or provinces, and the censors
of the five divisions of Pekin. The six classes are named after the
six boards, each having to attend to the supervision of the board
after which it is named. The censors of the fifteen taou attend to
the supervision of all the courts of the capital, the archives, &c., and
to all criminal cases in the provinces.
The Court of Representation (Tung-ching), consists of two chief
officers, two deputies, and two counsellors; their duties are to receive
all memorials and appeals from the provinces, addressed to the em-
peror. This is the eighth court for aiding his majesty. Some of
the deputies of this court attend at the palace gates, where a drum
is placed; those who have appeals to present, beat this drum and
are immediately waited on.
The Criminal Court and Court of Appeal (called Tale-sze) is the
ninth court which consults on all matters relating to government,
and one of the three courts (supreme) of judicature. These three
courts must be unanimous in their decision on all capital crimes
brought under their consideration; if otherwise, the case is then
submitted to the emperor, who decides. This board is frequently
divided into two subordinate courts, the heads of which preside in
assemblies of the subordinate departments of the board of punish-
ments, each of the two courts being joined with half the whole
number of the departments of the board. The officers for con-
ducting the business are nearly the same as those of the six
boards.
The Imperial Academy (Hanlin-yuen).—The chief officers are
two presidents, who attend upon the emperor. Twice in each year
they give in lists of officers, from which the emperor selects
speakers," whose duty is to translate essays which have been
written by his majesty, and read them aloud in his presence.
Twenty-two members of this academy are selected to attend his
majesty on public occasions, to record his words and speeches ;
four take this duty in turn. Attached to the academy, is the
historiographer's school, for preparing memoirs and national his-
tories. The imperial family is also instructed by this board.
The Emperor of China consults his ministers on various sub-
IMPERIAL RULE AND CRUELTY.
115
jects. The present sovereign recently promulgated the following
queries:
"1st. What is the practice of economy according to the maxims
of the ancient kings?
"2nd. What signifies the grandeur of the universe?
"3rd. Is it requisite first to rectify peoples' hearts, and then to
improve their manners?
"4th. Do rites (religious ceremonies) put a stop to lawsuits and
to altercation?
"5th. Is it not necessary to place the war establishment upon a
proper footing, with a view to maintaining civil order? And must
not some leading characters be chosen to carry this object into
effect?"
Although there appear to be checks on imperial rule or cruelty,
the emperor is absolute in cases of life or death; and the present
sovereign did not hesitate to violate the promise of protection
granted by his officers. Jehangir, the leader of the Mohammedan
rebellion, surrendered himself to Chang-ling, the general of the
Chinese forces, and, relying on his promises, returned to Peking.
An extract from the Peking Gazette of this period shews the
reliance to be placed on the promises of generals under a Chinese
emperor, in thus recording the sentiments of Taoukwang.
"This
day I have descended to the gate, and received the prisoner; I am
filled with consolation and profound awe." The following day,
the great ministers of state and the military council assembled to
try the prisoner, the emperor presiding on the occasion. He was
found guilty, and sentenced to a slow death, and his head to be ex-
posed to public gaze. The proclamation said: "Let the sons of
the officers who fought against him, and the assistant ministers of
state, the president of the boards, and the imperial attendants, go
and witness the execution. Our hair stands on end to think of
his killing our great officers. Let the rebel's heart be torn out,
and given to the sons of those officers, to sacrifice at the tombs of
their fathers to console their faithful spirits." A subsequent
gazette announced the execution to have taken place.
The Empress of China.-The imperial harem is supplied chiefly
with the daughters of noblemen and grandees. They are entrusted
to the care of elderly matrons and eunuchs, who carefully train
them in the duties according to the prescribed order. When a
selection is to be made for a consort, the birth and connexions of
the individual is taken into consideration: but no Chinese lady can
ascend the throne, nor can her children be considered legitimate.
The lady made empress is entrusted with the entire government of
the harem, and the same homage that is paid to the emperor must
likewise be bestowed upon her by the women.
The empress is supposed to represent the earth, and, conse-
quently, possesses the power of exerting a transforming influence.
She is charged with the homage due to the god of the silk-worm,
1 2
116
THE EMPRESS OF CHINA.
and has for the encouragement of her sex to rear this insect. Her
ladies of the bedchamber are employed in weaving silks, which are
annually brought as offerings to the gods.
The Chinese constitution prohibits an empress from interfering
in affairs of state; so that when a regency has managed affairs,
and a female has been concerned in it, great dissatisfaction has
been manifested by the grandees.
The interior palace resembles a garrisoned city; no one is per-
mitted to enter without the permission of the emperor. There
are very few male servants permitted; female domestics and eunuchs
perform the duties of the palace.
The Local Government of Peking is intrusted to a minister of one
of the six boards, and subordinate to him is a fooyuin, or mayor.
They have charge of the four divisions of the metropolis; and have
under them two (heen) magistrates; each heen district comprises
about one half of the city. They are only subordinate to the em-
peror, to whom they carry all difficult cases. They have control
over the military police of the city. The board of punishments,
delivers over to them all subjects sentenced to transportation.
The Taepuh is under the direction of two presidents (king), and
two deputies; their duty is to superintend the rearing of horses,
and training them for military purposes. Two large tracts of land,
lying beyond the Great Wall, are appropriated for this purpose.
The national college, gives instruction in general language,
classics of Confucius, and mathematics; in each department there
are separate teachers. The heads of this college are chosen from
among the ministers of the councils, two principals, and three pro-
fessors, a Mantchoo, a Chinese, and a Mongol. The Russians and
Lewchewens are instructed in Chinese, Mantchoo, and Mongol
literature.
The Imperial Astronomical College is under the direction of several
ministers, and two principals, and four assistants, a Mantchoo, a
Chinese, and (formerly) two Europeans. Their chief labors consist
in preparing an annual almanac, and the selection of lucky days
and hours, for public acts, sacrifices, and interments. Geometry
and trigonometry, are partially attended to. The geographical
positions of places are determined by members of this college.
The Grand Medical Hall, is regulated by a president and two de-
puties; their duties consist in directing the cure of the nine
diseases. 1st, those affecting the pulse violently; 2nd, those affect-
ing it a little; 3rd, diseases arising from cold; 4th, female diseases;
5th, cutaneous diseases; 6th, those requiring bleeding; 7th,
diseases of the eyes; 8th, diseases of the mouth; 9th, diseases of
the bones. In rotation the members attend on the Emperor and
household. No theoretical instruction is imparted, all knowledge
is acquired by practice. The members are divided into four grades.
The Nuy-woo-foo, is under an indefinite number of great minis-
ters. All affairs, whether civil, financial, military, ritual, or penal,
LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF PEKING.
117
connected with the imperial household, are conducted by this board.
One member must be in attendance on any of the ladies of the
harem, when going from, or returning to the palace. The house-
holds of all the married sons or daughters of the emperor, are
placed under the charge of this board. One of the subordinate
departments has a treasury and five depositories; viz., of tea, gin-
sing, skins, silks, and dresses; these depositories supply the pre-
sents given by the Emperor, and employ all artizans required for
the use of the palace; the revenue from the imperial farms is
paid into this office. There is a weaving and dying establishment,
under one minister and eight deputies. The fourth subordinate
department selects the ladies for the harem, collects the revenues
arising from the 900 imperial farms occupied by Mantchoos of the
three banners.
The She-wei-choo, or Court of the body-guards. Six great minis-
ters have the government of the body-guards and personal troops
of the three banners, all Mantchoos or Mongols, who are divided
into classes. Connected with this office are several classes of great
ministers, with great officers at their head. These are called the
inner great ministers; the mixed assembly of great ministers have
no particular duties assigned them.
The tootungs of the eight banners, at the conquest of China, in
1644, (the invading force,) were composed of natives of Mongolia,
Mantchouria, and China, These were divided into eight corps,
each with separate coloured banners, and from that time have
formed the defence of the Mantchoo dominion. Three of those
banners are called superior, and five inferior. A small portion is
occasionally sent to the provinces, but the majority are always in
garrison, either in Peking or in Moukden. The Mantchoo and
Mongol race in these corps is rigorously maintained, but the Chinese
portions are permitted to retire and attend to other callings.
All the small military bodies in the capital are attached to the
eight banners; 1st, the vanguard, picked from the Mantchoo and
Mongol troops, under eight commanders; a body of infantry, or
armed police, under a commander and two lieutenant-generals; a
body of artillery, under Mantchoo and Mongol commanders ; a
body of scalers, under the same command; a troop of pioneers;
do. of lancers; do. of falconers; wrestlers, and archers, complete
the local government of Peking.
A military power in China would destroy the civil authority; a
lawless force would soon subdue a weak and corrupt government;
hence the literary are placed above the military, although a stand-
ing army has existed in China for centuries.
The land force of China, according to Timkowsky, consists of
four divisions, corresponding with the number of nations which
compose the Empire. The division consisting of Mantchoos holds
the first rank, and comprises 678 companies of 100 each 67,800
men. The second is composed of Mongols, and is formed into
€
118
MILITARY FORCE OF CHINA.
211 companies, = 21,000 men.
The third consists of 270 com-
panies, 27,000 men. Thus the Mantchoo army forms a total
of 116,000 men: the greater part cavalry. The fourth division is
composed of Native Chinese annually recruited. It is called the
green flag, and numbers half a million of men ; besides 125,000
irregular troops or militia-total 625,000 men. The number of
men under the command of the Mantchoos amounts to 740,000
men. The Chinese troops are chiefly cantoned-1st. In the
capital and its environs; 2nd. Eastwards, near the Amour; 3rd.
Westwards, on the banks of the Ele, the penal colony. It should,
however, be remarked that large numbers of the Chinese army
exist only on paper; the names and descriptions of each soldier
are on the muster-roll, but when review-days arrive, neighbouring
peasants are collected for a few hours. The commander-in-chief,
however, draws monthly pay for the whole number on the muster-
roll. The soldiers are all married; their male children are en-
tered on the muster-roll of the army; there is no distinction of
dress except a jacket. The pay is four taels of silver per month.
The 4th division have land assigned them which they cultivate, as
they could not support themselves on the pay.
To read their books on military art and tactics, it might be sup-
posed that their army was in some real state of efficiency, which
is not the case. The Kiau Ping Siu Chi, is a manual on the duties
of Chinese soldiers. The first section authorises the commissary
to provide trust-worthy (colones) camp-followers, who are to be
instructed in their duties, and to have a license granted them. All
carts, horses, or waggons, are to be considered public property. It
is the duty of the commanding officers to march in front, while the
commissaries are to keep in the rear, and bring up and chastise the
laggers. The soldiers are not to be exhausted with long marches,
but gentle treatment will beget respect and obedience.
When on march, the horse soldiers to go first, the foot soldiers
to follow, and the baggage in the rear. A map, and a statement
of the cities and camps, should be drawn up for the information
of all.
In the second section, instruction is given about the construc-
tion of a bridge:-reeds, bundles of straw, and planks of wood are
generally to be met with, and from these a temporary raft may be
constructed. When necessity compels an army to encamp on hills
or in forests, great precaution is required that the enemy be not
posted in the recesses. For this purpose the light companies
should advance before and examine every hiding place. Great
caution is necessary in taking any information from the villagers,
as they may have been paid for leading the army in a wrong direc-
tion. Every thing told should be sifted to the bottom, as much
may be won or lost by correct or incorrect intelligence.
The third section directs, that each company consisting of 100
men, is to march by its own encampment, and at night to dig a
MILITARY ART AND INSTRUCTIONS.
119
trench, and throw up a rampart. On the outside of the trench
stag-horns are to be planted. Each company is to collect a great
number of stones, and pile them up in heaps at some distance
from each other; also to have blow-pipes, and fire-balls ready. All
the weapons should be within the immediate reach of each soldier,
who must not be allowed to take off his clothes at night. The men
should sleep upon their bow-cases. If the enemy approach, the
sentinel should twang his bow-string as a signal-loud talking
should be avoided. When a camp communicates with the habita-
tions of the people, great caution will be necessary to guard against
excesses or injury to the property of others. A portion of soldiers
from the green flag, and also the black flag, are to act as consta-
bles: these are expected to discover if any plots are being formed,
so that the "bud may be cut off."
The fourth section refers to flags and drums, which are called the
eyes and ears of the soldier, as each company musters under a
flag of a peculiar colour. Four strong men are selected to take
care of the standard, and to carry it in turn. When the drum
sounds aloud, the soldiers are to advance with all speed, "though
fire and water should be before them."
The fifth section enjoins that the soldier shall carry his arms when
on march, and not trust them to camp-followers; and that strict
attention be paid to the gun-powder. It is recommended that the
string which is used instead of a flint, should be well boiled to ex-
tract the sap, as it is made of thin bark. The balls should be tried
before using, as it is necessary to have them fit properly.
The sixth section relates to the great care that should be given
to horses, to have them in good condition.
The seventh section requires that camp-followers should be
steady men.
In the eighth section, summits of hills are recommended as pro-
per places for an encampment, so that a good view may be had of
the enemy. A spot well supplied with water and grass will avoid
the evils of hunger.
The ninth section states, that the distance between each encamp-
ment should never exceed two miles.
The tenth advises, that groups of men, varying in number, should
be sent in different routes, towards the enemies' quarters. These
spies are to visit the enemy under the appearance of merchants, or
to offer their services, in order to pry out their secrets.
The eleventh section supposes that the enemy is in sight. Each
man is to stand at the distance of fourteen inches from his com-
panion, and keep his rank. The cavalry is to be divided into two
brigades. When the enemy advances close, a vigorous fire should
be kept up. If the enemy's scouts are seen, it is evident that the
main-body is very near at hand. In this case bowmen, musketeers,
and horse, are to advance; and after one discharge, to retreat slowly
-not at once, but at several periods. This movement is to be fol-
120
MILITARY COLONIES ON FRONTIERS.
lowed by a discharge from the artillery. During the smoke the
spearmen are to be sent forth, and presently the bowmen. Should
this fail in vanquishing the enemy, recourse must be had to the
great guns.
The twelfth notices the different situations in which an enemy
may be posted. If it be on a hill, bold men should be chosen to
climb it; if it be in a low situation, stones should be tumbled on
the heads of the enemy.
The thirteenth condemns the practice of selecting the bravest
men for the body-guard of an officer, as it is derogatory to the
dignity and bravery of the army.
The remaining five sections impress on all soldiers the duty
they owe their country; and enjoin patience under the many
privations they may be subject to; the rewards that will attend
victory; and the eternal disgrace that is always attached to a de-
feat. If a soldier has any moral crookedness in his nature, it is his
duty to make it straight; this the commanding officer should im-
press on the minds of his men, line upon line, precept upon
precept.
Military colonies exist in China, formed somewhat after the
manner of those of the Romans. The policy of the present go-
vernment has been to keep a large number of military round its
frontiers, in order to free the public from the expenditure which
their maintenance rendered necessary; the lands of the borderers,
or of conquered enemies, were, therefore, assigned to the soldiers
in perpetuity; and thus an armed peasantry was created. From
a report from the commanding officer, it appears that the number
of Mantchoos thus placed towards the Mongolian frontier is very
much on the increase; but that the quantity of land assigned is
not sufficient to rear produce for their own families. The cha-
racteristics of the conquerers of China are laziness and improvi-
dence. Too idle to work themselves, they buy Chinese as slaves,
or let out the land to Chinese, who, by hard labour, have obtained
possession of nearly the whole of the lands, which were allotted, in
the first instance, to the soldiers. To obviate this evil, and keep
the defenders of the Tartar government from hunger, the emperor
granted the request of the petitioners, and bestowed a larger tract
of land, and a more liberal allowance in money and cattle, upon
each of the families. Throughout all Mantchooria, and along the
extensive borders of Mongolia, and on every fertile spot, to the
confines of Bucharia, the Chinese have established themselves, in
defiance of severe laws and regulations to the contrary, and are in
possession of all the necessaries of life, whilst the natives of those
regions are steeped in poverty and wretchedness.
Government of Yarkand and its Dependencies.-The Chinese go-
vernment has a military force at Yarkand of 7,000 men, composed
of Chinese and Mantchoos (to keep each other in check); go-
verned by an officer, who is called Umbaun. This officer is the chief
ACTIVITY OF WAR DEPARTMENT.
121
political as well as military authority. The governor of Yarkand,
Abdul Rehman Beg Wang, is the nominal Usbeck ruler of the
country, but subordinate in every thing to the Chinese Umbaun.
No Tungani soldiers are enlisted, being Mussulmen, and the same
religion as the Usbecks. There is a capitation tax of one rupee
from each man per month, and a tenth of the produce of the land.
Custom duties were abolished a few years ago. There is a bad
feeling between the natives and the Chinese government, in con-
sequence of the latter, of late years, walling in the towns by the
forced labour of the natives. The Chinese troops, in the different
towns on the frontiers, amount to from 20,000 to 30,000.
Since the recent contest with England, the War Department
has shewn symptoms of great activity. In the year 1842-43,
exertions were being made to erect forts, and repair others that
were dismantled during the war. Military stores, cannon,
muskets, &c. are largely purchased from the Americans and
others. According to the agreement entered into between the
English and Chinese, none of the fortified places within the river
should be re-armed, nor any additional preparations made. At the
time this engagement was entered into, Yishan," the great barba-
rian quelling general," in a memorial to his majesty, states, "as soon
as the ships of war depart, immediate steps shall be taken, begin-
ning with the river in front of the city, all the way down to the
Bocca Tigris; every important pass shall be blocked up, forts
erected, and guns mounted; and thus commerce, which to
these foreigners is the very artery of life, can be immediately
stopped." Old forts above Whampoa have been re-armed, and
many new ones built, and guns placed in them; the promise to
the emperor has been literally fulfilled. It is to be regretted
that the forts at Canton have been rebuilt; once opened, the river
to Canton and Macao Passage, should have remained so. Now the
fortifications of the Bocca Tigris are as strong as those of the
Dardanelles; and manned by European troops and artillery, with
the heights in the rear of each fort, well defended by towers, the
passage of the Canton river would be impracticable. Throughout
China preparations are making for another war, and some of the
mandarins boast they are now better prepared for hostilities.
or
THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT of China is different from the
government of Pekin: to illustrate this vast piece of machinery,
the following details of the structure are necessary :-The first
ranks are tsungtuh, (governor or governor-general), and fooyuen,
(lieutenant-governor.) The first has the control of two
more provinces, or of two or more high offices in the same
province. There is one tsungtuh over three provinces, or over
two provinces, who is at the same time fooyuen of one of the two,
and two over single provinces who exercise the functions both of
tsungtuh and fooyuen. The fooyuen has at all times the direction
of a whole province, either independently of, or in subordination
122 PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT.-MILITARY GOVERNMENT.
to a tsungtuh. There are twelve officers who are, and three
who are not, thus subordinate; while in three provinces the duties
of the offices of fooyuen are performed by the tsungtuh. The
duties of the tsungtuh consist in the general control of all
affairs civil and military. The fooyuen has a similar control (except
where there is no tsungtuh, in an inferior degree), and direction
of the administrative department of the civil government.
The Civil Government of the provinces is divided into five
departments, viz. commercial, literary, gabel, commissariat, and
administrative: the latter is subdivided into territorial, financial,
and judicial branches.
These subdivisions are governed by a pooching-sze, (regulating
government) and a nagancha-sze, (chief judge), and a heoching,
(director of learning). The commercial department officers
(keéntuh) are appointed by the board of revenue, and generally
sent from Peking to all seaport towns and large thoroughfares to
collect the revenue, they are subjeet to the governor or (fooyuen),
where there is no tsungtuh, but only in cases of doubt or
difficulty.
The Military Government has also the command of the naval
forces. There are sixteen commanders-in-chief; (teetuh) twelve of
whom are confined to the military branch, but have the control of
the inland navigation; two are military, with command over the
naval force; and two are exclusively naval. In the province of
Kansech, there are two military commanders; and in five other
provinces, the command of the military is held by the fooyuen.
In all considerable cities, there is a garrison of " Tartar troops,"
who are only subject to the control of the Emperor; their duties
are confined to the city in times of peace; they are commanded
by a general (tseang-keun). The circumstance of being indepen-
dent of the city authorities is proof that their special duty is to
prevent any outbreak arising from treasonable conspiracies that
might be formed by the provincial authorities. The governor of a
province being independent, does not prevent him occasionally
holding a council of all the chief officers to aid his judgment. The
order of precedence is tsungtuh, fooyuen, heoching, tseangkeum,
fetuh, keentuh, pooching-sze, nagancha-sze. The pooching-sze,
and the nagancha-sze although at the head of distinct portions
of the administrative department, are frequently united when any
matter of importance, such as financial, territorial, or criminal
cases, are to be decided. The next in authority are called taou
or taoutae, and are subordinate to the governor only; their duty
is to take part in the protection and circuit supervision of por-
tions of the province. This class has charge of the gabel and
commissariat departments, besides military powers. Their territo-
rial authority extends to two or four departments, into which each
province is divided. (See Statistical Table.) Subordinate to these
officers, are the chefoo and chechaw, magistrates of district
departments, whose only duty is to know and record every circum-
SUBORDINATE DEPARTMENTS.
123
stance that occurs within their department. Similar officers are
appointed over ting, chaw, and heen districts.
When territorial duties are onerous, assistants of various deno-
minations are appointed, called tungche and tungpwan, their
duties are chiefly confined to the care of taxes, in both grain and
money, tea and salt revenue, attention to the military inspector,
the police, care of post stations, water ways, dykes, and to keep
the barbarians on the frontiers in subjection. The ting, chaw, and
heen districts have also their assistant magistrates.
When the Emperor issues a proclamation, it is first sent to the
governor, who has copies furnished to the next officer in rank; and
so on, down to the assistant heen magistrate. In lodging appeals,
the same course is followed, only they are first entered with the
assistant magistrate, and march upwards.
The Literary Department of each proviuce is under the direc-
tion of an officer, who is selected from the Hanlin College, in
Peking, by the emperor, and is called, (heaching) director of learn-
ing. This director appoints teachers, and denominates them as fol-
lows: The chief teacher of a department, is called, giver of instruc-
tions; of a chaw-district, corrector of learning; of a heen district,
teacher of the commands. Subordinate to them are numerous
teachers called guides and admonishers. There is an annual exami-
nation in each department of the province, which is presided over
by the director of learning, who is invested with the power of
conferring the first degree. At the triennial examinations, two
officers are sent from Peking, to examine the students, and confer
the second degree.
The Gabel Department is under the direction of a number of
commissioners, whose duty is to protect the government monopoly
in salt they are called, yenching, and rank with the heads of the
civil department of the government.
The Commissariat Department is conducted by twelve commission-
ers, whose only duty is collecting grain, and conveying it to Peking.
In six provinces those duties are performed by the pooching-sze.
The Commercial Department duties are strictly confined to mari-
time customs, and the prevention of smuggling. The hoppo, at
Canton, is superintendent under this department of government.
Subordinate Officers in the province. From the magistrates of
districts upwards, every civil appointment has to be confirmed by
the emperor. In the province of Kwangtung, (Canton), there are
seventy magistrates of districts, and a proportionate number in all
the other provinces; their superiors are called prefects, also assistant
prefects, also circuit commissioners, who have each three prefects
under them. Throughout China the duties of magistrate and col-
lector are united; hence there are frequent changes and removals,
all of which appear in the Peking Gazette from time to time. One
magistrate is recalled to Peking, being unfit to perform his duties
from ill health; another is required to resign the duties of admi-
1
124
MARKS OF OFFICIAL RANK.
nistration for those of literary tuition, the emperor having been
informed of his abilities in that department of the government.
One officer who failed in restoring property that was stolen is
ultimately reinstated, as the property has been recovered. In the
Gazette may be seen a magistrate restored to his office for bring-
ing his son to justice for some misdemeanour, which was the cause
of his father being degraded. Petty cases are frequently brought
before the emperor, at Pekin, as he claims his ancient feudal
authority in the capital. His Majesty has frequently expressed
his abhorrence of the system, which has lately sprung up of
employing a low set of plundering lawyers, none of which his
Majesty will permit in his manorial court. Appeals from the
provinces are numerous, against the tyranny of mandarins and the
rich, who oppress and plunder the people with impunity.
The arrangement in China of all official persons and employers
is into nine ranks, or orders, each distinguished by a particular
ball of stone, glass, or metal, on the top of the cap. The nine
are subdivided into two classes, principals and secondaries, but
without any alteration in the distinguishing balls or knobs.
For the 1st rank red precious stone.
""
دو
رو
39
دو
"
رو
ور
وو
ور
وو
blue precious stone.
dark blue or purple stone.
chrystal.
2
red coral.
""
3
4
5
6
""
8
9
white or jade stone.
a ball of worked gold.
Officers who have not entered the course of the nine ranks wear
the same dress as those of the ninth rank.
The Chinese mandarins of the literary rank are distinguished
by a silk dress, on which is embroidered the figure of a bird.
The military officers wear similar dresses on days of ceremony;
but instead of a bird, have the form of a beast, such as a lion, tiger,
leopard, &c. to inspire courage.
The privileged classes in China are:-1. the privilege of imperial
blood and connexions; 2. ditto of long service; 3. ditto of illus-
trious actions; 4. ditto of extraordinary wisdom; 5. ditto of great
abilities; 6. ditto of zeal and assiduity; 7. ditto of nobility;
8. ditto of birth.
The preservation of certain names, and the avoidance of any in-
termixture of Chinese with Tartar words, indicates the anxiety to
keep the latter distinct. This is shewn in the Peking Gazette of
November, 1814:-
"The following imperial edict has been respectfully received.
'In consequence of some of the imperial family taking the names of
OFFICIAL RECORD OF PROCEEDINGS.
125
Ho-Kwan-pooeo and Tsing-Yung-toe, I send down an order re-
quiring them to be changed. Yesterday, Yung-see, my royal cousin,
stated verbally, that a great many of the imperial kingdom had
taken names containing three characters, and which did not form
a Tartar word. He requested that all such should be ordered to
change their names. His request is by no means proper. Those
under the Tartar banner, adopting a Chinese name, are not per-
mitted to take three characters. The sons of the eight banners
take Tartar names, in which three or four characters are used; and
from a change in the termination of a word, they do not well agree
with the Tartar language. If they be ordered to change, it will
cause confusion, and be unsuitable to the dignity of government.
It is ordered, that in all these cases, they act as heretofore.
Respect this.""
The Chinese, or rather the Tartar, government of China, pub-
lishes a work in forty-eight volumes, which is the official record of
the proceedings and duties of the rulers in their several depart-
ments :-
Vol. I. is on the office of the imperial kindred, and on the ma-
nagement of this department. The Tartar policy is to keep the
majority of the numerous imperial progeny in a very low condition,
as the imperial design is to retain the princes on a level with the
people. Many of them receive but three taels (£1 3s.) a month,
so that several work as servants. An accurate register of the
births, marriages, and deaths, in the imperial family, is carefully
kept.
Vol. II. is on the Nui-ko, or Cabinet, which consists of six;
generally old men, who have raised themselves to the highest seat
in the empire; their duty is to assist the emperor in the govern-
ment of the empire, to circulate his edicts, and attend at sacrifices.
Vol. III. is on the Kiun Ki-chu, or Privy Council. This is the
most powerful body in the kingdom: the members are chosen by
the emperor himself. They meet from three to five each day, and
any thing that requires despatch or energy, is done by them: they
appoint and remove the residents at Tibet, Turkestan, &c.; and
they supply these colonies. They select presents for tribute-
bearers, and translate public documents into and from any foreign
languages, &c.
Vol. IV. is on the Li Pú, or Board of Civil Office, whose duty
is to assist His Majesty in all arrangements concerning the rank,
examination, promotion, or degradation of officers; the rank and
titles of the nobility, rewards, &c. They have at their disposal
(subject to the approval of the emperor) the patronage of 1,934
offices, from the governor of a province, down to the district magis-
trate, with a great number of inferior civilians.
Vol. V. is on the Board of Public Instruction. The number of
functionaries under this board are 12,996 of all grades; of these
3,931 are teachers entrusted with the examinations. In the grain
126
DUTIES OF DEPARTMENTS.
department there is one governor, and twelve inspectors. In the
salt office, eight superintendents, five assistants, thirteen inspec-
tors, and other minor officers. There are in the board of inland
navigation, three governors, fourteen managers, thirty-four de-
puties, and some other officers, who bear military rank, who have
the duty of preserving the dykes, and the protection of navigation
on their rivers.
Vol. VI. expatiates on the mode of choice, and on the various
ways of promoting officers, &c.
Vol. VII. is on the Hu Pu, or Board of Revenue, which is
charged with the finances, payment of salaries, and the manage-
ment of the granaries. It also contains the situation of the various
districts of the empire, and a vocabulary of the principal rivers
and mountains.
Vol. VIII. contains the Censuses, and degrees of latitude and
longitude of the several provinces, as calculated by the Jesuits.
Vol. IX. is on the expenditure of the state; and is arranged
under twelve heads:-for sacrifices; popular festivals; allowance for
officers; for their servants; the examinations; soldiers' batta
stipends of couriers; inland navigation; sundries; manufactures;
and salaries.
;
Vol. X. The details of the income and expenditure in some
branches; the mines and the mint.
Vol. XI. The build of boats; the transit of grain; and excise
duty on merchandise.
Vol. XII. is on the settling of disputes as to the pay of the
soldiers of the eight Mantchoo banners, and other soldiers; on the
supply of the commissariat with money and food; and how to watch
and overhaul the treasury and granaries, for fear of roguery.
Vol. XIII. expatiates on the Li Pu, or Board of Rites, and is
one of the strong-holds of the despotic government; it illustrates
the hold of etiquette on the people.
Vol. XIV. dilates on the robes of state, worn at the court cere-
monies, to be observed between the different officers of state when
they visit each other.
Vol. XV. gives an account of all their schools and colleges, and
how the examinations are carried on.
Vol. XVI. gives a detailed account of the literary examinations,
and on the duties of candidates for office. It also treats on the
seals of the various departments, as used under the board of rites.
Vol. XVII. gives a minute account of their temples and altars ;
of the various deities and saints worshipped by government, and
the ceremonies in the temples.
Vol. XVIII. is a manual of the harem; it regulates the dress
and etiquette to be observed by ladies of the court.
Vol. XIX. is on the presents to be given to tribute-bearers; an
account of those kingdoms that paid tribute to China; on the
generosity that should be shown to tribute-bearers that come a
DETAILS OF SERVICE.
127
long distance; on sacrifices to the gods of those nations; and a de-
scription of imperial banquets to the living and the dead.
Vol. XX. is entirely on music, and the names of the airs to be
played on certain occasions.
Vol. XXI. is on the Ping-pu, or Board of War; and gives the
number of all officers and garrisons in the empire, and their reviews.
Vol. XXII. is a continuation of the former; gives an account of
the navy, the transport service, and the Tartar garrisons in the
provinces.
Vol. XXIII. details the ranks of military officers, which are
eighteen.
Vol. XXIV. is on martial law, which is very severe; treats of
the nobility that is open to the brave, and to the protection of the
children of those who die on the field of battle.
Vol. XXV. is on the cavalry and posts; as the foot-soldiers are
considered an armed police, so the cavalry are mere couriers to
carry despatches.
Vol. XXVI. gives an account of van, rear, and centre of the
army; its battallions and companies.
Vol. XXVII. is on the Hing-Pu, or Board of Punishments; it
details the several modes of punishment, according to the ancient
laws: subdivides the existing codes; reduces all the statutes it
contains to matters concerning the six boards.
Vol. XXVIII. dilates largely on prisons; the commutation of
punishments; assizes; and an outline of the seventeen principal
courts, with other matters.
Vol. XXIX. is on the Kung-Pu, or Board of Public Works. The
imperial tombs rank first, and next to them the dykes and inland
nigation; it likewise gives a full description of the imperial city.
Vol. XXX. enforces the manufacture of arms and gunpower;
the selection of pearls for the use of the Emperor; the public
works along the rivers and canals.
Vol. XXXI. gives an ample description of the tombs of the em-
perors and other persons; the granaries, the mint, the powder
manufacture, &c.; and points out the places they are to be found.
Vol. XXXII. is on the Lifan Yuen, or Colonial Office, which is
managed entirely by Mongols. It regulates the emoluments of
the nobility, appoints the audiences of the chiefs, and revises their
punishments.
Vol. XXXIII. is on Outer Mongolia, and contains the names of
the different hordes and their chiefs, from the lowest to the ruling
khans. It has a short account of the trade with Russia, and
enumerates the post establishments.
Vol. XXXIV. gives a more minute description of the Mongol
princes: the tribute they pay; their relationship; the presents
they receive; and an account of the nobility, revenue, and situation
of Turkestan.
Vol. XXXV. speaks of the Censorate and its various functions;
128
ALLOWANCES OF THE EMPEROR,
of the Court of Requests, through which all important papers pass;
of the Taleshi, or court for revising the judgement of other boards
and re-examining sentences for capital crimes.
Vol. XXXVI. On the imperial stud, and the display of the
Tartars when denizens of the wilderness.
Vol. XXXVII. gives an account of the eating establishment,
and the sacrifices known as the Kwangluh-shi; and an account of
the annual ceremonial of ploughing in the fields, and the ex-
aminations in the palace.
Vol. XXXVIII. contains an account of the national school, in
which the sons of meritorious officers are supported; and on the
Kin Tien Kin, or Astronomical Board, which is to foretel coming
events, lucky hours, and national calender.
Vol. XXXIX. is a treatise on Chinese astronomy.
Vol. XL. is on the business of astronomers, end on the medical
college and its various functions.
Vol. XLI. is on the imperial body-guard, and the service they
perform.
Vol. XLII. gives an account of the eight standards of the powers
of the Mantchoos, and their domestic arrangements at births, mar-
riages, and deaths.
Vol. XLIII. details their duties and reviews, and their duties
when on active service, &c.
Vol. XLIV. is on artillery, mortars, batteries, &c.
Vol. XLV. is an inventory of the things in the treasury.
Vol. XLVI. is on the marriages of the emperor and princesses;
and on the duties they ought to perform.
Vol. XLVII. is on the administering of punishment.
Vol XLVIII. enumerates all the pleasure gardens in and around
Peking, and their uses; and an account of their eating establish-
ments. There ought to be placed before the emperor every day
twenty-two catties of meat in a basin; five catties boiled in soup; of
hogslard one catty; two sheep, two fowls, and two ducks; the
milk of sixty cows; one catty of butter; and seventy-five parcels of
tea. The empress is allowed about one-half of the above quantity.
The other ladies and maids receive in proportion to their rank.
Lamas are appointed to read prayers, they being the chaplains of
the court.
The number of mandarins dispersed throughout China is said
to amount to 13,647. The military mandarins are 18,500, together
with 2,400 at court, where every province has its mandarin, who
stands in the nature of its protector and solicitor-general.
Employments are divided among the mandarins in the following
manner :—when a candidate has gained two or three degrees of
literature, his name is placed on the register of the tribunal Li pu,
which office distributes the vacant offices according to the rank and
merit of the literati, who, when qualified, repair to court for that
purpose; but they are seldom raised to be governors of cities of
OFFICIALS AND THEIR SALARIES.
129
the second and third rank at first. As soon as four vacancies
occur, the Emperor is acquainted with the circumstance, and then
the four first candidates on the register are called, and the names
of the vacant cities are written on tickets, and put in a box placed
so high as just to be within reach of the candidates, who are on their
knees; each obtains the city which falls to his lot.
The number, rank, and salaries of high officers in China are said
to be as follows:-
Rank.
Number.
Salarics.
In Ounces
of Silver.
Total.
Viceroys over one or more
provinces
:}
11 . 20,000
220,000
Governors of provinces
15
16,000
240,000
Collectors of revenue.
19
9,000
171,000
Presidents of criminal tri-
18
6,000
108,000
bunals
Governors of more than one
city of the first order.
Ditto only of one city
Ditto of the second order
Ditto of the third order .
Presidents of literature
Inspectors general
} 86
86.
3,000
258,000
184
2,000
368,000
149
1,000
149,000
1,305
800
•
1,044,000
117
117)
}
3,000
•
402,000
2,960,000
Total ounces
Fees and bribes are so universal, that the actual receipts of each
official are unknown.
All superior officers in the provinces of China must appear at
court every three years. A memorial from the governors of Yunnan
province, which is several thousand miles from Peking, complained
of the expense, and the long and fatiguing journey, besides the
loss of their services. The memorialists state that their pay will
not admit of military officers doing so, and the consequence is, that
they will resort to corrupt practices, in order to supply the neces-
sary expenses. This triennial journey is ordered to prevent officers
obtaining too much influence in the province, and they are gene-
rally shifted when they visit Peking. The code contains a
prohibition against officers of government holding employment in
their native province, or to marry or hold landed property in the
district under their control. The present Emperor in 1833
revived an old edict, requiring all officers to direct their communi-
cations to himself, and not under cover; as he states it is likely to
lead to dangerous and corrupt combinations. The late Emperor in
the year 1818 prohibited all magistrates from holding familiar
intercourse with county gentlemen, unless they held some official
station.
K
{
130
PRECARIOUS TENURE OF OFFICE.
The fixed salary of the governor of a province is said to be
15,000 taels, (about 8d. each tael) per annum, with a house, &c.,
the emoluments are calculated at ten times that sum. The Hoppo
has 2800 taels. The households of these officials are very numer-
ous, amounting frequently to 150 domestics, all of whom arc
Mantchoo Tartars. From the acknowledgements which are fre-
quently met with in the Peking Gazette, of money remitted to
Peking, from the Hoppo of Canton, it is supposed to be sent for a
renewal of his office. One Hoppo (Chung) had got into arrear
when in office in Keangnan, to the amount of 217,000 taels. The
first year he was in office in Canton, he remitted to Peking on
account of his former deficiency 50,000 taels, the second year
45,000 taels. This office was worth from 250,000 to 300,000
taels per annum, a large portion of which is sent to the emperor
as a gift. His household numbered over 200 persons.
Governors
and Foyuens when installed into office, have also conferred on them
an honorary title, Foocha, (censor) by virtue of which office they are
expected to confess their faults, and strange as it may appear,
instances are met with in the Peking Gazette; but the crimes are so
trivial, that it is evident they are sent in to deceive the Emperor,
and divert him from examining into some grave malversation that
is probably going on at the time.
The last section of the fifth book, on criminal law, enacts that
all military officers of government are prohibited from receiving
gold, silver, silk stuffs, clothes, ornaments, or board wages, from
individuals related to the royal family, in any of the three principal
ranks of hereditary nobility. For the first offence, degradation
and banishment are awarded.
As an act of fealty, every civil and military officer in China, who
receives an appointment, or surrenders one which he held for the
stipulated period, viz. three years, must repair to the capital, and
attend a sacrifice, in company with other officers, who must certify
that he there professed himself a dutiful adherent of the Confucian
doctrine. A hog is usually sacrificed, as the most useful animal.
The precarious tenure of office, and the vicissitudes of public func-
tionaries, are very great. Keshen, whose name must be familiar to
Europeans, was governor-general of Keangnan and Keang-se, the
highest provincial appointment. He then became assistant minis-
ter in the cabinet and government of Chih-li province, in which
capacity he ruled the court, and more or less the whole empire.
He was too well acquainted with the Mandarins to let them escape,
and therefore had from time to time denounced some hundreds of
them for their misdeeds. The Emperor did nothing important
without asking his opinion. This enviable station, as well as his
censorious character, procured him many enemies. It was in this
situation the English expedition found him. He was most desirous
to be the "pacificator," as were also his antagonists, though from
far different motives, and thus the over-prudent statesman fell into
COMMISSIONER KESHEN.
131
the snare which his enemies had laid for him. For not having been
able to exterminate the rebellious barbarians, he was sent in chains
to Peking, and his truly enormous fortune was confiscated, and
sentence of death followed immediately. The Emperor had not
lost all regard for his old favourite, and did not sign the warrant for
his execution. When Ning-po had been captured, and everything
he had foretold had been fulfilled, he was released from the dungeon,
and sent to Hang-choo to conclude the best convention that was
possible, but without rank or power for effecting such a purpose.
On his arrival at the city, he was sent back by the governor, who
stated he would not admit a traitor. On his return to Pekin he
was unnoticed, and in want of the common necessaries of life.
When peace was concluded, the Emperor gave him a colonial ap-
pointment, but was overruled by his enemies; however, he took him
into the palace as his personal servant. He is now viceroy of Tibet,
and accumulating another fortune.
The servile dependence upon each other, in which all the govern-
ment officers are placed, has produced the contrary effect to what
was intended; in fact, it acts as a bond of union between them not
to betray each others' malversation, and encourages the utmost
artifice and ingenuity in a system of universal fraud and peculation.
The inviolable etiquette of the Chinese court affords great facility
to those who wish to blind the Emperor, and contributes to
strengthen this system of universal corruption. As no representa-
tion can reach the throne except through the appointed channels,
and as these channels are only open to whoever pays the highest
price, it is obvious whose complaints will be attended to.
Guignes, who was an apologist for the Chinese in many points,
states that a viceroy at Canton would admit no suitor who could
not pay a sum equal to £4500.
De
It may be asked why the government, laws, and false philosophy
of the Chinese have been extolled by some European writers? This
must proceed from their admiration of the benevolent doctrine of
Confucius, who exhorts his sovereign to consider and govern his
people as his own family.
This principle is only applicable in the infancy of society, where
the limits within which the chief acts, enable him to see everything
with his own eyes; the feeling of personal relationship is a bond
of union between the governor and governed, and the dread of
competitors operates as a check upon his actions.
The want of this check is severely felt in China, particularly du-
ring the last Emperor's reign, when there was nothing but commo-
tion within and without, invasion, confiscation, cruelty, and
tyranny; the censors who performed their duty were handed over
to the executioner.
The Chinese system of governing the people as a family, has been
rightly viewed as a beautiful theory, but quite impracticable; for
as the sovereign is unable to see all his children, he must employ
K 2
132
SQUEEZING THE OFFICIAL SPUNGE.
deputies. These imperial deputies are sent all over the empire on
special business. When these deputies arrive in a province
they take precedence over the governors. The Mandarins give
attendance to these envoys and make them large presents,
which their salaries would not enable them to do, and hence cor-
ruption and extortion are practised by all.
The orders of the Emperor become null, and the recripocal vigi-
lance of the Mandarins, is converted into a mutual league to
secure themselves from inquiry. Occasionally, cases of tyranny
are exposed, and the governors or Mandarins suspended for a
short time, all their property confiscated, and them sent to a
strange province to replenish their empty coffers. The learned
M. de Guignes who resided many years in Peking, thus illustrates
the system "The Emperor of China, makes use of his grandees
as sponges to suck up the wealth of his subjects; when the
sponge is full he squeezes it, and sends it elsewhere to be filled
anew.
""
Whatever may have been the former state of Chinese morals,
there is at the present day an acknowledged total absence of
public virtue. Europeans lay great stress on the courtesy and
politeness of the Chinese, which is considered allied to virtue in
the western world. With the Mandarins those virtues are all
assumed, and are the weapons with which they attack and
defend their diplomacy; when European embassies have visited
Pekin, and their houses and doors were double guarded, this was
represented as a guard of honour. That their politeness gives
place entirely to insolence and selfishness, was abundantly proved
by their false misrepresentations to our ambassadors. The bar-
barous treatment received by the Roman Catholic missionaries, who
imported to them a knowledge of various sciences, is well known.
No language can describe the indignities offered to Mezzabarba,
(in 1721) the Pope's legate, by Lee-pung-shung the great Man-
darin. De Lang, the Russian resident minister, received such
treatment, that he very soon applied for permission to retire. Mr.
Thoin, Mr. Lay, Mr. Medhurst, Dr. Gutzlaff, and all conversant
with the Chinese character, concur in stating that the meanness,
cunning, and rapacity of the Chinese officials are alone equalled by
their cowardice and sensuality.
The Confucian philosophy may well be tested by the effect it
has produced on the character of all the great officers, both mili-
tary and civil, who as a matter of necessity must have profoundly
studied its works. As to virtue, public or private, in a Mandarin,
it may be sought for in vain. However writers and visitors to
China differ in their descriptions of the country, all agree on one
point, viz. that the Mandarins are mean, corrupt, unjust, insin-
cere, proud, and assuming. These are the sages of China; and
when it is recollected the class they generally come from, it is not
:
CORRUPTION OF PUBLIC FUNCTIONARIES.
133
to be wondered that their parents have probably inflicted on them
sexual mutilation, to give them a chance of promotion.
There were upwards of 6,000 eunuchs at Peking at the period of
the conquest. The present dynasty is said to have greatly reduced
the number, and driven them from the palace; but it is to be
feared that sensuality is returned to the court, as there has been
an increase in the number of these unhappy creatures.
The corruption of the Chinese functionaries may be estimated
from two instances: Keshen and Hokwan. Keshan, formerly a
member of the Peking cabinet, was deputed, in 1840, as plenipo-
tentiary to settle affairs with the western barbarians; for not doing
so, he was degraded, his property confiscated, and he was sent in
chains to Peking, there to undergo a lingering death, and his body
to be cut in small pieces to serve as food for the vultures. He was
then forty-five years of age, and his property was at first estimated
at £8,000,000 sterling, but was subsequently found to be much
greater. Among the property seized and delivered over to the im-
perial treasury for the special use of his majesty, were 682 catties of
gold; 17,940,000 taels of silver, and eleven boxes of jewels. On a
second search, a vast quantity of gold, silver, and other property
was found, including 2,561,217 Chinese acres of land, and shares
in pawnshops, banks, saltworks, &c. His wives and concubines
were then sold by auction, and produced a large sum. Keshen's
life was subsequently spared, and he is now again as before ob-
served amassing a large fortune as governor of Tibet.
Hokwan, Hoquen, or Ho-chung, the once illustrious statesman
of China, was a Tartar of obscure birth, and raised himself from
the inferior station of guard of one of the palace gates. His
manners were pleasing, and his understanding penetrating and
acute. His son was married to the emperor's daughter. This
circumstance alarmed both the imperial family and the loyal sub-
jects. He had great control over the aged Emperor, and his well-
known dislike to foreigners was proved in the failure of Lord
Macartney's embassy, which was clearly traceable to his extraordi-
nary influence.
One officer, who displayed more loyalty than wisdom, addressed a
petition to the emperor, praying him to declare his successor to the
throne during his lifetime. The memorialist was instantly sen-
tenced to death by the criminal tribunal, whose president was the
creature of Hokwan. Apprehensions were generally entertained
that, on the death of the emperor, he would attempt an open re-
volt; with a view of frustrating this intention, the young emperor,
Keaking, appointed him to the honourable office of superintendent
over the rites of mourning, on his father's decease; this duty con-
fined the minister to the palace, and made his arrest less dangerous,
as every one in power was indebted to him for their authority.
In the fourth year of his reign, A.D. 1799, and when the days of
134
HOKWAN'S CONFISCATED PROPERTY.
mourning had ceased, the new Emperor made known his long pre-
meditated designs, by seizing Hokwan, and divesting him of rank
and employment. The following are the charges preferred by his
imperial accuser: "That being summoned by our royal father to the
palace, he rode on horseback through the left gate; that the young
females brought up for the service of the palace he took to himself
as concubines; that during the late rebellion in the provinces,
Hokwan was receiving reports from the troops, and did not com-
municate the result to our royal father, although bereft of sleep
from anxiety; that his own kindred were intrusted with high
offices for the duties of which they were incompetent; that in the
late confiscation (which was previous to any trial or charge) of his
property, many of the apartments were found built of the imperial
wood (nanmoo), and gardens were constructed in the style of the
imperial palace; that among his treasures, upwards of 200 strings
of pearls were found, many times exceeding in value those in our
possession; various gems and buttons were found, such as he should
not wear." All these charges were proved, and acknowledged by
his own confession; and the sentence was, that he should receive
a slow and painful death." But, in consideration of his once ex-
alted rank, (through imperial favour,) he was permitted to become
his own executioner. The estimated value of his bullion was
about £23,000,000 sterling. Sir G. Staunton says, that "besides
lands, houses, and other immoveable property, to an amazing
amount, not less than 80,000,000 Chinese ounces of silver, about
£23,330,000 sterling value in bullion and gems were found in his
treasury." The gold found deposited in the walls of his house,
amounted to 4,800 pounds weight.
All officers of government, from the first to the ninth rank,
must have literary or military qualifications; but clerks and atten-
dants are classed the same as the community generally. The
ninth rank includes village magistrates, jailers, inferior treasurers,
&c. The large (foo) cities, and (heen) districts (see statistical table),
have from 100 to 1,000 unpaid police.
The 48th section of the penal code gives the sole appointments
and removals of all military or civil officers to the Emperor. Any
violation of this section is punished with death. A memorial from
a censor, which lately appeared in the Peking Gazette, requests
the Emperor to put a stop to several glaring abuses, such as magis-
trates quitting their districts to look for promotion, while the col-
lection of the revenue is left to underlings who fleece the people.
A second abuse is, that governors appoint magistrates to be their
secretaries, and thus obtain their services without payment, and
afterwards recommend them to the Emperor for higher employment.
Another abuse complained of is, that governors take into their
employment the most worthless characters, and raise them to
respectable stations. The censors' reports fully illustrate the
theory and practice of the Chinese government. Concerning the
MAGISTERIAL BRIBERY.
135
state of the province of Chih-li, in the suburbs of Peking, the cen-
sors report, that "the magistrates, without fear or shame, connive
at daring robberies; that horse-stealers bring their plunder for
sale to the fairs and markets; that in a village adjoining the im-
perial palace are many thieves, who are joined by a number of
Mohammedans, who go out in bands of thirty and forty to plunder;
when some of them are taken, the magistrates order them a few
blows and imprisonment, from which they are allowed to escape.
We beg that your majesty will make a selection of honest, decided
men, who will not favour or screen this banditti in future." In
the subsequent year, the government of Peking removed upwards
of 20,000 underlings from various employments, charged with ex-
tortion and cruelty, from the province of Chih-li alone.
The governor of the Chih-li province points out to the emperor
that the evil arises from not paying the police a reasonable salary;
and asks for a loan of 100,000 taels from the public funds; one-
half to be placed out at compound interest in merchants' hands
until it has increased to the original sum, when it shall be returned
to the treasury; the other half to be applied to the payment of the
police.
A censor, who was also a superintendent of grain in the province
of Shen-se, reported, in 1830, that it is a common occurrence to see
a corpse floating in the river; on asking the people why they did
not inform the magistrates, they answer, that in case the magis-
trate is told, he compels the owner of the ground where a corpse is
found to purchase a coffin at his own expense; and his clerks
and attendants take advantage of this circumstance to extort
money by threatening him with a prosecution for being concerned
in the death.
The censor goes on to say, "I hear that during the fourth and
fifth moons, when the heavy rains fall, that many people are
drowned; particularly when the grain vessels arrive, there is a great
concourse of people assembled, the number of sailors, pedlars, &c.,
that are drowned is incalculable, and the magistrates seem to take no
notice of the affair. It is, therefore, my duty to request that your
majesty will command the governor of Chih-li province, and the
military officers of the district of Shunteen, to give strict orders to
the police that when they meet with a dead body, they should exa-
mine into the cause of death, and give information: also to prohibit
magistrates, clerks, and police, from extorting money under false
pretences; and to order coffins to be purchased at the public ex-
pense."
Dr. Gutzlaff officially reported, recently, that "honesty of pur-
pose is a quality so rare in China, that the possessor of it is looked
upon as an extraordinary character." During the war, in 1840-1,
the most egregiously false reports were made of our utter defeat
and destruction, by the provincial authorities to the government
at Peking in fact, according to the annals of the East India Com-
136
MAGISTERIAL BRIBERY.
pany at Canton, "duplicity and corruption have been manifested
for two hundred years." The Select Committee of the East India
Company at Canton, frequently refer in their records to the “
gross
misrepresentations and impositions practised by local authorities
on the Emperor and his ministers at court." This is corroborated
in various ways; and it is confidently stated that the imperial
government have, even to the present day, not been made fully
acquainted with the origin and proceedings of the late war; con-
sequently, the arrival of our fleet in the Yang-tsze-kang produced
the greatest consternation at Peking. An instance of this systema-
tic falsehood and corruption is thus given in the "Hong Kong
Register," of May 6th, 1845; of the authenticity of which there is
no doubt:-" When Canton was ransomed, and the money for
that purpose drawn from the provincial treasury, a report was
made to the emperor that it was a debt due to the foreigners by
the Hong merchants, who were unable to pay it; and these latter
were induced to sign a document to that effect, on the assurance
being given them that it should not be used against them. How-
ever, after the affair was terminated, various attempts were made
to extort the amount from them, but without success. Headed by
Howqua's eldest son, who has taken a literary degree, and who
threatened to lay the matter before the Emperor, they refused to
pay more than 2,000,000 dollars, which they admitted to be due
by the merchants to the Emperor. The local authorities have, at
last, agreed to accept this amount; and thus has terminated an
affair which has been a source of great uneasiness to the Hong
merchants, and was considered sufficiently important to the foreign
trade, to induce Mr. Cushing, the American plenipotentiary, to
address Keying on the subject.
"The following is the amount paid by each Hong merchant:-
Howqua, 550,000 taels; Poonkeequa, 200,000 taels; Samqua,
200,000 taels; Gowqua, 200,000 taels; Kingqua, 60,000 dollars;
Poonhoyqua, 60,000 dollars; Mowqua, 50,000 dollars; Footae,
50,000 dollars; Mingqua, 50,000 dollars; and Sowqua, 50,000
dollars. One-third to be paid in four months, and the remainder
in ten annual instalments."
The majority of the people of Canton have been induced to be-
lieve that the English paid a large sum of money to be allowed to
retire unmolested from before the walls of Canton. A few extracts
from the East India Company's records will illustrate the proceed-
ings and policy of the Chinese government.
The Select Committee of the East India Company at Canton, re-
corded in 1831, their deliberate opinion that the history of China
shows "
numerous instances of even acts of undue violence, meeting
with respectful treatment in return from the government, while
persons living in obedience to its laws were suffering from severe
and unmerited oppression;" and in 1807, the Select Committee re-
TARTAR POLICY TO EUROPEANS.
137
marked that "the weakness and corruption of the Chinese govern-
ment proved a counterpoise to its pride and arrogance.
دو
In 1830, the Select Committee stated the "Chinese government
evince a malignant temper in the publication of several insulting
and opprobrious edicts, promulgated with the evident intention of
degrading the character of foreigners amongst the lower order of
the natives, and calculated in a high degree to aggravate the feel-
ings of the former, and excite the disposition of the latter to offen-
sive acts." The whole British community in Canton protested
against the indignities heaped upon them by the Chinese govern-
ment.
"
Again, they record that the English there "are daily in contact
with the lowest of the Chinese, and exposed to assaults so wanton
and often so barbarous, as well as to robberies so extensive, that
self-defence imposes upon them the necessity of attacking their
assailants in a manner from whence death must often ensue.
وو
In another place the Select Committee says, "The contempt of
foreigners, engendered and fostered by the abusive terms in which
they are spoken of by the officers of government, the want of police
regulations, and the defenceless state in which we are placed, leave
us exposed to assaults of all descriptions."
This passage might have been written at the present moment,
Nov. 1846; for it depicts the condition of the British and other
foreign residents at Canton, even under the provisions of the treaty
of Nankin and its equally unfortunate supplement.
Dr. Gutzlaff in his official report, says "China is faithless as a!
nation, and its government is based on expediency." Mr. Thorm,
our consul at Canton, and an excellent Chinese scholar, says,
"the
Chinese are devoid of truth and morals, and the officials without
honesty or priuciple." Mr. Lay, consul at Amoy, and a Chinese
scholar, uses still stronger language on the subject. He says, "the
Tartar government, from the highest to the lowest, are liars and ex-
tortioners, possessed of witty cunning and ingenious malice; proud
and insolent;" (page 3, of published work). More recently, viz. :
at Amoy, in June, 1845, Mr. Lay declared that the "rulers of
China are the greatest villains on the face of the earth,—there was
not one to be trusted." Mr. Lay's sentiments of the people gene-
rally, particularly those of the north provinces, were favourable.
Everywhere in China I heard the same opinions from those conver-
sant with the character and language of the Tartars and Chinese;
and that the government only considered treaties to be binding so
long as it was expedient to uphold them.
The following code or abstract of instructions, from the govern-
ment of China to their licensed merchants at Kiackta, displays great
cunning, duplicity, and meanness.
"The end and aim of every commercial nation, should be to pre-
vent the advantage being on the side of the foreigners :-
(
138
TARTAR INSTRUCTIONS FOR FOREIGNERS.
"1st. To do this effectually, all letters received by any one of the
licensed merchants, from their partners, are only to be opened in a
public assembly, so that all may act in concert against the fo-
reigners.
"2nd. Discover what articles the Russians are most in need of,
and what price these sell for in Russia. Every member is to strive
with all his might, to obtain information on this head, and lay it
before a general meeting; when the president will give to each a
note, which will state the quantity of each article he is to purchase,
and the price he is to buy them at; and likewise those which he is
to withhold.
"3rd. The least display possible, as to the quantity of Chinese
goods, that may be brought for sale; do not appear anxious for
Russian goods.
"4th. The Chinese goods should be at all times less in quantity,
than Russian; that no fresh goods be brought forward, until the
old are sold off.
"6th. Let no eagerness be shown for an article of Russian manu-
facture; no matter how much any one member may wish to pro-
cure it."
"7th. When the Russians are scantily supplied with any valuable
article, great eagerness should be displayed to purchase the whole
stock, saying that it was in good demand; and then to be equally
divided between each merchant: the consequence will be, that the
next year, a large stock will be brought to market, and great bar-
gains will be procured, by stating that the demand has ceased; and
thus gain advantage to the nation.
"8th. If the Russians should raise the price of any article that
was scarce, no one should buy anything for one month. If they
complain to us, we will tell them that the trade must be stopped.
"9th. Tell the Russians that the quantity of goods on hand is
much less than it really is; and likewise tell them, that China
has no silk or cotton to dispose of.
“10th. No license will be granted to trade at Kiackta, unless the
merchant is able to write and speak the Russian language; and
that will prevent the necessity of the Russian acquiring a know-
ledge of the Chinese; and thus preserve the secrets of trade and
the policy of government.
"11th. Treat the Russians with politeness on all occasions, and
even show them acts of hospitality; which will enable you the bet-
ter to learn how their country is governed. But on no account
sleep in the same house with them.
"12th. No merchant to transact business for one year after his ar-
rival at Kiackta; but for that period to learn thoroughly all the
secrets of the trade, and thus prevent mistakes.
"13th. Prohibits gold, silver, copper, and iron, from being ex-
changed with Russia.
SURVEILLANCE AND RESPONSIBILITY.
139
"14th. Proscribes the introduction of all articles of luxury, wine,
spirits," &c.
There are various punishments awarded for a violation of any of
the above rules. For disclosing the nature of the above instructions.
to the Russians, death, or banishment for life; for lesser crimes,
mistakes, &c., to pull the grain boats five years, i. e. the galleys.
The trade of the interior of China, the prices, demand, &c., are
to be kept a profound secret.
The whole government is a system of strict surveillance and uni-
versal responsibility, approaching to the greatest military despotism.
The man who knows it is almost impossible to escape, (except by
entire seclusion), the emissaries of the government, will be cautious
of offending the laws of his country; for if he himself should
escape, his family will suffer for his offence, and if he can venture
home, it is most likely his property will be in the possession of
the officers of the government, or of neighbours who feel secure
in plundering him.
The Emperor is not only sole head of the Chinese constitution,
but is considered to be the " Teen Tsze," the Son of Heaven. It is
in unison with these high notions, that they refuse to negotiate with
the barbarians until compelled by a superior power, when it is
thought Heaven wills it.
The absolute power which the Emperor possesses, he arms his
deputies with, to be exercised by them in their various offices:
each being responsible only to his superior officer. The law has
appointed censors over the actions of the Emperor, but he need not
regard them in China all tyranny is so well cloked as to be
styled paternal authority.
The duties to be observed by the Emperors are strictly considered
to be in unison with Confucius and his most celebrated disciples,
as given in their famed works, the Five Classics and Four Books.
The first distinction of castes is between natives and aliens, which
latter class includes all the mountaineers, and other tribes throughout
the empire; the families that live in boats, also fishermen in the
maritime provinces: these are subject to laws that do not affect
natives. The second distinction is between the conquered and the
conquerors, i.e. Chinese and Tartars: the object of this distinction
is to put a stop to intermarriages, so as to prevent amalgamation
between the two races.
The third distinction is that every native can have slaves, whose
children are likewise slaves, under certain restrictions; free-born
people are often condemned for their crimes to slavery.
:
All the people are divided into two classes, the mean and
honourable the latter loses its privileges should they marry with
the former, who are comprised of people of the lowest grade:
slaves, policemen, stage-players, and jugglers; and these for three
generations are required to follow some honourable and useful
140
CASTES.-EFFECT OF CEREMONIAL.
employment to work out their liberty. Every thing to perpetuate
distinction is done most artfully.
One of the inevitable results of the system is the spirit of
falsehood, and want of candour which their ceremonies univer-
sally infuse. The Emperor's whole study is to decoy or
cajole his people; and he, in return, is cajoled by his mi-
nisters. It is scarcely necessary in China to ask a favour, for it is
sure to be promised, without the slightest idea of fulfilment.
The advantage attending this profusion of promises is, that they
can be estimated at their real value.
It is truly observed, that at one time the government adopts
language pregnant with direful import; and the next, if encountered
by a show of resistance, sinks into the most ignominious submission,
and resorts to ridiculous subterfuges, in order to escape from the
consequence of its own folly and audacity.
The people, particularly those of the better class, are very desirous
of associating with the English, but their Tartar rulers take every
possible means to prevent such association; the most opprobrious
epithets are heaped on the English, and placards are posted on the
walls at night accusing them of odious crimes; in other instances
edicts are issued as the following, entitled :-
66
Regulations for preventing the familiar intercourse of natives
and foreigners. The houses and lanes in the neighbourhood of the
foreign factories, (Canton), are the resort of native traitors; these
must be banished, to prevent an intimate connexion growing up
between the natives and the barbarians. The Foo and Heen
magistrates are to inspect the said places in person. All the doors
of the foreign factories at the back are to be immediately blocked
up. The square in the front is to be enclosed. The passages
through all the streets near the factories are to be cut off and
never again opened, and the walls built higher and thicker. It
will be proper to have one thoroughfare, with a gate, and a military
sentinel. But the shops in New China-street are so intimately
connected with foreigners, that they suspend signboards with
foreign characters written on them; this is in opposition to the
law, and must be put a stop to for ever. The private houses must
be also closed, and woe to all those who disobey, and let procla-
mations be issued appointing a time to sweep away these traitors!!"
There are various proofs in the Peking Gazettes of the disorgani-
zation that is in progress, and the loose and corrupt system of
government in the provinces.
The Lieut.-governor of Che-Keang, sent a memorial to his
majesty, which stated that a numerous band of robbers infested
the province of Hoonan. They grew so bold that nothing could
stop their marauding spirit. He represented them as disbanded
militia, who during the war with the English, fought under the
banners of their country, and being out of employment, and
unable to carn a living, have betaken themselves to these wicked
PROGRESS OF DISORGANIZATION.
141
courses. Cho-ping-teen, a minister of state, recently memo-
rialized the throne, respecting the state of the Peking police. The
memorial states, that the residence of his Majesty is infested with
robbers, who have been banished from other provinces, and have
not only taken up their residence, but actually bought houses, and
are living in a most splendid manner on the produce of their
booty. Debts and defalcations are numerous in Keangse; several
thousand taels are owing from three districts. In the province of
Chih-li, a magistrate is a defaulter to the extent of 12,000 taels.
A defaulter, in Honan, died, while being conveyed to Peking: his
property was put under seal. The undermentioned extracts from
the Peking Gazette, conveys further information to the internal
state of China. In 1827, Peking was in a deplorable state;
plurdering and murder were frequent in daylight, without
detection; ten carts laden with grain were taken from the gates
of the city. In 1827, extraordinary powers were given to the
Governor of Shan-tung; the banditti were so numerous, and the
expenses so great, that the emperor empowered him to inflict
summary punishment, without examining witnesses. In 1829, the
hills in Che-Keang which protect rebels, were ordered to be set fire
to in order to burn the grass and brush wood; thirteen of the
soldiers were consumed in the performance of this duty. The
banditti who inhabit the borders of Kwang-tung (Canton), and
Kwangse provinces, appear to be the most troublesome.
governor memoralized the present Emperor, that the banditti
in his jurisdiction might not be included in the act of grace on
the occasion of his accession. The same year nearly 500 of a
banditti were taken, within 200 miles of Canton, on the eastern side.
The
In 1827, the governor of Canton, requested the emperor to be-
stow rewards on the troops, as they had routed the banditti on the
southern hills, and taken 200 of the gang. In 1828, a reward of 1000
dollars was offered for the apprehension of a banditti leader, and
3,000 for another. The judge of Canton, this year complains that
he cannot clear the court of the number of cases. After a long
sitting, he states that there were of undecided cases for robbery
430, which involve upwards of 2000 who are not yet taken, and
the number is daily increasing. In 1829 the governor obtained
rewards for the military from the Emperor, for their successful
exertions, in the north and east of the province, where 300 bandits
were captured.
In the vicinity of Canton, Whampoa, and Macao, poor people
who cultivate land on the banks of the rivers, are frequently
plundered of all they possess, unless they take out a ticket of
security from a banditti, which protects them for a certain time.
Among fishermen along the coast a similar tax is imposed. The
Gazette denounces these practices, and that is all that is heard of
them.
1
In 1830, the number and character of the robberies in Canton
142
ROBBERIES AND KIDNAPPING.
were of the worst kind. Government offices and temples were
violated, and the robbers mustered in bands of from 300 to 500
each. The number captured in three months of this year in
Canton, was 467. Kidnappers are never pursued, or if so they are
sure to put their captives to death. The sacred palace of the
emperor, at Yuenmingyuen, was lately plundered, although well
guarded by day and night. His Majesty complained of "the want
of respect that is apparent, in latter years, as every thing belong-
ing to his majesty should be respected with awe and veneration.”
On any occasion of insurrection or tumultuous disturbances,
no mercy is shewn by the military. A recent report from the
Commander-in-chief of Formosa, states, that the neighbourhood of
Taewan, (the capital of Formosa), is infested with a disorderly and
rebellious gang, who openly defy the authorities. About thirty
of these had been taken prisoners, this has caused a disturbance in
which two Chinese soldiers have lost their lives. To quell the
insurrection 1000 soldiers were marched to the place, whilst the
treasury furnished 1800 taels to defray the expense. In the first
engagement ninety prisoners were taken, and their heads instantly
cut off. In a second engagement the commander reports, that he
dispatched about 300 heads. The loss on the parts of the victors
was trifling. The total killed and wounded, slain in battle, was
upwards of 1000: from 500 to 600 were beheaded, sixty-nine
decapitated, sixteen taken alive, and 100 stand of arms. These
robbers being completely exterminated, all is again quiet. The
only answer made to this report, was "the imperial will has been
recorded."
The rebellion among the Mohammedans in Turkestan, which
broke out in the year 1826, excited great alarm throughout the
empire, as it was well known that the Mohammedans beyond the
frontiers would join them. The Booriats of Kokan supported
the rebel chief; and after his death made an entry into Cashgar,
but were defeated by the Chinese.
In 1818, a numerous tribe, called Elucth, who inhabit the
borders of the province of Szechuen and Shense, committed
dreadful plunder on the inhabitants. The governor of the pro-
vince reported, that he had defeated them and taken several
hundred captives. When the expenses of this insurrection were
applied for, the Emperor ordered that the governor should pay it
himself. The consequence was that he committed suicide.
A fierce and bold race of mountaineers, called Lolo, inhabit a
country lying between the provinces of Szechuen and Yunnan
and the British territory in Assam; they are supposed to be the
Shans. The Peking Gazette, of 1819, declared the rewards to the
officers who defeated these rebels, which was all the public ever
heard. An express travelling 600 le a-day (168 miles) an-
nounced the victory.
It appears from the Peking Gazette, of the years 1826, 1828,
FRONTIER INCURSIONS AND REBELLIONS.
143
1830, and 1834, that the Chinese military was employed in quelling
insurrections that broke out on the western frontier of Yunnan.
The borderers on the Burman frontier were also defeated, and
many prisoners taken in 1830.
The governor of Yunnan memorialized the Emperor against a re-
duction of his military forces, which amounted to 33,970; all of
which he stated to be fully employed in keeping off a tribe called
Tsingke. In 1832, the envoy from Tibet to Peking was plundered
and severely beaten, on the borders of the province of Szechuen.
The tribe called Meenpoh, about this time, plundered and burnt
upwards of twenty villages. The most daring tribes inhabit the
country southward of the Yellow River, which, when frozen over,
they cross, carry all before them, and plunder the Mongol
pastoral tribes. The complaints were so numerous that the
authorities sent upwards of 3,000 troops after them, and recovered
30,000 head of cattle, with seventeen of the ringleaders, who were
beheaded.
The hill tribes within several of the western provinces, cause
even more expense and trouble to the authorities than the more
distant rebels; there are upwards of eighty different tribes. The
rebellion of 1832 cost 2,100,000 taels, and the Chinese army lost
10,000 men. The peasantry dread the imperial troops as much as
they do the robbers; hence the following instructions to the sol-
diers to preserve honest and orderly habits by Yu, one of the Com-
manders-in-chief, which read well, but are not obeyed.
CC
Every man derives his nature from heaven, and from infancy
to manhood none are destitute of virtue. The virtuous cherish it
in their hearts, while the exercise of it towards a prince is called
loyalty, and towards a parent filial piety. That you should while
at home exercise reverence towards your parents, and fraternal
affection towards your brethren, you very well know. The Sacred
Edict has widely promulgated and reiterated in your hearing, that
scholars and husbandmen, mechanics and tradesmen, by attending
to the appropriate duties of their calling, will secure a reputation,
and surely reap their reward.
"The favors we receive from others ought never to be forgotten.
Here allow me to introduce a similitude. Suppose you were on a
long journey and your pocket-money were expended, and you
found yourself destitute, far from home, without friends, and
perishing from want. Then suppose a man should give you a few
hundred cash to preserve your life. Should you ever afterward see
this man, ought you to make any expression of gratitude for his
mercy? And, if you made no returus for his kindness, would you
not justly be considered a forgetful and an ungrateful creature,
and thus exhibit no goodness of heart? It is a common saying,
if we receive from others a favor, like a drop of water, the return
should be like an overflowing fountain.
I
144
INSTRUCTIONS TO PRESERVE ORDER.
"Now you, soldiers, have received favors from your sovereign,
which it is extremely difficult for you ever to repay. It is be-
coming you, as you regularly enter the cantonment to receive your
rations and monthly pay, to remember that all you have for the
support of your lives, the nourishment of your family, and the
offerings to your ancestors, is the result of your sovereign's com-
passion, whose mercy is higher than the heavens and extensive as
the earth; therefore loyalty is a sentiment that should be engraven
on your hearts. As you receive liberally of the favors of your
sovereign, it is becoming you, by a careful and diligent attention
to your appropriate duties, to promote the peace of the land, by
exterminating thieves and robbers, and avoid disturbing or dis-
tressing the people. Thus you may respond to the distinguished
favors of your sovereign, and yourselves advance in the road of
promotion, from the infantry to the cavalry, and then to official
stations, with increasing honors and emolument. This is in time.
of peace; but should there be a national disturbance, and you are
sent out in regular file, and on seeing the foe, advance bravely
before him and slay the enemy, you thus repay the kindness of
your sovereign. But if, on seeing the enemy, you cherish un-
worthy fears and do not advance, you prove yourself ungrateful
and unworthy creatures, and of the same class with pirates, and
all men will be justified in slaying you.
"You may consider that from ancient times till now, the wise
and the brave have been prosperous and honored, and for this
reason that with a true heart they destroyed the enemy. But
those who fear to die cannot thus avoid death; suppose they shut
themselves up within their own doors and die of disease,—are they
not then dead? But if you would not deserve death, take your
sword and rush amidst a thousand or ten thousand men, bran-
dishing your weapon and speeding your horse, and you cannot die.
A discharge of your appropriate duties and the subjugation of the
enemy, all depends upon your loyalty and bravery, and in this way
alone you can preserve the laws and save your lives.
"In time of peace, while remaining in your cantonments, it is
expected that you be quietly employed in your customary duties,
not quarrelling with each other: and when you go out, whether it
be for taking thieves or for war, as you meet the people you should
remember, that your food and salary are the result of their labor.
Therefore, carefully endeavour to protect them. Do not frighten
and annoy them; but when you see among them old persons,
regard them as you would your own father and mother; and when
you see young persons, treat them as you would a brother or
sister. Do not think, because you spend your strength in the
service of your Emperor, that you have a right to defraud the
people. When going abroad do not compel the coolies to bear
your burdens, without a suitable compensation; and as you pass
along the road, do not rob the gardens of their vegetables and
་
เค
SOLDIERS NOT TO ABUSE THE PEOPLE.
145
fruits. Do not passionately abuse the people, and, relying on your
numbers, insult the defenceless. Should all respond to the voice
of one man, and several tens of you unite in beating one man, and
if, perchance he is killed, do not think that you will pass unde-
tected. Your fellow-soldiers, lest they should be implicated, will
make known who was the mover of the disturbance, and when
this is known by the people, they will represent the case to the
proper authority; who will institute an investigation, and the cor-
roborating testimony of soldiers and people will so clearly esta-
blish your guilt, that even your friends and relations will not dare
deny it. Such will then be judged according to law, and beheaded,
and your heads suspended by the wayside to the gaze of the multi-
tude. These things you all understand.
:
"You remember that during the revolt of Formosa, in the 12th
year of his Imperial Majesty's reign, A.D. 1832, the soldiers from
Chekiágg, Honan, and Sz'chuen refused to pay the coolies for bearing
their burdens, and that a dispute arose and life was lost; also, that
children were kidnapped, and the office of the salt merchant was
plundered when these things were beyond all endurance, they
were represented to the high provincial officers, who reported it to
his majesty; and an imperial edict was issued; and, after the
necessary investigation, the offenders were delivered down to be
punished according to law. These things are for your admonition.
Therefore, do not trust in your numbers or the fallacious hope of
escape, for your commanding officers will surely understand and
make known your conduct; also your comrades, for fear of being
themselves implicated, will disclose the matter, and you cannot
escape punishment. From ancient times till now, the laws con-
cerning soldiers have been very rigid. On a former occasion a
soldier stole a man's vegetables, and he was put to death for it.
"Now you think that a vegetable is worth but a few cash ;—
why need a man fear to take it? Man is prone to imitate bad
example; and if he can take a vegetable, he will take something
else, and soon it will become habitual; and the people of the
country will cease to fear thieves and pirates, from their greater
dread of the soldiers. Thus the anger of the people would lead
them to call upon the gods for vengeance, and you will incur their
wrath, instead of securing their aid, in time of battle. Think you,
when engaged in battle, should one man draw back, would not all
follow his example and flee, and the foe pursue after them to the
destruction of all? The laws concerning soldiers are extremely
severe. The good man constantly observes the customs, and dares.
not contend with his associates. He regards his own life as pre-
cious, and trembles lest by quarrelling with another he should
accidentally kill him, when he would pay for it by the loss of his
own life. If he escape death, he is banished, and thus precluded
for ever from all honor and profit.
L
146
"C
VALUE OF TRUTH AND RIGHTEOUSNESS.
Anciently, there was a man by the name of Han Sin, who
compelled a thief to pass between his legs; still he dared not
wrangle. According to the saying, 'The brave act like tigers, and
not like mice.'
"If for a few years there should be peace, and, instead of going
to war, you all remain at home, as good men, I will teach you
what
to do, namely,-practice yourselves in your duties, that you may
be able to protect yourselves and your families, thus exhibiting
truth and righteousness. Every thing in heaven and earth is
comprehended in these two terms,-truth and righteousness. They
are to men what the root is to the tree. Where then is truth?
To speak a word to-day, and follow it ever afterwards; not pointing
to the east, then going to the west; not saying that you have what
you have not; not changing to suit your own convenience ;-if you
speak and act thus, all men will believe you. This is what is called
truth. What is righteousness? For each to attend to his business
and practice himself in his appropriate duties;—regarding his
officers as he regards his parents, and his comrades as his brethren,
avoiding ingratitude and a violation of the laws;-this is what is
called righteousness. If a man have no truth, but is deceitful and
false, then there is nothing too bad for him to do, and even his
father and mother, and wife and children, will see that he is a bad
man. An unrighteous man in the twinkling of an eye becomes
ungrateful. Therefore truth and righteousness are of the first
importance.
Again, it is easy to move the mind of the ignorant. This you
will understand by observing a play. Suppose the actor, in al-
luding to the ancients, should exhibit loyalty and filial piety. The
audience, looking at the faithful minister or dutiful child exposed
to ten thousand ills, still maintaining his integrity, and, in every
temptation to impropriety and unrighteousness, sternly adhering to
truth and uprightness. Therefore, the gods of heaven and earth
will protect him in the field of battle, and crown him with laurels
of victory,-bless him with a blooming wife and honorable chil-
dren, and perpetuate his name to a thousand generations. But
how often is it that stupid men frequent the plays, desiring only
to witness impure and incorrect exhibitions, and look upon scenes.
calculated to foster a contentious spirit. You may know from the
expression of their countenances, that such, if they are not already
adepts in the practice of vice, will soon learn to be; for such
things are very shallow, and easily learned.
"Here allow me to introduce the case of Sung Kiang, a famous
robber, whose name is recorded in the Shui Hu, and history in-
forms us that he was at the head of thirty-six giantlike insurgents.
General Chang Suye, of Hwuihai, at one time called out his men
to exterminate them, but they surrendered and swore allegiance to
their sovereign. Sung Kiang lived about the middle of the Sung
dynasty. He was a man of superior natural talents; and at length
Į
DUTIES OF SOLDIERS IN PEACE.
147
became a faithful subject and a queller of rebellion, and promoter
of peace within the four seas (China), and was praised by suc-
ceeding generations. Still, though he became a faithful subject
and distinguished patriot, by all his good deeds he could not erase
from history the record that he was once a robber. Moreover, the
works of fiction have misrepresented the number of his colleagues,
and endeavored to make it appear that he acted not for gain, but
for honor; thus tempting the age, blinding the eyes of the people,
and injuring the hearts of men in no small degree. In the same
way, novels have so represented the character of the robbers of
Wa Kang, that indiscriminating minds are led to admire their
valor; not thinking that they were without prince or father, and
that they thus treated with contempt their own body and their
own parents; not thinking that true courage consists in speaking
with propriety and acting righteously, in not obscuring the laws of
heaven, or throwing away conscience, even if it should be at the
hazard of life.
"The fact is, you cannot rely on what novels say; for Sung
Kiang was no better than Tai Wu and Manting (notorious rob-
bers). You know that in secret societies, where the members are
sworn to protect each other, the greater guilt rests on the head
man, and his guilt is increased in proportion to the increase of the
numbers under him. For such proceedings they surely will be
apprehended and punished, when repentance will be unavailing.
"Therefore you, soldiers, ought carefully and unceasingly to
follow truth and righteousness, filial piety and loyalty. For if you
carefully practice your own tactics, and when at home respect your
parents, love your brethren, and attend to your own business, and,
when sent for the apprehension of pirates, you prove faithful to
your trust; in time of war not oppressing the people, and mutually
admonishing each other to walk in the path of virtue; and if you
bravely contend for your friends and relations, and also the
rulers of the land, the gods will secretly protect you wherever
you go. But if you do not carefully practice your tactics, and
attend to your own business; when set after robbers, if you do
not face the foe;-such conduct cannot be endured by the justice
of the laws, or the mercy of the gods.
"Finally, strive to familiarise yourself with your own business,
and mutually instruct and assist each other. In giving these
instructions, your general has not employed a mysterious style and
unintelligible terms, but simple and every-day language; so plain
that it may be easily understood, even by those who cannot read.
Now if these principles of your nature (truth and righteousness)
be established, you may travel to the ends of the earth without
danger of harm; and is it not a matter to be desired, that the
officers and soldiers, princes and people, should dwell together in
peace and happiness ?"
The feebleness of the Tartar government is well illustrated by
L2
148
STRENGTH OF THE PIRATES.
the constant piracy along the whole coast of China. Pirates in
China are divided into two classes, sea robbers, and water or river
robbers. Chaouchoo-foo, and the neighbouring province of
Foo-keen, appear to be the stronghold of both classes, particularly
during the seasons of distress, as then it is known that many join
them for want of employment. Dr. Gutzlaff, who visited many
parts of the coast of China, in 1831, describes the social state there
as wretched in the extreme.
The duty of the Chinese navy, is supposed to be for the protection
of maritime commerce, and a few observations on its efficacy, will
show how far it answers that purpose. The governor of Keangnan
reported, in 1818, that he found great difficulty in procuring timber
to build twelve junks, for the coast of Shan-tung. The Governor of
Canton reports, in 1820, that ninety vessels were disabled this
year, and forty more in the succeeding year. In 1833, 100,000
taels were voted to build ten junks, under the direction of the
Governor of Canton. The admiral received private information,
that the new junks were put together with wooden bolts; on exami-
nation it was found to be so. At Nangaou, which is the second
naval station of Canton, and bordering on Foo-keen, (the stronghold
of pirates), and the residence of an admiral, with a force of 5000
men,—Messrs. Lindsay and Gutzlaff found eight small junks in
1832.
Mr. Glasspole, who was taken prisoner by the Chinese pirates,
together with seven of his men, in 1809, calculated their whole
force to consist of 70,000 men, navigating 800 large vessels, and
1000 smaller ones, including their row-boats. The united forces of
the Chinese navy, aided by vessels belonging to the Portuguese of
Macao, consisting of upwards of 100 sail, were totally unable to
make the least impression on the pirate band. Mr. Glasspole was
with them nearly three months, and was compelled, along with his
men, to enter into many engagements with them during that time,
and consequently had a good opportunity of calculating their
forces. It was not until division appeared between the rival com-
manders, that the imperial government proposed a general pardon,
and employment to those who would surrender. Kuo Patao,
commander of the black squadron, surrendered and entered into
terms for all his followers, and subsequently found employment in
Peking. Paoer, the admiral of the red flag, very soon surrendered
on the same terms, and he and many of his forces were employed
by the government in hunting their former associates. Ever since,
every effort has been made to prevent their uniting in so strong a
body, but they are still numerous.
In 1831, the Peking Gazette contained a proclamation, against
allowing in future, tea to be conveyed to the Northern Provinces
by sea, as his Majesty had been informed that the tea-dealers
carry with them powder, to supply and pacify the pirates. The
Governor of Canton, in 1829, issued a proclamation against the
}
SALE OF PUBLIC OFFICES.
149
Lintin smugglers, who have boats with from thirty to forty oars,
who when smuggling fails, turn pirates, carry fire arms, and even
fire on the revenue cutters of the government.
In a representation made to the emperor in 1830, from the
Governor of Che-Keang, it is stated that the officers of the coast
permitted pirates to do as they wished, that murder and plunder
was an occurrence of every day ;-the emperor in answer, deprived
the officers of their cutters for three months, during which time
they were to have all the pirates made prisoners, or failing therein
to be dismissed.
The Peking Gazette of August, 1831, has a peremptory order
from the Emperor, concerning the nine pirates who were taken for
the plunder of Howqua's fort; he desires that they be put to torture,
in order to discover the remainder. A fleet of Cochin China
pirates was discovered this year, which consisted of ninety sail.
One of the most remarkable indications of decay in the empire,
and of general corruption, is the sale of offices, which has recently
increased to a great extent, and is at total variance with the
literary examinations which had hitherto been the basis of official
employment, and powerful means of keeping the empire consoli-
dated and tranquil.
1822. A memorial to the emperor, from Sin Tsung-yih, head
master of the literati in Shanting province, and Yuen-Seen, the
censor of Yun-nau province, in 1822, is as follows:
We have heard that the sale of high offices originated under the
Han dynasty; but the disgrace of selling office under the pre-
sent is of greater enormity than theirs. The sums procured under
the Han dynasty were applied to the public service, but our
dynasty puts the whole of such revenues into its private purse.
"Our dynasty commenced the sale of office, in 1637, Teentsung's
tenth year, to supply money for the use of the state, and to collect
human talent; for many of our sages arose from fish and salt
markets, and those who bought office, made up a portion of talent
unsupplied by those who obtained office by literary merit. But
it was ordered by imperial authority, that the literary should have
the majority in the proportion of eleven to eight.
"But at the present time, there are unemployed by government
more than 15,000, who have obtained the third degree, (tsin-sze),
and near 30,000 of the second degree, (ken-jin), and those that
are waiting to be employed were made eligible thirty years ago.
The design of your Majesty's heart is to give age to their talent,
and prepare them for service.
CC
Allowing them to be thirty years of age when they obtain the
degree of ken-jin, and then wait thirty years more, they are then
generally pointed out as feeble and stupid, and thus the learned
will ultimately be excluded from office.
"The buyers of office are both young and have abundance of
money, and are thus put over everybody's head, and pointed out
150
QUALIFICATION FOR OFFICE.
as possessing talents. The qualifications for graduates are most
rigorous.
A candidate must state his descent for three genera-
tions back; also procure five graduates to enter into bonds of
security. The purchaser of office has nothing to do but pay his
money, and there is his office; and governors become his sureties.
Thus priests, who are prohibited, and actual highwaymen, are
daily promoted to office. When in authority they are cruel
oppressors, they terrify the people, and their superiors point them
out as possessing decision. Of late none of them have been
impeached, and their numbers are unknown. When this docu-
ment reaches the privy council, they will say, the resources of the
country are inadequate, and thereby darkly insinuate their
slanderous aspersions; we have, therefore, made a calculation.
In the third year of Keaking a banditti, in Sze-Chuen, and two
other provinces, caused an insurrection, and the sale of offices
procured 70,000 taels, (about £25,000.) In the eleventh year of
his reign, a rebellion broke out in Yun-nan, and the sale of offices
realized 120,000 taels; the 19th year 60,000 taels; thus the
whole amount for twenty years, make but a few hundred thousand
taels. Now if the expenses of imperial honors were once removed,
it would save as much in one year, as the sale of offices has pro-
duced in ten.
"The expenses of flowers and rouge at the imperial harem is
annually 100,000 taels. The salaries at the harem for waiting-
boys is 120,000 taels. The gardens of Yuenming cost more than
200,000 taels. The establishment at Jeho, costs 480,000 taels.
The other expenses of these gardens for salaries to great officers, is
160,000 taels; and there are conferred in largesses on the women
of these gardens 250,000 taels. If these few items were abolished,
talent might be brought to the service of the country, and the wealth
of the people be secured.
"We find in the provinces, from governor, lieutenant-governors,
down to the village magistrates, all combine to gain their purpose
by hiding the truth from the Emperor.
"Now for the tricks played by the great salt officers, they are
numerous. Each bag of salt supplied to the emperor weighs
sixty catties, charged 500 cash per bag; but the salt supplied to
the people only weighs eight catties at the same charge.
"If your majesty deem this statement to be right, and will act
thereon in the government, the army, the nation, and the poor people
will have cause of gladness of heart. Should we be subjected to the
operation of the hatchet, or suffer death in the boiling caldron, we shall
not decline it."
His majesty's reply :
"The report of Yuen-seen and his colleague is extremely lucid,
and shows them to be faithful statesmen, who are grieved for the
state of their country, and who have the spirit of the great states-
PRICES OF OFFICE.
151
Since the days of Yun-Chawwantoo, 221 B.C.
men of antiquity.
such men have not appeared.
TAOUKWANG, (Feby 22, a.d. 1822.)”
Nothing, however, was done, on the "lucid and faithful,"
report.
The sale of civil and military offices, in 1826, produced
6,000,000 of taels. The privilege is only granted for one year at a
time; but it was renewed 1828 and 1829.
The Peking Gazette for January, 1831, announces that two
sons of Howqua have been promoted, one created ken-jéh by patent,
for having one year previously subscribed 36,000 taels, the other
son had contributed 100,000 taels towards the war in Tartary,
for which he was made a director of the salt monopoly.
The literary chancellor of the province of Keang-se, in 1828,
having been reported to the emperor as guilty of selling degrees;
two special commissioners were dispatched to his house, who
discovered 400,000 taels, and to save any examination, he was
given an opportunity to commit suicide.
The price of a first degree, is said to cost 7000 or 8,000 dollars;
a substitute can be had on much less terms, who does not regard
the punishment. At an investigation which was held in Peking,
in 1832, six writers were ordered for execution for forging diplomas.
An officer, in the Board of Revenue, in Peking, was discovered to
have sold 20,000 diplomas of rank.
The imperial Court Calendar gives the number of provincial
officers as follows:-Governors, 11; fooyuens, 15; treasurers, 19;
judges, 18; chancellors, 17; magistrates of cities of the first order,
184; of cities of the second order, 212, and of the third, 1305:
total, 1781. According to law, all these officers must be changed
every third year, and they must not fill a similar office in the province
a second time; this principle carried out would require 35,620
great officers to fill all these appointments during sixty years.
The extent of bribery and corruption, and the number of offices
sold, may, therefore, be fairly inferred as very great.
Police of Peking.-The police of Peking are composed of part of
the Chinese infantry, belonging to the regular troops; they keep a
very strict surveillance over the city, and they are constantly in the
streets with swords at their sides, and whips in their hands, ready
to strike any one who would create a confusion. They take care
to have the streets kept clean, and will put their hands to it them-
selves in case of necessity; they keep watch during the night, and
allow no one to go through the streets, except with lanterns, and
then only on very urgent business-such as to call a physician, &c.
They even question those who may be charged with missions to the
Emperor, and all must give satisfactory answers; if not, they have a
right to arrest them. The officers of the guard are bound to be
extremely vigilant with respect to the men under their command..
152
DUTIES OF THE POLICE.
The slightest negligence would be punished, and the officers cashiered
on the following day.
One of their principal duties is to prevent a famine in the city.
In the city as well as the suburbs there are large granaries, where
rice is kept to provide against scarce seasons. The regulations are
very honestly executed in the vicinity of the court, but not so in
provinces; which occurs through the negligence of the mandarins.
Besides these public stores, there are large granaries of the Emperor
which are filled with wheat, and pulse, and fodder, for the beasts.
of burden.
The following edict against forestallers of rice, indicates the
anxiety of the government to maintain a low price for food :-
Keying of the imperial house, governor-general of Kwang-tung
and Kwang-si, a director of the board of war, vice-high chancellor
and guardian of the heir apparent, minister and commissioner ex-
traordinary, &c., issues a severe prohibition against storing rice from
fear of famine. Whereas it is important that rice should be in the
market, to stop it is against the law. The population of Kwang-
tung is great, and its produce is too little, and the support of the
people always depends upon the rice of Kwang-si, which the mer-
chants bring. But now the price of rice in Canton rises every day,
and it has been found out that there are some villains and dissolute
persons stirring up the people, and saying that in the year Ping-woo*
and Tin-wi in the reign of Kin-lung there was a famine, and now
this year is Ping-woo again, and we should keep our rice for a good
market. These villains hinder the rice-boats from coming, and
squeeze them in every way according to their wishes, and the mer-
chants stop their trade; and this causes the want of rice among
the people. But these men surely do not know the rainy season
of the last year Yih-sze came exactly in time, and it enriched the
earth very much, and when compared with the Yih-sze year in the
reign of Kin-lung it is very different, and I believe, when the spring
comes we shall have fine rains. If those villains still dare to keep
back the rice, seeking profit, the law cannot suffer them, and their
policy must be thwarted, so that the merchants may trade again,
and the people have food. Besides commanding the governor of
Kwang-si to renew his former edict, I will command all the officers
of the districts through which the merchants of Kwang-tung must
pass in trading with Kwang-si, to issue proclamations, so as to let
all people know, that after this no man should store up rice for the
fear of famine. If any merchants from Kwang-tung go to Kwang-si
* "The Chinese have two sets of characters; the one of which, called Teen-kan,
"the celestial stems," includes ten characters, the other set called Te-che, the "ter-
restrial branches," consist of twelve characters, and these characters are applied to
years, months, days, and hours. They have been combined so as to form a cycle of
sixty; and Pingwoo' is the third year in this order, and 'Ting-we' the forty-fourth,
and‘Yih-sze' the forty-second. Some Chinese think that in the space of sixty years
all former occurrences will come again, like the four seasons of the year.-Note by
Ashing, the translator of this edict.
FORESTALLING OF FOOD.
153
to buy rice, they should buy their rice freely, and bring it to.
Kwang-tung to sell, and there should be no secret hindrance of
buying and selling rice, so as to raise the value of rice, and cause
all sorts of difficulties to the poor. If, after this second edict, any
of the villains dare to store up their rice, seeking profit, and send
boats along the entrances of the province to hinder and squeeze
the merchants, the officers of their districts shall seize them, and
bring them to trial, and punish them with heavy penalties, and
shall not set them at liberty. Do not disobey this special edict.
"First month, 21st day." (Feb. 16, 1846.)
The police of China are thus aptly described by one who has
closely studied the subject.
"With the exception of prying into families, the police are very
vigilant. To form a proper idea of this body elect, we must consi-
der them to be a collection of the very scum of the nation, well
versed in all tricks, personally acquainted with thieves, robbers,
and gamblers, initiated in all the mysteries of iniquity, and often
partaking largely, not only of the bribes, but also in the practice of
abomination, in the very haunts of vice. The government being
well aware of the character of this gentry, degraded them below
the level of citizens, excluding them from entering upon the an-
nual examinations, and partaking of the general privileges of the
nation at large. A small number receive pay from their employ-
ers, of about one to two dollars per month, but by far the greater
part serve for honour's sake, and even pay to their masters a monthly
sum of money to bear the venerable name of Chae or Chae-yuh—
runners. This is the most conclusive proof that their situations
must be worth something, for otherwise we cannòt imagine how
they would enter upon a profession which requires incessant exer-
cise, without the least prospect of gain. The headman of the police
stipulates to pay a considerable sum to his master, he secures his
many myrmidons, and takes very good care to reimburse himself
as soon as possible. These men, therefore, are a terror to the
nation, their very appearance sickens the people, and the guilty as
well as the guiltless tremble at their sight. No police-runner will
move a single step, unless it be with the view of making some
money; no persons are apprehended, no measures are put into
execution, without their being well and honorably paid for.
How odious soever the executors of the law may appear, they
enable the mandarins to know everything that passes in their juris-
diction. Hence the ease with which criminals are discovered, and
abuses temporarily checked, whenever it suits the views of the
Chinese government to do so. But still the mandarins must oc-
casionally be satisfied with becoming the dupes of these knaves,
and seeing their measures frustrated by the antipathy borne to them
by their own people. Hence it has happened, that thieves have
been harboured in the very offices from whence the warrants for their
apprehension were issued; that contraband goods have been stowed
*
154
LAWS OF CHINA.
away in the hall of justice; and that even rebels have been secreted
by the very men sent to seize them. To dispatch a rogue in order
to catch a rogue, may perhaps sometimes be convenient; but rogues.
can never be trusted for any length of time, and the best intentions
may be defeated by making them guardians of the law.
A peculiar feature in the police of China has lately been their
joining of the triad society. We cannot assign any other reason
for this step, but their wish to keep themselves free from the wrath
of their own mandarins, for no official dares openly to attack a
member of the brotherhood. On the other hand, this fraternity
must have been very glad to number amongst its votaries men ac-
quainted with all the measures of government, who could give
them a timely warning, and screen them in case of persecution.
Though the police is often allowed to carry on extortion and to
harass the people for any length of time, the patience of the over-
patient people is still occasionally worn out, and they rise in a body
to resist their tormentors. Such proceedings are of frequent oc-
currence, and if they happen on a large scale, the government is
wise enough to forgive the whole, while partial resistance is punished
with the utmost severity. The whole system is full of contradic-
tion, there is a laxity almost amounting to lawlessness; and again,
a rigor exceeding all bounds and reason. The police, once know-
ing the tone assumed by government, are careful to follow its dic-
tates, and the richest harvest is always the time, when the laws are
going to be put into execution. The innocent people may be
seized and again released, upon paying a handsome sum; the guilty
may obtain a chance of escaping by discharging a fee; and those
in prison may get relief by bribing their keepers. During such
seasons the exertions of the whole tribe are extraordinary, they
traverse all streets, holes, and haunts, none can escape their hawks'
eyes, and if criminals get out of danger, it is owing to the friendly
services of their patrons, the police."
Laws of China. It is the general opinion that the Chinese ad-
ministration of their laws is salutary, and that the laws are never
changed: such is not the fact; for the Emperor himself acknow-
ledges, that in every department of the government there are cor-
ruption and carelessness; that famine visits the land frequently,
and that its horrors are aggravated by the rapacity of the autho-
rities; that conspiracies exist in all parts of the country (of men
who are confederated into brotherhoods, whose avowed object is to
upset the present Tartar dynasty), which break out occasionally
into insurrection against the government; that every part of the
country is infested with banditti, who are countenanced, if not
permitted, by the officers of government, and we may conclude
that such a government is held together more by the force of habit
than through intrinsic merit.
The penal code has been several times altered within the last
thirty years; it consisted originally of the leuh, which for several
UNCERTAINTY OF CHINESE CODE.
155
ages comprised 457 heads; in the fifth year of the Emperor Yung-
ching, it was reduced to 436. The le (novelle) or modern clauses,
to limit, explain, or alter the old statutes, were first introduced
during the Ming dynasty, which preceded that now on the throne.
In the first year of the present reign, they amounted to 1573. In
the year 1829, the criminal board of Peking addressed the Emperor
to recommend a new edition. The late emperor had ordered that
a revised and a corrected edition should be published every five
years; the first being a slight revisal, the next being a thorough
one. In consequence of the many alterations which had taken place
during the preceding reign, the law and practice no longer agreed.
The following year a new edition was published, (very likely
with the request of a board,) comprising twenty-eight volumes
octavo. The emperor then decreed, that instead of fixing ten
years, or any other time, for the republication of the whole code,
the supreme courts should make as few alterations as possible on
the last code, and that only when they are obliged to do so.
The 44th section of the penal code provides, that in cases where
there is no law in existence precisely applicable, such cases may
then be determined on by an accurate comparison with others
which are already provided for, and which approach most nearly to
those under investigation, in order to ascertain afterwards whether
an aggravation of the offence, or a mitigation of it, was necessary.
The uncertainty of the Chinese code is seen in the following in-
cident, which happened about the year 1835, in the Nganhwuy
province, where six people were killed by salt smugglers. A Ma-
hommedan, one of the murderers, plucked out the viscera, split
the head, and threw the different parts of the body into the river:
this man was sentenced to suffer death, after confinement (which
generally means to have his life spared). The Emperor not only
censures the judge who sentenced him, but the board of Peking
who referred it to him, because they noticed the gratuitous cruelty
of the murderer; and orders a new law to be made to apply to such
cases.
In the year 1829, the Emperor enacted a law, which refers only
to his own clan, in consequence of their litigious spirit. Of late,
he remarks, they have constantly appeared in cases that do not
immediately concern themselves, and have employed their privi-
leges and influence to extort money on legal pretexts. The tenor
of the law was, that should any member of the imperial clan appeal
in cases that do not concern himself, and should it be found that
it was done for the purpose of extorting money, he shall be sen-
tenced to sixty blows with the cudgel, and forty blows with the
bamboo this circumstance is worthy of notice, as the 9th section of
the code enacts, that all the subjects of the empire who are en-
rolled under Tartarian banners, when found guilty of any offences
which render them liable by the laws in general to a corporeal
punishment, shall receive the whole number of blows specified,
156
PENAL LAWS AND OFFENCES.
but the chastisement shall be inflicted with the whip instead of a
bamboo.
The provincial officers often stretch the laws without reference
to the Emperor. The governors of provinces generally invite foo-
yuen, judge, treasurer, &c., to share the responsibility. Some of
these precepts even affect life. The governor and fooyuen of Can-
ton issued a proclamation, in 1830, directed against a banditti,
who, under disguise as custom-house searchers, plundered boats
on the river. An imperial edict of 1824 says, that holding of
fire-arms is illegal, and fixes a period for valuing them and de-
livering them up. And again, in 1831, fire-arms, excepting fowl-
ing-pieces, are to be delivered up in six months. In 1830, the
magistrate of the Nanhae district in Canton, took it upon himself
to proclaim all as thieves that were seen on tops of houses after
first-watch; and after second-watch, they might be fired at, but
with grains of paddy (rice unhusked); "because," he adds, "I
want to detect thieves, not to take lives."
The existing penal laws for China were promulgated by the pre-
sent Tartar usurpers, in the middle of the 17th century, shortly
after they seized on the throne and empire of China. The last
edition was published in 1830, in twenty-eight volume octavo: the
lowest degree of punishment is from ten to fifty blows, with a
bamboo five feet long and two inches thick; the second degree of
punishment is from sixty to one hundred blows; temporary banish-
ment, with one hundred blows, is the third degree of punishment;
perpetual banishment is the fourth; and death is the fifth degree.
The Tartar subjects are beaten with a whip, and instead of banish-
ment, put into a moveable pillory.
The law for enrolment is plain and clear; every person from
the age of four years must be entered on the registry: omitting to
register all the family annually is punished with 100 blows, if
there be any property in the family; 80, if otherwise. Every 100
families all over the empire form a division, and appoint ten asses-
sors to oversee their district, and make the annual returns; for
any neglect the bamboo is applied.
The first and most severe enactment is the protection of the
emperor's apartments, of the empress, her mother, and grand-
mother, whose dwellings are sacred, and whoever enters without
authority will be strangled. No one but his majesty's attendants
shall cross his bridges or roads; and during his journeys, any ob-
struction or intrusion while travelling, is death: hence, it may be
said, being near an emperor is as dangerous as meeting a tiger.
All persons who carry the productions or inventions of the
country beyond the frontier, or remove themselves out of the em-
pire, shall be beheaded: it is also forbidden any one by the laws to
build or settle on any of the islands near the coast; no horses or
cattle can be killed without permission; all official letters and dis-
patches must travel at the rate of 300 le, or Chinese miles, in a
day and a night; one hour's delay subjects them to the bamboo,
RESPONSIBILITY OF RELATIONS.
157
ten blows for each hour; the distance from Peking to Canton is
1200 English miles by land, and the distance is performed in thir-
teen or fourteen days; the gazette seldom arrives in less than
thirty days; officials are allowed ninety days to perform the
journey.
In the 6th article of the criminal code, high treason, rebellion,
allegiance, sorcery, and magic, are treated under the head of theft
and robbery. All persons convicted of high treason, shall suffer
death by a slow and painful execution; also all the male relations
in the first degree, from the age of sixteen upwards, namely, father,
grand-father, sons, grand-sons, paternal uncles, and their sons,
shall suffer death: all male relations under sixteen years of age,
shall be given to the great officers of state as slaves, and the
females of all ages, likewise; all property is confiscated.
Quarrelling and fighting are punished: striking with the hand,
20 blows of the bamboo; tearing more than one inch of hair, is
50 blows; breaking a tooth, or any bone of the body, 100 blows;
any person guilty of striking their father, grandfather, grand-
mother, or any wife who is guilty of striking her husband, father,
grandfather, or grandmother, shall suffer death.
All the courts of justice in China are furnished with a drum, the
beating of which by those who demand justice, together with
the noise and confusion, has a very novel appearance to an Euro-
pean.
There does not appear to be any fixed period for the courts of
justice to sit, and sometimes the magistrate presides to hear causes
in private; but, generally speaking, the public are admitted indis-
criminately. The magistrate sits at a table, which is furnished
with writing materials; plaintiff, defendant, and the witnesses
kneel in the front of the judge. The pleadings are all written by
licensed notaries, who are permitted to read them, but no counsel
is allowed to plead.
The 416th section of the criminal code provides, that when a
prisoner has been tried and convicted, he shall be brought before
the judge a second time, together with his family and his nearest
relations, each of whom are at liberty to acknowledge or protest
against the judgement about being pronounced. The protests are
taken down in writing, and form a case for a second investigation.
The same section provides a punishment of sixty blows to any
magistrate who refuses to receive a protest under such circum-
stances, viz., whether a subject has been sentenced to banishment
or death. When the case is disposed of, a full report of the pro-
ceedings is required to be furnished to the emperor.
State of the Prisons.-The fooyuen of Canton, in a report to the
Emperor on the state of the prisons, reports that they are not suf-
ficiently large to contain the vast number of prisoners that accu-
mulate, in consequence of the great delay in the administration of
justice. The report further states, that the magistrates have been
in the habit of taking separate buildings when the jails were full;
158
STATE OF THE PRISONS.
that in one district, he found three such private prisons, with upwards
of 300 prisoners, witnesses, and accusers, who had been sent from
some distant part of the province, to have their cases decided at the
provincial capital. These private prisons are built in the form of
a bird-cage, and are used as a means of confession and extortion ;
some of the prisoners had been confined (untried) for long periods,
averaging from three to twelve months. Two magistrates had ap-
pointed females to attend them, who provided female slaves for the
basest purposes. In 1816 there were upwards of 10,000 prisoners
confined in the various jails in China convicted of capital offences,
awaiting the imperial order for execution. In 1829, Governor Le,
of Canton, sent a report that a prison had been burnt, and twenty
prisoners had lost their lives. His Majesty ordered all the autho-
rities to be put on their trial, as it appeared that torture had been
illegally resorted to by the officers, and a disposition of revolt
having shown itself, the prison was purposely set on fire. The
Peking Gazette, of the 15th May, 1830, announced a return of
10,500 prisoners capitally convicted, but respited, in consequence
of an imperial anniversary.
Those
Prisons are made use of as an instrument of torture that baffles
description. Those who have money to spend can be accommo-
dated with private apartments, cards, servants, and every luxury.
The chains and fetters are removed from the body, and suspended
against the walls until the hour of going the round occurs.
who have no money to bribe, are in a pitiable condition. Not only
is every alleviation of their sufferings denied, but actual infliction
of punishment is added to extort money, or buy burnt offerings
(of paper) to the god of the jail; for this purpose the prisoners are
severely tortured. The words "hell" and "prison" are synonymous
in the Chinese language.
Modes of Punishment, Torture, &c.—According to the penal
code, magistrates are permitted to use instruments of torture to
obtain a confession of guilt. The code also provides punishment
for unjustly abusing this privilege. The only limitation is the
eight privileged classes, and all below the age of fifteen and above
seventy years.
A censor, from the province of Honan, reports to the Emperor
as follows," All courts of law have fixed regulations, in ques-
tioning prisoners, that should guide their conduct before the
magistrates inflict punishment. Latterly, when prisoners are
brought before district-magistrates on suspicion, in order to obtain
a character for activity they resort to various modes of torture to
induce them to confess. The common practice is pulling them by
the ears, and obliging them to kneel on iron chains for a length of
time, with the breast, small of the back, and legs bent up, and
fastened to three crossbars; and suspending them from a beam
by strings placed round their fingers and thumbs. By this means
many innocent people are compelled to sign a confession of guilt."
The same censor reports, that "the police fix on timid people, who
TORTURES.-APPEAL REGULATIONS.
159
are known to possess property, and falsely accuse them of seditious
practices, and by that means extort large sums of money." And
he'goes on to say, that "these things could not be done, unless the
local magistrate connived at it. I lay this statement, with respect
and reverence, before your majesty.-Chow."
Flogging, otherwise beating with the bamboo, and whipping
with a rattan, are the most general modes of punishment for petty
offences. The whip is a modern instrument, and only exercised
on Tartars. A sentence of banishment is convertible, for the
Tartars only, into wearing the wooden collar. This punishment is
not clearly laid down in the penal code; but from what is known
as the practice, the distance averages from one hundred to fourteen
hundred statute miles from the culprit's native place; the desti-
nation rests entirely with the emperor. The fifteenth section
provides, in all cases of perpetual banishment, the criminal's wife
must be sent with him; his children and relations, only, when the
offence is high treason,-the relations are designated "imperial
prisoners." Those sentenced to banishment for short periods, are
employed in government salt-works. A large number of those
who are sentenced for long periods, or for life, are sent to Western
Tartary, and handed over to the soldiers as slaves. From the
northern parts of the empire the criminals are sent to the south,
as slaves to the Tartar soldiers. Yuen, the governor of the pro-
vince of Yunnan, in 1832, memorialised the Emperor, complaining
of the vast number of convicts which are annually sent to that
province from Tartary. This is done on account of the unhealth-
iness of the climate; their numbers average 4,500, of whom one-
fourth are ignorant of any trade, and must be supported by the
province, which cannot afford it. The annual expense is 4,000
taels.
APPEALS. According to the section 332 of the penal code, all
subjects of the empire, soldiers or citizens, who have complaints to
make, must address themselves, in the first instance, to the lowest
tribunal of justice within the district to which they belong. Sec-
tion 341 provides, that "in all cases of adultery, robbery, frauds,
breach of laws concerning landed property, pecuniary contracts, or
of any such offences, committed by or against individuals in the
military class, or if the people are implicated in any way, the
military commanding officer and the civil magistrate shall have
joint jurisdiction."
Chang-ling, who was prime minister in 1830, was fined to the
amount of one year's salary, for permitting a petition to be handed
to the emperor in person, although the petition was from a soldier
of the body-guard.
A memorial from the captains of infantry who had charge of
the city gates, complains of the vast number of petitioners who
have lately resorted to Peking. The memorialists attribute the
number of appeals to the perverseness of the people, and the
neglect of duty in the local officers, so that women and girls of
160
SUBSTITUTES FOR MURDERERS.
tender age travel thousands of miles to obtain redress. To cure
this growing evil, the captains have suggested that all petitioners
coming to Peking, without previously laying their case before their
own governor, be punished; that, should their case be unjustly
decided, those who have tried it be likewise punished.
It is evident that the numerous appeals arise from the delay in
obtaining justice. The Emperor, in approving of a magistrate in
the province of Hoopih, who had disposed of 1,000 cases within
the year, in which the parties had appealed to superior courts,
says, "what must the number be throughout the empire?" His
Majesty added, "that unjust decisions must be the cause of só
many appeals being brought forward. Hereafter, let all governors
of provinces issue strict orders that all appeals be disposed of as
soon as they are presented. If they are allowed to accumulate in
future, report to me."
A case occurred in 1829, in the province of Keangse, and on
examining into the appeal it appeared, that two substitutes had
been found for the real murderers, who were bribed to undergo
the sentence of death in their stead.
On an appeal to Peking against two magistrates, for torturing
the appellant's father to death by a false accusation, they were
sentenced to transportation with hard labour.
A widow of Foo-keen, after appealing in vain for four years to
the local authorities for redress for the murder of her son, sent her
nephew to Peking. The case was attended to, but the court was
unable to comprehend him owing to his local dialect. The fact
was, that the robbers belonged to such a powerful gang, that the
authorities dare not take them up.
The governor of the two Kwang provinces, interdicts women
from presenting memorials or appeals, and old men appearing as
witnesses. "How can old men, in the evening of life, become wit-
nesses? But, among the people of Canton, there exists a litigious
spirit. Now, as old men cannot be punished, these seditious cha-
racters hire them as witnesses. As the punishment of crimes
cannot be inflicted on women, they send young delicate females
openly into the halls of justice. You, magistrates, must examine
into the matter; question both parties and find out the bribery:
and inflict severe punishment. If people stop my chair in order to
force a petition into it, I will seize the presenter and punish him
severely; let them go to the inferior courts."
In 1821, the crew of H. M.'s ship Topaz had an affray with
the inhabitants of Lintin, when two Chinese were killed. Two
years after this transaction, the brother of one of the men who
was killed, visited Peking to complain against the authorities in
Canton, particularly Howqua, whom he charged with receiving a
bribe from the foreigners. The case was referred to the emperor,
who sent the appellant back to Canton, with an order to the go-
vernor to enquire into the affair. The governor reported, that the
accusation was false; and, according to law, the appellant is guilty
REDEMPTION FROM CRIMES.
161
of false accusation, and sentenced to be banished 2,000 miles
distance from his native place,
OATHS. The form of an oath is dispensed with in their courts
of justice. Still the people consider an oath as a most solemn
engagement. The man who persists in a denial or affirmation of
a fact, is led by the parties who are interested to a temple which is
completely darkened. He then denounces against himself the
most dreadful imprecations, invoking both heaven and earth to
witness. After this he cuts off the head of a fowl, and, while the
blood is streaming, repeats his former words, devoting himself to
destruction if he does not speak the truth. Any man that has
gone through this ordeal is held in superstitious dread and ab-
horrence; and this is the reason why oaths of this kind are seldom
resorted to. Oaths, however, are freely administered amongst the
various secret societies. The novitiates are sworn to abjure all
human ties, to merge their family feelings, and, if necessary for
the objects of the society, to abandon their names and country.
An oath common among the people, consists in pointing with
the finger to a near object, and saying, as sure as this exists, so
true are my statements.
The following table exhibits a scale of pecuniary redemption
from crimes, which, by an edict of Keenlung, is acted on in
China:-
Rank of the Party offending.
Sentence.
Pecuniary
Commutation.
Ozs. of Silver.
An officer above the 4th rank
of the 4th rank
12.000
5.000
Death by
of the 5th or 6th rank
4.000
""
وو
of the 7th, or any infe-
Strangula-
rior rank, or a doctor of literature
A graduate or licentiate
A private individual
An officer above the 4th rank
tion or
2.500
Decollation.
2.000
1.200
7.200
of the 4th rank
3.000
""
of the 5th or 6th rank
وو
of the 7th, or any infe-
Perpetual
2.400
Banishment
""
وو
rior rank, or a doctor of literature
A graduate or licentiate
A private individual
An officer above the 4th rank
A graduate or licentiate
1.500
1.200
0.720
4.800
of the 4th rank
Temporary
2.000
of the 5th or 6th rank
Banishment
1.600
•
or Blows.
0.800
A private individual
0.480
M
162
NUMBER OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENTS.
Strangulation is performed by tying a man with his back to a
post, around which and his neck a rope is drawn tight and twisted
by a winch. This mode of execution is considered the least dis-
graceful in China. Section 422 of the penal code prescribes a
punishment of sixty blows to any magistrate who substitutes,
wilfully, this punishment for beheading. The smallest crime for
which a sentence of strangulation is pronounced, is a third con-
viction of stealing, and defacing the brand-marks inflicted by the
two former convictions.
The criminal code provides that no execution shall take place
during the first or sixth moons in any year. Europeans, who have
been long resident in Canton, have never been able to ascertain
the exact number of executions that have taken place, as the
Peking Gazette only occasionally publishes the total number fixed
by the Emperor. In March 1817 there were twenty-four men
beheaded in Canton, and five days after eighteen more. Executions
in Canton excite little or no interest, from their frequent occur-
rence, and the crimes for which so many suffer are rarely or ever
made public.
The Peking Gazette, of October 1817, states the number of
warrants signed by the Emperor was 925, of which 135 belonged
to the province of Canton. The whole of these were minor of-
fences only, which awaited the autumnal decision. All offences
of a serious nature have the penalty of execution performed before
the Emperor is informed of it, notwithstanding the law.
A maniac who killed his father was punished with death, in the
province of Hoonan, although he was proved to be deranged
several years.
The number of autumnal death-warrants, in 1826, was 581.
The same gazette states that a Tartar soldier, who had killed his
mother, had been handed over to the privileged tribe to which he
belonged, to be dealt with as they thought proper. In 1828, a
young female was cut in a thousand pieces, for poisoning her
mother-in-law; her husband was compelled to witness the scene,
and shed tears at this butcherly sight. For this display of feeling
he was instantly sentenced to wear the cangue a month, and re-
ceive fifty blows. There is no exhibition of feeling allowed where
the death of a father or mother is vindicated.
The total number of executions in Canton, in 1829, was 190, of
which 130 were executed without any reference being made to the
Emperor, and sixty died by imperial warrant.
At the autumnal sittings of 1828 there were ordered for execu-
tion 782, of which the single province of Szechuen had 112 marked
for execution.
The succeeding year the number published was 579, of which
the above province had 104. In 1833 the number executed, in
Canton, was 156.
On a recent occasion, the Emperor having gone through the cus-
tomary form of fasting and prayer, received, in autumn, the list of
PERIODIC READING OF THE LAWS.
163
criminals sentenced to death, from the hands of Muhchangah,
the prime minister. In presence of the ministers of the cabinet,
the members of the privy council, and the president and officers of
the board of punishments, the following number was marked off in
eight successive days, for execution, viz.: for Turkestan, 4; Yun-
nan, 28; Kwiechoo, 11; Szechuen. 125; Kwang-tung (Canton),
25; Kwangsee, 10; Foo-keen, 9; Leaoutung, 21; Kan-suh and
Shense provinces, 26; Chekeang, 14; Keangse, 20; Hookwang,
49; Keangsoo, 25; Ganhwuy, 23; Honan, 29; Shan-tung 29;
Shanse, 24; Chih-le, 17; Jehol, 4; and Peking, 13. This list
only shows the number who have accumulated during the whole
year, and on whose behalf mercy has been sought in vain. Total, 506.
A proclamation from governor Loo, in the Peking_Gazette,
against exhumation, states that the law is as follows:
"To open a
grave and see the coffin, shall be punished by perpetual banishment.
To open the coffin and see the corpse, death by strangulation. To
carry off the body and demand a ransom, death by immediate
decapitation, both for principals and accomplices. At the north
gate of Canton city, where many are buried, there are three classes
of resurrection men. First, those who open graves and break the
coffins of their foes from revenge and malice! 2nd, those who` do
so to strip the dead bodies of their ornaments; and 3rd, those who
carry off the dead to obtain ransom. These are crimes sufficient
to make the hairs of one's head stand on end. The law shall be
strictly enforced without mercy."
Every city has its town hall, where the laws are periodically read
to the people.
The Sacred Edict, containing sixteen maxims of the Emperor
Kanghe, is by statute required to be proclaimed throughout the
empire, by the local officers, on the first and fifteenth of every
moon. The maxims are as follows:-
1st. Pay just regard to filial and fraternal duties, in order to give
due importance to the relations of life.
2nd. Respect kindred, in order to display the excellence of har-
mony.*
3rd. Let concord abound among those who dwell in the same
neighbourhood, in order to prevent litigations.
4th. Give the chief place to husbandry and the culture of the
mulberry tree, in order to procure adequate supplies of food and
raiment.
5th. Hold economy in estimation, in order to prevent the lavish
waste of money.
6th. Magnify academical learning, in order to direct the scholar's
progress.
7th. Degrade all strange religions, in order to exalt the orthodox
doctrinc.
*There are not more than 100 family names in the empire.
M 2
}
164
IMPERIAL MAXIMS.
8th. Explain the laws, in order to warn the ignorant and ob-
stinate.
9th. Illustrate the principles of a polite and yielding carriage, in
order to improve manners.
10th. Attend to the essential employments, in order to give un-
varying determination to the will of the people.
11th. Instruct the youth, in order to prevent them from doing
evil.
12th. Suppress all false accusing, in order to secure protection
to the innocent.
13th. Warn those who hide deserters, that they may not be in-
volved in their downfall.
14th. Complete the payment of taxes, in order to prevent fre-
quent urging.
15th. Settle animosities, that lives may be duly valued.
16th. Unite the paou and kea, in order to extirpate robbery and
theft.*
The following case illustrates in some points the nature of Chinese
law and justice:-A French merchant vessel was wrecked on the
coast of Cochin China, in 1829, but the crew were saved. The
captain hired a Chinese junk to convey his crew, thirteen in number,
to Macao. In the progress of their journey the Chinese murdered
every man of the crew, except one Italian, Francisco Mangiapan,
who escaped by swimming to a Chinese boat, which brought him
to Macao. The Chinese authorities displayed the most laudable
anxiety to discover the murderers, and offered fifty dollars for the
detection of each, and a monthly allowance of three taels to the
Italian, and a present of 100 dollars. The whole gang were taken,
tried, and condemned, and due notice was given to all foreigners
resident in Canton, that the government would confront the mur-
derers with Francisco in the Hong merchants' hall on a certain day,
that they might be present.
On the day of trial, the prisoners arrived, each in a separate cage;
about three feet long, two wide, and three deep, with chains round
their necks, legs, and wrists. One of the prisoners, a native of
Foo-keen, appeared most anxious to communicate with some person
who understood his dialect. A foreign gentleman who was pre-
sent, ascertained from him, that from the torture he had undergone
he confessed to a guilty knowledge of the crime, but wished to
recant that plea. The prisoners were brought before the judge
three at a time, and put on their knees. Francisco was attended
by a Portuguese interpreter, and with very little hesitation he fully
identified all the murderers. In his first statement, one of the
crew was described as not having taken any part in the massacre ;
* "The law of the paou and the kea." Ten families form a kea, and ten kea
constitute a paou. Every kea has its elder, and every paou its chief. A register is
prepared, and the names of all must be enrolled.
THE PEKING, OR GOVERNMENT GAZETTE.
165
but on the contrary, early intimated to the French captain their
murderous intention. Francisco described him minutely, by a
mark on his face. When the prisoner who spoke to the foreigner
was brought forward, Francisco instantly pointed him out as his
deliverer, and regardless of the consequence or presence of government,
gave vent to the intensity of his gratitude by embracing him with
all the warmth and ardour so peculiar to his country. The judge
having closely questioned Francisco, appeared fully satisfied, so the
sentence was respited for banishment. Seventeen men suffered
for the murder, and the French consul received 3,000 dollars
made up from property which the malefactors possessed in their
own right, but was confiscated; their relations were mulcted out
of 150,000 dollars, by the various officers. The subsequent con-
fession of the pardoned culprit, discloses an extraordinary fact, that
six of those that suffered death were bought substitutes.
The Press. Government communicates its orders and transmits
information through a Peking Gazette, called king-paou; (king
great, and paou to report), which is published by government and
circulated in every province, entirely for the use of officers of go-
vernment; its indiscriminate circulation is contrary to law. The
Gazette at all times contains curious information, by which we
are made acquainted with the machinery of the government. The
chief contents of each number is taken up with rewards to meritor-
ious officers, the degradation of others, memorials, disasters attend-
ing the rivers, &c.; impeachments and proclamations occupy a
great portion of it: these documents are all signed, Taoukwang,
(Reason's Glory), as with us in the form of "God save the Queen.'
""
All licentious books are prohibited, but the law is a dead letter,
and they have a wide range. Works on sorcery, witchcraft, and
divination, (except those branches sanctioned by the government),
are interdicted, and the authors and printers are liable to lose their
lives. Political subjects are not to be discussed. The government
publishes all political works, and only permits their circulation
amongst the officers. The code of laws is an exception to this ge-
neral rule; at the rate of two dollars 24 volumes are circulated, so
that no person may plead ignorance of the laws. Dr. Gutzlaff had
the goodness to translate into the general printed character of the
Chinese language-my " Analysis of the Bible," or code of social
ethics; it has not been interdicted by the government, and is now
in extensive circulation throughout the whole empire.
Secret Sects.-The Tartar rulers of China are continually dis-
turbed by the discovery of secret sects and associations in different
provinces. The vigilance with which the present Emperor per-
secutes all those societies is accounted for thus; his father's life
was attempted by one of those sects, and only preserved by the
valor of his present majesty. The various disturbances that have
lately occurred in Shanse province, and Hoonan, have been traced
to a society called "Heaven and Earth." In the province of
166
SECRET SOCIETIES.
Foo-keen a sect called the "Tea Society" is considered most
dangerous. Soldiers and police join these sects; the novitiates,
it is said, go through a ceremony of drinking each other's blood
mixed with water.
The disorganized state of society, and the conduct of the police
and petty officers in the country, may also be gathered from "a
memorial to the Emperor, showing the daily increase of enervation
and degeneracy in the province of Kwang-tung," &c., in 1838.
"1st. In the department of police, no negligence or indolence
must be suffered; all judicial cases must be speedily attended to
and determined; then will peace dwell in the abodes of the people,
and the instigators of strife be checked.
Many are the cases of plunder that are from time to time
brought forward in the province of Kwang-tung; and of these a
large number are attributable to unlawful associations. Bands of
men combine and join together, under the designations of Teente
Brotherhoods, Triad Societies, and such like. They carry off*
persons in order to extort ransoms for them; they falsely assume
the character of policemen; they clandestinely build fast-pulling
boats, professedly to guard the fields of grain, and these they man
with a crew of from ten to twenty people, who cruise along the
rivers, violently plundering the boats of travellers as they pass to
and fro, or forcibly carrying off the wives and daughters of the
tanka boat people. The inhabitants of the villages and hamlets
fear these robbers as they would tigers, and do not offer them
any resistance, lest they should draw down their resentment. The
husbandman, when he has received a field to plant and ready for
culture, must take the precaution of paying these robbers a charge,
which is called procuring an indemnity,―else, as soon as the crop is
ripe, it is plundered, and the whole field laid bare. In the precincts of
the metropolis, where their contiguity to the civil and military
tribunals prevents them from committing violent depredations in
open day, they set fire to places during the night, their aim being,
under pretence, during the conflagration, of saving and defending,
to avail themselves of opportunities to plunder and carry off. Hence,
of late years, calamitous fires have greatly increased in frequency.
The local officers have treated these merely as common accidental
fires. And robbers, finding that they could thus act with impunity,
have added to the irregularity of their doings.
"In cases of petty altercations, or of more serious disputes,
among the people themselves-as the uneducated villagers adhere
closely to the use of local dialects, it consequently rests entirely
with the clerks and under-officers to interpret the evidence. When
the judicial officer, whose duty it is to hear and determine, is in the
slightest degree lax and inattentive, the attendants and servants
of the court have the evidence pre-arranged, and join with bullies
and strife-makers to subvert right and wrong-fattening themselves
upon bribes extorted under the names of 'notes or memoranda of
OFFICIAL CORRUPTION AND OPPRESSION.
167
the complaints,' 'purchases of replies,' and so forth; retarding in-
definitely the decision of cases, and even instigating thieves to bring
false accusations against the good; who, ere a true judgment is
elicited, and the stolen effects are recovered, are already ruined and
deprived of all their property. While the officers of government
and people are thus kept apart and separated, how can it be other-
wise than that appeals to higher tribunals should be incessant, and
that instigation of strife and perseverance in litigation should
prevail?
"It behoves, therefore, that a declaration of the imperial plea-
sure should be solicited, commanding the governor and lieutenant-
governor of Kwang-tung to issue orders to the magistrates through-
out the province, to apprehend the lawless, and give security to the
good; and with severity to seize all who are joined in illegal asso-
ciations, sending them to the metropolis, that they may be openly
punished, and that like proceedings may be interdicted. By these
means, masters will be led to command their families; and these
will have knowledge to be deterred from being seduced to attach
themselves to such associations. Whenever any case of plunder
arises, the magistrates should make personal investigation, follow-
ing the traces till they succeed in apprehending the thieves; they
should not seek, by disregard of the matter, to avoid censure for
ill-success. When fires break out among the abodes of the people,
the magistrates should ascertain how they originated, and should
not be allowed to assume indifference, and so let the matter pass
off. As soon as complaints, or appeals, are brought before them,
they should immediately give their personal attention to the inves-
tigation, and, if true, should inflict punishment with strictness; if
unfounded, should visit with like punishment the false accusers.
They should not give the rein to the clerks and attendants of the
courts, lest their so doing should result in a want of truth or of
perfect justice. In this way it may be expected to clear off the
judicial cases, to settle long-delayed litigations, and gradually to
bring to an end habits of plunder and robbery; and thus it may
be hoped that the people will be enabled to rest upon their beds
in peace.
(6
2ndly. The magistrates of districts, when collecting the taxes,
whether of money or of grain, must not overrate the amount due,
with a view of deducting from it, nor suffer the excise officers to
connive at non-payment.
"If the taxes be overrated, each individual will entertain schemes
whereby he may hope to avoid payment, and the result will be,
opposition to the collectors, and defalcation of the revenue. If
non-payment be connived at, debts from the people to the revenue
will accumulate, and still increase, and the consequences must be
that bribery will become necessary, in order to obtain continued
delay.
The province of Kwangtung, in place of its original contribution
168
TRIAD SOCIETY, ORIGIN.
to the supplies conveyed to the court, has for a long time past paid
the tax of grain, due from it, in money, which, after being collected,
is remitted to the provincial treasury, under the charge of the
financial and territorial commissioner. The people have always
attended to agriculture, and have not failed gladly to discharge
this tax. But it is said, that, of late years, whilst inundations and
drought have in no small degree afflicted the land, causing very
scanty harvests, the magistrates when levying the tax of grain,
have rated the price of it as high as six or seven taels for a sheih
of 120 catties.* The common people are not possessed of abund-
ant wealth, and cannot sustain being thus peeled and scraped; con-
sequently, the clerks and tax collectors, and village bullies, have
received bribes to shelter them and to let them pass free of pay-
ment. And hence, old debts and new levies conjointly press upon
them, and remain alike unpaid.
"It behoves, therefore, that a declaration of the imperial plea-
sure be solicited, commanding that strict orders be issued to all
the magistrates, that whenever the tax on grain has to be collected,
they shall, previously to the collection, issue proclamations through-
out every city, village, and market-place, declaring what is the legal
amount leviable as the price of the grain-contribution, upon each
acre of arable land, and commanding the payment thereof within
a time named; adding, also, that the clerks and tax-gatherers are
not permitted to extort fees, or to receive any surplus above the
legal amount; that if any persons venture to undertake such exac-
tions, in opposition to the commands so issued, they shall be strictly
apprehended and punished. At the same time, these orders must
not be stretched to involve the unoffending. All debts incurred
prior to the year 1835, have, by a gracious declaration of the im-
perial pleasure, received full remission; which fact should be made
known by appending to the magistrates' proclamation a copy, on
yellow paper, of the imperial commands. Thus will be attained
the certainty, that the village husbandmen and field labourers.
are all fully aware of, and thoroughly imbued, by the sovereign's
benevolence and any semblance of sanction will be removed from
an undistinguishing enforcement of the payment of these remitted
debts. Such measures as these will produce, in place of a tardy,
a most ready and joyful payment of the taxes."
The Triad Society.-This society excites great interest, as its
object is stated to be the overthrow of the Tartar dynasty, and
the restoration of the Chinese, which two centuries ago, was dis-
possessed by the Tartar race. Dr. Gutzlaff found some of their
papers, and has translated them. They consist of songs used at
the initiation of new members, and of the oath taken by the
novices. The societies take their beginning from a war between
the Manchoos and the Suloos, towards the close of the seventeenth
* The sheih is legally rated at from three or four tacks.
!
ORGANIZATION OF THE TRIADS.
169
century. For many years the Triads have maintained a bold
struggle with the usurping government; but in 1736, they were
dispersed into various parts of the empire, having previously
agreed upon certain signs by which they might be known to each
other, until the day of vengeance shall arrive, when they are all
to march to Nankin, and establish the ancient Chinese dynasty
upon the throne. From that time to the present, they have main-
tained a secret organization, somewhat like the Freemasons of
Europe, divided into lodges, and connected by certain signs only
known to themselves, such as certain passwords, or modes of
putting a question, the manner of placing cups and dishes on the
table, of putting on a garment, of saluting, &c.
Meetings are held often by night, in secluded places; blood is
mingled and burnt with incense on an altar; a cock is frequently
sacrificed, vows of fidelity are renewed, traitors denounced, and
vengeance declared, which is rarely unfulfilled. Men frequently
join these societies for protection, and seek the strongest body to
enrol their names.
The society is rapidly extending to all the lower classes, and
Dr. Gutzlaff thinks that should they ever join the other numerous
political societies forming in every part of the empire, against all
barbarian encroachments, their resistance would be very for-
midable.
The manifesto, of which a translation is subjoined, was found in
the English burial ground, at Macao, in the year 1828.
It is discovered to be a kind of oath or speeeh, which is used
by a secret society, whose object is to expel the present, to them
hateful dynasty, from the throne. There can be no doubt that
these affiliated and formidable associations pervade all parts of
China; members of them are said to be in every public office.
"Manifesto to invite an Army."
"Ist. Illustrious, illustrious, the middle nation: vast, vast, the
celestial empire.
2nd. A thousand states offered her tribute; ten thousand nations
attended her court.
3rd. The Hoo-men usurped and seized her: resentment for this
it is impossible to suppress.
4th. Invite soldiers, buy horses-high respond the flowery bridge.
5th. Arise, soldiers, uplift the pike; destroy and exterminate the
Tsing dynasty.'
رو
The 152nd section of the penal code, provides punishment
for magicians, and teachers of false doctrines; 255 for rebel-
lion this clause extends to Tartar subjects, as well as to
other subjects of the empire, to all religious associations, but
particularly to the "Heaven and Earth society," of Foo-keen: 256
:
170
DENOUNCEMENT OF SECRET SOCIETIES.
to sorcery and magic; the 266th section awards death to all, of
any party whose number shall amount to a hundred and more, who
meet to plan or commit robbery.
The commentator (Shing-Yu), on the Sacred Edict, given at
page 163, cautions the people against attending religious meetings,
which he designates as nonsensical and mischievous; such as
keeping fasts, and building temples, and which things, he says, are
got up by the priests of Budha and Taou to deceive.
It appears,
that the objection government have to religious assemblies is
founded on the tendency they all have to combine against the
Mantchoo dynasty. Sir G. Staunton states, that in the provinces
inhabited by Tartars, half a dozen natives cannot meet without a
clamour against their rulers. Amongst the most numerous of the
illegal societies are the Water-lily sect, who about the beginning
of this century, revolted in four provinces, Hoopih, Kausuh, Shense,
and Szechuen, which comprise a population of upwards of
80,000,000; the rebellion was not suppressed for nearly nine
years.
In 1813, this society again broke out, and attacked the Emperor,
Keaking, in his palace, at Peking, whose life was only preserved
by the great courage displayed by his second son, the present
Emperor. The first edict issued denounced the guilty sect; but the
magistrates, to exhibit their loyalty spared no society except the
Budhists, and advantage was taken of this opportunity to prosecute
the numerous Christians and their missionaries, who were expelled
from Peking. This period might be called the reign of terror, as
very many of the innocent suffered for the guilty. The greedy
mandarins and underlings tortured and extorted with impunity.
The state of the empire from these proceedings cannot be better
exhibited, than by giving some extracts from a manifesto from the
Emperor, which appeared in the Peking Gazette, of 13th November,
1814, "This moment great degeneracy prevails; the magistrates
are destitute of truth, and a great portion of the people are false
and deceitful. There is little of conscience or shame in their hearts.
They enjoy the sweets of office, and carelessly spend their days:
it is monstrously strange."
After some unsuccessful attempts, the society adapted another
name, called, the "Triad Society, or Heaven, Earth, and Man,"
which according to the Chinese doctrine of the universe, are the
three great powers of nature. There are other societies called
the "Flood Family," and "Queen of Heaven's Company," these arc
numerous in the Chinese colonies, and Singapore and Borneo, &c.
The Peking Gazette of June, 1816, is much taken up with pro-
ceedings against a secret society called the "Pure Tea Sect," the
leader of which had been put to death. In 1817, a member of the
imperial family was discovered to be connected with one of those
societies, and degraded. Governor Yuen, about this period,
apprehended upwards of 2000 members of a secret society in
BANKING AND CURRENCY.
171
Canton. In 1818, a large number of families were implicated in
Peking, but on making a full confession were forgiven. In 1824,
a society was discovered in Shan-tung, and upwards of 500 appre-
hended; another in Soochaw, was this year scattered, by the
increased vigilance of the authorities. In 1827, a serious disturb-
ance occurred at the Meiling Pass, in which a magistrate was
killed; also at Leenchaw, this year, the inhabitants were plundered
of all their moveable property, including rice-crops, &c. A censor
reports, that the local magistrates are in dread of punishing the
members when brought before them: the Emperor in answer ordered
the military to take up the matter.
In 1831, the Emperor ordered proclamations to be issued offer-
ing free pardon to all who would recant, and give up their con-
nexion with those societies. The Governor of Canton, in a kind of
answer to his majesty, suggests a mode that has been tried in four
districts of the province with success, viz. giving them waste lands
rent free. The emperor has consented to this plan, but desires
that tax-gatherers and underlings may not be allowed to oppress
them, also that free schools should be established among them; and
that strict attention be paid to the half monthly reading of the
Sacred Edict; in order to incite them to the practice of virtue.
The conclusion at which I have arrived, after an attentive exami-
nation of the whole of the question respecting the government of
China, is that it is corrupt to the core, and losing control over
the nation, which is held together by habit,-by the natural love
of the people for order and peace,-by the associations, interests,
and feelings which more or less pervade every large and long-
established community. But this will be a subject for future dis-
cussion.
CHAPTER V.
BANKING AND CURRENCY.
THE trade in money, in China, is carried on by bankers, assayers
of the mint, and money-changers, whose establishments are com-
prized under the general term of "money-shops :" their occupation
is similar to that of like establishments in Europe. The money-
shops in China are generally private establishments, composed of
one or more individuals, with equal or unequal shares in the busi-
ness. Sometimes only one name is used, although there are seve-
ral partners in the firm. They receive money in deposit at one
172
BANKING LAWS.-INTEREST.
rate of interest, and lend out at another; they advance money on
good security, and deal in gold, silver, and native and foreign coin.
They discount either their own bills, or those of their connexions
in business, with whom they are on a footing of reciprocity. In
Canton they do not issue notes payable on demand; but in other
large cities in the north, such notes are in circulation, often with a
great many endorsements on them. They, however, only circulate
in the places where they are issued, or in their immediate vicinity.
The notes issued by the bankers rise and fall in value according to
the demand for them. On our occupation of Ningpo, they rose in
value, as the people wished to carry off their property, and our
troops did not think it worth while to seize pieces of paper. The
confidence reposed in large banks is unlimited: a low-class China-
man will cheat for a "cash," but the higher class, in large dealings,
are scrupulously honest. The bankers receive deposits drawable
at will of the depositor, when no interest is allowed; or they take
money at interest, not exceeding one per cent. per month, in which
case timely notice must be given before any portion of it can be
withdrawn. At Shanghai, on a deposit of 100 taels of silver, inte-
rest is allowed at the rate of seven mace per month: on a loan of
the same amount effected, the rate of interest is fifteen mace per
month loans are effected to any amount. One bank in Shanghai,
whose books I minutely examined, seemed very methodically con-
ducted. The highest lawful interest is three per cent. per month;
but this is seldom obtained without considerable risk, except by
pawnbrokers. When money is deposited, a receipt for it is given,
in which the terms upon which it is deposited are stated.
:
Agreements to receive money at compound interest are unlaw-
ful; but when the interest is to be added to the principal, the ori-
ginal receipt is cancelled, and a new one given, the aggregate being
considered as the principal, at single interest. This may be done
monthly, annually, or at any other periods, according to agree-
ment.
By the Chinese law, three per cent. per month thirty-six per
annum, is the limited rate, and whatever the period upon which
interest is due at the day of repayment, no more can be received
or demanded than the original sum lent, and the lawful interest
thereon, to an amount not exceeding the principal. Debtors not
fulfilling their agreements are punished by blows, or by banish-
ment, to a given extent, according to the amount of the debts; the
blows to be repeated from month to month.
:
Bills of exchange, and promissory notes, circulate these are
either payable at sight, or within a given period after sight, in which
latter case they are regularly accepted; and lastly, they are some-
times made payable at a fixed period. A certain sort of promissory
notes is in use among the Chinese at Canton, which do not pass
through the hands of more than three or four persons, all of whom
are well acquainted with each other. In lieu of endorsing the
BANK NOTES.—EXCHANGES.
173
original note in the manner customary in Europe, they attach a
piece of paper to it, in which they assign the reason why it has
been handed over to another person instead of money: at maturity
the holder does not apply for payment to the drawer, but to him
from whom he has received the bill; and thus each endorser pro-
ceeds, until at last it reaches the drawer; or the three or four per-
sons whose names are on the endorsement, including the actual
holder of the bill, call together on the drawer for payment: this
latter mode is considered the most simple and effectual. The
Chinese in Canton, therefore, do not consider promissory notes so
much as an accommodation, but rather as a security for the pay-
ment of money. The discount charged on such bills varies accord-
ing to the scarcity or abundance of money in the market, but
would rarely exceed one per cent. per month. Money can be
transmitted through the banks from Canton to those places with
which they stand in relations of business, and this is effected either
by credit or bills of exchange, at a cost of about half, one, two, or
three per cent., according to distance. Many of the banks, how-
ever, only confine their transactions to Canton, and the adjoining
province of Kwangse. Some have correspondents in one or two
other provinces, but the connexions of only a few extend beyond
those limits. At Foochoo, the capital of the Foo-keen province,
banks are numerous, and paper notes almost the sole circulating
medium. The lowest notes I obtained at Foochoo were for 400
cash, about a quarter of a dollar; some notes are issued in the
northern cities as high as 30,000 taels, or 35,000 dollars. Money
was safely remitted for our consulates by native bankers between
Amoy and Foochoo. The cost for sending 9950 dollars from Soo-
choo (the large city of which Shanghai is the port) to Canton, is
fifty dollars. The bank which possesses most credit at Canton is
said to be that of Anshing, whose correspondence is chiefly with
Nanking and Peking; and it is said that his intercourse with these
places is as regular, if not more so, than that of government.
On placing funds in a bank, the depositor is furnished with a
pass-book, and whenever he draws for money, he sends his book
to the bank, where the sum paid is entered in the same.
It ap-
pears that when the pass-book is lost, there is a great difficulty in
recovering the money which has not been drawn for. The larger
bank establishments have branches in some of the principal places
of trade connected with Canton. The bankers take each others'
notes where there is an understanding between them to that effect:
failures of banks are of rare occurrence. None of the persons, vari-
ously employed in banking business, are responsible to, or in any
way connected with the government, except the government shroffs,
or assayers of the Mint. Every public officer, superintending any
branch of the revenue, employs one of these shroffs to receive the
taxes and duties, with the addition of a fixed allowance for loss in
melting; and the shroff having reduced them to sycee silver (in
174
ANCIENT PAPER MONEY.
which state only they are received by the imperial treasury); he
becomes responsible for the purity thereof.
The establishments thus connected with the government are
licensed, and remunerated by a certain allowance for waste, which
always exceeds the amount actually required. Taxes are generally
handed over to them by the public departments; and duties of im-
port and export are paid into their banks by the merchants from
whom they are owing; in which latter case the banker grants a re-
ceipt for the amount, accompanied by a certificate that it shall be
paid to the government within a certain period. The refined silver
is generally cast into bars of the form of a horse shoe, and stamped
with the banker's name, and the date when it was refined. Any
deception on the part of the assayer, at whatever distance of time
discovered, is liable to severe punishment. The following details of
the progress of paper money may interest :-in the year 119 B.C.,
paper money was used by the Chinese; sometimes a nominal cur-
rency was issued on pieces of skin a foot square, or on pasteboard;
in the Hung Dynasty, A.D. 807, the currency was more regular,
and copper only used for coining. Contributions were obliged to
be made to the treasury, for which "the Sian," voluntary money,
was issued; A.D. 960, notes were issued for merchandize deposited
in the public treasuries-like pawnbrokers' duplicates: they were
called "pianthsian," or accommodation money, were everywhere
negotiable, made on paper a foot square, with their current value
stamped on them, and had an official seal. Subsequently a system of
cheques (tchilse) were issued to replace the heavy iron coinage used.
About the tenth century a better system of banking was intro-
duced; bills of exchange (kiao-tse changes) were issued, payable
every three years. The kiao-tsee, is one ounce of silver, or 1,000
cash. About the eleventh century the public creditors were paid
by the issue of notes, or contracts in nominal value, varying from
200 to 1,000 cash. The extent to which these were issued towards
the close of the century, is stated to have been 28,000,000 ounces
of silver. Different provinces, also, issued their own paper, and a
great monetary confusion arose.
2
Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, who resided in China upwards
of twenty years, about the year A.D. 1256, thus describes the mode
in which paper money was then made and issued by the emperor,
or grand khan, in the city of Kambalu (Pekin). The bark is strip-
ped from a tree (the mulberry), on the leaves of which the silk-worm
feeds. It is first well soaked in water, then pounded in a mortar
into a pulpy consistence, and then made into paper of a dark
colour, which is cut into oblong pieces of different sizes, and of the
respective values of a denier tournais of 1, 2, 5, and 10 Venetian
groats, and 1, 2, 3, and as high as 10 besants of gold. These notes
are signed by special officers, and stamped with the emperor's seal,
which attaches value to it. The penalty for forgery is death. This
CIRCULATION OF PAPER MONEY.
175
paper money is circulated throughout the empire, and any article
can be procured by those who have this money.
Several times throughout the year, large caravans of merchants
arrive at Peking, with pearls, jewels, and gold tissues, which they lay
before his majesty. Twelve valuers are then sent by the emperor,
to fix the price of the goods, which are then paid for in this paper
money. Should the caravans happen to be from a distant empire,
they make no objection, as they invest the whole amount in mer-
chandize suited to their own markets.
When these notes are damaged from use, they are exchanged at
the Mint for new ones at the charge of three per cent. The holders of
these notes could obtain gold or silver for them at any time, by ap-
plying to the Mint, provided it was for having the bullion manu-
factured into ornaments, drinking cups, &c. The armies of the
empire were paid with this currency.
One of the government notes extant, issued during the Ming
dynasty, has the following on one half of the note:
“At the petition of the treasury board, it is ordained that paper
money thus marked with the imperial seal of the Ming, shall have
currency and be used in all respects as if it were copper money;
whoever disobeys will have his head cut off."
Paper money continued to be used, or rather abused, in China.
under the Moguls; and Klaproth states that when they were driven
from China, they had ruined it by their paper money. The Ming
dynasty revived the paper currency, recalled the old, and issued
new notes for 100 to 1,000 cash, and tried to keep up their value
by forbidding traffic in gold or silver; but the value of the notes
declined in 1448 to three cash of copper for 1,000 cash paper. In
1455 the Government decreed the taxes to be paid in paper money,
metal money was forbidden; but the nominal government cur-
rency gradually declined or passed away, and since then the people
will not trust the government with the issue of paper money.
The founder of the Ming dynasty in China, Hung-woo, issued
large quantities of paper money; the dynasty which the Emperor
destroyed, Yuen (who were Mongol Tartars) had also a great deal
of paper money in use.
There had also been paper money in circulation 140 years pre-
vious to this, under the dynasty of Kin (oriental Tartars), who
reigned in the northern provinces of China and Tartary.
It does not appear that any of the native Chinese dynasties,
which reigned in the southern provinces of China, resorted to this
mode of raising supplies; but it was generally adopted by the
usurpers, for obvious reasons.
In imitation of Spanish dollars, the reigning Emperor, not long ago
issued pieces of money, nearly equal in weight, but of finer silver, with
which the troops are paid; the coin has on it in the Mantchoo and
Chinese languages, the words "Soldiers' pay." They are cast at
176
METALLIC WEALTH OF CHINA.
Hangchou and at Formosa. Gold bars circulate at a value varying
from 180 to 220 dollars. Private individuals cast the coin called
"cash," as well as the government, but they are continually dimin-
ishing them in size, and debasing their quality, although it is felony.
The cash is the smallest coin in the world, there being about
1,000 to 1,500 in a dollar i. e. one-fifth to one-seventh of a farth-
ing. Privately casting copper coin is punished with strangulation,
all accessaries in proportion. Other forgeries are punished by
blows, except those for deceiving the sovereign, counterfeiting an
official seal, or the imperial almanac, or the stamps which are used
to authenticate the land or water permits for the conveyance of
salt or tea throughout the empire-for which the punishment is
death. Judging from the constant influx of large quantities of
silver, supplied by the foreign trade for more than a century, with-
out any being exported or wrought into plate to any great extent,
the stock of silver hoarded up in China must be very considerable,
notwithstanding the present heavy drain upon this accumulated
treasure, by the large exportation of bullion for opium; this is also
counterbalanced in some degree by the annual production of the
mines by the importation of bullion and coin from Europe and
South America, and by the savings of thousands of Chinese, scat-
tered over the Indian Archipelago, who remit money home for the
support of their parents and relations. It is computed that
400,000,000 dollars passed from Acapulco to Manilla during the
250 years of their intercourse; of this sum it is estimated that one
fourth passed from Manilla to China. Since 1784, about 100,000,000
dollars have passed from the United States to China. Siam and
Cochin China send large quantities of gold and silver in ingots to
China. Japan, it is estimated, has poured into China during sixty
years of free intercourse, at least 100,000,000 dollars. From all
other sources during the past century, China has received about
50,000,000 dollars. The estimated metallic circulation is 500,000,000
dollars. Silver mines exist in several parts of the empire, some of
which may have been already exhausted and the working of others
prohibited; but the most extensive mines and those from which a
part of the sycee silver is obtained, are at Fok-shau on the frontiers
of Burmah, and at Sung-sing in Cochin China, on the frontiers of
Kwang-se they are worked by a company of Chinese merchants,
who are said to keep constantly twenty thousand men employed in
the works, which they farm from the crown. The quantity derived
from these mines annually, does not, however, appear to exceed two
millions of taels, or about six hundred thousand pounds sterling.
Gold is said by some to be but little produced in the country. A
small proportion is said to be derived from copper after it has been
melted, and some is obtained from the sand of rivers, by washing.
It is altogether considered as an article of merchandize, and is
bought and sold at the current price, but from its scarcity it has
GOLD AND SILVER VALUES.
177
hitherto been rather dear, one tael of gold being exchanged for
about sixteen taels of silver. The money shops deal in gold.
At Amoy, in June last, I saw a considerable quantity of gold in
ingots offered for sale. The touch was said to be ninety-two; weight
of fifteen doubloons worth 215 dollars; fourteen dollars, 33 cents.
per oz., or £2 19s. 8d. Taking our standard gold at ninety-one
and a half touch, and the oz. as fixed by law, at £3 17s. 10d. per
oz., this would show a difference of 18s. 2d. per oz. The opium
ships on the coast used to take gold in payment until they found a
great deception practised. On one occasion 5,000 dollars were
lost. The Loocho islanders bring gold in bars annually, to
Foochoo for trade, when purchasing their yearly investments.
Copper mines are found in all the provinces, but the most produc-
tive are those in Wannam, which are worked under the superinten-
dence of government. This metal, with the addition of tin, lead,
and spelter, constitutes the coin which forms the circulating medium
in China, commonly called "cash," of which from one thousand to
twelve hundred good ones go to the tael of silver. These "cash"
have a square hole in the centre, for suspending them on a string,
which renders them more portable. Accounts are kept in taels,
mace, candareens, and cash:-
10 cash
10 candareens (
10 mace
(Chinese name le)
""
""
""
fun)
tseen)
1 candareen.
1 mace.
1 tael.
The Chinese name for taels, is leang.
Owing to the admixture of many Cochin Chinese cash, with
those in circulation at Canton, there is a difference in the number
of these small coins which are given as an equivalent for the
Spanish dollar. An uncut dollar is valued at seven mace, two
candareens.
Articles of commerce in Canton, are paid for in Spanish dollars,
or in taels of silver. The Chinese at Canton are very fastidious in
the choice of dollars; rejecting some and choosing others, according
to those more or less popularly preferred. Spanish dollars, with
pillars, especially those in the reign of Charles or Carlos IV., are
the most popular, and often bear a premium; while on the other
hand, the coin issued by the American states, such as Mexican dol-
lars, are passed with difficulty, even at a discount, varying from
three to six per cent. There is another kind of Spanish dollars,
bearing the stamp letter G. or G., which denotes their being
coined at the Guadalajara mint, called Kaw-tseen; these are never
received but at a discount of four and five per cent. The dread of
change which is the characteristic feature in the domestic and
foreign policy of China, has extended its influence to the circulating
medium of the country. The government are determined that its
coffers shall suffer no defalcation by depreciation of currency, and
hence the imperial taxes and duties are required to be paid in pure
N
178
COINING-SPANISH DOLLARS.
silver. Since the increase of foreign trade, the introduction of
dollars has furnished a circulating medium of metal to a limited
extent. The authorities seemed so sensible of the advantages, that
they allowed a coinage of dollars in imitation thereof, but they were
re-issued at a higher rate than the foreign dollars, and in a short
time sank greatly below them, while the foreign money still pre-
served its purity. Coining dollars is now disallowed by the laws,
but the common report is, that they are still manufactured in the
district of Shunlih, south of Canton; it is said, as many as one hun-
dred workmen are employed in one establishment. These coiners
practice great deceptions, and are said to have obtained European
stamps at a considerable expense: their dollars are in common cir-
culation, and natives of this district are selected as shroffs, or
judges of it; a book is printed for the use of the public, giving an
account of each kind of false money; when the dollar is made of
true value, it is difficult to detect it, but the shroffs can see it at a
glance. The profits of this mint are so large, that the proprietors
are enabled to prevent the inteference of the local officers. One
English mercantile firm at Canton, had a mint there, in which
Spanish dollars were coined, and from which large profits were
derived. Gold and silver may not be legally exported from China
except in limited quantities and in foreign metal. A large amount
is, however, annually taken away in broken Spanish dollars and
sycee silver and gold. The gold is chiefly taken as gold leaf, but it
is also exported in bars and ingots. Gold leaf is used as money
the exchange is seventeen taels of silver, about twenty-two and a
half dollars per tael of gold.
Export of Sycee.—A censor from Che-Keang complains of the
exportation of silver and yellow gold, and that there is no law
to punish those guilty. By his majesty's directions, the criminal
board have decided that, in future, the same punishment shall
be awarded for the exportation of gold and silver as for export-
ing rice.
The board urges that trade with foreigners should
be in the way of barter; and as dollars were imported they might
also be exported.
The censor of Foo-kein has appealed against this law. He
states that the people like dollars; they are so easily counted, and
can be made of an inferior touch. Dollars are made of sycee
silver by crafty merchants, similar to the foreign. So that, if the
law is not altered, all the silver in China may be coined and sent
away. He, therefore, prays his majesty to attach the same penalty
for coining dollars as he does to the secret coining of cash; as
rice and money are so different in value while the same in bulk,
that he should increase in the same proportion the punishment for
exporting silver. Otherwise, the treasures of the land will go forth
to feed hungry barbarians, and injure China for ever.
The export
of copper and iron affects only military weapons, but that of silver
touches the vitals of the empire.
TOUCH OR FINENESS OF SILVER.
179
Sycee silver is the medium in which the government taxes and
duties, and the salaries of officers, are paid; it is also current
among merchants in general. The term sycee is derived from two
Chinese words, se sze (fine floss silk). This silver is formed into
ingots, sometimes called shoes, and in India hoofs, which are
stamped with the mark of the person that issues them, and the
date of their being issued. The ingots are various in form and
weight, of one to fifty taels, but are, most commonly, ten taels
each. Sycee silver is divided into several classes, according to its
fineness and freedom from alloy. The kinds most current in Can-
ton province are the five following:
1. Kwan-heang, the hoppo's duties, or the silver which is for-
warded to the imperial treasury at Peking. This is always of
ninety-seven to ninety-nine touch. On all the imperial duties a
certain per centage is levied, for the purpose of turning them into
sycee of this high standard, and of conveying them to Peking
without any loss in the full amount. This per centage is, how-
ever, increased by the hoppo to an amount far exceeding what is
requisite, that he may be enabled to retain the remainder for him-
self and his dependents.
2. Fan-koo or fam-foo, the treasurer's receipts, or that in which
the land tax is paid. This is also of a high standard, but inferior
to that of the hoppo's duties, and, being intended for use in the
province, not for conveyance to Peking, no per centage is levied on
the taxes which are paid in it.
3. Yuen-paou or une-po, literally, chief in value. This kind is
usually imported from Soochow, in large pieces of fifty taels each.
It does not appear to belong to any particular government tax.
4. Yen or een-heang, salt duties. It is difficult to account for
these being of so low a standard, the salt trade being entirely a
government monopoly.
5. Wuh-tae or mut-tae, the name of which, signifying "un-
cleansed," or "unpurified," designates it as the worst of all.
The immense masses of wealth accumulated by official individuals,
in a few years, would indicate an abundance of specie in China.
The property of Keshen, seized after his negotiation with Captain
Elliott, in 1840-41, and delivered over into the hands of the
imperial treasurer for his majesty's special use was
682 catties of gold,
17,940,000 taels of silver,
11 boxes of jewels, worth unknown.
This was only the first instalment.
Muh-Changah, then prime minister, on a second search, confis-
cated the following effects :-
1438 large pieces of silver, valued at 60 dollars each,
6,100 taels, annual rental of property,
2,561,217 Chinese acres in land,
independent of houses, shares in pawn-shops, salt works, &c.
N 2
180
CROWN REVENUES AND LAND-TAX.
His property, as first rated, was equivalent to £8,000,000 ster-
ling; but, on a subsequent minute calculation, was found of far
greater value.
A similar instance to the confiscation of the property of Keshen
is recorded by Sir George Stanton.
Hockuntong, or Hoquen, or Hokwan, the celebrated minister of
China, under the Emperor Kien-Lung, amassed, before his im-
peachment by the Emperor Kiaking, in the fourth year of his
reign, eighty millions of Chinese ounces of silver, or about
£23,300,000 sterling value, in bullion or gems, which were found
in his treasury, besides lands, houses, and other immoveable pro-
perty to an amazing amount.—Sir George Stanton's Penal Code,
Appendix, p. 492.
We have no corrected returns of the specie drain on China.
The bullion exported from China, in dollars, was calculated,
1831. 1832.
London
1830.
961,439
No returns.
Calcutta
2,575,931
Bombay
2,995,617
Sundry places 213,385
وو
ور
رو
Total. . 6,746,372
1834.
1833.
2,132,936.. 155,730
1,074,553..1,929,931
1,479,250..3,854,280
140,016.. 277,879
4,826,755..6,217,820
In 1834, there was also shipped of gold, to the value of 513,795
dollars, making a total export of 6,731,615 dollars, at 4s. 3d.
£1,430,468; of this sum €1,197,035 was native silver and gold.
This drain is now largely and annually increased, to provide for
the payment of opium, and probably amounts to about four million
sterling.
CHAPTER VI.
THE CROWN REVENUES AND LAND TAX, DEFAL-
CATIONS, &c.
THE whole revenue of China is said to amount to nearly
60,000,000 pounds sterling annually, of which only 12,000,000 are
remitted to Peking-the remainder is retained in the provinces,
which appear to be subject to different rates of assessment, accord-
ing to some defined relative proportions.
DETAILS OF GOVERNMENT REVENUE.
181
The landholder is said to be taxed fully one-tenth of the produce.
It is upon landed income that all the superannuated officers of
government, merchants who have given up trade, all the Tartar
families, who hold their property under a species of feudal vas-
salage, and all farmers who are not actually labourers, must be
supposed to subsist. As there are are no public funds in China,
the purchase of land is the chief mode of rendering capital pro-
ductive, and there is no part of the east where the rights of landed
property are more respected, if we except the acts of the govern-
ment.
All lands that remain unproductive are, by the penal code, con-
fiscated, and the owners punished; as lands must be registered, the
discovery is easily made. The taxes are paid both in money and
kind, and the whole of the taxes on the summer harvest must be
paid before the end of the seventh moon. The duties on salt pro-
duce a large revenue, as the quantity of fish cured is enormous,
and its use is indispensable for rice and vegetables The salt
merchants are licensed, and are a wealthy and respectable class.
The penal laws against smuggling salt are, half the value to the
crown, three-tenths to the informer, and fifty blows of the bamboo
to the smuggler.
Dr. Gutzlaff says that the whole revenue of the Chinese empire,
as stated in their official books, is as follows:
Land tax, in money
Taels . 53,730,218
Ditto in kind, valued at
113,398,057
Salt tax
7,486,380
Tea duties.
204,530
Duties on merchandise.
4,535,459
Ditto on foreign ditto, at Canton
3,000,000
Sundries
1,052,706
Duties on marketable articles
1,174,932
Ditto on shops and pawnbrokers
5,000,000
Ginseng
1,000,000
Coinage
1,000,000
Total.
Taels . 191,804,139
exclusive of small items and stamp duties. Calculating the tael
at 6s. 8d. sterling, this sum would yield annually £63,934,713
sterling. The indemnity paid us, of 21,000,000 dollars
£4,375,000, is, therefore, not equal to the revenue of one month
of the imperial revenues. A taxation of 63,000,000 sterling
cannot be considered very large, for four shillings per head on
300,000,000 people, would yield £60,000,000 sterling. There is
no national debt in China, and no person would trust the govern-
ment.
182
MONEY STOLEN FROM THE TREASURY.
Budget of 1843. Extracted from the Chinese Statistical Tables.
}
SENT TO THE CAPITAL.
PROVINCIAL
TREASURY.
PROVINCES.
MONEY TAELS.
SHIH RICE.
MONEY TAELS.
Chihle
1,939,941
+
•
•
1,180,514
Keangsoo
Ganhway
•
►
·
2,564,728
1,431,273
1,471,543
=
•
1,194,914
3,274,683
Keangse
Chekeang
Fulkien
Hoopih
Hoonan
Honan.
Shantung
Shanse
Shense
• • · •
Kansuh
Szechuen.
Kwangtung
Kwangse
Yunnan
Kweichow
1,602,431
795,063
795,224
•
2,287,346
678,320
907,905
1,055,290
309,380
·
776,173
96,934
365,741
944,432
96,314
280,192
• •
•
2,441,110
221,342
658,923
· • ► ་
·
2,730,736
353,963
743,532
2,702,285
898,081
• •
•
1,344,548
306,121
For the Turkestan
Garrisons.
182,644
218,550
133,061
•
306,366
24,271
719,370
542,603
•
278,559
113,725
188,927
227,626
87,852
53,346
27,056
23,313,146
4,119,385
12,120,407
35,430,552 taels,
Total in money.
REMARKS ON THE FOREGOING TABLE.
;;
1. The tax on salt (in Kwantung) amounts to 602,977 taels
transit and maritime custom-house duties, 1,490,981 taels; for sun-
dries, 995,412 taels. The remainder is derived from the land tax.
2. The Kwantung receipts do not include 864,232 taels, which,
since the new arrangement, the hoppo at Canton is respon-
sible for levying upon the foreign trade. The rice, also, which is
issued to the troops and petty officers of the various provinces,
fully equal in amount to that sent to the capital, is not contained
in the statement.
3. The above is the net revenue of the country; but the ex-
penditure of collection, and the extortion and fees, make the taxes
that are actually levied at least three times as heavy.
4. No statement of the expenditure is given; but, from the
repeated reports, as well as the accounts published in the Peking
Gazette, it would appear that there has been a deficiency in many
provinces, which the governors and high officers must make good
by a loan or some other expedient. At Peking, the public money
was recently so scarce that the necessary repairs of the imperial
gardens could not be made.
5. This year's expenditure is more heavy than that of an
*The shih of rice is about 2 bushels.
wit mat
DEFICIENCY OF IMPERIAL REVENUE.
183
previous one for various reasons. 1st. Because the millions of
dollars furnished by various provincial treasuries had to be paid to
Great Britain. 2nd. Nine million of taels were wanted for the
repairs of the dykes of the Yellow River, the largest amount ever
required for this purpose. This sum is to be raised by temporary
loans, a paper currency, and patriotic contributions, which give
the donor a claim for office: part of this money has been already
collected. 3rd. Government wanted 2,500,000 taels to reconstruct
the marine defences and navy, which item has been obtained by
the sale of offices.
6. Nine million of taels were stolen from the Imperial
Treasury. The very circumstance that such an enormous sum of
money could be abstracted without discovery, shews at once,
that there must be immense hoards, which are scarcely ever
touched; to reimburse the Emperor for his personal loss, all the
officers that have held a situation for more than thirty years
at the Treasury, if still alive, or if not, their posterity and families,
must pay their respective shares, until the whole is made good.
Amongst the defaulters are several princes of the blood, whose
property has been confiscated.
7. All the colonial possessions and dependencies of China.
require considerable sums for the payment of troops, and the
subsidy of the Mongol chiefs, as well as the Mantchoo vassals in
their own country; all this is paid by the Peking treasury, and
proves a considerable drain, without the most distant hope of
recovering the money in any way.
8. Various proposals for raising the revenue to a level with the
expenditure have been made, but none has yet been finally adopted,
nor has the ministry published the result of long and frequent
deliberations.
(Signed)
[Three taels are
king,
CHARLES GUTZLAFF.
Chinese Secretary.
£1 sterling; one shih, 160 pounds; one
100 mow; one mow, 6000 square covids.]
The revenue of last year has, it is said, immensely fallen short of
the actual amount required to pay off the arrears due since the
war; so that there remained in October, 1844, taels 38,711,000 to
be paid. The rice annually ordered has, for the greater part, on
account of the inundation, not been forwarded to the capital.
There are sundry branches of revenue which arise from the pro-
ceeds of pawnbrokers' shops, mercantile establishments, and various
fees and duties; there are, moreover, innumerable local items not
mentioned in the statistical returns, because the mandarins on the
spot receive them without sending any account; for this they have,
however, to keep up a considerable establishment.
The colonial possessions, instead of yielding a revenue, absorb
184
IMPERIAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.
considerable sums. The subsidies paid to the Mongol chiefs, both
in money as well as kind, are very large; the expenditure of the
army in Turkestan amounts to several millions annually; and to
keep up the establishments in Mantchouria, the treasury is con-
stantly drained. Tibet requires only about 200,000 taels annually.
No returns of these liabilities are ever published.
It ought always to be kept in mind, that the sums specified are
the net revenue, after the deduction of the expenditure of col-
lection, so that, in many instances, the sums actually raised are
five times more than what is put down here. In the estimate are
not included the duties on the foreign trade, which are, at the
lowest, about 3,000,000 taels per annum. So, also, the monopoly
in Ginseng, per centage from the numerous mines, profits from
coinage, &c., which is the most moderate calculation, does not
amount to less than 5,000,000 taels per annum, which are paid
direct to the Emperor.
Neither has there been calculated about 34,000,000 shih of grain,
which, according to the regulations, is kept in deposit by govern-
ment in order to provide against starvation. The people have
some claim on this, and reap the profits arising from the sale.
The quantity, moreover, fluctuates very much; the amount quoted
is abstracted from a work published about twenty years ago.
is difficult to know the total taxation.
It
From the Peking Gazette of the 11th Oct. 1833, we obtain the
deliberations of the Hoo-poo, or treasury department. It appears
that during the last few years, the current expenses and outlay
have exceeded the income more than thirty million taels of silver.
The deficiency is attributed to the two Mahommedan rebellions;
also to the troubles with the mountaineers, in the provinces of
Kwei-chow; and to the natural calamities from drought, repairing
the banks of rivers, &c., so that the land tax was obliged to be re-
mitted. The plan recommended is the sale of offices for a short
period, to replenish the treasury.
The Peking Gazette of Nov. 9th, same year, has a long state-
ment from Na-sze-hungah, the censor of the province of Keang-se.
This state document says, that the whole income of the empire,
from land tax, salt tax, customs and duties, with all the sums paid
to make them good, does not exceed 40,000,000 of taels; and that
the outlay is upwards of 30,000,000. He states, that although the
overplus be not great, were there no deficiencies of income, the
state machine might go on: but of late years, there has not been
one in which numerous defalcations in every department have not
occurred, so that the income has not been adequate for times of
tranquillity; therefore, on occasions of insurrection and drought, the
deficiency has amounted to millions. To make good the revenue,
many plans have been proposed: one party says, open the mines;
another, raise the price of salt; a third is for selling offices, and
persuading merchants to subscribe towards the wants of the state;
PLAN OF ENRICHING THE TREASURY.
185
thus causing anxiety to the mind of his sacred majesty, on whom it
devolves to balance the advantages and disadvantages of these
plans, and either reject them at once, or give them a trial, and
then desist.
By a secret memorial from the governor of the province of
Keang-soo (Lin), it appears, that this province pays to the
revenue (taking its extent) as much again as Che-keang; three
times as much as Keang-se; and ten times as much as Hoo-kwang.
The years of abundance in this province are, probably, not one in
five, and, consequently, the required sum cannot be remitted
punctually, owing to frequent river inundations. Lin states he
has received from the Emperor, a letter charging him with neglect
of duty to government. The statesman, in reply, declares that
everything has been done to induce the rich to make up the defi-
ciency for the poor, but that the numerous calls on them for the
last few years had dried up their resources. He gives the amount
of voluntary subscriptions for two years of great calamity; the
third year of the present reign, the amount raised by admonitory
proclamations to the rich was 1,950,000 taels of silver; and in the
eleventh year, 1,400,000 taels. He tells the Emperor that all the
government possesses comes from the people, and attention to them
is the first duty of a statesman: but who can withstand natural
calamities?
During the year 1843, one district in Keang-se province re-
sponded to the urgent call to defend the empire, by subscribing
103,000 taels of silver (nearly £30,000), and 58,000 chon of copper
(£10,000); another district, 27,000 taels of silver, and 87,000
chon of copper. A chon (tseen), in the court dialect, is the de-
signation for a string of copper cash which count 10,000.
The following is a curious memorial to the Emperor of China,
with a plan of enriching the treasury, and for the establishment of
a property tax in China:
"Your slave Keenéen the lord mayor of Moukden, comes kneeling
and beseeching of your majesty to give a sacred glance to a plan I
submit for enriching the royal treasury. The sacred favors be-
stowed on your slave in making him lord mayor, induce him to
give your majesty his opinion on what he has seen and carefully
inquired into; your slave approaches the subject with caution, in
making changes in old regulations, but the great deficiency in the
revenue from the late plunder, and the large sums required for
maritime fortifications and hydraulical works, I find amounts to
many tons of myriads of taels, and I hope my plan will give per-
manency and respectability to the state and fresh life to the people.
In devising this plan, I am like one groping in the dark, but the
honour and esteem I have for your majesty, are my only apology.
The four following measures are the result of my best judgment and
anxious enquiries :—
"1st. All bonds held by the people, for house taxes, to be can-
186
IMPOSITION OF A PROPERTY-TAX.
celled. I have noticed with astonishment the great quantity of
goods stored in the shops and dwellings; in towns and suburbs
it exceeds belief. The law hitherto has given the taxes to two wings
of the Tartar army, and great fraud and extortion are practised, and
smuggling to a great extent, which must greatly affect the revenue.
Fraudulent mortgages and sham sales are practised to evade the
taxes; I beg to call the attention of the board of requests, or have
an officer of high standing appointed, whose sole duty would be to
look after these things, or empower the police to give in a correct
return of all inhabitants and the number of houses; remit all the
old bonds, and call on the people to repair instantly to the man-
darins, and honestly state the value of their property, and pay three
per cent. on the whole, for which they will get a seal on their bonds
to protect them from other extortions; if mortgaged, the mort-
gagee to pay the taxes. After a fixed period, all defaulters to have
their property confiscated. This will be best for all parties, as it
will give the people security against extortions and law suits, and
restore every farthing of the duties. The clerks and officers must
be strictly looked after; if my plan be carried out the people will not
practice frauds, neither should the inferior officers be allowed to
extort money, and apply it to their own use; strict attention will
save great confusion. All violaters of this law to be prosecuted
with severity, which will have a good effect.
“2nd. That all taxes should be increased except the land tax, as
an increase there would bear on the poorer classes: but all shop-
keepers, markets, bazaars, and merchants who sell goods by weight,
derive a much larger profit than those who till the ground; pawn-
brokers are very numerous, and I find they only, like others, pay
about five taels per annum; coal mines, iron works, and large
mercantile houses, pay even less. Pawnbrokers should cheerfully
pay the increase. As to the tea shops, I would strongly advise the
governors to look to them, and report accordingly.
"3rd. Provincial fees should be transferred to the public trea-
sury. I, your slave, held appointments in Chih-le, and other places,
and know that all magistrates and others, receive fees, and volun-
tary contributions under various names, and expend it in public
works, which your treasurer has accounted for; but for the present,
I would stop all public works, and have the fees sent to the capital.
The mandarins' salaries I would reduce, and remit the amount, and
cause a strict enquiry as to the amount of those fees; after paying
the army expenses, the balance should be paid into the state trea-
sury.
66
4th, The mandarins or collectors of the taxes are behindhand
in paying them in, and when urged to do so make sundry excuses
and delays, notwithstanding there is a period fixed. Look to this
matter without delay, as they frequently turn bankrupts, or pre-
tend to be so, to avoid payment, and often propose paying by in-
stalments. May I request that this system will be stopped, and no
THREE HUNDRED TONS OF SILVER STOLEN.
187
instalment taken, but that their security and themselves be made
pay at once; this would be acting severely and mercifully; great
severity must be used. When I was prefect under Taoukwang
(1834), a deficiency was discovered, and I demanded from the high
inspector 1,000 taels and sent them to your treasury, and the re-
mainder soon followed. I, your slave, have drawn up this statement
with a view of enriching the treasury, and stupid as I am I hope
they are suited to the occasion, and humbly beg your instructions
thereon."
Answer written with vermillion pencil, saying the Board would
consult about it. "Respect this."
October, 1843.
Dr. Gutzlaff states that there were abstracted from the imperial
treasury, when alarm was spread of the British army proceeding to
Peking, in 1842, 9,252,000 taels of silver, about 2,000,000 sterling,
or 250 tons of silver. On the 19th day of the 5th month, an im-
perial edict appeared to the following effect : "An extensive de-
ficiency was discovered in the treasury; kings and other high
ministers were ordered to investigate it, and have furnished me
with a list of officers and auditors that have successively held ap-
pointments in the treasury, and it appears they are all abandoned
characters concerned in this affair, and must be severely punished,
as an example, and to maintain the law. We direct that all the
officers in this list shall be prosecuted, and we direct that all Tartar
mandarins in office or on leave, shall be first degraded, and a list
taken of them, likewise the sons and grandsons of such as are dead,
whether in office or not, and handed over to Muchangah for pun-
ishment. Respect this."
Imperial edict the second has been received to the following
effect: "We have appointed from time to time, kings and high
ministers to superintend the receipts and disbursements of our re-
venue; and this year we made an addition of two, a Mantchoo and
a Chinese; these high officers were instructed to examine with great
care into all matters, and we find they are all blind and stupid.
Changchingpaon, a high treasury officer, has made away with the
public money, and we sent a great minister to inquire into it, and
his report reached me this day, and it states the deficiency to amount
to the enormous sum of 9,250,000 taels of silver! Never was the
like known, and on hearing it my anger knows no bounds; only
think of them acting like common thieves of the country! This
peculation has been going on many years, and the number in office
has been great; but still a strict investigation must take place,
otherwise some of them will escape. I find, ever since the reign
of Keaking, (1801,) the mandarins in the treasury have all been
blood relations, but some of them were ministers of high rank, and
not one of them has ever denounced the plunder: they ought to
be ashamed of such conduct. I blame myself for not seeing to
it, and my mortification is exceedingly great. I direct that they
188
PRESSURE ON THE TREASURY.
be handed over to the board that will be appointed, and well
punished, and that said board enquire, and report the best means
of recovering, and making the deficiency good by fines, &c. &c.
"Respect this."
[The result of this measure, as previously stated, has been that
every treasurer, since the year, 1801, or their descendants, have
been required to make good the defalcation of 9,252,000 taels of
silver.]
A careful analysis of the Peking Gazette throws much light on
the mechanism and policy of the Chinese government, at home and
abroad, as it is the organ of government, and the only publication
of the kind permitted in the empire. A selection of extracts, re-
lative to the state of the revenue, indicates that there is consider-
able pressure on the imperial and local treasury.
The system of lending money adopted by the Chinese govern-
ment, is believed to be carried on upon a very extensive scale. It is
said that several of the imperial palaces at Peking, are wholly
supported by the interest which is paid by the salt and other
merchants, who from time to time are compelled to borrow money
from the government. This system has been brought to light
from translations which have been made from the government
gazette among these are memorials from merchants, stating
their inability to pay the interest, and edicts from the Emperor,
stating that the superintendents of the palaces, to whom the
interest is paid towards the expenses of these establishments, are
seriously inconvenienced by this want of punctuality.
Finances. May, 1844, the Board of Revenue have furnished a
schedule of all the out-standing debts in the provinces. Answers
have been received from the local authorities, declaring their in-
ability to satisfy the demands, and praying further time.
1844. Proposals have been received by the Board of Revenue to
lay on transit duties on the cattle that pass the frontiers from
Mantchouria and Mongolia. It is stated that the sheep alone
amount to some millions of heads annually.
Pwanshegan, at present minister of finance, has submitted a list
of Mantchoo defaulters who have not paid in the sums which they
were sentenced to furnish, in order to make good the 9,252,000
taels of silver which were embezzled lately from the treasury.
They are to be deprived of their situations, and imprisoned until
every tael is paid.
1844. A memorial from the mandarin of the province of Keang-
soo, stating that they are unable to collect in the whole amount of
the revenue. Ordered that the mandarins make good the re-
mainder. "Respect this!"
The Board of Revenue ordered, that all who generously contribute
to the exigences of the country, and repairs of the rivers, should
obtain a receipt, which will certify their claim to favour and emolu-
BREAKING OPEN MONEY CHESTS.
189
ment. Provincial officers are ordered to make monthly returns of
the sums paid into their respective treasury. Likewise all man-
darins in arrear shall be instantly degraded. Regulations have
been prepared to fill up their offices. The expedient is desperate,
but the case is urgent-“ so tremble !”
The Board of Revenue has requested the Emperor to ordert hat
all the money to be levied in the shape of voluntary contributions
and patriotic gifts, should be exacted with rigour. It was first pro-
posed that Hoopih and Canton provinces, only, should be called on.
Unfortunately, other large expenses were rendered necessary by
the overflowing of the Yellow River, amounting to 800,000 taels of
silver. The emperor now calls on the whole realm to furnish the
means of constructing dykes. No extortions will be allowed, but
his majesty will be enabled to distinguish the real friends of the
country by their generosity. "Respect this."
Imperial Treasury. A second attempt has been made to break
open the money chests in the Imperial Palace; strict inquiry is in-
stituted, and condign punishment threatened.
1845. Board of Revenue, ordered that 27,300 taels be granted
for the repairs of the dykes in Shan-tung province. The same
Gazette publishes an ordinance, calling on all merchants who had
borrowed money from the public treasury, instantly to pay up the
arrears of interest, to enable government to procure lighters, in
order to unload part of the rice junks in their progress to the
capital, where the water is shallow.
Ordered that 131,000 taels be placed at interest, for defraying
the expenses of the Imperial Palace of Jeho. Surplus of revenue
from one of the custom stations, above the first annual amount,
27,056 be placed in the household treasury; 223 taels to be given
as a present to the collector.
The Yellow River is a source of uneasiness almost every year,
and for the repair of its banks voluntary subscriptions are raised.
The last collections only amounted to 348,000,000 cash. This sum
fell short to finish the works, and complaint is made to the go-
vernor of the river, and he petitioned his Majesty to receive the
cash at the rate 1,300 per tael, (that is about six shillings sterling),
and prayed that his Majesty will distribute rank and emolument
to the generous contributors to this necessary undertaking.
When the canals suffer from the flood, the Emperor decrees that
all magistrates along whose districts the banks had been destroyed
should be degraded, but remain in office, and repair, with their own
money, the damage.
The superintendent of Teentsin harbour, had entrusted to his
care a large amount of subscriptions to build war junks, and put
the harbour in a good state of defence. His embezzlement and
extortions were represented, and his Majesty ordered him to be
degraded until the defalcations were made good. The governor of
190
FINANCIAL EMBARRASSMENTS FOR RIVER DYKES.
the rivers has made a personal inspection to ascertain the damage
done by the floods of 1844, and demands 283,790 taels of silver to
commence the works.
The capital of the fertile province of Honan was again under
water, and the whole of the walls levelled. The lieutenant-governor
commenced raising subscriptions, which were responded to; the
Emperor was so highly pleased that he rewarded the author, and
desired that the principal contributors be promoted to situations.
The governors and lieutenant-governors who have been dismissed
for neglect in not seeing to the state of the canals and rivers, by
which so much damage had been caused, petitioned his Majesty
for forgiveness. The answer denied that they had any claim on
his Majesty's clemency, as they had occasioned enormous expenses
to the state. For immediate wants, the sum of 800,000 taels were
granted, and his Majesty called on all the neighbouring provinces
in which the calamity had occurred, to send in their portion of this
sum, and thus exhibit their loyalty and attachment to his throne.
The same Gazette has a petition from the superintendent of the
pleasure seat of his majesty at Zehol, complaining of the dilapidated
state of the walls of this once magnificent estate, and praying that
something may be done to save the pleasure grounds and gardens
from ruin the stags, he states, have free access to the gardens.
:
1844, September, Treasury.-A strict investigation for the
recovery of the lost nine millions of taels, has ended in the dis-
covery of the strong boxes containing the silver being in a very
decayed state, and the sycee had gradually dropped out. This
subterfuge, however, has availed nothing, and several members of
the imperial household, who were under heavy liabilities, have been
obliged to discharge them.
Upon the representation of Hwuy the governor of rivers, sub-
scriptions to the amount of nine million of taels, were last year
raised, in order to reconstruct the dykes. Since now, however, the
injury done by the inundation is far greater, new measures are
necessary. It is therefore proposed to levy additional sums, during
the space of a year, upon the same principles as in the maritime
provinces (by bestowing offices upon the subscribers.)
The whole money contributed is five million by merchants, and
six million by the gentry and people. Of this the salt merchants
at Canton subscribed 1,200,000 taels, which has been applied for
military purposes. Of 2,400,000 taels subscribed, 1,000,000 was
to be used for the repair of dykes, and in three instalments within.
six years to be repaid. The merchants of Chekeang furnished.
1,500,000 taels, of which above 120,000 were applied to the dykes,
and the money will be refunded just as the above. The Loo tra-
ders subscribed 400,000 taels, and paid up 50,000 taels, which is to
be restored by the gabel within five years.
The money in Shanse for which rank was bought, amounts to
above 1,600,000 taels; in Shense to above 1,000,000; in Chih-li
PROPOSED ISSUE OF TREASURY BILLS.
191
370,000 taels. As for Canton and other provinces from 340,000
to 800,000 taels. The sums however collected in the maritime
provinces, are to be retained there and applied for military
purposes.
This proposal is adopted, that the merchants and people might
have time to collect the sums within the space of a year, but by no
means to distress the nation.
Leyanking, a member of the censorate entrusted with the super-
vision of the river, has reported, that considering the immense
expenditure necessary for the repairs of the hydraulic works, and
the difficulty of procuring the money, and even when this is
obtained, the ruinous exchange that hence arises, proposes that
henceforth treasury bills be issued in lieu of payment. This plan
did not succeed under the Ming and Sung dynasties; but to
obviate the difficulties and the rapid fall of the value of paper money,
the revenue is to receive the assignats and immediately to destroy
them.
Muhchangah and others have submitted various proposals made
by Keying, which bear upon the subject of collecting duties;
and the privy council as well as the board of revenue having
taken them into consideration, and submitted them with their
opinions thereon to the Emperor, they are approved of and
confirmed.
1. The amount of fixed duties to be sent to the capital by the
Canton maritime custom house was 899,064 taels; and besides a
surplus of about 1,000 to 40,000 taels. However, since now the
trade will be carried on in the other four ports, the receipts at
Canton will fall short of that sum, and therefore Fuchoo and the
other emporiums, must, after having realized their respective quotas,
make up the deficit of Canton.
2. In order to fix the whole amount of duties of the other
ports, three years must pass before a true estimate can be made.
It will then be determined, how much each port according to the
respective receipts of money can supply to Canton.
3. All extra charges, although formerly paid into the public
treasury, are at once abolished.
4. On every 1,000 taels sent to the board of revenue, there
was formerly a per centage of 15 taels, and the recent extra charge
of 25 taels is for that very purpose. There were, moreover, 55,000
taels paid in tribute, and 100,000 taels as an equivalent for the
ginseng, and these sums were forwarded by the Hong merchant to
the court establishment, besides 4,000 to 30,000 taels made over to
the inspector of grain for charitable purposes by the same indivi-
duals, and sundry fees to the Hoppo and his people.
Since the Cohong, however, is now done away with, the tribute
must be paid from the surplus of the stated duties. As for the
ginseng, which at the rate of 700,000 taels, the value to be sti-
pulated, if paid by the said merchants would within four years
1
•
192
FINANCIAL EMBARRASSMENTS.-DOWNFAL.
amount to 2,800,000 taels; it must now be sold for whatever it will
fetch. The Hoppo, moreover, must make arrangements to provide
for the other items, and manage matters accordingly.
5. A sum of about 120 to 130,000 taels was hitherto kept in
reserve, to be transmitted to the court in presents and for other
purposes. As now, however, the sources whence the money was
derived are exhausted, the Hoppo must in future manage this
matter.
6. The duty on raw silk now fixed at 10 taels per picul is less
than it was formerly. And the five ports being now open, mer-
chants will go with this article to the nearest market. But they
must make up the loss of the transit duties, which otherwise would
have been paid, if they had proceeded to Canton, in whatsoever
port they sell their cargo.
7. Tea, raw and wrought silks, were hitherto prohibited to be
exported by sea. But under existing circumstances, every junk
that navigates the ocean, shall pay upon them the same duty as
foreign vessels, to prevent their smuggling these articles on board
the ships.
8. Every other part of the native trade, is to be carried on ac-
cording to the old regulations without the least change.
9. All fees and payments to the inmates of the custom house
are entirely annulled, and the superintendents ought henceforth to
provide for their whole establishment.
Taoukwang, 23rd year, 7th intercalary month, 21st day,—14th
September, 1843.
1845, Formosa. From a recent investigation, it appears that
during the late severe storm above 3,000 human beings lost their
lives by the immense floods and inroads of the sea. On the whole
coast there prevail much destitution and misery, the fields having
been rendered unfit for cultivation by the sea water. It does not
yet appear what measures the mandarins have taken for alleviating
the sufferings of the poor islanders. They have been again com-
manded by the court to furnish a true statement of the damage
done both to the people and public buildings. One of the leading
men in the island has declared that "the government can only
levy taxes with the consent of the people," and he has refused
payment of the imposts.
Every thing I heard and saw in China, impressed on my mind
the conviction that the finances of the empire are in a most
wretched state, and that corruption pervades the officers entrusted
with the collection and appropriation of the resources of the
state. In all kingdoms, and in every age, financial embarrassments
are the sure precursors of the downfal of a nation, or of the
dynasty or administration who rules its destinies.
Era.
ANALYSIS OF CHINESE SOVEREIGNS-THEIR CHRONOLOGY, CHARACTER, &c.
[Indicating a greater extent of crime and sensuality than even the Roman Empire.]
Name of Sovereign.
Termination
of Reign.
No. of Years
reigned.
Died,
Cause of
Dethroned, or Death, Dethronement, or
Abdicated.
Name and Position of
Successor.
Character of Sovereign and Events.
Abdication.
B. C.
Chow Dynasty.
1001
Muh-Wang
946
55
Died
Natural
946 King-Wang
12
Died
873
Le-Wang
827
19
Died
827
Suen-Wang
781
46
Died
781
Yew-Wang
770
11 Killed
Fourteen years in exile
Of grief for killing two
Courtiers.
Killed by the Tartars
and his son.
770 Ping-Wang
719
51
Died
719
to
Hwan-Wang
618
Died
Died of grief and
mortification.
30
Died
Natural
Dethroned
Dethroned by his
brother
675 | Hwuy-Wang
645
Seang-Wang
King-Wang, and
:
:
0:0
}
613
6
12
Died
Died
...
618
to
606
Kwang-Wang
606
Ting-Wang
583
Keen-Wang
571 Ling-Wang
536
King-Wang
519
35
Died
519
Mong
six
Killed
months
472
Kae, or King-Wang
440 Ching-ting-Wang
366
Heen-Wang
306
Nan-Wang
286
Chaou-Seang
:
:
::
...
...
:
Killed by his half-
brother
Died
Died
Son. King-Wang
Three successors, no-
thing remarkable
Son. Suen-Wang
His son.
Yew-Wang
Lawful heir Ping-Wang
:
His two sons contend-
ed for the Throne
...
Ting-Wang
Ling-Wang
Grandson.
Wang
Two brothers
King-
:.
Three sons,
two of
whom killed each other
Deposed by the Prince
of Tsin.
The Usurper E-jin
Died
Fond of display; sensible of his
faults.
Aged and feeble on accession.
Tyrannical, rapacious, and cruel.
Warlike, defeated the Tartars
with great difficulty.
Extravagant, sensual, and indolent.
The European eclipses recorded.
A weak monarch. A declaration
of independence by nearly all the
princes.
There were five Emperors reigned,
but the historical details relate
to the minor states chiefly.
A faction formed in favour of the
Emperor's brother, who took the
capital.
Twenty years of civil war (page
204) between the two brothers.
By the aid of the prince of
Tsin, the usurper was killed.
Well disposed men, but had no
authority.-Eleven states con-
federated to restore order.-
Birth of Laou-tsze.
A fruitless endeavour to equalize
the power of the vassals.
Merely the title of sovereign.
The princes plundered each
other.
Partial to his youngest son, and
unable to govern his palace.
Discord and slaughter within the
palace, and civil war throughout
the empire.
One prince despoiling another;
the great prince of Tsin lost
nearly all his possessions.
This period may be termed the
"dark ages" of China.
The end of the dynasty fast ap-
proaching. Tsin again powerful.
Wall building to keep out the
Tartars.
Ambition was hereditary in the
Tsins.
During several periods of the above epochs the Emperors are only mentioned incidentally, and therefore it is a chronology of
powerful Wangs (Kings).
Natural. Assassination
failed
Suicide. Dethroned
Son. Urh-she-hwang- Sanguinary, despotic, bold. Built
Great Wall in five years.
Cruel and debauched. Succeeded
by nephew.
B.C.
Tsin Dynasty.
246 Che-hwang-te
B.C.
210
37 Died
te
210 Ur-she-hwang-te
206
4 Dethroned
Tsze-Ying
by Lew-pang, an ad-
206 Tsze-Ying
202
4
Do.
Han Dynasty.
202
Lew-pang, alias
195
7
Died
Natural
Kaou-tsoo
195
Heaou-hwuy-te
188
7
Died
Natural; without issue
Mother
188
Mother of above
180
8 Do.
From excesses
Wan-te
180 Wan-te
157
23 Do.
Natural
King-te
157 King-te
141
16 Do.
Do.
141
Woo-te
Do.
Do.
Chaou-te
68-
Do.
Natural;
Uncle of above
73
Dethroned
by the Nobles
Seuen-te
73
Suen-te
48
25
Died
Natural
48 Yuen-te
34
16
Died
32 Ching-te
32
Do.
A.D.
A.D.
Ping-te
-23<
Wang Mang, regent
23
03 Kwene Woo-te
58
Poisoned
Killed
35 Died
Destroyed for usurping
throne
Natural
Ming-te. Son
Ho-te
"I
Several minorities
168 Ling-te
180
189 Heen-te
220
21 Died
31 Abdicated
minorities, and then destroyed them.
Heen-te
Cruelty caused by Tsaou-pe
Tungcho
venturer
Subdued by Lew-pang, Lew-pang
a bandit.
Son. Heaou-hwuy-te Bold. Resisted the Huns.
Woo-te
Chaou-te. Son
ascended by his Uncle
throne at 7 years
Do.
Natural, but resigned
power to his uncles.
by a noble, Wang-Mang
Yuen-te
Ching-te. Son
Ping-te. Son
A regency of Wang
Mang
Kwang-Wo-te
Sunk in effeminacy.
Ambitious, cruel, dissolute.
Very popular. Paper invented.
Unsuccessful rebellions.
Cruel and superstitious. Killed his
mother to prevent her reigning.
Foreign invasion and domestic
treachery.
Literary. Subjected the Huns.
Literary.
Sensual and effeminate.
Nine years old when placed on
throne.
Ambitious and unprincipled.
Budhism introduced.
Ambitious ennuchs placed boys on the throne, in order to hold power during long
Natural
Feeble.
Unable to resist the
bandit, Lew-pang.
Many rebellions.
Ascended at twelve years old.
Great bloodshed in this reign.
220 Tsaou-pe
Lew-pei
How-te
Tsín Dynasty.
Prince of Wei-Woo-te
Do.
:
Lew-pei
Foreign intercourse at Canton.
35
255
Died
Abdicated
How-te
Invasion and internal
weakness
Prince of Wei-Woo-te
Printing from blocks invented.
Termination of Han Dynasty.
255
Do.
:
Compelled by Woote
290
Hwuy-te
307
Hwae-te
313
6
Assassinated Attacked by King of
313
Min-te
318
5
Do.
condition
318
Sze-Ma-Juy
322
322
Ming-te
325
43
4
Han
Empire in miserable by Governor-General
Conspiracy and trouble | Ming-te
Numberless plots
Min-te. A member of Unparalleled cruelty.
Tsin family
Three minors
Three minorities
Died
from drinking "Am-
Gae-te
brosial" liquid to pro-
cure immortality.
362
Gae-te
365
Heaou-Woo
365
396
3 Died drinking
Heaou-Woo
31
396
Gan-te
419
23
Strangled
Do.
419
Kung-te
420
1
Sung Dynasty.
420
Lew-Yu or Woo-te
422
2
422
Shaou-te
Died
Removed
Wan-te
454}32 Murdered
454
Son of above
465
11
465
Fe-te
466
1
Died
Murdered
466
Ming-te
472
6
472
Tsang-Woo-Wang
477
477
Shun-te
480
53
Do.
Abdicated &
poisoned
Abdicated
When drunk, by wife Gan-te. Son
by an ambitious general Kung-te. Brother
Compelled by the Lew-Yu
above
Unworthy of throne
by one of his sons
from debauchery
for his ferocity
Killed fourteen ne-
phews
Bloodthirsty
Forced by his general
Shaou-te. Son
Wan-te. Brother
by his son
Fe-te. Son
Ming-te
Tsang-Woo-Wang
Shun-te. Son
Seaou-teaou-Ching
Patron of learning. Suppressed
Budhism.
Sensual and depraved.
Slew all who displeased him.
These were rivals in their eager-
ness to shed blood.
End of Sung dynasty.
End of Tsin dynasty.
Tse Dynasty.
480
Seaou-teaou-Ching,
482
2 Died
or Kaou-te
482
Woo-te
Woo-te. Son
by son
Excellent character.
492
Sun of do.
10
492
Seaou-lun
499
499
502
Paou-Keuen
Seaou-Yeu or Leang-
Woo-te
Keen-Wan-te
How-King
552 Yuen-te
502
3
Dethroned
7 Killed
Dethroned
by Seaou-lun
by the priests
by his general
Leang Dynasty.
Abdicated
:
50
Slain
:
Went into a monastery
by his general
Son
Seaou-lun
Paou-Keuen. Son
Seaou-Yeu
End of Tse dynasty.
Became a Priest of Budh.
King-te
557
557
} 5 5 {
Do.
Do.
Abdicated
How-King
Yuen-te
Finding he had no
power
His brother
Chin-pa-Seen
End of Leang dynasty.
Chin Dynasty.
Nephew
Son
Uncle
Son
...
557
Chin-pa-Seen
or 559
2
Kaou-tsoo
559
Chin-tseen or Wan-te
566
7 Died
566
Pe-tsung
568
568
Chin-heu
582
14
582
Haw-te
590
8
2❘ Deposed
Died
Dethroned
by his uncle
Sup Dynasty.
590
Yang-Keen
604
14
Died
604
His son
Yang-Kwan
Strangled
13 Slain
by his brother
Son
Brother
by assassins
ດ
Murdered
hv Le Yuen, his general Ley-uen
wavu-vSUU
Kaou-tsoo
649 Kaou-tsnng
649
684
}
30 Do.
684
Chung-tsung
710
35 Do.
26 Confined
by his mother who
Brother
reigned
Dethroned
:.
by a rebellion
Son
by General Yang-Keen By General
Kaou-tsung
Chung-tsung
Wise and judicious prince.
Imbecile.
Voluptuous and effeminate.
End of Chin dynasty.
Utterly unfit to reign by de-
bauchery.
End of Suy dynasty.
Repelled artars.
Encouraged science.
Warlike. Entered Persia and Tibet
Weak and debauched.
Murdered his empress and chil-
dren.
710 Juy-tsung
Heuen-tsung
Tih-tsung
782 Suh-tsung
Heen-tsung
888
905
Seuen-tsung
Several successors
Chaou-tsung
Cheaou-Suen-te
Five Dynasties
succeeded.
The How-leang,
How-tang,
How-tsin,
How-han &
How-Chow
Sung Dynasty.
::
905
17
1
Abdicated
...
Poisoned by liquor of "Immor-
Do.
tality"
by do.
Son
Do.
Do.
Murdered by Choo-Wan
Abdicated in favour of
Various successors
Choo-Wan
All perished similarly.
End of Tang dynasty.
The usual train of murders, rebellious, abdications, and infamy; cruelty and imbecility. The last
of the How-tang dynasty obtained the throne by murdering his brother, and when attacked, A.D.
936, collected all the insignia of royalty, and set fire to them, to himself, his empress and children.
Son
Warlike, learned, frugal and good.
960
977
Chaou Kwang-Yin 976
Tae-tsung
997
997
Chin-tsung
1022
16 Died
21 Do.
45 Do.
Natural death
Do.
Do.
1100
Hwuy-tsung
1127
27 Do.
Made a prisoner by
Tartars
::
Weak and credulous.
Revived the Eunuchs' influence.
1125 Prin-tsung
Do.
Brother
1162 Heaou-tsung
1194 Ning-tsung
...
...
1265 Too-tsung
1277
13
End of Sung Dynasty
1279
Che-Yuen
1204
1307
Mongol Dynasty.
Kublai-Khan
Timur, or Yuen Ching 1307
Woo-tsung
Invited the Mongols, who retained
the country-first under Gen-
ghis Khan, and then under
Kublai-Khan.
or
1294
14 Died
13 Died
of vexation
Grandson
1311
4 Do.
1311
Jin-tsung
1320
9 Do.
Son
Devoted to wine and women.
Learned and good.
1320 Ying-tsung
1323
3 Assassinated in his tent
1328
1323 Ye-Sun-te Mur
Toote-Mur
1328
5 Died
Second son
Ho-chila
1332
4
Abdicated in favour of elder bro-
Poisoned
ther
1332
To-hwan-te Mur
1368
36
Fled
Conquered by Choo- Chang
Yuen
Ming Dynasty.
1368 Hung-Wu
1399
33
Died
Natural. Rose from a Grandson
poor labourer
About this period end of Mon-
gols' dynasty.
Extirpated the Mongols.
Dethroned
by rebellions, &c.
1425
:
A prisoner
1399 Kien-wan
Yeu-Yungloh
Successor
1450 King-ti
Choo-Keen-Shin
Tae-tsing Dynasty.
1644 Taetsing, and other Tartars in succession
Kanghe, who died 1722
Yung-ching, died 1537
...
Keen Lung, who reigned 63 years, and at 85 years of age resigned the throne to his son
:
End of Ming dynasty in 1644.
Keaking, (1796,) an imbecile sensualist, cowardly and cruel; he died 1820, and was succeeded by the present Emperor
Taou-kwang, who is more than 60 years of age, and on whose death there will be a disputed succession, and probably great internal
disturbances.
193
CHAPTER VII.
TRADITION, HISTORY, AND DYNASTIES OF CHINA
FOR THREE THOUSAND YEARS.
CENTRAL ASIA was most probably the cradle of the human race;
man was placed by his Creator in a temperate region, abounding
in all the products of the earth, adapted for the foundation of
great kingdoms, and affording facilities for dispersion when aug-
menting population pressed on the means of subsistence, or the
desire for change stimulated an emigration to distant countries.
The Chinese are supposed to be a branch of the great Scythian
family, who entered China from the north-west, gradually drove
the aborigines before them, occupied in separate states the most
fertile and eligible spots, until they reached the tropic of Capricorn,
and after the usual strife and bloodshed incident to small com-
munities, finally were consolidated into one empire. The Scythians
may have penetrated to the "far east" before they became known
in the west, which was about the year 630 B.C., when they ad-
vanced with their conquering hordes to the borders of Egypt. The
Scythians would appear to have been the common parents of the
Tartars, the Mongolians, and other races that afterwards spread
themselves over the northern and eastern portions of Asia.
In craniological formation-in language, habits, and character-
the Chinese are a distinct people from any of the other inhabitants
of Asia, to whom, in all these particulars, they bear less resemblance
than they do to the European races.
B.C. 2,204 is the utmost extent to which Chinese tradition ex-
tends. This was about 140 years after the Flood; and supposing
the human family had increased to a degree that required them to
migrate, the Chinese may have separated from the parent stock,
after their dispersion, and, diverting their course to the eastward,
colonized on the Yellow River.
Their first great Emperor, Fohi, (supposed to be identical with
Noah), is said to have settled in the province of Shen-se, which
is the north-western part of the empire, and includes the ancient
Serica, also the country of Sinæ.
His length of reign is reputed to have been 115 years; he in-
vented everything useful, and appointed a prime minister and four
mandarins to govern the four provinces. His successor, Shin-
Nong, reigned 146 years, and invented the plough, the same as it ex-
ists at the present day. In physical knowledge he was said to be an
0
194
STATE OF THE EMPIRE UNDER YAO.
adept. Whang-ti, the third emperor, was also highly gifted, could
speak when a year old, reigned at ten years, and invented the com-
pass* at fifteen. This sample is given of Chinese history, as the
best means of disabusing those who are inclined to place reliance
on their fables.
Yu, or Yao, the founder of the first dynasty (B.c. 2204), is said
to have devoted his whole life to the draining of the land; and for
thirteen years he never entered his own house, would rise from his
food and listen to complaints, and thrice he tied up his hair, while
in the bath, to answer some urgent call; by this means he set an
example to his subjects of attending to business first, and pleasure
afterwards.
Meng-tse, the Chinese historian, gives an account of the state of
the empire under the Emperor Yao, "The country presented only
a desert, and the men were mere savages. The empire was not
formed; the lowlands were covered with stagnant water, the re-
mains of inundation; those parts which were not still submerged,
were covered with trees and bushes, and were the haunt of wild
beasts.
"Yao set fire to the forests, in order to clear the ground, and drive
the wild animals off. China was at this period only a residence for
serpents and dragons; the people had no fixed dwelling-places, but
were compelled to shelter themselves on trees, when in the low
country, and in caves when among the mountains.”
Such are the terms that the Chinese philosopher Meng-tse uses
in describing the state of his country, centuries subsequent to
the time that some credulous authors would make people believe
that it was a flourishing and populous empire.
Formosa, although within twenty leagues of China, was not
known until the 15th century.
Manufacture of cotton is not spoken of in China until one or two
centuries before the Christian era, from which period to the sixth
century, the cotton cloth, which was either paid in tribute, or
offered in presents to the Emperor, is always mentioned as a thing
rare and precious.
It is recorded in the annals of China, that the Emperor Vou-ti,
who reigned A.D. 502, had a robe of cotton. Up to the eleventh
* Du Halde gives the following account of the discovery of the
"The Em-
compass:-
peror Hoang ti being at war with Tchi- l'eau, and perceiving that thick fogs saved the
enemy from his pursuit, and that the soldiers rambled out of the way, and lost the
course of the wind, made a car which showed them the four cardinal points; by this
method he overtook the enemy, made him prisoner, and put him to death. The same
author says, that certain ambassadors from afar, after they had taken leave in order to
return to their own country, were given by the Emperor Tcheou-Kong, an instrument
which on one side pointed to the north, and on the opposite side towards the south, to
direct them better on their way home, supposed to be Cochin China. This instrument
was called Tchi-nan, which is the same name by which the Chinese call the sea-com-
pass. This is said to have occurred in the twenty-second Cycle
1040 B.C.
Remusat, whose able translations are worthy of credit, adduces strong arguments
against the supposed knowledge of the mariners' compass at so early a date in China.
INVENTION OF THE COMPASS.
195
century, the cotton tree appears to have been a garden shrub, as
there are several poems in praise of its beautiful flowers. After
the Mongol Tartars conquered China, in 1280, great encourage-
ment was given by government to the culture and manufacture of
cotton, although it was much opposed by the people, who considered
it an innovation; about 1370, the progress of this new branch was
rapid, and at present nine-tenths of the population are clothed in
its fabrics.
Of the eighteen provinces into which China is now divided, fully
one-half were occupied by wandering savages, who had never been
under any control, the other half was roamed over by pastoral
tribes, with here and there a city or large camp, which had been
dignified into the name of kingdoms.
From the constant strife that existed between the rival sove-
reigns, it must have taken a long time to have united the nume-
rous petty kingdoms in the present extensive empire. If the civi-
lization and refinement of the Chinese had an existence, at so early
a period, it would have been known to other ancient nations.
No reliance can be placed on the semi-historical period, which
French authors have endeavoured to pass for authentic. The
Chinese chronological system or cycle, was said to be established
by the Emperor Hwang-te in the sixty-first year of his reign, B.C.
2637.
The cycle of sixty years was said to have been then invented by
an individual named Ta-naou seventy-four of these cycles were
said to have been completed A.D. 1803, making 4440 years.*
:
*The year 1839 corresponds to the year ke-hai, or the 36th year of the 75th Chi-
nese cycle of sixty, which is the 19th year of Taou-kwang, and commences on the 1st of
February.
The Chinese cycle of sixty is said to have been invented by an individual named
Ta-naou, who lived under the reign of the Emperor Hwang-te, and its use commences
with the 61st year of that monarch, 2637 years B.C. The Chinese compute also by the
year of the reigning Emperor, frequently joining to it that of the cycle. Formerly,
when the Emperors often changed their titular names or designations, this plan
must have been very inconvenient, as every few years a new epoch commenced, with-
out any change of reign. But for some centuries past, the Emperors have usually
retained the same designations throughout the whole period of their continuance on
the throne.
The Chinese year is luni-solar, consisting of twelve lunar months, to which an
intercalary month is added, when requisite to preserve correspondence with the solar
year.
The rule respecting the intercalary month is this: that when, during a lunar month,
the sun does not enter any sign of the zodiac, that month is intercalary; and the year
consequently contains thirteen instead of twelve months.
The year commences on the new moon nearest to the fifteenth degree of Aquarius.
It is corrected according to the solar year, by the use of twenty-four terms, or half
months, called Tsee, each of which expresses the period of the sun's passage through
the half of a zodiacal sign. The names applied to those terms, like those of the
French revolutionary months, have a reference in their meaning to the season of the
year.
They date from the commencement of the reign of each successive sovereign; thus
they write "Taoukwang, 26th year, 10th month, 19th day," corresponding to 19th
November 1846. The age of a person is reckoned from the number of years of the
cycle that have elapsed since his name and birth were registered, which has the effect
o 2
196
CHRONOLOGICAL SYSTEM. -CYCLES.
China could not be considered an empire, or have any pretensions
to a universal rule or dominion at the early period alleged. Ma-
twan-lin, reputed a good authority, says that when Ching-tang
founded the second dynasty, (1766 B.C.) called the Shang, the
number of feudal principalities was three thousand; and that there
were five sorts of fiefs, forming in the whole "one thousand, seven
hundred and seventy-three principalities."
Ching-tang, the founder of the second dynasty, (B.c. 1763) is said
to have "ruled the people gently, removed many oppressions, and
lent a willing ear to the wants of the people, so that all confided in
his judgment."
It was during this Emperor's reign that the seven years famine
from drought occurred, and the Emperor was called on to propiti-
ate heaven, and offer up prayers.
History relates that he fasted, cut off his hair and nails; and
binding his body with white reeds, which was the symbol of a
sacrifical animal, thus went into a lonesome place, confessing his
of making the age appear greater than it is in reality; a child, for instance, born on
the last day of the year will be described as two years old, as it is considered to have
lived in two years of the cycle. Several classes of characters are employed for
chronological purposes. The most ancient and most generally used, consist of two sets
of characters: the one called shih kan, the ten stems,' or teen kan, the celestial stems,'
includes ten characters, the other set, called shih-urh che, the twelve branches,' and
te che, the 'terrestrial branches,' consists of twelve characters.
These characters are applied to years, months, days, and hours, as well as to the
points of the compass. For chronological purposes, they have been combined so as to
form a cycle of sixty. In this cycle, the 'ten stems' occurring six times, and the
'twelve branches' five times, both sets terminate in the number sixty, and the cycle
is thus completed. The method of combination is this,-kea, the first of the ten, is
joined to tsze, the first of the twelve, and read kea-tsze, which denotes the first year,
month, &c. of the cycle. In the same manner, the second year is yih-chow,-the
tenth year, kwei-yew,-the twelfth year, yih-hae, and so on up to sixty, which is desig-
nated by the characters kwei-hae, the last of each set.
For the hours of the day, the twelve branches' are used singly. The civil day of
twenty-four hours is divided into twelve periods of two hours each, called she-shin,
which are designated by the characters of twelve branches, in the following manner :-
11 to 1, or midnight, tsze; 1 to 3, (4th watch,) chow; 3 to 5, (5th watch,) yin; 5 to 7,
maou; 7 to 9, shin; 9 to 11, sze; 11 to 1 or noon, woo; 1 to 3, we; 3 to 5, shin;
5 to 7, yew: 7 to 9, (1st watch,) seuh; 9 to 11, (2nd watch,) hae.
By prefixing to these characters the words ching and keaou, these twelve periods are
divided into twenty-four hours; each of which is subdivided into four kih or quarters.
Thus, ching-tsze denotes midnight, or from 12 to 1 o'clock; while keaou-tsze denotes
from 11 till 12, ching-tsze yih kih denotes a quarter past 12 at night.
The night, from 7 o'clock in the evening to 5 in the morning, is also divided
into five kang, or watches, each watch consisting of one she-shin, or period of two
hours.
In reference to the compass, Tsze is the north, Woo the south, Maou the east, and
Yew the west. The other eight are intermediate points between these.
The following terms, which are the names of twenty-eight constellations, are also
employed to designate days.
1 keo; 2 kang; 3 te; 4 fang; 5 sin; 6 wei; 7 ke; 8 tow; 9 new; 10 neu; 11 heu;
12 wei; 13 shih; 14 peih; 15 kwei; 16 loo; 17 wei; 18 maou; 19 peih; 20 tsze ;
21 tsan; 22 tsing; 23 kwei; 24 lew, 25 sing; 26 chang; 27 yil; 28 chin.
These characters being applied in regular order to the days of the month, four
of them (those printed in italics) always mark the weekly sabbath, while the others
designate the week days respectively.
DYNASTIES BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA.
197
errors, saying, "Let not the lives of the people be forfeited, on
account of the neglect of one individual. Is it that my govern-
ment is extravagant, or that my palaces are too grand, or that the
wants of the people are not attended to ?" When he had ceased
praying, the rain is said to have fallen in great abundance, and to
the distance of several thousand miles.
1153 B.C. A remarkable character, Chaw, is said to have ruled
the empire at this period; he was a tyrant by disposition, endowed
with supernatural strength, and was ruined by the fascinations of
a wicked woman.
This portion of Chinese history agrees with that assigned in
sacred history to Sampson.
Ven-Vang was the first sovereign of the Tcheou dynasty, whose
reign began B.c. 1122. This prince and his son Vou-Vang reigned
over the country round about Sy-gan-foo, in the province of
Shen-se.
According to this their territories could not have been very
extensive, as it is alleged in their more modern history that this
very province was in possession of barbarians. The first origin of
large cities and towns, was in order to keep in subjection the
barbarians as they conquered them; so that their own history gives
the credit of building them to the Han dynasty.
Ching-Vang the successor of Vou-Vang, after consulting the
oracles, according to their dictation built a city at a place called
Fong, which was the centre of the world; this city is alleged to
have been built in six days B.c. 1109, and was probably little better
than a camp.
"One of the causes," says M. de Guignes, "which have led the
Chinese into great errors with regard to the ancient state of their
country, is the having given to their ancient characters the accepta-
tion which they did not acquire till later times.
"The characters which are now translated by the words emperor,
province, city, and palace, meant no more in former time than
chief of tribe, district, camp, and house: these simple meanings
did not flatter their vanity sufficiently, and they therefore preferred
employing terms which would represent their ancestors as rich and
powerful, and their empire as vast and flourishing in the first year
of its foundation, as if by magic.
ور
This learned and judicious writer says, their early history "is
entirely destitute of facts, extremely uncertain; in a word, so far
from this empire having had an existence 3,000 years before the
Christian era, it has not been united together in a durable manner
above 529 years B.C."
Writers of the last century who wished to cast discredit on the
Mosaic narrative, readily propagated ideas of the remote antiquity
of the Chinese, which are fabulous, and at variance with Sacred
Writ. A discussion on this subject would, therefore, be out of
place; it may, however, be safely asserted that China is the oldest
198
DURATION OF CHINESE EMPIRE.
empire extant, and that it has had existence as a civilized govern-
ment for more than two thousand years.
It is stated by Chinese historians, that Confucius wrote two
histories, the Shoo-king (book of records) and the Chun-tsew; the
former ends B.C. 722, and the latter commences.
The Chun-tsew, or history of his own times, is represented by
characters to denote "Spring (youth) and Autumn" (age). This
favours the opinion that the sage was unwilling to perpetuate
fabulous narratives, or stamp them with his authority.
The history of his own time consists of dry details of the twenty-
one independent kingdoms, or principalities, into which China was
then divided.
The Shoo-king, which professes to give the several dynasties in
regular order, does not state the number of Emperors of the Hea,
or first dynasty, (B.c. 2206 to 1766,) its duration, or the number
of years each Emperor reigned. The same omission is observable
in regard of the Shang dynasty. Some Chinese historiographers
give the duration varying from 644 to 446 years.
M. Biot has lately translated (1843) the Shoo-king,—“ Book of
Odes," which is undoubtedly the production of Confucius, and
met the fate of all the other ancient writings; but, being in metri-
cal pieces, was retained in the memory of the people, and more
likely to be authentic.
M. Biot says, "it is evident that this collection exhibits the
manners of the ancient Chinese in their purest state of nature,
and which are seen more easily than in the historical works, where
the facts are often buried under long moral discourses." The
book has reference to a period antecedent to the Christian era
about six centuries.
Their dress is thus described :-Officers of state had six kinds of
dress; the princes had seven. The court dress was woollen, em-
broidered with silk; some courts adopted various furs to adorn
their dresses. The officers of the court wore a red collar to their
robe. The nobility wore various colours, except red, which was
imperial; the caps were of skin (fur); the girdles of silk, fastened
by a clasp. The farmers wore straw hats tied with ribbons; the
women wore undyed cloth, and a veil or cap.
The toilette was furnished with a mirror made of metal. Ladies
of rank plaited or frizzled their hair on each side of the head.
The children of the rich wore in their girdle an ivory needle, which
they made use of to untie a knot when they disrobed. Both men
and women anointed their hair or head.
The walls of the houses were of earth. The soil was beaten
hard, and upon the beaten foundation of the intended wall was
placed a frame of four planks, two of which corresponded to the
two faces of the wall; the frame was filled up with moistened
earth, which is the mode of the present day. The doors were of
EARLY SEAT OF GOVERNMENT.
199
wood, except those of the very poorest, who stopped up the en-
trance, in winter, with mud.
Their chief subsistence depended on the chase, which consisted
of wild fowl, boars, wolves, foxes, deer, and wild cattle (buffaloes).
The agricultural productions were the same as those of the pre-
sent day; as were also the various metals, such as gold, silver, iron,
lead and copper.
From a very remote period the court or government of China
was held in the province of Shan-se: and, it is the general opinion,
that the foundation of the empire was laid on the banks of the
Yangtzekang and the Hwang-ho rivers; that from thence the
people spread themselves first in a northerly direction, and that
the province of Shan-se was chosen, because it enabled the Emperor
to oppose the barbarians from the northern regions.
An erroneous impression has prevailed that there has long been
internal peace in China, and a regular succession of sovereigns by
hereditary right: such is by no means the case. Dr. Gutzlaff and
Mr. Thornton have, at considerable length, and with much com-
mendable zeal, translated and prepared several documents on this
interesting subject; the following abstract will, however, suffi-
ciently elucidate the various changes of rulers, although it is im-
possible to narrate in detail the crimes, murders, wars, anarchy,
and desolation which have overspread the land.
No nation has had so many historians as China from the time of
Confucius, who was born B.C. 550. He was the first who col-
lected the records (bundles of wood), and formed them into a
history; every age since his time has had its historians, many of
whom, however, are only transcribers.
Dr. Bridgeman, a master of the language, speaking of the
native historians, says, that a few are found among them whose
writings are remarkable for their originality of thought and purity
of diction, and that they have supplied rich and various materials
for composing a history of one of the first nations that existed.
He adds, that the author who would furnish a good history of
China must make up his mind to study carefully more than one
thousand volumes of native works.
THE CHOW DYNASTY.
B.C. 1001. Muh-wang, the "magnificent king," is reported to
have had an immoderate passion for horses, which Confucius says
were scarce in China. His love of pomp and splendour was ex-
hibited in constructing gorgeous palaces and temples. He de-
clared war against the northern Tartars, who began to make
incursions across the frontier.
Modern Chinese history relates that this Emperor made a
journey to Mount Kwan-lun, and other places beyond his empire ;
200
,
ANCIENT CHINESE ODE.
B.C. 984. It is related by several historians, and confirmed by the
great chronological tables, that when this Emperor was at Kwan-
lun,
a western prince, or princess, named Se-wang-mao,
("Mother of the Western King,") paid him a visit; that the two
princes interchanged presents, and entertained each other with
great magnificence. Their amusements comprised poetical com-
position; and two odes, said to have been written to each other,
are extant. The western prince, or princess, sent artificers to
China to construct palaces and gardens. Chinese authors are
divided in opinion as to what country they came from; some say
Persia, others Arabia (Ta-tsin).
The following is a literal version of these two odes :-
SE-WANG-MOO's.
"White clouds float in the sky;
The mountain-top appears in view,
Its distance far remote:
Hills and rivers intervene.
When we have a son, we die not:
Marry, and then you may return."
MUH-WANG'S.
"I return to the eastern land:
I have reduced the nine tones to harmony.
The ten thousand people are in prosperity.
I regard you attentively:
For three years have I continued here:
Now I return to the deserted place."
Although the visit is not noticed by Confucius, it may neverthe-
less have occurred, as it was foreign to his notions of propriety to
hold intercourse with foreigners. Some have traced an analogy
between this interview and the well-known visit of the Queen of
Sheba to King Solomon.
Another supposition is probable, that later authors may have
copied a mutilated relation of that occurrence from the Bible or
rabbinical writings.
The Shoo-King gives an expression of opinion, which Muh-
Wang is said to have related of himself—thus, "my disposition in-
clines towards what is wrong, but my resource is in my ministers,
who are bound to supply my defects by their prudence and ex-
perience; they should check me when I swerve from the straight
path, correct my perverseness, and expel from my mind what is
bad."
Muh-Wang is stated to have died в.c. 946, after a reign of fifty-
five years.
Although great doubts are naturally cast on the traditional his-
tory of China, yet there is less mythology or fable in their tradi-
DATE OF ECLIPSES IN CHINA.
201
tions than in those of any other people except the Jews; and the
eclipses recorded by the Chinese (who viewed with great awe these
natural celestial phenomena), attest the veracity of dates, at least
for two thousand six hundred years from the present day.
There was an eclipse of the sun on the day sin-maou, i. e., first
of the tenth moon of the year Yih Chow, which corresponds with
the 6th of September, B.C. 778.
It is thus noticed in Chinese books :-
"During the conjunction of the tenth moon with the sun,
The first day of the Cycle called Sin-maou,
There was something which devoured the sun;
It was a very bad omen.
The moon we behold shone not;
The sun we now see was dark,
And the poor people here below
Were in a sad, a deplorable condition.
The sun and moon (thus) announce great calamities,
When they accomplish not their revolutions," &c.
Among the lower classes of Chinese, the prevailing opinion
with regard to an eclipse is, that an animal, a monster of the frog-
kind, having one leg and two fore paws, swallows the sun or moon;
in consequence of which the priests in the temples, the people in
the streets, and the officers at the public courts, keep up an inces-
ant beating of drums. As near the time of the commencement of
the eclipse as can be ascertained, each one sounds his drum as
loudly as he possibly can, in order to affright the frog, and cause
it to cast forth the luminary which it has seized. The noise of the
drums continues until the eclipse is over. Eclipses are generally
regarded with dread by the Chinese, and they present offerings to
the sun when he is thus obscured, believing some national calamity
to be portended. On the 7th day of 7th moon (7th of August),
unmarried females offer wine, flowers, and cosmetics to two of the
stars of the milky way.
The following record of eclipses is taken from the Chinese
Chronology of Gaubil, and found to correspond with the calcula-
tions of European astronomers :—
B.C.
B.C.
. 709 3 February*. 626 | 10 June
28 April . 612 9 April
B.C.
17 July.
:
10 October
. 695
531
. 518
27 May.
.. 669
20 September 601
9 May
575
14 November
22 July
511
495
•
. 549
19 April
481
10 November. 668
19 August. 655 19 June
The first eclipse of the moon on record in European books, was
observed at Babylon.
This eclipse is supposed by Volney to have been the same which was predicted
by Thales. Herodotus states this eclipse put a stop to the conflict between the
Lydians and Medes, under Cyaxarcs.
F
202
THE CHOW DYNASTY, B.C. 946.
To proceed with a record of the Chow Dynasty :--
B.C. 946 to 873. One of the successors of Mung-Wang, Heaou-
Wang, conferred on one of his grooms, as a reward for his skill in
horsemanship, the principality of Shen-se, which, at a subsequent
period, overthrew the Chow Dynasty, and founded that of Tsin,
better known as Tsin-Che Hwangte, who built the Great Wall of
China.
B.C. 873. The next sovereign on record is Le-Wang, "Cruel
and Tyrannical King;" his cruelty, rapacity, and depravity, ren-
dered him odious to his subjects; some of whom lampooned his
actions in prose and verse. To stop their censure, he forbade his
subjects, on pain of death, to discuss his actions. To evade this
tyranny, the writers veiled their satire in allegory, exhibiting the
melancholy state of the empire, sunk in misery and discontent,
overrun with robbers and extortioners, thus,
"there was a
tender and flexible mulberry-tree, which once over-shadowed a vast
space with its spreading branches. Its leaves are now dropping
sear and withered to the ground, and those who rejoiced beneath
its shade, spent with fatigue, can no longer find repose there."
B.C. 873. Le-Wang tried sorcery to discover his dissatisfied
subjects, and determined to put to death all whom the diviners.
named. Chaou-Kung, one of his ministers, warned him against
adopting this method, as follows:-" so far from attempting to ex-
tinguish the voice of the nation, you should give it free scope. It is
madness to think of stopping a torrent; on the contrary, we must
deepen the channel, remove impediments, and open fresh sluices
for the water. So that when the discontent of your people acquires
a dangerous volume, you should give it vent. The true policy of
government is to allow poets to sing, historians to write, ministers
to give advice, and the people to utter their sentiments: a govern-
ment derives its best instruction from the tongues of the people.
Nothing better than this has been said in the middle of the nine-
teenth century of the Christian era.
""
B.C. 846. Le-Wang persevered in braving the brim full torrent
of indignation of his people, and at last it broke out into open
violence. His palace was attacked, but he escaped. The enraged
mob demanded his child, and after a fruitless remonstrance of his
chief minister, Chaou-Kung, with the rebels, he surrendered his
own child, as that of the heir, who was instantly killed.
The Emperor ended his life after an exile of fourteen years; a
regency was appointed: the faithful minister exerted himself to
quiet the people, and governed the country with zeal and ability.
B.C. 827. On the death of Le-Wang, his son was placed on the
throne, and called Seuen-Wang, "Proclaimed King;" his reign
was only seven years, but was stated to be a glorious one as re-
garded internal peace. With the tributary tribes on the north and
south of his empire he had many contests.
لو
INCURSIONS OF THE TARTARS, B.C. 781.
203
B.C. 781. Yew-Wang, the "Retired King," was indolent, ex-
travagant, and fond of pleasure; he augmented the taxes, exhausted
the resources of the empire on a damsel whom he had taken, and
discarded his own wife, who obtained an asylum from the Prince
of Shin, who, with the aid of the northern Tartars, resented the
injury done to his family.
The Tartars, on this as on a subsequent occasion, showed more
energy than the Chinese. They took the Emperor prisoner, killed
him and his concubine, ravaged the country, and obtained great
booty.
The vassal princes became alarmed at the power of the Tartars,
roused their energies, and it was only by threats that their auxiliaries
were prevailed on to retire; the princes of Shin, Chin, Tsin, and
Wei, having combined to expel them.
B.C. 776. The lawful heir of Yew-Wang was proclaimed Em-
peror, under the title of Ping-Wang, "Pacific King;" but the re-
cords of this sovereign, and his successors in the dynasty, exhibit
a great extent of anarchy, crime, rebellion, and sensuality.
The united vassals, who placed Yew-Wang on the throne, and
successfully drove out the dangerous Tartars, obtained various
favours for their services.
B.C. 747. The number of independent principalities in the em-
pire at this date was twenty-one. Some of the vassal princes, who
were virtually independent, became dissatisfied, and renounced
their allegiance. The King of Tse seized a great part of Shantung;
Tsoo took Hoo-Kwang and Kiang-se; and Tsin had quiet posses-
sion of the large province of Shen-se, now containing an area of
154,000 square miles.
It may here be noted that one of the chiefs who expelled the
Tartars, was the Prince or King of Tsin.
Claude Visdelan, a learned Jesuit, states, "that the family of
the kings of Tsin was illustrious by its nobility and power.
It ex-
isted in great splendour more than 1000 years, and was only in-
ferior to the royal dignity. Feitsz, a prince of this family, had
conferred upon him the sovereignty of the city Tsin Chow in mesne
tenure (en titre d' arriere fief), with the title of sub-tributary
king.
About 122 years after this (B.c. 770), Siangwan, petit roi of
Tsin Chow, was created king in full tenure, without limitation.
The same Emperor abandoning Singan-foo, the capital of his em-
pire, for his seat in Lohyang (Honan), made himself master of the
province of Shen-se. Though his fortune changed, he did not
change his title, retaining that of the city of Tsin Chou. The
kingdom of Tsin became celebrated, and being the place of the
first arrival of the people of the western countries, they gave this
name to all China.
B.C. 722,—was the forty-ninth year of Ping-wang's sovereignty,
t
IM
204
THE SHO0-KING OF CONFUCIUS.
and Yin-kung, the Prince of Loo, began to reign. The history of
China, called Shoo-king, said to be written by Confucius, is dis-
continued with this reign.
Confucius commenced a history, which is called Chun-tsew,
"Spring and Autumn." This history is said to be very authentic,
and comprehends historical details of the various states into
which the empire was divided.
The last chapter in the Shoo-king is devoted to an event which is
said to have occurred in 624 B.C. Muh-kung, Prince of Tsin, in
Shen-se, and the Prince of Tsin, in Shan-se, contended for power;
the latter was victorious. Muh-kung dying in a few years, upwards
of 150 persons were compelled to kill themselves at the prince's
funeral, in order to attend him in the other world. This has
always been a Tartar and Scythian custom.
B.C. 719 to 618. The six successors of Ping-wang, who occupy
this epoch, had very disturbed reigns. The dissensions of the
several princes with each other gave rise to perpetual wars; and
the constant inroads of the Tartars caused the reigning Emperor,
Hwan-wang, to die of grief and mortification.
B.C. 650. Hwang-kung, the Prince of Tse, became the most
powerful of all the princes, and was, by mutual consent, chosen
chief of their assemblies. Public affairs were well administered;
arts, sciences, and commerce flourished, and men of talent were
encouraged at his splendid court.
B.C. 675.
Hwuy-wang was no sooner placed on the throne,
than a faction was formed against him, and his capital taken from
him. The tributary princes came to his aid; the capital was re-
taken, after dreadful slaughter.
B.C. 645.
This Emperor intended that his youngest son should
succeed him, but the princes in an assembly settled that his eldest
son should reign. Seang-wang was declared emperor, but his
brother, Shoo-tae, intrigued against him, and successfully drove
him from the court by the aid of the Tartars. After some time,
peace was proclaimed, and Shoo-tae retired to a distant place.
In 637, the reigning Emperor found it necessary to call in the
Tartars, to defend his capital against his vassals. He subsequently
married a Tartar princess, who proved faithless, and too intimate
with his brother.
Shoo-tae again incited the Tartars to revenge the insult (their
ruling passion); they drove Seang-wang from the throne, and
proclaimed Shoo-tae Emperor, who made the degraded Empress
his wife.
The most powerful of the vassal princes, Tsin, drove the Tartars
to their own territory, took Shoo-tae prisoner, put him to death,
and placed his brother again on the throne, who reigned until 617.
B.C. 618 to 606. Two Emperors reigned in this period, King-
wang and Kwang-wang, who were well disposed towards their sub-
BIRTH OF CONFUCIUS, B.C. 551.*
20
jects, but were thwarted in every measure by uncontrollable vassals,
so that their authority was only nominal.
B.C. 606. Ting-wang was chosen Emperor; eleven of the vassal
princes combined with the Prince of Chao as their chief, to
endeavour to produce some tranquillity, the empire being torn and
distracted by the clashing of their separate interests. The history
of China is, in fact, nothing but a continued narrative of intrigues
and wars of the several principalities, most of which kept large
standing armies, who were employed killing each other, whilst the
common enemy (Tartars) plundered the poor people. It would be
only a waste of space to further narrate the latter years of the
Chow dynasty, as it would not be a history of a monarchy, but a
harrowing detail of crimes that far surpass anything on record.
In the midst of these scenes (B.c. 551), Confucius was born; and
his doctrines, which partake largely of inspiration and abound in
virtuous precepts, were well calculated to mould a tractable people,
and to ensure, so far as anything short of Christianity can secure,
the peace and happiness of a nation. In this reign was born
Laou-tsze, the founder of the Taou sect, that is, the "sect of rea-
son."
B.C. 606. The remarks of M. Remusat on the mythological his-
tory of this prince of imposters, are to the following effect: he
says, "the biography of Laou-tsze is a tissue of absurdities, not
even of his own age, which have no connexion with the doctrine
in his book; his followers, subsequent to the introduction of
Budhism into China, probably adopted the idea of incarnation
from India, and the pretended reappearances of the philosopher at
various periods, only mark the rise and declension of his principles;
which were sometimes openly professed, and at other times perse-
cuted."
The learned professor saw striking analogies between Laou-tsze
and Pythagoras (B.c. 540).
An interview is said to have taken place between Laou-tsze and
Confucius in the year 517 B.C. The former was 87 years old, and
the latter 35; Laou-tsze reproached Confucius with vanity and
worldly-mindedness, as exhibited by the pompous style in which
he travelled, and the number of his followers. "The wise man
loves obscurity; so far from courting employments, he shuns
them he studies the times; if they be favourable, he speaks; if
corrupt, he yields to the storm. He who is truly virtuous, makes
no parade of his virtue; he does not proclaim to all the world that
he is a sage.
This is all I have to say to you: make the best of it
you can.'
Confucius said of Laou-tsze that "he knew the habits
of birds, beasts, and fishes, and how to take them; but as to the
dragon, he could not understand how it could raise itself in the
heavens. He had seen Laou-tsze, who resembled the dragon."*
دو
*The Chinese consider the dragon as a type of the cclestial genii.
206
NUMEROUS WARS AND INTRIGUES.
522 B.C. According to the native history "Chun-tsew" (said to
be written by Confucius,) there is nothing recorded at this period,
but wars and intrigues of the numerous petty states into which the
empire was divided. The principal fiefs, at this time, were fifteen;
the chief were called Tsin, Shuh, Pa, Wei, Kin, Yen, Kwo, Tsoo,
Wei, (the second,) Sung, Tse, Loo, Woo, and Yue.
Some of these petty principalities extended beyond the Yang-
tzekang, but none of them reached the "Sea of the South."
B.C. 519. On the death of King Wang, he left the throne to
his youngest son Chaou; but his title was disputed by the eldest,
Mong, and each sought aid from their vassals; the eldest was put
out of the way privately, after much loss of blood by the partisans
of each.
Mong's party proclaimed (Kae) his full brother, and was well
supported by the Prince of Tsin. After various contests, Kae was
victorious, and was crowned under the title of King Wang, and
soon caused Chaou's death.
B.C. 472. The Prince of Yue despoiled the Prince of Woo, of
his large territories, by which means he demanded the chieftainship
of all the vassals, and even subjected the hitherto powerful Prince
of Tsin to submission.
B.C. 440. The Emperor Ching-ting-Wang left three sons; the
eldest was killed by the youngest brother, who was very soon after
murdered by another brother; the third brother became Emperor
Kaou-Wang.
B.C. 375. At this period the vassal princes became so formidable
that the authority of the Emperor 'Lee-Wang' was disregarded.
The Ching territory was conquered by the Prince of Han.
B.C. 366. During the reign of "Heen-Wang" the great Prince
of Tsin became the terror of all the other vassals, whose territories
adjoined his the Princes of Wei and Tsoo, therefore fortified their
provinces by great walls.
B.C. 342. The Prince of Tsin was declared chief of the vassals,
and attended court at the head of a large army to pay homage.
B.C. 332. Tsao attacked Yue and deprived him of his posses-
sions, and he returned to the "Isles of the Eastern Sea." The
entire province of Che-Keang was subjected by the Prince of
Tsoo, who now assumed the title Wang 'King.' His example was
followed by Han, Tse, Tsin, and a few others. The Emperor
Heen-Wang is said to have thrown the symbols of his authority into
a lake, lest some of his vassals should obtain possession of them.
B.C. 317. Nearly all the other vassals conspired against Tsin,
but he was more than a match for them. He obtained victories
over Chaou, Han, Wei, Yen, and Tsoo. He also subjected Sze-
Chuen province, and a portion of Hoo-Kwang, from two chiefs, who
were called 'Kings of Shoo.'
(
B.C. 306. Nan-Wang.' During this reign high-wall-building,
to keep out the Tartars, increased; the Prince of Chaou, (on the
عمده
L
GREAT WALL BUILT, B.C. 306.
207
northern frontier) built the great wall between the Hwang-ho and
province of Chih-le, and with the aid of a well-disciplined army, he
was the terror of these invaders. Yeu also drove them out of the
north of Chih-le, and built a great wall from Shan-se to Leaou-tung.
Tsin expelled them from the north of Shen-se, and a great wall
was constructed from Lin taou foo to the Hwang-ho, where this
river enters China.
B.C. 286. The Sung territory was invaded by the King of Tse.
The King of Yeu leagued with others against Tse; but his death
caused the breaking-up of the confederacy.
B.C. 286. The King of Tsin, "Chaou-Seang" was every day
adding to his vast possessions. His grandson, E-jin, was left as
hostage at the court of Chaou, and the King of Tsin laid siege to
a town belonging to that prince. The Prince of Chaou determined
to kill the hostage: but he was foiled, by the aid of Leu-puh-Wei,
a merchant of Ho-nan, who concealed the hostage E-jin, in his
own house. Leu-puh-Wei had a concubine, with whom E-jin
became too familiar, and her former master gave her up.
B.C. 256. In process of time she was delivered of a son, who
subsequently became the great Emperor Che-hwangte. The mo-
ther was declared the lawful wife of Prince E-jin, who was the heir
of the Tsin family.
B.C. 256. A simultaneous attack by order of the nominal Em-
peror Nan-Wang' was made against the Prince of Tsin, but the
only vassal that responded to the call was Tse. This was sufficient
indication for Chaou-seang' Tsin, who sent an army into the
imperial territories, and took thirty-five cities and towns.
6
The Emperor surrendered, and craved his life, but he died
soon after, and left no issue to contend with the usurper.
251. The usurper died and was succeeded by his son Heaou-
Wau, who died in a few days after. Thus terminated the Chow
dynasty.
E-jin was proclaimed Emperor "Chwang-seang-Wang" and
his deliverer Leu-puh-wei, was made a prince and prime minister.
B.C. 256. The fourth dynasty was called Tsin, from which the
term Chin or China was probably derived. The first Emperor of
this dynasty obtained dominion over the various kingdoms of
which China was formerly composed. It is very probable that at
this time Tunking, Cochin China, and several other neighbouring
countries, were subdued and annexed to China. This supposition
respecting the origin of the term China is the more probable, from
the circumstance that the country was called throughout all ages
Chang-Kwo, i.e. the middle kingdom,' and likewise it had hitherto
taken the name from the reigning dynasty, such as Han, Tang, &c.;
but the victorious arms of this Emperor, having carried with them
his name, the surrounding countries have thus perpetuated and
handed it down to posterity. In the Latin tongue China is written
Sinae; in the time of Marco Polo (A.D. 1260) the Chinese were
3
208
TSIN DYNASTY, B.C. 248.
called Chin or Cin by the Japanese; and they are so called by the
Siamese and the Cochin Chinese. In the Institutes of Menu
they are called Chinas; Ptolemy A.D. 150, calls them Sin-ites.
THE TSIN DYNASTY.
B.C. 248. Chwang-seang-Wang, i.e. E-jin was imbued with the
ambition which long had characterised the Tsin family. He
attacked the Princes of Wei, Han and Chaou. To check his suc-
cesses, five princes joined their forces to those of Wei, and defeated
the imperial army of 200,000 men. The Emperor died, it is said,
of grief, leaving the throne to his son (though only 13 years old) by
the concubine previously mentioned.
B.C. 246. Tsin-chehwang-te, i.e. Ching-Wang declined the title
of Emperor, chose that of King of Tsin, and made his old friend the
Honan merchant, Prime Minister. The former intimacy between
Leu-puh-Wei, and the empress-mother was now renewed; and the
better to disguise his criminal intercourse, Leu-puh-wei intro-
duced a young man into the court under the pretence that he was
a eunuch.
The empress-mother fell in love with this youth, by whom she
had two children. The grandees investigated the matter; the
youth fled, and carried off the imperial seal, and with it levied a
large army. Being devoid of talent for such an enterprise, he
was soon defeated, and, notwithstanding the interference of his
friend the prime minister, he was cut in pieces, with his two
children. Leu-puh-wei was deprived of office, and sent to a distant
part of the empire, where he soon died. The Emperor punished
his guilty mother with such severity, that the literati remonstrated
with him on his unfilial conduct; but, in consequence of their
temerity, upwards of twenty of the literary nobility were executed.
Notwithstanding this, a noble of the house of Tse, reproached the
Emperor, and so worked on his feelings, as to succeed in causing
the empress to be released from a cruel punishment, and himself
to be raised to a distinguished office.
The Emperor at last met with a man of great ability, named
Le-sze, to whom he confided his long-cherished intention of con-
solidating the numerous kingdoms into one empire.
B.C. 228. A commencement was made with the states of Chaou
and Yen: Le-sze, by his intrigues, having set them at variance ;
the troops of Yen were defeated by those of Chaou, who took the
Yen territory. The Emperor's aid was sought, and readily
granted; his army was successful, he re-took the conquered terri-
tory, and kept it. In the mean time, the intriguer had set the
two states of Wei and Choo at war respecting their boundaries.
An appeal was made to the Emperor to decide the matter, which
he did by seizing those of the former and annexing them to his
}
PLAN OF CONSOLIDATING THE EMPIRE.
209
own. He now attacked Chou, who was well supported by the
nobles, and met with a defeat; but corruption and discord accom-
plished his purpose; Chou was taken and executed, together with
all his family.
B.C. 224. The King of Han, seeing the fate that awaited him,
proposed to become tributary, but that was not the policy of the
Emperor. The King of Han was brought to court, his territory
taken, and, being a man of no energy, was permitted to die a
natural death. The Wei state was the best fortified of all the
others; the capital, in particular, was well defended: to ensure
success, the river Hwang-ho was made to flow into the city, which
had the desired effect. When the city was taken, the country
soon surrendered, and every branch of the family was murdered.
The Prince of Choo was next on the list, but the imperial troops
were here defeated with great loss. The second army sent against
Choo is said to have amounted to 600,000 men. The difficulty
of feeding such an army caused frequent conflicts with the escort-
ing convoys. After many skirmishes, a general engagement took
place, in which the imperial troops were successful.
B.C. 220. The kingdom of Tse had yet to be conquered, and
some other petty states s; thus, in a few years, China was consoli-
dated into a large empire. Á native authority says, "the Tsins
acquired the mastery, not by their virtues or the force of good
government, but by craft, treachery, corruption, and wholesale
murder." All this was done in about twenty-six years.
A proposal was made to the Emperor to erect petty principalities
for the grandees and the royal princes, which he refused by saying
"good government is irreconcileable with a multitude of masters."
His capital was Shen-se; everything curious and valuable that be-
longed to the vanquished states was conveyed thither, and all the
implements of war were converted into musical instruments, bells,
and statues of the several genii.
The Emperor now turned his attention to a survey of the em-
pire, and saw the necessity of making roads for intercommunica-
tion, from his travelling through a great portion of the country.
B.C. 215. A prophecy was spread that the dynasty of Tsin
must give way to that of Hoo. This title was supposed to refer
to the Tartars, and the Emperor prepared to subdue them. There
was a large country to the north of Shan-se, Shen-se, and Chih-le,
; called Ta-tan. The inhabitants were known by the names of
Huns, Turks, Mongols, and Tartars. The Chinese have no true
history of these tribes until B.c. 209. Their country is described
by early historians as bounded on the east by the Wo-leang-ho
(Mantchoo Tartary); on the south, by the Wall of China; in Tar-
tary it had the countries of Hami and Igaur, as far as the Irtish;
on the north, its boundaries were the Kalkas and Eleuth empires.
These united tribes were called Heung-noos, and hence the
name of Huns, which signifies in Chinese, "unhappy slaves."
P
210
ORIGIN OF THE HUNS, AND GREAT WALL.
When China was parcelled out into states, the Heung-noos were
very formidable, and often successful in their incursions.
Gibbon says, "the plains of Scythia, i.e. Tartary, in every age
have been inhabited by vagrant tribes of hunters and shepherds,
whose indolence was such as to never cultivate the earth, and
whose restless spirit disdained the confincment of a sedentary life.
In every age, the Scythians and Tartars have been renowned for
their invincible courage and rapid conquests. The thrones of
Asia have been repeatedly overturned by the shepherds of the
north." He places their country between the mouth of the
Danube and the sea of Japan; 5,000 miles of longitude, and in
latitude from the Wall of China to Siberia.
After the Heung-noos subjugated the Tartars to the west of
Shen-se, the latter emigrated to the westward, and founded a large
kingdom, called Yue (which is supposed to be Parthia), north of
the laxartes, extending to the Caspian Sea, also Khorasan and
Backtriana, which an ancient Chinese writer states is contiguous
to Keen-too (Hindu), i.e. India; whither, he says, many mer
chants in his time (B.c. 100) convey goods from the province of
Sze-chuen.
Che-hwang-te, determined to exterminate the whole race, sent
a large army against the Heung-noos, and routed and slaughtered
many thousands of them. To effectually keep them out, that
extraordinary monument, the Great Wall, was constructed.
row, to give an idea of its extent, says, "the vastness of the mass
may be better appreciated by considering that it is more than
sufficient to surround the circumference of the earth, on two of
its great circles, with two walls each six fect high and two feet
thick."
The previous history of this Emperor and his minister, strongly
favours the incident narrated in Chinese history, that he ordered
four hundred learned men to be buried alive, and books and annals
to be burned, in order to blot out the knowledge of the past, and
render his own dynasty the most celebrated. This barbarous in-
cident is thus recorded.
B.C. 213. At an assembly of the grandees convened by the
Emperor, who was seated on his throne, he invited every one pre-
sent to give a free expression of their sentiments on his govern-
ment and policy, without any restraint or reserve; at the same
time assuring them of his protection, no matter whether it met
their approval or no. The first speaker was most eloquent in his
adulation; the second, a literary noble, was condemnatory, but
was called to order by the Emperor, who preferred hearing the
opinion of his prime minister, Le-sze, who directed his eloquence
against the literati, ridiculed their notions of antiquity, styled
them fools and rebels who ought to be deprived of that which only
ministered to their pride or their discontent. He proposed that
1
}
1
i
DESTRUCTION OF LITERATI AND BOOKS.
211
all books, except those on medicine, agriculture, divination, and
astrology, and, also, that the annals of the reigning family, be
destroyed within forty days. This presumption was overruled by
an all-wise Providence, by the subsequent discovery of some books
of Confucius, in repairing an old house; and the attempt to per-
petuate his race failed, by the demise of his son in less than two
years after his own death, through which circumstance the govern-
ment passed into other hands, and the dynasty was changed for
that of Han, by which name the Chinese wish to distinguish them-
selves from the Tartars.
It is not improbable that China would have been Christianized,
but for the despotism that ruled the empire. The malcontents
were becoming so numerous that an example was made in the
capital, by causing upwards of 400 of the most distinguished of
the Confucian school (who were prepared for Christianity) to be
put to a cruel death. The Emperor did not even spare his eldest
son, Foo-soo, who, for daring to remonstrate with him against this
cruel act, was banished. To blot out effectually all remembrance
of the past, new characters were brought into use by Le-sze, which
were declared the only legal form. It is probable that these new
characters were an improvement on the former rude pictures or
symbols, and it is not unlikely were similar to the Egyptian hiero-
glyphics. Some have said that the present Chinese characters arc
all resolvable into the Arabic numerals, viz.: three single strokes;
two strokes united; two across, &c. This would suggest an early
intercourse between the Chinese and the Arabians, or descendants
of Ishmael.
B.C. 211. It should be recollected that the biographers of this
prince were more or less prejudiced against his rule. If he were
not one of the most wicked, he was one of the greatest their coun-
try ever produced. His ambition was probably prompted by a re-
gard for the welfare of his subjects. He rescued China from a
wretched state of anarchy, and much enlarged its extent. Inde-
pendent of the Great Wall, he constructed a road upwards of 600
miles long, in which hills were divided, valleys filled up, marshes
drained, and trees planted on each side of this road throughout its
whole extent. Upwards of 800,000 persons were employed to
complete his gorgeous palaces, and beautify his capital at Heen-
yong. His character, in several respects, was like that of Na-
poleon ; he never disclosed what he intended to do, or where he
should reside, and generally kept moving about-to dissipate, it
was said, his gloomy reflections.
In one of his journeys in Shan-tung he was taken ill, saw his
approaching end, sent for his discarded son, Foo-Soo; but before
the courier departed he died, in the thirty-seventh year of his
reign, and fiftieth of his age.
B.C. 210.
The fame of Che-Hwangte extended throughout Asia; the gran-
P 2
212
FREE POLICY OF CHE-HWANG-TE.
deur of China was every where renowned; for he literally per-
mitted freedom of intercourse, and during his reign there was an
extensive traffic with India, the Eastern Islands, &c.
His death was concealed from his son, and a conspiracy was
entered into between Chaou-kaou, an eunuch, who held the seal of
the empire, and was the criminal judge. His object was to secure
the throne to the second son, Hoo-hae.
The grandees were introduced to the bed-room of the Emperor
as if he was alive, and an edict was produced, appointing Hoo-hae
as his successor. The other two sons of the Emperor were soon
put out of the way, and Hoo-hae was proclaimed, Ur-she-hwang-te.
B.C. 210 to 202. The new Emperor was cruel and debauched,
and left all his affairs to the management of the eunuchs and Le-
sze, who influenced the Emperor to kill the most illustrious nobles
in the empire.
Some of the nobles revolted, and the eunuchs despatched an
army against them. The person sent to head the army, was pre-
vailed on by his officers to rebel against his sovereign, and was
ultimately declared King of Choo. The nobles followed the ex-
ample, and all the old titles were restored, such as Choou, Wei,
Yen, and Tse. Lew-pang, the chief of a town called Pey, was
hailed as the Prince of Pey, and became an officer under Heong-
Leang, general of the King of Choo.
B.C. 208. The ruling cunuch, hearing that his companion Le-
sze intended to join the grandees, in laying before the Emperor
the true state of affairs, represented to his Majesty that Le-sze
was in concert with the rebels, and had been promised a kingdom
for himself. He was tried by a jury composed of eunuchs, con-
demned, and cut in pieces, with many others.
The eunuch Chaou-kaou was made prime minister, and seeing
the state of the empire, he determined to depose his sovereign.
To do this, he procured a number of troops to surround the palace
at night, and represented them as the rebel army, knowing that
the Emperor would destroy himself rather than fall into the hands
of the enemy; this stratagem succeeded as he expected it.
The eunuch raised Tze-ying, a son of Foo-soo, to the throne.
This prince was well aware of the dreadful character he had to
deal with, and a few days after he was crowned, feigned illness.
The eunuch attending him alone, the Emperor stabbed him; a cir-
cumstance which excited universal joy.
Two generals now aspired to the imperial throne, Heang-tse and
Lew-pang; the latter reached the capital first, and the Emperor,
having no means of resisting, surrendered his crown and seal of
authority. On the arrival of the other general, his disappointment
knew no bounds, he murdered all before him, and burned the
great city, (Heen-yan), which the late Emperor was thirty years
beautifying. He then retured to the eastward.
B.C. 204. The King of Choo was proclaimed Emperor by the
1
F
J
HAN DYNASTY, B.C. 202.
213
General Heang-tse, under the title of E-te, taking a title for him-
self, which he called Pa-wang. The empire was now divided into
several kingdoms: Lew-pang was King of Han. Heang-tse be-
came odious to every one, several battles took place, but ultimately
Heang-tse was defeated, and become his own executioner at the
close of the year B.C. 203. Thus terminated the Tsin Dynasty.
THE HAN DYNASTY, FROM B.C. 202 To a.d. 255.
Lew-pang, the captain of a band of robbers, with the aid of the
Prince of Tsoo, declared himself Emperor, under the name Kaou-
tsoo. He was the grandsire of many Emperors, and possessed a
daring and jealous disposition. His policy was to conciliate the
Chinese, and, for this end, he patronized the Confucians, and re-
stored the scattered sages. He murdered every living branch of
the last dynasty, (the last scion was Tsze-ying), and caused their
bones to be disinterred and burnt. His death took place B.c. 195,
leaving for his successor a child of tender years.
His mother became regent, and aided by experienced ministers,
ruled with a firm hand; her son dying before he reached the throne,
she kept possession. Her ambition and cruelty knew no bounds;
and had not a fit of sickness carried her off, she must have met
with an untimely death. She was the first female who ever ruled
the Chinese.
B.C. 180.
Wan-te, a descendant of Lew-pang, was chosen suc-
cessor, lived in peace, redressed many grievances, and was the first
who gave a distinctive name to his reign, which has been ever since
followed up.
Wan-te died 157 B.C., leaving a good character be-
hind him, which had been a novelty in China for many centuries.
Under his reign the Chinese invented paper.
B.C. 157. His successor, King-te, murdered a young prince,
whose father fomented a rebellion to revenge his son's death, but
was defeated by the imperial forces. Between earthquakes and
locusts, this was a most calamitous reign for the people. King-te
died B.c. 141.
B.C. 141.
Woo-te, the next Emperor, was early called to con-
tend against the old enemies, the Huns or Tartars; intrigues, tri-
butes, and alliances, all failed; arms were then tried, and a tem-
porary victory was gained over them. In this reign commenced
a violent struggle for supremacy between the founder of Taouism
(Laou-tsze), and the disciples of Confucius. This Emperor's cha-
racter was both cruel and superstitious. He reigned fifty-four
years.
B.C. 86. Chaou-te, the son of the last Emperor, ascended the
throne at seven years of age, but died B.c. 74; the same scenes of
bloodshed were witnessed in this short reign between the cast and
west Tartars, who attacked the frontier provinces.
214
B.C. 74.
the nobles.
CHINESE AND ROMAN EMPIRES MEET.
Chaou-te's uncle succeeded him, but was dethroned by
B.C. 73. Suen-te was the greatest patron of literature that
China had seen for many years. He subjected the Huns, and
ruled without interruption to the Caspian, by the aid of an able
prime minister, Ho-kwong. A plot was set on foot by his own
daughter to murder him and all his ministers, which was timely
discovered.
About this period the Roman and Chinese Empires gradually
approached each other, and they appear to have coalesced during
the Han Dynasty for the subjugation of the Parthians, who were
attacked by the Romans on the west, while the Chinese despatched
a general from the east to the Caspian, which he refused to cross,
hearing the passage would occupy from five to twelve months. He
was punished for his cowardice.
B.C. 48. Yuen-te reigned sixteen years, during which time he
devoted his time to promoting ancient literature. Famine, and
a fresh war with the Tartars, rendered all his efforts to improve
the condition of the people futile.
B.C. 32. Ching-te, son of the last Emperor, was called to the
throne; but bent on devoting himself solely to libertinism and dis-
sipation, he entrusted all power to his maternal uncles. He died
suddenly, and was succeeded by his nephew.
Notwithstanding his own dissipation, he thus remonstrates with
his subjects, "We see nothing now but extravagance; my officers
build great mansions, make extensive gardens and vast lakes, and
entertain in idleness a crowd of slaves in their chariots, dresses,
marriages, funerals, and in everything, their expenditure is ex-
cessive.'
>>
B.C. 8. Gae-te, a man of good understanding, was unable to
carry out his good intentions, through a faction that surrounded
his court. He died the year Our Saviour was born.
Gae-te mourned over the disorders arising from extravagance.
in feasts, dress, vain ornaments, and from "the passion for the
tender and effeminate music of the kingdom of Chin and Wei,"
which he states has inspired libertinism. He consequently banished
music from the palace except that which was required for religious
ceremonies, and for the instruments used in war.
A.D. Ping-te, (styled the "Prince of Peace," which was a remark-
able title to have been given at the commencement of the Chris-
tian Era), the grandson of Yuen-te, was the lawful heir to the
throne, although only nine years of age. The regency was usurped
by an ambitious noble, Wang-mank, whose object was to ascend
the throne, and so change the dynasty. After a dreadful struggle
he was killed.
A.D. 25. Kwang-woo-te was forced by his soldiers to take the
throne, and his first act was to declare a general amnesty. He
collected about him a most vigorous government; restored order
}
TERMINATION OF THE HAN DYNASTY.
215
•
•
and humbled the Huns. He prosecuted a long war with Cochin-
China, and never ceased until he penetrated to Cambodia. He
died after a successful reign of thirty-two years.
A.D. 58. Ming-te, a son of the last Emperor, sent an embassy
to Hindostan, to import a foreign religion, in the form of Budhism,
which soon spread all over the empire. The Emperor was a patron
of learning, but his efforts to benefit the empire were greatly frus-
trated by continual wars with the Tartars, who spread devastation
along the western frontiers.
He reigned 18 years.
A.D. 73. Chang-te. This reign is celebrated for a great victory
over the Tartars, who were driven into the interior of their country
2000 le. (Chinese miles.) In this reign lived a celebrated authoress,
Pankoo; her chief merit was in assigning to her own species, the
most inferior duties. To this strange doctrine must be attributed
the degradation of the female sex to the present day. After
Chang-te's death, boys, girls, and women reigned, and the greatest
distress and confusion prevailed.
A.D. 220. Three claimants now aspired to the throne, Tsaou-pe,
Chaou-le, and the Prince of Woo, who had hitherto ruled over a
great portion of southern China. The confused state of the em-
pire may be imagined; natural calamities were numerous, and no
one in authority cared for the distresses of the people. How-te,
the lawful Emperor, in a fit of despair, abdicated the throne in
favor of the Prince of Wei, and against the wish of his son, who
killed himself and his whole family, A.D. 263. With this tragedy,
the Han Dynasty ceased.
The Chinese still pride themselves on their being the "Sons of
Han," whose dynasty they consider the most glorious. Great
efforts were made for the encouragement of literature, and the
officers of government were chosen from among the literati.
The Tartars were bribed to quietude by giving their chiefs the
daughters of the Han rulers in marriage. During the continu-
ance of the Han dynasty, the several Emperors had conquered
many remote regions, with the view of bringing them under the
transforming influence of their empire. Yet it was not until the
reign of Woo-te, (A.D. 265) that the south of China became subject
to or incorporated with the empire. A practice was then adopted
which is continued to this day, viz. :-purchasing the loyalty of
their semi-barbarous subjects. In a memorial from a minister to
the Emperor Wan-te, he says" behold a monstrous fact;
although the Emperor is the head of the empire, and the barba-
rians on the frontiers, but the inferior extremities, or fect, yet the
Tartars in our day offer us perpetual insult, and to evade them
large sums in silver or goods are paid them every year. To demand
this kind of tribute is to assume the character of masters; to pay
it is to reduce ourselves to the condition of subjects-the feet
at top, the head at bottom-What a shameful derangement !"
*
* State papers collected by Kang-he, a copy of which is in the Royal Library of Patis
216
CIVILIZATION DURING HAN DYNASTY.
We have an evidence of the state of civilization during the Han
Dynasty as contrasted with a previous period, in a memorial from a
minister under Woo-te, which describes the hypocrisy, dissimulation,
knavery, and intemperance of this period. The Hans were the
first who imposed a tax on the sale of wines. He contrasts the
period with that of Wan-te, (B.c. 179) "whose nether garment
was of leather, a common strap served to hold his sword; his seat
was a common mat; his house had no rich or handsome furniture ;
his only ornaments were his wisdom and his virtue.”
“Now" (said
the memorialist) " your palace is a city; your women are covered
with diamonds and jewels; your horses are richly harnessed; your
dogs have rich collars, and even to the vessels of wood and clay, all
are covered with ornaments: you have cast balls of great size, your
drums emulate thunder, to say nothing of your dramas, concerts,
and dances." There must also then have been great wealth in the
empire, for under the reign of Hwang-te (A.D. 190,) a prime minis-
ter named Tung-cho directed all public affairs; was master over
the princes, and even over the Emperor himself. He compelled all
who approached him to bend the knee under pain of death, the
slightest murmur to his will was visited with the penalty of decapi-
tation, under his own eye. At last the Emperor summoned courage
to sign the death-warrant of Tung-cho, and he was privately des-
patched. The annals state there were great rejoicings at his fall.
There are said to have been found in his coffers more than
30,000 lbs. weight of gold, 90,000 lbs. weight of silver and pearls,
and jewels beyond count.
The Han Dynasty is so celebrated in Chinese history, that to
this day "a son of Han" is identified with everything that is
great and glorious and he must be still a hero.
That distinguished scholar, Remusat, says that the Chinese at
this period (see Embassies) began to have political relations and a
regular communication with the countries of the west.
It was
under Woo-te that the Chinese Ambassador, Chang-keen, on reach-
ing Ta-wan and Ta-hae, found that the inhabitants had pre-
viously heard of the power and wealth of China, and to culti-
vate a better acquaintance they facilitated the envoy's progress
to Sogdiana. The countries that he entered into friendly relation
with were Ta-wan (Shash); Ta-yue-che (Transaxiana); Kang-keu
(Sogdiana) Ta-hea (Bactriana.) The Ambassador brought detailed
accounts of six other kingdoms that he had heard of on his route,
amongst which is a country he called Shin-too (Hindus). He
also reported that the people of Sze-Chuen province had intercourse
and traded with Bactriana across the Tibetian mountains.
Between the periods, B.c. 86 to 48, the government of China
took a most active part in the disputes of the Princes of Tartary.
They protected their vassal the King of Shen-shen, whose terri-
tory was situate to the W. of Lake Lop; to the S. of Tartary,
their jurisdiction extended to Khoten and Yarkand.
EVENTS DURING THE HAN DYNASTY.
217
B.C. 59. The Chinese government had political agents styled
commanders, in Pe-seu, Kean-she and Soo-che, and a Chinese go-
vernor-general controlled Sogdiana and several other countries to
the west, although not united to China.
B.C. 6.
Western Tartary was divided into fifty-five states,
the respective princes of which were vassals of the empire.
A.D. 75. The Chinese conquests extended to the E. and S. as
well as the W. having subjected Corea, Cochin-China, and the
island of Hai-nan. After the conquest of Corea by the Emperor
Woo-te, intercourse between China and Japan is said to have com-
menced. The Chinese historian Ma-twan-lin' thus writes, "the
territorial expansion exhausted the resources of the nation, for
the sake of aggrandizement which yielded no advantage.”
A.D. 107. All the states of Tartary revolted.
A.D. 166 to 240. According to Colonel Burney, the conquests of
China were carried to the banks of the Irrawaddi. Ta-guang, at
that time the seat of the Burmah Empire, is said to have been
destroyed by the Tartars and Chinese. In the Samhu Purana, a
person called Manja Ghok is said to have led a colony into Nepal
from China. The maximum population under the Chows is given at
13,704,920 men, excluding females and children; the custom was to
note those only at 15 and 60 years of age, there being at that
period no capitation tax. The told population is put down at nearly
22,000,000; "the empire" comprehended little more than one half
of China as now laid down. The south of China was inhabited by
hordes of savages; and Che-keang, Foo-kien, Keang-si, and Kwang-
tung, in Woo-te's reign were covered with forests, and the moun-
tains were infested with wild beasts. According to native authors,
the free population under the Hans, was about 83 millions.
The civil wars which followed the division of the empire into
three states under the latter Hans, must have considerably reduced
the population.

DATE OF CENSUS.
KINGDOM.
FAMILIES.
INDIVIDUALS.
A.D. 220
220
Wei
Shuh
663,000
4,432,880
وو
200,000
900,000
240
Woo .
91
520,000 2,300,000
1,363,000 7,632,000
During this period there were several epidemical diseases, but
the disorganized state of the country by what were called the
"yellow caps," and the swarms of robbers, that for years lived on
the industrious classes, frequently suspended agriculture, and
caused extensive emigration. Ma-twan-lin says,
"the fields were
covered with human skeletons, and great numbers of people were
killed."
218
ARTS AND SCIENCES, B.C.
The improvements in arts and sciences under the Han Dynasty,
are said to have been paper, pencils, and ink;- sculpture, painting,
and bell-casting: bridge-building and pagodas denote the existing
knowledge of architecture. One of their ancient bridges, or as
they call them "flying bridges," still exists in Shen-se province;
it stretches 400 feet from one mountain to another, over a chasm
500 feet deep. These bridges are said to be wide enough for four
horsemen to ride abreast, and the sides are well protected against
accidents. Necessity compelled a Chinese general to invent them,
to enable his troops to travel.
Wan-te interdicted the use of gold and silver plates; silk was
common to all classes, and was chiefly made by females. Wan-te
made his empress work at her needle as an example to all his sub-
jects. As to agriculture, King-te says, "wherefore should so
much attention be paid to sculpture, and vain ornaments which
only injure agriculture? I plough the ground myself every year,
and the Empress rears silk-worms. I aspire above all things to
make agriculture appreciated." In abundant seasons the govern-
ment became the purchasers, and when it was scarce they sold
to the people. This plan was soon abused; and the state traf-
ficked to the general injury of the public. The system is still
maintained, and great abuses practised.
A remonstrance was addressed to Ching-te on the great expendi-
ture of the Royal Mausolea. The Mausoleum of Chehwang-te was
thus described: "above the edifice rose like a mountain; its height
was 500 feet, and it was half a league in circuit. It was so capa-
cious within, that you might walk about at your ease as in a
saloon. Around were lamps and flambeaux fed with human fat.'
On one side was a tank of mercury, in which swam birds of gold
and silver; on the other side were rich furniture, arms, and costly
jewels." All the wealth contained in this edifice was carried
off in the civil wars, when those places in general were plundered,
avarice overcoming the strong prejudice against disturbing the
dead.
The state slaves under the Hans are said to have numbered
100,000, and at some periods amounted to as many as 300,000.
The expense of supporting them became sometimes so great that
they were consequently enfranchised. Under Wan-te, frequent
mention is met with of presents being made of slaves.
It was
made lawful for parents to sell their children, to prevent the inhu-
man practice of infanticide. Woo-te prevented masters from
killing their slaves at will. Gae-te limited the number of the
slaves attached to the high officers. Kwang-woo assumed the power
of enfranchising private slaves by edict, A.D. 27, in which he de-
clared every female free who should be purchased by any individual
to be his wife. Domestic slavery is treated of by Sir George
Staunton as a mild species of servitude.
The following remarkable document, taken from the ancient state
}
1
¡
COLLEGE ADDRESS TO STUDENTS, B.C.
219
papers collected by the Emperor Kanghe, in 1715, shews that how-
ever distracted the state of the empire, literature was sedulously
cultivated. The address is said to have been delivered to 700
students at the college of Pan-yang. "You enter this place of
learning in order that you may be taught to speak with propriety,
to write correctly, and above all, how to live well. You come here
ta lay the foundation of virtue, to qualify yourselves for being use-
ful to the state; in a word, to acquire true wisdom. You must be
forewarned that at first these studies have nothing agreeable or
attractive in them; on the contrary they may be repulsive to you.
But in time you will imbibe a relish for them; different exercises will
succeed each other; you will gradually improve, and become fond of
that study which daily increases the amount of your knowledge.
You will make discoveries yourselves, and will be eager to prosecute
them; your minds will expand; your hearts will dilate; you will
feel the intrinsic worth of wisdom, and haste in the pursuit of it,
which surpasses every other, and yields more real enjoyment than
all other pleasures combined. You will be astonished to find
everything changed, almost without knowing how; and the tinge
which study imparts to the mind and heart is more permanent
than any other dye; for if properly taken, it retains for ever the
beauty of its tints."
THE TSIN DYNASTY, A.D. 264 To 420.
The founder of this Dynasty was Sze-ma-yen, originally only a
ruler over the Tsin principality; but with an ambitious eye he
watched the proceedings of the three last Emperors, saw them
wasting their strength, and, embracing the first opportunity, to
the astonishment of every one, proclaimed himself Emperor in his
own province, Honan. Having seen the cause of the destruction
of the last dynasty, he banished all the partisans of the Han and
Wei from court; and endeavoured to unite the empire under
one head. After living a most sensual life, with, it is recorded,
5,000 females in his harem, he died A.D. 290.
A.D. 291. Hwuy-te, who was very young when called to the
throne, left the government to his wife, who not only employed
people to murder her enemies, but actually perpetrated many cold-
blooded murders with her own hands. The Huns again visited
China, and committed great devastation. The Emperor died in
307. A.D.
A.D. 307. Hwae-te, a well-disposed prince, endeavoured to re-
store order, but the King of Han proclaimed himself Emperor,
killed the young heir, took Hwae-te prisoner, and made him
attend at his table as a servant. Of all the tyrants and relentless
monsters that ever existed in China, Hwac-te surpassed them all.
The next prince who should have reigned was Ming-te, but he was
murdered.
220
TSIN AND SUNG DYNASTIES.
A.D. 317. Sze-ma-juy, or Yuen-te, a distant branch of the Tsin
family, escaped the slaughter, and after the death of the King of
Han, was unanimously called to the throne; but bloodshed and
misery ensued, to increase which, the Tartars joined different sides,
and engaged in the general plunder-their favorite work. Children
were called to the throne, and when grown up, were disposed of in
a private way. Others were kept concealed, and ignorant of what
was occurring. One of them, Gan-te, had a general, named Lew-yu,
who completely overthrew a numerous tribe of Tartars, which had
disturbed the whole empire. Lew-yu murdered nearly all the
imperial family, except Kung-te, who very soon abdicated the
throne, by which means this dynasty was terminated.
SUNG DYNASTY, A.D. 420 тo 479.
Lew-yu, or Woo-te, poisoned the last Emperor, Kung-te, and
now reigned in his stead; his birth was humble; he possessed
some talent, but his cruel disposition knew no bounds. The
Tartars had made successful settlements in the north and west of
China, and founded separate kingdoms for their chiefs. Under
Wan-te, Budhism became the most fruitful source of annoyance to
the government, and the votaries of this degrading doctrine were
cruelly persecuted. Wan-te was killed by his own son, whose
brother succeeded to the throne, under the name of Heaou-woo-te.
This prince commenced well, but ended like all the rest; and there
is no other event in the remainder of the dynasty but cold-
blooded murders of the most horrible description. Of numerous
lawful claimants to the throne, only one (Ming-te) died a natural
death. There were eight reigning Emperors of this dynasty,
and six of them were cruel monsters. One of their chief gene-
rals, Seaou Taouching, usurped the throne. He first obtained
the principality of Tse, and set aside every branch of the Sung
race, A.D. 477.
During the sway of this dynasty, China was a scene of incessant
contests, between foreign invaders and rebellious subjects, strug-
gling with each other for the divisions of an empire which had
been consolidated by the Tsins and Hans.
Independent of the Tartars, there were more than 100 tribes
of Western Keangs, i.e. Tibetians, dispersed along the banks of
the Yangtzekiang and Hwang-ho rivers. Chinese historians dis-
criminate between these tribes; some were settled and others
roving.
In this short space of time, the Tartars founded sixteen inde-
pendent kingdoms in China, according to Mailla's translation of
native history.
1
}
TSE, LEANG, AND CHIN DYNASTIES.
TSE DYNASTY, A.D. 480 тo 502.
221
Seaou-taou-ching, the founder of this Dynasty, took the name of
Kaou-te, and kept his court at Nanking. Native historians com-
prise all the dynasties from Sung to Suy under the name of Nan-
pih-chaou, i.e. southern and northern; as there existed, for 200
years, two independent empires in China, the North and South;
one Tartar, and the other Chinese.
This Emperor promised well for the peace and prosperity of the
empire; was a man of vigorous mind, and although not a disciple
of Confucius, he possessed great practical wisdom for governing.
He died in A.D. 482.
Woo-te, a son of the last Emperor, was very deficient of the
abilities possessed by his father. Neglecting the government, he
became an enthusiast in the doctrines of Budhism, so that super-
stition reigned triumphant amongst court and people. Two con-
tending philosophers graced this reign; one for the mortality of
the soul, and the other for the immortality of the body: materialism
in all its pernicious forms was established. The Emperor died
A.D. 493.
A.D. 494. A grandson of the last Emperor was the lawful heir,
but the throne was usurped by Seaou-lun, the prime minister, who
took the name Ming-te. The northern Emperor waged war against
the usurper, but the natural death of both defender and usurper
prevented a struggle. His third son, Paou-keuen, inherited the
throne, A.D. 499, but was dethroned by one of his generals,
Seaou-yen, who took the name of Leang, and established a new
dynasty by that title.
LEANG DYNASTY, FROM 502 TO 557 A.D.
Leang-woo-te renewed the war with the northern empire, which
then was established in the province of Honan, and was governed
by a most extraordinary woman, Mung-she, who headed her army
in most of the bloody contests. Leang-woo-te withdrew from the
contest, being unable to obtain a victory; and devoted the re-
mainder of his life to Budhism. Haw-king, one of his generals,
usurped the throne, but spared the Emperor's life, but he soon
died, a miserable outcast. The lawful heir was killed by the
usurper. The people forced Yuen-te to the throne, but the
general outmanoeuvred them all, and founded a new dynasty
(Chin).
CHIN DYNASTY, FROM 557 To 589 A.D.
A.D. 557 to 589. Chin-pa-Seen, an usurper, only lived two years,
and was succeeded by his son, Wan-te, who had abilities, and was
222
SUY AND TANG DYNASTIES.
likewise disposed to relieve the people from oppressive taxation.
He died in 566: his successors, Pe-tsung, Chin-heu, Haw-te,
all reigned for short periods, and wholly gave themselves up to sen-
suality.
The Suy state at this period became powerful, and its ruler,
Yang-keen, was an ambitious man; he resolved to unite both the
empires (which had been divided from 420 to 589 A.D., by the
Yangtzekang river,) to his sway. This he easily accomplished,
and became the founder of the Suy Dynasty A.D. 589.
SUY DYNASTY, FROM 590 TO 618 A.D.
Yang-keen, or Kaou-tsoo, now governed the two kingdoms under
his own crown, and this gave a shock to the Tartars. To reconcile
them, he bestowed a princess on one of their chiefs, which had the
desired effect. The King of Corea refusing to pay tribute, was
very soon humbled. This Emperor paid great attention to litera-
ture. Domestic discord of a revolting kind hastened his death
in 604.
His son, Yang-te, succeeded him, by murdering the lawful heir;
he was also murdered himself, and the crown was usurped by one
of his generals, Le-yuen, who changed the dynasty to the Tang,
A.D. 618.
TANG DYNASTY, FROM 619 a.D.
Le-yuen, or Kaou-tsoo, an usurper, was descended from a dis-
tinguished family, and his military talents were of the first order;
he encouraged learning, and was a determined enemy of the Bud-
hist and Taou sects. In the second year of his reign, the western
provinces were attacked by the Turks, but the Emperor was a
good politician as well as general; his policy made this horde of
barbarians turn their attention to the western world, and thus
saved China from their dreadful yoke. During six years' reign he
subjugated the whole empire, and resigned in favour of his son,
after nine years' reign.
A.D. 627 to 640. Tae-tsung had fought many of his father's
battles, and was, therefore, a warlike Emperor. His memory to
the present day is revered by the Chinese; his maxims are found
in modern printed books, and his impartial administration is
recorded as a good example to posterity. He conquered Tur-
fan, expelled the Tibetians, and extended the frontiers of his
empire to the borders of Persia. From a translation of a stone
monument discovered in the province of Shen-se, in 1625, with
Syriac characters on it referring to this period, it is conjectured
that some Nestorian Christians were favoured by this Emperor.
The monument had a cross on it, and an abstract of the Christian
law. It will hereafter be more fully described.
<
REBELLIONS, MURDERS, AND INFAMY.
223
The successor to Tae-tsung, being a scholar, great expectations
were anticipated from his reign; but, unfortunately for the em-
pire, the harem ruled, with the aid of the eunuchs, over the Em-
peror, and two of his successors.
Chung-stung ascended the throne, A.D. 684, but the empire may
be said to have been governed by his mother, represented as a most
cruel monster. The eunuchs now controlled all the affairs of the
government, the Emperor's authority being nominal. It would be
difficult to make any distinction between all the Emperors that
disgraced this dynasty; imbecility was their prevailing character.
Heen-stung was a vile monster; Chaou-tsung endeavouring to free
himself from the eunuchs, called to his aid a band of robbers, who
successfully carried his intention into effect, but dethroned the
Emperor in 903.
The chief of the robbers put Chaou-suen-te on the throne, and
subscquently he usurped it himself, and founded a dynasty called
How Leang, and either banished or killed every branch of the Tang
dynasty.
THE HOW LEANG DYNASTY, FROM 907 TO 923 a.d.
The robber and founder of this Dynasty, with all his followers,
contrived to reign sixteen years; the history of which surpassed,
if possible, all others, in the usual train of murders, rebellions, ab-
dications, infamy, cruelty, and imbecility. The Tartars made them-
selves masters of a large portion of China, settled in Leaou-tung,
and established an independent empire. The usurper was mur-
dered by his son, who in turn was killed by his own brother, and
he was attacked and dethroned, A.D. 923, by a descendant of Le-
ke-kung, who ascended the throne, and founded the How Tang
dynasty.
THE HOW TANG DYNASTY, FROM 924 тo 936 A.D.
Chwang-too, the founder, was in the last dynasty an able general;
but as soon as he obtained the throne, his licentious and cruel
disposition was exhibited. His subjects were reduced to starva-
tion, while he hoarded up uncounted wealth; his avarice knew no
bounds. Several rebellions broke out during his reign; he was
killed in battle by an arrow.
A.D. 926. Ming-tsung was an adopted son of the last Emperor,
and a Tartar by birth. He successfully fought against his own
countrymen, greatly reduced the influence of the nobles, and for
nine years paid strict attention to the social wants of his subjects.
The lawful heir was dethroned by his son-in-law, She-king-tong;
the troops joined the usurper. The Emperor, seeing no hope of
successful resistance, destroyed all the insignia of royalty, killed his
empress, all his children, and then himself. A.D. 936.
224
STRUGGLES WITH THE TARTARS.
THE HOW TSIN DYNASTY, FROM 936 TO 946 AD.
She-king-tong, the usurper, rewarded the Tartars for aiding him
to ascend the throne, by ceding the province of Chih-le, and a large
annual tribute. His son, Chuh-te, succeeded him, A.D. 943, and
was killed while opposing the Tartars. His general usurped the
throne, calling it the How-han dynasty.
HOW HAN DYNASTY, FROM 947 TO 950 A.D.
Le-che-yuen, the general in the last dynasty and founder of this,
kept the Tartars at bay for the short period of his reign. His son,
Yin-te, was no sooner on the throne, than the western provinces of
the empire rose in rebellion. The Emperor was slain on his way
to the scene of action. His brother, Lew-pin, was compelled to
yield the throne to one of the generals, Kwo-wei, who as usual
founded a new dynasty.
HOW CHOW DYNASTY, FROM 951 TO 960 A.D.
The general, Kwo-wei, only reigned three years; but the throne
was at last honoured by a just and able prince, She-tsung. His at-
tention was first turned to education, which had been long on the
wane. He is also reported to have destroyed the idols, or converted
them into cash. He was so enamoured of agriculture as to have
a plough placed in a conspicuous place in the palace. He waged
war against the prince of Han, but was unable to keep the wily
Tartars within bounds. His son Kung-te was a minor, and was
placed under a prime minister, Chaou-kwang-yin, who by universal
consent was called to the throne himself, and thus became father
of the celebrated Sung Dynasty.
THE SUNG DYNASTY, FROM 960 TO 1279 a.d.
Chaou-kwang-yin, the fortunate soldier, had talents for military
exploits, and an ambition to govern the whole empire himself;
some states surrendered quietly; but the northern Han princes
joined the Tartars; temporary victories and defeats were nume-
rous; and the blood that was shed, surpassed any thing recorded
in Chinese history. He died in 976; his intentions were good,
but all his time was taken up in defending the empire.
A.D. 977. Tae-tsung succeeded his father, and immediately at-
tacked the Tartars with an immense army, who were all cut to
pieces. The administration of domestic affairs claiming his atten-
1
L
}
i
POPULATION 800 YEARS AGO.
225
tion, he made peace with the Tartars, and left them quietly to enjoy
Leaou-tung. He died A.D. 997.
Chin-tsung, his successor, finding it impossible to overcome the
Tartars, paid them a large tribute; turned his attention to agri-
culture, and obtained a census of the male population who were
able to pay taxes; they amounted to 9,995,729, which appears
extraordinary after centuries of carnage. He was a weak, super-
stitious monarch, and died of a broken heart, owing to a defeat he
sustained from the Tartars.
A.D. 1023. Ting-tsung, his successor, was a minor; the ungo-
vernable Tartars threatened a rebellion, and obtained an enlarged
tribute of 200,000 taels. He died in 1063, leaving the throne to
his nephew.
Ying-tsung, A.D. 1064; Shin-tsung, A.D. 1068; and Che-tsung,
A.D. 1086, may be said to have governed by their wives or mothers;
some of whom displayed talent.
Hwuy-tsung took a new mode of driving the Tartars from Leaou-
tung, by entering into treaty with the Kin Tartars, who effectually
performed the service assigned them, and then kept possession
themselves of Leaou-tung, together with Chih-li and Shense pro-
vinces, and made the Emperor prisoner in 1125.
Prin-tsuny's first act was to put his ministers to death, for be-
traying his father into the hands of his enemies; the Tartars, em-
boldened by success, took possession of the palace and the province
of Honan, adopting the Chinese name Kin for their reign.
A.D. 1127. Kaoou-tsung, brother to the last Emperor, removed
his court to Hang-choo, the capital of the province of Che-keang
and, failing to disturb the Tartars, tried what effect flattery would
have addressing the Tartars, he called himself Chin, which sig-
nifies servant, (the same term is used by Chinese subordinates to
the present day.) The only effect of this act of humility, was the ob-
tainment of the dead bodies of the imperial family. The barrier to
further encroachments was the natural one of the Yangtzekang,
to the north of which the Tartars governed.
The subsequent monarchs, Heaou-tsung, A.D. 1162, and Kwang-
tsung, A.D. 1189, appear to have been content with their diminished
territory; but their successor, Ning-tsung, A.D. 1194, invited the
Mongol Tartars to aid him in banishing the Kin race of Tartars,
which was effectually done by their general, Genghis, who retained
possession of all the places recovered, on which was founded the
Yuen or Mongol dynasty. It should be remarked here, that a
number of the Tartars escaped from the Mongol and Chinese pur-
suit, and settled in Mantchouria; their subsequent victory, after an
exile of 400 years, over the Ming Dynasty, A.D. 1644, is well known.
Le-tsung now saw his error; the Mongols became much more
formidable to the Chinese than the expelled Tartars, and no longer
disguised their intention. Too-tsung, his son, ascended the throne,
A.D. 1265, and sacrificing his empire at the shrine of pleasure, so
226
DESTRUCTION OF THE SUNG DYNASTY.
disgusted the Chinese nobles, that many of them joined Kublai-
khan, who now governed the Tartars. Too-tsung left three sons,
who were all young. The second son, Twan-tsung, made a feeble
resistance, was compelled to take refuge in Foo-keen province; and
then fled to Canton with a large portion of the grandees, where he
died A.D. 1277. The Mongols sent a fleet in pursuit of the re-
maining branches of the Sung Dynasty; terms of captivity were
tendered to the grandees, who indignantly spurned the proposal.
Loo-sew-foo, a faithful minister of the late dynasty, had charge of
the young Emperor, who preferred death to captivity. The last
branch was destroyed by drowning, his wife and children, with him-
self, by which no competitor was left for the Mongols.
THE MONGOLS.
Necessity appears to be the chief cause of these hardy tribes ex-
tending their dominion; having nothing to lose, no homestead to
protect or return to, locust-like they went forth devouring. Not
even possessing geographical knowledge, or the instruments of
war; nothing, in fact, but their horses, which, like their riders, were
well inured to hardships and privations.
The mind contemplates with astonishment the extent of territory
which became subject to those ruthless rovers : India, Western
Asia, Bukhara, and China.
The Mongol monarch, "Genghis," while a vassal to the court
of Peking, sent an embassy, which, in the most haughty manner,
demanded tribute; this was too much for "the Son of Heaven;"
but while deliberations were going on, in A.D. 1212, Genghis'
army crossed the Great Wall, and took possession of two provinces,
Shan-se and Shen-se, which comprise 100,000 square miles, and
100 cities.
The Sung Dynasty, which was then on the throne of China, made
terms with the invaders; and the better to insure peace, gave a
princess and an immense dowry. Treaties were no sooner made
than broken, so that Genghis possessed himself of five provinces,
and the command of the Yellow River. At this period his sway
extended from the Caucasus to the sea, and from Tibet to the
Frozen Ocean. The Chinese policy, at this period, in inviting the
Mongols in order to oppose their eastern enemies, the Tartars,
proved a heavy blow to the proud monarch of China. The Mon-
gols no sooner defeated the Tartars, than they turned on the Em-
peror of China, whom they drove to the south of the Yellow River.
The covetous eye of Ghenghis was next directed to the vast
territory of Mohammed, Sultan of Khorassan (in Persia), which
he invaded with an army of 700,000 men. The force of the Sultan
is said to have been more than half that amount, but relying too
much on fortifications, he was completely overthrown, and thus
**
-GENGHIS.—KUBLAI.
THE MONGOLS.-GENGHIS.
227
Bokhara, Khowarism, Herat, Otrar, Balkh, and Samarcand, to-
gether with Kandahar, fell a prey to Genghis.
Previous to his death, A.D. 1227, Genghis was sole master of
central Asia. His dying request to his four sons was to complete
the conquest of China.
The four sons mutually divided their vast possessions, and de-
clared Oktai Grand Khan of the Mongols and Tartars. No pro-
ceedings were taken to extend their dominion in China, until
Kublia, a grandson of Genghis, was put in possession of the five
northern provinces.
Kublia, being an artful monarch, gained over to his aid the
grandees, and procured European and Arabian engineers, so that
a few years gave him possession of the Chinese Empire, A.D. 1279.
Kuhlia made an unsuccessful attempt on Japan; but rendered
tributary to his empire, Cochin China, Siam, Bengal, and Tibet.
Under his excellent administration, China never was so prosperous
or happy.
Hulagu, another grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia, and
took possession of the city of Bagdad. The only check the descend-
ants of Genghis met in their wide spread devastation, was from
the Mamelukes in Egypt.
A.D. 1235. Oktai, being in full possession of Northern China,
turned his attention towards Europe, and despatched Batu, his
nephew, with an army of 500,000 men, which completely overthrew
the daring Turkomans, the roving tribes of Caucasus and Russia;
Poland, Silesia, the cities of Lublin and Cracow, also became a
prey to the Mongols. Their next conquest was Hungaria; they
completely scattered the powerful army of King Bela, taking pos-
session of every place northward of the Danube.
In A.D. 1240, Batu had fully prepared a large force to march
against the Turks, but was stayed by the hand of death. Proposals
were made at this time to Barkah, Batu's successor, both by Louis
the Ninth, and Pope Innocent the Fourth, to aid him in the con-
templated campaign against the Turks; their object was very ap-
parent, viz., to assist the Crusaders. Barkah's attention being sud-
denly called to Russia, the Crusaders were disappointed.
Unity, the bond of strength, appeared to be the policy adopted
by the two generations that followed Genghis; jealousy or rival-
ship was unknown; each, in their separate vast dominions, enjoyed
peace; and when necessary, they united their forces and interests.
A. D. 1310. Vast as the Mongol Empire had hitherto been, its
decline was now visible; strife and dissensions split their empires
into new kingdoms; and the degenerated race of Genghis warmly
embraced Mohammedanism, but pertinaciously kept aloof from the
Turks. About this period, Timour, a native of Samarcand, an-
nounced himself as a true descendant of Genghis. His warlike
propensities were early displayed, for at the age of thirteen he dis-
tinguished himself in the battle-field, and at thirty-four had imperial
Q 2
228
DECLINE AND FALL OF THE MONGOLS.
authority over Turkestan and Western or Independent Tartary.
Timour, after conquering what might then be called the whole
world in upwards of thirty successful campaigns, and usurping
twenty-seven crowns, like his predecessor Genghis, was stopped in
his ambition by the Egyptians. To perpetuate his victories, he
erected, it is said, a pyramid of 90,000 human skulls at Bagdad. Dur-
ing this period nine Mongol Emperors ruled over China. But the
hateful race was at last dethroned, and a native Chinese Emperor
was again enthroned. When Timour heard of the downfall of the
Mongols in China, his rage knew no bounds, and turning his great
army from the shores of the Bosphorus, was fully determined to
wreak his vengance on China; but death put a stop to his earthly
career in the 70th year of his age.
A.D. 1405.
THE MING DYNASTY A.D. 1368 TO 1644.
In the year 1368, Hungwu, the first monarch of the Ming Dynasty,
took full possession of the Chinese Empire: from a scullion he rose
to be a monarch, and became one of the best men who sat on the
Chinese throne. He died A.D. 1399, solemnly taking leave of his
ministers, and appointing as his successor his grandson.
Kienwan though only 16 years of age assumed the empire; his
reign was most unpropitious. The old monarch had given large
provinces to his sons, they were jealous of the young prince being
placed over them, and they immediately began to rebel: one of them
was seized by the ministers of the Emperor and banished; another
killed himself; another lost his possessions, and was sentenced to
end his days in exile; another (the Prince of Yen,) took up arms
to, as he said, deliver his family from bad ministers, but really to
get possession of the throne; which he did in 1404, the young Em-
peror having been persuaded to escape and turn monk, which he
did. He wandered about for forty years, and afterwards died, un-
thought of, in prison.
The reign of the Prince of Yeu-yungloh was most bloody and
revengeful; murdering all those who supported his predecessor.
He issued an amnesty to the provincial authorities; they would not
however submit to his government; this did not stop his proceed-
ings, he immediately prepared for hostilities; removed his court
from Nanking, made Pekin the capital city; and died in the year
1425, after waging war all his life: before his death he erected a
pyramid, to witness the extent of his conquests. His son Hunghi
who succeeded, published a general amnesty, and died A.D. 1426.
He was succeeded by his son Siuente, who carried on a war with
the Cochin-Chinese, by which his armies were annihilated. He
was a lover of peace, and a good statesman, and died A.D. 1436,
leaving the throne to his son—
Yingtsung then only eight years of age, whose mother was
MING, OR CHINESE DYNASTY.
229
appointed regent during the minority. A Tartar chief of the
name of Yesien had made several inroads on the Chinese territory ;
Wangchin, the minister, (A.D. 1450) assembled a large army to
chastise him; but when in the middle of the desert, was attacked by
the Tartar chief, defeated, and the young Emperor taken prisoner,
for whom the Tartar chief refused to take any ransom. In this
emergency, the empress dowager placed his brother Kingti on the
throne; he however refused to retire, when Yesein proposed to
liberate the captive Emperor. Ying-tsun not being ambitious,
retired into private life, and again ascended the throne, on his
brother's death in 1458. He died in the year A.D. 1465, and was
succeeded by his son-
Chingwn, who was reared among women and eunuchs, became a
complete child of the palace, and gave the eunuchs great power,
which caused general dissatisfaction; he died of grief on account
of the death of his wife, and left the country in a miserable state.
He was succeeded by his son Ching-te, A.D. 1506, then but 15
years of age. Great power was also given by this sovereign to
the eunuchs, who plundered the country; the people rose in
several rebellions against the government, but were always re
pressed. From a census taken in his reign, China contained 50
million of souls. Ching-te died A.D. 1522, leaving no children,
and was succeeded by his cousin Kiat-sing, whose first act was a
general amnesty for all political offences; he then gave himself
up to poetry and song, and did nothing for the good of the people.
The Mongols, who had traded on the frontiers in cattle, now broke
into rebellion in consequence of the exactions of the officers;
their chief Yeuta laid the whole country waste, forced his way to
the very gates of Peking, and compelled the Emperor to permit
them to establish fairs. During this reign there was a continued
petty warfare between the Chinese and the Japanese. Kiat-sing
died after a useless reign of forty years, A.D. 1566, and was suc-
ceeded by Lung-king, who did all in his power to settle the tran-
quillity of the frontier, which the majority of his ministers opposed:
it was afterwards settled by a commercial treaty. He died in 1572.
Wan-ti, his successor, was only ten years of age at his accession
during his minority he followed his ministers' advice, and appeared
to promise well. Mathew Ricci obtained access to court in 1583,
and presented the Emperor with a repeating watch, who ordered a
tower to be built to keep it safe. The intercourse, commenced
under his predecessor with western nations, now became an object
of solicitude. Through meddling in the affairs of Japan, he drew
himself into several wars, which always ended in the defeat of the
Chinese. These contests lasted for thirty years, and China lost
part of its territory, but gained it again on the death of the Japanese
chief Tarkosama, A.D. 1598. Ricci meanwhile persevered in his
mission, and had an edict issued against him by a tribunal at Pekin,
to the effect that his preaching was of no value, and that he be
:
230
FALL OF CHINESE OR MING DYNASTY.
sent back again to his country. A few years afterwards, the same
tribunal (the tribunal of rights) praised the skill of the foreigners
in astronomy, and recommended them to be employed in that
department. Another war broke out on the frontier through the
tyranny and robbery of the Chinese on the Tartars, who were a
scattered people; their chief Tienming, having a few naked savages,
proclaimed himself an Emperor, and to avenge his father's death
swore he would annihilate 200,000 Chinese; he kept his oath, for he
carried fire and sword to the gates of Pekin; the Chinese generals,
as usual, flying all ways from him. This destruction and the loss
of his wife broke the Emperor's heart; he died A.D. 1620. He
was succeeded by his son Kwang-tsung, who exerted himself much
to put the state in order, but died from his exertions in 1621.
He was succeeded by his son, a diffident youth of sixteen years of
age; the Chinese still continued their oppressions on the Mantchous,
who again resorted to arms. The Emperor did not live to behold
the result; he died A.D. 1627. His successor, Hwan-tsung was
a great friend of letters, but was not able to meet the coming tem-
pest. The Tartar leader Taitsung demanded an unconditional
submission to his arms; one of the best of the Chinese ministers
was beheaded in the streets as a traitor, for recommending peace.
The Tartar general still advanced, was proclaimed Emperor in 1635,
under the name of Tae-tsing, i.e. "great purity." The Chinese
could have still resisted, but for their own feuds; one of their
chiefs, a cruel monster, ravaged the central province and got posses-
sion of the city of Peking, which was opened to him by the eunuchs.
The Emperor when he heard this, cruelly murdered his harem,
only one of his daughters escaping, and then hung himself. There
was found in his girdle a condemnation of himself and a request to
save the people. Thus died the last of the Ming Dynasty, A.D. 1644.
THE TAE-TSING, OR PRESENT TARTAR DYNASTY.
A.D. 1644 TO 1846.
THE present dynasty of China, are Mantchou Tartars, and are of
the Tongoosian race. Their first connexion with China, was when
the Mongols in 1332 were driven from the throne; some of their
tribes took refuge in the Mantchou territory, which gave offence to
the Chinese, who by force compelled them to sue for peace, but
permitted them to trade. The origin of the family is unknown, as
the country was destitute of learning. The first attack on China
by the Mantchous was in 1583, by Tae-tsoo, who took the frontier-
city Tooloon; the Chinese consenting to pay 800 oz. of silver
annually. Tae-tsoo subsequently discovered the Chinese govern-
ment fomenting a rebellion in his kingdom, and made a vow to
extirpate the Mongol race. A battle was fought between them in
1593, in which the Chinese were defeated. Tae-tsoo declared him-
self independent, and proclaimed himself Teen-ming "Heaven's de-
PRESENT TARTAR DYNASTY RISE.
231
cree." Previous to marching against the Chinese, Teen-ming drew
up seven articles, charging the Chinese government with oppres-
sion, deceit, and bad-faith. He was succeeded by his son Tsung-tih,
who entitled his dynasty Ta-tsing ("great purity") and first
brought his troops to the frontiers of Leaoutung, but was confined
to that territory by a brave Chinese general, Woo-san-kwei. A
rebellion at this time breaking out in China, the general concluded
a peace, and invited the Mantchous to aid him in expelling the
robber-chief Le-tsze-ching from China. By the aid of the Mant-
chous the rebels were defeated, but they seeing an opportunity of
obtaining the throne of China refused to return home. In the
mean time Tsung-tih died, and his nephew was proclaimed Em-
peror, under the name of Shun-che in 1644. At the same time the
mandarins declared a grandson of Ching-stung Emperor at Nanking.
No proof is required of the state of the empire, when a handful
of auxiliary troops possessed themselves of it, without even the
trouble of fighting for such vast dominions. The first act of
the usurpers was to compel the Chinese to adopt their custom of
wearing their hair. In selecting this badge of subjection nothing
could be more galling to the Chinese, as hitherto they never cut
an inch of their hair. The terms were banishment or acquiescence;
the consequence was a general revolt, in which the Mantchous
were nearly overpowered.
Two princes of the late Ming dynasty, Tang and Yung-lieh,
were declared successively Emperors; the former was proclaimed
at Canton, and temporarily resisted the invaders in the midland
provinces. But the Chinese were exceedingly deficient in love
of their country or of freedom. Tang was taken prisoner and
beheaded, and Yung-leih being forsaken fled to the King of Ava,
where he organized a force and attempted to take the province of
Kwei-choo, but was killed by the general Woo-san-kwei, the same
man who first introduced the usurpers, by the way of aiding the
Chinese.
Of all the monsters that ever disgraced humanity, Chang-heen-
ching was probably the greatest. He was a daring robber by pro-
fession, with the command of a powerful army; he routed the
Tartars from the province of Sze-chuen, and proclaimed himself
Emperor. His ferocious disposition was first vented on the literati
and Budhist priests, whom he invited to a feast; not one of whom
ever returned alive. His next display was on the news of one of
his generals going over to the Mantchous; on hearing which, he
murdered every human being belonging to the capital Ching-too.
The males one day, to the number it is said of 600,000.
The females the second day, to the number of 400,000. He was
killed by one of his own soldiers. The next enemy the usurpers
had to contend with, and the only one in the empire, was Ching-
ching-kung, better known as Coringa, the daring pirate of Formosa.
1650. Coxinga had frequent encounters with the Tartars, and was
232
MING AND TARTAR DYNASTIES CONTEST.
always either victorious, or escaped being taken prisoner. He
occupied the island of Tsung-ming in 1657, at the entrance of
the Yangtzekang river, and took possession of Nanking, by the aid
of a fleet of 800 vessels, which had a formidable appearance on the
great river. The easy manner in which possession was obtained,
and the hatred of the inhabitants to the Tartars, caused them to neg-
lect the fortifications; they were consequently compelled by the
Tartars to fly to their ships, but not without great slaughter.
1651. Amawang, Regent, dying, his nephew Shun-che, although
young, had derived a great deal of instruction from his tutor, Adam
Schaal, a German jesuit, who was president of the mathematical
board.
All the domestic foes were either killed or bought over, except
the pirate and patriot, Coxinga, whose only strength lay on the
seacoast. Coxinga despairing of success against the Tartars, at-
tacked Formosa, and banished the Dutch from that island.
1656. The Russians were the first to send an embassy to the
new dynasty; but refusing to perform the nine prostrations, were
sent back without an audience. Shun-che and his ministry were
all for conciliation, and the Emperor not only wrote on the subject
but actually preached out of a pulpit. (See his sermons in another
part of this work, under "Sacred Instructions.)" The Tartar
usurpers having little or no form of religion of their own, adopted that
portion of the Chinese which pays such regard to the dead.
The Emperor was not long on the throne when he made a pilgrim-
age to the tombs of the Ming Emperors, and finding them in a
dilapidated state had them beautified at a great expense.
1662. Shun-che died in 1661, after reigning eleven years, and
was succeeded by his son Kang-he, who was a minor. A regency
was appointed, who failing or fearing to combat the great pirate and
patriot, Coxinga, issued an order requiring all the inhabitants of
the coast to remove to the interior of the country, under pain of
death. This policy did not meet the views of the young prince,
and he claimed the throne, on the death of one of the regents; the
other he put to a cruel death. The skill, energy, and personal
courage of Kang-he were soon tested. Suspecting the fidelity of
the old general Woo-san, who had sold his former sovereign, he
was ordered to attend his Majesty, (his son being a hostage at
Peking) which he did at the head of a rebel force, assisted by
the Viceroys of Foo-kien and Canton, and the naval forces of
the pirate; at the same time the north was invaded by a Mongol
prince. In this emergency, Kang-he displayed abilities of no or-
dinary kind; he attacked the Mongol prince himself, and routed
him effectually; dissension was soon in the other camps, so that
they became an easy prey, one after the other. His attention was
next directed to check the chief of the Eleuths or Kalmuks, who
had for some time been extending his authority over the Kalkas;
魔
​ļ
i
CHARACTER OF EMPEROR KANG-HE.
233
and Kang-he, dreading that he might ultimately become a trouble-
some frontier foe, at the head of a large army, not only checked
him, but made the Kalkas tributary to the Chinese Empire, and
thus obtained an ascendancy over Mongolia. The Russians at this
time were encroaching; Kang-he sent them a treaty (see foreign
intercourse) and accompanied the embassy by a large army, to
enforce its ratification. There only remained the pirate Coxinga
to conquer; he was aided by the defences the Dutch had left
behind them in Formosa. In 1681, the pirate prince dying, was suc-
ceeded by his son, who quietly surrendered the island to Kang-he,
and received in return a titular distinction. It is worthy of remark
that foreign commerce was strictly prohibited by this Emperor.
But the chief of Canton allowed the Europeans to trade for
his own private benefit. The Emperor being informed of this
violation of his orders, sent the chief a rope made of silk, with
which he hanged himself, together with upwards of one hundred of
his subordinate officers; thus all danger of revolt was removed
throughout the empire. Kang-he devoted every moment he
could spare from public business, from the time he reached the
throne, to acquire knowledge, became a thorough mathemati-
cian, and now set to work to improve the general government of
the empire. The pruning-knife was first applied to the Hanlin
college; three-fourths of the members, not being able to answer
his majesty in some questions, were expelled. Kang-he was a
thinking man, and decidedly the best, if not the only, scholar in
his dominions; his dissertations on government under the name
of "Sacred Instructions," are full of sound sense. He was the
only monarch of the dynasty that visited all the provinces, (north
of the Yangtzekang) examined most minutely into the administra-
tion of affairs, and carried with him a commissariat to supply his
large train that the people should be at no expense. He had
the geographical position of all considerable places ascertained;
caused all the provinces to be surveyed by Europeans; published
a dictionary of the Chinese language, and lest his own language
should become obsolete, had also one prepared in the Mantchou:
in every way he encouraged learning. His love of music was
intense, and the death of his favorite musician (a European)
caused great grief in the palace. His whole life was an arduous
struggle to benefit his subjects.
1709. Kang-he discovered a plot between his two sons to
obtain possession of the throne, which caused him a severe fit of
illness; being given over by the state physicians, recourse was had
to the Jesuits, who had cured him of the ague some years pre-
viously; on this occasion they were equally successful.
1721. Kang-he was now sixty years on the throne: rejoicings
became general all over the empire; more than human honours
were offered to him by mandarins and parasites; and the same
234
CONSOLIDATION OF TARTAR GOVERNMENT.
year saw the Eleuths destroyed by his generals, and Tibet made
tributary to China. He died the following year, from the effects
of a cold, having previously appointed his fourth son his successor.
No prince ever ascended the throne of China with greater
prospects of a happy reign than Yung-ching. Being ignorant of
the value of science, and jealous of some of the imperial family
who had embraced Christianity, his first act was to banish all the
missionaries, who had become very numerous in every province;
only a few were allowed to remain in Peking, whose services could
not be dispensed with.
These orders against Christianity were the signal for the man-
darins to vent their long-smothered hatred against Europeans;
extortion and cruelty were, therefore, perpetrated with impunity.
This reign was free from any domestic troubles of a political
nature; but the calamities of dearth and want were more numerous
that had been known for the same space of time in China. An
earthquake occurred in 1730, in the province of Chih-le, which did
great injury to Peking.
The reign of Yung-ching lasted thirteen years: two acts dis-
grace it, notwithstanding his excellent published works on charity
and benevolence (see "Sacred Instructions"), viz.: severe cruelty to
his thirteen brothers, and the extirpation of Christianity. He died
in 1736.
1736. Keen-lung, the eldest illegitimate son of the late Em-
peror, was unexpectedly called to the throne. He became popular
by declaring a general amnesty, and restoring all the relatives of
the last Emperor to their liberty; but their paternal property
being confiscated, their temporal position was not much improved
by a state allowance of thirteen shillings sterling per month, with
a portion of rice.
Keen-lung was not long on the throne when the Eleuths and
Kalkas, who had long disturbed the peace of the empire, and,
although repeatedly conquered, were a powerful nation still, could
not agree in dividing their territory, and solicited Keen-lung as a
mediator; this office he readily accepted, by sending a powerful
army, which totally extirpated the Kalmucks, and annexed their
territory (Ele) to China, in 1756.
The Mohammedans who inhabited Little Bukhara, were next
attacked by Keen-lung's merciless troops,-cut to pieces,-a part of
their territory joined to the province of Kansuh, and the remainder
made a dependency, constituting the eight Mohammedan cities.
January, 1767. This year an excuse was made to attack the
territories of the King of Ava, but very few of the invading sol-
diers ever returned. The amount of the Chinese army on this
occasion is stated to have been 250,000 foot and 25,000 horse;
the chief part of which was sent against Bamoo. In November
of the same year, Keen-lung sent an "invincible"
army to take
vengeance, consisting of 60,000 horse and 600,000 foot, under the
;
1
!
AGGRANDISEMENT AND CRUELTY OF KEENTUNG.
235
command of his son-in-law, Myeng. After two years' unsuccessful
fighting, and the Chinese army being reduced to one-fourth, terms
of peace were proposed, and accepted by the Burmese generals,
without consulting their king, who, on their return, were disgraced
for permitting a Chinaman to return alive (See " Foreign Intercourse
with Birmah”).
After the taste of the Emperor for foreign conquests had been
satiated, rebellion and civil war engaged his attention, but it was
no sooner suppressed in one province than it broke out in another.
His character, after sixty years reign, was always marked with the
greatest cruelty to his enemies, and generals who returned un-
successful: aggrandizement of the empire was his ruling passion.
He abdicated in favour of his son Kea-king.
1796. Kea-king was not well seated on the throne, when rebel-
lion broke out in several provinces, and being a weak-minded
prince, and wholly given up to licentiousness, he adopted the
method of quelling them by spending large sums of money in
bribery, and promoting the leaders to offices of trust.
His peace
was also disturbed, and he narrowly escaped with his life, by an
organized mutiny of his own kindred.
During the first ten years of his reign, all law and order were set
at defiance by a band of pirates, who carried destruction along the
whole coast. The aid of the Portuguese government was solicited,
but to no useful purpose. A treaty of peace was entered into,
therefore, with the pirates; their chiefs were promoted as captains
in the imperial navy, and a grand entertainment was given in
Canton to celebrate the peace.
The persecution of the Christians was carried on with unabated
zeal until his death. In 1813 he was very near falling a sacrifice
to the enmity of some members of his own family, and was saved
by the courage displayed by his son, the present Emperor. His
life and reign is blank, as no just, noble, or generous action can
be discovered; he himself was the patron of bribery and corrup-
tion, which flourished in full vigour in every part of his vast
dominions. There was not a year which he reigned, but disturb-
ances of a serious nature broke out in one or other of the pro-
vinces, none of which were put down by the strong hand of the
law; his successor has, in consequence, more or less resorted to
the same mode of obtaining bloodless victories. He died in 1820.
The present Emperor of China, Taouk-wang, "Reason's glory,"
was born on the tenth of the eighth moon, 1781, and, consequently,
is now in his sixty-sixth year. He succeeded his father, Kea-king,
in August, 1821. An extract from the first document issued by
his majesty may illustrate his government.
"The Chamber of Ministers (Nuy-ko) has received with due
respect the following imperial edict.
"From the late Emperor, who has now gone the great journey,
I received the utmost possible kindness and care; and from him
236
TAOU-KWANG-PRESENT EMPEROR.
I derived my being; his gracious kindness was infinite, like that
of the glorious heavens above. This year he was to solace with
his presence Lwang-yang, in Tartary, and I, the Emperor, followed
in his train. The weather being hot, he was taken ill on his journey,
and I, the Emperor, beat the ground with my head, and called on
heaven to bring him back-but in vain. During the twenty-five
years of his reign he suppressed rebellion, and gave tranquillity to
millions of common people. The dragon on horseback has as-
cended and become a guest on high. All creatures endued with
blood and breath mourn with sincere and grateful feelings; but
how much more deeply do I, the Emperor, feel. I received his late
majesty's last will, commanding that the funeral mourning should
be the same as usual.'
A second proclamation was issued as follows: "My sacred and
indulgent father had, in the year that he began to rule alone,
silently settled that the divine utensil (the throne) should devolve
on my contemptible person. I, knowing the feebleness of my
virtue, at first felt afraid I should not be competent to the office;
but on reflecting that the sages, my ancestors, have left to posterity
their plans; that his late majesty has laid the duty on me-and
heaven's throne should not be long vacant-I have done violence
to my feelings, and forced myself to intermit a while my heartfelt
grief, that I may with reverence obey the unalterable decree; and
on the twenty-seventh eighth moon (3d October,) I purpose de-
voutly to announce the event to heaven, to earth, to my ancestors,
and to the gods of the land and the grain, and shall then sit
down on the imperial throne; let the next year be the first of
Taoukwang."
Dr. Morrison says the title is rendered as follows: Taou is
"eternal reason," the Chinese use it for a good government, where
reason, not passion, is predominant; Kwang means light, lustre,
glory, illustrious, &c.: so the title of the present Emperor may be
rendered, "Reason's Glory," or "Reason Illustrious."
The present Emperor distinguished himself in the eighteenth
year of his father's reign, when a plot was formed to destroy the
monarch and subvert the government. He killed with his own
hands two rebels who were scaling the palace-walls. The acts of
the present Emperor have hitherto been passive, and he evidently
endeavours to accommodate himself to circumstances. Whatever
energy he possessed was very soon called into action by national
calamities, and an effort on the part of the Mohammedans in Tur-
kestan to throw off their allegiance. The Emperor despatched his
prime minister, Chang-ling, at the head of an immense body of
troops; and the same instruments that his father and grandfather
so successfully brought into the field of battle, viz.: silver and gold,
suppressed the insurrection.
The Emperor is fond of retirement, and takes little or nothing
of the cares of state upon himself.
1
CALAMITIES OF PRESENT REIGN.
237
In reviewing the dynasties for several centuries, in no one
reign has there been chronicled so many calamities and open
insurrections (in almost every province of China Proper) as under
the present sovereign. The numerous secret societies, particularly
the one called the "Triad," whose avowed object is the overthrow
of the present dynasty, are a continual source of anxiety to the
Emperor.
The rebellion which broke out in Formosa, in 1832, was occa-
sioned by the oppression of the local authorities. The number of
troops slain, together with the mandarins, was very great; its sup-
pression was said to be accomplished in the usual way.
A rebellion on the eastward of Canton was carried on for several
years, and was suppressed by bribes.
The Emperor inherits his father's well-known hostility to
foreigners; and his first act was to expel an European missionary
who assisted at the astronomical board, although for more than
200 years, two or more Europeans were attached to that tribunal.
From all accounts, these constant changes of dynasties and fre-
quent revolutions, have caused great deterioration in every respect
in China.
Le Compte, who travelled over a great portion of the empire as
an officer of the government, and was an eye-witness to the scenes
he describes, states, that avarice, ambition, and pleasure go a great
way in their transactions. He asserts that they cozen and cheat
in traffic; injustice reigns in sovereign courts; the desire of getting
torments them continually, and makes them discover a thousand
ways of gaining. They are dexterous, laborious, and curious to
find out the inventions and contrivances of other nations, and very
apt to imitate them. These vices and faults are the inevitable
consequences in any country of a long career of official oppression
and public tyranny. Le Compte observes, that, "in olden times,
the Chinese were far more sincere, honest, and less corrupted, than
at present; they were the wisest people of the universe: their
moral principles, their political rules, and their maxims of good
policy afford a marked distinction between the Chinese and other
men. For 2000 years after their origin as a nation, the Chinese
had the knowledge of the true God, and practised the most pure
morality."
The previous pages and the facts for subsequent examination,
show how lamentably this vast empire has degenerated.
In the preceding details two facts are manifested: first, that the
vast territory called China, has been an almost uninterrupted
scene of contests, bloodshed, fraud, and struggles for mastery,
either within the country, or from the nations on its borders;
hence China has no claim to be viewed as a peaceful ancient
empire, held intact for many centuries under a "paternal" series
of lawfully succeeding rulers, who, by their seclusion from the
western nations, maintained, as was alleged, uninterrupted peace,
}
238
NO JUSTIFICATION FOR EXCLUSION.
and established general prosperity. The second is a corollary from
the first, namely, that there is nothing whatever in the past history
of China to justify the nations of western Europe in permitting the
present Tartar chiefs (usurpers of 200 years standing) to continue
their arbitrary system of exclusion; a system adopted from selfish
principles, lest their own ill-gotten power should be shaken; which
has not even for its avowed object the benefit of the millions over
whom they harshly and despotically rule, and whom they would be
unable to protect against any naval force, with which even Portugal
might wage war against China; indeed, a single frigate might
ravage the whole coast of this immense empire.
CHAPTER VIII.
EARLY INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND
FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
ONE of the points which it is desirable to investigate, relates
to the idea that the Chinese have always been secluded from other
portions of mankind, and that this seclusion has been the result
of a studied policy. An examination of the following statements
will decide the question. It is very probable, that some of the
wandering companies of the Ten Tribes of Israel who lived under
Hoshea, whose dispersion and captivity occurred B.C. 742 (chap.
xvii., 2 Kings) found their way into China, in conformity with
the decree, "The Lord shall scatter thee among all nations,
from one end of the earth even unto the other." (Deut. xxviii. 64.)
If this be true, it will account for the partial resemblance of
the Chinese moral maxims and customs to those of sacred Scrip-
ture. The Jews, wherever they settled, doubtless inculcated
the law of God, and "called it to mind among the nations
whither the Lord their God had driven them.” [Deut. xxx. 1.]
As Salmanassar removed the Israelites into Media, B.C. 721,
there are strong reasons for believing that many of them in the
process of time emigrated and settled in Bactria and Cara Cathia
(Chinese Tartary). Their sacred learning mingled with idolatry,
(for which crime they were scattered) 2 Kings, chap. xvii. 12,
and Paganism probably formed some of the doctrines of the
Scythians, who are said to have laid the foundation of the Chi-
CONFUCIUS PREDICTS THE MESSIAH.
239
nese empire, and as they only came to China a few generations
before the birth of Confucius (their only correct historian and sage)
he may have been indebted to the Jews solely for his primary
instructions. and founded his prophecies on those recorded by the
Hebrews. In his Shoo-king, after his appealing to "Shang-te"
the supreme ruler, he treats of the terrestrial paradise, its rivers,
waters of immortality, fall of the angels and of man, and the
appearance at that moment of Mercy; also of the sabbath, con-
fusion of tongues, the manna in the wilderness, the holy one
in the west, who was incomprehensible and one with the Tien
(Heaven); that the world cannot know the Tien except by the
holy one, who only can offer a sacrifice acceptable to Shang-te,
the "supreme sovereign": that the nations are waiting for him
like plants for a refreshing shower. The Tien is the holy one
invisible, and the holy one is the Tien made visible and teaching
men. [Higgins, Anacalypsis.] Grosier states that the Chinese
Jews who visited him declared that they honoured. Confucius as
a great lawgiver, and they asserted that the number of Jews
who departed from Egypt was sixty thousand. Grosier adds
that the Jews were noticed in China B.c. 206; they may have
been there long previous in great numbers, and inculcated their
habits. The few Chinese customs with which we are acquainted
present a striking similarity to those of the Jews; in their nu-
merous ceremonies,-new moons, and the number of their civil
courts, their few capital punishments, life for life; their patriar-
chal government; tithes, and night watches (Judges vii. 19)
eating the sacrificed offerings and making merry (Exodus xxix.) :
phylactaries worked into their garments, and worn on their fore-
head and left arms. (The Chinese edicts are so carried to this day.)
The Jewish High Priest wore eight garments and a girdle; could
not marry a widow or divorced woman; entered into the Sanctum
Sanctorum once a year, was priest and lawgiver, and could alone
pray for the people: so also with the Chinese.
In the year 536, B.C., and seventy years after the Jews had been
driven eastward from their own country, King Cyrus published an
edict throughout his empire, which then included all the kingdoms
of the earth, declaring that all the people of the God of Heaven
might return to the land of their fathers. Josephus says that
many thousands of them continued to prefer the east for their
residence.
The successor of Cyrus, Cambyses, was adverse to the return of
the Jews, and disputes arose between them and the Persians. An
appeal was made to their new king, and Ahasuerus commanded the
edict of Cyrus to be brought from Ecbatana, and to be proclaimed
anew from Ethiopia to India; from this Josephus, and Orasius, with
other Christian writers, founded their belief that the Jews were
scattered throughout the east.
In the library of the King of the French, there is a narrative of
240
JEWS EARLY IN CHINA.
travels in India and China, by two Mohammedans, who visited
those countries in the years A.D. 850 and 877. An extract from
this interesting narrative on Canton proves the existence of many
Jews in China at the period.
In detailing the particulars of a siege at Canfu (Canton), the
writer states, that "besides the Chinese who were massacred upon
this occasion, there perished 120,000 Mohammedans, Jews, Chris-
tians, and Parsees, who were there on account of traffic. The
number of the professors of those four religions who thus perished
is exactly known, because the Chinese are extremely nice in the
account they keep of them."
The apparent vestiges of Judaism found in Tartary and China,
led Manasseh, who is admitted to have been one of the most
learned Jewish doctors, to adopt an opinion, that a part of the Ten
Tribes settled in Tartary.
66
Basnage maintains, "that the Ten Tribes retired to the East
Indies and China." He further states, "that the Jews were ac-
quainted with these countries in the time of Solomon; as this
prince formed an alliance with the King of Tyre, and they sent
their fleets to Ophir to obtain gold, ivory, and frankincense. [See
1 Kings, chap. ix., 26 verse; chap. x.; 2nd Chronicles, chap. ix. 22.]
Whether "Ophir" was on the peninsula of Malacca, contiguous
to the China Sea, or at Sofala, on the east coast of Africa, is doubt-
ful. I visited Sofala in Her Majesty's vessels "Levan and Barra-
couta" in 1824; and Malacca, in 1844, in Her Majesty's steamer,
Spiteful;" my opinion is in favour of Malacca being the true
Ophir. There is a large mountain so named, contiguous to the
coast at Malacca, and it abounds in gold. In sailing close along
the shore at night, the air was perfumed as if with spices and frank-
incense. The whole country teems with rich and rare products.
Sofala, on the contrary, is a low, swampy territory; no mountain
is visible; gold-dust is certainly obtained there, brought from the
interior, but there are no spices, frankincense, or myrrh. Its lati-
tude prohibits the growth of those articles, while Malacca is spe-
cially adapted for them. The transition of the Jews from Malacca,
up the coast, to China, was an easy matter: indeed, the Chinese
themselves visited the Red Sea and Persian Gulph.
About the year A.D. 1150, the Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela,
visited several eastern countries, for the express purpose of ascer-
taining the residence of the lost tribes. The rabbi found some of
his brethren in Samarcand, China, and Tibet; in the first city he
found 50,000 Israelites.
Peristal, an Italian Jew, who lived about two centuries ago,
asserts that the Jews were at one time numerous and powerful in
India and China, in the silk trade.
Marco Polo, who held a high office in China, in the 12th cen-
tury, makes frequent mention of the Jews and Christians.
The Roman Catholic Missionaries, in the 17th century, discovered
A
EARLY JEWS IN CHINA.
241
a synagogue of Jews, at Kaifung-foo, in the province of Honan.
Father Gazani took a copy of the inscriptions which were written
on large tablets of marble in the synagogue. These Jews informed
him that there was a Bible at Peking in the temple. (See chapter
ii., page 70, of this work.)
All the information gleaned on the subject, may be seen in the
18th volume of the "Lettres Edificantes et Curieuses."
The above statement is corroborated by the Rev. W. C. Milne,
in a letter from Ningpo in 1843; he says, "a Mohammedan priest,
who visited me, brought with him a follower of the prophet. This
stranger gave me very distinct information of a class of religionists
in Kaifung-foo, his native province. He says, 'they refrain from
eating the sinew which shrank, which is upon the hollow of the
thigh,' (Gen. chap. xxxii., v. 32), and they do not touch the blood
of animals. He recognised the Hebrew letters as those used in
their Sacred Writings. See Grozier's China, Tom. iv.
The learned Manasseh believed that the prophecy of Isaiah
(chap. xlix., v. 12), clearly refers to this emigration of the dispersed
tribes, and he applied the words of Isaiah, "the people shall return
from the country of the Siniens," to Sinim. He further observes,
that it is not surprising that the Ten Tribes should pass from
Assyria into Tartary or China, when the distance was so short from
the former to the latter countries.
The land of Sinim is thus referred to in the Bible
(C
•
Behold, these shall come from far and lo! these from the north
and from the west; and these from the land of Sinim."-Isaiah,
chap. xlix., v. 12.
In the Latin language, China is written Sinae and Sinenses,
which approach as nearly to the Hebrew word Sinim, as the nature
of the Latin tongue allows. Marco Polo states that the Japanese
in his time (1276 A.D.), called them "Cin," or Chin; and by this
name are they called to this day by the Siamese and Cochin
Chinese. In the Armenian history, A.D. 450, China is called Tsenia,
and is said to be the land of silks. Ptolemy, A.D. 150, calls them
Sinitis: Aristotle heard of them through Alexander, by the name.
Thinae.
Kathay, Cathay, and Kitai, was an appellation given to a tribe
of Tartars, who were in possession of the northern division of China.
from A.D. 917 to 1126, they extended their conquests westward of
Cashgar. This tribe was driven out of China by another Tartar
tribe called Kin, and the Kin were attacked by the Mongols under
Genghis Khan, (A.D. 1209).
In the most ancient Persian and Arabian records, the Chinese
are called Jin, Chin, and Sin; it is probable that these names are
derived from the great family of Tsin, the first that consolidated
and governed all China.
The Arabian mariners thus describe Thiana (China.)
"Merchants from Arabia met others on the W. coast of India,
R
ita
242
ARABIAN AND GREEK KNOWLEDGE OF CHINA.
who came from the E. coast; those on the E. coast traded to a
country farther east, called the Golden Chersonesis, there was
another voyage still eastward which terminated at Thiana, and
Thiana was bounded by the ocean."
The Macedonians were the first who brought the name Thina to
Europe. Cosmos heard of the Chinese in Ceylon through Sopatrus,
and he calls them Tzinistae. This title approaches Chinese as
nearly as it can be expressed in Greek letters. The first notice of
Thina (China) by the Greeks is the alleged treatise of Aristotle,
De Mundo.
The map of Eratasthenes (B.c. 250) as recorded by Strabo, con-
tained Thina at the extremity of the world, and bounded by the
ocean; it was placed in the parallel of Rhodes, in lat. 30° N.
This parallel passes through the present dominions of China, and
probably relates to the then capital.
'Seres in Greek signifies worms,' hence the name of the nation
from which silk came. Sinae was for this reason called Seres by
the Greeks.
Periplus states that the raw material and the fabric were
conveyed by land through Bactria, to Berguza, i.e. Guzerat, and
by the Ganges to Limurike.
Dionysius, who translated the works of Eratasthenes, thus de-
scribes the silk as prepared by the Seres. The "flower" referred
to may be that of the cotton shrub, which was certainly known in
China B.C. 200.
"Nor flocks, nor herds, the distant Seres tends;
But from the flowers that in the desert bloom,
Tinctured with every varying hue, they cull
The glossy down, and card it for the loom."
Virgil supposed that the Seres carded their silk from leaves; and
it will be seen at page 88, that a sort of silk is collected from leaves
and trees, as deposited by an insect like a spider. Dr. Robertson
observes that the Greeks very early imitated, and endeavoured
to surpass, the sovereigns of Asia in magnificence; and as silk
was then prized above all other luxuries, and China being the
only country then known to possess it, the position occupied by
the Persians gave them an advantage over the merchants from the
Arabian gulf, which they turned to their advantage, in all the
marts of India, to which silk was brought by sea from the east.
The caravans that supplied the Greeks with silk, had to travel by
land to China, and pass through the northern provinces of Persia:
so that Constantinople was entirely dependent on a rival power,
for an article which ministered to their pride and luxury.
Arian A.D. 136 after describing an island in the Indian Ocean,
says: 'still further on, towards the north, beyond the sea
which bounds the country of the Sinae, is the great city Thinae,
in the interior; from which raw and manufactured silks are
brought to Barygaza by way of Bactria and the Ganges. Its
}
ROMAN KNOWLEDGE OF CHINA.
243
territories are said to extend to the remote sides of the Pontus and
the Caspian sea. On the frontiers of Thinae, an annual fair is
held for the Sesatae (Tartars).
Silk, which for several centuries was sold weight for weight
with gold, became a great favourite with the Romans, but com-
mercial intercourse was so frequently interrupted by the Parthians,
(whose sway extended from the Caspian to that part of Tartary
which borders on China) that a negotiation was set on foot by
the Roman Emperor to establish a more secure trade.
M. Remusat, quoting from a Chinese writer, says: "the Kings of
great Tsin (Roman empire) were always desirous of forming relations
with the Chinese; but the people of A-se, who bartered their goods for
those of the great Tsin, always took care to conceal the route and
prevent a communication between the two empires, which did not
take place till the reign of Hwan-te (A.D. 166) when the king of great
Tsin, named An-tun (Antoninus) sent an embassy by Tonquin. Their
cloths are better dyed and finer than those made to the east of the
sea; they wished for the silk of the middle kingdom, which is
the reason of their keeping up a trade with the A-se, and other
neighbouring people. This native account coincides in every
respect with the writings of the western historians.
دو
There appear to have been several points of similitude between
the ancient Romans and the Chinese. Bayer and Paravey observe
that the Chinese letters consisted of nine simple character, five of
which were plain lines, and the other four were two or three joined
together; which corresponds to the description of the Roman nu-
merals. The Irish Ogham is undoubtedly the Scandinavian or
Saxon Rune, and they are all identical with the Chinese.
John Hoskins, Vice-President of the Royal Society, in 1686,
shews that the Abacus was the same among the earliest Romans and
Chinese, and exhibits drawings of each; one stroke, or line, to
make one, and a cross to count ten, X, and so on till one hundred.
The Roman stove found in Chester, is similar to those in use in
China at the present day (see page 96).
The Armenian history and geography designates China under
the title of Zenia, which was characterized by the production of silk,
the opulence of the natives, and by their love of peace above all
the other nations of the earth.
B.C. 25. In the reign of Wao-te, the Chinese had penetrated
into all the kingdoms of western Tartary, exeept Ke-pin (Samar-
cand), which had hitherto treated every proposal to become tribu-
tary to China with contempt. During the previous reign the
rulers of Samarcand tendered allegiance to the Chinese, but their
sincerity was doubted. A deputation arrived this year (B.c. 25),
with the same profession of attachment, but some secret motive
influenced the government of China to refuse the proffer made,
under the pretence that they did not wish to augment their distant
dependencies.
Ptolemy (A.D. 137) states, that merchants from India, who were
R 2
244
INTERCOURSE WITH CENTRAL ASIA.
joined by Greeks from Cilicia, assembled for trade with the Seres
(Chinese), at a place called "the Stone Tower." From this tower
to the capital of the Seres was a journey of seven months.
The Greeks and Romans, in prosecuting a trade with China,
must have traversed a great portion of the extensive countries to
the east of the Caspian sea.
Ptolemy gives a description of these inland and remote regions
of Asia. The most distant part of the East to which his geographi-
cal knowledge extended, he calls "Sera Metropolis," which bears
the same position with Kan-cheou, a city in the province of
Shen-se, and which is the most westerly province in China Proper.
He places it in longitude 117° 15′. In this province reigned
the Tsin Dynasty. His knowledge was not confined to the cara-
van road, as he writes concerning various nations towards the
north, which, according to the position he gives them, points them
out as parts of the great plains of Tartary, extending beyond Lassa
and Tibet. The latitudes are fixed with such precision that he
probably visited the places described.
Intercourse must have been early established between the
Chinese and the regions of Central Asia.
B.C. 127. In the reign of Han-wao-te, Cha-keen was sent to
render assistance to a people called Yue-che (west of China). After
a long journey, he arrived at Ta-wan (Sogdiana), and from thence
passed into Transoxiana, where he resided more than one year.
The report of his travels is as follows: Ta-wen is about 10,000
le W. of Shen-se, to the N.E. lies Oo-sun; to the E., Khoten;
the kingdom of Ta-hea is to the S.W. of Ta-wan. He saw at Ta-hea,
cloths and other things similar to the productions of China, and
they told him they came from the kingdom of Shintoo (India).
Shintoo is some thousand le S.E. of Ta-hae. There are three
routes to Ta-hae; one by the country of the Keangs; the second
more to the north; the third, which is the shortest and best, is
through the country of Shoo.*
A.D. 94. The Emperor Ho-te sent a general called Pan-chaou,
to the shores of the Caspian Sea. In the former reigns of Ming
and Chang, this general had extended the empire very much: he
restored Cashgar to its former alliance, and conquered eight other
kingdoms. He, at this period, passed the Snowy Mountains (N. of
Cashgar), subdued the Kings of Yue-che and Koo-che (Bish-balikh),
and, by the submission of the states of Little Buchara, he was
enabled to reach the shores of the "Sea of the North" (Caspian);
from whence he sent the spoils of fifty kingdoms to the imperial
court. His intention was to have gone across the sea to the king-
dom of Ta-tsin (Roman empire), with which the Chinese had become
acquainted by their commercial transactions with it through Per-
sia and Tartary. The information gained on this occasion is fully
* The Tung-keen Kang-muh, by Mailla, vol. iii.
SAINT THOMAS THE APOSTLE IN CHINA.
245
detailed in Chinese history. He speaks of Min-ke, Taw-le, and
A-se (said to be Bokhara or Buchara).
The intercourse that existed between China and various nations,
previous and subsequent to the Christian era, naturally leads to
the conclusion that the "land of Sinim” was visited by Christian
missionaries at an early period; and an examination of the whole
state of China leads to the conclusion that the inculcation of the
divine precepts of our Redeemer, shortly after their adoption in
the west, has probably been the means of preserving China from
falling into barbarism, human sacrifices, &c., as was the case with
all the surrounding nations that did not become converts to
Mahomedanism.
The Rev. Mr. Medhurst has shown it is a well ascertained fact,
that St. Thomas the Apostle preached the Christian faith in India ;
and Assemannus tells us that he passed over to a country on the
east of India, where he preached the gospel, and founded a church
in the city of Cambala (Peking); after which he returned to
Malabar. This is confirmed by the Chaldean ritual, which pro-
vides an office or ceremony for the celebration of St. Thomas,
which says, that "by him the Persians, Hindoos, and Chinese were
converted to the Christian faith." The early chronicles of China
state that their conquests extend as far as Ta-tsin, which signifies
Arabia and Judea; the date likewise corresponds with the close of
the first century of this era.
It was not only by land that the Chinese carried on intercourse
with distant countries; their early knowledge of the compass was
conveyed to Europe, and used by the navigators of the western
world.
Homer, speaking of the Phœacians, as to their extraordinary
skill in maritime affairs, makes Alcinous give to the shipping of
his island the same common character with Argos, and the ships
Phrixus, in the following lines:
"No pilot's aid Phoacian's vessels need,
Themselves, instinct with sense, securely speed ;
Endued with wondrous skill, untaught they share,
The purpose and the will of those they bear;
To fertile realms and distant climates go,
And where each realm and city lies they know;
Swiftly they fly, and through the pathless sea,
Though wrapt in clouds and darkness, find their way.”
ODYSEY, L. viii.
It has been shewn in the previous chapter (page 194), that the
Chinese claimed a knowledge of the mariners' compass at a very
early period.
The travels of a Chinese named Fo-Hian, in the fourth century,
translated by MM. Remusat and Klaproth, show that navigation
was then carried on throughout the east, and that intercourse sub-
sisted between China and India. Fo-Hian, with several com-
246
MARITIME VOYAGES OF CHINESE.
panions, set out on his travels, A.D. 319, from Chang-an, in the
province of Shen-se, and returned to Nanking, A.D. 414, being
absent fifteen years. His narrative is chiefly occupied with
details of Budhism; and having found a town, he calls To-mo-li-ti, '
a part of the Bay of Bengal, in which his religion flourished, he
remained there two years transcribing manuscripts.
Fo-Hian states that he embarked from this place, with a large
number of merchants, in a ship that would carry 200 people, and
arrived at Sinhala (Ceylon) in fourteen days, the wind being
favourable.
He embarked from Ceylon in a merchant vessel of large dimen-
sions, and well provisioned, for a long voyage across the Indian
Ocean, and after a passage of ninety days arrived in Java. Having
remained there for five months, he set sail for China; and, at the
end of sixty days, being short of water, the vessel bore up for the
promontory of Lao, which is situated in the province of Shan-tung,
and bears the same name to this day.
This is not only confirmatory of intercourse, in a commercial
point of view, but disproves the assertion of those who state that
the Hindoos were never navigators. Fo-Hian found many Hindoos
at Java.
M. De Guignes says,
(C nous trouvons dans les annales Chi-
naises des vii. et viii. siècles, une route par mer depuis la Chine
jusqu' a l'embouchure de l'Euphrate. Les vaisseaux partaient de
Canton, ou les Arabes avaient un comptair très considérable; cette
route est très bien suivie jusqu'a l'île de Ceylon; le temps que
l'on emploie pour aller d' un lieu a' l'autre est indiqué; Ceylon
dit on, est situé au midi du Tien-teo meridional, c'est à dire de
l'Inde; de-là en suivant la côte occidentale on passait devant le
pays de Molai ou de Malabar, ensuite vers le nord ou est on
cotayait dix petits rayaumes, qui conduisoient aux frontiers occi-
dentales du pays des Brahmes et Menu." Littera xxxii.
It may here be noted as a reason for the subsequent decadence
of the Chinese in maritime commerce, that their distant navigation
was materially checked, as was also that of other eastern nations,
by the lawless and buccaneering conduct of the Portuguese, who,
when paramount in the Indian Seas, were regardless of whom they
plundered.
The Chinese government, at a very early period, were well aware
of the piratical propensities of the Dutch and Portuguese. The
former were asked at one time, when the embassy visited Peking,
had they "any land to live on?"
The Arabian traveller Ebn Wuahab (A.D. 877) points out the
road taken at that time, in the voyage from Bussora to Canton; he
gives an account of the several islands he met with, and of their
productions, and speaks of the manners and customs of the
Chinese. He arrived at the capital of China with presents, and
had an audience with the Emperor, who seemed to know all the
sovereigns of the oriental countries, such as the Emperor of Constan-
1
MARITIME ARABIAN INTERCOURSE.
247
tinople, and the Khaliff of Bagdad. In the Mediterranean on the
coast of Syria, this traveller found the wreck of an Arabian vessel;
the construction announced that it was of Siraph, in the gulph of
Persia. He states, that all vessels built at Siraph, were put together
in a particular way, without nails, which distinguished them from
all other vessels. This Arabian marks the course the Chinese
vessels steered from Canton to Bussora; they went from China
to Ceylon, doubled Cape Comorin, ran down the coast of Malabar,
passed the mouths of the Indus, and from thence to Siraph. The
Chinese were well acquainted with the Euphrates. From Bussora.
the merchandize was dispersed among the Mohammedan countries,
and to the coast of Africa.
The account given by two Arabian merchants, who traded to
China, A.D. 850 and 877, is as follows: the first traveller (A.D. 850)
states, that the port of Canfoo was the principal resort of all the
ships and goods of the Arabs, who then traded with China. That
Canfoo (Kwanchoo-foo, i.e. Canton) is a large city built on a
great river.
The extortions of the Chinese authorities on the
Arabian merchants, and the delay of their ships, is a subject of com-
plaint. The charges amounted to thirty per cent. on the value of
each commodity. Arabian merchants wishing to travel through
the interior of China, were required to procure two passports, one
from the governor, and the other from the lieutenant. The Ara-
bians highly approved of this system, as a protection for many of
their countrymen, who then traded with the interior of China, as
these passports are registered throughout the whole frontier posts.
And by this means, any but the proper owner is prevented being
in possession of the property, as a most minute description is set.
forth; so that, should death overtake the traveller, his property is
carefully restored to his heirs. The Emperor of China appointed a
Mohammedan judge over those of that religion, who then resided
in Canton. The merchants of Irak, who then visited Canton, have
reported favourably of his general conduct and decisions, as in
every respect conformable to the Koran. The last Arabian, who
visited China in 877 A.D. gives an account of a revolution that took
place about this period, in the city of Canfoo, (Canton) on which
occasion, there were massacred, one hundred and twenty thousand
Christians, Jews, Mohammedans, and Parsees, who were quietly
attending their business. The writer states, that their grievances
increased, so that all the Arabian merchants returned in crowds to
Siraph and Oman.
The Arabs appear to have maintained and cultivated an extensive
intercourse with China, from an early period.
A.D. 708, in the reign of Walid, an embassy was sent to China
with valuable presents; viâ Cashgar.
A.D. 635. The Chinese annals state, that during the reign of
Taitsung, the second Emperor of the Tang dynasty, there came am-
bassadors from foreign nations. There arrived at the capital of
China, Singan-foo, a man of exalted virtue, named Olapun. The
248
CHRISTIAN INTERCOURSE IN THE COUNTRY.
Emperor graciously received this stranger, examined the na-
ture of the new religion, (Scriptures ;) found that Olapun was
thoroughly acquainted with truth and uprightness, and gave him a
special command to make it known. The following year this de-
cree was issued, "Truth hath not an unchanging name, nor are
holy men confined to one unchanging form. In every place
true doctrine has been given, and with reiterated instructions,
the crowd of the living have been blessed. From the distant
region of Ta-tsin,* (Arabia probably) the greatly virtuous Olapun
has brought the scriptures and the pictures, to offer them to our
high court. If the intent of this doctrine be examined, it is pro-
found, excellent, and pure. If its noble origin be considered, it
produces that which is important. Its phraseology is without
superfluous words. It holds the truth, but rejects that which is
needless. It is benefical in all affairs and profitable to the people,
and should therefore pervade the empire. Let the officers erect a
temple for the religion of Ta-tsin in the capital, and appoint twenty-
one ministers for its oversight.'
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The discovery of a Syrian monument, commemorating the pro-
gress of Christianity in China, which was erected A.D. 718, is a
remarkable fact, in corroboration of the foregoing statement. This
monument was discovered by some Chinese workmen, A.D. 1625,
near the city of Singan, the capital of the province of Shense, which
was at a remote period the capital of the empire. This city is sit-
uated on the river Wei, in lat. 34° 16′ N. The monument is
described as a slab of marble, about ten feet long, and five broad;
it was covered with earth, but was instantly shown to the authorities,
and at this period, there were numerous Christian missionaries in
China, who had an opportunity of examining it, together with
Natives and Pagans. On one side of it is the Chinese inscription,
in twenty-eight lines, twenty-six characters in each line, besides a
heading, in nine characters; the Syrian is on the right side, com-
prised in seventeen characters, (see translation.) The nine Chinese
characters, at the top of this monument, read thus; a "Tablet
recording the introduction of the religion of the Ta-tsin country
into China."—(Ta-tsin, or Arabia and Judea.) It commences with
stating the existence of the living and true God,—the Creation of
the World,-the fall of man,-and the mission of Jesus Christ.
The miraculous birth and excellent teaching of the Saviour, are
briefly described. His Ascension is spoken of; the institution of
baptism, mentioned; and the cross declared to be effectual for
the salvation of all mankind. The latter part of the inscription
states, that in the reign of Tang-tae-tsung, A.D. 636, a Christian
teacher came from Ta-tsin, (supposed to be Arabia) to China;
where the Emperor, after examining his doctrines, published an
edict, authorising the preaching of Christianity among the people,
* Ta-tsin-" great purity."
:
7
I
NESTORIAN, ROMISH, AND ARMENIAN INTERCOURSE.
249
A.D. 782. The Emperor Suh-tsung founded several Christian
churches; and to perpetuate his deeds, this tablet was erected.
In A.D. 780, Timothy, the Nestorian patriarch, sent Subchal-
Jesus forth as a missionary, who is said to have laboured with
great success in China and in Tartary. The Nestorian Christians
appear to have held intercourse with, and to have been, more or
less prosperous in China, from the 7th to the 13th century,-some
say, to the 16th century, when they were overcome by the
Romanists. But a discussion on this subject is reserved for an
examination of the prospects of christianizing China, which will
close this work.
A.D. 1246. Innocent IV. was the first Pope who conceived the
idea of sending missionaries, under the title of ambassadors, to the
Tartar conquerors. Two Franciscan monks formed this embassy,
and their object was to obtain aid from the Tartars to wrest the
holy sepulchre from the infidels; but their shabby appearance
(being bare-footed), and refusing to pay homage to "Heaven's
Son," and their not bringing any presents, caused their dismissal,
with a letter to the Pope, telling him that "the Great Khan held
rightful sway over the whole earth.”
A.D. 1254. Haitho, king of Armenia, visited the Emperor of
China, in order to obtain a reduction of the amount of tribute
which the Mongols compelled him to pay; his visit was short, so
that he had not much opportunity of seeing the country. The in-
habitants he represents as most pompous and haughty.
A.D. 1288. Nicholas IV. sent John De Monte Corvino to China
to convert the Emperor to the religion of Rome. The chief obsta-
cle he met with was the Nestorians, who were very numerous; but
by great perseverance he built a church at Cambalu (Peking), bap-
tized 6,000 person, and translated the Psalms and New Testament
into the Mongolian language. He states that caravans arrived
from India and the shores of the Caspian, annually at the capital
of China. The whole of Bokhara was at this time under the
Mongol government.
Oderic, a friar, visited China about this period, and without any
difficulty travelled over a great portion of the empire, and from
thence passed through Tibet. Here, he says, he was shocked at
the custom which was prevalent of children eating the flesh of
their deceased parents.
The intercourse carried on by the Jesuits, in the 17th century,
will be examined when discussing the rise, progress, and decline of
Romanism in China.
A.D. 1330. Ibn Batuta, a native of Tangiers, was sent to China from
the court of Delhi. He states that on his arrival at Calicut, on the
Malabar coast, he found fifteen Chinese junks at anchor. Some of
these junks had on board 600 sailors, and 400 soldiers. These
vessels were worked by oars, and the superior officers had their
wires and families with them, who lived in houses built on deck.
250
SIMILARITY BETWEEN PERUVIANS AND CHINESE.
This envoy was surprised at the good order which reigned in
China. Paper money was in general use, and the number and
wealth of the Mohammedan merchants he met with, far exceeded
his expectations. He returned via Sumatra.
Marco Polo, in describing Koulam, now considered to be An-
jengo, in (Tamul language it signifies tank or pool,) at his time a
large city in India; says, it is the residence of many Christians
and Jews. He remarks that the heat of the climate is very great,
yet merchants visit it from various parts of the world, such as the
kingdom of China and Arabia, attracted by the great profits they
obtain upon the merchandize brought there and taken away. It
it now, however, a rare thing to see a Chinese vessel to the west-
ward of the straits of Malacca and Sunda; although it is certain
that in a remote period, the Chinese did, reciprocally with the
Arabians, trade not only to the Peninsula of India, but also to the
Persian Gulf.
The authority of Edrisi, who wrote about the 12th century, (A.D.
1156,) is direct to the purpose :-
"Ex ipsa," he says of a port in Yemen, "solvuntur navigia
Sindae, Indiae, et Sinarum, et ad ipsam deferuntur vasa Sinica."-
(Geographia, page 25.)
Edrisi further says, "Muskat, the ancient capital of Oman, was
visited every year by great numbers of merchant-ships; and was
annually much frequented by ships from Sin," (China.)
There are probabilities that the Chinese also penetrated the
Continent of America. The Peruvian annals state, that about the
year 1100 or 1150 A.D., Manco Capac, with his wife and sister,
Mama Ocella, appeared as strangers on the banks of the Titiaca,
and announced themselves as "children of the sun," sent by their
beneficent parent to reclaim them from savage life. Manco in-
structed the men in agriculture, and Mama taught the women to
spin and weave. This might be rejected as a fable, if there were
not a similarity in the institutions of the Peruvians and of the
Chinese. The first injunction strictly enjoined was to "love one
another." The preference was given to useful arts over warlike in-
struments: their literary men ranked highest as poets and philo-
sophers.
The Emperor was considered the father of his people; whose
progenitor descended from Heaven. He was high-priest as well as
temporal prince. There was an annual ploughing match, in which
the Incas took part. Irrigation, together with various composts
for manure, characterized Peruvian husbandry. The taxes paid
in kind, were maize, rice, silk, cotton, &c. Roads were constructed
for general purposes, and houses of entertainment erected on them.
Humboldt remarks on their mode of architecture as precisely simi-
lar, and all of one model. The Peruvians were celebrated for their
coarse pottery.
In their dramas and spectacles; their suspension bridges made of
L
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1
1
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN INDIA AND CHINA.
251
ropes, and chains made of twisted osiers; rafts with a mast and sail
made of mats; knotted cords for calculating time; monasteries and
nunneries, there is a remarkable coincidence, demonstrative, at
least, of intercourse between the Peruvians and the Chinese.
As the subject is not confined to mere antiquarian intcrest, but
may help to indicate our future policy, some more detail will be
useful.
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN INDIA AND CHINA.
B C. 126. The first authentic record of intercourse between
India and China, was during the reign of the Emperor Wante,
who sent an envoy to Tchang-kiao, with a retinue of 100 men, to
visit the western countries, such as Khorassan and Meru-al-nahar.
This envoy procured information about Persia; and seeing rich
articles of trade from India, his curiosity prompted him to visit
that country.
That there was a constant commercial intercourse between India,
Ceylon, and China, about the beginning of the Christian era, is
fully proved by Pliny, (lib. 60, cap. ccxx.) The same passage
establishes the fact of a regular intercourse between the Roman
and Chinese merchants.
The above passage is thus translated by Salmasius :-" A certain
King of Ceylon sent four ambassadors to the Emperor Claudius,"
(this emperor ascended the throne, A.D. 44).
"The chief of this embassy (Rachias) being asked if he knew the
Seres (Chinese), answered that the Seres lived beyond the Hai-
miada, or Snow Mountains; with regard to Ceylon, that the Seres
were often seen, or visited by his countrymen, and were well known
to them through a commercial intercourse; that his father had been
there, and whenever caravans from Ceylon (and probably also from
India) went there, the Seres came part of the way to meet them in
a friendly manner; which it seems was not the case with the
caravans from the west, consisting of Roman merchants."
Thus we see that the inhabitants of Ceylon traded to China, at
the commencement of our era, and it was by land that the inter-
course was carried on. There can be no doubt that they went first
by sea to the country of Magad'ha, the name given by the Chinese
to all India. This kingdom of Magad'ha, in Anu-Gangam, is the
province of South Bahar, called by the Chinese Makiato, the Arabs
Mabid, or the Gangetic provinces, where Buddha was born, and his
religion flourished.
The traders from Ceylon, on arriving at Magad❜ha, joined
the caravans of that country, and went to China, through what
Ptolemy calls the great route from Palebothra to China.
It was by means of this commercial intercourse, that Budhism
was introduced into China in A.D. 65; and from that era we may
date the constant and regular intercourse between Magad'ha and
252
ROUTE BETWEEN INDIA AND CHINA.
China; until the extirpation of the religion of Buddha, and the
invasion of the Mussulmans.
A.D. 159. The King of Tientso (India), sent an embassy by sea
to China, with many rare presents to the Emperor.
[The Chinese call India, Shinto and Tientso.]
A.D. 408. Yuegnai, King of Kiaple (or the Ganges), sent ambas-
sadors to China.
A.D. 473. The King of Poali (Magad'ha), sent ambassadors to
China.
A.D. 641. The Indian king of the countries belonging to the
great Mogul, and included in the Mo-kiato, or Magad'ha empire,
sent an embassy to China.
A.D. 642.
Kaou-tsung, Emperor of China, sent an embassy in
return to Houlomien. This Emperor had previously reduced all
India under his yoke.
A.D. 647. The Emperor of Magad'ha sent a second embassy to
China, and likewise the King of Nipolu (Nipal).
A.D. 648. Kaou-tsung, Emperor of China, sent an embassy to
the King of Magad'ha; but in the mean time Houlomien died,
and a civil war was raging.
Ptolemy states that there were two roads by which the inhabit-
ants of India and China communicated with each other; one road
led to Bactira, and the other to Palibothra. Merchandise was
conveyed first to the west, through Balkh to Palibothra, and from
the latter carried down the Ganges, and by sea to Limyrica.
From the metropolis of China, Ptolemy states there was a road
leading to Cattigara, in the country of Cambodia, in a south-west
direction.
With regard to the track, from the country of the Magad'ha,
and Palibothra, to China;-from Cabul there was a road leading
through the mountains, north of the Punjab, which met another
from Jahora, in the same country, at a place called Aris, in the
mountains. These two roads are frequented to this day, and meet
at a place called the Eyes of Mansarowar, where there are three
lakes. Magasthenes gives the distance from the Indus to Pali-
bothra as 20,000 stadia (1,476 British miles).
On the authority of Chinese history, it appears that there was
constant intercourse between the kingdom of Magad'ha and
China, and the trade to an island and kingdom called Founan,
to the eastward of Siam, during the third and fourth centuries.
This was probably a Malay kingdom.
The Mohammedan travellers who visited China in the ninth
century, and whose correct description of the country is not disputed,
thus write: "the kings of Mabed send every year ambassadors and
presents to the Emperor of China, who in return sends ambassadors.
to them. Their country is of great extent, and when the ambas-
sadors from Mabed enter China, they are carefully watched, and
never once allowed to survey the country, for fear they should form
MOORISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA.
253
designs of conquering it, because they are parted from China only
by mountains and rocks; which would be no difficult task."
Father Semedo, giving a description of China, in A.D. 1610,
states, that "in the province of Xemsi, (now called Kangsoo) there
is much merchandise, for it hath two cities in the borders thereof,
Gauchew and Suchaw toward the west, from whence come numer-
ous caravans, of above a thousand in company, from several nations ;
but for the most part Moors. With these caravans come ambas-
sadors, which the princes of the Moors send to the king of China,
making every three years a small embassy, and every five years a
great one. These foreign caravans remain in the above cities,
trafficking there with their merchandise. The embassy in the
mean time depart to the Emperor with the presents from the five
kings, viz. The kings of Rume, Arabia, Cabol, Samarkan, (Samar-
cand) and Turfon; the first four know nothing of this embassy, but
the fifth king names the ambassadors, and the merchants make up
the presents between themselves; they remain three months at
the Emperor's expense."
It is probable that there is no inconsiderable trade still carried
on with Central Asia from the western frontiers of China.
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN PERSIA AND CHINA.
Sir William Jones translated an account of embassies and letters
that passed between the Emperor of China and Shahrokh, the son
of Timur. One of the annals of the Hidjerah, (year 811,) commenc-
ing 26th of May, 1408, A.D., runs as follows :---
"When the king (i.e. Shah Rokh Mirza) returned from his expe-
dition to Scistan, ambassadors, who had been sent by the Emperor
of China, to condole with him on the death of his father, arrived
with a variety of presents, and represented what they had to say on
the part of their monarch. The king after showing them many
favours and civilities, gave them dismission.
A.D. 1412. "Ambassadors from the Emperor of China and
Machin, and all those countries, arrived at Herat. His majesty
gave orders that the city and bazaars should be decorated, and that
the merchants should adorn their shops with all possible art and
elegance. The lords of the court also went to meet and welcome
them. It was a time of rejoicing and gaiety. After which his
majesty ascended the throne, and bestowed upon the chief of his
lords and the ambassadors, the happiness of kissing his hand. The
latter, after offering him their presents, delivered their message
and the Emperor's letter."
The following is a copy of the letter of the Emperor of China to
Shahrokh; it is in the usual arrogant style of a superior to an in-
ferior:
'The great Emperor, Day-ming, sends this letter to the country
of Samarcan, to Shahrokh Bahadur.
254
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN PERSIA AND CHINA.
"As we consider that the most high God has created all things
in heaven and earth, to the end that all his creatures may be happy,
and that it is in consequence of his sovereign decree, that we are
become lord of the face of the earth, we therefore endeavour to exer-
cise rule in obedience to his commands, and for this reason we
nake no partial distinctions between those that are near, and those
that are afar off, but regard them all with an eye of equal bene-
volence. We have heard before this that thou art a wise and ex-
cellent prince, highly distinguished above others, that thou art
obedient to the commands of the most high God, that thou art a
father to thy people and to thy troops, and art good and beneficent
towards all; which has given us much satisfaction. But it was
with singular pleasure that when we sent an embassy with Kimkhas
and Torkos, and a dress, thou didst pay all due honour to our com-
mands, and didst make a proper display of the favour thou hadst
received, insomuch that small and great rejoiced at it. Thou didst
also forthwith dispatch an ambassador to do us homage, and to
present us the rarities, horses, and manufactures of that country:
so that with the strictest regard to truth we can declare, that we
have deemed thee worthy of praise and distinction.
"The government of the Monguls was some time ago extinct,
but thy father Timur Fuma was obedient to the commands of the
most high God, and did homage to our great Emperor Tay-zuy,
nor did he omit to send ambassadors with presents. He (the Em-
peror) for that reason granted protection to the men of that country,
and enriched them all. We have now seen that thou art a worthy
follower of thy father, in his noble spirit, and in his measures; we
have therefore sent an embassy with congratulations and a dress,
and Kimkhas and Tarkos, and that the truth may be known. We
shall hereafter send persons whose office it will be to go and return
successively, in order to keep open a free communication, that mer-
chants may traffic and carry on their business to their wish. This
is what we make known to thee."
Another letter was sent with the presents, and contained a par-
ticular account of them; besides, it served as a pass, which was to
remain with the ambassadors. Each was written in the Persian
language and character, as well as in the Turkish, the Mogul, and
the Chinese characters.
The embassy was most hospitably entertained, and one in return
was sent to China, with a letter, in Arabic and in Persian; Shah-
rokh being most anxious that the Emperor of China should regu-
late his conduct by the law of the Koran.
A.D. 1417. The Emperor of China again sent ambassadors to
his Majesty, attended by three hundred horse; the embassy con-
veyed an abundance of rarities and presents, and a letter from the
Emperor of China with acknowledgments for past favours. The
chief point in this letter particularly insisted on, was that both
parties should strive to remove all constraint arising from distance
1
1
CHINA SOUGHT FREE INTERCOURSE.
255
of place, that the subjects and merchants of both kingdoms might
The am-
enjoy a free and unrestrained intercourse with each other.
bassadors were handsomely entertained, and as on all former occa-
sions, received their dismission, when the king sent Ardasher
Tavachy, back with them to China.
About the end of Ramzan (Oct., 1419, A.D.) the ambassadors
Bimachin and jan-machin arrived at Herat, from China, with pre-
sents and a letter for the king as follows:
"The great Emperor Day-Ming sends this letter to Sultan
Shahrokh. The Most High has made you knowing, and wise, and
perfect. Your majesty is of an enlightened mind, skilful, accom-
plished, and judicious, and superior to all the Islamites. The wes-
tern country, which is the seat of Islamism, has been famous for
producing wise and good men; but none have been superior to
your majesty. We send your Majesty some presents, which are of
little value, only as tokens of our affection and regard.
"Henceforth, we hope that ambassadors and merchants, shall be
always passing and repassing between us without interruption, to the
end that our subjects may live in plenty, ease, and security. This is
what we have thought proper to write to you."
It is obvious from the foregoing that the Chinese government
sent out embassies with a view to the preservation of friendly and
commercial intercourse with distant states.
The letter from Shah Rokh, King of Herat, to the Emperor of
China, A.D. 1408, has been translated from the Arabic,-thus:
"There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his Apostle.
Mohammed, the Apostle of God, hath said, as long as ever there
shall remain a people of mine, that are steady in keeping the com-
mandments of God, the man that persecutes them shall not prosper,
nor shall their enemy prevail against them, until the day of judg-
ment. When the most high God proposed to create Adam, and his
race, he said, 'I have been a treasure concealed, but I choose now
to be known,-I therefore create human beings, that I may be
known.' It is then evident, from hence, that the wisdom of the
supreme Being, whose power is glorious, and whose word is sub-
lime, in the creation of the human species, was this-that the
knowledge of him, and of the true faith, might shine forth, and be
propagated. For this purpose. also, he sent his Apostle to direct
men in the way, and teach them the true religion, that it might be
exalted above all others, and the rites concerning clean and un-
clean might be known. And he granted us the sublime and
miraculous Koran, to silence the unbelievers, and cut short their
tongues. The most high God, therefore, constrains us, by his past.
mercies and present bounties, to labour for the establishment of
the rules of his righteous and indispensable law; and commands
us, under a sense of thankfulness to him, to administer justice aud
mercy to our subjects, in all cases, agreeably to the code and pre-
cepts of Mustafa. He requires us also to found mosques, colleges,
1
256 ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND THE CHINESE EMPEROR.
almshouses, and places of worship, in all parts of our dominions,
that the study of the laws, and the moral practices, which is the
result of those studies, may not be discontinued. Seeing then
that the permanence of temporal prosperity, and of dominion in thisį
lower world, depends on an adherence to truth and goodness, and
on the extirpation of heathenism and infidelity from the earth, with
a view to future retribution, I cherish the hope that your Majesty,
and the nobles of your realm, will unite with us in these matters,
and join us in establishing the sacred law. I trust, also, that your
Majesty will continue to send hither ambassadors, and express
messengers, and will strengthen the foundation of affection and
friendship, by keeping open a free communication between the two
empires; that travellers and merchants may pass to and fro,
molested, our subjects may be refreshed with the fruits of this
commerce. Peace be to him that follows the right path, for God is
ever gracious to them that serve him."
un-
A remarkable interview took place between the Emperor of China
and Alexander the Great, an account of which has been translated
from a Persian work by the late Sir John Malcolm.
After Alexander had made war against Paor or Porus, and slain
him, he marched against the Emperor of China. That monarch did
not consider himself equal to the conflict, and went in disguise to
the Grecian camp. He was discovered, and brought to Alexander,
who asked him how he could act in such a manner. The Emperor
replied: "I was anxious to see you, and your army; I could have
no fear on my own account, as I knew I was not an object of dread
to Alexander; besides, if he were to slay me, my subjects would in-
stantly raise another king to the throne. But of this I can have
no fear, as I am satisfied Alexander can never be displeased with
an action that shows a solicitude to obtain his friendship."
The conqueror was completely overcome by this truly Chinese
flattery, and concluded a treaty by which China was spared on con-
dition of paying tribute. The Emperor returned to his capital to
make preparations for the entertainment of his great ally; and the
third day he returned with an army, the dust of which announced
its great numbers, which made Alexander prepare his force for
battle. When both lines were opposite, the Emperor of China,
with his ministers and nobles, alighted and went towards the
Grecian Prince, who asked him why he had broken faith. "I
wished," said the Emperor, "to show the number of my army,
that you might be satisfied I made peace from other motives than
an inability to make war. It was from consulting the stars, that I
have been led to submit. The Heavens aid you, and I war not
with them."
Alexander was so gratified, that he released the Emperor from
paying tribute, as he was too wise, too pious, and too great a
prince; he was perfectly satisfied to have his friendship.
The Emperor took his leave, and sent a present of jewels, gold,
CHRONOLOGY OF FOREIGN INTERCOUrse.
257
and beautiful ladies, to the conqueror. [From a Persian work
called Zeenut-ul Tuarikh.]
We have no account of the extent of trade carried on between
Persia and China; nor when the intercourse ceased.
The mer-
chandise brought from the kingdom of Magor, and the city of
Lahore, A.D. 1603, to China, consisted of salt, ammoniac, azure,
fine linen, carpets, knives, &c. ; but the chief article was the stone
called Yaca, (Jade) much prized in China, for making ornaments.
The return cargo was porcelain, musk, rubies, raw-silk, silk-stuffs,
rhubarb, &c. The presents from Persia mentioned, consisted of 1333
Italian pounds' weight of Yaca, 340 horses, 300 small-pointed dia-
monds, twelve catties of fine azure; 600 knives, and as many files.
The presents from the Emperor of China consisted of two pieces
of cloth of gold for each horse; thirty pieces of yellow silk, thirty
pounds of cha, (tea,) ten of musk, and thirty pounds of silver. The
value of the Persian presents was estimated at 7000 crowns.
Those of the Chinese were valued by the Saracen merchants at
50,000.
CHRONOLOGY OF FOREIGN INTERCOURSE.
The accompanying record of foreign intercourse, and of foreign
missions to and from China, will prove that it is our own fault
China is not now open to a free intercourse with Europe.
B.C. 1000. Foreign embassies to China from eight "barbarous"
nations of India; the nearest was ten days', and the most remote,
about six months' journey. Extracts from Chinese translations
state that the Japanese traded about this time to China.
B.C. 984. The Emperor Muh-wang, paid a visit to Mount
Kwan lun, to see a western prince, called See-wang-moo. (See
page 199, on Dynasties.)
B.C. 141. The Emperor Woo-te, sent embassies to foreign
countries to trade, from which they brought gems, pearls, gold, &c.
Wante sent an embassy and retinue of 100 persons to
visit the western countries.
B.C. 121.
B.C. 100. The Chinese chronicles record embassies from Japan,
as they allege, with "tribute," i. e. presents.
A.D. 159. The King of India sent an embassy to China, with
rare presents.
A.D. 166.
China.
A Roman embassy, from Marcus Antoninus to
A.D. 176. India and other nations came to China by the
southern sea, with "tribute." Canton was at this period the
emporium for foreigners.
A.D. 265. A Roman embassy to China.
A.D. 285. Emperor Woo-te sent an ambassador to Lan-yu,
Prince of Ta-wan, (between the Oxus and Taxartes, E. of Samar-
cand), and conferred the title of king on him.
$
258
EMBASSIES TO AND FROM CHINA.
A.D. 287. Envoys received from the Roman provinces, W. of
Persia, called great Tsin.
A.D. 408.
to China.
A.D. 473.
China.
A.D. 600.
The King of Kiaple, (the Ganges,) sent an embassy
The King of Pala, (Magad'ha,) sent ambassadors to
During the Suy dynasty, ambassadors were sent to
the surrounding nations. Japan and China exchanged embassies,
regularly.
A.D. 641. The Indian King, under the Mogul, sent an embassy
to China.
A.D. 642. Kaou-tsung, Emperor of China, sent an embassy to
Houlomin. This Emperor had reduced all India to his sway,
A.D. 647. The King of Magadha, and the King of Nipalu,
(Nipal,) sent embassies to China.
A.D. 648. Kaou-tsung, Emperor of China, sent an embassy in
return to Magadha; but in the meantime, Houlomin died, and a
civil war raged in his dominions.
A.D. 795. A memorial to the Emperor of China, states, that
the foreign trading ships had deserted Canton; and now went to
Cochin-China; the memorial states, that a tenth of the value was
the amount of the duty charged. The Emperor's answer is, that
the jewel must have been spoiled in its case; meaning thereby, that
extortion had been used.
A D. 1246. An embassy from the Pope, viâ Russia, ill received.
A.D. 1253. An embassy from Louis the IX. (called St. Louis).
Violent polemical discussions with the Mahommedans and Nesto-
rians, caused this embassy to be dismissed, with this answer, "God
hath given the scriptures to the Christians: That holy book does not
permit them to vilify each other; nor for the sake of gain, to
abandon the paths of justice: Go and practice its precepts."
The Popes continued to keep up the intercourse by missions,
which were begun by Pope Innocent.
A.D. 1260. Two Venetian nobles, named Polo, visited China,
with a cargo of merchandise; they were well received by the Em-
peror, Khublia-khan, who proposed sending back with them, an
ambassador to the Pope, to induce His Holiness to send him Christ-
ian instructors. The ambassador died on the journey.
A.D. 1261.
The great Khan sent embassies to Louis the IX.,
James of Arragon, Charles of Sicily, and other Christian princes,
inviting them to join his forces.
A.D. 1276. The two Venetians, (Polo) returned to China, and
were well received. They brought letters from Gregory X. The
son, young Marco Polo, became the confidant of the Emperor, for
seventeen years, in various offices of trust. The father and uncle
had some difficulty to get away from court. At length, the Khan
sent them back by sea. Ambassadors from the Khan to the
Pope travelled with them.
1
FREE TRADE FOR FOREIGNERS IN CHINA, A.D. 1356. 259
A.D. 1279. Letter sent from Kublia Khan, to the Emperor of
Japan.
A.D. 1286. Embassy sent from China to Japan.
A.D. 1300. The Emperor, Yuen, sent an embassy to Japan,
which was joined by an envoy, from the King of Carea, but no
landing could be effected. This Emperor, and his successor, sent
eight different embassies and envoys, some of them military expe-
ditions in disguise, but they were all unsuccessful.
A.D. 1323. Ibn Batuta, a pilgrim, left Tangiers about this
time, and travelled over a great portion of Asia. On his arrival at
Alexandria, Batuta visited a pious Imaum, who dispatched him on
a mission to China, where he was well received, and was astonished
at the good order and industry of the people of China.
Paper money was in general use, in the way of trade.
In all the large towns he found Mohammedans, who were
wealthy merchants, and had their own officers and laws.
A.D. 1356. The provinces of Foo-keen, Canton, Che-keang,
and Chinchew, were opened to foreign ships; and an additional
officer appointed to Chinchew. All other ports were opened, on
giving a bond as security against smuggling; the commanders
were furnished with arms to defend themselves. An edict was
issued, naming the articles to be bought from foreigners with money;
and adding that any Chinese that would cheat foreigners, should
be severely punished.
A.D. 1370. Embassy from the Ming dynasty.
A.D. 1376. Embassy from Hung-wo.
A.D. 1400. Several reciprocal embassies.
Between India
and China.
A.D. 1400. It was decreed by the Chinese, that foreign nations
should bring "tribute" every three years; the regulations were
strict, and 120 houses were built, and set apart for the sole use
of the foreigners.
A.D. 1419. An ambassador was sent from China to Japan, to
purchase some rarities; he was badly treated, and narrowly es-
caped with his life.
A.D. 1420.
An embassy, from Shah Rokh Mirza, from Herat,
through Balkh and Samarcand; this embassy being joined by
others, on their journey, the whole number amounted to upwards
of 800 persons, the greatest portion of whom were merchants.
They were well and hospitably treated.
A.D. 1420. An embassy sent from Yung-loo.
A.D. 1518. An embassy from Portugal obtained permission to
settle at Sancian; subsequently treated with the Chinese for Macao.
A.D. 1539. The Japanese sent an ambassador to Ning-po, to
conclude a treaty of peace and commerce.
A.D. 1602. The Emperor of China sent an embassy to Manilla,
to ascertain the truth of a report which had reached him, that the
port of Cavite was formed of gold.
s 2
260
ALL CHINESE PORTS OPEN TO ALL NATIONS, A.D. 1686.
A.D. 1604. Another embassy from China to the Spanish au-
thorities, to know why 20,000 Chinese had been slain or banished
from Manilla; the embassy was satisfied, and trade resumed its
usual course.
A.D. 1624. The Dutch gained a settlement on the island of
Formosa, where the Chinese traded with them extensively.
A.D. 1625. The Emperor (Tien-ki); and government called to
their aid the Christian missionaries, and a number of Portuguese,
in repelling the Tartars; their knowledge of artillery, and generous
aid succeeded in driving away the enemy, who was within seven
leagues of Peking. The generals on this occasion were Christians.
The mother of the Emperor, his chief wife, and his eldest son re-
ceived the rite of Christian baptism, together with twenty ladies.
of rank at the court. The Chinese Empress was baptized Helena
and the other royal Christians sent a learned missionary, Michael
Baym, (a Pole) to Pope Alexander, to render obedience to the
court of Rome.
A.D. 1656. An embassy from the Dutch East India Company,
endeavoured to obtain a monopoly of trade, without success; they
were permitted to return with "tribute," every eight years. The
embassy arrived at Peking, 17th July, 1656, and remained there
ninety-one days.
A.D. 1661. An embassy from Holland, to the Viceroy of Foo-
keen province; who presented them with a great variety of gifts
in return, and silver plates with their names engraved thereon,
which served as passes.
A.D. 1666-67. A treaty between Holland and China, with per-
mission to trade at Canton, Singchew, Hoksieu, Ningpo, and
Hanksew, without limitation of goods, time, or number of ships.
Stores and convenient dwelling-places were erected. The
embassy arrived at Peking, 29th June, 1667, and remained there
forty-six days.
A.D. 1689. A treaty between China and Russia, by which the
latter was granted permission to send a caravan of merchandise,
every year, to Peking; and permission for a certain number of
Russians to reside there.
A.D. 1686. By an edict of the Emperor Kanghe, all the ports
of China were opened, to every nation who chose to visit them for
trade; they were all closed again in 1709.
A.D. 1692. The Emperor Kanghe, issued an edict tolerating
the Christian religion. This was in consequence of the great per-
secution that the missionaries were subject to from the Mandarins;
the report of the Board of Rites was most favourable to the cha-
racter of all the Christians, then resident in China. The report
states that the empire was indebted to them for the many and
sincere efforts, which they had rendered during the civil and
foreign wars. Moreover, that the Europeans are tranquil; that
1
¦
EMBASSIES BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA.
261
they do not excite troubles in the provinces. Besides their doc-
trine has nothing in common with the false and dangerous sects of
the empire, and their maxims do not lead people to sedition.
About this period the Emperor Kan-ghi was given over by the
Chinese physicians as incurable; the Emperor sent for his great
favorite Gerbillon, the Jesuit, who cured the Emperor with quinine.
The Emperor, after his recovery, assigned the missionaries splendid
apartments in the first enclosure in the palace, and had a church
built within the palace, which was adorned by the Jesuit artists,
and opened with great ceremony, in March, 1702.
A.D. 1692-3. Everard Isbrand Ides was sent on an embassy
from Russia to Peking. After having delivered the Czar's cre-
dentials, the ambassador was invited to eat with the Emperor, and
to drink a cup of Tartarian wine, which was handed him by the
Emperor. The embassy arrived at Peking, 5th November, 1692,
and remained there 106 days.
A.D. 1712. An embassy was sent from Peking to A-yu-kee, Khan
of the Tourgouth Tartars, situated on the banks of the Volga, to
the north of the Caspian (it was sent in return for one from the
Tourgouth Tartars, which had reached China the preceding year).
The instructions given to the Chinese embassy on this occasion are
curious and interesting. If any untoward circumstance should
lead the mission to Moscow, minute answers were given to the
embassy to every enquiry that was expected to be asked relating
to the government of China. "If asked what the Chinese esteem
most; reply, fidelity, filial piety, charity, justice, and sincerity, are
esteemed above all other things: that on these principles we
govern this great empire, and likewise ourselves. If the Russians
speak to you about fire-arms, and solicit aid from me of that de-
scription, state, that being on a mission to the Tourgouth Tartars,
you could not broach that question. Again, the Russians are a
vain people; they will display several things they possess: on such
occasions neither express admiration nor contempt. But, of all
things, pay close attention to the manners of the inhabitants of
Russia; its natural and artificial productions; its geography, and
the general appearance of the country." Having been three years.
engaged on the mission, the embassy returned to Peking, escorted
by the Russian guard, and the troops of A-yu-kee.
A.D. 1715. The Czar, Peter the First, sent Laurence Lange as
envoy to Kanghi, Emperor of China, who received him with un-
usual attention; dispensed with most of the ceremonies that are
usually required, and called them his children; at the same time
strict watch was kept, and a sentinel placed on the door. The
Emperor sent back with this embassy, two Chinese and two Tartar
lords as ambassadors to Russia.
A.D. 1720. This embassy from Peter the Great consisted of
upwards of 100 persons; nothing could exceed the attention and
hospitality with which the embassy was treated.
The Emperor
262
RUSSIAN MISSION ESTABLISHED AT PEKIN.
himself wrote a letter to Peter the Great, the only instance of such
condescension on record. The secretary to this embassy remained
in Peking, as a kind of agent to Peter the Great. The embassy
arrived at Peking, 18th November, 1720, and remained there 114
days.
A.D. 1721. A legation from the Pope to the Emperor Kanghi,
to obtain his aid in settling a difference of opinion that existed
between the Christians residing in China, as to the Pope's infalli-
bility. The embassy remained at Peking ninety-one days.
A.D. 1728. A treaty entered into between Catherine the First,
Empress of Russia, and China. According to this treaty, the
Russian mission, composed of six priests and four lay members,
fixed its abode at Peking. A church was built by the aid of the
Chinese government; and the Russians were permitted to worship
their God according to the rites of their religion. The mission
residing at Peking is changed for another set of priests and stu-
dents every ten years to the present day.
A.D. 1754. An embassy from Portugal to China; it was chiefly
conducted by the Roman Catholic Bishop and Priests of Macao.
Two mandarins of high rank,-one a German Jesuit, the other a
Tartar, were sent from Peking, to escort this embassy from Canton
to Peking. Strange to say, the real object of this embassy was
never well understood. But a reduction of a few hundred pounds
sterling was conceded to the Portuguese annually in Macao. They
left Canton in February, and returned in November. The embassy
remained at Peking thirty-nine days.
A.D. 1787. Embassy from China to the King of Ava; well re-
ceived, and returned with another embassy from the King of Ava to
the Emperor of China.
A.D. 1790.
Ava.
Embassy from the Emperor of China to the King of
A.D. 1792. Lord Macartney was appointed ambassador to China
by the British government and the East India Company. Hitherto
Great Britain had been obliged to trade with China under the
most disadvantageous circumstances. Fair competition was
destroyed by the unjust and oppressive exactions of the Chinese
officials at Canton. It became necessary to ascertain whether the
frequent obstructions to trade arose from the policy of the imperial
government, or were created by the corruption of the provincial
administration, and the object was to obtain a remedy for the
future. The legate who attended the ambassador was a Tartar;
and the late success of the British arms in India had made an un-
favourable impression on his mind, as it was hinted that the
British had joined the Nepaulese in the war which had just taken
place with the Tartars, on the borders of Thibet. The Emperor of
China sent a letter to the King of England, refusing to make any
alteration in the then existing system, and further stated that the
1
t
BRITISH EMBASSIES TO CHINA.
263
Russians now only traded at Kiatcha, and had not for many years
come to Peking. Thus terminated the embassy, and all that can
be said, is that the ambassador was received with politeness,
treated with hospitality, watched with vigilance, and dismissed with
civility. Great difficulty was experienced at this time to obtain
permission for the king's ships to anchor at Anson's Bay, in order
to have them convenient to accompany the annual homeward-
bound fleet of merchant vessels. The local authorities would not
permit this publicly, but they did not prevent provisions being
supplied. The necessity of this convoy was fully proved in 1804,
when Sir Nathaniel Dance beat off the French squadron under
Admiral Linois, in the China Seas. The value of the homeward-
bound fleet was estimated at upwards of £16,000,000 sterling. The
embassy remained at Peking forty-seven days.
A.D. 1795. A Dutch embassy remained thirty-five days at Pe-
king.
A.D. 1806. A Russian embassy to Peking.
A.D. 1816. An embassy from the Prince Regent to the Em-
peror of China embarked from Spithead, with Lord Amherst as
ambassador, on board His Majesty's ship Alceste, on the 8th
February, 1816. The objects of this embassy were similar to that
of Lord Macartney, but more particularly to point out the many
grievances under which the company were obliged to conduct their
trade, and hoping that the Emperor would sanction some regula-
tions that would exempt them from the capricious exactions of the
local authorities. The instructions also hinted, that the time
might probably arrive when coercive measures would be found in-
dispensable to protect a trade in which some millions of money
had been embarked. The course of policy pursued by the British
nation in India was fully explained. The embassy arrived at the
mouth of the White River, on the 28th July, but were delayed,
waiting for the imperial legate, until the 9th August. The dis-
cussion on the performance of the Ko-tow (knocking the head nine
times against the ground) commenced, the Chinese insisting that
the last ambassador had performed it. Lord Amherst refused.
It
is needless to recite the various consultations and fruitless meet-
ings held between the legate and the embassy, together with the
rude behaviour of the various officers of the court. The embassy
were ordered to return home, without an interview. In a letter
from the Emperor to the Prince Regent, was the following: "I
have sent these ambassadors back to their own country, without
punishing them for the high crime they have committed."
A.D. 1822. Embassy from the Emperor of China to the King of
Ava, with some presents, including a white male and female ass,
with bridles and saddles.
A.D. 1823. King of Ava sends embassy to China.
A.D. 1833. Exchanges of embassies between China and Ava.
264
CHINESE REGULATIONS FOR FOREIGN EMBASSIES.
The following rules and regulations to be observed by embassies
to the court of Peking, are translated from a Chinese court-docu-
ment, known as the Ta Tsing Hwui tien.
"The countries in the four quarters of the world, which send
embassies to China, and pay tribute, are Corea, Loochoo, Laos,
Cochin China, Siam, Sulu, Holland, Burmah, and those of the
Western Ocean; all other countries have only intercourse and
commerce.
"When tribute-bearers arrive on the frontier, the local officers
must report the same to the Emperor; and if the Emperor permits
the embassy to proceed, the officer must fix their numbers, grant
them gifts, provide them with what is necessary, (and if any are
sick show them compassionate charity); and an escort of officers
and soldiers to protect them.
"The Chinese and foreign merchants are permitted to trade with
each other in such things as they have, regard being had to the
established prohibitions: compassion and charity must be shown
to foreigners who are lost by shipwreck, and they must be sent
away in safety.
"Foreigners of the western countries, who are skilled in arts, or
astronomy, and are willing to go and serve in Peking, must first be
reported by the local officers at the place where they arrive, and
on getting a reply, they may be sent with a safe conductor to the
capital. The following are the countries from which ambassadors
have come with tribute to the court of Peking :—
"Corea.-Its tribute must be sent once in four years: the num-
ber of the embassy allowed is, one ambassador, one deputy, a
secretary, three interpreters, and twenty-four men to protect the
tribute. The number of servants and others is not fixed, but the
imperial bounties are only given to thirty of them.
"Loochoo.-This embassy comes by the way of Fookien, twice in
three years. One ambassador, and one deputy; the number of
interpreters and servants is not fixed.
"Cochin China-This embassy comes once in two years: there
are two or three ambassadors; the assistants may be from four to
nine; and the other servants, &c., may be ten or more.
“Laos.—This embassy comes by way of Yunnan: the period is
once in ten years, and the number composing the embassy cannot
exceed 100; and those who go to Peking cannot be more than
twenty.
"Siam.-This comes by Kwantung (Canton), once in three years:
the ambassadors may be two, three, or four; the number who may
go to Peking cannot exceed twenty-six.
"Sulu.-Comes by way of Canton and Amoy, once in five or more
years; one ambassador, one deputy, one interpreter; but the
number of followers is not fixed.
Holland.-The Dutch embassy comes by Canton: it has no fixed
time. It may be composed of one or two ambassadors, one head-
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1
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}
GREAT BRITAIN DECLARED TRIBUTARY TO CHINA.
265
follower, one secretary; the other followers cannot be more than
100, and those going to Peking cannot exceed twenty.
"Burmah.-Comes by Yunnan, once in ten years: they must not
exceed 100, and those going to Peking cannot exceed 20."
The countries of the Western Ocean (Europe), Portugal, Italy,
and England, have no fixed periods, each embassy cannot have
more than three ships, each ship 100 men, and only twenty-two
people are admitted to Peking.
Among the other nations mentioned, are Japan, Acheen, France,
and Sweden; the reason these countries have not brought "tribute"
are not mentioned. Great Britain first brought "tribute" in the
fifty-eighth year of Kienlung, A.D. 1793, but no reasons for it are
given. The reason assigned why Mr. Cushing, the American am-
bassador, in 1844, should not proceed to Peking, was because the
United States had "never sent tribute."
It is the custom throughout the East, for an inferior always to
tender some present or offering when approaching or visiting a
superior; and this custom is specially observed in all embassies
from one state to another. The Chinese have artfully turned the
idea to their own glorification, by representing all "presents" as
"tributes," thus assuming a superiority for which there may not
be the slightest foundation. Such is the reason why England is
classed among the states "tributary" to China.
CHAPTER IX.
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND JAPAN. DE-
SCRIPTION OF JAPAN; AND ABSTRACT NARRATIVES
OF INTERCOURSE BETWEEN JAPAN AND ENGLAND,
PORTUGAL, HOLLAND, RUSSIA, AND AMERICA.
THE whole of the circumstances connected with Japan are so sin-
gular and so little understood, that I am induced to give here the
following report on Japan, which was laid before Her Majesty's Go-
vernment in the hope of inducing an attempt to open a commer-
cial intercourse with a numerous and extraordinary people, whose
country is admirably situated, who enjoy a fine climate, and are
capable of carrying on a large trade, not only with Europe, but also
266
DESCRIPTION OF JAPANESE ISLANDS.
with China, India, and the eastern hemisphere. Indeed, our re-es-
tablishment of friendly relations with Japan, would be of great
importance to our trade with China; our cheap and rapid navigation
would enable us to become the carriers between the two empires,
and thus facilitate a social intercourse which would doubtless be
mutually advantageous to all engaged in a pursuit so useful to the
inhabitants of the vast regions under consideration.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF JAPAN.
The empire of Japan is comprised within 31° and 46° of north
latitude, and 129° and 143° of longitude east from Greenwich.
Japan is a kingdom or empire in itself, insularly separated from
the rest of the world; it is not unlike great Britain, being divided
and broken by forelands and arms of the sea; with great bays and
inlets, running deep into the country, forming several islands,
peninsulas, gulfs, and noble harbours.
The empire of Japan is divided into three separate islands, the
largest of which is Niphon. This noble island is in length from
south-west to north-east 1,300 Russian miles, with a breadth vary-
ing from 160 to 240 wrests, and running lengthwise from east to
west in a winding form. The island is indented with deep bays
and capacious havens, and has many small adjacent islets. The
English estimation is 700 miles long, by 86 broad, in the form of
an elbow.
Kewsew or Kiusin, the second island in extent, is separated from
the south-western extremity of Niphon, by a narrow channel. The
estimated length of the island is in English measurement, 200
miles long, by 140 broad. It is compassed by a number of islands.
Sikokf is the smallest of the three islands, and is situated south
of Niphon and east of Kewsew, it lies contiguous to the other two
islands; this island is said to be 200 wrests in length, and nearly
square in form.
in form. It is encompassed with an inconceivable number
of small islands. The English estimate is ninety miles long, by
fifty broad.
The most remote southern island is Fatsisio, which is eighty
leagues distant from the mainland of Japan. It is considered
almost inaccessible; it is viewed as a penal settlement for the
grandees. The force of the ocean is most manifest on the south and
south-west coasts, particularly on the island of Kewsew or Kinsin,
where Nangasaki is situate. In the year 1600 A. D. The Japanese
wrested the two islands of Iki and Tsusseina from the Coreans.
Japan or Nipan signifies the foundation of the sun, being derived
from Ni, fire or sun, and pan, the ground or foundation of a thing.
It is also called Fino-matto, fi the sun, and matto a root.
1
1
1
PROVINCES, DEPARTMENTS, AND DISTRICTS OF JAPAN.
267
!
I
GOVERNMENTAL DIVISIONS OF JAPAN.
The empire of Japan is divided into eight provinces; Gakinai,
Takai, Tasan, Fookurooku, Sanin, Sanyo, Nankai, and Saikai.
These are subdivided into sixty-eight departments, which again
consist of 622 districts.
1st. Gakinai province consists of five departments, the whole of
which are considered the domain of the empire, i. e., the Crown
lands. The departments are, Yamasiro, Yamato, Kawatsi, Jelsumi,
and Sidzeu. This province is situated nearly in the centre of the
empire, in the southern part of Niphon; the length is said to be
180 Russian miles. This province contains the two chief cities of
Japan, Osaka and Myako. The first is situated at the mouth of the
river Yado; the second is the capital of the empire, and the resi-
dence of the Dairi, or ecclesiastical Emperor. Myako is situated
on a branch of the river Yado; its walls are said to be ten leagues
in circuit.
2nd. Takai, the second province, is situated due west of Gakinai,
and comprises fifteen departments, the whole of the south-eastern
part of Nipan. The city of Jedo
The city of Jedo is the second capital of the empire,
and is situated on a large plain at the gulf of Jedo in about 36°
north latitude. The Seogun, or Generalissimo of Japan resides
at Jedo, the population of which is estimated at 700,000; the city
is traversed by a river.
3rd. Tasan province, is situated north of Takai, and consists of
eight departments. It is the largest and most fruitful province,
and includes the whole of the northern part of Niphon or Nipan.
4th. Fookurooku province, comprehends seven departments, and
is situated to the north-west of Gakinai, and eastward from the
southern part of Tasan.
5th. Sanin includes the northern part of the western extremity
of Niphon, and is divided into eight departments.
6th. Sanyo lies directly south of Sanin, and contains eight de-
partments.
7th. Nankai has six departments, which constitute the island of
Sikakf: Awasi, and Kii, two islands situated due east of Sikakf,
form the southern extremity of Niphon.
8th. Suikai province comprehends the whole island of Kewsew,
and is divided into nine departments. Firando and Nangasaki are
situated in this province; also Buzo, Buzen, Fizen, and Satsumi.
ISLANDS.-A short distance to the north of Niphon, lies the
twenty-second Kurile island of Matsmai, this island is said to be
1,400 Russian miles in circumference. To the north of Matsmai
is the island of Sagalien, but of which only the southerly half
belongs to Japan, and the other half is said to be Chinese.
268
MOUNTAINS AND RIVERS OF JAPAN.
About two centuries ago, one of the Japanese princes bought
from the natives of Matsmai, a portion of the south-west coast; this
was farmed out to merchants and fishermen in portions, to the mu-
tual advantage of both. These islands are called Matsmai, Kunis-
her, Eetooroop, and Sagalem. They may be considered as colonies
of Japan.
When the Russians conquered the northern Kuriles, and thus
extended their possessions further to the south, the Japanese were
so alarmed lest their fishermen should be disturbed, that they con-
quered the natives, but gave them many privileges, and did not
interfere in their customs or religion. No fire-arms are permitted
to the natives. Their chiefs are confirmed by the Emperor after
their election by the natives.
When La Perouse visited these seas with his two frigates, the
Japanese had no settlements on Sagalien; but the Japanese and
Chinese then took nominal possession of the island, to prevent, if
possible, any European coming there.
ASPECT OF JAPAN.
MOUNTAINS.-Japan is a very mountainous and hilly country.
Niphon, the largest island, is traversed in nearly its own length by
a chain of almost uniform elevation; in many parts the peaks are
covered with perpetual snow.
This chain divides the streams which
flow to the south and east, and then fall into the Pacific Ocean;
from those which pursue a northerly course to the sea of Japan:
the range is generally from north to south. The volcanic chain,
the first links of which are found in the island of Formosa, extend
through the Loochoo islands, to Japan, and from thence run along
the Kurile Archipelago, probably as far as Kamtschatka.
On the island of Kewsew, south-east from Nangasaki, is a "high
mountain of warm springs," which has several craters. Several of
the volcanic mountains of Japan possess hot springs. Kampfer
states, that shocks of earthquakes are not more regarded than a
hail shower in Europe.
THE RIVERS of Japan are wide and very rapid in their course,
which is occasioned by the steep mountains and rocks. The river
Ujin, is one quarter of a German mile in breadth, that is one and a
half imperial miles; its rapidity is such that at low water, although
knee deep, it requires five men to ford or guide a horse safely over.
The men employed here to convey passengers across, are responsi-
ble for the lives of those who pass the river. The river Oome is re-
ported to have sprung up in one night, in the year B.c. 285. The
river Akagova, is remarkable for the depth of its bed, which is
perpetually varying.
\
1
1
CLASSIFICATION OF THE KURILE ISLANDS.
THE KURILE ISLANDS.
FROM NO. 1 TO 21, UNDER RUSSIA.
269
The Kurile Islands.-Under this name are comprised a chain
of islands which lie in the Eastern Ocean, between the south of
Kamtschatka and Japan. The Russians gave them this name from
the smoking volcanoes; kurile, in the Russian language, signifying
smoke.
The number of these islands that are said to be under contribu-
tion to Russia, is twenty-one; and the sea-room occupied by them
from Lapatka to the island of Matsmai, is about 1,300 Russian
versts (three-fourths of an imperial mile). These islands were an-
nexed to the Russian crown by mariners and fishermen; the first
was taken possession of in 1713, and the remainder successively,
up to A.D. 1779.
No. 1. The nearest Kurile island to Kamtschatka is called
Shoumtshu. The channel between Lapatka and this island, is
fifteen versts in breadth. The length of the island from N.E. to
S.W., is fifty versts, and the breadth about thirty. It is a flat
island with moderate ridges of hills, well watered throughout; has
a lake nearly in the centre, five versts in circuit. It is rich in
minerals. But is chiefly visited for the sea otter and red fox, with
which it abounds; its salmon is in much request.
No. 2. The second island is called Poromushir; between which
and the former island is a strait, two versts in breadth. It lies
from N.E. to S.W., and is twice as large as the first island; it is
hilly, and well watered; has no timber, but has valuable mines; it
produces the red fox, wolves, sea otter, &c.
No. 3. Shirinki; the distance from the last-named island to
this is computed to be twenty-six versts. It is remarkable for a
bee-hive-shaped mountain of considerable altitude. This island is
nearly as broad as it is long, say about forty versts in circumfer-
ence; it abounds with sea-lions, and various marine animals, which
are carried there by floating ice. The want of a safe anchorage
prevents this island from being much frequented.
No. 4. Makan Kur Assey Island lies sixty versts from the
latter; and is in length twenty versts, and about ten in breadth.
It is covered with brushwood, is badly watered; but nourishes the
red fox, and sea beavers; and a large number of seals are caught
on it.
No. 5. Anakutan Island is situated thirty-five versts' distance
from the latter; this island is in length 100 versts, and in breadth
about fifteen. Three summits of mountains exhibit themselves,
which are exhausted craters. The red fox and sea beavers are
numerous.
No. 6. Amakutan Island is not more than six versts from the
latter; is twenty versts in length, and ten in breadth; produces
foxes, and its shores abound with sea-lions and otters.
270
RUSSIAN KURILE ISLANds.
No. 7. Syaskutan Island is separated from the latter full fifty
versts, and the current between them most rapid. Its length is
eighty versts, and only about five in breadth. Its productions are
similar to the former island.
No. 8. Ikarma is a volcano island, about twelve versts from the
latter; and only eight versts in circumference.
No. 9. Tshimkutan Island is thirty versts' distance from the
former; is round in form, and about fifteen versts in diameter.
The coast is mountainous and rocky.
No. 10. Mussyr Island is thirty-five versts from the ninth
island; and not more than three versts in diameter. Produces a
large quantity of wild fowl.
No. 11. Rach-koke Island is 120 versts from the last-men-
tioned, its length and breadth is about twenty versts. This island
looks like a solitary mountain, shooting upwards from the sea. A
continual burning of this island has filled up thirteen fathoms of
water; and converted a large place into shoals and banks.
No. 12. Mutova Island is situated forty-five versts from the
former, and is thirty versts long, and twenty-five broad. There
is a volcano mountain to the south, which emits smoke; to the
north are several rich valleys and habitable plains. 100 of the
inhabitants pay tribute to Russia.
No. 13. Rassegu Island is forty versts' distance from the latter,
and in extent about thirty versts every way. This island has
several lofty mountains, rocky shores, and sandy bays. It is fur-
nished with excellent timber, nourishes sea-birds, beavers and
seals.
No. 14. Ussassyr Island lies seventeen versts from the former;
it is, properly speaking, two islands, lying close together, occu-
pying a space of twenty-five versts each way. It abounds with
rocks, cliffs, and hot springs. The productions are similar to the
latter.
No. 15. Keoli Island is situated at a distance of thirty-six
versts from the Island of Ussassyr; and is thirty versts in
length, and only ten in breadth. This island has three mountains
of considerable altitude. The white and black-bellied red fox,
so much esteemed for his skin, is here found in abundance.
No. 16. Semussyr Island is thirty versts' distance from the
latter. The extraordinary length of this island gives it a peculiar
appearance to the mariner. Its length is ascertained to be 130
versts, and not more than ten in breadth. Four mountains are
visible on this island, with evident traces of volcanic eruptions
about them. The timber is excellent, and the various animals
in request are numerous. The passage from this to the next
island is upward of 200 versts in extent.
No. 17. Tshirpo Oi, and two other adjacent isles, are estimated,
in length and breadth, about fifteen versts. A volcanic eruption at
1
!
JAPANESE KURILE ISLANDS.
271
some period has covered these islands with stones, so that they are
utterly useless.
No. 18. Ourup Island is a respectable size, being fully 200 versts
in length, and twenty in breadth. Its physical aspect is lofty
mountains, and deep glens. On the northern side, lie four small
isles, which produce good timber, and abundance of vegetables.
Streams from the mountains traverse the island and fall into the sea.
This island is considered to be rich in minerals, but is only visited
for the red and white fox, which are very numerous.
No. 19. Etorpoo Island lies thirty versts distance from the fore-
going; and is in extent either way, 300 versts. Several lofty
mountains adorn this island; forests of noble timber, consisting
of larch, pine, oak, &c. The other productions are black boars,
sables, foxes, fish-otters, salmon, sturgeon, &c. In stormy weather,
whales and dolphins are thrown on the shore. The inhabitants
are the genuine aborigines, or hairy Kuriles; they congregate into
villages, and pay a nominal tribute to Russia.
No. 20. Kunassyr Island is situated forty versts' distance from
Eterpoo, its estimated length is 150 versts, by about fifty in breadth,
and is entirely surrounded with mountains and lofty summits; on
the centre of this island, are large tracts of low land, covered with
good timber. The productions of the southern portion, are a great
variety of vegetables, and fish. A pearl-bearing muscle as large
as a dessert-plate, is found here, and the inhabitants sell large
quantities to Japanese traders: tribute is also paid to Russia in
this article.
No. 21. Tshikota Island is distant seventy versts from the latter
island. Its length is 120 versts, and the breadth about forty. The
features are lofty mountains, fertile plains, and several lakes, which
teem with excellent fish. At the southern extremity are ten petty
isles, which are covered with good timber. The whole of the
Russian islands are said to contain only 1400 inhabitants; small-
pox makes sad ravages.
THE KURILE ISLANDS UNDER JAPAN.-Matsmai :-this island
is called the twenty-second Kurile island, and is the largest of all
the group, and nearest to Japan, being only about twenty-five
versts distant from the Japanese dominions.
On the southern promontory stands the Japanese town of Mats-
mai, at the extremity of the island, in latitude 41° 32 north, and
longitude 219° 56′ east, extending along the margin of an open bay.
The Japanese first purchased the privilege of hunting and fish-
ing on this island, from the natives, but finally conquered it in A.D.
1652. The Japanese never would have annexed this island to the
principality of Matsmai, until they discovered that the Russians
had taken possession of the northern Kurile, and by that means
extended their power very far south.
The Japanese left the natives to their own choice of religion,

*
GOLD AND SILVER MINES OF JESSo.
laws, customs, and dress Chiefs are elected by the natives, and
their appointment confirmed in Japan. The island is well guarded,
and several förtresses erected; the natives are prevented from car-
rying fire-arms. The productions of this island, particularly fish
and timber, are all exchanged with Japan for summer clothing.
bute is to the prince of Matsmai, who again pays it to
the Emperor
Jesse This island, that perplexed the navigators and geogra
phers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to discover, is the
most northern island the Japanese possess out of their own king-
dom.desso was conquered by Joritoma, the first secular Emperor
of Japan, who at his death bequeathed it to the prince of Matsmai.
This island lies in 42° of northern latitude, and approaches in
form to that of an irregular triangle. Its estimated length from
north to south is 300 miles, and very little less in extreme breadth.
The most southern portion lies in 217° of east longitude. Jesso
is washed on the west by the gulf of Tartary, on the east by the
Northern Pacific Ocean; it is divided from Japan by the straits of
Sangar, and separated from Sagahlien island on the north by La
Perouse's Channel. Two promontories, Sugaor and Taajasaki, run-
ning far into the sea form a large gulf, which faces Japan, and
reduces the distance from coast to coast between five and six Ger-
man miles.
Its whole circumference is indented by deep bays, which form
good harbours. The best known to mariners, is Volcano Bay,
towards the south-east, which is secure and spacious; Edermo,
likewise, is a harbour well sheltered by the land.
The aspect of the island, particularly the southern portion, is wild
and mountainous. A rugged chain traverses it from north to south.
Active and extinct volcanoes are visible. It is said to possess va-
luable mines of gold and silver.
The northern portion of Jesso possesses many advantages over
the south. Edermo is a most fertile tract, and produces every-
thing necessary to support life. The timber-forests consist of larch,
oak, elm, birch, and the scented cypress, &c. Fish is most abun-
dant, particularly salmon; it is supposed that they are driven to
the coast by the whales. Cured fish of several kinds is sent to
Japan in large quantities. Bears are domesticated, and may be
seen roaming about with flocks of deer.
•
The inhabitants are Japanese emigrants, and aborigines, which
are called Ainans. The island is called .Mazin, which signifies
hairy, as the natives are literally covered with hair, like monkeys,
according to Captain Sares. They are below the middle size,
strong and swift, of a dark brown complexion, dark eyes, an agreea-
ble physiognomy, and remarkable for placidity of disposition.
Their summer-clothing is exchanged for their dried fish.
small-pox makes sad havoc among them. Number unknown.
The city of Miyako, in the province of Gakinai, the capital of the
The
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CITIES OF JEDO AND NANGASAKI.
273
empire, is situated on the river Yodo, in a large and well cultivated
plain. Don Rodrigo visited this city about 200 years since. Its
walls are ten leagues in circuit. The city is celebrated for a mag-
nificent temple, containing a bronze idol, the dimensions of which
may be estimated, when one man failed to grasp with his two arms
the thumb of the right hand. There were 100,000 workmen em-
ployed for years in building this temple. The population is cal-
culated at 1,500,000, and it is considered the largest city in the
world. The city of Jedo, the second capital of the empire, contains
700,000 inhabitants, and is traversed by a considerable river, navi-
gable by vessels of morate size. The streets of Jedo are open,
wide, and particular clean, and closed at each end by a gate,
which is guarded by soldiers. The houses are built of wood, and
about two stories high generally.
л

Nangasaki is situated in 32° 45′ north latitude, and 127° 31′ 30″
longitude east of London.
The population in 1826 amounted to 26,127, independent of the
military force. Persons in the employment of the Siogun, and
princes, priests, and monks, form, besides, a total of nearly six
thousand souls.
The city and its dependencies contain ninety-two streets;
11,452 houses; sixty-two temples and Budhist cloisters, and a
great religious edifice, besides five small chapels for the worship of
Camis.
It is the residence of a governor, who is relieved by his col-
league, who represents the city of Jedo every other year; a super-
intendent of the domains of the Siogun, a commandant, two
mayors, a chamber of money placed over the foreign commerce, and
a college of interpreters for the Dutch, the Chinese, and Coreans.
The city contains two government palaces, those of the princes of
Fizen and Tzikuzen, who furnish alternately the garrison for the
port, the offices of charges d'affaires of the princes of Satsuma,
Tsasima, and some other provinces of Kuisin; the Dutch factory,
Chinese ditto, a prison for the insane, public magazine, an arsenal,
a Funa-cura, or open yard, for the protection of ships of war, a
botanic garden, several theatres, a vast number of tea houses, and
other places of amusement, which are frequented by crowds of
dancers and musicians.
A brisk commerce is kept up, and great industry displayed;
there is an extensive porcelain manufactory, and breweries for
making rice beer. The shops are numerous and well supplied; as
the city is the only link between Japan and foreign countries, it is
constantly visited by merchants, learned men, and idlers from all
parts of the empire, and its portfilled with national vessels.
There are numerous batteries from the islands and shores, to
defend the entrance of the basin. The entrance itself is again de-
fended by strong batteries, raised on the two sides, as well as by a
considerable garrison. The passage is 458 metres in its greatest
T
t
274
CLIMATE OF JAPAN.
width, and 150 in the most narrow place; a chain is always kept
ready to bar it, if necessary. This disposition was kept a secret
for a long time from the Dutch.
Nangasaki is the most corrupt and least national city of the em-
pire. It is described as having suffered by the infection of
Chinese cunning and rapacity, and the coarseness of European
sailors; and it is further debased by throngs of the craftiest traders
in Japan, who are naturally attracted to the only seat of foreign
commerce. Even the language there is so interlarded with Chinese
as to be well-nigh unintelligible to visitors from Nippon and Sikok.
Fizen principality, in which Nangasaki is situate, is a large promon-
tory, with 1,016 islands comprised within its limits. The revenues
of the prince of Fizen are estimated at £357,000 per annum.
The
prince of Buzen (where the Dutch embark for Nippon) has
£150,000 a year.
Nangasaki is the dearest market for purchasing the manufactures
of Japan, although it is a manufacturing town. The country
around it does not produce sufficient provisions to support the in-
habitants; they are chiefly supplied from the neighbouring pro-
vinces of Fisen-figo, and the islands of Amakuso and Gotho, which
lie to the north of the town. The land adjoining the town is prin-
cipally planted with vegetables, and fruit. The market is well
supplied with edibles of every kind that are in use in Europe;
venison is abundant and cheap, and endless varieties of fine fish,
particularly crabs and oysters; saki, or rice beer, is their principal
drink. A noble river runs through the town, the water of which
is excellent.
The climate is declared to be healthy by all the Europeans who
have visited Japan. In winter, the north and north-west winds are
sharp, and bring with them frost, which remains a considerable
time snow is common in winter, even in the southern part of the
empire. The summer heat is relieved by cool and refreshing sea-
breezes; rain falls more or less every month in the year, but most
abundantly in the months of June and July.
The greatest degree of heat for one year was, 96° Fahrenheit, in
August; the severest cold in January, 35°. In summer the
southern sea-breezes are refreshing; at night and morning the
wind blows from the eastward.
POPULATION, &C.-The number of inhabitants in all the Japanese
Islands is estimated at 30,000,000 to 35,000,000, divided into eight
classes.
First, the princes, called dai-mio and sai-mio.
Second, kie-nin, i. e. noblemen; from this class are selected the
ministers and great officers of state, governors, &c. They are sub-
ject to many restrictions, and compelled to reside for stated periods
at the capital, and keep up an expensive establishment quite
beyond their income, in order to prevent their becoming rich or
powerful.
J
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POPULATION AND CLASSIFICATION.
275
Third class are the priests of the three forms of religion tolerated,
viz.: Sintoo, Budhist, and Confucian.
Fourth, the military, who are the vassals of the nobility, and
hold their lands under tenure to supply a given number of troops
to the Emperor.
Fifth class, amongst these are inferior government officers,
medical men, and all who are entitled to wear one sword and
trousers. One class of men, which answer to the British sur-
veyors or valuers, are so highly esteemed that they are permitted
to wear two swords, the same as the nobility.
The sixth class includes wealthy shopkeepers and merchants; the
most wealthy inhabitants of the empire, but held in great contempt
by the princes and nobles, who, however, are frequently under
many obligations to them in pecuniary matters. The instances
are very rare of any member of this class being permitted to wear
a sword, but under no circumstance are they allowed to wear
trousers.
Seventh class comprises all mechanics, poor shopkeepers, and
artists.
Eighth class consists of labourers and farmers, or more correctly
speaking, the serfs of the nobility.
Tanners, curriers, and every one connected with the leather
trade, are outcasts from all classes; this is supposed to arise from
their Pythagorian belief, and Sintoo doctrine of defilement by
coming in contact with death. Men of this calling are obliged to
live in villages by themselves; they are excluded from the popula-
tion census, and when occasions require are compelled to act as
executioners.
Appearance of the Japanese.-Marco Polo stated truly, some
centuries ago, that one China-man was the counterpart of another;
but there is not that uniformity amongst the Japanese. The men,
who are generally exposed to the sun, are a yellowish colour all
over, muscular and well-made, active and free in their motions,
middle size, not corpulent; perfectly European, with the exception
of the small lengthened Tartar eye-the only resemblance between
them and the Chinese. Thunberg states, that ladies are perfectly
white, with rather large heads and short necks. Their habili-
ments have probably been 2000 years without undergoing any
change in shape, and are uniform, from the king to the peasant,
except in materials. Long wide gowns, one, two, or three, accord-
ing to the season; travellers and soldiers wear them short for con-
venience, with a leathern belt round the body. The gown is
rounded about the neck, and displays the bare bosom. Breeches,
like a petticoat, sewed between the legs, and left open at the side
for two-thirds of their length. An over-gown of ceremony. The
silk for fineness, such as worn by the rich, far surpasses anything
known in India or Europe.
T 2
276
CHARACTER AND CUSTOMS OF THE JAPANESE.
Character of the Japanese.-Doctor Ainslie, who was resident
at the Dutch factory in Japan, in 1814, thus states: "The Japa-
nese are a nervous, vigorous people, assimilated by their bodily
and mental powers much nearer to Europeans than Asiatics."
These traits of vigorous intellect may be traced in the greater pro-
gress they have made in the arts and sciences than the Chinese,
with whom they consider it a great disgrace to be compared.
The Doctor's testimony agrees with former writers, who say they
have the stillness of the Spaniards, eager of novelty, and warm
in their attachments, open to strangers, and, excepting the restric-
tions of their severe sumptuary laws, seem a people inclined to
throw themselves into the hands of any nation of superior intelli-
gence. The Japanese, like the Chinese, have a great contempt
and disregard for everything below their own standard of morals.
Thunberg, a German physician, who remained several years in
Japan, pourtrays the natives as frugal, ingenious, sober, just, and
of a friendly disposition; extremely curious and inquisitive con-
cerning the manners and habits of other countries. But they
are distrustful, superstitious, proud, and implacable in their resent-
ments; never forgiving an injury. This spirit of revenge arises.
from pride, and the lofty sense of honour by which they are distin-
guished from all other Asiatics. In courtesy and submission to
their superiors, few nations can be compared to them. Highway
robbery is unknown.
Captain Gordon states, "I never was in a country, the inhabit-
ants of which conducted themselves with such propriety as Japan;
not only affable and polite towards us, but invariably so towards
each other."
The Japanese express themselves very strongly against the
Chinese custom of immuring their females. The different classes
of society visit each other as they do in Europe. Doctor Ainslie
was at several entertainments, where ladies did the honors of the
table. He says they are a race of people remarkable for frankness
of manner and disposition; for intelligent enquiry and freedom from
prejudice; they are in an advanced state of civilization, in a climate
where European manufactures are almost a necessary comfort, and
where long use has accustomed them to many of its luxuries."-
Sir S. Raffles reports thus:
"The Japanese appear entirely free from any prejudice that
would stand in the way of a free and unrestricted intercourse with
Europeans; even their prejudices on the score of religion, of which
such exaggerated accounts are reported by the Dutch, and of
which, as is believed among the Japanese, the Dutch have some-
times availed themselves against their rivals in the early trade of
Japan, are moderate and inoffensive."
Ancient and modern unprejudiced travellers, all agree as to the
politeness of every class, rich and poor. On ordinary occasions
SIMILITUDE BETWEEN EGYPTIANS AND JAPANESE.
277
of meeting, respect is shewn by bending the knee; extraordinary
deference is paid by kneeling on one knee and bowing to the
ground. The nobles are saluted by bending the knee until the
fingers touch the ground. When the bowing and bending is over,
the health of their respective families is enquired after, the state of
the weather, &c. The state-prisoner Golownin was highly amused
when his guard was relieved, as compliments were lavished by the
soldiers on each other before they exchanged places.
Doctor Siebold, in comparing the Japanese with the Chinese,
states that the former have never shewn the stiffness of the latter
in repulsing foreign improvements. Even at the present day their
literary men, especially their physicians and naturalists, neglect
no opportunity to instruct themselves in the European sciences,
and study the Dutch language with great assiduity, in order to
perfect their knowledge.
HABITS. Their domestic dwellings are very similar to those of
the Coreans and Chinese; it does not appear that they are re-
stricted in building their houses higher than one story, if their
means will permit, as the natives of China and Corea are. The
houses are built of wood, and whether it is to guard against fire,
or economy, there are no stoves ever seen in them. The floors
are covered with mats, and in the houses of the rich with carpets.
The decorations, of fancy papers and paintings, on the walls, have
a fantastic appearance. From the looking-glass, to the fowl placed
on the dinner-table, generally everything is gilded; the feet and
neck of the fowl always so.
There is an apparent similitude in the temple-architecture of the
Japanese and Egyptians. The greater portion of the Japanese
temples are in the form of pyramids, some are graduated, and
some otherwise, having a quadrangular basement with a door
approached by steps. Many of them are built, as the Egyptian
temples were, in the form of a cross. The temple of Boorobbo is
pyramidical, having seven stages of ascent cut out of a conical hill,
and crowned by a dome, which is surrounded by a triple circle of
towers. This is supposed to be the model of the Tower of Babel.
The base of this Japanese pyramid comprises nearly the same
number of square feet as the pyramid of Giza, and like it the inte-
rior passages and chambers are hewn out of the solid rock. A
great number of Japan hieroglyphics are strictly Egyptian. For
instance, the square, the knot, the orb, circle, semi-circle, the
triple twisted cord, vase, syphon, the trident, the mason's square,
hand-barrow. The common opinion is that the builders of this
temple came from the shores of the Red Sea.
In science, the Japanese are said to cultivate astronomy and
medicine; original works are published, and likewise translations
from European works, on these branches. With regard to their
researches in medicine, we have proofs, by the introduction of their
system of acupuncture into Europe. The science of astronomy is
278
ASTRONOMY, MECHANISM, AND FINE ARTS.
brought so far to perfection, that they no longer have their calendar
made up in China. They study all the European works that have
been translated into the Dutch language. Their approval of
London-made mathematical instruments, over those made in other
countries, as frequently expressed by the interpreters to Captain
Krusestern, of the Russian embassy, is proof that they have made
some progress in that science.
They divide the year into twelve moons or lunations, and make
an intercalation of one month in the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 11th, 14th,
17th, and 19th year. They begin the new year with the first new
moon, which appears after the first degree of Aquarius, and the
whole year consists of 354 days. Golawnin states, "that they are
well skilled in trigonometry and civil engineering; their maps are
very superior to those of the Chinese."
The clock and time-piece mechanism, consists in a horizontal
balance moving upon a pin forward and backward, with a weight
on each side. Their clocks accurately mark the duration of day
and night, by the approach or recession of the weights.
Their almanack, among other things, has a table containing re-
markable events, and the number of years that have elapsed since.
they took place; predictions regarding the weather, winds, and
lucky days, &c. The latter must be strictly observed by every one
who is about to engage in any important undertaking.
Their taste for music extends to every class; even the coolies,
sailors, and watchmen, stimulate each other to equal exertion by a
sort of song: the latter show their vigilance by beating two sticks,
as a substitute for our rattles, in a similar manner to the watchmen
in China. In working various metals, they surpass all other coun-
tries; especially in the art of blending different metals, in a manner
to resemble the finest enamel; which is then formed into orna-
ments worn about the person, as jewelry is in Europe. Wood-
engraving is an ancient art amongst them, but they have recently
obtained a knowledge of engraving upon copper, which they will
probably soon bring to perfection. Golownin, the Russian state-
prisoner, being a seafaring man and probably unacquainted with
mechanics, states, that they tormented him with questions, and
perhaps hurt his national pride, by so often referring to London-
made astronomical instruments, as superior to those in other
countries.
With regard to the proficiency of the Japanese in what is called
the fine arts, there is a difficulty in ascertaining their position.
The Dutch authorities are not to be relied on in any thing relating
to that country; and the capability of the Dutch to appreciate
merit, is somewhat questionable. The German physicians who
have resided at the Dutch factory, give the Japanese great credit.
for their unaided attainments. During Dr. Von Siebold's short
residence in Japan, he was enabled to collect such a variety of
1
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GOVERNMENT, EMPEROR, ETC., OF JAPAN.
279
engravings, and works of art, that the Dutch authorities at the
Hague, gave him a large price for his museum.
Oil painting is not well understood in Japan; but in water
colours nothing can be natural, from the brilliancy of the tints
imparted.
Prints respecting campaigns, and sea battles, are much prized
by all classes. Their lacker-ware, if an idea could be formed from
the tedious process it undergoes according to Kempfer, ought to
be beautiful. The specimens in the museum at the Hague, are
highly prized by good judges; and yet they are not first-rate, as
none are allowed to be carried out of the kingdom. Printing and
bookselling are carried on to a great extent.
In 1781 a Yedo bookseller published an Encyclopædia (Kun seyo
rui tsui) in 639 volumes, comprehending 1273 divisions.
The work termed Bitsu foo ryak, consists of 1000 volumes, and
is the most extensive undertaking of the kind in Japan.
THE GOVERNMENT OF JAPAN is monarchical and feudal. The
ancient laws entrusted all power and authority to the " Dairi"
(High Priest), Mikado or Emperor.
A.D. 1176. A check was placed over the power of the reigning
Emperors, by nominating a second Emperor or Generalissimo, who
is called the "Seogun;" his authority extends to all civil and mili-
tary affairs of the empire. The " Dairi" or celestial Emperor, is
never consulted on any state affairs, except a declaration of war, or
on negotiations with foreign powers. Even the soldiers who guard
his palace and the royal province of Gokinai, are appointed and paid
by the "Seogun."
The Seogun is assisted in his administration of the government,
by a council and a senate. The council consists of five members,
all of whom must be reigning princes, and the descendants of the
principal supporters of the usurper Jjegas. Their titles are here-
ditary. The council decides all ordinary cases, without the appro-
bation of the Seogun. In all cases of importance his consent must
be obtained, and likewise that of the senate, before it becomes
law.
The senate decides all important civil and criminal cases; and
all others which are of importance must first be examined and de-
cided by this body, before they can be sent before the council.
These two branches of the government, form the legislative autho-
rity of the whole empire.
According to law, the Seogun must visit the Emperor once in
seven years; but embassies are frequent to and from each other;
and it is imperative at the new year, for the Seogun to send to the
Emperor a white crane with a black head, taken with his own hand
in hunting; no business can release him from this obligation.
The princes are about 200 in number; they are compelled to
reside every other year in the capital, and to have a number of
280
ADMINISTRATIVE BOARDS AND PRINCIPALITIES.
soldiers in constant readiness to move at the command of the Seo-
gun. They have a qualified independence in their respective prin-
cipalities.
The public affairs of the empire are administered by seven sepa-
rate boards. These are presided over by ministers, the number
attending each tribunal being regulated according to the importance
of the business for deliberation.
The first board takes charge of all taxes, which are generally paid
in kind, and amount to a tithe of the productions. Agriculture
and manufactures, are also under this board. The second tribunal
superintends the navigation and coasting trade, on the rivers,
canals, and throughout the interior. This board has nothing to
do with the foreign commerce. The third board has charge of all
public buildings, temples, fortresses, &c. The fourth, the police,
is held in very great estimation, both by the nobles and people.
The fifth decides criminal causes, according to the laws existing in
each principality; but if they are in any way connected with the
state, they are brought under this civil and criminal board. The
sixth, or military board, inquires into the number of troops in each
principality, &c. The seventh, or religious board, is a check on the
ecclesiastical Emperor (Dairi) lest he infringe on the power of the
Seogun.
Formerly there were sixty-eight princes with hereditary princi-
palities, but liable to forfeiture in case of treason. These sixty-
eight have, from time to time, been subdivided, and portioned out
into upwards of 600 separate administrations, called great and
small principalities, lordships, and imperial cities.
These princes are called kokushi, and are divided into two classes:
first, the dai-mio, who hold their lands direct from the spiritual Em-
peror, i.e. Mikado; the second, sai-mio, who hold from the temporal
Emperor, i.e. Seogun. These two grades govern in their separate
principalities, with only the semblance of sovereignty. The govern-
ment of each principality is solely conducted by two officers sent
from the imperial council, called gokaro, with instructions from
the council to guide them in their administration. One of these
officers resides at the capital alternately, through whom the coun-
cil issue their instructions; the family of the absent one must
remain at the capital as a hostage, likewise the wife and family of
the princes; whose society they only enjoy during their compul-
sory residence every six months at Jedo. But on no account can
the family or wife of a reigning prince ever reside with him in his
principality. The consequence is, that the princes frequently re-
sign in favour of their sons.
Each principality is obliged to keep a standing army, in propor-
tion to the extent of the possessions, and, likewise, to furnish a
certain number of troops to guard the crown lands; which troops.
are under the control and command of the temporal Emperor, or
Seogun.
PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF JAPAN.
281
Nagasaki, the only port for foreigners, was taken from the
Prince of Fizen, in 1634, and converted into an imperial city. The
troops here are numerous, and are supported by the Prince of
Fizen; the revenue from the foreign trade being divided between
the governor and the inhabitants of the city.
The Prince of Satzuma is the only one that enjoys any privi-
leges. His principality is situated on the southern portion of
Kinsu. He is said to govern the Loochoo Islands, and some other
adjoining ones. The only port to which the Loochoo's can resort
is in his territories: he unhesitatingly destroys any spies sent into
his principality, and no notice is taken of it at Jedo. The same
policy is adopted in the small principalities and lordships; beside
the security and precaution above mentioned there are a vast
number of secret spies employed, some of whom are taken from
the most humble, and others from the highest rank in life.
The provinces and towns appropriated for the support of the
imperial palaces, are ruled over by governors sent from the capital.
Each province, or large town, has two governors, who relieve each
other, and leave their families as hostages at the capital.
The government of Nagasaki is the only one with which Euro-
peans are acquainted, and it is probable that the same system of
governing is adopted all over the empire.
The
The governor of Nagasaki has subordinate to him two secre-
taries, and an indefinite number of officers, called gobanyosi (over-
seeing officers), each of whom has a separate department, for the
strict regulation of which he is responsible; under these officers,
are a kind of police who execute the orders of the former.
following officers are not subject to the governor's authority in any
respect: the treasurer (who is second in rank to the governor), his
deputy, and the military commandant, who occupy the third rank;
the three latter are the government officers who are permitted to
have their families with them. The number of spies on the privi-
leged officers is unknown, but they are very numerous.
On
LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF JAPAN.-Nagasaki, one of the imperial
cities of Japan, is governed by three governors; two being resident,
and acting in concert; but one presides alternately every three
months the third is resident at the capital, Jedo. These go-
vernors, or lords, are called tono-sama; every two years, the senior
governor is relieved by the third one, who is sent from Jedo.
his return to Jedo, he must give a written statement of every
transaction that occurred during his government, and, likewise, a
verbal statement. Here he is detained six months before he is
sent to any other station; previous to retiring, he must leave his
wife and children as hostages for a considerable time. The salary
is 2,000 kokfs of rice, valued about 10,000 taels of silver; more
than one-half of which he is compelled to spend in presents to the
chiefs and princes about the court. He is also obliged to keep an
establishment and appearance as the representative of royalty.
82
MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT OF JAPAN,
There are two classes of officers, civil and military, who aid the
governor in his duties; they are called Daosin and Joricks; the
former is paid by the governor 50 taels per annum; the latter, 100
taels: they are nothing better than spies, as none of the nobles
will accept the office.
The Emperor maintains a class of native interpreters (said to be
in number 132), who understand the Dutch, Portuguese, Ton-
quinese, Siamese, and Chinese languages. Kampfer mentions
several others; and Dr. Ainslie says, English is studied.
There is an imperial guard, who live in huts, that command the
harbour; they should be 1000 strong, but do not exceed 300.
There is another guard, called Funohan, that is, ship-guard.
When a foreign vessel arrives, this guard is placed in boats on each
side of the vessel, and, with regular relays of men, never leave
that station until she is departing, when they convoy her out a
considerable distance.
There is another guard of troops, who reside on a hill that com-
mands the coast; it is situated on the south end of the city: twenty
is the stated number; these are furnished with telescopes, and a
quantity of fire combustibles. If a fleet of ships are seen, a fire is
kindled, in a continuous line on each of the southern mountains,
and, by this means, the news reaches Jedo in twenty-four hours
(300 leagues' distance), which is otherwise a journey of several
weeks. A similar contrivance exists on the coast of China, by
three coloured lights.
The municipal duties of the city are conducted by a mayor, or
yearly warden, called Ninban.
All civil and criminal cases are tried by the imperial tribunal;
witnesses and counsel are permitted: there is no appeal from their
decision, but the death-warrant must proceed from the council of
state at Jedo.
A head-man (ottoma) is elected by the inhabitants of each street;
he is confirmed in his appointment by the governor. He has the
power of punishing for trivial crimes. His salary is one-tenth of
the profit from the foreign trade.
House and land owners form themselves into companies of five :
one of the five is elderman, or alderman, and is accountable for the
good conduct of the other four. Householders are not eligible,
but they are free from taxes.
There is a public notary (fisia), he is the ottoma's (mayor's)
clerk, and register of births, deaths, &c. He issues passports, &c.
Treasurer (kaku): every street has its treasurer, his duties are
to disburse the money allowed from the profits of the foreign trade
to each house-owner, &c.
Every street has its messenger, who reports all removals and
changes that take place in his street, &c.
Previous to any of the foreign ships sailing, a muster-roll is
called of the inhabitants, three times, the night before she sails.
t
I
LOCAL AND GENERAL TAXES OF JAPAN.
283
A census is taken in the last month of the year, and a list of all
those able to bear arms sent to the Emperor.
Any person wishing to purchase a house in Nagasaki, must ob-
tain the consent of all the inhabitants of the street. There is a
kind of stamp tax of about ten per cent. on the amount laid out;
six per cent. of which goes to the inhabitants, and the remainder
to a public dinner, to which the new comer is invited.
All street combatants, if not immediately separated, involve their
nearest neighbours in punishment, by causing their being shut up
in their houses for three or six months; first permitting them to
lay in a store of provisions that will last for the time. No fines
or mulcts are recognised in Japan, lest the rich should violate
the law.
The Japanese are very lightly taxed: householders pay no
taxes, as they are not considered citizens, unless they own the
house or land.
The Emperor's ground-tax or rent is charged according to
frontage (not the area), and seldom exceeds six mace for every
kin (about two yards). There is a collection every year for the
Emperor, which is voluntary.
An inquest is held on the body of all persons before they are
interred; the coroner is the head-man of the company of five,
who must give a certificate that the death occurred from natural
causes.
It is said, that on the second day of the new year, there is an
annual trampling on a brass cross, twelve inches long, represent-
ing Christ and the Virgin Mary; and that six days are employed
in going round the city, as all must trample on the cross.
COMMERCIAL PROSPECTS.—A very extensive and lucrative trade
might be carried on with Japan. Sir Stamford Raffles said, "the
climate, habits of the people, and their freedom from any preju-
dices which would obstruct the operation of these natural causes,
would open a vent for numerous articles of European comfort and
luxury. The consumption of woollens and hardware might be
rendered almost unlimited; they are fond of the finer specimens of
the glass manufacture, and it requires only to bring them ac-
quainted with many other products of British industry to obtain
for them a ready introduction." "To establish a British factory in
Japan, and furnish a population of not less than 25,000,000, with
the manufactures of Great Britain, is in itself a grand national
object."
In June, 1814, English ships were sent by Sir S. Raffles from
Java to Japan, with instructions to open trade. Dr. Ainslie re-
ported, that the "commercial objects of the voyage have been ac-
complished; arrangements entered into for securing ultimately the
introduction of the English, and the doing away in a considerable
degree the violent prejudices entertained against the English cha-
racter in that quarter, where alone they could be assailed, and
284
PRODUCTS AND WANTS OF JAPAN.
among the people whose sentiments on that subject are likely to
gain ground where it is of most importance they should prevail."
Captain Gordon states, as the result of his experience on visiting
Japan in 1818, that "the Japanese having no sheep, and woollen
clothing being suitable during the winter throughout the whole
empire, which may contain 30,000,000 inhabitants, the demand
for the staple articles would probably equal in quantity, though
not in quality, that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland. With respect to cotton wool, piece goods, indigo, and
sugar, he believed that Bengal would be inadequate to the supply.
The mineral riches of Japan are such as to provide returns more
than sufficient for such immense imports."
Mr. Gordon says, "the nation is fully sensible of the advantages
to be derived from foreign trade, and are desirous of enjoying it."
"A moderately restricted intercourse with Jedo I regarded as the
foundation."
Among the products of Japan are corn, wheat, silk, hemp,
copper (of the purest quality), tea, wax, cinnabar, oil, borax, gam-
boge, drugs, dyes, &c.
The articles required, and in use by the Japanese, are stated
to be-
1. Woollens of every description. "It is expected that a de-
mand for them would be unlimited when once introduced."—[Sir
S. Raffles.] They are partial to primary colours.
2.
Hardware: likely to be very extensive.
3. Glass: fond of cut-glass of every description. Window and
plate glass in demand.
4.
Carpeting, of different descriptions.
5. Printed cottons, of fine texture and brightest patterns.
6. Ironmongery; including tools of every description. Iron
chests, tin plates, lead, stoves, door locks, &c.
7.
9.
Porcelain, of handsome patterns.
Fire-arms, clocks, watches, &c.-Fire engines.
Stationery; leather, of bright colours.
10. Lace, mock jewellery, &c.
In April, 1841, the Dutch Government sent presents to the
Emperor of Japan, who accepted them, and returned others of
great value; an interchange which had not taken place for a long
time. Among the presents sent by the Japanese Emperor was a
magnificent set of chess-men made of solid gold, and enriched with
precious gems.
The report made states, "favourable news has arrived; the Em-
peror appears strongly disposed to favour the Dutch." During our
war with China, the usual number of junks was diminished from
China, and the Japanese Government then gave permission to the
Dutch to augment the number and size of their vessels.
The Emperor, as a very flattering testimony of regard to the
English, and as an unusual mark of favour, accepted the whole of
亨
​1
"
ايه
!
KNUÇLALA.
SIR S. RAFFLES' OPINION OF JAPAN.
285
the presents sent by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1814, except the
elephant, which it was found impossible to transmit.
The English mission in 1814 broke the ice; the interpreters
and others, who are alone the channels of communication, have
seen that the English are not the violent and intemperate charac-
ters they have been represented; and the reception of the mission,
as far as liberality of sentiment, manner, and conduct, was deci-
dedly favourable to the British character.
Sir S. Raffles strongly expressed his opinion on the advisability
and facility of opening an intercourse with Japan; and on 10th Sept.,
1815, addressed the following remarks to a literary society in Java:—
"With regard to Japan, I venture to submit the information as I
received it from Dr. Ainslie.
6
"In the first place, every information that has been received, tends
to confirm the accuracy of Kempfer's history of that celebrated and
imperial island. The Japanese observe of him, that he is, in his
history, the very apostle of their faith,' from whose works alone
they know even their own country. Their first enquiry was for a
copy of Kempfer, and to evince the estimation in which the author
was held by the Japanese, their observation was: "That he had
drawn out their heart from them, and laid it palpitating before us,
with all the movements of their government, and the actions of
their men.' They are represented to be a vigorous nervous peo-
ple, whose bodily and mental powers assimilate much nearer to
those of Europe, than what is attributed to Asiatics in general.
Their features are masculine and perfectly European, with the ex-
ception of the small lengthened Tartar eye, which almost univer-
sally prevails, and is the only feature of resemblance between them
and the Chinese. The complexion is perfectly fair, and indeed
blooming; the women of the higher classes being equally fair with
Europeans."
For a people who have had very few, if any, external aids, the
Japanese cannot but rank high in the scale of civilization. The
traits of a vigorous mind are displayed in their proficiency in the
sciences, and particularly in metaphysics and judicial astrology.
The arts they practice speak for themselves, and are deservedly
acknowledged to be in a much higher degree of perfection than
among the Chinese, with whom they are so frequently confounded;
the latter have been stationary, at least as long as we have known
them, whilst the slightest impulse seems sufficient to give deter-
mination to the Japan character, which would progressively im-
prove until it attained the same height of civilization with the Eu-
ropeans.
Nothing is so offensive to a Japanese, as to be compared in any one
respect with the Chinese, and the only occasion on which Dr.
Ainslie saw the habitual politeness of a Japanese ever surprised
into a burst of passion was, when upon a similitude of the two na-
286
JAPANESE DESIRE FOREIGN INTERCOUrse.
tions being unguardedly asserted, the Japanese laid his hand upon
his sword.
The people are said to have a strong inclination to foreign inter-
course, notwithstanding the political institution to the contrary;
and perhaps the energy which characterises the Japanese-character
cannot be better elucidated, than by that extraordinary decision.
which excluded the world from their shores, and confined within
their own limits a people, who had before served as mercenaries
throughout all Polynesia, and traded with all nations. There is by
no means that uniformity among them which is observed in China,
where the impression of the government may be said to have
broken down all individuality, and left one Chinese the counterpart
of another.
The women are not secluded, as in China; they associate among
themselves, like the ladies of Europe.
During the residence of Dr. Ainslie, frequent invitations and
entertainments were given; on these occasions, and, at one in
particular, a lady from the court of Jedo is represented to have
done the honours of the table, with an ease, elegance, and address,
that would have graced a Parisian.
The dress of a Japanese woman of rank, would cost as much,
probably, as would supply the wardrobe of an European lady for
twenty years.
The Japanese, with an apparent coldness, like the stillness of the
Spanish character, and derived nearly from the same causes-
espionage and disunion, dictated by the principles of both govern-
ments are represented to be eager for novelty, and warm in their
attachments, open to strangers, and, abating the restrictions of
their political institutions, a people who seem inclined to throw
themselves into the hands of any nation of superior intelligence.
The mistaken idea of the illiberality of the Japanese in religious
matters, was fully proved, and the late mission experienced the
reverse. The story told by the Dutch, of trampling on the cross,
is denied by them, and appears to be untrue. The massacre of
Simvebarba is, by the Japanese, attributed to European (Dutch)
intrigue; indeed, it is admitted by Kempfer.
The Japanese are not averse to the indulgence of social excess ;
and, on these occasions, give a latitude to their speech which one
would hardly suppose they dared to do in Japan.
During Dr. Ainslie's residence, there arrived a large detach-
ment of officers of rank, who had been out making a survey of the
empire nearly four years, of which one-fourth had not been com-
pleted.
The opinion of Dr. Ainslie is, that the Japanese are a people
with whom the European world might hold intercourse without
compromise of character; they are wonderfully inquisitive in all
points of science, and possess a mind curious and anxious to re-
ceive information, no matter from whom.
}
MINERALS AND AGRICULTURE OF JAPAN.
287
The natural productions of Japan are diamonds, amber, iron,
topaz, lead, tin, copper, gold, and silver; good coal, lime, sulphur,
saltpetre, salt, and various other minerals. Gold is found in seve-
ral parts of the empire; some is washed out of golden sand; but
the chief part is obtained from ore. Silver is found in the northern
parts of Japan. The Japanese copper is considered the best in the
world; so, also, is the tin, which is fine and white. Brass is scarce,
and consequently expensive. Iron is abundant and cheap. The
Chinese were large purchasers in Japan of pearls and sea-shells,
as there was no prohibition against fishing for them.
Submarine plants, corals, &c., are found in the Japanese seas,
not inferior to those found on the Spice Islands and Amboyna.
The variety of the vegetable productions of Japan may be said
to be infinite. The forest trees are oak, walnut, chesnut, maple,
and fir; also the mulberry, varnish, paper, camphor, and every kind
of fruit-tree, including lemon and orange trees. Hemp and cotton
are cultivated; also rice, corn, wheat, peas, pulse, potatoes, turnips,
ginseng, ginger, melons, tobacco, and mustard. The agriculture
is followed in every respect after the Chinese method. The laws
and customs of Japan strictly enforce good cultivation; and the
owner leaving his ground uncultivated for more than one year,
forfeits his title to possession.
Buffaloes and oxen are kept for ploughing (not eating) only;
horses for riding and carriages. Milk and butter are not used.
They have no sheep nor goats, and of swine very few. There are
no asses, mules, camels, nor elephants. Wild and tame fowls, such
as are met with in Europe. The population live on fish and
vegetables almost exclusively.
Cordage and ropes are made from the bark of a wild-nettle,
(Urtica Japonica) which grows in Japan. When the nettle is
pulled before it attains its full growth, the bark is said to be equal
to Russian flax.
The substitute for soap is the powder of a wild bean, which
is said to answer the purpose admirably.
Lamps and candles are in general use; the lamp-oil is pressed
from mustard-seed. Their candles are about six inches long, and
one inch thick; the wick is formed of paper, twisted in a spiral
form; the oil from which they are made is extracted from the
varnish tree; they are of a whitish colour when first made, but soon
turn yellow, and become offensive.
In agriculture, the Japanese are not inferior to the Chinese.
The soil in many provinces is naturally sterile, but no labour is
spared; it is plentifully manured, and the Chinese mode of irriga-
tion adopted. The tenure on which it is held, compels them to lay
it under heavy contribution.
The rice produced in Japan is much superior to the Chinese;
barley and wheat are grown chiefly for feeding cattle.
The Japanese gardeners excel in dwarfing trees, and enlarging
288
ENGLISH WHALERS IN JAPAN.
vegetables. Forest trees are stunted in their growth to three feet
high, and radishes increased to fifty pounds weight; those from
ten to fifteen pounds are exposed for sale, and are said to be the
ordinary size.
Tea is successfully cultivated in every district, and is the usual
beverage with every class. Green tea raised in Japan, sold in the
London market (30th November, 1841) at from nine shillings, to
fifty-eight shillings per pound.
The Japanese wheat which I saw was of excellent quality; it
sold, at Hong Kong, at 2 dollars per pecul of 133 lbs.
The whale abounds on the Japanese coasts, and in the adjacent
seas, especially on the coasts of Rhumano, around the whole of
Nipon, Tsupima, and Gatto, and at Omuza and Nomo.
Mr. Enderby informs me that the English whale ships now visit
Aniwa Bay, at the extreme point of Sagalien Island or Peninsula ;
the Japanese also visit this bay, in large numbers, to cure fish.
Our whale ships frequently visit the coasts of Japan, but the people
are prohibited by their government from trading with the strangers.
Mr. Enderby says, that one of the cures adopted by our sailors
for scurvy-namely, burying a man up to his neck in fresh earth,
cannot be resorted to on the coasts of Japan, as the Japanese pro-
hibit our people landing; but the villagers bring off large casks
full of earth for the seamen to be embedded in, and vegetables and
water are freely supplied. Mr. Enderby has heard that some colo-
nial whalers from Australia have landed on the coasts of Japan,
plundered the villages and destroyed the temples; hence, he
thinks, there is alarm and jealousy of our nation.
Mr. King, in his report of the voyage of the "Morrison" ship, to
open, if possible, intercourse with Japan, is also of opinion that an
unfavourable opinion had been formed of the Americans from
the conduct of some American whale-ships on the coast. It is
therefore advantageous, for the Japanese themselves, that these
outrages should be punished and prevented for the future.
Mines.-It is only within the last few centuries, that any of the
natives would venture on a considerable island, yielding sulphur,
because it occasionally smoked. However, one stout-hearted man
ventured, with a guard of 50 others, to slay any demon that might
interrupt their progress; it is needless to say that none were found.
Now, the Prince of Satzuma farms out the island, (called Sulphur
Island,) for the sulphur alone, for 20 chests of silver per annum.
The Emperor claims two-thirds of the produce of all the mines
he permits to be worked; the lord of the province one-third.
Large quantities of gold are melted out of its own ore from the
sand of the rivers, where it is found very pure. The best is found
in Sado, a province in the Island of Nipon; one catty yielded three
taels of gold, (See "Weights, &c.") The gold mines of Surunga are
very productive. The most productive mines were in Satzuma,
!
42
GOLD, SILVER, COPPER, TIN, AND PEARLS.-JAPAN.
289
one catty of ore yielded five taels of pure gold. These mines were
closed lest they should be emptied.
Silver is found in the province of Bingo. But the copper of
Suranga is considered the best in the world; it is beautifully fine,
and charged with gold, which the natives have lately learned to
separate.
The province of Salzuma produces a very pure species of copper,
which is refined and cast into a cylinder form, about a span and a
half long, and as thick as a man's finger; it is made up in boxes of
one pecul weight, (125lbs.) and sold to the Dutch for 12 mace the
pecul; an inferior kind is made into round lumps, and sold at half
the price. Brass is very scarce, and consequently much dearer
than copper. Their tin is of a very pure quality, but little used.
Iron is only found in three provinces, and is rather dearer than
copper, so that the latter is substituted in all domestic utensils,
building junks, houses, and in making tools for husbandry.
Agates, not unlike sapphires, are found in several provinces;
jaspers and cornelians are obtained in the mountains of Tsugar, in
the northern extremities, nearly opposite Jedo. Pearls are found
in a small oyster, (called akaja,) which are not unlike the Persian
shell; these pearls are much esteemed by the females of China,
also by the Tonquinese. There is a red earth obtained in some of
the rivers, particularly in places where very little water runs; it is
called Naphtha, by the natives Abra: when set fire to, it emits
a flame, and answers all the purposes of oil. Coals are abundant
in the northern provinces. Siebold, in his journey to Jedo, A.D.
1826, which was in winter, saw coal fires quite common; and pass-
ing a mine where they were working, descended and satisfied him-
self both as to quantity and quality; it is of a bituminous nature,
and is generally converted into charcoal.
Their
The Dutch imports, from Batavia into Japan, are borax, cam-
phor, baroos, cloves, cinnamon, coffee, elephants' teeth, lead, iron
bars, glass-ware, looking-glasses, mace, musk, nutmegs, pepper,
mirrors, rattans, quicksilver, raw-silk, saffron, sapan-wood, soft
sugar, sugar-candy, tin, tortoiseshell, unicorn horns, Indian piece
goods, cotton and silk piece goods, and woollen cloth.
exports are copper, camphor, silk, lacker-ware, bees-wax, pitch,
wheat, and various articles. Their policy is always to starve a
market, and their intercourse being solely with Batavia, by means
of a monopoly, there is no spirit of enterprise in their trade with
Japan. The internal or coasting traffic of Japan is very active,
and carried on chiefly by water, in boats of 60 tons burthen, and
by land on the backs of horses or oxen. A pedestrian postal esta-
blishment exists, as in China, for government letters only.
U
K25)
290
GOLD, SILVER, AND COPPER COINS IN JAPAN.
VALUES AND DUTIES ON THE FOREIGN TRADE AT
NANGASAKI.
The Dutch Company pay 15 per cent. on the amount of their
imports into Japan, which is calculated at the price they sell for
in Japan. The chief part of the Dutch cargoes from Batavia are
farmed out to private merchants. These imports must have a
separate manifest, and are charged with an additional duty, by the
Japanese government, of 45 per cent. on all piece goods; goods
sold by weight pay 70 per cent. The authorities give their reason
for this heavy duty, thus: they say, private traders are at less ex-
pense and no risk, compared to the Company, and can consequently
afford to pay more than they. The Chinese are charged 60 per
cent. also, and the reason alleged is the short voyage, and their
not being required to go to court.
Total amount received from the foreign commerce, (called Fan-
nagin,)
60 per cent. on 20,000 taels, piece goods, 13,000 taels.
Ditto on Chinese, 600,000 produce
Ditto to the Dutch
360,000
Rent charged to the Chinese
16,000
5,580
Charges on Dutch company's imports
59,000
Taels
453,580
JAPAN CURRENCY.-The coins of Japan are various, being le-
gally of gold, silver, and copper; accounts are kept in (rio) taels,
(momme) mace, and (bu) candareens, which have the same value as
in China; the coins are cast, and gold and silver is weighed among
merchants; the only coins that have a standard value are the im-
perial coinage, with the royal coat of arms, a flower and three leaves
of the Kiri or Dryandra upon the face. The elliptical gold coins.
are two, the obang, and the kobang or kopang; the first is as large
as the palm of the hand, and as thick as an English farthing. The
kobang, value of a tael of gold, and the tenth of an obang is two
inches long, and one inch wide, and should weigh three mace, five
candareens, or 203 grains troy. There is an old coin of this name
but seldom met with, it is thicker and of finer metal. The old
kobang weighs 275 grains troy, 22 carats fine; the new kobang
weighs 180 grains troy, 16 carats fine; the old kobang is worth
44s. and 7d., or 10 rix dollars; the new kobang is worth 21s. and
3d. or 6 rix dollars. The old Japanese coins are reckoned at
Madras only 87 touch, which is 20 carats, and reduces the old
kobang to 41s. and 1Cd. sterling. Of the smaller coins now in use,
one is called ichi-bu, the Dutch call it golden bean, it is a fourth
part of a kobang, should weigh 8 candareens, it has the imperial
arms and Emperor's reign. Another gold coin is called koisshiu,
and is half the value of the former.
1
BILLS OF EXCHANGE IN JAPAN.
291
The silver money, nandio or nandrio gin, is of three sorts ;
nibu gin is a kobang, the nishiu gin is of a kobang, and
the ichibu gin is of a kobang; it is a small coin not one inch
long by inch broad, and as thick as a rupee.
These are stamped
stating their relative value, as two, eight, or sixteen to a tael or
kobang, and are issued from the mint. The itagane, (or metallic
slips), are made of gold and silver, of an oblong form, and when
passed from hand receive a stamp as evidence of their purity.
The kodama or pellets, like the itagane are stamped; neither
bear the imperial arms; if the schuit and itagane be the same
weight of this coin; and according to Dr. Kelly, 4 oz. 18 dwts.
16 grains troy, and 4 oz. fineness it is worth 25s. and 3d. sterling.
The coins of inferior metal, such as the Chinese cash, are called
by the Japanese zeni; the smallest are reckoned as 6800 to a
kobang, and are a base coin. The se-mon zeni, (so called because
it is four times the value of the common sort,) is a good cast coin,
of brass, and as large as a cent.
Cash are strung on a string, each containing 1000, called Kwan;
a Kwan is worth 9 mace of silver; 120 cash a single mace; it ap-
pears cash bears a higher value than in China, though inferior in
weight. The same is the case in Cochin China, although the coin
is still inferior. Bills of exchange seem to be as current in Japan,
as in China. Princes issue notes to circulate in their own prin-
cipalities. The weights are the same as in China. The measures
of length and of capacity, are of the same size and proportion as
in China; the Japanese ri or mile, varies in length; it is computed
to be two-fifths of a Dutch league; four Chinese ri are about
equal to one Japanese ri.
The following account of gold in Japan, was taken from a Chinese
book, written in 1708, and translated by Klaproth.
The Japanese chroniclers state, that silver was first presented to
the Emperor A.D. 670.
The discovery of copper took place 1366 years after the founda-
tion of the empire, which agrees with 700 A.D. Copper previous to
this period was imported; and the fact of the discovery seems
evident by the name of the reign under which it fell, Wa-do,
which in Japanese signifies copper.
Gold was discovered* A.D. 749, heretofore it also was imported.
A.D. 1588. The first obang and kobang were coined, which are
large oblong pieces of gold.
A.D. 1608. The circulation of Chinese copper coin was prohibi-
ted, and from this period to 1690 the coinage increased at an ex-
tensive rate; some years it is stated that 7,000,000 ounces of gold
were coined, and 80,000,000 ounces of silver. The increase of
foreign merchants and strangers, was so great in the year 1623,
*It is probable that there are extensive gold and silver mines in Japan, which the
skill and energy of Englishmen would soon develope.
+
U 2
292
GOLD AND SILVER EXPORTED FROM JAPAN.
that the government became alarmed; and confined the trade to
one port, viz. Nangasaki. Notwithstanding the extensive coin-
age, the previous metals had become exceedingly scarce. It is
said that large sums of money were taken from the new converts to
Christianity, in the hopes of releasing their souls and those of their
ancestors from purgatory.
The following statement of the export of gold and silver from
one port alone, at a period when only the Dutch and Chinese were
permitted intercourse, will give some idea of what it must have
been in former years, when the Portuguese, English, Dutch, and
Chinese, were draining the empire.
From 1646 to 1708, there were exported from Nangasaki
2,397,600 kobangs of gold, valued at £2 4s. 7d.; the same period,
37,420,900 crowns in silver. From 1663 to 1701 there were
1,114,498,700 pounds in bars of copper. From 1609 to 1662, the
quantity of copper exported was beyond calculation.
The amount of gold exported from Nangasaki port alone, between
1611 and 1647, and up to 1706, is estimated at 6,192,800 kobangs;
that of silver for the same period 112,268,700 crowns; and bars of
pure copper, 2,228,997,500 pounds.
From 1706 to a late period, 2,000,000 kobangs have been coined;
a third part of which has left the country, and out of one and a
half million crowns coined, not one third remains in the empire.
The following memorial was presented by a Japanese finance
minister, to the government, in the year A.D. 1710.
"A thousand years ago, gold, silver, and copper, were unknown in
Japan, yet there was no want of necessaries. The earth was fertile,
and this was the best wealth. Gangin was the first Prince who
caused the mines to be diligently worked; and during his reign, so
great a quantity of gold and silver was extracted from them, as no
one could have formed any conception of; and since these metals
resemble the bones of the human body, inasmuch as what is
once extracted from the earth is not reproduced, if the mines con-
tinue to be thus wrought, in less than a thousand years they will be
exhausted.
"Since these metals were discovered, the heart of man has become
more and more depraved. With the exception of medicines, we
can dispense with every thing that is brought to us from abroad.
The stuff and other things are no real benefit to us.
If we squan-
der our treasures in this manner, what shall we subsist upon?
Let each of Gangin's successors reflect upon this matter, and the
wealth of Japan will last as long as the heavens and the earth."
It is remarkable that the fear of the "oozing out" of the precious
metals, equally pervades China and Japan, in their intercourse with
foreigners; but the same idea, to some extent, pervades most of
the nations of Europe.
EMPEROR OF JAPAN RECEIVES WM. ADAMS A.D. 1600. 293
EARLY EUROPEAN INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN.
William Adams, born at Jellingham, in Kent, engaged himself as
pilot of a fleet which the Dutch India Company were sending out
from Holland in 1598 A.D. In the South Sea the fleet encountered
severe storms, and were driven southward as far as 54°. After
crossing the line, the ships kept company until February, 1600;
when, being in latitude 28° N., they were separated by a furious
storm.
A.D. 1600. The 20th April Adams's ship made the coast of
Japan, in latitude 3010. There were only six of the crew (twenty-
four in number) that could work the ship. The ship anchored at
the port of Bingo, the natives offering no resistance. The third
day after their arrival, a Jesuit came on board, and acted as inter-
preter. The king of Bingo gave them a house to reside in, and
every attention was paid to the sick crew. The emperor, hearing
of their arrival, sent for Adams, who repaired to his court eighty
leagues distant. The first question asked by the Emperor was as
to the state of Europe with regard to peace or war; a variety of
other questions were also put, all of which Adams answered to the
apparent satisfaction of the Emperor: however, he was committed
to close custody, but treated with kindness. In three days' time
he was again brought before the Emperor, and asked the reason of
their coming so long a journey; Adams answering it was to ex-
change the commodities of their country with others, and thus
cultivate friendship with all nations, he was again sent to prison
for thirty-nine days, during which time the Spanish and Portu-
guese were using their utmost influence to have the crew executed.
But on the forty-first day, the Emperor released Adams, and sent
him to rejoin his crew; telling the Spanish and Portuguese that
the Dutch as yet had done no harm, either to himself or to any of his
land; therefore it was contrary to reason and justice to put such
of their nation as had come to Japan to death. If the Spanish
and Dutch were at war, that was no reason why he should slaugh-
ter the crew. In the meantime, the Dutch ship had been con-
veyed as near as possible to where the Emperor resided, but had
been plundered of her cargo. When this was made known to the
Emperor, he ordered everything to be replaced, but this was found
impossible; so that a sum of money was made up, amounting to
50,000 rials, and paid into an officer's hands, who was ordered by
his majesty to disburse the same equably for the several necessi-
ties of the crew.
The Emperor being about to remove his court to the most east-
ern part of his dominions, which was called Quanto, distant from
the latter place (Assaka) 120 leagues, his majesty had the Dutch-
men and their ship conveyed to Eddo, that is, Jedo, and ordered
two pounds of rice daily, and twelve ducats annually to be paid to
}
294
ADAMS INSTRUCTS THE EMPEROR IN MATHEMATICS.
each man. Adams, by command of the Emperor, built a ship of
eighty tons, which gave great satisfaction, and raised him in such
favour that a yearly allowance of seventy ducats and two pounds
of rice daily were ordered to be paid him-A.D. 1604.
A.D. 1605. Adams had daily intercourse with the Emperor,
and gave him lessons in geometry and mathematics. Being now five
years in the island, he asked permissiou to return to see his wife
and children; and hearing, through the Portuguese, that the
Dutch and English had vessels at Siam, promised to bring each
nation to trade at Japan; but the Emperor would not part with
him. Seeing no hopes for himself, he asked and obtained per-
mission for his captain and crew to depart. He sent several
letters by the captain, with this singular superscription, "To
my unknown friends and country."
A.D. 1609. The Captain was killed at Malacca, and probably
the letters fell into the hands of the Spanish or Portuguese.
Hostilities were at this time going on between the Portuguese and
Dutch at Macao; the latter sent two ships to intercept some of the
Portuguese traders between Firando and Macao, and missing their
intended prize, anchored in Firando; Adams introduced them to
the Emperor, who readily entered into terms with them and per-
mitted them to send two ships annually.
A.D. 1611. This year a small Dutch ship came to Firando,
laden with lead, elephants' teeth, damask, black taffety, raw silk,
pepper, and cloth; an excuse was made for not coming the pre-
vious year.
This year the Emperor rewarded Adams for his
services, by granting him a manor, together with one hundred
slaves or servants to work it.
66
An extract from Adams's letter at this period states, that the
Hollanders have in Japan an Indies of money, so that there is
no need for silver to be sent out from Holland; for in Japan is
much silver and gold, to serve for the Hollanders to handle whither
they will in the East Indies, which is always provided for their
commodities, which are generally lead, raw silk, damask, black
and red cloths. Such like imports are ready money in Japan."
His letter concludes with a description of Japan. "This island
of Japan lieth in latitude 48° at the north extremity, and 35°
at the south; in length 220 English leagues. The people are
good of nature, courteous out of measure, and valiant in war.
Justice is severely executed upon transgressors without partiality.
There is not in the world a land better governed by civil policy.
The people are very superstitious in their religion, being divers in
opinion. If a ship come from England to traffic at Japan, not any
nation should receive a better welcome;" and this it was in his power
to procure, for which he praises God who hath given him favour with
the Emperor: hence he could boldly promise that his countrymen
should be as welcome and as free in comparison as in the river in
London.
ADAMS INVITES THE ENGLISH TO JAPAN.
295
"Could our English merchants, after settling in Japan, procure
trade with the Chinese, then shall our country make great profit
here, and the Company will not have need to send money out of
England, for in Japan there are gold and silver in abundance, and
therefore by the traffic here they will take in exchange money
enough for their investments in India and China.
"The Hollanders are now (1612) settled in Japan, and I
(Adams) have got them that privilege, which the Spaniards could
never obtain since they first came to Japan."
Adams proceeds to say:-" If a ship is sent, let her not come
where the Hollanders are (Firando) for it is a bad place for the sale
of goods; but let her come for the easterly part of Japan, lying in
latitude 35°, where the King's and the Emperor's court is. Besides,
should our ships come to Firando, thence to the court is about
230 leagues, a wearisome way. The city of Edo lieth in 36°, and
about this easterly part are the best harbours and a clear coast, so
that there are no shoals nor rocks half a mile from the mainland
it is also good for the sale of merchandise. And comes there a
ship here, I hope the Worshipful Company shall find me to be a
servant of their servants, in such manner as that they shall be
satisfied with my services. If any ship come near the easternmost
part of Japan, let them enquire for me. I am called in the Japan
tongue' Augin Samma;' by that name am I known all the sea-
coast along. Nor fear to come near the mainland, for you shall
have barks with pilots to carry you where you will."
Adams thus concludes his letter to the agent of the English
factory (Spalding) at Bantam ;-" Had I known that our English
ships had trade in the Indies, I had long ago troubled you with
writing, but the Hollanders kept it most secret from me till the
year 1611, which was the first news I had of the trading of our
ships in the Indies."
A.D. 1613, June 12. This day arrived the ship " Clove" from
England, with a letter from King James, and presents for the
Emperor of Japan; Captain Saris, who was called the Company's
general, and Richard Cock, who was to be superintendent. A
treaty, or charter of privileges, was obtained without the least dif
ficulty, and a factory opened.
ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF ENGLISH INTERCOURSE
WITH JAPAN.
The English East India Company's introduction to Japan, was
as above shewn by a letter of invitation from William Adams, an
Englishman, a pilot in the Dutch service, who had been wrecked.
on the coast of Japan, and becoming a great favourite at court
was naturally anxious to serve his native country.
A.D. 1612. The East India Company at this time were desirous
Ждем
296
EMPEROR OF JAPAN TO KING JAMES OF ENGLAND.
to open a communication with China, and thinking this an oppor-
tunity that might ultimately facilitate their wishes, sent Captain
Saris in the "Clove," with a letter and presents from King James,
to the Emperor of Japan.
The "Clove" sailed from Bantam, viâ the Moluccas, and arri-
ved in Firando, early in the year 1613.
When the "Clove" arrived, she was visited by King Foyne and
his nephew, accompanied by Adams; nothing could exceed the
kindness and attention paid Captain Saris, who was quite unpre-
pared for such a reception, having heard of the persecution of the
Portuguese Jesuits, a short time previous.
The King of Firando sent Captain Saris to Jedo, the capital,
providing every accommodation for his journey. His reception by
the heir apparent, was in every respect most cordial, and every
privilege required was freely granted, together with a letter and
presents for the King of England. The following is a copy of the
letter:
"To the King of Great Britain.
"Your Majesty's kind letter, sent by your servant Captain John
Saris, (who is the first I have known to arrive in any part of my
dominions), I heartily embrace, being not a little glad to under-
stand of your great wisdom and power, as having three plentiful
and mighty kingdoms, under your powerful command. I ac-
knowledge your Majesty's great bounty, in sending me so unde-
served a present of many rare things, such as my land affordeth
not, neither have I ever before seen; which I receive not as from
a stranger, but as from your Majesty, whom I esteem as myself.
"Desiring the continuance of friendship with your Highness, and
that it may stand with your good-liking, to send your subjects to
any part or port of my dominions, where they shall be most
heartily welcome. Applauding much their worthiness in their ad-
mirable navigation, having with much facility discovered a country
so remote, being no whit amazed with the distance of so mighty
a gulph, nor greatness of such infinite clouds and storms, from
prosecuting honorable enterprizes of discoveries and merchandising:
wherein they shall find me to further them, according to their
desires.
"I return to your Majesty a small token of my love, (by your
said subject) desiring you to accept thereof, as from him that much
rejoiceth in your friendship.
"And whereas your Majesty's subjects have desired certain
privileges for trade, and settling of a factory in my dominions,
I have not only granted what they demanded, but have confirmed
the same unto them under my broad seal, for better establishing
thereof.
JAPAN TREATY OF PRIVILEGES TO ENGLISH, 1613. 297
"From my Castle in Surunga, this fourth day of ninth
month, in the eighteenth year of our diary.
Resting your Majesty's friend, the Highest Com-
mander in this Kingdom of Japan.
"Mina, Mouttono, yei, ye, yeas."
The following is a copy of the treaty or charter of privileges
granted to the English.
Imprimis.*—We give free license to the subjects of the King of
Great Britain, viz. :-Sir Thomas Smith, governor, and Company
of the East India merchants and adventurers, for ever safely to
come into any part of our empire of Japan, with their ships and
merchandise, without any hindrance to them or their goods. And
to abide, buy, sell, and barter, according to their own manner with
all nations; to tarry here as long as they think good, and depart
at their pleasure.
Item the 2nd.-We grant unto them freedom of custom, for all
such merchandise as either now they have brought, or hereafter
shall bring, into our kingdom, or shall from hence transport to any
foreign port. And do authorise those ships that hereafter shall
arrive, and come from England, to proceed to present sale of their
commodities, without further coming or sending up to our court.
“Item the 3rd.—If any of the ships shall happen to be in danger
of shipwreck, we will our subjects, not only to assist them, but that
such parts of the ship and goods as shall be saved, be returned to
their captain, or Cape merchant, or assigns. And that they shall
or may build one house or more for themselves in any part of our
empire, where they shall think fittest, and at their departure to
make sale thereof at their pleasure.
“Item the 4th.—If any of the English merchants, or others, shall
depart this life within our dominions, the goods of the deceased
shall remain at the disposal of the Cape merchant. And all offences
committed by them, shall be punished by the said Cape merchant
according to his discretion; and our laws to take no hold of their
persons or goods.
"Item the 5th.-We will that ye our subjects, trading with
them for any of their commodities, pay them for the same, accord-
ing to agreement, without delay, or return of their goods again
unto them.
“Item the 6th.-For such commodities as they have now
brought, or shall hereafter bring, fitting for our service and proper
use, we will that no arrest be made thereof, but that the price
be with the Cape merchant, according as they may sell to others,
and present payment upon the delivery of the goods.
"Item the 7th.-If, in discovery of other countries for trade and
return of their ships, they shall need men or provisions, we will
* I have a copy of this treaty, or charter of privileges, in the Firagone (Japanese
Cursive character, which has been examined by the distinguished oriental and ge
neral scholar, N. Bland, Esq., of Randall's Park, Leatherhead.-R. M. M.
298
ENGLISH FACTORY OPENED AT JAPAN.
that ye our subjects furnish them for their money, as their need
shall require.
Item the 8th.~And without any other passport, they shall and
may set out to the northward, upon discovery of Yeadzo, or any
other port in or about our empire.
"From our Castle, at Suringa, this first day of ninth
month, and in the eighteenth year of our "diary,"
according to our computation.
"Under-written, and sealed with our broad seal.
"Mina, Mouttono, yei, ye, yeas."
Place of Seal.
A.D. 1613. On the return of Captain Saris, a factory was
opened, and the chief part of the cargo being broadcloth, he
was rather disappointed that it did not sell quickly. He was soon
told by the Natives, that it was strange that they should bring an
article there and recommend it so strongly, and they themselves
not make use of it. To this shrewd remark, Captain Saris, (or
Lord Saris, as he was called, having obtained that title from the
King of Firando) found some difficulty in replying, as he was
dressed in silk, and his subordinates in fustian. The Dutch were
selling English-made cloth, at the rate of £16. per piece, and Cap-
tain Saris reduced his to full one half, and yet had a handsome
profit.
Saris states that, at this period, the Japanese carried on an
extensive trade with India and China.
The prospects, under which a factory was opened in Japan,
as given by Saris, were the Emperor's promised friendship, and the
King of Firando's daily expression of kindness, by his personal
visits; the encouragement the English had met with in the Mo-
luccas; the expectation of being soon permitted to trade with
China, and advices he had received from Siam, and several other
places adjacent.
The factory consisted of a captain, that is Cape merchant, R.
Cocks, William Adams, and six other Englishmen, three inter-
preters, and two servants.
A.D. 1614. The following articles were in great demand :—
broadcloth, yellow and red; baizes, same colours; serges, silks,
camlets, velvets, and India cloths. Musk brought the same price
as silver; thread of all colours, carpets; pictures, especially those
representing battles; warlike instruments, quicksilver, vermillion,
lead; tin, in sheets; gold-leaf, cut and plain glass of every kind,
and elephants' tusks.
A.D. 1615. A letter of this date, from the head of the factory,
states that an edict had been issued against all priests, friars, and
DUTCH PIRATES CALL THEMSELVES ENGLISH.
299
nuns, but that no interference with the English factory had taken
place, but on the contrary every encouragement had been given ;
that several junks had been built under the direction of Adams,
that bright prospects of trade were likely to accrue from sending
their own junks to Siam and Loo-choo. On the report of a re-
bellion breaking out in the northern part of the empire, all the
military stores and lead were sold to the Emperor at a good profit.
It was agreed that every vessel sent out must contain some pre-
sent for the Emperor, according to the custom of the country.
An edict had been issued preventing all natives from leaving the
country; and that no more native junks should leave the coast of
Japan, but that the English may go and come as they will.
A.D. 1616. The advices of the year from Japan were most flat-
tering; the coasting trade was succeeding beyond their most san-
guine hopes. The Emperor had visited the factory, which had
already excited the jealousy of the Portuguese and Dutch.
A.D. 1617. The chief complaint this year was the want of com-
munication with China, to obtain raw silk, which was in greater
demand than the imports could supply. The Dutch had a squadron
in the seas of Japan and China, plundering Chinese junks, and
giving out that they were English ships, and, by this means,
damaging the character of Englishmen with the Chinese empire,
and thus rendering the chance of an opening with China more
uncertain. The demand for raw silk at this period was so great,
that the Dutch were permitted to bring the prizes obtained from
the Chinese junks (which is contrary to their treaty) into Firando.
This circumstance caused a bad feeling between the English and
Dutch, as shewn in the following letter from the superintendent of
the English factory at Japan, to the chairman of the East India
Company in London.
Most worshipful Sir,
Port of Firando.
10th March, A.D. 1619.
It is now two years since I wrote your worship any letter,
and it is by means of the unlooked-for and unruly proceedings of
the Hollanders against our English nation, in all these parts of
the world, not sparing us in the kingdom of Japan, contrary to
the large privileges which the Emperor of Japan hath granted,
that the Japanese should not meddle with us. But the Hollanders
this year having seven ships, great and small, here, with sound of
trumpet, have proclaimed open war against our nation by sea and
land; to take our English ships and goods, and kill our persons as
their mortal enemies, which was done by Adam Westerwood
(their admiral, as they term him,) openly proclaimed aboard all
their ships. Also, they came to brave us before our own doors,
and picking a quarrel, entered into our house, thinking to have
cut all our throats, yet wounded but two persons; and had it not
been for the assistance of the Japanese, they would have killed us
all, as they were a hundred to our one. They took a boat of ours;
300
DUTCH PERSECUTIONS OF ENGLISH IN JAPAN.
and one Richard King, one of our servants, they ill-treated; and,
beside this, two of our barkes going beside their ships, they bent a
piece of ordnance against them, which took false fire, but they
shot at them with muskets, but missed the English and killed a
Japanese; and for all this, no justice executed against them by
the King of Firando, although the Emperor hath commanded him
to do it.
"Two of the ships brought here this year are English ships,
which they took from the English in the Indies; and also, they
took two others this year, riding at anchor in the road of Patania,
where we have a factory, and not doubting any such matter; in
which fray they killed Captain Jourdan, our chief president of the
worshipful company in the Indies, with divers others, and carried
the ships and goods away. But six of the mariners, which were
in the English ships which they took, escaped from them, and
came to our house; they sending to me to have them sent back
again; unto whom I answered, I would first see their commission,
how they durst presume to take our shipping and goods, and kill
our king's men as they did. So they went to the King of Firando,
desiring to have their English slaves (as it pleased them to call
them) delivered unto them, and the answer they got was to de-
mand them from the Emperor.
"This was the chief occasion that made them pick quarrels
against us, and to have killed us all; but, I hope in God, his
Majesty, by the solicitation of our honourable and worshipful em-
ployers, will not suffer his true and loyal subjects to lose their
ships, lives, and goods, in such order as they do, by such an un-
thankful and thievish rabble of them which are assembled together
in these parts of the world, who make a daily practice to rob and
spoil both friends and foes. I trust that yourself will be a solicitor
in so just a cause, against so common an enemie.
"This Adam Westerwood offered fifty rials of eight to any one
that would kill me, and thirty for every other Englishman: but,
hitherto, God hath preserved me and the rest in this. Although
they wounded two or three, they are not dead.
"I had secret information from their people to take heed of
ourselves. I know not what else to write, but, I hope, by the
next ship to go to England, where, God grant I may find you in
good health.
"Your Worship's, at command,
"RICHARD COCK.
"To the Right Worshipful Sir THOMAS WILSON."
A.D. 1620. The communication had hitherto been with Bantam,
but the "James Royal" had been sent direct from London: her
size was 1000 tons, and the splendid appearance of this vessel,
compared with the Dutch and Portuguese, had the contrary effect
to what was expected. The "James Royal" was visited by the
Emperor and all the Royal Family; this gave such offence to the
ABANDONMENT OF ENGLISH FACTORY AT JAPAN.
301
Dutch and Portuguese, that, although they were determined ene-
mies to each other, they made common cause against the English.
A.D. 1622. The last letter from Cock to Captain Saris states
that a dangerous conspiracy had been discovered, in which foreign-
ers had been implicated, which had altered the policy hitherto
adopted by government to Europeans. Cock thus concludes this
private letter to his friend Saris:-
"Thus much I think good to advise you of: the present state
of Japan is much altered from that is was at your being heere,
and, for the rest, I hope to tell you by worde of mouth at
my return unto England next yeare, God sparing me life and
libertie."
The cause of the East India Company breaking up their factory
in Japan, was understood to be the want of an entrepôt in China,
and a desire to economise their expenditure, and reduce the num-
ber of their factories.
The probable causes of the surrender of the East India Com-
pany's factory at Firando, are as follows:-
In 1613, the first year of business, a negotiation was entered into
with two Chinese merchants, who resided in Japan, with a view of
opening a trade in that country, as raw silk was not supplied to meet
the demand. The English agents were credulous enough to be-
lieve the Chinese in their fair promises, to aid them in this object;
and in this way large sums of money were expended in bribes to
the government officers at the Chinese court, and likewise to a
number of intermediate envoys. This large expenditure had been
continued for several years without the least probability of suc-
ceeding.
Secondly-The factory was settled at a port in opposition to
Adams' instructions; he stated in his letter, "the same articles,
which are the staple commodities of our country, that is, cloths,
are already too cheap in Japan, by reason of the ships from New
Spain on the one part, and the Hollanders and Portuguese on the
other; this competition has made good cloth as cheap in Japan as
it is in England."
Adams, in 1611, in writing for the English to come, gives a list
of the imports brought by the Dutch, which were chiefly shipped on
the way, viz.: at Patania. The principal cargoes were the produce
of the Dutch possessions, or Chinese commodities. Pepper was
selling at Firando at 40s. per 100lbs.; cloves, £5 sterling per 100lbs.
The imports from Patania were raw silk, damask, satin, taffaty,
velvet, and many other articles of Chinese manufactures, collected
there by a circuitous traffic.
The great competition compelled the agents to seek a market in
Siam and Cochin-China, and junks were purchased and commanded
by Adams; these speculations were unsuccessful, by reason of ship-
wrecks, and the habitual cheating of the Chinese, with whom they
principally traded at Siam; one whole cargo was taken from them,
the crew narrowly escaping with their lives.
302
DEATH OF WILLIAM ADAMS AT JAPAN.
Thirdly-The hostility of the Dutch manifested itself at a very
early period of the settlement of the English factory. The refer-
ence was usually to the King of Firando, who was too much en-
gaged crucifying the Portuguese and Spanish missionaries, and
also the native Christians, to pay attention to the English remon-
strances. The King referred the contending parties generally to
the Emperor, who resided 230 leagues distant. Adams seems to
have anticipated something of this, and was anxious to have the
factory as near as possible to the Emperor, to whom he had access
at any time. But his frequent absence in prosecuting trade along
the coast, and probably a fear of sharing in the persecution that
was then raging, prevented the English appealing to the Emperor.
A letter from the Superintendent of the English factory to the
Court of Directors, dated the 13th December, A.D. 1620, appears
to have decided the Company as to the temporary surrender of the
factory.
Superintendant Cock, in a letter of 1620, says, "our good friend
Captain William Adams, departed out of this world the 16th May
last, and made Mr. William Eaton and myself his executors: giving
the one-half of his estate to his wife and child in England, and the
other to a son and daughter he hath in Japan. I cannot but be
sorrowful for the loss of such a man as Adams was, being our main-
stay in these parts: he was in such favour with two Emperors of
Japan, as never was any Christian; and might freely have entered
and had speech with the Emperors, when many Japan kings stood
without, and could not be permitted. This Emperor hath con-
firmed the lordship to his son, which the other Emperor gave to
his father."
1623. The East India council at Batavia, sent orders to have
the Company's houses and godowns given into the custody of the
King of Firando, to be preserved for the Company against their
return; and for greater security, a writing to that effect was to be
taken from him or one of his banjews (secretaries.)
A.D. 1673. The English East India Company never abandoned
the idea of re-establishing their position in Japan.
The ship "Return"
"Return" was sent out, under the command of
Simon Delbo, with a copy of the treaty entered into with the
Company in 1613.
This undertaking must have been proposed, in ignorance; a
worse period could not have been selected, as the sequel will
show.
King Charles was allied to the most bitter enemy of Japan,
viz. the Portuguese, who had been expelled the empire, only a
few years previous, for an alleged conspiracy to usurp the
throne.
Again, Charles had declared war on the Dutch,—a naval war,
the most fierce and bloody that probably ever was fought,-by
which the Dutch lost New York, which was then considered a
valuable possession.
ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN, 1673.
303
A.D. 1673. When the "Return" arrived at Nagasaki, she
was visited by the authorities. The Captain produced a copy of
the license granted to King James by the Emperor of Japan;
this document was perused with great attention, and then the
Captain was asked for the original. The Captain replied, that
when the factory was given up in 1623, the original treaty
was returned to the Imperial Court. The next questions were,
what religion do you profess, how long has your King been mar-
ried to a Portuguese Princess, and has he had any children by
her. The Captain stated that he professed the same religion as
the Dutch, and was not a papist like the Portuguese; to the
second inquiry he stated that the Kings of England were not
permitted to marry any of their own subjects; and that the
state policy was always to strengthen their empire, by an alli-
ance with foreigners.
A.D. 1673. A demand was made for the arms, ammunition, &c.
which were given up; the Captain receiving a written acknow-
ledgement for every article surrendered.
The second day, the authorities visited the ship, put the same
question as on the previous day, enquired would the English be
satisfied to trade on the same terms as the Dutch, and asked why
forty-nine years elapsed, without visiting their factory, which
was still prescrved. The Captain stated that England had
twenty years of civil war, since they left Japan, besides foreign
wars; and that during war, it was no small matter to take so long
a journey. He was then asked, if any of the crew were
ever in
Japan before, and was answered in the negative, which very much
surprised them. The questions were put in Portuguese, and then
in Dutch.
The third day's interview, the same questions were again asked,
as on the previous days. A Dutch vessel arriving early in the
morning, the Captain hoisted his colours, with the cross in their
flag, (a union-jack,) as a compliment. A copy of the questions of
the previous day was handed to the Captain to sign, and he was
asked why he carried two sorts of colours. The Captain stated,
that the colours he then had, were the ancient colours of England,
for many centuries, to the truth of which the Dutch could testify;
that the cross was not worn with any superstitious views, but as a
mark of distinction. The Captain also stated, that the Honourable
Company, who sent him, out of compliment to their prejudices,
procured a second set of colours at Formosa, red and white, with-
out the cross, which he wore coming into port. The authorities,
convinced that these were not the English colours, stated that
they were perfectly satisfied.
The fourth day's examination commenced, by asking if England
was ever subject to Spain or Portugal, as their colours and flags
were alike.
A document was produced, written in English, and
signed by Martinus Cacsar, the chief of the Dutch factory, in
304
JAPANESE QUESTIONS TO THE ENGLISH.
which it was stated that the English had entered into a treaty of
peace with the Hollanders, and contrary to that treaty she had en-
tered into an alliance with France, and made war against the Hol-
landers, although of the same religion with them: this the English
captain denied all knowledge or belief of.
Articles were then drawn up binding the English and Dutch to
good conduct to each other while they remained in Japan; these
articles were signed by both parties.
1
In one month after the arrival of the " Return," an answer was
given to the captain, viz :—-
"That inasmuch as the King of England was married to a
daughter of the King of Portugal, their greatest enemy, they could
not admit the English to re-open in their factory, and for no other
reason."
The captain asked permission to remain forty days, for the trade
winds, which was readily granted; and likewise proposed giving
the Return two months start of the Dutch ships, lest they should
molest the English, as their two countries were at war. Merchan-
dise was also taken in exchange for the provision supplied to the
Return.
Previous to sailing, the captain was asked, why it was his com-
pany had still carried on their trade at Bantam, and not at Japan.
The answer was, that pepper was the chief article obtained at Ban-
tam, in exchange for English manufactures, and that the Company
could not procure it in any other country.
The refusal to trade appeared to surprise the Japanese as much
as the Captain, from the many expressions of regret which fell from
them, and each interview convinced the captain of their anxiety
that he should succeed. Their polite and amiable manners made
a lasting impression on the captain's mind, who ascribes his repulse
to the false news brought by the Dutch captain.
During his stay, the visits of the Japanese were frequent, and on
many of their questions on the affairs of Europe, the captain found
himself much more deficient than his enquirers.
A. D. 1792. The English East India Company appointed a
committee to report on the practicability of opening new markets
for British manufactures. The relations between the Company
and China must have influenced the committee in giving the fol-
lowing report. It was not, in fact, politic of the East India Com-
pany, in reference to their then existing pecuniary interests, that
a free intercourse should be established with Japan. The report
stated: That it never could be an object for Great Britain to carry
on a trade with Japan; that the Japanese were supplied with Bri-
tish woollens through the Chinese who visited Japan. If these
goods were sent direct to Japan, the defalcation in exports to
China must be made up in bullion or by drafts on Bengal-and
further, that the copper received in return for these woollens, no
matter what market they were sent to, would interfere with the
BRITISH VISIT JAPAN, 1796 AND 1808.
305
produce of the British mines." The report concludes, "that sup-
posing a cargo of woollens, lead, and other things were sent to
Japan, copper to the amount of £30,000 must be received in pay-
ment, to the great injury of our native mines."
A. D. 1796. His Majesty's schooner Providence, Captain Brough-
ton, visited the Japanese islands on a voyage of discovery. It was
not within his province to make any overtures for trade, but he
testifies to the kindness and hospitality of the natives, who supplied
him with fish and many delicacies.
A. D. 1808. Holland being in possession of the French, a Bri-
tish frigate, the Phaeton, Captain Pellew, was sent to intercept the
Dutch vessels trading between Batavia and Japan; not meeting
with them, the captain entered the harbour, and asked for wood
and water. The authorities came on board, and also the chief of
the Dutch factory, from whom Captain Pellew learned that the ob-
ject of his pursuit had not arrived. The Dutch chief no sooner got
on shore, than he excited the authorities to refuse the claim; but
without effect, as wood and water, and likewise two cows, were
sent on board.
A.D. 1808. The visit of the "Phaeton" appears to have been at-
tended with prejudice to the English, if we could bring ourselves
to believe Dutch history, which states that Captain Pellew's con-
duct was most warlike and offensive; so much so, that the Japanese
governor, not being prepared to repulse him on his first entrance,
and dreading the consequences, resorted to the usual mode of
Japanese officials, viz., committing suicide.
The historian Doeff charges the death of the governor, on what
he calls the untoward circumstance of Captain Pellew entering the
harbour, which is ten miles from the town; but how was the com-
mander to know the effects of his entering a port in want of water,
&c.? The Japanese ports were never considered either neutral,
peaceful, or hostile. As to the consequence that followed, on the
Dutch governor it must fall, as he violated his word with Captain
Pellew, which was pledged over a glass of wine in the cabin of the
"Phaeton." It is absurd to suppose that Captain Pellew would act
in any manner derogatory to his station, for which he would have
to answer. It was fortunate that when the Myheenender published
his version of the case, it was stoutly denied by those who were,&
on board at the time, and were then alive. As to the warlike ap-
pearance, no boat went ashore, and the marines were kept under
deck as much as possible. The only thing pressed, was remuner-
tion for the large stock of provisions sent on board, which, however,
was firmly refused by the Japanese.
A.D. 1811. Java being in possession of the English government,
the governor, Sir S. Raffles, took advantage of the circumstance,
and despatched two vessels, in 1813, to Japan, thinking by this means
he would be enabled to renew the British trade with Japan.
Nagasaki being deemed a dependency of Batavia, the British go-
X
206
BRITISH TRADE TO JAPAN IN 1813.
vernor felt himself justified in claiming the transfer of the factory;
and for more effectually and quietly carrying out his intentions,
he despatched a new Dutch governor to relieve Doeff. Dr. Ainslie,
of the East India Company's service, and Heer Wardenaar, were
associated with the new governor, as commissioners; Heer War-
denaar had been chief of the Dutch factory a few years previously.
The goods shipped were sugar, spices, woollens, tin, and chintzes,
all of which were of a very inferior quality. The total amounted
to 298,000 dollars, and the return cargo to 342,000 dollars; balance
in favour of the speculation 44,000 dollars; amount paid for freight
82,309 dollars.
A.D. 1813. The great difficulty of procuring merchant vessels
at this period, except at most extravagant freight, was the reason
the returns were so small.
CAPTAIN GORDON'S VISIT TO JAPAN.-A.D. 1818. Captain
Gordon sailed from Bengal for the Bay of Jedo, in a brig fifty-six
tons burden. He anchored in the Bay of Shimada, which is situ-
ated within twenty leagues of the capital. The brig was soon visited
by government officers, to whom Captain Gordon communicated
his wish to be permitted to return with a cargo of goods suitable
to their wants.
These officers pointed out a much safer anchorage, and ten-
dered him the service of their pilots, and several boats. They
asked him to send his fire-arms and ammunition, and also his
rudder, on shore, with which he complied.
This was no sooner done, than the brig was surrounded by twenty
small boats which were joined to each other; outside of these were
stationed upwards of fifty large boats, and three junks, which were
full as large as the brig. The number of men who kept guard
averaged from 500 to 800. The first and second day the visitors
on board were very numerous. On the fourth day two interpreters
came on board, who understood the Dutch, English, and Russian
languages.
The communication was carried on in the Dutch language.
Their first inquiry was if the English and Dutch were at peace;
they appeared well aware that there was a general peace through-
out Europe. They took down the name and birthplace of every
one on board; but the captain's birthplace, and that of all his
family, was rigidly enquired into.
All attempts to prevail on them to accept of seeds, fowls, and
pigs, proved ineffectual. They had a Dutch-English dictionary
on board with them each time, which enabled Captain Gordon to
convey his sentiments most satisfactorily.
The King of Holland was inquired after, and also his son. They
were informed that he had returned home after a long residence
in England. The affairs of France, the captivity of Napoleon, and
the Battle of Waterloo, were all talked over. The interpreters
appeared most anxious to know if Captain Golowin was then go-
vernor of Ochatsk.
CAPTAIN GORDON'S VISIT TO JAPAN, 1818.
307
The nautical instruments on board were examined; and with
their several uses they appeared perfectly acquainted, remarking
that those instruments were better made in London, than in
other countries. With their polite and agreeable manners Captain
Gordon was much pleased. The late occupation of Java by the
British, and subsequent surrender, was more than once discussed.
The sixth day, fresh water was brought, a circumstance which
had a bad appearance of ultimate success. They guaged the water-
casks, with a view it was supposed to ascertain the length of time
the brig had been at sea; an account was kept of the number of
buckets put on board.
The men engaged filling the water were very loquacious; one of
them had a string of beads, similar to what the Roman Catholics
make use of in their devotional exercises. Their frequent allusion
to London manufactures, rather surprised the Captain.
The seventh day, the interpreter came on board, and producing
some written papers said: You have applied for permission to
trade with Japan; we are desired by the Governor of this place, to
state that this permission cannot be granted; and the governor
wishes you to sail with the first fair wind.'
وو
When
This opportunity was taken advantage of again, to ask Captain
Gordon, if he knew anything of the Governor of Ochatsk; it was
intimated that to grant the permission to trade, after refusing
Russia, would be likely to give umbrage to a near and powerful
neighbour. After their departure, the arms and rudder were return-
ed, and thirty boats were sent to tow the brig out of the bay.
the tow-boats were gone, the number of visitors, on that and the
following day, amounted to some thousands, most of whom were
anxious to barter, and expressing their regret at the departure of
the brig. Some of them appeared to fear the consequence of
visiting the foreigners, others were quite regardless of the conse-
quence.
Captain Gordon deserved great credit for this voyage, and his
daring journey through Siberia. The injustice he experienced at
Madras, and the refusal of redress in England, have seriously af-
fected his health and temper. He is a most estimable man.
ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF DUTCH INTERCOURSE
WITH JAPAN.
The Dutch intercourse with Japan, was in like manner with
the Portuguese, occasioned by the shipwreck of five vessels under
the command of Admiral Mahu, who sailed from the Texel,
about the year A.D. 1599. Four of these Dutch East India Com-
pany vessels were lost rounding Cape Horn, the fifth had an
English pilot on board, named Adams, who steered his vessel into
x 2
308
DUTCH INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN.
some of the numerous islands on the Japanese coast. The Japanese
could not but regard her as deserving of their sympathy, for
out of a crew of upwards of one hundred, only seven were able to
do duty.
The ship was regarded as a prize, and the crew harshly used;
but Adams the pilot, being a frank, interesting fellow, became a
favorite with the Emperor. In a few months the ship was res-
tored to her Captain, on his undertaking to represent Japan as a
favourable place for his Company to trade with. Adams was detain-
ed (see English Intercourse.)
A.D. 1602. No advantage appears to have been taken of this
favourable opening by the then enterprising Dutch East India
Company.
A.D. 1609. Two Dutch vessels arrived at the port of Firando,
and were well received, but the Japanese were disappointed in
receiving no raw silk, not being aware that the Dutch were strictly
excluded from trading with China. It was a singular coincidence
that the Japanese had the same unfavorable opinion of the Dutch,
that the Chinese entertained about the same time, viz. that their
cargoes depended on the plunder of other nations. The ruling
passion of the Dutch was strangely developed on this occasion ;
without the opportunity of procuring a pound of silk in an honor-
able way, they strongly urged the Japanese to grant them a
monopoly of that article. They promised to return next year; but
no silk arriving, the Japanese were confirmed in their suspicions.
A Letter said to have been sent from the Emperor of Japan, to
the King of Holland.
22nd July, 1610 A.D.
"I, Emperor and King of Japan, send my best wishes to the
King of Holland, who hath sent from so far countries to visit me,
greeting. I rejoice greatly in your writing and sending to me,
and wish that our countries were nearer the one to the other,
whereby we might continue and increase the friendship begun be-
twixt us, through your Majesty's presence, whom I imagine in
conceit to see, in respect I am unknown unto your Majesty.
And that your love towards me is manifested throngh your liber-
ality in honouring me with four presents, whereof though I had no
need, yet coming in your name, I receive them in great worth,
and hold them in great esteem.
:
"Your subjects desire to trade in my country, which is of little
value and very small; they also desire to abide near my court,
whereby in person I might help and assist them however this
cannot be, as now through the inconvenience of the country;
yet notwithstanding, I will not neglect, as already I have been to
be careful of them; and give in charge to all my governors and
subjects, that in what places and havens, in what part soever they
JAPANESE LETTER TO THE DUTCH SOVEREIGN.
309
shall arrive, they shall show them all favour and friendship to their
persons, ships, and merchandise, Wherein your Majesty, or your
subjects need not to doubt or fear aught to the contrary; for
they may come as freely as if they came into your Majesty's own
havens and countries, and so may remain in my country to trade.
"And the friendship begun betwixt me and my subjects with
you, shall never be impaired on my behalf, but augmented and
increased.
"I am partly ashamed that your Majesty (whose name and
renown through your valorous deeds is spread throughout the
whole world) should cause your subjects to come from so far
countries into a country so unfitting as this is, to visit me, and to
offer unto me such friendship as I have not deserved.
But con-
sidering that your affection hath been the cause thereof, I could
not but friendly entertain your subjects, and yield to their request;
whereof this shall serve as a testimony.
"That they in all places, countries, and islands, under my obe-
dience, may trade, and traffic, and build houses, serviceable and
needful for their trade and merchandise; wherein they may trade.
without any hindrance, and at their pleasure, as well in time to
come, as for the present, so that no man shall do them any wrong;
and I will maintain them and defend them as my own subjects.
"I promise likewise, that the persons which I understand shall
be left here, shall now and at all times, be treated as recommended
unto me, and in all things them; whereby your Majesty shall find
us as your friend and neighbours.
"For the matter passed betwixt me and your Majesty's servants,
which would be here too long to repeat, I refer myself unto
them."
A. D. 1611. In the month of August, this year, a Dutch ship
arrived, and it required all the influence which Adams possessed
to obtain for them the privileges that their competitors enjoyed.
The following edict was issued :—-
"All Dutch ships that come into my empire of Japan, whatever
place or port they put in, we do hereby expressly command all and
every one of our subjects, not to molest the same in any way, nor
to be a hindrance to them, but to show them all manner of help,
favour, and assistance. Every one shall beware to maintain the
friendship, in assurance of which we have been pleased to give our
imperial word, and every one shall take care that my commands be
kept.
30th August, A. D. 1611.
25th of the seventh mane.
A. D. 1622. The interval of this period, of eleven years, is not
marked with any preference to either of the rival trades. But the
Japanese government could not be ignorant of the unsuccessful at-
tempt of the Dutch to drive the Portuguese from Macao, their strong
hold, and necessary trading mart in China. With the aid of the.
310
DUTCH FACTORY AT JAPAN CONFISCATED.
Chinese government, the Portuguese successfully routed the Dutch,
who to punish the Chinese, took possession of Formosa in 1623.
This acquisition strengthened the Dutch position in Japan, as was
proved in the reception of their envoy, while the Portuguese was
most scornfully rejected.
-
The Dutch were so elated with this mark of preference, that
an envoy was sent the following year from Batavia.
The en-
voy represented himself as coming from the King of Holland
direct, but the imposition was detected and he was dismissed from
court.
Nuits, the disappointed envoy, was subsequently appointed go-
vernor over the Dutch possessions in Formosa, aud falling in with
two Japanese junks, detained them by way of revenge, and totally
regardless of the interest of his government. The crews after
waiting upwards of a year, rose en-masse, and took the governor
prisoner. The crew demanded compensation for all their lost time,
and payment for 20,000 pounds of raw silk, which they had
bought in China at three shillings and sixpence per pound, and
which they expected to sell in Japan at the rate of six shillings per
pound.
A. D. 1630. When the Japanese crew returned to Firando, they
reported the affairs at Formosa. Some idea of the extent of their
trade may be formed, from the circumstance of the Japanese go-
vernment seizing nine ships that were then in the harbour, and
putting an instant stop to their trade.
Agreeable to the expressed wish of the Dutch director, their
effects were converted into cash, and amounted to upwards of one
million dollars. Matters remained in statu quo for three years,
without hearing from Batavia, or the authorities hearing from
Japan.
The military authorities of Formosa, were placed in a most awk-
ward position, their governor was a prisoner, and if summary ven-
geance were taken on the Japan crews, they were well aware
of the consequence: the lawful demand was paid, and as a
matter of course, the whole affair was reported on their return to
Japan.
A. D. 1636. The authorities at Batavia, recollecting the affair
at Formosa, recalled the governor Nuits, and sent him to Japan,
to be punished as the Japanese might think proper. Contrary to
all expectation, the Japanese were satisfied with getting the author
of the outrage, and re-opened the trade as usual, keeping Nuits in
prison.
It is quite evident that the Japanese did not solely rely on
foreigners for their supply of silk, and it is said that they always
sailed with Dutch flags, justly fearing the Spanish and Portuguese
pirates, and being well aware that at this period, the Dutch flag
was the terror of the Indian seas.
DUTCH AID JAPANESE MASSACRE OF CHRISTIANS.
311
A. D. 1637. This year brought from Batavia, an embassy, with
most valuable presents, and a petition for the release of Nuits,
which had the desired effect.
A. D. 1638. Persecution being at its height against the Spanish
and Portuguese, the Dutch again applied for a monopoly of the
trade, and the final expulsion of the Portuguese, and proposed a
cordial co-operation with the Japanese, for the capture of Macao.
The attention of the Japanese was diverted from this project by the
breaking out of a rebellion in the principalities of Arinia and Sima-
bara, by the persecuted native Christians, who to the number of
40,000 shut themselves up in the latter place.
A. D. 1638. The Japanese failing to reduce the fortress, and
scatter the insurgents, called in the Dutch, whose cannon were
mercilessly employed in the slaughter of forty thousand of their
fellow-creatures. The name of the Dutch governor was Rocke-
becker.
A. D. 1640. This year the Spaniards and Portuguese were
finally expelled for ever from China, and lest the town of Nagasaki
should suffer from the loss of foreign trade, the Dutch factory was
removed from Firando to the prison in Desima, lately occupied by
the Portuguese. An edict also appeared this year, forbidding any
Hative of Japan to leave the coasts of the empire, on pain of death;
and the more effectually to carry out the intentions of government,
their junks were constructed on a new model. All the remon-
strance of the Dutch was in vain, they pleaded their faithful services,
their ready compliance in aiding at the butchery at Simabara only
two years previously. Their appeals were met with the following
reply: "You observe Sunday, you date from the birth of Christ;
to him you pray; the gospels, the prophets, and apostles are your
sacred writings, and there is scarcely any difference between your
belief and that of the Portuguese. We require, that first you
erase the dates from your buildings, and cease from observing the
Sabbath."
A. D. 1640. Degrading as these terms were, the long cherished
hopes of monopoly, and the innate love of avarice, predominated
over conscience, honour, and nationality. Of the use the Dutch
made of the monopoly, or the return of profits, very few materials
are to be found. Their returns hitherto were in silver; and a re-
quest was made in 1641 for gold, which was readily granted, so
that the amount of the return the first year was upwards of twelve
hundred thousand florins. The war between China and Tartary,
had just commenced, so that the trade between China and Japan
must have been solely in the hands of the Dutch; no return can
be obtained, but the profits must have been enormous.
A. D. 1641. The following edict was issued to the Dutch about
this period:
1st. "You Dutchmen shall from henceforth have no communi-
312
JAPANESE INSTRUCTIONS TO JAPANESE.
cation with the Portuguese, in either buying or selling them goods.
If we find that you have, you shall be prohibited from coming to
Japan.
2nd. "If you intend not to be molested in your trade to Japan,
you shall send us word of any attempt that the Portuguese may
have on our empire; likewise, if the Portuguese have conquered any
other country, or converted them to their religion, if so let us have
early intimation.
3rd. "You shall not molest any Chinese junks bound for Japan.
4th. "In all countries you frequent with your ships, if there be
any Portuguese there, you shall have no communication with them.
If there be any countries frequented by both nations, (supposed to
mean Portuguese and Spaniards,) you shall take down, in writing,
a full account of the names of all such countries or places, and by
the captain of the first ship you send here, deliver the same to our
governors.
5th. "The Liqujans (Loochooans) being the subjects of our
empire, you shall not plunder their ships.
6th. "In case of fire at your factory, at Desima, you must re-
move to Spy-glass Mountain, and remain with the coast guard."
By their ready compliance with every demand, the Japanese left
the Dutch trade unmolested for many years.
A.D. 1660. The position of the Dutch in Japan, was seriously
affected by their loss of the Island of Formosa, which was wrested
from them by the celebrated pirate Koxinga, whose father was a
native of Japan, and carried on a large trade between both coun-
tries. Imhoff, the Dutch president, does not deny that the Japan-
ese authorities may have secretly assisted the pirate to expel the
Dutch. Independent of the loss of Formosa, the Dutch power in
India was fast declining, if not annihilated; a circumstance well
known to the Japanese, who were heretofore in some measure
afraid of the Dutch.
A.D. 1661. Imhoff, the Dutch president, says, "about this time
we were obliged to submit to the most galling insults, the governor
declining to even receive our written representations, telling us to
leave Japan if we wished." The humiliating state to which the
Dutch were reduced, was the natural consequence, that may be
expected by any nation that does not render herself respected and
formidable. Independent of this, however, the Dutch factory had
become a sink of the most disgraceful corruption, and the factors
quietly submitted to the most unmanly degradation. The com-
bined influence of meanness and fear led to the present degraded
position of the Dutch in Japan.
A.D. 1670. There does not appear to be any interruption to
trade for the previous ten years, but the export of silver was prevented
for the future, and copper substituted, together with gold. Sir S.
Raffles gives the return for this year at 100,000 kobangs of coined
gold, the profit on which was upwards of 1,000,000 florins.
RESTRICTIONS ON THE DUTCH TRADE.
313
A.D. 1672. The restrictions hitherto laid on the Dutch, were of
little consequence, compared to what was in store for them, viz. :
a new system of valuation, and a depreciation of the gold kobang
to six taels, two mace. Against this fiscal robbery no remon-
strance was proposed; a quiet submission was yielded, which they
soon found good cause to regret.
A.D. 1685. Another regulation was made, the valuation system
was abolished, and the whole annual trade limited to 300,000 taels,
of which two-thirds should be piece goods, and one-third silk.
A.D. 1689. This year the enduring power of the Dutch, was
again tested by the Japanese. The copper, heretofore exported
without any limitation, and from its superior quality commanding a
very high price in Europe, was limited to 25,000 peculs, (125 lbs.
is a pecul,) and the import was duty considerably augmented;
but more troubles were in store for the Dutch.
A.D. 1696. A new kobang, one third less in value than the
former, was tendered, and received by the Dutch authorities with-
out a murmur. The new kobang weighed 13 carats 6 grains; the
old 20 carats 10 grains. This change made a difference to the
Dutch of 72 marks on every 1000. The old rendered a profit of
25 per cent, the new a positive loss of 15 per cent.
A.D. 1710. Another reduction of the kobang to one half its original
value, viz. from 41s. sterling, to 21s. and 3d., this new currency
the Dutch were compelled to receive at the old price.
A.D. 1714. The exportation of copper was further limited this year
to 15,000 peculs, and the number of vessels was to depend on the
quantity of copper on hand, but in no case was the number to ex-
ceed three each year.
A.D.
1721. A reduction of the quantity of copper, from 15,000 to
10,000 peculs. Their annual expenses were 200,000 florins, and
their net profits, which were nearly 660,000 florins, would not now
pay expenses.
M. Imhoff in his memoirs, in some measure accounts for the
impositions so gradually and successfully practised.
He states,
that the Company's servants were selected, without due regard to
their character or abilities, hence frequent complaints from the
Japanese of their bad conduct, their promising to import suitable
goods, and improve the quality; the private trade allowed smug-
gling, and gross peculation. But above all submitting to a reduc-
tion of the currency in the first instance. Yet the Dutch had so
frequently pledged their word as to the goods, and particularly as
regards a varied assortment, that at last, they lost all confidence in
the Dutch word or promises.
Sir S. Raffles estimates, that from £40,000,000 to £60,000,000
sterling were drained from Japan in the period of sixty years; thus
their fears were raised for their metallic circulation, and there was
no paper money to supply its place.
A.D. 1744. This year the Company seriously thought of abandon-
314
STATIONARY POSITION OF THE DUTCH.
ing the trade with Japan, and the question was submitted to the
home government: but about this time the Japanese government
took compassion on them, by promising them a gift, in the shape
of a drawback of 6000 taels. The Dutch obtained a new charter
in return for their early success, as it appears that notwithstand-
ing all the peculation, they divided among their shareholders for
the first twenty years, upwards of 30,000,000 of guilders. The
embarrassment of the company, (although restricted to two ships
annually,) compelled them to take gold in place of the other pro-
ductions of the country. The value of their cargoes for several
years did not average more than 300,000 per annum, the annual
rent of their prison alone being 3500 rix dollars.
A.D. 1781.~ The States-general advanced them a loan which en-
abled them to hold their position in Japan, and had the effect of
reviving their trade.
A.D. 1796. The Dutch East India Company were prevented
sending their annual ship to Japan this year, owing to the French
occupation of Holland, and in the succeeding year sent an English
vessel with an American pass for one year's trade; what flag she
made use of it is difficult to conjecture.
A.D. 1811. The Dutch falling under the dominion of Napoleon,
the British took possession of the island of Java. These frequent
changes were not calculated to elevate the Dutch in the estima-
tion of the haughty and unconquered Japanese. The situation of
their servants in Japan, must have been very unenviable; for up-
wards of three years they were deprived of seeing or hearing from
head-quarters.
A.D. 1815, Java was restored to the Dutch, and the trade with
Japan has ever since continued, with the exception of 1828-1829
to the north-east coast.
The position of the Dutch in Japan, has been stationary for the
last twenty years. Two vessels are annually chartered for the
voyage, which occupies six or eight weeks from Batavia; a portion
of the cargo is sent by the government, the remaining portion is
taken by private merchants, who purchase permission from the go-
vernment; the extent or nature of the trade is not very positively
known.
Some relaxation is said to have taken place within the
last twenty years, which is probable enough, considering how in-
dispensable the Dutch are to the Japanese, if only in conveying to
them the state and alliance of all the European governments. The
Japanese have had translated into their own language a full record
of the whole of our proceedings and conquests in China, and are now,
it is said, disposed to evince a different line of conduct towards us.
A.D. 1817. Baron Von Imhoff, after ten years residence in
Japan as the chief superintendent of the Dutch Factory, thus con-
cludes his report. There might still be a trade of 1,000,000
florins per annum, if the productions of the country were taken in
exchange." It was his "firm belief, that Japan was in every respect
PORTUGUESE INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN.
315
now as anxious to cultivate trade as formerly; and that there could
be no possible reason for relinquishing the trade, if the servants of
the company would only attend to the measures laid down by the
government, viz. clear accounts, correct conduct, and a little
honesty,"
ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF PORTUGUESE
INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN.
It is a singular circumstance, that the great empire of Japan should
have escaped all the enterprising and skilful navigators, that the
western world produced in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
The Portuguese, in one of their early voyages to China, (A.D.
1542) were shipwrecked on one of the islands of Japan. This
island was in the province of Bungo, the prince of which at that
time ruled independently over a large portion of the island of
Kiusin. Nothing could exceed the kindness and attention paid to
the strangers, who were certainly the first Europeans that visited
their empire. They were allowed to depart, after undertaking to
send a ship every second year. This favourable opening does not
appear to have been taken much advantage of until Emanuel, King of
Portugal, conquered Goa on the Malabar coast.
Goa was in full possession of the Portuguese in A.D. 1510.
From this period may be traced the regular intercourse and settling
of a factory in Nagasaki; this, and the Portuguese settlement at
Macao, a sea-port town in China, at the entrance of the river of
Canton, was most advantageous. The first insight they obtained
of the vast resources and mineral wealth of Japan, was from a
young Japanese, who fled to Goa. The well-known zeal of the
Portuguese Jesuits to propagate their religion, led them to send
the celebrated St. Francis Xavier to Japan along with the youth
who had fled.
They landed in Kagosima, in the dominions of the Prince of
Satzuma, who, to encourage trade in his principality, gave him
permission to preach the Gospel; however, the zealous missionary
did not confine his labours to that place, but repaired to Firando,
where he was eminently successful.
The Princes of Bungo and Omura (who had been baptized) sent
an embassy to Pope Gregory XIII. about this period. The his-
torians of those times appear to have lost sight of commerce alto-
gether, and there is nothing recorded but jealousy and contention,
beween one prince and another.
About this period (1581 A.D.) the two crowns of Spain and
Portugal being united, Manilla and the Philippines became the
great emporium of the Eastern trade.
A.D. 1583. The celebrated Taiko, or Taycasama, succeeded to
316
JAPANESE WAR WITH COREA.
the throne; and though at first friendly to the missionaries,
changed his policy in 1585-6, and ordered every one of the foreign
missionaries to concentrate in Firando within twenty days, and
leave the empire in six months, on pain of death.
It does not appear that commerce met with any interruption at
this time; on the contrary it was most prosperous, the Japanese
themselves trading to India and other places. In 1589 an am-
bassador arrived from Goa, to endeavour to obtain terms for the
missionaries, but without success. Trade was however guaranteed.
A.D. 1590. Taiko declared war against Corea, as a prelude to
the long cherished hope of reaching China by their aid. It is
said that his intention was to break up the feudal system, by send-
ing the nobles to fight his battles, calculating as much on their
defeat (and consequent overthrow) as on their victory.
A.D. 1592. Of his ambition there is full proof, in earnestly
demanding homage from the governor of the Philippines; the
missionaries failing to obtain this, their doom was sealed.
A.D. 1592. The most extraordinary rivalry now commenced be-
tween the Spanish priests and Portuguese jesuits, the former claim-
ing an equal share in the harbours of the Japanese missions with the
latter; the Spanish merchants from Manilla, were equally desirous
to share the golden harvest that the Portuguese were reaping in
Japan.
A.D. 1592. The Japanese armies were successful over the
Coreans, and the commanders and officers of the former werc all
converted Christians, which in some measure caused a relaxation of
the edict against the jesuits in Japan. Notwithstanding these
dissensions, commerce progressed year by year, owing it is thought
to the anxiety of the different princes to get foreign ships to their
respective ports.
A.D. 1596. The Spanish intercourse with Japan met with a
sad disaster. A Spanish ship from Manilla to Acapulco, was
driven on the Japanese coast; and relying on the good faith that
existed in commercial matters between the united kingdoms of
Spain and Portugal, put into the port of the prince of Toso. The
prince confiscated the ship and cargo as a lawful prize; the com-
mander thinking it good policy to shew on the map the extensive
territories of Spain, he was asked in return, how half the world
had been acquired? The commander, being it is supposed ignorant
of the existing prejudice against the Jesuits, stated that his king
first sent priests and converted the natives, and then sent troops
to join the Christians. It is needless to state the effect; upwards
of twenty priests were crucified.
Tacosamo gave expression to his feelings by issuing the follow-
ing edict;-" I have condemned to death these prisoners for their
having come from the Philippines to Japan, under the pretended
title of ambassadors, and for their having persisted in my lands
without my permission, and preached the Christian religion against
CRUCIFIXION OF CHRISTIANS IN JAPAN.
317
my decree. I order and wish that they be crucified in my city of
Nagasaki."
The confiscation of the Spanish ship caused an envoy to be
despatched from Manilla; Taiko, in a cool and determined
manner refused to make any restitution, and charged the Spaniards
with acts of piracy; but at the same time guaranteed them free
access into his kingdom to trade, provided they had no mission-
aries on board.
The Japanese policy was not unlike that of the Chinese,
as neither Emperors ever thought of banishing commerce, even
when religious persecution, in both empires, was carried to the
greatest extreme. The usual charge in all clerical persecutions
was brought against the Jesuits, that is, making riches subservient
to their avocations, and an enquiry was set on foot by Taiko to
ascertain their income. It appeared that the King of Portugal
paid them between 800 and 1000 crowns per annum, and the
authorities at Macao gave them a claim on the commerce to the
extent of about eighty bags of silk out of every 1500 shipped to
Japan.
The contention between the Jesuits and the Dominicans, wast
settled in Europe by the Pope, who issued a bull, 1598, ordering
no priest to go to Japan except through Macao, thus favouring
the Jesuits.
A.D. 1598. Taiko died this year, leaving an infant son to
succeed him, but the throne was usurped by his guardian (Agosa-
mai) Yie-ye-yeas, alias Gongon.
The Spanish and Portuguese trade is represented as most pros-
perous under this reign; the quantity of gold and silver received
at Macao and Manilla is represented as two thousand chests of
silver and gold to the value of several hundred thousand pounds.
A.D. 1607. A serious riot took place in Macao, between the
Portuguese and some Japanese sailors, in which upwards of twenty
of the latter were killed by the military. The governor of Macao,
(Pessoa) repaired to Japan to represent the case to the Emperor.
The Dutch took advantage of the dilemma in which the Portu-
guese governor was placed, proposed to seize the Portuguese ship
and hand her over to the governor of Nagasaki; this baseness
on the part of the Dutch was not immediately accepted by the Ja-
panese authorities.
While the Japanese authorities were deli-
berating how to act, the Governor of Manilla was shipwrecked on
the Japanese coast, and, being introduced at court, was asked if
he could supply Japan with raw silk on as good terms and in as
large quantities; his reply, it is needless to say, was in the affirma-
tive. The Japanese, on this assurance, did not hesitate a moment
in deciding on the fate of the Governor of Macao, A.D. 1610. The
Japanese destroyed the Portuguese ship, crew, and governor, which
satisfied their revenge, and the Portuguese continued their trade.
A.D. 1612. The governor of Manilla purchased from the Em-
318
JAPANESE DESTROY PRIESTS AND CHURCHES.
peror of Japan a vessel just built by Adams the English pilot, who
was then in the service of the Emperor, in which he proceeded on
his journey, after entering into a treaty of commerce and obtaining
permission to build ships in Japan.
A.D. 1613, Brought a new era in Japan commerce; the English
having obtained most favourable terms from the Emperor, made
common cause against the Spanish and Portuguese.
A.D. 1614. A fresh edict came forth to destroy the churches
and banish the priests, which was partially followed up. The
Emperor and usurper having a son and lawful heir growing to
manhood, he resolved on putting him out of the way; the Jesuits
were in favour of the lawful heir; the usurper was successful,
hence the priests received no favour.
A.D. 1616. Gongon the Emperor died this year, leaving his son,
Fide Fada, his successor, with instruction to banish the priests,
which was fully carried into effect. The history of these times is
silent as to the progress of commerce, but we have abundance of
proof that it was fostered, in the privileges granted to King James
of England.
A.D. 1620. Fide Fada carried out the dying instructions of his
father, and the constant persecutions against the priests were so
great that not more than fifty were left in the whole empire.
There is abundant evidence on record that the Dutch, in their
desire to obtain a monopoly of the trade, aided in encouraging this
persecution.
A.D. 1624. Persecution was at its height; the Spaniards were
finally banished for ever. New regulations were adopted, the
Dutch were confined to the town of Firando, the Portuguese
to Nagasaki; and restrictions were also laid on the Chinese and
Coreans.
A.D. 1627. The great object of the Japanese government was to
prevent the introduction of priests; the foreign commerce was
essential to their welfare, and particularly to the ports in which it
was carried on; a new plan was adopted, that would not check
commerce, and still keep out priests. A Japanese agent was sent
to reside at Macao, who kept a strict account of the number of
passengers and crew of all the Portuguese vessels that set sail for
Japan; if any one of the number was not forthcoming on their
arrival, restrictions were adopted on both captain and crew.
It is melancholy to peruse the history of these times, as faithfully
related by Charlevaix, and to think that avarice had so overcome
the once proud and noble Portuguese, that they permitted their
fellow-subjects to be murdered in hundreds, without even the
shadow of resistance.
It was estimated that, previous to the final expulsion of the
priests, there were about one million Christians in Japan.
A.D. 1631. Fide Fada, died in this year, and was succeeded by
his son, Yeye Mitsou; this monster aided his father in his cruelties
PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS.
319
during his lifetime. This Emperor caused an islet, called Desima,
which closely joined the town of Nagasa-ki, to be drained and en-
closed: it is about 600 feet in length, and about 210 in breadth;
here the Portuguese factory was limited, and upwards of 50 guards
and spies placed over them; their wives and children were shipped
off to Macao and Goa, although many of them were either native
Japanese or descendants. When their ships arrived, their fire-arms
were given up to the governor, also their rudder, and none were
permitted to walk the streets without a Japanese guard. In this
reign (1635,) was introduced the most mortifying ceremony to
Catholicism; a brass cross of Christ and the Virgin Mary, was
brought round to every house to have it trampled on. It is said
to be continued annually, on the second day of the new year.
A.D. 1635.
The imports and exports of the Portuguese at this
period, are represented as 2,142,365 taels; their connexion with
Macao, giving them such facility of supplying the Japanese, with
raw silk. But their intercourse was finally closed, by a discovery,
or a pretended rumour, of an intended insurrection, of which the
intelligence was brought by a Dutch vessel, that captured a Portu-
guese ship, near the cape of Good Hope, on which were found the
treasonable papers, implicating the Portuguese traders to Japan,
in connexion with some native Christians. The truth
falsehood of this charge, may be arrived at from a careful
perusal of the Dutch intercourse. An edict was issued by the Japan-
ese government, giving the Portuguese ten days to leave the empire,
and a written notice declared that should a Portuguese ever
be seen in Japan, he would be treated as a national enemy. In
A.D. 1640, an embassy arrived from Macao, to endeavour to renew
the trade; they were asked, did they read the edict ?—they answer-
ed in the affirmative. They were put to death, and the crew sent
home safe.
or
ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF RUSSIAN INTERCOURSE
WITH JAPAN.
A.D. 1792. A Japanese junk was wrecked on the coast of
Siberia. The Russian authorities shipped the crew on board one
of their war-vessels, under the command of Captain Laxman.
The captain put into the port of Matsmai, and landed the ship-
wrecked crew; the expression of thanks from the authorities there,
and his friendly reception, induced him to make overtures for per-
mission to trade. He was desired to sail to the port of Nagasaki,
as the only place to which foreigners were admitted in the empire.
The captain did not take advantage of this favourable proposal,
and returned home. It is also probable that he was unprepared
or unauthorised to negotiate.
320
RUSSIAN INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN.
A.D. 1804. This year an embassy, at the head of which was
Count Resonoff, arrived in the bay of Nagasaki, in a Russian man-
of-war. The embassy had a recommendation from the Dutch
authorities at Batavia.
The Japanese being aware of an ambassador being on board, de-
viated from their usual course, in compliment to him; commis-
sioners were appointed to attend the ship and ask for a compliance
with custom, viz., to send the fire-arms on shore as a deposit.
The commissioners, being delegated from the Siogaun, claimed, as
a matter of right, that the deference due to him should be paid to
them; this the Russians refused, as also to give up their fire-arms, but
without hesitation they surrendered their ammunition. The vessel
was permitted to come into harbour, with the intention of referring
the disputed point to the Emperor at Jedo, a distance of 300
leagues. The first few days, the Dutch and the Russians were at
liberty to visit each other, but suspicion was awakened in the
authorities, and a strict embargo was laid on visits, and even on
correspondence.
The Russian embassy, with a recommendation from Batavia,
were well aware of the conditions on which the Dutch were per-
mitted to carry on their trade; and if the same terms were offered,
were determined to reject them. The circumstance of the Russian
soldiers being allowed to retain their arms, and the officers their
swords, were favours which gave them an advantage over their
Dutch friends. The interpreters requested that only a portion of
the soldiers should go on shore, stating that the natives would be
alarmed at seeing the soldiers of a foreign nation; this Count
Resonoff stoutly refused. The Russians were asked what mer-
chandise they could supply, if they were admitted to trade. A
month had now elapsed, and no answer had been received from
Jedo. The ambassador feigned illness, which had the desired
effect, of getting his suite a space of ground one hundred paces
long, and about forty wide, called Kibatch. This fortress was
staked in with bamboos, and two watch-houses erected, which
commanded a view of the embassy.
One of the Dutch ships leaving for Batavia, the ambassador was
most anxious to write to his government: this was refused, unless
the letter was first left unopened with the Japanese governor, and
was to contain nothing but the announcement of his safe arrival.
These harsh terms were complied with, and the letter was trans-
lated into the Dutch language; the original and the copy were
sent to the governor, who sealed it himself, and transmitted it on
board, sending, at the same time, a message to take no notice of
the Dutch vessel on her departure.
The place selected for the embassy was close to the sea, so that
they could communicate with the ship, by boats, when any of the
officers wished to sleep on shore, or vice versâ; the regular num-
EXAMINATION OF RUSSIAN AMBASSADORS.
321
ber of the embassy permitted to be on shore was required to be
kept up.
The boats requiring some repairs, permission was readily given,
and materials, together with a strong guard over the ship-carpen-
ters, and ship-stores were punctually supplied, but no payment
would be received. The ambassador made a request for suitable
ground to make solar observations, but was refused.
The authorities paid frequent visits, always asking the same
questions over and over again, and always attended by fifteen or
twenty (Yalks) interpreters. The first question invariably was,
by what route they sailed, and particularly if they had come
through the Straits of Corea, or along the east coast of Japan?
The authorities seemed well pleased that the latter course was
taken. Some of the interpreters appeared to have a tolerable
stock of geographical knowledge of every other country but their
own. Nothing appeared to amaze them but the short time in
which the embassy performed the distance between Kamtschatka
and Nagasaki, viz., one month.
The guard-boats, twenty in number, at all times surrounded
the Russian ship: these guards are supplied by the Prince Fizen
and the Prince of Tchingadzeen, each of whom has the same title
in the town.
November 13th. The Chinese junks having all sailed, the Rus-
sian vessel was towed by upwards of 100 boats, and anchored
between the imperial batteries, which are on the S.E. and N.W.
sides of the harbour, distant from the town two miles, in fourteen
fathoms of water. The Russian vessel requiring some general
repairs, the authorities proposed to have the presents and other
things in her placed in a Chinese junk (two of which are always
left at Nagasaki as hostages); this proposal was declined.
December 17th. The Prince of Fizen sent his boat to convey
the embassy across the bay to the landing-place; she was 120 feet
long, and had magnificent fittings.
March 12th. After waiting six months, an intimation was
given the embassy, that the Emperor had sent a plenipotentiary
(a spy) with the answer.
The Dutch president's sedan was borrowed, to convey the am-
bassador to the government-house to hear the Emperor's answer;
the remainder of the embassy walked.
The answer was to this effect: That the Emperor of Russia had
no right to send an embassy to Japan; that in the letter given to
Laxman, there was no mention made of an embassy; and, that if
they wished to trade only, why had they not sent for so many
years that if the Emperor of Japan received this embassy, he
should send one in return, which was contrary to the laws; and
on no account was a Russian ship ever to come to Japan. Should
any natives be ever driven on the Russian territory to have them
conveyed to Batavia.
Y
322
RUSSIAN HOSTILITIES AGAINST JAPANESE.
Two months' provisions for the ship were sent, for which no
payment would be received, and presents were tendered to all the
officers.
The reception and treatment of the Russian embassy is not to
be wondered at, when it is recollected that, previous to their send-
ing to Japan, the Russians had, from time to time, possessed
themselves of several of the northern Kurile islands. The whole
north and south archipelago being attached to the principality of
Matsmai.
The disappointed envoy, on his return home, was determined
to gratify his resentful disposition.
A.D. 1806. Resonoff despatched a hostile force to this island,
well knowing that it was undefended. A carte-blanche was given
to the commanders, Chiuostoff and Davidoff, to plunder, burn, and
destroy the unoffending inhabitants, which orders were effectually
carried out. The commanders, before leaving the island, left
documents behind them, threatening Japan with further annoyance
for rejecting Count Resonoff's friendly proposals.
The Japanese authorities were at a loss to comprehend the mo-
tive for this wanton and cruel act: the documents were readily
translated, as the interpreters had gained some knowledge of the
Russian language during the long stay of the embassy. The Dutch
president is always consulted on emergencies of this kind, and he
quieted their fears as to any ulterior intention of Russia.
The Prince of Matsmai was declared incapable of defending his
portion of the empire, or protecting his subjects, and from hence-
forth his dominions have been converted into an imperial province,
including Jezo and the Kuriles.
A.D. 1810. The Russians sent Captain Golowin to explore the
Japanese Sea, with instructions to lay down and note the Kurile
islands that were inhabited by the Japanese. Some of the crew
landed on the island of Elerpoo, or in some maps called Jetorap,
on which there is a fortress. The commandant was met by Cap-
tain Golowin, who excused himself by stating that they only
wanted wood and water. The captain, on being reminded of the
cruel act of his countrymen a few years previous, stated that his
government were so displeased with the officers that they punished
them with imprisonment. The commandant appeared perfectly
satisfied with the account, and, after entertaining the captain with
great hospitality, gave him a letter of introduction to the com-
mandant of a fortress, where the anchorage was safer, and wood
and water more abundant. Golowin's subterfuge must have
been quite apparent to the Japanese, as he took no advantage of
the kind proposals.
The frigate continued to sail about the islands for several weeks;
and when really requiring water, anchored in the bay of Kurrashir,
one of the most southern Kurile islands. The commandant ap-
pearing satisfied with his excuse, permitted him to land, and im-
A
AMERICAN INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN.
323
mediately made him a prisoner, together with the boat's crew,
officers and all. They were conveyed to Matsmai, and there im-
prisoned.
With regard to the harsh treatment at one time, and the great
kindness evinced on other occasions, it appears inconsistent, and
can only be accounted for, on one hand by the great responsibility
of all Japanese officials; on the other hand, their kind and gener-
ous disposition was evidenced after the captives attempted an
escape. It was two years before a satisfactory disavowal of any
hostilities arrived from Russia, and the prisoners were then sent
home in their own frigate. We have no knowledge of any further
intercourse between Russia and Japan.
ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF THE AMERICAN INTER-
COURSE WITH JAPAN.
(VOYAGE OF THE SHIP "MORRISON.")
This half-missionary and half-mercantile attempt of some Ame-
rican merchants, residing in Canton, to open trade with Japan,
was tried in the year 1837.
It appears some Japanese sailors were shipwrecked on their own
coast, and losing all command over their bark, were carried or
drifted about for fourteen months, and at last were cast ashore
near the Columbo River. Their situation became known to the
superintendent of the Hudson's Bay Company, who kindly sent
them to England; from thence they were sent to China, and con-
signed to the care of the superintendents of British trade, pre-
suming that they would ultimately reach their homes.
From the narrative given by Mr. King, an American merchant,
who accompanied the vessel, (Morrison,) and his letters, which
were written in the Chinese language, furnish the following facts :
The ship (Morrison) sailed from Macao on the 4th July, and
on the 11th reached the islands, known by the Japanese name of
Madjicossima, or Eight Islands. This group lies between latitude
24° and 25° north, and longitude 123° and 125° east, and distant
from Loochoo, S.S.W., about 180 miles. The Japanese on board,
stated that the natives spoke the Japanese language, were few in
numbers, and had little or no intercourse with Japan.
July the 12th brought the Great Loochoo in sight; anchored
in Napa-keang, distant about one mile from the shore, and was
visited in the course of the day by two boats from the shore; the
largest about 25 feet long, rather narrow, with both ends open, and
paddled by natives, who were naked. The chief with some others
came on board, asked the name of the ship, to what country she
Y 2
324
DESCRIPTION OF LOOCHOO ISLANDS.
belonged, and the number of men on board; and the same day a
Japanese junk left the harbour, laden with 200 peculs of sugar,
bound for Satzuma, a port in Japan, situated about 400 miles
N.N.E. from Loochoo. The hull of this vessel was made of pine,
the bow was sharp, without any bowsprit. The solitary mast was
about forty feet high, and supported by a huge forestay, under
which hung a yard, in form like two cones united at their bases;
this was raised by halliards passing over the top of the masts aft to
the quarters, where they went over a sort of windlass, and then
round a capstan below deck. The sail was made of coarse cotton,
and the bolts were laced together with cords; several ropes secured
it in its proper place. There was no sternpost, and the cabin was
consequently exposed to view. The rudder was about fifteen feet
long and eight broad, with a tiller like a spankerboom, reaching
forward nearly to the mast. The long-boat was lashed athwart the
vessel, near the bow, the ends projecting over each side about five
feet. The stern was high out of water, and the name of the vessel
was painted thereon, in Chinese characters. The capstan stood in
the cabin. Every part of her was clean and orderly; her sides fell in
above the water-mark, and she was rudely, although strongly,
built. The crew numbered about fifteen men.
Great Loochoo contains about 900 square miles, being 60 miles
long by 15 broad, and comprises 35 departments, and upwards of
350 smaller districts, which makes the average size of each about
two square miles and six-tenths. Agriculture is conducted on the
same plan as in China, and most of the labour is done by hand.
Two kinds of millet, sweet potatoes, and rice are the usual crops;
besides every kind of common vegetables, melons and fruits are
abundant. Sugar forms the principal article of export; grass
cloth, and cotton fabrics appeared to be worn by every class.
In answer to the question, did tea or silk grow on the island,
they answered no; but the contrary is believed. The Loochoo,
like the Kuriles, are not permitted to have any kind of arms or
ammunition.
If Napa-keang were made a free port, junks from the adjacent
coasts of China and Luconia would flock to it. It is the only
foreign port where the vessels of China and Japan can meet.
The Loochoo group is situated between 26° and 27° of north
latitude, and between 126° 50′ and 128° 20′ east longitude;
comprising an area of about 5000 square miles; and numbering
probably twenty islands, of which Great Loochoo is much larger
than any of the others. Napa-keang lies due east of Fulichow-foo
in Fookeen, about 400 miles, and is nearly that distance S.S.W.
of Nagasaki, where the Dutch trade with Japan is carried on.
Mount Onnadake, rising 1000 feet, is the highest peak of the range
of hills which runs through the island lengthwise; Mount Sumar,
on which the capital is built, is 540 feet high. The population of
all the islands is estimated at from 60,000 to 80,000. Their lan-
VOYAGE FROM LOOCHOO TO JAPAN.
325
guage is a dialect of the Japanese, easily understood by the latter
people, yet containing more words derived from the Chinese, than
from the Japanese.
July 16th. The Morrison left the Loochoo islands, and was ten
days approaching the coast of Japan, aided most of the way by a
powerful current.
Soon
July 27th. The Morrison was in sight of the southern point of
the principality Tootomi, called Chana-saki, a bluff headland. The
current carried her rapidly past this; and the high point of Irosaki,
the southern extremity of the principality of Izu, was seen.
after, the chain of islands that extend from the S.E. corner of
Nipon appeared in sight, which, with Irosaki, form the way-marks
or passage up the bay of Jedo.
The coast of Nipon presents a magnificent gallery of moun-
tains, rising from the abrupt and indented shore in an irregular
gradation into lofty peaks, until the summit of Mount Fusi, at the
estimated height of 14,000 feet, ended the series. The mountain
appeared about 40 miles distant, and resembled, towards its sum-
mit, the roof of a house with its gable end towards the sea.
The southern extremity of the principality of Izu, in its oblong
peninsula form, resembling Yucatan, in Gautemala, is a bold pro-
montory. The southern cape is remarkable for a white bluff, off
which lies a large rock. About two miles from this cape, in a
southerly direction, is a small naked rock, not laid down in the chart,
forming a serious danger in the navigation up the bay of Jedo.
As the ship approached the land, there were forty or fifty junks
observed of many sizes, from a smack up to a junk of 200 or 300
tons. During the day, though opposed by a north-easterly wind,
the ship gradually advanced into the bay, still aided by the power-
ful current when night came on, fires were observed burning on
several eminences, which is the mode of conveying intelligence to
the capital.
July 30th. The Morrison was not far south of Mi-saki, or
Cape Sagami, the southern point of the principality of the same
name, and which also forms the western point of the entrance to
the bay of Jedo.
The bay of Jedo is a large estuary, between thirty and forty
miles wide at its entrance, and extending thirty miles north, at
nearly a uniform width, up to Mi-saki. This is the southerly
point of a small peninsula, forming part of the principality of Sa-
gami, at its entrance being about twenty miles wide.
Mi-saki and Su-saki, (or Cape Su,) both very prominent head-
lands, lying from each other nearly N.E. and S.W., twelve or fif-
teen miles apart, form the entrance to the bay of Jedo, at the
north end of which the capital stands, forty miles from Su-saki.
About twelve o'clock the distant report of guns was first heard,
and many reasons but the right one were assigned, until the balls
began to fall about, half-a-mile ahead of the ship. The guns were
326
AMERICAN RECEPTION AT JEDO.
stationed on the point at the entrance of the harbour; but were
fired from the opposite side of the bay ;-between them was a dis-
tance of five or six miles. There was no danger from the metal of
their guns, as the channel was sufficiently wide to keep out of
their reach. There were twenty fathoms water in mid-channel,
gradually sloping towards either side; the Morrison anchored in
seven fathoms, and the firing ceased.
The harbour of Uragawa, where the Morrison intended to
anchor, is on the western side of the bay, and is the anchoring
place for all vessels before going to Jedo. Sixteen ri (23 miles)
above this is Shinagawa, where all vessels unlade and receive cargo,
it is only one ri from Jedo. The native, on board, stated that he
had seen seventy or eighty vessels arrive and depart in one day.
The Morrison anchored about three P.M., and soon after boats began
to approach the ship. The majority of the natives were thinly
clad; a piece of cloth was wound round their loins, or a loose gown
secured at the waist by a girdle, some wore quilted cotton jackets.
In the general cast of their countenances, they differed consider-
ably from the Chinese, while the points of resemblance indicated
their connection with the Mongolian race. In their oblong,
sunken, and angular eyes, they were like the Chinese; but their
short necks, snub-noses, high cheekbones, and inferior stature,
approximated rather to the Corean and Kurile, than to the sons of
Han. The majority were large-limbed men.
Not knowing the impression which the fact of having natives
of Japan on board would have, it was thought best to conceal
them, until the proper officer should come on board, and allow the
shipwrecked men to tell their own story. One man, who was
thought to be an official, came on deck with an air of great dis-
dain; but after partaking of refreshment he became more friendly.
This person soon returned after taking a glance of the vessel, and
receiving a request for an officer. The visitors were very nume-
rous of both sexes, and all manifested friendly feelings, partaking
of the refreshments offered them, enquiring the business of the
Morrison, and invited Mr. King and others to go on shore and
ramble. They appeared greatly surprised at the ignorance in not
comprehending their eloquence.
July 31st. Towards four o'clock in the morning, the Morrison
was saluted by a cannon-ball whistling over the ship, succeeded by
three others. This movement caused the Morrison to hoist a white
flag, in order to induce some one to come on board. No heed was
given to the signals; and the firing continuing, the crew began to
weigh anchor and make sail. There was sixty fathom of cable run
out, and only sixteen hands on board, which caused the men to be
exposed to the firing for an hour.
The manner of serving the guns was unskilful, some of the shot
going over the mast-head, and others falling half-way between the
shore and the ship.
JAPANESE DISGUISE THEIR INTENTIONS.
327
Having sailed out of reach of their guns, the ship was followed
by some gun-boats, with about thirty men in each, who bore down
on her, firing swivels at the ship with great activity.
When fairly off in the stream, the ship lay-to for them to ap-
proach, but they soon returned.
By a consultation with the natives on board, it was decided to
make for Kagosima, the chief port of Satsuma, the southern divi-
sion of the island of Kinsin, and the residence of one of the most
powerful and least dependent of the feudal princes.
August 8th. Cape D'Anvelle, on the eastern coast of Kiusiu,
came in sight. The morning of the tenth brought the Morrison
to the fine bay of Kagosima; the scene which now opened to the
view was surpassing grandeur itself, in scenery and cultivation.
Miabona is the anchoring-place for all junks destined for Ka-
gosima. Here two of the shipwrecked Japanese proceeded to a
village, and having told their tale, a village officer came on board.
The visitor bore on his blue gown the arms of the Prince of
Satsuma, a white ring, an inch and a half in its exterior diameter,
enclosing a white square, the angles of which touching the inner
edge of the ring, left within the circle four small segments only of
the blue ground-colour. This proved that the eastern, as well as
the western side of the Bay of Kagosima, is the territory of the
Prince of Satsuma.
A packet was prepared for the prince, in which was detailed
the attack on the Morrison at Jedo, and a request for liberty to
trade, and also to land the shipwrecked natives: this document was
taken on shore by the visitor, who promised a speedy answer. The
ship proceeded to the opposite side of the bay, under the direction
of a boatman, who had been officially assigned as pilot.
The village of Chugemutsi, in front of which the Morrison lay,
stands on the narrow cliff about forty feet above the tide, and as
far below the level of a rich and beautifully cultivated tract which
stretches for miles to the north and west, interspersed with groves
and orchards, every spot in high cultivation.
As soon as the ship anchored, a boat came from the village to
announce that a high officer would be sent on the following day;
at the same time some water was sent in a boat fitted up ap-
parently for that purpose, with a great profusion of copper in the
shape of ornaments, &c.
August 12th. A slight warning was given by a fisherman, who
said it would be better to be off; and that if the ship wanted to
trade, it had better go to Nagasaki. Soon after this monition, a
crowd was seen busily employed on the heights above the village;
but their actions were hid by long bands of striped cloth. By
way of preparing for the worst, the yards of the ship were hoisted
without loosing the sails, and the cable was hove short.
On the Japanese being consulted, their opinion of the pacific
intentions of their countrymen was unfavourable; the ship was
328
TREACHERY TOWARDS THE AMERICANS.
brought out of range, and the anchor then dropped again. The
moment the topsails were let fall from the yards, a crowd of men
carrying flags, and headed by officers on horseback, were observed;
and immediately a fire opened on the Morrison from behind the
striped mask. The guns being much higher than those used at
Jedo, all their shot fell in the water far short of the ship.
Leaving the triumphant assailants to rejoice over their easy
victory, the ship was steered for the port of Nagasaki, as a last
resort. It was subsequently discussed with the Japanese on board,
who, anxious as they were for their native land, preferred returning
to being left to the mercy of the government of that place; so it
was decided that they should return to Macao with the Morrison,
and for the future, work for their support.
The following documents were sent on shore to the Japanese
authorities:
"The American merchant, King, respectfully addresses His
Imperial Majesty on the subject of the return of seven of his ship-
wrecked subjects. He is come to this honourable country from
Cap-shuy-moon in China, in a ship of three masts, called the
'Morrison,' having on board a physician and a naturalist, &c., &c.
"Three of the shipwrecked men which he has brought with
him, are natives of the village of Ono-oura; their names, 'Ewa,'
aged thirty-three; 'Kioko,' twenty-one; 'Oto,' nineteen. They
left Owari in November, 1830, in a rice junk for Jedo, and meet-
ing with a great tempest, lost their mast and reckoning, and
drifted fourteen months on the wide ocean. Their eleven com-
panions sickened and died, and they three only remained alive,
when their junk was thrown on shore in a country called Columbia,
belonging to America. Some hunters in that country kindly took
care of them, and sent them in a ship to China, where they lived
nineteen months. The good people there, remembering the word
of Mencius, that he who does not rescue the shipwrecked, is worse
than the wolf,' took care of them until an opportunity might offer
for their return to their native country again.
"The other four shipwrecked men are natives of different
villages in the island Kiusiu; 'Chijo,' aged twenty-eight; Yus-
aboroe,' twenty-five; 'Cumatoroo,' twenty-eight. They left a port
in the island of Amakusa, in 1834, bound to Nagasaki, but were
driven off in a tyfung, and after drifting thirty-five days, were cast
ashore in a country called Takarobo.
"Now I, seeing the distressed condition of these men, have
brought them back to their own country, that they may again be-
hold their aged parents. Respectfully submitting this statement,
I request that an officer may be sent on board to receive them—to
hear the foreign news-to inspect the register of my vessel-to
grant supplies, and permission to trade. I also request, if there
be any shipwrecked Americans in your country, that they may be
given up to me."
APPEAL TO JAPANESE GOOD FEELINGS.
329
Translation of Second Paper.
"America lies to the east of your honourable country, distant
two months' voyage. Its western parts are not yet cleared, but
are still inhabited by savage tribes. On its eastern side, where
the people are civilized, and from which we come, it is separated
from England and Holland by a wide ocean. Hence, it appears
that America stands alone, and does not border upon any other of
the nations known to the Japanese. The population of America
is not great, though the country is extensive. Two hundred years.
ago, it was entirely inhabited by savages; but at that time, Eng-
lish, Dutch, and other nations went there, and established colonies.
Their descendants increased gradually, and sixty-two years ago
they chose their first President, named Washington. That high
office is now filled by the eighth president. Within the space of
sixty-two years, America has been twice invaded; but its people
have never attacked other countries, nor possessed themselves of
foreign territory. The American vessels sail faster than those of
other nations, traversing every sea, and informing themselves of
whatever passes in every country. If permitted to have inter-
course with Japan, they will communicate always the latest intel-
ligence.
"The laws of America are just and equitable, and punishment
is only on the guilty. God is worshipped by every man according
to his conscience, and there is perfect toleration of all religions.
We ourselves worship the God of Peace, respect our superiors, and
live in harmony with one another. Our countrymen have not yet
visited your honourable country, but only know that in old times
the merchants of all nations were admitted to your harbours.
Afterwards, having transgressed the laws, they were restricted or
expelled. Now, coming for the first time, and not having done
wrong, they request permission to carry on a friendly intercourse
on the ancient footing."
ABSTRACT NARRATIVE OF CHINESE INTERCOURSE
WITH JAPAN.
B. C. 100. The Chinese chronicles record embassies with tri-
bute about this time.
A. D. 600. The intercourse and friendship between these con-
tiguous empires, at this period was conducted with mutual good-
will, which continued until the Mongols obtained the throne of
China.
Although it was under the pretence of protecting Corea, that the
Chinese government frequently made war on Japan, sovereignty
was evidently their intention from a remote period. It is on re-
330
CHINESE INTERCOURSE WITH JAPAN,
cord that before, or about the beginning of the Christian era, a
mission was sent from the Emperor of China, appointing the heir
to the Japanese throne, a Wang, (king) of Nippon (Japan). This
plan was adopted whenever a civil war raged in that country.
Corea, it appears was the battle-field, as it was considered a de-
pendent or ally of both empires.
The following is from Nipponki, a Japanese Encyclopedia, pub-
lished in 1795.
A. D. 659. An account of an embassy from Japan to China, as
given in Japanese works, and written by a Corean, is called a jour-
nal of Yukino Murazi of Petsi. The ambassadors were, Ivasiki,
Kisa, and Murazi. They brought with them two native Yeozites,
to show his Celestial Majesty a specimen of savages. The narrator
"We arrived at the eastern capital of China, and were pre-
sented to the Emperor. The questions that he put to our ambas-
sadors and their answers were as follows:-
says:
"Does the Divine Autocrat enjoy constant repose?-Heaven
and earth unite to shower blessings upon him, and constant repose
follows of course.
"Are the officers of the kingdom well appointed and pros-
perous?-Does internal tranquillity prevail?—The manner of go-
verning is in unison with heaven and earth, and the people
have no anxieties.
"Where lie the countries of these Yezoites ?-To the north-east.
"How many kinds of them are there?-Three; the most
remote of these are called Tsugaru, the next Arayezo, (the un-
tamed) and those nearest to us Niki-yezo, (the boiled down); these
are Niki-yezoites. Yearly they bring tribute to our court.
"Does their country produce corn?-No; the inhabitants live
upon animal food !
"Have they houses?-No; they dwell under the trees in the
mountains.
"On the first of the eleventh month, there was a great assembly
at court, to celebrate the festival of the winter solstice; we were
invited thither, and ours was the most numerous of all the foreign
missions; we were not invited again. Two of our people set a
house on fire, which was the cause of much annoyance to us. They
were punished with exile. On the first of the twelfth month it
was announced to us that we could not be permitted to return to
our home in the east, as the resolution had been taken to impose
laws upon our countrymen, on the east of the sea, the following
year.
"We were taken to the western capital, and there kept in close
custody. In this hard condition we passed the greater part of the
year. In the eighth month of the year King-shin, (660) Petsi
(Corea) was conquered; and on the twelfth of the ninth month
we were set at liberty. On the nineteenth we quitted the western
for the eastern capital, which we reached on the sixteenth of the
CHINESE TRY TO SUBDUE JAPANESE.
331
tenth month, and there met our countrymen and colleagues, who
had escaped with their boat to China. Upon the first of the
eleventh month, came a detachment from the army, with the cap-
tive King of Petsi, and about thirty persons. We were again
presented at court, and then sent home.
A. D. 1279. An extract from a letter sent by Kublai Khan, the
first Emperor of this grasping dynasty, is illustrative of their wily
policy.
"The sages considered the whole world as one family; but if all
the members have not a friendly intercourse, how can it be said
that the principle of one family is maintained ?”
The Corean embassy travelled with the Chinese on this occasion,
but neither of them were admitted. Four more embassies were
sent from China in this reign with no better success.
The next
embassy dispatched was supported by an armament of 15,000 men,
who plundered the Japanese coast and then returned to China.
A. D. 1286. Notwithstanding these repulses, an embassy was
sent from China this year, with a large retinue, the whole of whom
were slain by the Japanese. This decided the course of Kublai Khan,
who sent an army of 100,000 men to conquer the empire. They
landed safely on the northern coast, but a dreadful storm scattered
and destroyed their vessels; out of this immense armament only
five vessels ever returned to China.
A. D. 1370. The Ming, i. e. the native Chinese, having obtained
possession of their throne, and suffering severely from the predatory
attacks of the Japanese on the coast, ventured an embassy to re-
monstrate and renew the friendly intercourse; the long wished for
homage was gently hinted at, in the ambassador's speech to the
Emperor of Japan :—
"I am not an envoy from the Tartars, but from the sacred ‘son
of heaven,' the holy and divine Emperor; if you choose to rebel
against him, and disbelieve me, you may first kill me to prevent the
subsequent calamity that will overtake you; but the army of my
sovereign is heaven's army, of which there is not one man but is
able to withstand a hundred enemies; the ships of my sovereign
are able singly to fight a hundred Tartar vessels. Where the
decree of heaven is, what human power is there that can oppose
it?" This speech had the desired effect, and the embassy was well
received.
A.D. 1376. Hungwoo, the Chinese Emperor, sent a priest of
Budha to Japan; the object of sending a priest was, "to command
the nation to venerate that religion." The ancient and royal law
of "universal benevolence to all, whether remote or near at hand"
was strongly impressed on the Japanese.
A.D. 1420. Yung-loo sent an embassy to Japan, with a view of
purchasing some of the manufactures of that empire; he was well
received on his entrance, but a change took place, and he had a
narrow escape for his life. The subsequent embassies to Japan
332
EMBASSIES FROM CHINA TO JAPAN.
were numerous during the Ming Dynasty, to represent the ravages
of Japanese pirates, but no hostile proceedings, were ever taken to
suppress them; and ever since, Japan has boldly resisted the de-
grading vassalage that China has forced on her less powerful
neighbours.
During the Ming Dynasty, the Japanese pirates were a constant
source of annoyance to the Chinese government, but the commer-
cial intercourse was carried from a more remote period.
In 1539, the Japanese sent an ambassador to Ningpo, to
conclude a treaty of peace and commerce. The reception and
treatment given to the envoy was so bad, that the former ill-feeling
was renewed. The Japanese ruling-passion is revenge, which
they gave vent to on this occasien, but were driven to their ships,
and retired after an agreement was entered into, that henceforth
only three vessels should come annually to China, and their crews
not come on shore. As the Japanese at that time traded to all
the islands on the eastern coast, smuggling was resorted to with
the Chinese.
Silk was an article in great demand in Japan, and the Emperor
and Princes frequently sent vessels, with the precious metals, to
purchase a cargo.
On one of these occasions, that a royal cargo was required, the
supercargo paid for his goods before they were delivered, and as
usual, the Chinese cheated him out of his money; failing to obtain
redress, he made good his loss by plundering the first Chinese
goods he met with. The next year a large body of Japanese
besieged Shan-tung, and made their way to the Yangtzekang,
penetrated as far as Nanking and Suchau, turned south to Che-
keang, where they took several places, and everywhere committed
great ravages. They became masters of Chusan, and then laid
siege to Nanking, but were beaten off by an army that was led
on by a female.
In A.D. 1672, a division of the Chinese fleet, consisting of
forty-seven junks, with two thousand men on board, landed on the
coast of Tsukusi (Fizen). They had previously given the Prince
of Tsuzima notice of their coming, that they might not be deemed
enemies. Upon their landing, they put on mourning-garments
for the death of the Mikado, (Spiritual Emperor of Japan) and
took upon themselves the performance of an homage-ceremony to
his successor, by bowing towards the rising sun. They were
collectively presented with silk-stuffs, and soon afterwards set
sail again.
A.D. 1684. The first restriction laid on the Chinese trade was
this year, when upwards of 200 of their junks arriving with 50
men in each, the authorities became alarmed, as the Tartars were
on the Chinese throne, instead of the "Son of Heaven. The
Chinese were prohibited from visiting the capital, and limited to
دو
RESTRICTIONS ON CHINESE AT JAPAN.
333
twelve junks, and an augmentation of the duties hitherto charged
was imposed on the Chinese.
A.D. 1780. The Chinese were subjected to new restrictions this
year. The number of junks was further limited, and an old tem-
ple was prepared for them, in which they were to carry on their
trade; the annual rent of the temple charged them was 16,000
taels, and the duties charged on their imports were 60 per cent.
Their imports consisted of sugar, tin plates, ivory, lead, woollen
cloths, and green tea (for the nobles.) Exports from Japan, cop-
per, (in bars) camphor, lackered wares, umbrellas, dye fish, (a
favourite medicine) salt fish, and a peculiar muscle, that will keep
good for years.
The Chinese are permitted to trade only at Nangasaki, but their
number is limited, and seldom exceeds 100, who are under the con-
trol of head-men. There is an enclosure set apart for them; but,
unlike the Dutch, they are allowed to go about the streets of Na-
gasaki.
The Chinese factory is divided, by narrow streets, into twelve
buildings, and may contain about 150 dwellings and stores.
The number of junks licensed to trade is seven, which make
two voyages annually. When the Chinese arrive in Nagasaki,
their junks are unloaded by the Japanese, and when the tide will
permit are drawn on shore until their time of departure; but
otherwise they have several privileges.
The national antipathy of the Japanese to the Chinese is very
great, and said to arise from their treatment to the fair sex.
During the Russian embassy's long stay in Japan, Captain
Krusestirn was enabled to discover the degrading terms on which
the subjects of the Chinese empire are permitted to trade.
Two Chinese junks are left always in Japan, it is supposed as
hostages. One of these junks was offered to the Russian Mission
to reside in.-See abstract of Russian intercourse with Japan.
The Chinese imports are broad-cloths, and various other woollen
stuffs. Their exports, biche-de-mer, copper, lackered ware.
The door-keepers, interpreters, &c., are appointed by the go-
vernment. They are not permitted to visit the Emperor at Yedo.
The preceding details amply shew that we have only to blame
ourselves for our exclusion from Japan. Since 1841, I have been
urging a mission to Japan on Her Majesty's government; and
when our large fleet was quitting Nankin, I ventured to entreat
Lord Aberdeen to permit its distinguished chief, Sir William Parker,
to visit the court of Japan. The appearance of such a squadron
would have ensured respect, and accomplished, pacifically, a com-
mercial intercourse. It is to be hoped that the facts contained in
the preceding pages, will at length induce Her Majesty's govern-
ment to carry this important object into effect.
Our government are justified in taking measures for re-opening
334
DUTCH INTRIGUES AGAINST ENGLISH.
the commercial intercourse we had with Japan, two centuries ago;
on the basis of the treaty* I recently discovered, (see page 298) which
authorises us still to maintain this intercourse. The preceding
report was laid before Her Majesty's ministers, in the hope the
attempt would now be made. It appears that the French govern-
ment sent Admiral Cecille to Japan last year, but he has not been
favourably received; and the Parisian journal, "La Presse" assigns
the following reason for the rejection of French intercourse. If
this statement be correct, I have no doubt that the Japanese go-
vernment have been induced to make this declaration of continued
exclusion to all but the Dutch. The details in chapters vii. and viii.
prove that China has not "enjoyed a durable peace by the exclusion
of foreigners;" that in truth the exclusion of foreigners was not a
"fundamental policy of the Chinese empire," but arose out of the
intolerant, suspicious, and tyrannic despotism of the Tartar
usurpers of China, within the last two centuries. The abstract
narratives of the intercourse of different nations with Japan at
an early period, until dissensions, jealousy, and exclnsion were
prompted, fomented, and accomplished by the Dutch, are at vari-
ance with the “ reasoning" put forth in this document for the
"faculty of trading with Japan" granted to the Dutch. The
statement is indeed one of the usual diplomatic intrigues of the
Hollanders, and which at this moment the French would probably
not be unwilling to countenance,-"La Presse" says,
"The voyage of Rear-Admiral Cecille to Japan, and the re-
ception which the French squadron there met with, is in part ex-
plained by a very remarkable fact, of which we had heard before
the arrival of the last mail from the Red Sea, but which appeared
to us to need confirmation. It is now averred that a short time
before the conclusion of the peace between England and China, in
1843, the King of the Netherlands addressed to the Emperor of
Japan a friendly letter, having for object the abolition, in that
distant kingdom, of the exclusive system practised for the last
three centuries with respect to foreigners. His Majesty enume-
rated with much detail, the events which have forced the Chinese
empire to multiply in spite of itself, its points of contact with all
nations of the world; and inferred from this new state of things,
that as Japan, from the vicinity of Hong Kong and Chusan, could
not escape a similar fate, it would be prudent to anticipate a crisis
by means of concessions which would satisfy Europeans and pre-
vent all unfriendly collision with them. As a natural consequence
of this prudent course, the King of the Netherlands engaged his
cousin, the Emperor of Japan, to extend to all foreign flags the
faculty, hitherto enjoyed by the Dutch exclusively, of trading with
Nangasaki, and further to open on the same general footing two
or three other ports, either the great island of Niphon, or an island
of Yesso. The letter was sent in the original to M. Beck, the
* The Japanese scrupulously fulfil the engagements of their ancestors.
مجھے
IMPOLITIC DUTCH MONOPOLY AT JAPAN.
335
chief of the Dutch factory at Nangasaki, who succeeded, after
some difficulties of form, in having it conveyed to Jeddo, the seat
of the court. It is very rare for the communications of the Dutch
to be placed under the eyes of the Emperor; they are regarded as
too unimportant for the leisure of so great a potentate; on this
occasion, however, the question appeared to be of too grave a
nature for the ministers to take upon themselves the responsibility
of a solution, and M. Beck obtained the certitude that the letter
of his sovereign had reached the Japanese monarch. Two years
passed without any reply being given. It had been remarked,
that on several points of the coast the most open to a landing,
more activity than formerly was displayed in the work of fortifi-
cation; but this was generally attributed to a belief of the Japa-
nese that several English vessels, which had been driven into these
latitudes by storms, were come to invade the country. At length,
however, the Emperor of Japan has sent to the King of the
Netherlands a reply, of which the following is the substance: I
have watched with attention the events which have brought about
a fundamental change in the policy of the Chinese Empire; and
these very events, upon which you base the advice which you give
me, are for me the most evident proof that a kingdom can never
enjoy a durable peace without the rigorous exclusion of all foreign-
ers. If China had never permitted the English to establish them-
selves on a large scale at Canton, and to take root there, either the
quarrels which caused war would not have taken place, or the
English would have found themselves so weak that they would
have at once sunk in the conflict. But from the moment when
China allowed herself to be touched on one point she rendered
herself vulnerable on others. This was the reasoning of my great
ancestor when he granted you the faculty of trading with Japan,
and, but for the proofs of friendship which you had frequently
given to our country, it is certain that you would have been ex-
cluded, as all the nations of the west have been.
Now that you
are in possession of this privilege, I am willing that you should
continue to enjoy it; but I will take care not to extend it to any
other nation, for it is easier to maintain a dyke in good preserva-
tion, than to prevent the enlargement of the breaches which are
permitted in it. I have given orders to my officers in consequence,
and the future will prove to you that our policy is wiser than that
of the Chinese Empire.""
It is impolitic of the British nation to permit the Dutch to
continue their existing monopoly of the Japanese trade; we have
already suffered enough by their artful interpretation of the treaty
of 1824 relative to the Eastern Archipelago. Our treaty with
Japan, of 1613, is still in full force, and it is for the interest of
the Japanese people, as well as for that of the western nations,
that Japan and China be opened for perfect freedom of intercourse
and commerce. The administration that accomplishes this useful
measure will perform a great good to millions of mankind.
336
DESCRIPTION OF COREAN PENINSULA.
CHAPTER X.
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND COREA,
TIBET, COCHIN-CHINA, SIAM, AND BURMAH,
THE relation in which the Government of China stands to the
contiguous Asiatic States, is an interesting subject for examina-
tion, especially at the present period, when the attention of
Europe is so generally directed towards Asia, and when the force of
circumstances is daily bringing us more and more in contact
with countries of vast extent, with myriads of inhabitants, possessed
of comparatively great wealth, and capable of being brought within
the advantageous pale of active commercial intercourse. To begin
with the admirably situated Corean Peninsula (see map.)
Corea is called by the natives, Coali, in feudal relations with
the Tartars, previous to their conquest of China, and still
continues so with the Chinese Empire. It extends from 34
to 44 degrees of north latitude, and (estimating 15 leagues
to a degree) is 150 leagues in length, from N. to S. and about
75 leagues in breadth, from E. to W. By some accounts the
length of the kingdom from N. to S. is 450 miles English,
and the breadth from E. to W. 300. The length of the sea-
coast is estimated at 1500 miles. There are several long_capes
or headlands running into the sea. On the N. E. it bounds the
ocean, and on the W. is separated from China by the Bay of Nan-
king, but is joined to it on the N. by a long high mountain;
towards the S.E. it bounds the Japanese empire; there are but
twenty-five leagues distance between the city of Pousan in Corea,
and the city of Osacia in Japan. Between the two cities, is the
island of Tuissima, i.e. Taymutto, which the Coreans ceded to the
Japanese for a portion of the Quelpart. The capital of Corea,
Hanching, in latitude 36° N. and 15° E. from Peking, is said to
be distant three months' journey by land from Peking. When
the Yellow Sea is frozen over, the Coreans can walk across it to
China.
PROVINCES OF COREA. Hien-king province is situated on the
north-east quarter of the Peninsula of Corea, stretching along the
Japan Sea; the coast is bleak and inhospitable, except at the ex-
tremity, where it is divided from the country of the Mantchous,
by a large river, on the banks of which are several large towns.
The land here is cultivated with care. Smuggling, under the
guise of pearl-fishing, is extensively practised.
GEOGRAPHY OF COREAN PROVINCES.
337
2nd. Ping-nean province forms the north-west side of Corea.
This province and that of Hien-king lie to the north of the
Peninsula, and constitute a portion of the great continent of
Asia. It is bounded on the west by the gulf of Leautong, in
China Proper, and on the south by the Yellow Sea, or Corean gulf.
The river Yalow runs through this province, and disembogues
into the Yellow Sea; it is navigable upwards of ninety miles. The
province is said to be very populous, and highly cultivated.
3rd. Ketang-yuen province, lies on the north-east side of the
Peninsula, and stretches along the sea of Japan. This province is
composed or intersected with a number of small islands, some of
which are inhabited by fishermen, who carry on a lucrative trade
with the neighbouring countries, in cured fish. The climate is salu-
brious, and the province thickly populated, by the only hardy war-
like population in the kingdom. The inhabitants of this province,
in former years, fought many hard battles with the Japanese.
Timber, ginseng, and paper are its chief products.
4th. Haong-hai province stretches along the coast of the Yellow
Sea, northward, as far as the river Yalaw; and southward for a
space of 200 miles. It has several large islands, two of which are
called Tsiao-tang, and Tsiang-hoo; the latter takes its name from a
large city, which was formerly the capital of the kingdom, and in
the possession of the Mahans, or better known as the Hans, a
warlike tribe. The province is flat and fruitful, is very populous,
contains several large cities, and has manufactures of different
sorts.
5th. King-ki is the only inland province in the kingdom, and
being situated in its centre, is selected as the residence of the
King, who has three palaces in this province. From north to
south it is estimated at 200 miles in extent, and from east to west,
at nearly 100 miles. This province is not inferior to any in China,
in its appearance and fertility. The climate is excellent; and
its numerous population are celebrated for their learning and
politeness.
6th. Kin-chau is called the south-eastern province; it is
bounded on the east and south by the sea of Japan. The com-
merce of this province is very considerable; it has five commodi-
ous and safe ports; and several large cities and towns. On the
southern extremity is the great island of Japan, about 100 miles.
distant. In the strait are two small but fruitful islands, called
Key and Dor, admirably adapted for trade with Japan and
Corea.
7th. Tchu-sin province occupies the south-west side of the Penin-
sula, and lies opposite Shan-tung, one of the provinces of China
Proper; the north-eastern extremity of this province is only distant
from Shan-tung about forty leagues; and the south-west point,
nearly 200 leagues. Ten leagues from the south-west corner is
the large island of Fong, i.e. Fong-ma, which is eighty miles in
Z
338
QUELPART ISLAND, A BRITISH TRADING PORT.
circumference; distant from China eighty leagues, and sixty from
Japan. There are several small islands. This province has four
chief cities, which are thickly inhabited with a most industrious
population, and are chiefly employed in the manufacture of silk and
paper. The climate is said to be more healthy than that of any other
of the provinces; the earth is fruitful, and irrigated after the Chi-
nese mode. The inhabitants successfully resisted the Japanese.
8th. Tsuen-lo province is situated between the two last-named
provinces, and occupies the centre of the southern extremity of
the Peninsula. The ocean bounds its coasts to the extent of about
150 leagues. The inhabitants are fond of commerce, courteous
and hospitable to strangers.
The kingdom of Corea is well watered with navigable rivers.
The Yalow river is situated on the north-west side of the kingdom.
The mouth of this river is in latitude 40° N. in some parts several
miles wide; it disembogues into the Yellow Sea. The river Le
is a beautiful stream, traverses three provinces, and discharges into
the Yellow Sea. Tatang river has at its mouth a capacious harbour.
This river discharges into the Eastern Sea, or the Sea of Japan.
QUELPART ISLAND. The Quelpart island is situated in
33° 32′, and lies about twelve leagues due south from the coasts of
Corea; it is estimated to be fifteen leagues in circumference. It
is much larger than any of the islands of Corea, to part of which
it is united, notwithstanding the distance, by an archipelago of
islands, that lie to the north-west of it, and reach to the Corean
shore. On the north side of this island there is a safe harbour,
distinguished by lofty mountains in the centre, from which all
their junks depart for Japan. The British ship Nimrod, visited
this island in 1842, and procured fifty-six bullocks, which were
most acceptible to our war vessels then serving in China.
natives seem to be governed by a chief. Cattle appear to be
the principal production which they convey to the town of Pausan
in Japan, in barter for clothing. This island is admirably adapted
by its position, climate, fertility, and harbour, for a British trad-
ing post, which might be maintained at no expense to the home
treasury.
The
GOVERNMENT OF COREA.-The government of Corea is, if possi-
ble, more despotic than that of the Chinese, and in every respect
partakes of its selfish character. The reigning family is the Le dy-
nasty, who cannot be crowned without the sanction of the Emperor
of China, who on that occasion sends an ambassador to receive
homage from the new king before his accession. This, together
with consulting the Emperor of China on his Majesty's choice of a
queen or successor to the throne, is all the obligation imposed.
n the government of his dominions the king rules, without any
domestic or foreign control. His army and navy are insignificant.
The first monarch who subjected all the chiefs that ruled over
Corea, was Cao, i. e. Kao, hence called Kao's kingdom or Caoli.
HISTORY OF CHINA-ITS GOVERNMENT AND PRODUCTIONS. 339
The Japanese made many unsuccessful attempts to conquer this
kingdom, with the ulterior view of reaching China, but were al-
ways defeated by the aid of the Mantchou Tartars, with whom
the Coreans were in alliance, long prior to their conquest of China.
Taico Sam, an Emperor of Japan, was poisoned in Corea, by
one of the nobles, the nobleman first taking a portion of the fatal
cup, which also destroyed his life. Ever since that period an enmity
has existed between these two kingdoms.
The first Emperors of the present dynasty of China, were very
anxious to protect Corea, as the Russians had encroached as far as
the river Amour. The Chinese government in proposing a treaty
of commerce with her powerful neighbour, (which was unsolicited),
did so under the false pretence that encroachment would disturb
their subjects in the pearl fishery.
Corea has been submissive and hostile to China alternately.
Under the Sung dynasty, the Coreans were reduced to the lowest
state of vassalage.
Kublia-khan failed in his efforts to annex Corea to China.
The Coreans were completely overcome by the Japanese in 1592,
until assistance was sent from China, which repelled the Japanese.
The Coreans entered into a fresh treaty with the last Tartar con-
querors of China, from motives of fear. They have preserved their
ancient Chinese customs, and utterly reject all the Tartar innova-
tions, such as shaving the head, &c.
There is a quarterly contribution of "tribute" from the King of
Corea, to the Emperor of China, besides an annual mission accom-
panied with tribute. This quarterly "tribute" is exacted in order
the better to keep the Coreans from opening an intercourse with
foreigners, likewise their calender is sent from Peking.
In 1821, Timkowski met a Corean embassy on its way to China,
and thus records his interview with these little known people :
"In the evening three Corean officers paid me a visit, they exa-
mined with much attention our clothes, sabres, and pistols. I pre-
sented one of them with a clasp knife, and the others with some
other trifling things; they received them with expressions of plea-
sure. One of them told me that their countrymen were continual-
ly disposed to revolt against the reigning dynasty. That the King
is afraid to venture out without his cavalry. The sovereign was
confirmed in dignity by the Emperor of China. I presented him
with a sabre, but he was apprehensive that it would be taken from
him by the Tartar sentinels which surrounded the house. An in-
timation was given them that they had visited the Russians too
often, and must depart."
PRODUCTIONS.-Paper is said to be the chief manufacture, but
as the Corean trade is restricted to Japan and Peking, little is
really known of their commerce; silver ingots form the circulating
medium. By their treaty with China, they are obliged to send an
embassy thrice every year to Peking. The embassy takes advan-
z 2
340
RESTRICTIVE BRITISH POLICY IN CHINA.
tage of the opportunity, and opens a shop during their stay, to dis-
pose of their goods. This is in accordance with the policy of the
Chinese government, which is to lessen all other nations in the
eyes of the people, and magnify the dignity of the celestial empire.
It is full time such a system were overthrown. Corea abounds
with corn, cattle, and timber; that is, with the very articles of
which China stands in need, and of which our vessels would be
the carriers, if there were an unrestricted intercourse between the
different states around China. It is scarcely possible to find a
peninsula in any part of the world better adapted for trade, by rea-
son of its geographical position between China and Japan, with the
sea on three sides, possessed of a fine climate, a fertile soil, and an
industrious people. But of these and other advantages spread
before us, we refuse to avail ourselves. In the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, Englishmen would have been encouraged to explore the
resources of Corea, &c. now we have actually passed an order in
council, to prevent any Englishman going beyond the 32° of north
latitude, under the penalty of being treated as a felon, and his ship
and property seized!
THE LOOCHOO ISLANDS.
INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA AND JAPAN.-The Loochoo or
Liequæo group of islands, lie to the south of the Japanese Em-
pire, under 26° north latitude, and 12830 east longitude, from
Greenwich. The area of the thirty-six islands is estimated at
5,000 square miles. Great Loochoo, the largest of the group, is
about sixty miles long, by fifteen broad; its fine bay, called Napa-
keang, lies due east of Fuhchow-foo, one of the free ports of China,
from which it is said to be 400 miles distant, and 370 miles S.S.W.
of the Bay of Nagasaki, in Japan.
I saw at Foochoo, in June, 1845, some of the Loochoo junks and
Loochoo men; they were different in complexion, countenance, and
stature, from the Chinese, and wore their hair fastened in a knot
on the top of the head, with a gold or silver bodkin. Their man-
ners were pleasing, and they seemed to take great interest in ex-
amining our steam vessel. They bring gold annually to Foochoo
to purchase goods.
The Loochoo islands are said to be nominally subject to one of
the princes of Japan (Satzuma), with whose principality the natives.
are permitted to trade to the amount of 125,000 taels per annum.
When the Tartars usurped the Chinese throne (A.D. 1644), a great
number of the Chinese emigrated to these islands.
The inhabitants probably ally themselves to Japan for their
better protection; but no supremacy is acknowledged. They
appoint their own governor or chief; are judged by their own
laws, and exercise freely whatever religion they wish to adopt.
The chief's residence is on the western part of the great island
of Loochoo. The harbour of Napa-keang is about ten furlongs
THE LOOCHOO ISLAND.
341
from the western part of the island, in 26° 2′ north latitude, and
145° 26' 27" east.
Of the thirty-six islands, eight are to the N.E. of the great island,
five to the N.W. of that part called Chouli, four to the E., three
to the W., seven to the S., and nine to the S.W.
The inhabitants of these islands may be divided into three
distinct classes: first, the rulers, who understand the Chinese
language; second, the natives, who are educated, and write the
Japanese and Chinese characters; third, a class who are superior
to coolies.
They are governed by officers sent from the capital of Loochoo,
and removed every five years. Crimes of magnitude are sent for
trial to the capital, except adultery, which is held in such abhor-
rence that summary vengeance is inflicted.
Their houses are built according to an established law. There
arc generally ten or twelve inclosed by a wall, and again sub-
divided into separate dwellings; firm and compactly built, but void
of furniture of any kind.
Here, also, we ought to have perfect freedom of intercourse.
The Loochoo, as also the Bonin Islands, would be excellent places
of resort for our whalers when in the Northern Pacific; and as
the day is not far distant when steam-vessels will navigate from
the east coast of America, viâ Japan, to China, these islands would
be valuable as coal depôts and recruiting stations. One hundred
and seventy whaling-ships recently left the port of Honolahe, in the
Sandwich islands, for the northern seas in and near Japan; if we
do not exercise some influence as a government, it will be done by
the whalers of different nations, and perhaps in a manner not to
the credit or honour of Englishmen.
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND TIBET,
TREATIES, &c.
The proximity of Tibet, a dependency of China, to the British
possessions in Hindostan, and the existing state of affairs in
Nepaul, a country contiguous to Tibet, will justify some detail on
a region of which little is known. (See chap. i., p. 25.)
A large mountainous tract of country, situated about 73° and 98°
longitude east of Greenwich, and 27° and 38° north latitude, is
generally termed Tibet; by the natives it is called Bod or Pot.
Both Great and Little Tibet occupy lofty ground, and lie among
snowy mountains. The national names given to the different
mountains and places, are expressive of snow, frozen snow, (ice),
cold, and great altitude. The highest ground is in the north-
western part, which is called Nari, and lies towards Ladak. One
very high peak, called Tise or Tese, and Kailasa, in Sanscrit, is
in about longitude 80° east, and latitude 34° north, the "abode of
snow." This stupendous ridge, whose ever-snowcapt peak rises, it is
342
GEOGRAPHY OF TIBET-BOUNDARIES, &c.
said, to 25,580 feet, and which has at least twenty peaks higher than
the loftiest summit of the Andes, separates Hindostan from Tibet.
From the first range of the Himalaya mountains, on the Indian
side, to the plains of Tartary, the Tibetians count six chains of
mountains, running in a north-western and south-western direc-
tion, as viewed from Kangri, in Nari, (a lofty mountain running
from S.W. to N.W.), from whence they commence to take on one
side a N.W., and on the other side a S.E. inclination. In the
spacious valley which lies between the third and fourth range of
the above mountains, is the great road of communication, Ladak
and U-tsang (i. e., Middle Tibet).
The sources of the Indus, Sutlej, Gogra, and the Brahmaputra
rivers, are in Nari. There are several large lakes in Tibet.
Tibet is bounded on the north by the countries of the Turks and
Mongols, east by China, south by India, and on the west by India,
Cashmere, Affghanistan, Tazikyul, and Turkestan.
From the time of our sudden expulsion from this interesting
country, in 1783, by the Tartar rulers of China, it has been a
terra-incognita, until an enterprising Hungarian traveller, Alex-
ander Cosmos de Koros, furnished an account to the British autho-
rities in India in 1832.
The great divisions of Tibet are stated to be :-
1. Tibet Proper, or U-tsang; 2. K'ham-yul, the eastern part of
Tibet; and, 3. Nari, or the north-western part of Tibet.
Tibet Proper is that part which lies next to the north of Assam,
Bootan, and Nipal; this is the most considerable part of Tibet.
K'ham-yul (Great Tibet) consists of the eastern part of Tibet,
and is bounded by China on the east. There are small principali-
ties, such as: Kham-bo, Gaba, Lithang, De-ge, Brag-yak, Dep-ma,
Go-jo, Amdo, and Jang-sa-tam. The north-western part of Tibet,
from Tsing to Ladak, is called Nari, and is supposed to be of great
extent.
Little Tibet, i.e. Beltiston, is the most north-western part of
Tibet. The inhabitants are ruled by chiefs, some of which are
powerful. Some of the inhabitants are thought to be of Affghan
origin. [The Affghans are said to be of Jewish origin, and they
have very much the appearance of Asiatic Jews.]
The countries on the Indian side that lie next to Tibet, com-
mencing from Cashmere, are: Kha-ch'heyul (Cashmere), Varan,
Mande, Paldor (or _Chatirgerth), Pange, Gar-zha (or Lahul),
Kulla, K'hunu, i.e. Knaor, and Besahr; Kyonam and Shak-hok,
or Garhawal and Kumaon; Dsum-lang, Gorkha-yul, Pal-yul (or
Nipal), Lhopato (or Bootan), Ashang, i.e. Assam.
The names of the countries or districts in Tibet that adjoin
India, commencing from Cashmere, are: Himbab (near Cashmere),
Purik, Zanskar, Spiti-guge, Purang, Kyirong, Lhoprak, Myanam,
Lach'-hi, Mon-ts'-ho-sna.
Beyond the fourth range of the Himalaya Mountains, or in the
next valley to the north of Ladak, there are the following districts,
COUNTRIES CONTIGUOUS TO CHINA.
343
counting eastward: Nubra, Rudok, Tsotso, Bomba, Chang-ts'-
hak'-ha, Chang-ra-greng.
The principal countries in this direction, from north-west, are:
Beltiston (or Little Tibet), Ladak, Teshigang, Gar, or Garo (the
Lower and Upper), Troshot, Tsang-u, Bhrigang. The two chief
rivers take their rise here, viz., the Senge-k'-ha-bab, and the
Tsanpo, or Tsang-bo; the latter is the Irrawadi, of Burmah, and
not the Brahmaputra, as laid down by Major Rennell in 1765.
The next country westward of Tibet is Ladak, the rajah of which
(a Mohammedan) has been placed under the control of the Chinese
resident at Lassa, in order to restrain the incursions of his subjects
into Tibet. This country borders upon the Sikh territory.
From Ladak to Yarkand, in Turkestan (see p. 19) is a
journey of about thirty-five days. The country on
The country on the way is
inhabited for two stages, where Chinese officers are met with; five
Chinese and twenty Usbecks in each camp: but, for the next
twenty days, the country passed through is not much inhabited.
No one is allowed to travel without a passport from the Chinese
umbauns, which is sealed, regularly dated, and the travellers are
compelled to account for their time.
The chief of Ladak, it is said, informed the Chinese govern-
ment, a few years ago, that the English were constructing a road
to Kanghri, which is situated near Ispitte. This is so far true ;
the British resident at Subathoo, caused this road to be made in
the valley of the Sutlej, through the state of the British tri-
butaries.
Kanghri is a Sikh province, situated on the opposite bank of
the Sutlej, and Ispitte another country bordering the frontier.
Westward of Nipal, which skirts Bootan, are the British districts
of Kumaon and Garhawal, which are in immediate contact with
Tibet, with which the Gorkas, and other subjects of the British
government in India, are in constant intercourse as traders through
the passes in the mountains. Beyond Garhawal, and between
that district and the River Sutlej, where they come in contact
with the Sikh power, are a number of small principalities, who are
controlled in their foreign relations, and likewise pay tribute to
the British agent at Subathoo, or Deyrah-doon.
The geography of all these regions is so imperfectly known, and
becoming daily of such great importance, that a few more notes
collected on the subject may be useful.
Continuing the Chinese frontier westward, from Ladak, lie
the mountainous states of Iskardo, Gilgit, Gunjut, Chitral, &c.
Iskardo, i.e. Beldestan, is said to be only eight marches north-
east from the city of Cashmere.
From Iskardo to Yarkand, in Chinese Turkestan, is a high road,
over which merchants travel in caravans.
There are two other kingdoms which lie in the neighbourhood
of the Chinese possessions in this quarter; Bokhara, including its
provinces of Sarmakand and Balk, and Kokan. According to the
344
RUSSIAN, ENGLISH, AND CHINESE EMPIRES IN CONTACT.
late Sir A. Burnes, Bokhara and Kokan may be said to include all
Turkestan (except the Chinese portion), as they are the two most
influential of its states. The rulers of these countries, and a great
portion of their subjects, are Usbecks and Mohammedans of the
Sunite sect. Burnes states, also, that the relations between Bok-
hara and Cabul with China are friendly.
The Russians, for years, have been endeavouring to force a trade
in this quarter.
Kokan, or Ferghana, the next considerable country on the
western frontier of Chinese Turkestan, is bounded on the north by
the Russian dependencies of Orenberg and Tomsk; and this, as
far as we know, completes the chain of foreign powers that sur-
rounds the Chinese frontier.
Klaproth states, that the Russian new boundary (1828) put
that power in possession of a tract of country of 200,000 square
miles; this boundary was the Kuksu, or Blue River: it is said that
the Russians have crossed it, and have erected forts on the Kokan
side.
The British territory of Assam is separated from Tibet on the
north by the Himalaya mountains; on the east, a narrow strip of
the Burman territory divides it from the Chinese province of
Yun-nan; on the south, it borders on the Burman empire.
MANIPUR. From the S.E. of the Valley of Assam, in N. lat.
26° 30′, and E. long. 95°, a mountain chain takes a southerly
direction, having Manipur and Burmah on the east; on the west,
Kachar and Arracan, till it terminates at Cape Negrais, the south-
ern limit of the latter province, and the S.E. cape of the Bay of
Bengal, in lat. 16° N.; thus far being under British authority.
This part varies in height from 7000 to 8000 feet; the valleys have
an elevation from 2500 to 3500 feet above the sea. From the east
of Assam this range is divided, one part passes into the Chinese
provinces of Yun-nan and Sze-chuen.
It will be seen from these statements, and those in Chapter I.,
that the British and Russian powers are thus hemming in the
Chinese colonial possessions in two nearly parallel lines; the
former, moreover, is approaching the southern provinces of China
Proper. Scarcely thirty leagues of the Burman territory lie be-
tween the British possessions and the Chinese province of Yun-
nan. It is not difficult to predicate that Russia and England,
either conjointly by peaceable measures, or separately by war,
must exercise, at no distant day, an important influence in China,
which is fast losing, inland, as well as by sea, its attempted
isolation.
POLITICAL RELATIONS.-Tibet appears to have had relations
with China at a very early period. But we are as yet uncertain
whether there be any annals of public transactions kept there.
* Pemberton's Report.
In
CHINESE RELATIONS WITH TIBET.
345
the time of the Tang dynasty, about A.D. 750, the intercourse
between the two countries became more frequent.
This was
caused by the introduction of Budhism into China, from Tibet.
From that period, each successive Gialbo, or king of the country,
claimed an alliance with China, by marriages with the imperial
family.
The following singular treaty between China and Tibet, A.D.
821,* indicates that Tibet was then an independent country.
"The Emperor Wen won hiao te houang-ti of the great Thong,
(China) and the Ching-chin Dyanbon of the great Pho, (Tibet) two
princes considering each other as uncle and nephew; after having
consulted the gods of their country have to unite (in friendship,)
made and sworn to a sincere alliance between them, which is to
continue without interruption. They take spirits and men to wit-
ness, and that it may come to the knowledge of future ages and
races, they have had it engraved on a stone, to transmit it to
posterity. These two wise, holy, spiritual, and accomplished
princes, foreseeing the changes hidden in the most distant futurity,
touched with sentiments of compassion towards their people, and
not knowing in their beneficent protection any difference between
their subjects and strangers, have, after reflection and mutual con-
sent, resolved to give peace to their people. To diffuse this bene-
fit everywhere, they have for the future established their govern-
ment on solid bases; in perfect harmony with each other they will
henceforth be good neighbours, and will do their utmost to draw
still closer the bonds of union and friendship. Henceforth the
two empires shall have fixed boundaries. Whatever is to the east
of the Thao and Mint shall belong to the great Thong; and what-
ever is to the west of the rivers shall be considered as forming part
of the country of the great Pho. In preserving these limits, the
respective portions shall not endeavour to injure each other; they
shall not attack each other in arms, or make any more incursions
beyond the frontier now determined. If by chance any one passes
the boundaries (of the two empires,) he shall be detained and in-
terrogated as to his motives; clothes and provisions shall be given
him, and he shall be sent back to from whence he came; for not
to displease the tutelary gods of the country, and the genii of the
mountains and the waters, every one must respect men and spirits.
"The uncle and nephew notwithstanding the affection they have
for each other, may find difficulties in conferring together in per-
son. In order to keep up their mutual connexion, the two empires
shall communicate by envoys, who shall have free passage between
the two states.
"When the envoys of Thong, and the ambassadors of Pho, shall
have arrived in the valley of Tsiang-kiun-ku, where the horse mar-
* Translated by Klaproth.
The south-western part of Shense, is so called, after the two rivers which traverse it.
346
TREATY BETWEEN TIBET AND CHINA, A.D. 821.
ket is kept, (which is established between the two empires) they
shall be maintained to the east of the country of Thao and Min,
at the expense of the great Thong; but to the west of the town of
Thsing Chouihian, their support shall be at the charge of the
great Pho.
((
Observing the rules prescribed by decorum between such near
relations as uncle and nephew, that smoke and dust may not be
raised on the frontiers of the two states, they must reciprocally
exalt their virtues and banish for ever all mistrust between them ;
that travellers may be without uneasiness, that the inhabitants of
the villages may live at peace, and that nothing may happen to
cause a misunderstanding. This benefit will be extended to future
generations, and the voice of love (towards its authors,) will be
heard wherever the splendour of the sun or moon is seen.
"The Pho will be tranquil in these kingdoms, and the Han will
be joyful in their empire.
CC
Everyone is bound to observe this solemn obligation, which
shall never be altered or changed; it has been sworn to before the
three precious beings;* before all the spiritual beings which exist
under the sun, the moon, the stars, the azure vault of heaven, and
by the animals which have been sacrificed. Whoever does not ful-
fil the clauses of this treaty, and who shall break the oath, will be
punished by them and pursued by misfortune.
"The great men of Han and Pho, respectfully prostrate them-
selves, and have concluded the treaty contained in the inscription."
"The authenticity of this document is confirmed by the ancient
Thong Chou, (History of the Thong) which says, "in the first of
the years called Tchang-king, (A.D. 821) in the ninth month, the
ambassadors of Pho proposed to conclude a treaty of peace. This
was agreed to, and the emperor commanded that Sicon-yuan- ting,
minister, censor and grandee of the empire, should go to Tibet, to
swear with their envoys to a treaty. After various negotiations,
they agreed upon and concluded a treaty of peace, between the
kingdoms of Thou, Pho, and China."
Relations were thus, it is said, established between China and
Tibet in the seventh century of our era, the wars with the Sefans
brought the two countries in contact; and both kingdoms profess-
ing Budhism, the former regarded the latter as a holy country, and
intermarriages were sought for by each.
The immense wealth stored up in the temples of Tibet, excited
the cupidity of the Eleuths, who sacked the temples, and conveyed
the Lamas to Soungaria.
In the twelfth century the Tibetians became, nominally, vassals
to China; but in the thirteenth, their country was desolated by the
Mongols. Under the Ming dynasty, from 1367 to 1644, the Chi-
The three Budhas of the Past, Present, and Future ages of the world. This looks
like a type of the Trinity.
CONTESTS BETWEEN TIBET AND CHINA.
347
nese ruled Tibet by a new mode, viz.: by spiritual leaders, who had
honours and emoluments showered on them. The Tibetians have
displayed several inclinations to throw off the China yoke. Tibet
did not lose the power of styling her rulers gialbo, until nearly a
century after she had submitted wholly to China, in the reign of
Kang-he. And it was not till the reign of Keen-lung, when the
last ruler, who bore that title, revolted, that it was abolished.
When this event took place, the tributary dominions of the coun-
try were given to the Dalai-lama, (spiritual chief,) who had previ-
ously possessed a larger share of authority. His government was
not subservient enough to the Tartar ruler of China. A revolt
taking place, Keen-lung fixed the present form of government,
about 1793.
Before the Tartars were well on the throne of China, (1647,) the
Dalai-lama, unsolicited, sent tribute to the conquerors, and then
went in person to the court of Shun-che. The Emperor granted
him a patent, by which he appointed him chief of the religion of
Foo. About this time the Mongol Tartars took possession of Tibet.
In a subsequent revolt, the Tibetians called in the aid of China;
and the court of Peking sent an army under General Olounda.
The first force was not able to subdue the rebels, and Kang-he
sent an additional force, under the command of his son.
The reigning Dalai-lama was then called by the title of Kaubil-
gan; but the Emperor of China sent him the former title, with a
letter, breathing a warm expression of his favour and regard. The
Chinese force exterminated the black lamas, placed the Dalai on
the throne of Baudala; and confirmed him by an ordinance of the
59th of Kang-he, (A.D. 1720.)
A.D. 1727. There was another revolt, but the Chinese troops were
successful. From this period the Chinese government increased
the garrison, and built at Koda, near Ta-tsin-lau, (in the Chinese
province of Sze-chuen), the temple of Kauci-yuen, which was ap-
pointed to serve in future as the residence of the Dalai-lama.
The town of Djachi was built in 1733, and in 1735 the Sunga-
rians submitted. About this time the Dalai was removed to his
old quarters, Baudala. In 1760, the several orders of princes,
which had been created at the general peace, were abolished, and
the government was solely confided to Chinese generals, the con-
sent of the Dalai being formally asked. Troops were spread all
along the frontiers, extensive commercial intercourse commenced
between the two countries, and Lassa became the great western
capital.
In 1791, the Gorkas began to disturb the frontiers of Dzangba,
or Thsang, a province of Tibet. The Emperor of China ordered a
large army to terminate the disturbance. All this part of the
western countries was independent of China; but as the Tartars
had penetrated the territory, it was set down as a place belonging
to China.
348
TIBETIAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT.
When this war terminated, the Tartar commander-in-chief pre-
sented himself before Keen-lung, who was then at his country-
palace, Jehol, where he met with Lord Macartney. Previous to
the arrival of this victorious general, Lord Macartney was graci-
ously received, and would have probably obtained an advantageous
treaty; but the day after his arrival affairs took a different turn,
and the British ambassador, who had intended to pass the winter
at Peking, very soon received his audience of leave. It is supposed
the Tartar general alarmed the Emperor about the British position
in Bengal.
Tibet has ever since been a province of China, if occupation of
it by Chinese troops, and having its affairs administered by its
officers, constitute it as such.
Every year, messengers are sent from Las-a, bearing an imperial
mandate from China, addressed to the Deb and dhurma rajahs of
Bootan, and to the pilas and zumpons under their orders. This
mandate contains instructions to be careful in governing the coun-
try, to quell internal tumult promptly, and report any apprehended
invasion from foreign foes. A present of twenty pieces of gold is
also sent.
Tibet is governed by two great ministers sent from Peking,
called Tachin, they govern both Anterior and Ulterior Tibet.
These ministers, as a matter of form, consult the Dalai-lama on
whatever concerns Anterior Tibet, and the Bant-chin erdeni for the
affairs of Ulterior Tibet. All appointments to offices of govern-
ment, and to titles of nobility, must have the consent of the Chi-
nese officers. Within the last few years one of those officers
makes an annual tour along the frontiers of Nepaul.
The Tartar generals who reside at Lassa, appoint the chief
officers of government of Tibet. The choice falls on men of rich
families, and the appointments are not free from suspicion; but as
the government is entirely military, everything is carried with a
high hand.
The officers are called kalion, of which there are four,
each of whom directs one branch of the administration; one of
them being chief.
The shandzaba collect taxes; the nansosiaks, superintend the
tribunals and the territorial revenue; djacenkors, direct the law
proceedings; dzeigons keep the public accounts, the two latter are
hereditary. The seniors of the public functionaries bear the title
of goussio; the writers are called djoner; a director is called a
nerba; an interpreter, nesiamba. The chief officers are styled
teba. There are subordinate officers, called kodou, and all are paid
out of the taxes which are levied.
It is said that there are 60,000 soldiers stationed in Tibet, viz.:
Lassa, 3,000 horse; Dyang, 2,000; Ngari, 5,000; Koba, 1,000;
Tardzi, 3,000, which are divided between Landzi, Lanmantso, and
among the Mongols living in tents in Ngari; and nearly 50,000
infantry in the two Tibets. The army is raised by taking one man
TIBETIAN RELIGION LIKE ROMANISM.
349
out of ten or five; the same with the horses. None are exempt
from conscription.
In battle, the soldiers wear a coat of mail, made of small pieces
of iron, or chains; and their arms consist of short swords, mus-
kets, and bows and arrows.
Shamani-sm, the state religion of Tibet, is an ancient supersti-
tion. Strabo calls their system Ghermans; Clement, Sarmans ;
and Porphyry that of Samaneans.
The great resemblance between the superstition, and that adopt-
ed in Roman Catholic countries, induces a belief that they received
it from members of that persuasion, and likewise from the Nes-
torians. The most striking features of their system in coincidence
with Romanism, are: their missals, vespers, beads, masses, cloisters,
nunneries, celibacy, and the peculiar dress of the priests, particu-
larly the cap, which is precisely that of the Franciscan order.
This spiritual government, or hierarchy, was first known about
the ninth century, and is not much practised out of their own
country, if the patronage bestowed on it by the Emperor of China
for obvious reasons be excepted. The lamas or high priests are
venerated as incarnations of Budha (himself an incarnate Deity).
The grand lama at Lassa, is supposed to be the first-rate incarna-
tion of Budha, in human form; and at the dissolution of the latter,
he enters into a new shape to reveal himself to the world. When
the grand lama dies, there is a general mourning for three years,
and prayers for the restoration of the lost Budha. There are three
gradations, viz: the grand lama; the Bantchin Erdeni lama, who
resides at Teshoo Loomboo; and the Taranath lama.
The priests are divided into two sects, each being distinguished
by the colour of their caps, yellow and red. The grand lama of
Lassa, and the Bantchin Erdeni lama, who resides at Teshoo
Loomboo, belong to the yellow caps. The Taranath lama resides
in the north, but is taken little notice of.
Both pontiffs have an endless host of monks, who obey their
commands. The red caps are allowed to marry, and are the
spiritual advisers to the Chinese.
The three pontiffs sit in conclave, and sensualize to excess while
discovering the time, form, and place of the new incarnation.
When they agree upon the point, the sanction of the Bantchin Erdeni
must be obtained, and then that of the Emperor of China. As
soon as the affair is made public, all the nobles and officers of go-
vernment repair to the place where the lama's incarnation has
been predicted. This demi-god is always selected from amongst a
wealthy family, and to effectually screen his extraction, the father
of the child is put out of the way in a secret manner. Keen-lung,
the Tartar Emperor of China, in the latter end of the last century,
became enamoured of this abominable delusion, which is marked
with blood.
Kcen-lung very soon learned this sleight-of-hand trick, practised
350
PASSPORTS IN TIBET.
in these divinations, so that he procured a number of lamas in
Mongolia, Tibet, and Peking, to make a selection as opportuni-
ties occurred favourable to Chinese interests.
The Grand Lama only appears in public once a year, and although
arrogating to himself superhuman knowledge, and with great
contempt viewing all other beings, yet he looks up to the Emperor
of China with a degree of respect, if not of veneration.
The dalai lama sends an embassy every year to Peking, with
presents, which consist of a very fine description of woollen cloth,
perfumed tapers, small silver obelisks, idols, and other various uten-
sils used in the Budhist temples. Their value is said to amount to
upwards of 60,000 rubles. Presents are likewise sent to the rela-
tions of the Emperor, likewise to his great ministers. He also sends
valuable presents to the several lamas, who reside at Peking.
Books which are printed at Lassa, relating to Budhism, are poured
into China in great quantities.
Passports are used in Tibet. The following is a copy of a Tibet-
ian passport, issued previous to the Tartar rule in Tibet. It was
translated by the distinguished Hungarian traveller, Cosmos de
Koros:
"From the noble (city) Lhassa, (or Lassa), the circumambula-
ting race of religion;-to those that are on the road as far as Avya-
desa, or India; to clerical, laical, noble, ignoble, lords, (or masters)
of men; to residents in forts, stewards, managers of affairs; to
Mongols, Tibetians, Turks, and to dwellers in tents in the desert ;
to envoys or public messengers, vakils or ambassadors, going to and
fro; to keepers and precluders of by-ways (or short cuts); to the
old (or head) men collectively, charged to perform some business
of small or great importance; to all these is ordered (or is made.
known).
"These four foreign (or travelling) persons, residing at Lhassa,
Ichang-lo-chan, Mohammedans of It'hang-na, after having exchanged
their merchandise, going back to their own country, having with
them sixteen loads on beasts; having nothing for their defence
except some Lahore weapons,-Do not hinder, rob, and plunder
them; but let them go to and fro in peace.
"This has been written from the noble Lhassa, the great religious
race, from the senate-house of both ecclesiastical and civil officers,
in Sa-bhriing, (earth's dragon) in the year T. ch. (1688), the day
of month." (These dates are wanting.)
A square
Seal.
A few words on the British intercourse with Tibet may be ne-
cessary. The territory called Bootan forms a part of the great
LETTER TO WARREN HASTINGS FROM TIBET.
351
chain, of which Tibet is a portion; at the foot of this ridge an
extensive plain forms a boundary between Bengal and Bootan.
In 1772, the Rajah of Cooch-Behar sought the aid of the British
government against the Rajah of Bootan. His cause was effect-
ually sustained; and his enemies were driven back to their own
mountains. The Bootans then applied for support to the Tishu
Lama, the guardian of the Grand Lama of Tibet, who in con-
sequence despatched a letter to Warren Hastings, who was then
Governor-general, requesting a cessation of hostilities against
Bootan, which had been in relation with Tibet since 1791.
letter was as follows:-dated 19th March 1774.
The
Having heard from travellers of your reputation, my heart,
like the blossoms of spring, abounds with gladness and joy.
"I am the Rajah and Lama of this country, and rule over a great
number of subjects. I am informed that you have engaged in war
against the Deh Terria, to which it is said the Deh's criminal con-
duct has given rise. As he is of an ignorant rude race, past
times are not destitute of instances of the like faults, which his
avarice has tempted him to commit. His party has been defeated,
and his army killed, and if you liked, you might have extirpated
him. But I take upon me to be his mediator; and to state to
you that he is dependent upon me. As he is too young to rule,
the charge of the country is in my hands; should you persist in
molesting him, it will irritate the Lama and all his subjects against
you. I have admonished the Deh, to desist from his evil conduct,
and to be submissive to you in all things; so treat him with com-
passion and clemency. I am but a fakeer, and it is my custom to
pray for all mankind. And I do, with my head uncovered, pray
that you will cease from all hostilities in future. We, poor crea-
tures, are in nothing equal to you. Having a few things in hand,
I send them to you as tokens of remembrance, and hope for your
acceptance."
This demand was acquiesced in by the council, and a treaty
of peace entered into with the Bootans. The contiguity of Tibet
to the western frontier of China, suggested a possibility of an
intercourse with that empire through the Dalai Lama.
A treaty of peace was in consequence entered into between the
English and Tibetians on the 25th April, 1774; and for the better
continuance of friendship, Mr. Bogle was deputed from the Go-
vernor-general of India, to the court of the Tishu Lama.
He enjoyed the hospitality and kindness of the Tishu, for upwards
of eight months; and on his return, was entrusted with a large
sum of money, to be expended in the erection of a temple on the
river Hooghly, near Calcutta.
Mr. Bogle, the envoy, obtained a promise from the Lama in 1779,
that he would procure for him a passport from the Emperor of
China. The Lama was only four days in Peking, when he signi-
352
EMPEROR OF CHINA'S LETTER TO TIBET.
fied to the Emperor Keenlung, that he had a favour to ask. The
Emperor desired him to speak without reserve. The Lama said
"In the country of Hindostan, which lies on the borders of my
realm, there resides a great prince, for whom I have great friend-
ship. I wish you should know and regard him also, and if you
will write him a letter of friendship, and receive his in return, it
will give me great pleasure, as I wish you should be known to
each other, and that a friendly communication should in future
subsist between you."
The Emperor readily granted all that had been asked, and also
inquired about the country, but Tartar-like, when the Lama died,
he forgot his royal promise made to his saintly friend.
The Grand Lama dying in Peking, in 1779, intelligence of the
sad event was sent to the Governor-general.
When the new spiritual pontiff was discovered, Captain Turner
was sent to congratulate him. This mission was received in a
different manner from the former, for reasons which must be
apparent from the following letter from the Emperor of China. No
British mission has been there since, until Captain Pemberton was
at Bootan in 1838.
"Placed by Heaven at the head of ten thousand kingdoms, my
endeavours are employed to govern them well. I neglect no means
to procure peace and happiness to all that have life. I endeavour
to make learning and religion flourish. Lama, I am persuaded
that you enter into my views, and that your intentions accord
with mine. I am not ignorant that you do all that depends on
you, to omit nothing that your religion prescribes, and to follow all
their laws. You are punctual at prayer, and you bestow the
attention that praying well requires. It is by this that you
become the most firm support of the religion of Foo. I rejoice in
it from my heart, and give you, with pleasure, the praises that
are your due. By the favour of Heaven I enjoy health. I wish,
Lama, that you may enjoy the same blessing, and that you may
long continue to offer up your fervent prayers.
"The year before last, the Punjun Irtinnee set out from Loomboo,
in order to pray here, at my seventieth birth-day. As soon as I
heard of his departure, I sent the Lieutenant-general to meet him,
and ordered that he should give him a Sautchou* of pearl, that
I had worn myself; a saddle, some silver, and other trifles.
"This last year, Punjun Irtinnee, on his way to visit me, I sent
some grandees to meet him, and one of my travelling chairs, one
of my camp tents, flags, and other tokens of distinction; proper to
create respect.
"When he was within a few days' journey of the frontiers, I sent
* A rosary, similar to what is in use in the Roman Catholic Church, on which their
prayers are counted.
THE EMPEROR OF CHINA TO THE LAMA OF TIBET. 353
my eldest son to meet him, who saluted him, and gave him presents
from me, with a horse and other things.
"On the 21st of the seventh moon, the Punjun arrived at Jehol,
where I then was, and he gave me a feast of ceremony, to which
the Lamas of his suite, from Loomboo, were admitted. I gave in
return a solemn entertainment; but apart to all the Lamas of
Jehol, to the Lamas of the Tchasaks, Eleuths, Kokonas, Tourgauths,
and Turbeths.
During this festival, the Mongol Princes, the Begs, the Taidjo,
and other nobility, as well as the ambassadors from the Coreans,
the Mohammedans, and others, were at Jehol, all did homage to
him. Delighted with the reception, he requested to accompany
me to Peking; to which I consented. All the Lamas came to meet
him, many thousands in number prostrated themselves. I
assigned to him the golden apartment. I gave directions to show
him anything worthy of attention. He officiated at the dedication
of the imperial Miao, which I erected.
"On the twentieth of the tenth moon, the Punjun Irtinnee was
ill, and I sent my physicians, who reported that he was danger-
ously ill. I visited him in person. He received me with tokens
of pleasure; and from the words of satisfaction, with which he
spoke to me, I thought he was recovering. It was however far
otherwise; and the venom of the small-pox had spread through
all parts of his body,
"On the second day of the eleventh moon, the Punjun Irtinnee
changed his dwelling (died). The shock overcame me; with a
heart full of grief, and eyes bathed in tears, I repaired to the Yellow
Chapel, where with my own hands I burned perfumes to him.
"When I reflect that it was to do honor to my birth-day, that he
made this long journey, this distresses me beyond all measure. To
console me in some measure, I have resolved to render memorable
the day of his regeneration.
"I gave direction for making a shrine of gold, in which his body
should be deposited, as something worthy of his precious remains.
I have bestowed bounties on all his disciples, and on his brother
I have conferred the title of Prince of the efficient prayer. I did
not neglect the Tchasak Lamas, and to several of them I gave
titles.
"My design in entering on so long a detail, is to show you the
great estimation in which I hold whatever is connected with you,
and the profound regard I have for your person.
"When the 100 days were up, I gave orders for the body to be
conveyed with due pomp. I sent the eldest of my sons three days'
journey with it. I joined the procession myself as far as it was
proper that I should go. Although he has changed his abode,
from the aid I have rendered to him, he will not long delay to be
fixed in another habitation.
2 A
354
LAMA OF TIBET TO WARREN HASTINGS.
Lama, it is my desire that you should show kindness to all the
Lamas of Teshoo Loomboo, and respect them on my account;
from their conduct I judged them worthy of being your disciples.
I recommend to you those who accompany the body, and who will
perform the number of prayers that you may regulate. It remains
for me to add, that I send Petingue and his suite, to salute you in
my name. They will deliver to you a sautchou of coral, a tea-pot
of gold, weighing thirty ounces, and bowl of the same weight; a
silver tea-pot and bowl; thirty sautchous of various coloured beads,
and twenty purses. The 14th, 2nd moon, and 46th of Kienlung."
Presents pass annually between the Dhurma Rajah of Bootan,
and the Dalai Lama of Lassa; and three lamas, on the part of
Bootan, reside at the court of Lassa.
To the west of Bootan, is a small territory of the Sikham Rajah,
who is said to be tributary to the Dalai Lama.
In November, 1781, the Lama of Tibet addressed the following
letter to our Governor-general at Calcutta :-
Translation of a letter from Changoo Cooshoo Irtinnee Neimo-
heim, Regent of Tishoo Loomboo, to Warren Hastings, Esq.,
Governor-general, &c., &c.
"Received, February 12th, 1782.
"To the fountain of benefits, abounding in excellencies, orna-
ment of the chief seat of power and greatness, shedding splendour
on the leaders of Europe; repository of valour and magnanimity;
exalted in enterprise; high in diguity; the governor Immaud
u'Doulah. May his fortitude and his existence be perpetuated by
the bounty of Almighty God! Some time before this, the Khaw
Kawn of China called unto him the Lord of his votaries, the lumi-
nary of the word, Mahah Gooroo, with earnest solicitations: and
on the 17th of the month Rubbe-u'-saunie, in the year of the
Hijera, 1193, (17th June, 1779).
"The lama, according to agreement, went towards the regions of
China, and Khaw Kawn (Emperor of China) despatched leaders
of distinction to meet him; and kept in readiness cattle to trans-
port his luggage, with tents and other conveniences. And there
is a land called Soobah, where Mahah Gooroo and the Khaw
Kawn of China, met each other in joy and satisfaction; and they
continued there for one month, and then proceeded to the city of
Picheen (Peking), that is to say, the royal city; and in that city
they remained six months.
"The Khaw Kawn of mighty power, in the abundance of his
faith and his love for the truth, exhibited proofs of his obedience
and submission. And the Mahah Gooroo, on whom be the con-
tinued blessing of the Almighty! instructed many of the sages of
China in knowledge; and he caused their heads to be shaven.
“And down to this time the Mahah Gooroo was well in health;
but the water and air of China were pernicious to him.
Such was
TIBET INVADED BY THE NEPAULESE.
355
the will of God; eruptions of the small-pox came forth, and our
earnest endeavours availed nothing; for the predominating star of
our happiness was reversed and obscured; and the only remedies
were resignation and submission. The measure of his existence
was filled up, and the lip of the cup of life was overflowed. And
we supplicate, with a united voice, the return of the hour of trans-
migration, that our departed lama may be again restored to our
sight. And after the death of the lama, the gracious favour of
Khaw Kawn was greater than before.
"When the funeral solemnities were concluded, we received our
dismission; but the Emperor caused every comfort for us on the
road; people were placed at different places to convey the corpse
of the deceased lama home.
sc
Poorungheer Gasien arrived here after the departure of the
lama to China, and two letters and nine strings of pearls, which
you sent as a gift, arrived safe. All these were submitted to the
inspection of the lama; and the joy which he expressed on reading
your letters was great. The rosaries and gifts you sent me, arrived
in a happy hour, and caused much satisfaction. I formerly wrote
a letter, and sent to you unwrought gold, that certain pearls, and
coral, might be purchased for its value. I presume to repeat the
request respecting the piece of land in the noble city of Calcutta.
Concerning this I have instructed Poorungheer, who will make it
known to you, hoping you will permit him to remain under the
shadow of your protection. You must send to me constant in-
formation of your health, that the garden of pleasure may flourish.
Zehij jah, 1185, (November, 1781)."
In 1791, Tibet was invaded by the Nepaulese, who carried off
great plunder from Teshoo Loomboo, and rifled the tombs. They
were pursued by the Chinese army, defeated, and compelled to sue
for peace on the terms of restoring the property, and paying an
annual tribute. The Chinese government keeps a close watch
on the court with spies, called umbas, who send their lacoos to
Peking.
The Nepaulese applied to the British government. Captain Kirk-
patrick was appointed ambassador to Nepaul.
The Chinese commander seemed well disposed to break off the
conference when he perceived a British officer there.
The similarity of dress between the Nepaulese soldiers and the
British battalions, gave suspicions to the Tartars that we had been
aiding them.
The preceding details may be of some utility in the new rela-
tions which we shall probably be compelled to form in this part of
Asia. They show the loose tenure of power by which China holds
Tibet in subjection, and they indicate that we may establish inter-
course with that fine region on a satisfactory basis.
*Communicators.
2 A 2
356
BRITISH INTERCOURSE WITH COCHIN CHINA.
COCHIN CHINA AND CHINA-INTERCOURSE.
Cochin China is situated near the southern extremity of Asia.
Its limits have been greatly extended by conquest, as it was formerly
a mere strip of land between the China Sea and the mountains,
not exceeding sixty-five miles in breadth. The kingdom now com-
prehends Tonquin, the chief port of Cambodia, and the small state
of Champa. It extends from the point in Cambodia, in 8° 36′ north
latitude, to the northern confines of Tonquin; and from the longi-
tude of 105° to 109° east. It is bounded on the north by the
Chinese provinces of Kiang-si and Yun-nan; on the west by the
kingdoms of Lao and Siam, while the gulfs of Siam, Tonquin, and
the China Sea, bound it on the S.W., E. and N.E.
The area of Cochin China and Tonquin is estimated at 100,000
square miles; and the chief towns, Hue, Faifo, and Quintion.
Turon Bay is a perfect harbour. The population is estimated at
12,000,000 to 23,000,000. They bear some resemblance to the
Chinese, by whom Tonquin is said to have been colonised, B.C.
214. There are about 50,000 Chinese in Cochin China. In Ton-
quin about 25,000 Chinese are said to be engaged in the gold,
silver, and iron mines. Trade between Cochin China and China
about 20,000 tons annually.
Turon Bay was visited by Lord Macartney in His Majesty's
ship "Lion," on his voyage to China, in June, 1793. The markets
were opened by order from the king, who sent a present of pro-
visions himself; on one occasion upwards of 100 tons of rice,
several bags of pepper, &c. The king was much pleased with
presents given him by Lord Macartney, and inclined to welcome
the British. Civil wars had then been raging for a long succes-
sion of years. The inhabitants are represented as industrious,
and the soil fertile. There was a favourable, and, indeed, liberal,
disposition on the part of the court, whence orders were issued
permitting the English to travel into the country, and examine it
as much as they should desire.
"Turon Bay is safe in all seasons of the year; sufficiently capa-
cious to hold the largest fleets, affording a complete shelter against
both monsoons, with an islet surrounded by a sufficient depth of
water to admit ships of considerable size heaving down by it; and,
on the whole, navy gentlemen here consider this port to be the most
commodious of any on this side of Asia. The island of Campelo
(or Callao), is within a few miles (eight) to the southward of Turon,
latitude 15° 53′, five and a half miles long by three broad. It is
asserted that the French had, several years ago, proposed to pur-
chase it from the King of Cochin China. They supposed that the
quantity of gold extracted from the Cochin Chinese mountains,
and the vast quantity of sugar manufactured in its plains and sold
FRENCH INTERCOURSE WITH COCHIN CHINA.
357
at a price vastly lower than in any other part of the world, together
with the other produce of that country, would render a settlement
in the neighbourhood very profitable; but above all, they conceived
that by stationing frigates there, on the approach of war, they
might easily intercept our ships bound for, or returning from,
Canton."
[Lord Macartney to Mr. Dundas, President of the India Board,
dated Coast of China, 18 June, 1793.]
The island which forms not only the east and south side of the
port of Turon, but also the south bank of the Mesron River, would
be a still more valuable acquisition than Campelo Island, as com-
manding the best harbour; and more connected with, as closer to,
the Continent.
In 1803, there were several French settlers at Turon; there
were also Portuguese traders from Macao, but the restrictions im-
peded trade.
In 1844, the French minister in China, M. Lagrene, sent one
of his attending frigates to Turon, to demand redress for the ill-
treatment of a French missionary. There were commercial agents
from France sent in the frigate; and the Marquis de Ferrier in-
formed me (while we were recently travelling home from the East),
that it was intended to establish diplomatic and commercial rela-
tions between France and Cochin China.
When Lord Macartney was in Turon Bay (June, 1793), there
were three trading vessels: a Portuguese, from Macao; a Dutch,
from Ostend; and one from China. "The cargoes of these vessels
were chiefly paid in ingots of fine silver, and procured from silver
miues lately opened in Cochin China. They have gold in ingots
of the same form and size, but they preferred paying in silver."
"Sugar sold in the inland villages at one penny a pound." Lord
M. purchased "single refined at four-pence; but the want of de-
mand had reduced the quantity produced, and thus rendered the
article dear." "The country everywhere is very populous; it cer-
tainly is round Turon. There are some considerable plantations
of cotton, rice, and sugar-canes. Pepper, and a species of Cinna-
mon are prized in China much beyond that of Ceylon."
The king wishes as much as possible to give a red cloth uniform
to his soldiers. [Red is the royal colour.]
There was a constant call for clothing and arms. "People even
of the lowest class frequently wear silk, though they would natur-
ally prefer cotton, if they knew how to manufacture their own, or
could purchase what is manufactured abroad."
From about 260, A.D. to 1401, Cochin China, including Ton-
quin, paid homage to the Chinese monarch; but, for a period of
twenty years, it was in complete subjection to China. The inhabi-
tants were occasionally independent, and at other times tributary
to China, according to necessity.
358
CHINESE INTERFERENCE IN COCHIN CHINA.
In 1774, an insurrection broke out in the capital, Quin-nang.
Three brothers concocted this rising: Yin-yack was a merchant;
Lang-niang was a general officer; the other was a priest.
The reigning king, Caung-shung, was deposed, and the future
government was arranged as follows: Yin-yack took the two divi-
sions of Chang and Dan-nai; Lang-niang that of Hue, bordering
on Tonquin; the youngest brother was made high-priest of all
the empire. Lang-niang no sooner arrived at his kingdom, than
he commenced a quarrel with the King of Tonquin, who was
then tributary to the Emperor of China. The king abandoned
his army, and fled to Peking for protection. Keen-lung was then
on the throne of China, and having been victorious in all his en-
gagements in Tartary and Formosa, he did not hesitate to send an
army to place his vassal on the throne of Tonquin. Orders were
sent to the Viceroy of Canton to send 100,000 men to the scene of
war, and to take the command. The usurper, Lang-naing, be-
came acquainted with the intended route of this numerous army,
and destroyed every town and village through which it intended
to pass. The consequence was fatal to the troops, as long before
they reached the frontier, they had to retreat.
When the Chinese commander reached the neighbourhood of
Canton, his force was reduced one-half, without a single engage-
ment. To avert disgrace and certain punishment, he made over-
tures to the usurper, who instantly spurned any terms, by saying
he had 200,000 men ready to support him; and that he had been
declared King of Quang-tung (Cochin China and Ton-quin).
These high-sounding titles did not in the least disconcert the com-
mander-in-chief (Foo-chang-tang). Although inferior in the bat-
tle-field to his opponent, other resources were at hand that had
frequently succeeded. He despatched a courier to Peking, with
the account of his splendid victory over the usurper, notwithstand-
ing the most determined resistance of his enemy; but he bore
testimony to the justice and reasonableness of his pretensions to a
crown, which a former possessor had relinquished; the excellent
character of his antagonist was upheld, and the universal esteem
in which he was held extolled: this confirmed the viceroy that
King Quang-tung should be invited to court, where he was ready
to do homage. It was also suggested that the late king would
make a good mandarin. The court of Peking highly applauded
this arrangement: the deposed king accepted a mandarinship;
and an invitation was sent to the new king to repair to Peking.
Doubts and uncertainty came over the mind of the usurping
monarch, who, however, sent one of his generals, who was repre-
sented as himself; contrary to expectation, the mock king was
well received, invested by the Emperor, and loaded with presents.
On his return, Quang-tung was greatly at a loss what to do, but
the sequel was that the mock king was killed, as the surest way to
preserve the secret.
BRITISH OUGHT TO TRADE WITH COCHIN CHINA.
359
In the year 1832, there was rather a serious disturbance on
the borders of Cochin China, in Taeping-foo, on the southern
frontier of Kwang-si province: it is said to have commenced
about the right of working coal-pits. Two Chinese officers, some
civilians, and nearly one hundred soldiers, were killed. Appli-
cation was made to Governor Le of Canton, by the Lieutenant-
Governor of Kwang-si, for a detachment of troops to suppress the
rioters.
In 1833, a Chinese admiral was cruising off the island of
Hainan, he was overtaken by a storm, and his fleet scattered.
One of his vessels was driven on the coast of Cochin China. This
vessel contained two high officers and seventy men. The King of
Cochin China received them with great hospitality, giving to each
officer five taels in money, and to each man two dollars. They
were sent to Canton with a Cochin Chinese escort, who were
provided with quarters, until an official reply of thanks should
be sent to his majesty. The escort was accompanied by two
junks laden with merchandise. The Governor of Canton sent a
memorial to his imperial majesty, praying for a remission of the
duties on this cargo, for their kindness to his naval officers. The
Emperor consented to the prayer, and also granted permission
to purchase return-cargoes duty free, as the goods were brought
as ballast.
The old king died in 1840; previous to which, a Cochin
Chinese envoy went to Peking with "tribute" once every two
years. This year a notice appeared as follows: "in order to show
forth kindness and benevolence to men from afar," it has been
signified by an imperial decree, that a visit once in four years
shall suffice.
We ought to establish commercial relations with Cochin China.
Mr. Dundas, when President of the India Board, in 1792, had
this important object in view when he despatched a letter from
George III. to the King of Cochin China, by Lord Macartney,
who, as previously stated, was hospitably received at Turon Bay.
His lordship was rightly of opinion, that it would not be politic to
deliver this letter to the King of Cochin China (nor the royal letter,
of which he was also the bearer, to the Emperor of Japan), until the
chief place of the mission, Peking, had been visited. On the re-
turn of the British embassy to Canton, His Majesty's ship, "Lion,"
seventy-four guns, which had conveyed the mission to China, was
required to convoy the East India fleet to Europe, and the missives
to Cochin China and Japan were, therefore, never delivered. We
have ever since, most unaccountably, neglected these rich, import-
ant, and extensive regions.
360
POSITION AND HISTORY OF SIAM.
SIAM AND CHINA-INTERCOURSE.
Siam, a considerable kingdom between 10° and 14° of north
latitude, in the centre of the great peninsula between the Bay of
Bengal and China Sea, is bounded on the N. by tracts of country
that are scarcely known to Europeans, which extend as far as Tibet
and China; on the S. by the Gulf of Siam and the Malay Penin-
sula; on the E. by a range of mountains which separate it from
Cambodia and Cochin China; and on the W. by the Burmese
dominions.
Previous to the encroachment of the Burmese, Siam was esti-
mated to extend in length upwards of 300 miles, and about the
same in breadth.
The towns are built on the great river, Meinam, although there
is a considerable extent of sea-coast, with numerous harbours, but
the dread of cruel Malays, prevents the inhabitants settling on
those eligible places.
The natural resources of Siam are very great. The valley of the
Meinam is periodically inundated, to which circumstance is attri-
buted the fertility of the soil. The inhabitants are like all others
who reside under a despotic government; in physical appearance
they bear some resemblance to the Chinese; their numbers are
variously estimated. The country yields most abundant crops of
rice, which is irrigated comparatively without any labour.
The cultivated productions arrive at a high state of perfection:
sugar is abundant and cheap; their coffee is excellent; so also
the areka. The tamarind, pineapple, banana, upwards of twenty
species of mangoes, and various tropical fruits, abound.
From 1567-1596, Siam was subject to Burmah. Contests for
the throne distracted the country from 1690 till 1759; during
this interval, about 1752, Alanyna, the founder of the present
Burman dynasty, overran the whole valley of the Meinam.
Pyeya-tak, the son of a Chinese merchant, gathered followers,
and successfully drove the Burmans from the country, and assumed
the throne. Being devoted to commerce, he removed the metro-
polis from Ayuthia to Bankok. He reigned most successfully
until his death, which took place in 1782.
War between Siam and Cochin China, in 1841, lasted for two
years. There were armed mercenaries from Celebes and Borneo
in the service of the belligerents; some armed with muskets;
cannon, cavalry, chain or ring armour, were used in combat. The
Siamese appear to have been vanquished.
Of the political intercourse between Siam and China we know
nothing certain; their mercantile relations will be discussed under
the trade of China; but it may be here observed, that this is
another fine region which we have neglected, although, formerly,
the East India Company had factories in Siam, as also in Cochin
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN BURMAH AND CHINA.
361
China. We have, it is true, a treaty with Siam, made in 1821,
which is perfectly useless as regards the trade and intercourse at
Bankok.
BURMAH AND CHINA-INTERCOURSE, WARS, AND
TREATIES.
As the dominions of the Emperor of China border those of the
King of Ava, there have been hostilities, on several occasions, be-
tween the two countries. A war, of four years duration, took place
from 1765 to 1769, which is described, by Colonel Burney, as one
of great magnitude; but it is difficult to believe the bombastic.
accounts of the number of Chinese troops. The rivers which flow
from China (Yun-nan province) into the Burmese territories, afford
means of communication for traffic and intercourse.
:
Six rivers flow from the Chinese province of Yun-nan into Bur-
mah, viz. the Manloo, Mangleen, Nanting, Loo-keang, Lung-
chuen-keang, and Pinlang-keang. The Kewleng crosses the
southern boundary of Yun-nan, in latitude 21° 40′ north, and
about 15° west of Peking. The Manloo and Mangleen flow south-
ward before they cross the boundary of the province. The Nan-
ting and Lung-chuen cross the southern line of Yun-nan, in about
latitude 23° 45′ north, between 18° and 19° west of Peking. The
Pinlang leaves Yun-nan in the S.W. extremity of. the province.
The Irrawaddi flows some leagues further westward; and is sup-
posed, like the Salwen and the Mekon on the east, and the Brahma-
putra on the west, to have its origin in those high regions of
Central Asia, where the Yellow River and the Yangtzekang take
their rise.
It was along the southern line of Yun-nan, and on the borders
of the previous mentioned rivers, and also on the Irrawaddi, that
the battles between the Chinese and Burmese were fought. Mo-
gaung is only five days journey west from Tsanta, and is situated
in nearly 24° 52′ north latitude, and longitude 18° 20′ west of Pe-
king. As this war, between China and Burmah, so well illustrates
the weakness and policy of the existing Tartar rulers, some details
will prove useful, although they may seem trifling; yet, as we
know not how long China and Burmah may remain at peace, or
how long we may remain in tranquil relations with the court of
Ava, I am induced to give the native account as furnished by that
able officer, Colonel Burney. The war is said to have had its origin
in the following circumstance: a Chinese came to Bamoo and
Kyaing-toun, with 400 oxen laden with silk and other merchandise;
he applied to the Bamoo authorities for permission to construct a
bridge, to the north of the village of Nanba, which would enable
him to cross the Taepeng River. The authorities stated, that they
362
WAR BETWEEN BURMAH AND CHINA.
must consult their superiors at Ava. This answer did not please
the Chinaman, Lo-li, and he became insolent.
The Bamoo officers suspected that Lo-li was a Chinese spy, and
sent him to Ava, with a report of his disrespectful conduct. A
searching enquiry was made into his character, and nothing of
political importance appearing, he was sent back to Bamoo, with
permission to trade, and likewise to build a bridge if he pleased.
On his return, he charged the Bamoo authorities with plundering
his goods. But the officer replied, that when he went to Ava he
left his men in charge of them, and, if there was any deficiency,
he should look to his own people and not to the Burmese.
Loli, then repaired to Mo-myin, and complained to the Chinese
government of the charge brought against him, and of his pro-
perty being plundered. He also reported this affair to the governor
of Yun-nan, who promised to make enquiries.
About this period an affray took place between some Burmese
and a Chinese caravan of upwards of 2,000 ponies, with a man,
called Lotari, as chief, who had come to Kyaing-toun. The Bur-
mese had bought some goods on credit, and refused payment when
demanded; an affray took place, in which a Chinese was killed.
The Burmese officers stated, that their law in such cases was, that
the man who committed the murder should pay the price of life,
viz.: 300 ticals. The money was refused, and the Chinese required
that the murderer should be delivered over to the Chinese govern-
ment. This was also refused; but the Burmese proposed to kill
the guilty party, which was rejected as unsatisfactory.
Lotari retired to China, and complained to the government of
Yun-nan. This officer was, at the same time, urged to make war
on Burmah, by some discarded chiefs of Ava, who had fled to
China. A representation was made to Peking, that induced the
Emperor to send an army to take possession of Kyaing-toun.
The following notice was put up on a post on the bank of the
Tolo River: "Deliver a man to us, in the room of our man who
was killed, or we will attack you;" and very soon afterwards a
Chinese army, under General Yin-taloye, consisting of 50,000 foot
and 10,000 horse, took Kyaing-toun-the Burmese governor having
gone over to the Chinese forces.
When the King of Ava heard of the invasion, he sent 21,000
foot, 200 war-elephants, and 2,000 horse, under General Let-we-
weng-mhu, “left-hand royal entrance chief.”
On the 27th December, 1765, eleven divisions of troops ap-
proached the town, and contrived to send in some men in disguise,
and arrange a combined attack on the Chinese forces.
The Chinese cavalry was charged by the Burmese with ele-
phants, and soon driven to the banks of the Tolo River, where they
threw up some mud defences. Here they were again attacked,
and compelled to retreat to the banks of the Mekou, i. e. the
Great Camboja River, where they were again successfully attack-
CHINESE ROUTED BY BURMESE TROOPS.
363
ed; their general killed, and the surviving portion of their army
fled back to China in great disorder.
In the beginning of 1767, the King of Ava, or Burmah, received
intelligence that a Chinese army, consisting of 250,000 foot and
25,000 horse, had entered his dominions, and that on their arrival
near Shya-mue-loun mountain, to the westward of Mekon River,
better than one-half of the Chinese force had been sent against
Bamoo.
The Burmese monarch directed that two armies should proceed
from Ava, one by water up the Irrawaddi to Bamoo, and the other
by land route, to the westward of the river.
On the 30th January, 1767, the land forces consisted of 22 divi-
sions, containing 20,000 foot, 2,000 horse, and 200 elephants. The
water force was 15,000 men, with 300 boats carrying guns, pro-
ceeded up the Irrawaddi to Bamoo, where they arrived on the 4th
February.
The Chinese, leaving 3,000 horse and 30,000 foot to defend their
stockade at Bamoo, advanced with 70,000 foot and 7,000 horse,
and invested Kyaing-toun, which they assaulted with scaling-lad-
ders, axes, choppers, and ropes; but the garrison met the assail-
ants with a heavy fire of cannon, and large boilers of hot dammer
and molten lead. The Chinese forces were driven back with great
loss, declaring that the besieged were not men, but gnats. Not
being enabled to force an entrance, the Chinese stockaded them-
selves around the town, at a distance of about 140 cubits.
The general of the Burmese forces, acting on the plan recom-
mended by the governor of Kyaing-toun, moored his fleet of boats
close along the western bank of the Irrawaddi to Bamoo, then
landing his troops, under a heavy fire from his boats, he stormed
and carried all the Chinese stockades. The Chinese general before.
Kyaing-toun, dispatched 1,000 horse in support of Bamoo, but the
Burmese general placed 2,000 troops to prevent the Chinese cross-
ing Len-bangya River, and the Chinese commander recalled them.
The Burmese general was enabled to convey intelligence of the
fall of Bamoo, to the governor of Kyaing-toun, and of his inten-
tion to attack on a particular day the besieging force. At the
appointed time the Chinese force before the town, was simultane-
ously attacked, by nine divisions of the Burmese army, and at the
same period by the besieged garrison; after three days' fighting,
the whole of the Chinese works before the town were taken.
Ten Chinese generals, and more than 10,000 men, were stated
to have been killed; the remainder fled to their main-body on
Thin-yanuay-lein mountain. The Burmese followed and drove
them as far as Mo-wun, taking a great quantity of arms, prisoners,
and horses.
On the Burmese general obtaining information that the Chinese
had a force on Lizo mountain, consisting of 20,000 horse, and
100,000 foot, he sent six divisions of his army, round the right,
364
CHINESE DEFEATED WITH GREAT SLAUGHTER.
and an equal portion on the left side of the mountain; and at the
same time advanced, with ten divisions, up the centre route. The
Chinese general advanced to meet the enemy, leaving one-third
of his army to protect his stockades, and posted himself on the
eastern bank of the Nonnyen River.
The Burmese force, under the Wun-gyith, came up and joined
the reconnoitring party on the western bank of the same river,
whilst the right and left wings, which had reached the mountain,
by marching round the rear of the Chinese main-army, attacked
and carried the stockades there.
The Chinese in those stockades, believing that their own force
was in front of them, were so surprised that they fled. The wings
of the Burmese army subsequently fell in with another Chinese
force, which was coming from China with a convoy of provisions.
for their army, and took possession of all their horses, mules, and
provisions.
It was arranged, that on a given day, the two wings of the
Burmese should attack the Chinese in the rear, at two separate
places, whilst the main-body would cross the river, and attack them
in front. The Chinese finding themselves hemmed in, retreated,
but were followed, and completely routed. Upwards of 100,000
of the Chinese took up fresh quarters at Tsanta, and there threw
up new works. Here the Chinese were attacked by the combined
forces of the King of Ava, and chased to their own territory Yun-
nan, after a severe loss of men, arms, and horses.
The two Burmese generals attacked another Chinese force of
upwards of 50,000 men, which was posted on a mountain to the
north-east of Theinni, and only one-third of the Chinese escaped
to their own country.
In November 1767, a Chinese army consisting as is alleged of
60,000 horse, and 680,000 foot, under the command of a son-in-law
of the Emperor of China, named Myeng Khoun-ye, and his brother
Tsu-taloy, entered the Burmese dominions by the Theinni route,
accompanied by the ex-chief of that place; 100,000 men were sent
against Bamoo, but first attacked Theinni, when the governor and
inhabitants evacuated the town. Myeng then advanced with
30,000 horse, and 300,000 foot by the Thibo road, whilst the
other Chinese general placed a strong garrison in Theinni, consist-
ing of 20,000 horse, and 200,000 foot, and made arrangements for
forwarding a supply of provisions to the army which was in
advance.
The King of Ava's force consisted of 30 war elephants, 3,000
horse, and 30,000 foot. A second force was dispatched consisting
of 200 war elephants, 2,000 horse, and 20,000 men.
A third army
amounted to 200 war elephants, 2,000 horse, and 10,000 men.
These immense armies are stated to have had many engagements;
the Chinese on the first encounter were victorious. But the Bur-
BURMESE OUTWIT THE TARTARS.
365
mese from their superior knowledge of the country, and the infor-
mation they procured, were enabled to out-general their enemies,
by cutting off their supply of provisions, particularly water. The
brother-in-law of the Emperor of China, cut his throat with his
sword.
The Chinese advanced army of 100,000 men, that had been sent
against Bamoo, repeatedly attacked that place, but it was so well
defended that they could not carry it, and after losing a great
portion of their followers by famine, and hearing of the flight of
the main-body, they raised the siege and escaped to China. The
mountains and country around are said to have been covered with
the dead bodies of the Chinese.
For upwards of a year there was a cessation of hostilities between
the two countries.
In the latter part of 1769, a Chinese army of 56,000 horse and
500,000 foot, was sent against the Burmese dominions.
On the 21st October, the King of Ava sent a force of 100
elephants, 1,200 cavalry, and 12,000 infantry; and in three days
afterwards, another force amounting to 52,000 men proceeded by
water to Bamoo; and in three days more, an additional force, by
the road to the westward of the Irrawadi.
The three Chinese generals on reaching a mountain to the
north of Lizo, sent 10,000 horse, and 100,000 foot, to cut timber
in the most convenient spot, and convey it to the banks of the
Irrawadi, for the construction of war boats. A general with
10,000 carpenters and sawyers, was left to accomplish this task.
The main-army marched on towards Bamoo, and after throwing
up stockades at Shue-myaung-beng, twelve miles to the east of
Kaung-toun, and leaving 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse to defend
them, the remainder of the army, amounting to 30,000 horse and
300,000 foot, under the other two generals, advanced and invested
Kaung-toun towards the land side. Also 500 boats, as soon as
they were built, were brought down and placed on the river-side,
with 50,000 men. Notwithstanding the most vigorous efforts on
the side of the besiegers, they were unable to take the town; neither
by land or water could they make any impression. It is unneces-
sary to detail the several engagements, which were very similar to
those of the last war.
The Burmese generals, as usual, outwitted the Tartars, who are
too self-sufficient even to derive wisdom from experience, and who
are no match for the physicial courage of the Burmese. One of
the stratagems of the Burmese general was to march several
thousands of his army over rivers, in the daytime, and bring them
back at night, and thus pretend that he was continually advancing
fresh forces. The Chinese generals called a council of war, and
after each described their several defeats by land and water, and
weighing every matter, it was resolved to depute a mission to the
366
PEACE BETWEEN BURMESE AND CHINESE.
Burmese camp, in order to open a negotiation of peace. The fol-
lowing Chinese letter was accordingly sent to the Burmese
general.
"When we three were appointed to march to Ava by three dif-
ferent routes, and were about to commence our march in the year
1129, (1767-8) the (Burmese) general sent eight Chinese with a
letter, stating that all sentient beings desired rest. We therefore
delayed our march a year. Even now we should be happy to see
our dispute settled, which it will not be for years, if we go on
fighting. We are not come because we want the Burmese dominions.
If the sun-descended King (of Ava) sends presents as was the
former custom, we shall send presents in return. Our master the
Emperors orders are: 'fight if they fight; or make peace if they
make peace.' We three generals, desirous of settling this dispute,
have come with a moderate force only.
"In our Chinese country we are not accustomed to say more
than one word, and are used to speak with truth and sincerity
only.
"The present war has arisen from the circumstance of the chiefs
of Thinni, Bamoo, Mo-gaung, and Kyaung-toun, having come and
invited us.
We will deliver up the chiefs, subjects of the sun-des-
cended king, who are now in China: and after the (Burmese) ge-
neral has delivered up to us all the Chinese officers who are in his
hands, let him submit to the 'sun-descended king and great lord
of righteousness,' and we will also submit to our master, the 'Em-
peror and Lord of righteousness,' that the two great countries may
continue on the same terms as they always were before; that all
sentient beings may be at rest; that there be no war; and that
the gold and silver road may be opened."
Several interviews took place, and a second letter was sent from
the Chinese camp, which was represented to be written by a son
of the Emperor of China.
One of the Burmese generals only was for peace, and he under-
took to take the responsibility on himself, should the King of
Ava be displeased. On the 13th December, 1769, fourteen Bur-
mese and thirteen Chinese officers met in a large shed, which was
erected for the purpose, near the town of Kaung-toun. The
Burmese demanded their chiefs first, but the Chinese envoys took
an oath that they were not in the camp, but would be returned
within six months.
The Burmese negotiators, after receiving the following treaty,
applied to the Chinese for the boats which were at Kaung-toun.
The Chinese promised after they made use of these boats to bring
up their stores to Bamoo, they should be given up to the Burmese.
When the Chinese had done with the boats, they were burned
by order of the generals, and a serious difference of opinion took
place on this breach of faith. However, matters were finally ar-
ranged, and the Chinese army were conducted out of the Burmese
TREATY BETWEEN BURMAH AND CHINA.
367
dominions, by a very large force, who kept a close watch on them.
The Chinese armies having long suffered from want of provisions,
those men only who were able-bodied, succeeded in reaching
China, and the forests and mountains were spread with countless
numbers, who died on the route from starvation.
The following is a translation of the treaty entered into on this
occasion between China and Burmah.
up
"13th December 1769 A.D.
"His Excellency the general of the lord who rules over a multi-
tude of umbrella-wearing chiefs in the great western kingdom,
the sun-descended king of Ava, and master of the golden palace,
having appointed (here follow the names and titles of the fourteen
Burmese officers) they assembled in the large building to the S.E.
of the town of Kaung-toun, to negotiate peace and friendship
between the two great countries, and that the gold and silver road
should be established agreeably to former custom. The troops of
the sun-descended king and master of the golden palace of Ava,
and those of the master of the golden palace of China, were drawn
in front of each other, when this negotiation took place; and
after its conclusion, each party made presents to the other, agree-
ably to former custom, and retired. All men, the subjects of the
sun-descended king and master of the golden palace of Ava, who
may be in any part of the dominions of the master of the golden
palace of China, shall be treated according to former custom.
Peace and friendship being established between the two great
countries, they shall become one, like two pieces of gold united
into one; and suitably to the establishment of the gold and silver
road, as well as agreeably to former custom, the princes and
officers of each country shall move their respective sovereign, to
transmit and exchange affectionate letters on gold, once every ten
years."
On the 6th May, 1787, an embassy arrived from China to the
King of Ava, and was well received.
On the 10th June, 1787, an embassy from the King of Ava,
accompanied the returning embassy to China with magnificent
presents for the Emperor.
On the 20th of October, 1790, an embassy arrived from China
to the King of Ava, viâ Yun-nan province, with valuable presents,
and three Chinese princesses for his Majesty, who conferred on
each, a Burmese title.
A.D. 1822. In the second year of the reign of the present Em-
peror, an embassy was sent to the King of Ava, with some presents,
amongst which were a male and female ass, with bridles and
saddles.
A.D. 1823.
An embassy from the King of Ava to the Emperor
of China, was sent on the 15th August, 1823, and arrived at Peking
22nd January, 1824. Between Ava and Peking the distance is
368
CHINESE INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPE.
set down by the Burmese as 6,944,000 cubits, on which they say
there are fifty-nine cities, sixty villages, and 120 stages.
A.D. 1833. An exchange of embassies between China and
Burmah, with letters breathing the most sincere and friendly
attachment towards each other. The Emperor of China, in his
letter states he is in amicable relations with various kingdoms and
countries. I cannot find any further trace of political intercourse
between Burmah and China; trade is carried on extensively in
caravans between the two countries.
CHAPTER XI.
INTERCOURSE OF CHINA WITH PORTUGAL, SPAIN,
HOLLAND, FRANCE, RUSSIA, AND AMERICA.
An examination of the intercourse between China and the Wes-
tern nations for the last two centuries, will illustrate the policy of
the government of Pekin, and it will serve as a guide in our future
communications with the Tartar authorities, who have still a very
imperfect idea of the distinguishing characteristics, position, or
strength of each nation. This is partly shown by the following
translation of a Chinese document, issued at the commencement of
the recent war with England, and which was written with refer-
ence to the opium vessels :-
"There are three nations of the outside foreigners, trading at
Canton, who store up and sell opium; namely, the English, other-
wise called 'the red-bristled.'
"India is that dependency of the 'red-bristled' nation where
opium is produced: the people (Parsees) are vulgarly called 'white-
headed devils.'
"The American, otherwise called the 'flower flag' nation, buy
their opium from India.
"Those nations trading at Canton which do not sell opium are
the following:-France, Holland, and Spain. The above three
nations now come and trade at Canton.
Denmark, otherwise called-the great yellow flag:' Sweden,
otherwise called-'the little yellow flag.' These two nations have
not traded with China for a long time.
"Austria traded hither in the first year of Taoukwang. Prus-
辕
​CHINESE DESCRIPTION OF FOREIGN NATIONS.
369
sia traded hither in the eighth year of Taoukwang. Hamburg
traded hither in the third year of Taoukwang. Alin (?) traded
hither in the fourth year of Taoukwang. A report was made re-
specting this country (Alin?) which is on record, and since then
its merchants have not been allowed to frequent our market.
"Russia: ships of this nation came to Canton in the nineteenth
year, but were not allowed to trade.
"The names of foreigners who sell opium.' These names we
decline translating, as in so doing we shall not give any new infor-
mation to our readers.
"The foreign store-ships, large and small, do not belong only to
the 'red-bristled,' or English, many of them are country ships
from India; the next in degree are the Americans.
"Some of them carry ports on two, some on three decks. Ge-
nerally speaking on each deck are seven or eight guns mounted on
each side. The smaller vessels carrying ports on one deck, have
their guns on their upper, or only deck, and their number does
not exceed five or six. The guns are generally of copper; the
largest weighing from two to three thousand, the next in size be-
tween one and two thousand, and the smallest, near a thousand
catties. There are not any guns on the forecastle, but on the taff-
rail there are some copper swivels.
'All these ships, without distinction of nations, store up and
sell opium; when they have sold their opium they proceed to
Whampoa, load with goods, and return home.
"Each of these ships carries three masts, and they all have flags.
The English hoist a white banner, at the upper part of which thin
red cross lines are drawn (St. George's ensign). The country
ships hoist the English flag. The 'flower flag' (nation) hoist a red
flag, on which is drawn the Pih-mei-fa (the flower of the Prune :)
i. e. the stars and stripes. When they are not under weigh they
do not hoist their flags.'
دو
The map of Europe, which Commissioner Lin had prepared by
some "half-caste" Portuguese, who acted as his secretary, was
ludicrously incorrect.
It is to be feared that the experience which the Chinese have as
yet had of the western nations, has not been such as to impress
them generally with any other idea but that of powerful "barbar-
ians;" desirous of gain, and not over scrupulous as to the means
used for its acquisition.
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE PORTUGUESE AND
CHINESE.
The Portuguese passed the Cape of Good Hope towards the
close of the fifteenth century; secured a footing on the western
shores of Asia, and took possession of Goa.
2 B
370
PORTUGUESE MISSION TO PEKIN.
A.D. 1511. Mallacca was occupied, and Raphael Perestralo, having
heard of the land of Kathay, (China,) through the writings, it is
supposed, of Marco Polo, sailed in a junk from Mallacca to China.
A squadron sailed from Lisbon in 1518, to convey an ambassa-
dor to China, without any previous intercourse, except the know-
ledge acquired from the Portuguese viceroy in the East Indies.
As soon as the squadron arrived at Canton, it was surrounded with
Chinese boats; the commander, Ferdinand Andrada, invited the
Chinese on board, and communicated the object of his voyage to
the Mandarins, who welcomed him, and sent the ambassador to
Peking, without any hesitation or delay.
Perez, the ambassador, found the court at Peking well disposed
to enter into his views. He visited all the coast, and traded with
the natives. On his return to Canton, a treaty of commerce was
to be ratified, when an unfortunate occurrence took place.
Simon Andrada, (a brother of the commander of the squadron,)
appeared on the Chinese coast, with a squadron, whose object was
piracy and plunder. His treatment of the Chinese, was in unison
with what the Portuguese had, for a long time previous, perpe-
trated on all the people of Asia, viz.: making slaves of young and
old. He built a fort on the island of Taywan, from whence he
pillaged or extorted money from every vessel proceeding to the
port of Canton. In consequence of these unjust measures, the
Chinese government imprisoned the Portuguese ambassador. By
others the cause of this treatment is ascribed to a different source:
it is said that the Portuguese, at a very early period of their settle-
ment, were called to render homage and tribute to the Emperor
of China. Thomas Perez and Fernao Andrade set out for Peking,
to pay tribute to the Emperor. A subject of the late Sultan of
Mallacca, was then residing at Peking, and claimed protection
against the Portuguese, who had a few years previous taken from
his royal master, (a vassal of China,) the Mallacca territory. The
Emperor requested the Portuguese to restore the Sultan his domi-
nion, which request was slighted. The numerous Mohammedan
merchants then at Canton, disclosed the true character of the Por-
tuguese, in wishing to monopolise all trade to themselves.
The government of Canton accordingly wrote to the Emperor
thus: "The Portuguese have no other design than to come under
the denomination of merchants, to spy the country, that they may
hereafter fall on it with fire and sword."
The Sultan of Mallacca urged the Emperor to use his influence,
for the Portuguese to restore Mallacca. A tribunal was appointed
to try if the embassy was genuine or spurious. Perez and his
attendants were condemned as spies, and sent from Peking to
Canton, prisoners. The restoration of Mallacca, was the condition
on which their lives were to be spared. After six years' absence,
they were all executed in 1523.
A.D. 1553. The next embassy recorded, was undertaken by the
PORTUGUESE OCCUPATION OF MACAO, 1560.
371
celebrated Francis Xavier, his object was to introduce Christianity.
When the embassy arrived at Mallacca, the valuable presents des-
tined for the Emperor of China, excited, it is supposed, the cupidity
of the Portuguese authorities, and the project was abandoned.
A.D. 1560. A Jesuit writing of this period, states, that between
five and six hundred Portuguese merchants were residing con-
stantly at Lam-pa-co. Subsequently their general rendezvous was
Macao, where, under the pretext of drying their goods, permission
was granted to erect sheds; and by degrees learning the ruling
passion of Chinese magistrates, bribes obtained for them permis-
sion to build good houses at Macao.
A.D. 1582. It was not until this year, that these "foreign bar-
barians" attracted the notice of the Canton authorities, notwith-
standing their numbers had greatly increased. Destruction was
threatened in the usual manner; but the Portuguese were liberal
in their presents, and the Tartars not being on the throne, their
presumption was overlooked.
A.D. 1587. The Portuguese resolved to build a wall across the
isthmus, which separates Macao from the island of Heangshan.
Through this barrier is a pass which is guarded by Chinese soldiers:
a civil Mandarin was appointed to govern the Portuguese. It was
erroneously supposed that the Portuguese were independent of
the Chinese authority, until a very late period. The contrary was
known through an edict in the Peking Gazette of the year 1810,
on which occasion the Portuguese offered their services, to aid the
authorities in putting down piracy: the answer to that proposal
clearly proved their position. The amount paid annually, as rent,
to the present day is 500 taels per annum.
A.D. 1582. The trade was open to the Portuguese once or twice
each year at Canton, and the duties were accepted in imported
goods, until this year, when silver was demanded. The annual
present, paid at Canton, was 12,000 dollars, and on their exports
they paid six per cent.
Some idea may be formed of the defenceless state of the Chinese
empire, about 1630, when Rodrigues, the Jesuit missionary, was
sent from Peking to Macao, to obtain aid from the Portuguese, to
resist the Tartars. Between three and four hundred soldiers were
furnished on this occasion, but the Tartars were repulsed before
their arrival at the scene of action. This timely aid has never been
acknowledged in any shape.
A.D. 1662. The Emperor, Kang-he, finding the pirates could
not be subdued, tried a novel plan, viz.: by commanding the inha-
bitants of the maritime provinces to level their dwellings, and re-
move into the interior of the country, not less than twelve miles;
he likewise suspended all navigation to the southward. The posi-
tion of Macao, brought it under this edict; but through the inter-
cession of Father Schaal, the town of Macao was exempted, on the
2 B 2
372
PORTUGUESE BRIBES AND PRESENTS.
condition that all navigation should be suspended. Fresh restric-
tions were laid on the Portuguese, and to carry on any kind of
trade, they were compelled to pay enormous bribes to Chinese
admirals.
The governor of Macao sent the following letter to the Emperor,
with presents, in the hope of getting some indulgence:
"High and Mighty Lord,
The Portuguese of Macao, who govern the place, Vicente
Rosa, and with all the others, have always received immense favours
of your Imperial Majesty, whose name fills all the world; and lately
a new one has been bestowed upon us, by not being included in the
prohibition of navigating the southern seas; we have more than ten
thousand mouths to provide for. To shew in some way our thank-
fulness, we have selected a few articles, which we transmit to the
viceroy, begging him to have the goodness to present them to your
Imperial Majesty, and we shall be very happy."
"1st March, 1719."
LIST OF PRESENTS SENT.
Forty-eight bottles of wine; forty-eight bottles of snuff; ten jars
of peaches, pears, &c; one box of pastiles, perfumed; twelve glass-
bottles of almonds; twelve ounces stone, "jasper Anthony"; four
printed calico covers; four pieces of white cloth; four firelocks
from Europe; two cases of knives; one box of Peruvian bark; one
box of Roman thread; one box of divine plaster; one box of tartar
of white wine; one box of ipecacuanha; and two rolls of gold lace.
In order to obtain a removal of local oppression, the viceroy of
Goa proposed an embassy to Peking, in the name of King Alfonso
VI. The inhabitants of Macao were put to the expenses of this
mission, which cost upwards of 30,000 taels. Every humiliating
ceremony was performed that was required; their boats were called
"tributary" vessels: but the mission was a complete failure, and a
request was sent to King Alfonso, not to intercede in their behalf
with the government of China, as it only made bad worse.
The Emperor, Yung-ching, was so annoyed with disputes and
contention between the several orders of missionaries; Jesuits, Do-
minicans, Augustines, and Capuchins, that he forbade the exercise
of Christianity throughout his dominions.
A.D. 1726.
In this state of affairs, a mission was sent from Por-
tugal to Peking, with valuable presents, the Portuguese ambassa-
dor received from the Emperor a cup of wine, and several dishes
from his table; every politeness and attention were as usual paid to
strangers from afar. Presents were returned to the king. The
inhabitants of Macao were taxed to the amount of 33,000 taels.
Not a single advantage was gained. A watchful eye was at all
times kept on Macao by the Chinese. Yung-ching, in a short
CHINESE, DICTATE TERMS TO THE PORTUGUESE.
373
time after the last embassy was at Peking, restricted the number
of vessels to twenty-five annually.
A.D. 1750. About this period the Chinese proposed twelve arti-
cles of agreement, to which the Portuguese were to subscribe, or
leave the empire. They were as follows:-
Article 1st. Any Chinese of bad behaviour shall be turned out
of Macao; the Portuguese governor (Procurator) shall be answer-
able to the Chinese authority for any vagrant he permits to remain
at Macao. Moreover, the chief of the Chinese, at Macao, shall
have power to examine into the characters of the inhabitants, and
if he discovers that any have returned that were banished, the
chief of the Chinese shall call the procurator to account for neglect
of duty.
2nd. "The procurator shall make a return of all boats, boatmen,
and boatwomen, to the mandarin, that he may grant them per-
mission to ply, on getting security for their good conduct: all boats
shall remain at night at that part of the beach, close to the Hoppo
house, and care must be taken that they do not clandestinely con-
vey European merchants to Canton. The mandarin shall order
four soldiers to see that the boats have no lurking places, and if
discovered, they and the procurator shall be punished.
3rd. "The Chinese shop-keepers shall not give any credit to
the Caffirs, neither shall they be permitted to buy anything from
them; any one disobeying shall be expelled from Macao.
4th. Chinese walking out at night, with or without their
lamps, shall not be molested by European soldiers; but any
Chinese that is about mischief or bad actions when made pri-
soner, shall be handed over to the mandarin, who shall punish
him according to his delinquency. The procurator shall neither
detain nor punish him.
5th. "All Europeans guilty of homicide, or other crimes pu-
nishable with death, shall be handed over to the mandarin for ex-
amination; and likewise the dead body, that he may examine it.
After the inquest, the delinquent will be handed over to the man-
darin of Casa-banca, and when found guilty, the district mandarin,
accompanied by the senate, shall assist at the execution.
6th. "Europeans guilty of crimes deserving banishment, shall
be tried singly by the Chinese judge, at Macao; and, when sen-
tenced, handed over to the senate to have the same carried into ex-
ecution. Offences of less magnitude the senate may decide on,
and then inform the mandarin, whose sanction renders the punish-
ment of the convicted lawful.
7th. "Should any of the Chinese refuse to pay his debts to
Europeans, or should he insult an European, the mandarin will
have the case examined and punished; but it is strictly forbidden
that Europeans shall correct Chinese subjects at their fancy.
8th. "Prohibits the building of any new houses or churches,
and permits the old ones to be repaired; requires a return to be
374
BRIBES MORE EFFECTIVE THAN PRESENTS.
made of all those at present standing; new ones erected after this
treaty to be demolished; a violation of this article is a crime of
great magnitude.
9th. "Neither Chinese, nor Europeans, are permitted to sell
sons and daughters of Chinese birth.
10th. "Provides, that all Chinese, Europeans, or slaves, charged
with the crime of stealing, shall be tried by the mandarin, and the
punishment carried into effect by the senate.
11th. "Forbids European villains, both men and women, to
harbour Chinese rogues, and encourage them in stealing and
gambling; all who do will be punished most severely.
12th. "Prohibits Europeans from rambling into the country
parts, disturbing the inhabitants under the pretence of hunting; as
this is a violation of the ancient law, the heads of the villages may
detain them, and hand them over for punishment.
13th. "Though all the Europeans at Macao are Christians;
nevertheless, it is not permitted to induce Chinese to become con-
verts, because it pollutes the habits and the heart: the senate, and
the chief of the Chinese at Macao, must pay strict attention in
visiting each house, to see that none become Christians; both
teachers and converts shall be severely punished, likewise the pro-
curator."
To obtain relief from these hard terms, the King of Portugal was
solicited to send an ambassador to China. The description given
of the magnificence of this embassy, shews that it surpassed all the
others sent to Peking; but the result was similar, and appears to
be the last effort to conciliate the favour of the Chinese govern-
ment.
The loss of trade through their narrow, selfish policy followed,
and the authorities at Macao, at length, found out that half the
sums spent on embassies to Peking, would have produced far more
useful results had they been paid in bribes to the authorities at
Canton.
The degraded state into which the Portuguese had fallen in
China, is manifested by an address to the Chinese authorities,
asking permission, in the most abject terms, to aid the Chinese
government against pirates, as follows:-
"Michael de Arriaga, Brum de Silviera, and John Joaquim de
Barros, messengers from the Portuguese nation, presume, with the
deepest reverence, to wish his Excellency the Commander-in-chief
of Canton, ten thousand blessings, and profound tranquillity. With
heartfelt gratitude, the Portuguese acknowledge that they have
received the boundless favours of the Emperor, in permitting them
to reside at Macao; and moreover, in allowing twenty-five ships to
pass to and fro, by the profits arising from which they are nou-
rished; and while they tread the earth, and eat its herbs, they
continue to receive favours beyond bounds.
"Hitherto, for more than two centuries, the Portuguese have
DEGRADATION OF PORTUGUESE IN CHINA.
375
lived in peace, until when the pirates have become outrageous and
cruel, to the detriment of trade.
"Lifting up our eyes, we behold the majesty and virtue of the
august Emperor, widely diffused over the world, and the hearts of
ten thousand nations turned toward his majesty; and in the great
qualities of your Excellency, in your determination to cherish the
good, and punish the wicked. Looking up to you with grateful
hearts, we behold the just depository of power, and the high attri-
butes to fulfil the important trust reposed in you by the great
Emperor.
"In this province the war-boats are fitting out for the chastise-
ment of the pirates. Now, therefore, we, Michael de Arriaga, &c.,
desire to equip six sail of ships to fight conjointly with the royal
war-boats of the heavenly empire: the Portuguese soldiers are
brave, and their warlike supplies abundant; and, therefore, in fit-
ting out the ships for the intended service, no greater sum than
thirty thousand taels will be required; we have, therefore, pre-
sented this address, in order to obtain a loan of that amount, to
be repaid in five years.
"So late as last month, vessels of the Portuguese beat off a
division of the pirate fleet, and rescued a number of merchant-
vessels from destruction. The mandarins at Bocca Tigris knew
this; nay, they were themselves witnesses of the services of the
Portuguese; upon whom, nevertheless, is poured obloquy. It is
even said that the Portuguese have not the means to equip their
vessels with either men or ammunition. Those who hold such
vilifying language, only speak thus to obtain an opportunity to
benefit themselves by the injury of others.
"Prostrate, we finally beseech your Excellency to condescend
so far as to grant our request; to that end this address is pre-
sented, under the standards of his Excellency the Commander-in-
chief, that he, in his benevolence, may grant that it be done as
requested. Kia, Kia, 14th year, 10th moon."
The following is the answer of the Chinese chief :-
"It appears, that foreigners have lived at Macao for upwards of
200 years, during which time they have looked up, humbly de-
pendent on the favour of the great Emperor, and have received
favours far exceeding what have been granted to the merchants of
other nations. They humbly request that they may be allowed to
go forth to battle with our armed boats; it is their intention to be
the enemies of our enemies, and this is highly proper and com-
mendable. I have ordered out many great officers, and affairs will
be speedily restored to tranquillity. The aid of the said foreigners
is not necessary; but as they ask only to accompany our war-boats,
it is granted for the present time only, that the ships of the said
foreigners may exert themselves, and for which they shall be
376 CHINESE GRANT FAVOURABLE TERMS TO PORTUGUESE.
abundantly rewarded according to their desert. Thus the reply is
delivered."
During our recent war with China, the Peking government sent
instructions to the Portuguese, no longer to permit the English to
dwell in or resort to Macao, and we were accordingly obliged to
retire from Macao, as the Governor declared he dared not resist the
commands he had received, and he was unable to protect the Eng-
lish. Our success has, however, obtained from the Emperor of
China better terms for the Portuguese than they themselves could
acquire, as shown by the accompanying translation of a ratification
of the regulations between China and Portugal in 1845 :-
1st. "The official correspondence between the procurator of the
senate, and the local native authorities, shall be conducted on terms
of mutual equality.
2nd. "The tonnage-dues on the twenty-five registered ships
shall be paid according to the new tariff, the same as on European
vessels at Whampoa, with a deduction of one-and-a-half mace per
ton, which makes three-and-a-half mace of silver for every ton.
All ships that visit Macao, and are not registered, shall continue
to pay the tonnage-dues of the new tariff, viz. five mace per ton.
All ships numbered, or not numbered, that shall visit the five ports
(now open to the foreign trade, viz.: Canton, Amoy, Fuchoo,
Ningpo, and Shanghae), shall also pay tonnage-dues according to
the new tariff, at five mace per ton.
:
3rd. "The duty on goods imported, or exported, (in Portuguese
bottoms), by Chinese merchants, shall be paid to the hoppo
(Chinese custom house) of Macao, according to the new tariff;
and goods not mentioned in the said tariff, shall be charged ten
or twenty per cent., ad valorem, according to their quality, without
any additional charge. The Portuguese lorchas, furnished with
passports, are permitted to go up to Canton on paying the tonnage-
dues, according to the new regulations established for cargo-boats.
N.B.-The burden of these lorchas having been agreed upon at
75 tons for the smallest, and 150 for the largest, and those not
exceeding the latter figure shall be charged one mace per ton
every time they enter the port; and those measuring more than
150 tons, shall be charged as vessels navigating the high seas, five
mace per ton; and lorchas measuring under 75 tons, shall be
charged the same as those of that burden.
4th. "The Portuguese shall be allowed to buy the necessary
materials, and employ workmen of their own choice, whenever they
shall find it necessary to construct new buildings, or vessels, or
repair the old ones, without requiring chops, or licenses, from the
local authorities; all fees and additional expenses which the men
hitherto have been in the habit of paying, being abolished.
5th. Portuguese ships shall be allowed to go and trade at
Canton, Amoy, Fuchoo, Ningpo, and Shanghae, provided they
are subject to the regulations of the new tariff, with respect to the
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN SPANIARDS AND CHINESE.
377
payment of duties on goods, and the tonnage dues; with regard to
Fuchoo, however, that port not being yet opened to European
commerce, the Portuguese vessels must keep from it for purposes
of trade, until it shall be open to all other European foreign
nations. [Fuchoo is now opened.]
6th. "The number and quality of goods which the Chinese
merchants are in the habit of importing into Macao are unlimited.
Such goods as must pass through the Canton custom-house, shall
then pay the duties according to the new tariff, and when sent
down for exportation must be accompanied with a certificate of
clearance from the said custom-house. All such goods as have
not passed through that custom-house shall pay duties to the hoppo
of Macao.
Published by order of the most illustrious and loyal senate; and
extracted from the dispatches last received from the Imperial
Commissioner of Canton, dated 13th April, and received the 5th
May, 1845. Jaze Martinho Marquis, interpreter.
[For further details, see Macao description.]
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE SPANIARDS
AND CHINESE.
The earliest intercourse recorded between China and Spain, was
by the second fleet sent from Spain after the discoveries of Magel-
lan. This fleet sailed from Čevatlanejo, A.D. 1528, under the
command of Alvaro de Saavedia, and on reaching the coast of
Mindanao, heard that part of the crew of the Magellan fleet had
been sold as slaves to the Chinese.
In 1571, Manilla was made the chief city of Spanish trade by
the governor and commander Legaspi, who was desirous of opening
a trade with China, then monopolised by the Portuguese. The
wreck of some Chinese junks on the coast of Mindora, afforded
him a good opportunity. The Mindorians confiscated the property
found with the Chinese, but Legaspi compelled them to give up
the spoil, and on dismissing the Chinese, assured them of a hearty
welcome to the free port of Manilla, and promised Mexican silver for
their goods, The following year brought several Chinese junks to
Manilla, with valuable cargoes, which were speedily exchanged for
silver, and on their return, letters and presents were sent to the
Viceroy of Foo-keen province.
A.D. 1573. The infant colony of the Phillipines was soon dis-
turbed by pirates. According to Chinese history, about this period
the Chinese authorities had silenced their pirates, by the reward of
office to the leaders; but one of them was unpurchasable, and he
speedily turned his attention to Manilla. The leader of this band
was a Japanese, named Limoon, who commanded 70 junks, manned
378
CHINESE MISSION TO MANILLA.
with 2,000 daring seamen, chiefly Chinese. On his arrival at
Manilla he landed 600 men, and set the town on fire, by which the
military commandant De-gayti and many others lost their lives.
The unexpected return of a Spanish officer from a northern expe-
dition, speedily routed the pirates. This was thought a good op-
portunity to send an embassy to China; accordingly, two of the
clergy were despatched on the mission, but did not return until the
following year, when a new governor had arrived from Spain.
The Chinese sent back with the two Spanish envoys an authorised
officer, to accept the proposition of the Spanish government, and to
form the terms of commercial intercourse with the Spaniards.
The new governor had taken a different view of Chinese alliance,
and coldly received the Chinese envoy, who was naturally disap-
pointed, as he had been given to understand that Manilla was
paved with silver and gold, neither of which he handled. Two
Spanish monks returned with the envoy to China, and when clear
of the harbour of Manilla, and contiguous to a wild part of the
coast, near Cape Bolinao, they were cruelly beaten, stripped naked,
and left on shore. The Spanish authorities were however too
anxious to cultivate a trade both with China, and other surround-
ing countries, to take any notice of this outrage. Junks from
China arrived regularly from the first invitation of Legaspi. The
massacre of the Chinese by the Spaniards is so remarkable, and
so much involved in perplexing statements, that it deserves special
notice.
A.D. 1602. Three Mandarins arrived in Manilla, on a mission
from the Emperor of China, to discover a mountain of gold, which
His Majesty was informed was on that island. The governor
inagined that the reason assigned was only a pretence for some
ulterior designs, treated the Mandarins very unceremoniously, and
dismissed them. On their departure, distrust and hatred were en-
gendered amongst the Spaniards, against all the Chinese colonists,
who were the chief support of the place; their number being
about 20,000, and that of the Spanish residents not 800. The first
law of nature induced the Chinese to combine for mutual safety;
they declared themselves innocent of any hostile designs against
the Spaniards; many fled and committed suicide. In the course
of a few months very few of the 20,000 Chinese were left alive; the
victory, or rather butchery, was ascribed to the "visible presence"
of the Spanish patron, Saint Francis, who "enabled them to direct
their fire-arms with certainty." An embassy was despatched from
Manilla, to explain the cause of the slaughter of the Chinese. The
Viceroy of Foo-keen, on hearing the Spanish story, displayed an
entire indifference for the loss of his countrymen; the friends of
the deceased and the merchants exhibited a similar disregard on
the matter, and to prove what a slight impression it had produced
on them, thirteen junks richly laden, were despatched to Manilla,
as soon as the monsoon would permit. The desire for gain sent
SPANIARDS MASSACRE ALL THE CHINESE.
379
forth swarms of adventurers from China, and in 1639 the Chinese
colonists at Manilla, had increased by fresh emigration to the
number of 33,000, whose numbers were again reduced by another
massacre, for which it is difficult to ascertain the cause. It began
on the shores of the Laguna-de Bay, and was continued through
every town on the island; it does not appear to have been a con-
test, but a prolonged murder for four months; 22,000 Chinese
perished. The loss on the side of the Spanish, amounted to only
330, which sufficiently indicates the resistance offered by the unfor-
tunate Chinese. Rapacity and jealousy must have instigated this
murderous attack, on a people whose commercial activity was of the
greatest value to the settlement. The Spaniards allege that the
Chinese fomented a rebellion, and refused allegiance to the autho-
rities at Manilla. After this destruction of the settlers, the num-
ber of Chinese permitted to reside in the Phillippine Islands was
limited by law to 6,000, and a capitation tax was levied on them, to
the extent of six dollars per head. That the Spaniards stood in
great fear of the Foo-Keen " Chin-chew men,” (see page 33) is evi-
denced from the circumstance, that in 1710, the authorities of
Manilla banished all the natives of China from the island, and
suspended the trade with their country. The desire for gain on
the part of the Chinese, and the necessities of the Spaniards, caused
the evasion of this enactment, but a royal order was received from
Spain, for the complete expulsion of the Chinese from Manilla,
and a temporary residence was only allowed to traders, whose num-
bers if unconverted to Christianity, (?) were not to exceed 6,000.
On the arrival of Arandia about this period, as governor of Ma-
nilla, he issued fresh orders for checking Chinese emigration.
The new terms were exile or baptism, and 515 out of 3696 Chinese
submitted to " baptism," (?) 2070 preferred leaving the colony.
This order exempted the Chinese in the provinces, as the royal wish
was not to interfere with commerce. A separate building was
erected under the command of the citizens for the residence of the
unconverted Chinese who were traders, and who were strictly con-
fined to their prison-house. It is a singular feature in the history
of commerce, that at this time an order was sent to Amoy and
Canton for large quantities of quicksilver to be shipped to Mexico.
The answer of the agents was, that the Chinese quicksilver was
much adulterated, and inferior, and that its export was prohibited
under heavy penalties. At a subsequent period, Spain exported
considerable quanties of quicksilver to China, and now the export
of this useful metal is being resumed from China to South
America.
When the Spaniards took possession of the Portuguese colonies,
a private arrangement was made with regard to Macao, which did
not require the interference of the Chinese authorities. The
Spaniards also established a factory on the north side of Formosa,
but the Dutch soon drove them from it. A brisk trade was, how-
!
380
DUTCH AND CHINESE INTERCOURSE.
ever, carried on with Amoy, Canton, and Macao; rice formed the
chief import, was always duty free, and large quantities of Carolus
dollars, at all times acceptable to the Chinese, passed from Manilla
to China.
In 1762 the Chinese were said to have aided the English in the
attack on the Philippines, and great numbers of them were hanged
by Senor Anda. There is no treaty on record between Spain and
China; the correspondence appears to have been carried on between
the Manilla authorities, and the Viceroy of Foo-keen.
To the Spaniards is due the praiseworthy introduction of vacci-
nation into China in 1803.
It is confidently stated by well-informed parties in China, that
the present Tartar rulers imported their restrictive system of deal-
ing with foreigners, from Manilla: to Pwan-ke-qu is ascribed this
policy. It is well known that he possessed great influence with
the Chinese government in all affairs relating to foreigners. The
Chinese are still viewed with great fear at Manilla, by the Spanish
authorities, but the intercourse with Foo-Keen is now compara-
tively small, and principally carried on in small Spanish schooners.
(See Trade.)
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE DUTCH AND
CHINESE.
A.D. 1594, Philip II. became master of Portugal, and his
first act was to forbid intercourse with Holland. Thus excluded
from Lisbon, the Dutch turned their attention to India, China and
Japan. Their success in Japan made them anxious to open a
trade with China; where they made several attempts to trade at
Canton and Macao in 1604 and 1607, but at last discovered that
their Portugese rivals had prejudiced the Chinese authorities
against them, and represented them as pirates.
In 1624 the several Dutch companies were united into one, and
became very powerful by sea.
Their first visit was to Macao, with an admiral, and a fleet
consisting of 800 men. The terms proposed were liberty to trade,
or open war; the latter was accepted. The Portuguese were at
that time well prepared, and totally routed the Dutch.
The Admiral collected his scattered fleet, took possession of the
west side of Formosa, and landed on the Piscadores, opposite the
Chinese coast.
This position excited the jealousy of the Spaniards and Por-
tuguese, as well as that of the Chinese government. Here the
Dutch committed atrocities in the name of Englishmen, plundered
Chinese junks, and brought the plunder to Japan for sale.
DUTCH EMBASSY TO PEKING.
381
At last the Chinese government consented to their establishing
a factory on the south-west side of Formosa, which was called Fort
Zeland, about twenty leagues from the coast of China.
The Chinese Empire was at this time afflicted with plots and
rebellion, so that many thousands emigrated to the Dutch settle-
ment.
In 1644 the Tartars possessed themselves of China, and the
position of the Dutch and their flourishing colony, engaged the
serious consideration of the usurpers, who were fearful of another
power disputing the government or encroaching on their sway.
A.D. 1655. The Dutch government at this period were carrying
on a most lucrative trade with Japan, and their flourishing settle-
ment at Formosa induced them to send an embassy with presents to
Peking, to negotiate for a further extension of privileges, and to
congratulate the Tartars on having obtained the government of
China.
Two merchants were chosen ambassadors, and the whole train
consisted of fourteen persons, besides two merchants, who were
to traffic at Canton, while the embassy were to proceed to Peking.
The presents consisted of several pieces of woollen cloth, linen,
spices, looking-glasses, swords, guns, &c.
After a delay of six months in Canton, by the aid of large bribes
the embassy was allowed to proceed to Peking as "tribute bearers."
The envoys arrived in Peking on the 17th July, 1656; the journey
from Canton occupied four months. After an examination of the
"tribute," they were asked whether the Hollanders were born on
sea, and had no other home but the ocean: if they had any coun-
try, and where situated: by whom they were sent, and for what
purpose: if they had a king, and what was his age? These inter-
rogatories were, after a long discussion, and by the aid of maps,
made a little more satisfactory to the authorities. There was at
this time at Peking, a Russian mission, which had been waiting
four months, without seeing the Emperor; there were also envoys.
from the Great Mogul of Delhi; from Western Tartars; and from
Tibet.
Doubts were still entertained by the Tartar authorities, whether
the envoys had a country, although the Hollanders had a country-
man of their own at court, who had resided at Peking nearly forty
years (Adam Schaal.)
After various meetings for discussion, it was agreed that the
Hollanders should be classed with the Coreans and Siamese vas-
sals, who were allowed to come at stated periods, in trading ships,
which were admitted free of duty.
The Dutch having brought a considerable cargo with them, it
was not to be wondered that they were likened to Asiatics.
At the third interview, the Tartar chancellor proposed that they
should salute the Emperor every five years; but the Chinese por-
382
DUTCH PERFORM THE NINE PROSTRATIONS.
tion of the senate, proposed (out of benevolence) that it should be
every nine years, being well aware, according to the laws of vassal-
age, they could not trade at Canton in the meantime.
According to Nieuhoff, at that stage of the proceedings, the ques-
tion was again raised "whether the Hollanders had a terra firma?”
Another idea which occurred to the senate, was, that probably,
they were English in disguise, who thirty years previous had done
some damage at Canton. Moreover it was stated that the free
commerce, which they sought, was repugnant to the laws and
customs of the empire. A petition was presented, praying that
the same privileges might be granted, after the example of the
people of Loo-choo, Amian, and Siam:-passing to and fro, and
dwelling in China, paying tribute and taxes (tributa et vestigalia
presolvere) and after the manner of those three nations, of vene-
rating the Emperor with presents every three years; with only
one condition, viz. that the ship or ships of the envoys should not
be required to await their return, because they would decay in
fresh water.
Fifteen thousand taels would have procured this moderate de-
mand, but the fact was, the envoys had been fleeced in Canton to
a large amount, without any advantage. The chronicles record
that on the 22nd August the envoys were conducted to a kind
of library, and from thence into the open air, and directed to bend
their bodies three times, and incline their heads towards the ground,
at the word of command. Presently the crier called out " God sent
the Emperor; again kneel on the ground; then bend the head, and
rise;" this was done three times. At the word step aside they
departed.
(1656, October 1st.) At one hour after midnight, the Dutch
envoys were conducted to the vicinity of the palace, where they
met the other eastern envoys. Here they were all placed in a
square court-yard, exposed to the elements, with only stone seats
for them to sit down upon, at this cold season of the year in
Peking.
In an inner court was the throne of the Emperor, to which they
were speedily introduced. Before they had time to take a proper
view of the throne, a Tartar soldier sprang in the centre of the
area, with a whip in his hand, which he snapped with so much
celerity as to make a loud report. Then all rising up to the num-
ber of about thirty, headed by the Tutangus, they approached the
throne, and at the voice of the herald, "adored," by bowing the
head nine times to the ground, to the sound of music. This
batch drew aside, and another band of grandees, amongst which
were the Dutch envoys, worshipped the throne with the same ado-
ration. Milk-tea was then served round to such as had adored the
Emperor's throne; the second ceremony was much the same, only
the whole multitude fell on their knees. This finished, the Em-
peror disappeared; the whole ceremony did not occupy more than
EMPEROR'S LETTER TO THE DUTCH, 1656.
383
eight minutes. The envoys of the several nations were entertained
by the Cancellarius' at his house; and before the feast com-
menced they were all required to turn towards the north, and
perform the same prostrations as before the throne. The regula-
tion enforced according to custom, was that all fragments left
should be carried away personally by each envoy. Drinking fol-
lowed this, which was kept up until a late hour. Several similar
entertainments were given, at one of which, a mandarin seriously
asked one of the envoys if it were possible that his "countrymen
could live under water three days!”
Nothing but the dread of being punished for giving bribes,
prevented the Dutch envoys disclosing the whole of the proceed-
ings at Canton; indeed, when the threat was held out of some such
intimation, they were informed that the laws punished the giver
as well as the receiver.
Having received orders for their departure, the Hollanders tried
more bribes, and a promise was given that the Emperor would
write a letter, and send presents to the Governor of Batavia. On
the 16th October, they were conducted into a department, and
received each article on their knees, together with a letter, written
in the Chinese and Mantchou language.
The Emperor's letter was as follows:
"Our territories being as far asunder as the east is from the
west, it is with great difficulty that we can approach each other,
and from the beginning to the present, the Hollanders never came
to visit us. Your country is ten thousand miles distant from mine,
but you show your noble mind in remembering me; for this reason
my heart doth very much incline to you. You have asked leave to
come to trade in my country, but as your country is so far distant,
and the winds on these coasts so boisterous as to endanger your
ships, the loss of which would very much trouble me; therefore, if
you do think fit to send hither, I desire it may be but once every
eight years, and no more than one hundred men in a company,
twenty of whom may come up to the place where I keep my court,
and then you may bring your merchandise ashore into your lodge,
without bartering it at Canton."
On the return of the embassy to Canton, nothing could exceed
the insults and oppression heaped on it; one of their interpreters.
was murdered. This led to further correspondence with the
court, but with no better success, the Emperor's answer to the re-
monstrance condescended to recognise the King of Holland as a
tributary vassal, and his second letter was quite explicit on the
subject. It would be useless to give the correspondence; it amply
proves that the Dutch gained nothing by their abject submission.
The Portuguese had a Chinese servant, (Coxinga) whom they had
converted, and baptised by the name of Nicholas. This man from
small beginnings became the most wealthy merchant in the country.
When the Tartars invaded China, Coxinga equipped a fleet against
384
DUTCH BESIEGED IN FORMOSA.
them. His object was favourably espoused by many of the natives,
and he collected a formidable fleet. He was at last invited to
Peking, treated with consideration, bribed, and retained at court.
His son, Koxinga, commanded the fleet, and became a faithful
ally of the Tartars for a short time; but they dreading his increas-
ing power, at length prevailed on him to return to the island of
Formosa. He, however, first tried to take Nankin, but met with
a signal defeat.
In 1660, the Dutch government in Batavia fearing an attack on
their flourishing settlement in Formosa, dispatched twelve ships to
protect it, with orders that in the event of not being required, the
fleet was to proceed against Macao.
war.
The Dutch garrison with this addition consisted of 1,500 men,"
and a demand was made of Koxinga, whether he was for peace or
His answer was couched in the most friendly terms, and to
prove his sincerity and confidence, he sent several vessels to trade
with the Dutch. The Dutch admiral was deceived by the strata-
gem, returned to Batavia, and charged the governor with ground-
less apprehensions.
The governor was recalled, and no sooner had he sailed than
Koxinga embarked 20,000 men against the Dutch settlement, and
was received with open arms by his countrymen (the emigrants).
His first manœuvre was to occupy a position which would cut off
the communication between Zeland, and a fort on the opposite
side of the entrance; the governor sent about 200 men to dislodge
him, who found it occupied by the Chinese. The Dutch were de-
feated, leaving their captain and twenty men in the enemy's hands.
The defence by sea met with no better fate; although the four ves-
sels in port sunk some of Koxinga's junks, one of the Dutch ves-
sels was burned, and another sailed for Batavia.
Koxinga demanded a surrender of the fort, but gave a short
time to the Dutch to consider his proposal. The Dutch sent a de-
putation to his tent, which found him seated in state and surround-
ed by his officers.
The Dutch appeal was answered in the most contemptuous man-
ner by Koxinga, who reminded the Dutch that 'Formosa at all
times belonged to China; and now that the Chinese required it,
the foreigners must depart instantly." He added "either do that,
or hoist the red flag."
The red flag was hoisted, and the Dutch confined their defence
to the citadel, and surrendered the other fort, cannon, &c.; at the
same time they set the town on fire: but the Chinese saved many
of the buildings, and mounted twenty-eight pieces of cannon
against the fort: but they were soon scattered by the Dutch.
Koxinga then turned his attention to the open country, and
made prisoners of every suspected inhabitant, also the Dutch mi-
nister, the schoolmaster, &c.
The Dutch minister (Hambrocock) was sent to the fort to pro-
FORMOSA SURRENDERED BY THE DUTCH.
385
pose terms of surrender, but in case of refusal all the prisoners
taken were to suffer death.
This brave man had to leave his wife and family with Koxinga,
as hostages; but instead of discouraging the governor he urged
him to hold out.
Although the minister had two daughters in the citadel, he
could not be persuaded to remain, but returned to the camp, there
to meet certain death.
As soon as he returned, Koxinga's rage knew no bounds; he or-
dered all the Dutch prisoners to be slain; many of the females
were saved for base purposes.
Ten ships, with seven hundred soldiers, arrived from Batavia, but
were unsuccessful in their attempt to dislodge the enemy from the
city, and they lost two of their ships. However fearful were the
Tartars of Koxinga, they were still more uneasy at the establish-
ment of the Dutch in Formosa, and adopted the following strata-
gem to aid Koxinga in his efforts for their destruction.
In 1662, the viceroy of Fookien, (a province situated opposite the
Dutch settlement) sent a request to the Dutch for all the force
they could command, to co-operate with him in expelling Koxinga's
forces from the Fookien territory, and promising every assistance as
soon as his own coast was cleared.
Vanity at being invited to aid the celestial empire, prompted the
Dutch governor to part with five of his ships for this purpose, three
of which were lost in a storm, and the others returned to Batavia.
This misfortune damped the ardour of the besieged, and at the
same time a deserter from the citadel informed Koxinga of its de-
fenceless state at one point; after a deliberation by the Dutch, it
was decided by a majority that they could no longer hold out. The
governor surrendered the public property, but the vanquished were
allowed to retire with their private property, and were embarked on
board their then only remaining ship. Such was the sequel of
thirty years possession of Formosa, and nine months close siege,
together with the loss of 1,600 men. On the return of the Dutch
to Java, they were banished to the Banda Isles.
After the expulsion of the Dutch from Formosa, an embassy was
sent to the Emperor of China, on a magnificent scale of grandeur.
On this occasion Lord Peter Van Hoorn, privy counsellor and
chief treasurer of India, was chosen ambassador. The services
tendered two years previous to the viceroy of Foo-kien by the
Dutch governor of Formosa, was considered as a good claim for the
privilege of trade.
But there was an old prophecy among the Chinese, "that a dis-
tant nation of whites, clothed all over, should one day conquer
China."
A fear of the fulfilment of this prophecy, and the well-known
hatred of the new rulers, (the Tartars) to foreigners, caused the
opposition the Hollanders experienced.
2 C
1
386
DEGRADING TREATMENT OF THE DUTCH AT PEKING.
The reception of this embassy, and the degrading ceremony they
were compelled to perform, were in every respect similar to the for-
mer, and with no better success as to trading privileges.
It was not until 1762, that a regular Dutch factory was esta-
blished at Canton, their trade heretofore was carried on in the
neighbourhood of Fockien by bribing the authorities.
The exchange of commodities between China and Japan, by the
Dutch, proved a great source of wealth to the latter, until the un-
happy revolution, which compelled the Prince of Orange to claim
protection in England.
1795. The Batavian republic determined not to be outdone by
the English embassy to Peking, and dispatched a mission under Van
Brom. It was well known that this embassy did not represent
royalty, so that still more numerous obeisances than they had here-
tofore made, were required. The reception given them by the
Tartars was ludicrous in the extreme, it was more like a masquer-
ade than an Embassy. The ambassador lost his hat in a scramble,
and returned without having gained the slightest advantage. I
saw in several temples in China, small Dutch figures cast in bronze,
representing the Dutch in the most ridiculous gestures, kneeling
and knocking head, performing the "Kotou," or ceremony of
prostration before the vacant throne of the Emperor.
The Dutch have not now any position in China, and but a small
trade from Java and the Eastern Islands, in rice, &c. Their inter-
course with China clea.ly illustrates the disadvantage of yielding
in the slightest degree to the arrogance of the Tartars. As yet
they do not appear to have sought any treaty with the government
of China, similar to those arranged by the English, French, Ame-
ricans, and Portuguese. They have access to all the ports open to
us, and their flag is mostly seen at Amoy, conveying grain to the
barren province of Fookien. They are said to have acted very
cruelly to the natives at Formosa, where many perished of starva-
tion from their system of forced labour. They are, consequently,
not held in respect by the Chinese government or people.
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA.
When the Mantchou Tartars invaded China, an adventurer
conquered, for the Russian empire, the Tartar tribes in Siberia.
A.D. 1650. The Russians extended their possessions eastward
on both sides of the extensive river, Amoor; reduced to subjection
several independent Tungusian hordes, and, having by degrees
advanced to the frontiers of China, built a chain of fortresses
called Albazin and Kamarskai-astrog, at the confluence of a river
which flows into the great river, Saghalian, or Yalong.
A similar project had been in contemplation by the Emperor
of China, so that the interests of the two nations were placed in
RUSSIAN AND CHINA INTERCOURSE.
387
collision, and, after a great deal of intrigue, hostilities commenced
between them, A.D. 1680.
The Russian claim to the territory was probably as good as
that of the Chinese, but the latter became alarmed at any exten-
sion of the Siberian frontier.
The Chinese laid siege to Astrog fort, but were repulsed. They
next attacked the strong fortress of Albazin, and compelled the
Russians to capitulate, after taking many prisoners (whom they
sent to Peking), and destroying all the Russian forts upon the
Amoor. The Russians rebuilt the fort of Albazin within one
year: the Chinese attacked it with 7000 soldiers, and several
pieces of artillery; two weeks were spent without making a breach
in the new fortress, and the Chinese retired. To settle the point
in dispute, ambassadors were nominated on both sides, to meet at
Nipchu, a Russian frontier town, situated in latitude 51° 49′.
The Emperor of China, Kang-He, sent two Romish missionaries
as his envoys, Gerbillon and Parrennin, together with a large army
of cavalry, infantry, and artillery.
When the Chinese envoys arrived at Nipchu, they found a large
assemblage of Chinese officers; the whole available force was esti-
mated at 10,000 foot, 3,000 camels, and 15,000 horses. The
Chinese commander stationed his troops so as to command the
Russian fortress of Nipchu, which is situated at the bottom of a
great bay formed by the meeting of the rivers, Saghalian and Nip-
chu. The Russian plenipotentiaries protested, in vain, against
this warlike display. Negotiations were commenced, broken off,
and again renewed for several successive days; and never would
have come to a satisfactory conclusion, but for the presence of the
Chinese army. The plenipotentiaries at length finally agreed to a
treaty, which fixed the boundaries between the two empires. It
is stated to have been as follows:
"Treaty of Peace between Russia and China, concluded the 7th
September, A.D. 1689.
"Article the 1st. The River Kerbechi, which is next to the
River Shorna, and falls into Saghalian, shall serve for the bounds
for both empires: and that long chain of mountains which is
below the source of the said River Kerbechi, and extends as far
as the Eastern Sea, shall serve also as bounds to both empires;
insomuch that all the rivers and banks, great or small, which rise.
on the southern side of those mountains, and fall into the Sagha-
lian, with all the lands and countries from the top of the said
mountains, southward, shall belong to the empire of China; and
all the lands, countries, rivers, and brooks, which are on the other
side of the other mountains, extending northward, shall remain to
the empire of Russia; with this restriction nevertheless, that all
202
388
TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA IN 1689.
the country lying between the said chain of mountains and the
River Udi shall continue undecided, till the ambassadors of both
powers, on their return home, shall have gotten proper information
and instructions to treat of this article; after which the affair shall
be decided either by ambassadors or letters. Moreover, the River
Ergone, which falls into the Saghalian-ula, shall serve for bounds.
to the two empires; so that all the lands and countries lying to
the south thereof shall appertain to the empire of China, and
whatever lies to the north of it shall remain to the empire of
Russia. All the houses and dwellings, which are at present to the
south of the said Ergone, at the mouth of the River Meritken,
shall be removed to the north side of the Ergone.
"2nd. The fortress built by the Russians in the place called
Yaksa, shall be entirely demolished; and all those subjects of the
empire of Russia, now dwelling in the said fortress, shall be trans-
ported, with all their effects, upon the lands appertaining to the
crown of Russia. The hunters of the respective empires may not,
upon any account whatever, pass beyond the bounds settled as
above. That in case one or two ordinary persons happen to make
excursions beyond the limits, either to hunt, steal, or plunder,
they shall be immediately seized and brought before the governors
and officers established on the frontiers of both empires; and the
said governors, after being informed of the nature of the crime,
shall punish them according to their deserts. That if people,
assembled to the number of ten or fifteen, shall go armed to hunt
or pillage on the land beyond their limits, or shall kill any subject
belonging to either crown, the Emperors of both empires shall be
informed thereof, and those found guilty of the crime shall be
put to death; but no excess whatever, committed by private per-
sons, shall kindle a war, much less shall blood be shed by violent
means.
3rd. Everything that has passed hitherto, of what nature
soever it may be, shall be buried in everlasting oblivion.
"4th. From the day that this perpetual peace between both
empires shall be sworn to, neither side shall receive any fugitive or
deserter; but if any subject of either empire shall fly into the
territories of the other, he shall be immediately secured and sent
back.
"5th.
All the subjects of the crown of Russia, who are at
present in the empire of China, and all those belonging to the
crown of China, who are in the empire of Russia, shall remain as
they are.
6th. Regard being had to the present treaty of peace and
mutual union between the two crowns, all persons, of what condi-
tion soever they be, may go and come reciprocally, with full
liberty, from the territories subject to either empire into those of
the other, provided they have passports by which it appears that
PETER THE GREAT SENDS A MISSION TO PEKING.
389
they come with permission; and they shall be suffered to buy and
sell whatever they think fit, and carry on mutual trade.
"7th. All the differences that have arisen relating to the
frontiers of both countries being thus terminated, and a sincere
peace and eternal union being settled between the two nations,
there will be no longer any ground for uneasiness, provided the
above-mentioned articles of the present treaty, which shall be re-
duced to writing, be punctually observed.
"8th. The chief ambassadors of the respective crowns shall
reciprocally give each other two copies of the aforesaid treaty,
sealed with their seals.
"C
Lastly. This present treaty, with all its articles, shall be en-
graven in the Tartarian, Chinese, Russian, and Latin languages,
upon a stone, which shall be placed at the bounds settled between
the two empires, there to remain as a perpetual monument of the
good understanding that ought to subsist between them."
The Russian envoys were both surprised and alarmed, not having
more than a guard of honour at their command, and saw no alter-
native but to accede to this treaty, by which Russia lost a large
territory: the subsequent discoveries of Kamtschatka, and the
various islands between Asia and America, have further proved
the loss of the River Amoor. By this river the productions of
these newly discovered countries could have been conveyed by
water to Nershink, and from thence, by an easy transport by land,
to Kiachta, instead of being transported on bad roads, over icy
mountains, and dangerous rivers, a distance averaging 5,000 Rus-
sian miles.
The River Amoor is one of the largest in Asia; it rises in the coun-
try of the Mongols, near the River Selingo; running eastward, it
forms the frontiers in these parts, between Eastern Siberia and
the Oriental Mongols; after a course of 300 German leagues, it
discharges itself into the Japan Sea, in lat. 44° N. The pretence
urged by the Chinese envoys for the sole navigation of the river
was their pearl fishery, but the real motive was to protect Corea,
with which it is so intimately connected.
Peter the Great, in 1692, despatched an envoy (Ides) to Peking,
in order to establish the trade, between Russia and China, on a
better footing. All the information given to the public by this
envoy, is his gracious reception, by the Emperor, Kang-he, who
appeared, from his conversation, to be well acquainted with the
state of Europe at that time.
Notwithstanding this friendly reception, and the treaty entered
into, the Russians founded new settlements on the River Amoor,
with the idea, that, as the Chinese depended on them for that in-
dispensable portion of their dress, furs, these encroachments would
be overlooked. In the meantime the Chinese issued instructions
to the Mongols, to spread themselves along the river, and procure
>
390
ANOTHER RUSSIAN MISSION TO CHINA 1719.
such a quantity of furs as would render them independent of the
Russian trade. The Mongols took possession of the fortress of
Albazin, and the inhabitants were conveyed to Peking.
A.D. 1719. Peter the Great sent an embassy to China, to place
the caravan trade between the two countries on a firmer footing,
and once more to regulate the boundaries of the two empires.
Leoff V. Ismaloff was the ambassador, and Laurence De Lange,
secretary.
This embassy was treated with great respect; but the door of
the house in which the embassy lodged, was locked and sealed
with the Emperor's own seal. The ambassador expostulated
warmly on this indignity, which was then discontinued.
With regard to the Ko-tou, after several negotiations, it was
agreed: "that the ambassadors should comply with the establish-
ed custom of the court of China, and when the Emperor sent a
minister to Russia, he should have instructions to conform to the
ceremonies of that court." After an exchange of presents, and a
friendly letter from the Emperor to the Czar, the embassy was
entertained with a grand review of troops, and an imperial hunt, in
which the Emperor took an active part. The ambassador, against
the express wish of the prime minister, prevailed on the Emperor
Kang-he to permit De Lange, the secretary, to remain in Peking.
A.D. 1721.
These flattering appearances of success to the Rus-
sian negotiation, ceased with the departure of the ambassador.
De Lange was subject to every petty annoyance, in order to dis-
gust him with his station; his house was double-guarded; on ex-
postulation, he was told that the guards were for his protection,
and were an honour conferred on him, as the representative of the
Emperor of Russia.
The trading caravan arrived this year from Russia, but nothing
could exceed the annoyance, inconvenience, and extortion to which
the agents were subjected. After remaining seventeen months a
prisoner in his own house, De Lange left with the caravan, which
was the last admitted into Pekin.
A few extracts from De Lange's journal will illustrate the con-
duct and character of the Tartar rulers of China in violation of a
solemn treaty.
"17th August, 1721, A.D.
"Having sent my interpreter to the prime minister, to know if
they had come to any resolution, on the affair of an advance to the
Russian commissary at Kalchanna," (the first Chinese city within
the Great Wall, where all duties are paid,) "the answer was 'that
they had found that it was usual for the council to advance money
to the commissary; but that trade was a matter of such little con-
sequence to them, that they did not think it merited the council's
being troubled with proposals of that sort.'"
De Lange's application to the prime minister, respecting a me-
CHINESE ILLTREAT THE RUSSIANS.
391
morial which he wished to deliver, received for answer "commerce
is looked upon by us with contempt, and as a very trifling object;
the agent himself was not ignorant that we had long refused to
admit the present caravan, and most certainly should never have
consented to its admittance into China, if his majesty had not
suffered himself to be persuaded to it, at the reiterated instances of
Monsieur Ismaloff." The following observations were added:
"these merchants came here to enrich themselves, not our people,
which is easy to be seen; because they pretend themselves to fix
the price of their own goods, that they may sell them the dearer.
For these reasons, go tell the agent that we shall not only refuse
to receive the said memorial, but that in future he need not give
himself the trouble of proposing anything to us, which may be re-
lative to commerce, because we will not embarrass ourselves here-
after with the merchants of Russia." (See chapter VI. page 138, for
the delusive and crafty instructions issued by the government at
Peking, to the Chinese merchants permitted to trade with the
Russians at Kiachta.)
At De Lange's last interview with the Chinese minister, he re-
presented the indignities and insults to which, himself, the com-
missary of the caravan, and all those who came to trade with China,
had been exposed. The answer was, that, "it being his Majesty's
custom never to take any resolution, without first well weighing all
circumstances, he never changed his measures for any reason what-
soever; and after what he had declared positively, in regard to the
caravan and my person, he had no inclination to propose to me a
change of sentiment in this regard. And it was, that for the
future no transactions should be carried on between the two na-
tions, except upon the frontiers."
The first cost of the cargo of these caravans, was estimated at
from 4000 to 5000 roubles, which sold for more than double that
amount; free quarters were also given to all that accompanied it,
no duty was charged on the return cargo.
It was contrary to the disposition of Peter the Great, to suppose
that he would suffer this violation of a treaty with impunity, but
while maturing his plans, the Emperor of China died. The Rus-
sian government delayed demanding satisfaction from his succes-
sor until the period of state-mourning had nearly ended; by that
time their own Emperor died.
On the 14th June, 1728, a treaty of peace was concluded between
Russia and China, wherein the boundaries, as settled in the last
treaty, were again renewed, and the following privileges as the
Russians considered them were granted.
The fifth article.
"The Russians shall from henceforth occupy at Peking, the
court which they now inhabit. According to the desire of the
Russian ambassador, a church shall be built with the assistance of
the Chinese government. The priest who now resides there, and
392
RUSSIAN CHURCH AND COLLEGE AT PEKING.
the three others that are expected, shall live in the court above
mentioned. These three priests shall be attached to the same
church, and receive the same provisions as the present priest. The
Russians shall be permitted to worship their God according to the
rites of their religion. Four young students, and two of a more
advanced age, acquainted with the Russian and Latin languages,
shall also be received into the house of the ambassador, wishing to
leave them at Peking to learn the languages of the country. They
shall be maintained at the expense of the Emperor, and shall be at
liberty to return to their own country as soon as they have finished
their studies."
The object of granting this request was to enable the Chinese
merchants to learn the Russian language, (see instructions from the
Emperor.)
A.D. 1733.
The first and only embassy that was ever known to
leave the Chinese court, this year arrived at St. Petersburgh.
The embassy consisted of three mandarins of the second order,
and a numerous retinue, presents were accepted and returned.
According to the treaty of 1727-28 Russian caravans were per-
mitted to go to Pekin through Mongolia; but they had to contend
against all possible obstacles from both government and people.
The Chinese merchants, whether influenced by avarice, or through
the instigation of government, would not offer more than one half
the value for the furs brought by the Russians. On the other
hand, to induce the Russian traders to take the price offered, a mes-
sage would arrive from the government to hasten their departure,
and close their business.
A long time was thus consumed, and the extreme heat of the
summer frequently injured their furs. By these and worse expe-
dients, the Russians were obliged to sell their goods at a heavy
loss. In going and returning to Pekin, the caravans were obliged
to cross the desert of Kobi, where they usually lost a number of
men and cattle. The restrictions laid on the trade, and the whole
benefit accruing to the Chinese, caused the Russians to be indif-
ferent to their new privileges. In place of a caravan every three
years, there were only six altogether from 1727 to 1762.
Catherine II. in this year suppressed the caravan trade to Peking,
and ordained that commerce with China and Kiachta should be
free.
Meantime the position of the Mongol Kalkas had improved,
and they were more united to China. From being the allies of
the Mantchou Tartars, they became their subjects; the zealous and
suspicious Tartars fearing that the Kalkas might one day or other
go over to Russia. No direct violation could be brought against
China with regard to the treaty, but a vague clause was explained
against Russia, and in the Chinese way they silently underworked
the treaty.
The route for the land commerce between Russia and China
RUSSIAN LAND JOURNEY FROM CHINA.
393
had been changed; formerly goods were transported by the rivers
of Siberia, with short journeys by land. Starting from Kiachta,
they fell down the Selagor; and having crossed the lake Baikal,
and followed the course of the Angira, by a short passage over
land they reached the Ket, which brought them into the Ob. By
this river, and some land carriage, they arrived at the Kama, from
whence they passed by the Volga into the heart of the empire.
During the last century, they began to convey goods by waggons,
and in winter, on sledges, drawn by a single horse. This land
traffic has proved most disastrous to the inhabitants, as they con-
fined themselves to the rearing of horses to supply the demand,
and thus neglected the cultivation of the land. The sufferings and
privations of the inhabitants of the Russian settlements on the
coast of Siberia, are too well known to require a recital.
A.D. 1737. Trade continued, but in rather a languid state, until
the two empires came to an open rupture.
Amoursana, a prince of Soungaria, sought refuge in Siberia.
Application was made from Peking to the court of St. Petersburgh,
to deliver the prince to the court of Peking, which was refused.
The prince soon died, and a second application was made for his
dead body, and likewise for all the Soungarian chiefs; these de-
mands were not acceded to, and the Chinese seized upon the Rus-
sian ecclesiastics, who resided at Peking, agreeably to the last
treaty, and imprisoned them as Russian hostages; when they were
released I have not traced.
The Empress Catherine, the better to continue the friendship
once more begun with China, resolved to remove the trade from
Peking to Kiachta, a frontier town on the confines of Siberia, in
the government of Iskautask, opposite Maimatchin, a Chinese
town, 360 leagues west of Peking, 3,660 miles from Moscow.
A.D. 1763. By the last treaty it was agreed that all future com-
munication between the two empires should be carrird on by cor-
respondence between the foreign offices of each empire.
Complaints of aggression on both sides became so frequent, that
the court of St. Petersburgh, with a view to put a stop to hostilities,
requested the Chinese Emperor to send a resident minister to the
Russian capital.
This request of Catherine was treated with silent contempt;
whether from the circumstance of the demand coming from a fe-
male, or that it was beneath the dignity of the celestial empire, it is
difficult to say. The empress proved her anxiety to arrange any
difference that existed, and sent an envoy to Peking, who was dis-
missed without even hearing his proposals.
Early in the seventeenth century, a tribe of the Kalmuks, (Tour-
gouths) removed from Soungari, to the northern shore of the
Caspian sea, and remained subjects of the Russian empire.
A.D. 1771. A Chinese envoy prevailed on this tribe to return to
their old quarters.
394
RUSSIAN EMBASSY TO PEKING IN 1805.
The Emperor of China, Keenlung, received his long-lost, but
penitent subjects at his palace at Jehol, thus approving of the step
they had taken. The Russians claimed their subjects but were
reminded of the Soungarian princes to whom the Russians had
given shelter; which appears to have satisfied the Russian govern-
ment, which, however, was not long without an opportunity of
retaliation. Some Chinese from the frontier went to reside in
Siberia; and the Chinese government demanded them, which was
refused.
The following letter to the Russian government is a fair speci-
men of the arrogant style of Chinese edicts, or correspondence:-
"It is found upon examination, that should a thief belonging to
either nation be discovered on the frontier, he is to be examined
in the joint presence of the authorities, and if guilty punished with
death. Pursuant to this law, in the 44th year, two men who stole
eleven horses from you, were condemned and executed.
"Our great empire, acting according to law, and the faith of the
treaties did this, not for the preservation of friendship, but from the
love of truth, which it greatly esteems. But you, not executing the
thief, break the laws of friendship and the faith of treaties.
"Our great empire, perceiving that you wish to act according
to your own will, by the obstacles you throw in the way, and your
duplicity, will on no account permit the trade to be carried on.
"Although our two empires border upon one another, yet our
empire may call itself the elder brother.
"Thus holding in the rank of empires the place of elder brother,
and having, at your request, punished the two thieves with death,
while you refuse us the same satisfaction: shall our great empire,
including all the universe, submit to this?-Do not you think pos-
terity would laugh at us? Ponder well, examine and consider, as
you find fit and proper."
These specious arguments, are characteristic of the Tartar go-
vernment. This letter was written after the violation of that part
of a solemn treaty, which permitted the Caravan trade between
Russia and China; and which the Russians were compelled to re-
linquish.
It is difficult to say in what way both parties became reconciled,
but the trade was again re-opened in 1792.
In 1805, a Russian embassy was dispatched to Peking, on a
very magnificent scale, it does not appear to be one that is usually
sent every ten years, to relieve the students who reside there, with
the nominal pretence of learning the language, but in reality as
hostages. When this embassy arrived at the frontier, they had to
reduce the number of their retinue, as it was unusually large; this
was the first excuse to gain time. This was no sooner done than
other frivolous objections were started, which detained them for a
long period on the frontiers, during which time the mercury fre-
quently froze, and the embassy was living in felt-tents. A formi-
RUSSIANS DENIED ACCESS TO CANTON.
395
dable objection was at last started. Count Goloykin, was asked to
pledge himself to perform the prostration ceremony at his audience
with the Emperor. The ambassador refused, pleading the precedent
of the previous English embassy, and being contrary to all forms
hitherto required. This was just what "Heaven's son" wished for
(any excuse to violate good faith, or an underhand breach of a
treaty). The whole embassy was dismissed outside the Great
Wall, (Aunga) without any other communication than that they
extended their journey, already too long.
A.D. 1806. The Russians thus barassed, endeavoured this year
to open a trade at Canton, and dispatched that able circumnaviga-
tor, Krusenstern, who with his usual ability sold his two cargoes of
furs, and took in a considerable quantity of tea, before the orders
arrived from Peking to have his vessel detained. It was strongly
impressed on the East India Company's supercargoes, by the
Chinese authorities at Canton, to enforce obedience to this edict.
The notice of their arrival seems to have alarmed the Chinese,
at all events the Emperor expressed his surprise as follows:-
"We are just apprised that two Russian ships have successively
anchored in the roads of Macao, and that two barbarian merchants
had brought with them a sum of money and a cargo of furs, with
the intent of opening a trade at Canton.
"It is found that these ships belong to a nation called Go-lo-sze.
Though barbarians are accustomed to frequent the port of Canton,
the name of the Russians has never been observed amongst them;
wherefore their sudden appearance at this time cannot be con-
sidered otherwise than very extraordinary. How have the Rus-
siaus who trade, viâ Kiachta, and have never visited Canton, been
able to navigate their ships, or how have they become acquainted
with the shoals and islands in their way from Russia? This must
be enquired into.
"We now direct that in the event of these ships having departed,
and any other visit for the future the ports of Macao and Canton,
or their vicinity, belonging to any other nation beside those which
have usually frequented the ports, they shall on no account what-
ever be permitted to trade, but merely suffered to remain in port,
until every circumstance is reported to us, and our pleasure made
known."
It will be seen, that by the treaty of 1728, the Russian govern-
ment have had, for more than a century, a regularly established
religious, and scientific mission at Peking; and to their disgrace
it must be told that, with the exception of a geographical descrip-
tion of China, in 1820, by Father Hyacinth, not a single advantage
has either science or literature derived, after enjoying an oppor-
tunity that no other Christian nation has possessed, notwithstand-
ing the example set them by the Jesuits.
It is needless to say, how different the result would have been,
had the natives of England and France been allowed to remain.
396
RUSSIAN MISSION TO CHINA IN 1846.
ten years in the capital. It is inconsistent with the habit of men
of science, such as these students ought to be, to suppose that they
have not collected information. One thing is certain that none
has come to light; whether it be owing to apathy or to the policy
of the Russian government, it is not difficult to conjecture.
It is understood that there is now a Russian envoy on his road
to or at Peking.
The Times, dated London, July 20, 1846, contains the following
paragraph on Russia and China:-
“The Courrier Français announces that Russia is about to send a
mission to Peking for the purpose of negotiating a treaty of com-
merce with China. The chief of that mission is to be M. Deme-
trius Wassigen, an attaché of the Cabinet of Count de Nesselrode,
and whose brother belongs to the Russian College at Peking.
That mission is to proceed to its destination as secretly as possible,
so as not to attract the notice of Europe. 'It appears,' says the
Courrier-
'That Russia is desirous to establish at Kiachta a considerable
depôt of merchandise from which the Chinese may at all times
draw the supplies they want, and she hopes to obtain from the
celestial government, a treaty of commerce securing to her the free
admission through that part of the frontier of all Russian mer-
chandise, and moreover the monopoly of certain articles which the
English and Americans were beginning to import. Such, we are
informed, is the object of the mission of M. Wassigen, and we may
safely assert that the convention about to be entered into will con-
tain some of those secret articles which Russian diplomacy is so
expert in introducing in all the treaties it concludes.""
A Russian or a Russian Pole, dressed as a Chinese, and speaking
the language, was at Canton and Hong-kong in 1844. As Russia
possesses a college and mission, at Peking, the English, French,
and other nations are equally entitled to hold a similar position.
[A description of the Russian trade with China will be found in
the chapter on commerce, and under the description of Kiachta on
the Chinese frontiers.]
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA.
The Chinese records state that, about A.D. 1560, foreigners from
the west, called Fa-lan-ke (French), arrived in Canton. They are
represented as "tribute-bearers," but, in firing a salute, so alarmed
the authorities, that an order came from court to drive them away.
The subsequent intercourse between France and China, at least
the early portion of it, appears to have been more of a missionary
than mercantile character.
A.D. 1685-The King of France sent five Jesuits, among whom
was Louis Le-Comte, an eminent mathematician. The Emperor,
FRENCH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA.
397
Kang-he, received them very graciously; and, after providing for
their permanent residence, and making kind enquiries after their
king, thus spoke: "If I can add any new favour to those I have
already conferred upon you; if there be anything you would desire
of me; you may freely ask it."
A.D. 1604. Henry IV. of France first projected a company to
trade to India and China, but want of proper organization pre-
vented the project being carried into effect until 1660. The
French trade with China was insignificant; sometimes not a ship
arrived for five or six years.
In 1728, an agent of the French Mississippi Company, M.
Duvaleur, obtained permission to occupy a factory at Canton.
On the departure of the first ship, a serious difference arose be-
tween the French agent and the mandarins, with regard to some
impositions which the former refused to pay; but, by the inter-
ference of French Jesuits at court, the French agent was liberated
from prison and permitted to depart. The French trade, for the
remainder of the last century, was carried on very languidly.
A.D. 1745. This year the French obtained permission to land
their goods at Whampoa, upon paying one hundred taels on each
vessel. Seldom more than two vessels arrived in one year, of
seven or eight hundred tons burden, notwithstanding this only
nominal charge. Their imports were chiefly specie and broad-
cloth, looking-glasses, azure, gold wire, and ebony; their returns
were tea, raw silk, rhubarb, nankeens, and porcelain.
A.D. 1763. The French Jesuits brought to France two native
Chinese, with a view of instructing them in European literature
and sciences. The Jesuits being banished from France, the king
took these two foreigners under his especial care, to enable them
to finish their studies. They visited all the manufacturing towns
in France; and on their departure for China, were furnished with
queries, to which they were to send answers. The correspondence
was continued for several years, and was published. The French
nation is rich in Chinese literature, having at all times cultivated
the language.
A.D. 1802. The tricoloured flag was hoisted by an agent, M.
Pirou, but was not long flying, as the trade was not continuous.
A.D. 1829. Previous to this year, no French consul was ever
recognised by the government of China.
A.D. 1832. The French flag was hoisted by M. Gernarert, after
an interval of upwards of thirty years, during which time none
had been displayed, the flag-staff had been removed. The con-
sul had been four years prevailing on the Canton authorities to
recognise his claim, without success, until a most unforeseen and
melancholy circumstance occurred.
(C
The crew of the French ship Navigateur," were massacred
near Macao, in the year 1828. In 1829, the perpetrators were
brought to trial, and seventeen of them were executed. The
398
FRENCH CONSUL INSTALLED AT CANTON.
goods of the malefactors were confiscated and sold; and some of
the cargo was found, and likewise sold.
The amount paid to the French consul was 4,626 dollars, and
an official pledge was given him that 15,946 dollars, the proceeds.
of the confiscated property, were then in the hands of the Fookien
government, and should be paid to bim for the benefit of the
families of the murdered crew. The consul very prudently pro-
cured a written voucher for this sum, but was six years addressing
the local authorities, at intervals of every two or three months,
before he procured a settlement, still leaving a balance of nearly
3,000 dollars, not reckoning interest, which was refused; although
it is probable that the relatives of those who were executed were
mulcted out of 150,000 dollars.
In September, 1843, the reception of the French consul at Can-
ton was thus announced in the public journals :—
"We learn, by letters from Canton, that the French Consul,
Count de Ratti Menton, presented his credentials to the Viceroy
of Canton, at the country-house of Pwankingqua.
"This ceremony, which was preceded by several visits to the
French consul and Captain Firmin Duplan from the Kwangchow-
foo, and a delegate from the imperial commissioner, may be con-
sidered another progressive step in the events which have lately
taken place. Towards eight o'clock of the morning of the 6th
instant, two boats belonging to the French corvette Alcmene left
Canton for the place of meeting. They contained the French
Consul, Captain Duplan, the Chancelier du Consulat, eight officers
of the corvette, an interpreter, and several private gentlemen, and
reached the house of Pwankingqua after an hour's pull. There
the commandant and consul were shewn into the large hall, and a
delegate of the Imperial Commissioner, the Kwangchowfoo, and
several other mandarins, paid their respects to them. At near the
hour fixed upon, an officer wearing a crystal button, announced
that the Imperial Commissioner was prepared for the interview,
when the consul and captain, with the others before mentioned,
descended to the reception room, and there found the Chinese
officers, and a number of other functionaries wearing white and
blue buttons.
"Some compliments having passed, the French consul pre-
sented his credentials from the minister of foreign affairs to the
viceroy, who handed them to the imperial commissioner, and the
latter took note of and returned them to him. After this, many
questions were put, concerning His Majesty the King of the
French, about France, and her ministers generally, and more par-
ticularly M. Guizot became the subject of conversation, which con-
tinued for more than an hour, during which a collation was offered
by the high Chinese officers to their guests. This intercourse
between the high Chinese functionaries and officers of foreign
nations, would lead to the idea that an important change is bc-
FRENCH MISSION TO CHINA, IN 1844.
399
ginning to operate with regard to Europeans-a change, which
managed with care, would appear to augur an approach to an
entirely friendly understanding between the Celestial Empire and
the various European governments."
During our war with the Chinese, a distinguised and estimable
French officer, Captain (now Admiral) Cecille, accompanied our
fleet in its hostile operations, and proceeded with it up the
Yangtzekang River to Nanking; not as a belligerent, but as a
spectator.
Captain Cecille told me that he landed repeatedly, while we
were waging a destructive war, but was always well received by
the Chinese, who knew perfectly well that he was a Frenchman,
and not engaged in hostilities against them.
On the cessation of the war, the French government despatched
a special embassy, on a grand scale, to China, under the direction
of M. Lagréné (now a Peer of France) who was well qualified for
the duty, not only by the natural qualities of his mind, but also
from his previous diplomatic experience in Russia, Greece, and
Spain.
M. Lagréné did not attempt to proceed to Peking, although
Mr. Cushing, the American minister, urged his co-operation in an
attempt to open a direct communication with the Tartar sovereign.
It is understood that the reception which M. Lagréné met with
from the Chinese Commissioner, Keying, at Canton, was so graci-
ous and flattering, that he resolved to comply with the urgent wish
of the Chinese government not to attempt to visit Peking. It is
surmised that some concessions were granted that have not been
fully made known. Indeed, it is understood that public reasons
have alone prevented the cession of Chusan to the French, who
had been previously offered the island of Chuenpe, which commands
the entrance to the Bogue Forts at Canton, which they refused.
I transcribe from my Chinese note-book the following inci-
dents which I heard in China relative to the French mission.
When Monsieur Lagréné, the plenipotentiary from the King of
the French, arrived at Macao, Keying sent a mandarin of high
rank, and in full state, with his (Keying's) picture and a letter,
saying that the picture represented him in the robes in which he
was wont to appear before his own sovereign. Sir H. Pottinger,
as the representative of the Queen of England, and Mr. Cushing,
as the representative of the United States Government, both also
received portraits from Keying, but in a costume far inferior to
that given to M. Lagréné. It is thus Chinese diplomacy marks
the degree of estimation in which a person is held.
On the ensuing day Keying, attended by a very large retinue,
and in the most marked and ostentatious manner, visited M.
Lagréné at Macao; and on his introduction said, "I am delighted
to receive, on the part of the Emperor, the representative of the
great French King." To this M. Lagréné replied that he was
I
}
:
400
RECEPTION OF THE FRENCH MINISTER BY CHINESE.
equally delighted to receive the enlightened minister of the Em-
peror, and that he had been deputed to frame a commercial treaty.
At these words Keying, with great animation said, "no, no-you
have no trade with us; you are not a trading nation, but you are
a grand nation; we understand each other, and shall be good
friends." At several of the subsequent interviews between Keying
and M. Lagréné, no other person was allowed to be present but
the interpreter, M. Callery.
When the arrangements were concluded, M. Lagréné required
that the terms should be ratified within the Chinese territory, and
not at Macao; Keying and M. Lagréné therefore proceeded
within the Bogue forts in a French war steamer. It was night
on their arrival there. The whole of the hills were lit up with
fires; each embrasure at every fort, had men standing with large
flaming torches; huge lanterns were suspended around; crowds
of junks were in like manner lit up, illumining the horizon;
incessant salvos of artillery from the numerous forts reverberated
from hill to hill; and the whole scene had a most dazzling and
surprising effect.
Keying, who sat on the deck of the French steamer, between
M. Lagréné and his beautiful and accomplished wife, (a Russian
lady, with it is said some Tartar blood in her veins) surrounded by
a brilliant and numerous suite of French diplomatic and naval
officers, preserved, for a long time, a thoughtful silence, and ap-
peared much depressed. When the signing of the documents
was concluded, he at length said "see! the heavens and the earth
rejoice at the compact." Keying then relapsed into taciturnity,
and remained so for half an hour, as if pondering in his mind the
part he had been playing, or the step about to be taken, as one of
a very serious nature, and totally different from a mere commer-
cial treaty. Then turning to M. Lagréné, as if in continuatisn of
some mental thought, he said with considerable emphasis, "the
people may be dissatisfied, but the two governments must do their
duty at any hazard or sacrifice."
An idea has been adroitly instilled into the mind of Keying and
the Tartar Government, that France is an intellectual power,
animated by the purest and noblest ideas; and that England is a
trading country, whose chief object is gain-a character that stands
very low in the estimation of the Chinese Government and people.
M. Lagréné, in addition to a large naval force of some of the
finest frigates aud steamers in the service of France, had an able,
numerous, and brilliant corps diplomatique in his suite, and was
most efficiently supported by Admiral Cécille, an officer of high
repute, most engaging manners, and who accompanied our fleet
to Nankin (as a neutral) in his own frigate. The French mission
to China was also accompanied by shrewd, intelligent, representa-
tives of the cotton, linen, wool, silk, and other trades. The Chinese
FRENCH PLAYED OFF AGAINST THE ENGLISH.
401
mandarins were surprised at the beautiful and choice specimens of
glass, tapestry, house paper, bijouterie, and Parisian manufac-
tures of every description. Artists with daguerrotype and electro-
type machines, &c., astonished the mandarins ; and every effort was
made, with great tact, to induce the Chinese to view France with ad-
miration. On the other hand, Keying, the Chinese plenipotentiary,
and Wang, the Governor of Canton, have endeavoured to magnify
China in the eyes of the French; and a negotiation was com-
menced for the introduction of French engineers into the service
of the Emperor of China, to work the mines under a contract. It
was also proposed to have a French ambassador stationed per-
manently at Pekin.
The Marquis de Ferrière, secretary of legation to the French
Embassy in China, informed me "that the cabinet of Pekin are
well aware that the French and English are rival nations, and had
often been at war; the policy of Keying and the cabinet was
therefore to play off one nation against the other."
The Journal des Debats of 23rd November, 1845, has nearly four
columns on the moral and religious influence of France in China.
The writer states that Keying said to M. Lagréné, "you demand
nothing like other nations, this is a proof that you are a great
empire; it is not the spirit of trade which animates you, like England
and America.”
The editor of the Debats, says, on this, "it is precisely be-
cause France has no visible and palpable interests in China, that
there is the greater facility to cause her moral influence to be ac-
cepted.
"Every country follows its own wants-England has commercial
relations with China, which form a fusion of interests; France has
moral and intellectual relations with China, which engender a
communion of ideas and sentiments."
The French legation has succeeded in getting from the Emperor
of China a more satisfactory treaty than either England or America.
There is a peculiarity in the preamble of the treaty which de-
serves to be mentioned. The words translated " Empereur de
France," are inserted in the Chinese text in characters used only
for the name of the Emperor of China. It appears that they are
characters sacredly reserved for designating the son of the sun, the
first time they recognised such a denomination to a sovereign of
the west. In the second article, which relates to contraband
trading, the French minister stipulated for seizure of the cargo,
and with a notification to the consul, instead of seizure of the ship
as mentioned in the English and American treaties.
Article 4 stipulates, as no former treaty had done, that, in case
there was no French consul, they should have the protection of
the consul of any other friendly power.
Article 6 interdicts the Chinese from increasing the number of
prohibitions, or making any alteration, without the consent of the
i
2 D
402
FAVOURABLE FRENCH TREATY WITH CHINA.
French Government. It also stipulates in case of any changes,
France shall be treated as the most favoured of nations.
In article 9, the French negotiator obtained what the Americans
could not,-viz.: a stipulation that no company of Chinese
merchants can be formed to replace the corporation of Hongs and
thus destroy a fair competition in trading.
In article 12, the Chinese are bound to make restitution of
sums unduly exacted by Chinese custom officers; this is not men-
tioned in any other. treaty.
Article 15 is founded on articles 6 and 7 of the American treaty.
The following is an abstract of the treaty between France and
China. M. Lagréné deserves great credit for having obtained a
decree from the Emperor of China, tolerating the Christian reli-
gion and permitting the sale of religious books, building of
chapels, &c., this most important decree will be found elsewhere.
The following is a translation from the Chinese copy of the
French trading regulations; or a commercial treaty, in thirty-five
articles, between France and China:-
Art. 1st. "The Emperor of China, as well as the Emperor of the
Great French nation, and their subjects of both countries, will
henceforth, for ever and ever, live in amity and peace, and no
matter who the men are, or in what country, will all obtain full
protection for their persons and families.
2nd. "Henceforth the family of every Frenchman may be taken
to the five harbours, marts, and territory of Canton, Amoy, Fuh-choo,
Ningpo, and Shanghai, in China, to trade and live there peace-
fully without any hindrance, always without ceasing. French
vessels may go and come, anchor and trade at the five ports, at
their pleasure. But it is expressly prohibited to enter other
Chinese ports and trade there, or on every shore along the coast
clandestinely to buy and sell. With the exception of what is stated
distinctly in the third clause, he who offends against this regula-
tion, will have the cargo of his vessel confiscated to government.
But when the Chinese local officers have seized such kinds of
goods, they ought, before confiscating the same, immediately to
give previous notice to the French consul nearest to that port.
3rd. "The property and goods, which any Frenchman may have
in the territory of those five ports, must not contemptuously be
involved by Chinese subjects. The Chinese officers ought not on any
account by oppression or force, to take a French vessel for public,
private, or other uses.
4th. "The Emperor of the great French nation will at his option
appoint consular officers at the territory of the five commercial
ports in China, to manage the trading affairs of the merchants, and
to examine whether the regulations are observed. The Chinese
local officers ought to treat those consuls politely, and correspond
with them on terms of equality. And if there is any difference,
the said consular officers will proceed to the great minister who
TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA.
403
has the general superintendence of those five ports, and state their
complaint. If there is no great minister for the superintendence
of the five ports, he will address his grievance to the great provin-
cial officers, that they may carefully investigate the same for him,
and manage it justly. If it ever happen that there is no consular
officer at the said port, the French captain or merchant may entrust
the same to a national consul to transact this business for him.
If not, he may repair to the hoppo, make there a clear statement,
that he may adopt means to manage it properly, in order that the
said captain and merchant may reap the advantages of the regula-
tions.
5th. "The Emperor of the great French nation, will at his option.
appoint men-of-war to anchor within the territory of the five ports,
in order to keep down the merchants and sailors, so that the consul
may have authority and power. The people of the men-of-war
will in future, however, be under control, and not be allowed to
create any disturbance. And the master of those men-of-war will
be held responsible to issue orders for the due observance of the
23rd clause, and the provisions for the control of the sailors in
the management of matters concerning every vessel, and their
business with the shore. But it is now distinctly agreed and set-
tled, that men-of-war will pay no tonnage-dues.
6th. "The plenipotentiaries of both nations have by their signa-
ture and seal, settled a tariff and regulations, according to which,
for all the vessels that enter and leave those five ports, the French
ought to pay duties and tonnage-dues. The duty-money must
not in future be increased, and there ought to be no other fees.
And it has now been recorded in the regulations, that whenever
any Frenchman has paid the tonnage-dues, and the duties on his
goods, there will be no prohibition or restriction (on the sale). It
matters not if the cargo is imported from their native or other
countries, nor to what country it is taken, but this is entirely at
one's convenience. China cannot enter into its code, any addi-
tional prohibitory coercive regulations. If any alterations are in
future to take place, the law requires that the French shall con-
jointly discuss the matter, and when agreed upon, it may then be
changed. But the tariff and regulations now proposed, or in
future to be established, will be fully observed at every place, and
always by the French merchants and people, who differ nowise from
the most favoured (greatly beloved) nation. If there are subse-
quently any reductions in the duties, the French will at the same
rate pay
less.
7th." French goods which have been imported at the five ports,
and according to law pay duties, may be taken immediately by
Chinese merchants into the interior, and shall pay transit duties
according to the present regulations, without again extorting fees.
The standard shall be the present tariff, and no additions need sub-
sequently to be made. And if any clerks or runners of the mari-
2 D2
404
TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA.
time custom-house, do not observe the law, and falsely take fees in
addition to the duties, they shall be punished according to Chinese
laws.
8th. "Having now determined the rate, this cannot afford any
pretence for smuggling, but it is for the sake of being just, and the
French merchant vessels will not, in future, smuggle at the five
ports. If there is any merchantman which in the five ports smug-
gle, no matter what goods, their price, or what description of arti-
cles, or contraband cargo, for defrauding the revenue, the local
officers will seize the whole and confiscate it. China can, moreover,
put a stop to smuggling vessels at its pleasure, and prevent their
entering the central land, or direct them to clear their accounts,
and then immediately leave the harbour. But if any other nation
makes falsely use of the French flag, (for smuggling purposes)
France will take measures to put a stop to it, and suppress this evil
spirit.
9th. "The Hong-merchants' hongs which were formerly esta-
blished at Canton for the sake of trade, are now according to law
abolished. Frenchmen will henceforth at their own convenience
dispose of their articles at the five ports, whether imports or exports,
and trade with any Chinaman they may wish, without any inter-
ference or obstruction. In future, none else ought to combine in
forming a monopoly for trade. But if any transgress this law, the
consul will inform the Chinese officers to expel him (the monopolist?).
The officers of the central empire ought to issue previous prohibi-
tions, to avoid injuring the principles of free trade.
10th. “If in future any Chinese are in debt to French captains
and merchants, no matter whether on account of owing (money) or
of fraud, the Frenchmen will not according to the old law, demand
the same of the security merchant, but ought to report it to the
consul, that he may address himself to the local officers, to investi-
gate the matter, and they exert themselves to hold (the debtor) re-
sponsible for the legal payment. But if the debtor can either not
be apprehended, or is no longer in existence, or has made a total
bankruptcy, being without the means of paying, the French mer-
chant will not ask the officers to make up (the debt). If a French-
man cheats a Chinaman out of his goods or owes him (any thing),
the consul will exert himself equally to recover the same. But the
Chinese must not demand of the consul, nor of the French govern-
ment, to pay him.
11th. "Any French vessel which sails within the territory of the
five ports, may hire a pilot to take her immediately into port. After
having paid the port dues and duties, and wishing to set sail, the
pilot ought quickly to take her out of port, without any impediment,
delay, and difficulty. Whosoever wishes to be pilot of a French
ship, must have two captains' certificates, and the consul may then
make him a pilot to manage as other nations on the same footing.
The consular officers at the five ports will justly determine the
pilotage according to the distance or the dangers and facilities.
TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA.
405
12th. "As soon as the pilot has brought any French vessel into
port, the marine custom-house will appoint one or two trustworthy
servants to follow, and to look after the smuggling. Those waiters
will either go on board the merchantman, or will themselves hire
a boat, according to their own convenience. Their maintenance
will be furnished by the custom-house, and they ought not to ex-
tort money from the captains or their agents. But if they trans-
gress this law, they will be sentenced according to the amount of
the extortions, and the whole be again reimbursed.
13th. "If there is no impediment, any French vessel twenty-
four hours after having entered the port, will present through the
captain, supercargo or agent, the ship's register or bill of lading to
the consul. The said consul will within a day after the receipt of
the ship's papers and bill of lading, distinctly state to the hoppo,
the ship's and people's names, the amount of the tonnage, and na-
ture of the cargo. But if the captain is dilatory, and two days
after the entrance of the vessel does not present to the consul the
ship's papers and bill of lading, he shall for every day be fined fifty
dollars, for the use of the Chinese government. Yet the fine ought
not to exceed 200 dollars. The consul will then communicate
with the superintendent of customs, and the hoppo will issue a
permit to open the hatches. But if the captain has not received
this permit, and of his own accord breaks bulk and discharges
cargo, he will be fined 500 dollars, and the goods thus unloaded
will at the same time be confiscated to government.
14th. Any vessel which has entered the port and not yet re-
ceived a permit to discharge cargo, may according to the provisions
of the sixteenth paragraph, within two days leave the harbour, and
go to another place, without there paying duties and tonnage dues,
which will be discharged, and paid up at the emporium where the
goods are sold.
15th. "Any ship which leaves the port after more than two days,
will pay up the whole of the tonnage dues. According to law,
every vessel of above 150 tons burden, will pay at the rate of five
mace per ton, those below 150 tons, will pay at the rate of one
mace per ton. All previous entrance and clearance fees are abo-
lished. and no others will afterwards be demanded. Whenever
the superintendent of customs give a clearance, he will distinctly
state, that the vessel has paid the port dues. If that ship goes to
another harbour, she will take this certificate and present it for
examination, to avoid (paying) a second time. All French vessels
which from abroad enter China, shall only once pay tonnage dues.
Small French vessels, such as boats, no matter with sails or without
sails, carrying passengers, luggage, letters, and provisions, and no
articles paying duties, will all be exempted from tonnage dues.
such small craft, however, transport goods, they will pay, according
to the rate of (vessels) below 150 tons, one mace per ton. If French
merchants hire a Chinese boat, she will not pay tonnage dues.
If
16th. "Whenever any French vessel wishes to load or unload
406
TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA.
cargo, she will first draw up an account of the goods, and present
the same to the consul, who will direct a linguist to report the
same to the custom-house, and then she will be permitted to dis-
charge or take in cargo. A deliberate examination of the goods
ought to take place, so that neither party may suffer loss. French
merchants who do not wish to calculate themselves the amount of
duties, will employ a well experienced individual to compute them
in their behalf. The payment will also be at their convenience.
If after this business some difference arise, no notice ought to be
taken of it. As for articles that pay duty per valuation, if the
merchant cannot agree with the Chinese, they ought on both sides
to call two or three traders to examine the goods, and determine
their value at the highest offer. Whenever duties are to be paid,
the articles themselves form the standard, and the tare ought to be
subtracted. But if the Frenchman cannot agree with the custom-
house about the weight of various goods, the disputed articles and
tare must be weighed; and then let them first settle the quantity
and average number, and again weigh the mere goods without the
tare to ascertain the amount, and make the result the basis of every-
thing of this kind. If in the examination of goods some disagree-
ment exists, the Frenchman will request the consul to come; and
the said consul will instantly communicate this to the hoppo, to
endeavour to make them agree. But the information must be
given within a day, and if not, no notice will be taken of it. Before
the dispute, however, is settled, the hoppo must not enter the ac-
count on books, for fear of the difficulties to arrange it subsequent-
ly. Imports that have been injured ought to pay less duty, and
this ought to be managed justly, according to the law of valuation.
17th. "Whatever quantity of goods a French vessel may import
and unload, the duties will be paid as they are discharged. If the
remainder of the cargo is to be taken to another port to be deli-
vered and sold there, the duties thereon will also be paid in that
other port. If it ever happen, that a Frenchman has already paid
the duties on the goods in one port, and wishes to ship them for
another for sale, he will inform the consul thereof, that he may ac-
quaint the hoppo therewith, to ascertain whether they are indeed
the very marked articles, which have not been touched. On giving
him the port-clearance, it ought to be distinctly stated, that the
said goods have already paid duties in a certain harbour. And
when the said merchant enters that emporium, he will present the
certificate to the consul, to transmit the same to the hoppo for
examination, to be free from duty. He will then receive a permit
to unload the goods, without paying any fees. But if there be any
smuggling or deceit, the goods will indiscriminately be seized and
confiscated to government.
18th. "The regulation is now made, that any French captain
or merchant, should every time that he lands goods, also pay their
amount of duties, and it should be the same on loading exports.
As soon as any French vessel has paid the whole of the port dues
TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA.
407
and duties, the hoppo will issue a receipt to be presented to the
consul for examination, that the ship's register may be restored, and
permission for her departure be given. The custom-house will ap-
point the number of bankers, who may receive for the Chinese go-
vernment the duties which the French ought to pay. The receipt
given by the bankers will be equivalent to any issued by the Chinese
officers. The duties may be paid in sycee or foreign money. In
regulating the amount of premium to be made, the hoppo and
consul will examine the relative market price of sycee and foreign
money.
19th. "At all the five ports the custom-house will have scales
and measures from the board (of revenue). These will be accurately
compared from the true standard, and be sent to the consulate to
be kept there, and must not in lightness, or heaviness, length or
shortness, differ from those of the Canton custom-house, whilst each
will be stamped with the characters of the custom-house. All the
money of tonnage dues and duties, which must be paid to the
Chinese government, shall be weighed on those scales. If there
arises any dispute about the weight or measure of goods, it must be
settled by this standard.
20th. "If no express permission is given by the officers for
transhipping goods, this ought not to be done unadvisedly, and if a
necessity exists for transhipping the same, the merchant ought
first to communicate this distinctly to the consul, that he may
issue a certificate to be examined by the superintendent of customs
to allow him to tranship goods. The said hoppo may always direct
his underlings to superintend these proceedings. But if goods are
transhipped without permission, unless there be unexpected danger
brooking no delay, all the transhipped articles will be confiscated
to government.
21st. "Every French captain or merchant may at his pleasure
engage any kind of lighters and small boats to carry goods and
passengers: the fare will be agreed upon by the merchant to the
satisfaction of both parties, without the influence of the local
officers; but if the boatmen cheat, run away, or lose anything, the
local officers will not make it good. The number of boats will not
be restricted, and nobody ought to have the sole, management.
There ought also to be no monopoly of coolies in loading or un-
loading cargoes.
22nd. "According to the second paragraph, every Frenchman,
no matter what their number, may live at the territory of the five
ports, rent dwellings and storehouses, or ground to erect the
building himself. All Frenchmen alike may build chapels, dispen-
saries, poor-houses, and cemeteries. The local officers in conjunc-
tion with the consul will determine upon the ground, where the
Frenchmen ought to live or build. The amount of ground-rent,
and house-rent, must on both sides be settled by business-like per-
sons, according to the local rates of prices. The native ought not
to raise the rents high, and the French consul ought carefully to
408
TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA.
guard, that his countrymen do not violently force (people) to let at
a certain price. The parcels of ground allotted in the territory of
the five ports for the houses of all the Frenchmen, ought to be
spacious, and no restriction ought to be entered upon as to the
number, so that Frenchmen may mutually be advantaged. But if
any Chinese profane or destroy the French chapels and graves, the
local officers will seize them with strictness, and severely punish
them.
23rd. "Every Frenchman who sojourns in the territory of any
of the five ports, or comes and goes, may at the nearest place walk
about, and take exercise. To his daily movements and doings, he
does not differ from any native, but must not exceed the bounda-
ries fixed upon by the consul and local officers, for the sake of
scheming (after gain). At the anchorage of merchantmen, the
sailors ought likewise in their walks not to exceed the boundaries.
Whenever they go on shore, there ought to be regulations for
coercing them. These rules will be drawn up by the consul, and
submitted to the consideration of the local officers, to prevent the
said sailors from creating disturbance or strife amongst the natives.
No matter who the Frenchman is, whoever goes beyond the space
allotted, or to a distance into the interior, may be seized by the
Chinese officers. But he ought to be delivered up to the keeping
of the French consul at the nearest port. The Chinese officers
and people must not beat, wound, injure, or cruelly treat the
French prisoner, to harm the friendship and peace between the
two countries.
24th. "Frenchmen are allowed at the territory of those five
ports, at their option, to rent, buy, and hire linguists, clerks, arti-
sans, sailors, and workmen. They may also engage gentlemen to
teach them the Chinese language, instruct them to write the Chi-
nese characters, and acquire the dialects of every part. They may
also employ people to assist them in their literary labours, to draw
up essays, study literature and arts. The hire and pay they will
either fix themselves, or the consul will settle it for them. French-
men may also teach those of the Chinese who wish to learn their
own, or any other language; also sell French books, and buy all
kinds of Chinese works.
25th. "Every Frenchman who harbours resentment or ill will
towards a Chinese, ought first to inform the consul thereof, who
will again distinctly investigate the matter and endeavour to settle
it. If a Chinese has a grudge against a Frenchman, the consul
must impartially examine and fully arrange it for him. But if
there are any disputes, which the consul is unable to assuage, he
will request the Chinese officer to co-operate in managing the
matter, and having investigated the facts, justly bring the case to
a conclusion.
26th. "If any Chinese of the five ports in future harm the
French, insult or annoy them, the local officers will immediately
put them down, and adopt measures for their protection. But if
TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA.
409
there are villains or disreputable people who wish to rob, destroy,
or burn the French houses, factories, hospitals, and buildings, they
have erected, the Chinese officers will either make inquiries, or the
consuls will give information thereof, and then send their police to
drive away the rabble, seize the offenders, and punish them severely
according to law, making them in future responsible for the reco-
very of the stolen articles, or a compensation.
27th. "If there is any strife between Frenchmen and Chinese,
or any fight occurs in which one, two, or more men are wounded
and killed with fire-arms or other weapons; the Chinese will in
such case be apprehended by their own officers with all strictness,
and punished according to the laws of the central empire; and the
consul will use means to apprehend the Frenchmen, speedily inves-
tigate the matter, and punish them according to French laws.
France will in future establish laws for the mode of punishment.
All other matters which have not been distinctly stated in this
paragraph will be managed according to this, and great or lesser
crimes committed by Frenchmen at the five ports, will be judged
according to French law.
28th. "All differences of Frenchmen in the territory of the
five ports will also be settled by the French consul. If a French-
man has a quarrel with a foreigner, the Chinese officers will not
interfere. Vessels within the territory of the five ports, must not
be meddled with by the Chinese officers, but the management will
either fall to the consul or the captain himself.
29th. "As soon as the civil and military authorities hear in
the neighbourhood, that a French merchantman has been robbed
by Chinese pirates on the seas of the central land, they will with all
severity seize them and punish them according to law. The plun-
der, no matter at whatsoever place it is seized, and under any cir-
cumstances, must be given back to the consul, to be restored to
the agent. But if the pursuers cannot apprehend the robbers, or
not obtain all the stolen goods, they will proceed according to the
Chinese laws in this matter, but no compensation will be made.
30th. "All the French men-of-war which come or go, or sail
about for the protection of merchantmen, ought to be treated with
friendship at every port they touch. Men-of-war are allowed to
buy their daily provisions, and on having suffered damage, to refit,
without let or hindrance. When French merchant vessels have
been injured, or if there is any other cause or necessity for seeking
shelter in a port, no matter what the emporium may be, she ought
to be treated with friendship. If any French ship suffers near the
territory of the Chinese shore, the local officers on hearing of it will
render assistance, and supply her daily wants and adopt means to
drag out goods to prevent their being damaged. They will give
immediate notice to the nearest consul, who, in conjunction with
the local officers, will adopt measures for sending the merchants and
sailors back to their homes, and also save for them any articles of
the wreck.
410
TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND CHINA.
31st. "When sailors have run away from French men-of-war
or merchant vessels, the consul or captain will give notice to the
local authorities, that they may exert themselves in seizing and
delivering them over to the consul or captain. But if any Chinese
criminals take refuge in a French dwelling, or hide themselves on
board a merchant ship, the local officers will then send information
to the consul, that after having clearly investigated the crime, he
may use means to seize and send him to the Chinese officers. No
protection (to outlaws) ought to be given on either side.
32nd. If in future, China is at war with any other country,
the central empire will not prevent the French from carrying on
their commerce, or from trading with the hostile nation, unless a
blockade be declared to disable (vessels) from entering. All legal
articles may be exported from China to the country with which it
is at war, without any hindrance, or any difference in the ordinary
trade.
33rd. "Perfect equality and etiquette shall in future exist in
the intercourse between officers and public men of both countries,
according to their designation and rank. Great French officers,
no matter whether they correspond with the great officers in or out
of the capital, will use the word 'communication.' French officers
of the second rank will in their official letters with the great pro-
vincial Chinese officers, use the word 'statement.' The great Chi-
nese officers will write to them under the term of 'making known ;'
and the officers of both nations possessing equal rank will corres-
pond on equal terms. Merchants and plebeians of either (country)
on stating any complaint will all use the word 'petition.' When a
Frenchman has to refer any case to the Chinese local officers, his
petition and letter must be transmitted through the consul, who
will examine, whether the expressions are reasonable and proper,
and if not, change them or give back (the paper). If any Chinese
have a petition to transmit to the consul, they will do this through
the local officers to be managed in the same manner.
34th. "If in future the emperor of the great French nation has
to send a letter to the court (of Peking,) the resident consul of the
emporium will take this dispatch and present it to the great minis-
ter who manages the foreign affairs of the five ports. And if there
is not a great minister over the five ports, it will be transmitted to
the governor to forward the same. If any national letter is sent
in return, it will be done in the same manner.
35th. "If there are any clauses in the regulations, which on a
future day the Emperor of the great French nation wants to have
changed, twelve years after the exchange (ratification) of these re-
gulations must first elapse before this can be done, and then new
negotiations may be entered into with China. But if there are
any other provisions settled with other nations, and not contained
in those clauses arranged by the French, the French consular offi-
cers and people cannot be constrained to observe them. Yet if the
central empire confers especial favours, extensive benefits, consider-
UNITED STATES AND CHINA INTERCOURSE.
411
able exemptions and protections, which other countries obtain,
France will also participate in them."
A comparison between this treaty and the treaties with England,
will be given in a subsequent chapter.
INTERCOURSE AND TREATY BETWEEN THE UNITED
STATES AND CHINA.
The American intercourse with China commenced in the year
A.D. 1786. A vessel of 350 tons made a voyage to China, with
the assistance of a chart of the world. The supercargo of this
voyage, in his narrative, acknowledges himself indebted for his
introduction to the Chinese and Portuguese, to the French consul
then at Canton, Monsieur Vieillard, and others of his nation.
The neutrality of the Americans during the war, gave them free
access to the various ports of Europe, by which their Eastern com-
merce in particular rapidly increased.
During the reign of Napoleon, the Dutch flag was excluded from
the port of Canton, and the Americans became the carriers of tea
to Holland. The progress of their commerce will be shown in
another section.
In A.D. 1821, their trade was stopped at Canton in consequence
of a sailor, on board an American ship, having as was alleged drop-
ped a pot overboard, by which a Chinese woman was accidentally
killed.
Captain Copeland refused to surrender his seaman to the Chinese
authorities, unless Howqua, the celebrated Hong merchant, would
pledge his word that the sailor would be returned as soon as he
had gone through the indispensable ceremony of "looking at the
Chinese judge," i.e., the Chinese judge looking at him.
The Pon-ue (judge), and his interpreters, came on board the
Emily, and demanded that the seaman should be placed in irons;
this request was firmly refused, and at last dispensed with.
Pacqua, the security merchant of the Emily, and Cowqua, the
linguist, being called, fell on their hands and knees, to hear the
demands of the Pon-ue, of which the Americans could get no in-
terpretation. Captain Copeland was next called, and required to
produce the prisoner, Terranova, who approached the table at which
the Pon-ue sat; the fatal jar with which he was accused of having
struck the woman, was placed before him on the deck, together
with the hat she wore at the time. Being questioned, he replied
with perfect composure and firmness, that it was the same jar
which he had handed the woman, and gave her a mace to pay for
the fruit she was to place in it; showing by signs the manner in
which he had handed it into the boat.
The Pon-ue exhibited great irritation at any attempt at explana-
tion; and Howqua and the linguist, although repeatedly urged,
did not translate the one-half of his defence; and whenever they
412
CHINESE TRIAL OF AN EUROPEAN IN 1821.
attempted, they were stopped by the judge. All efforts failed to
have other witnesses for the defence heard, and the Chinese wit-
nesses being called, the Americans withdrew, (this is the custom in
Chinese trials), but not without an assurance that they would be
heard. A woman and two children were the only witnesses pro-
duced, and when required to point out the supposed guilty party,
the woman seemed unable, until the linguist placed his hand on
Terranova, although there was no other seaman present.
This circumstance was strongly objected to on behalf of the
prisoner, and the linguist was requested to make known the ob-
jection to the judge, but he refused to do so.
A translation of this woman's evidence was then commenced;
but as she spoke good English, it was urged that she ought to be
allowed to repeat her own evidence for the satisfaction of the
Americans. This was refused, and on her commencing English,
she was instantly stopped. It was now urged that this same woman,
a few days previous, had stated to Captain Copeland, in the pre-
sence of four other captains, a totally different statement, viz.: that
she was inside of her boat when it occurred, but saw the husband
of the deceased pick up the hat and jar, and forcibly make a hole
in the former with the jar.
All this Howqua interpreted to the judge, but without mak-
ing any impression on him. One of the children gave some evi-
dence, but there was no translation of it made. Evidence was
tendered on behalf of the accused, to prove that the children were
on shore at the time of the fatal occurrence. At last it was ad-
mitted that the judge was aware that the woman had told a diffe-
rent story, but he declared that now she had told the truth. The
instruments of torture were brought forward, but not made use of.
Captain Copeland became most earnest in protesting against this
mockery of justice, but was deprived of the aid of the Rev. Mr.
Morrison, by the Chinese, on the ground of his being a British
subject.
At length the judge, seeing the determination of the Americans,
again took his seat. He sat a few minutes, but only heard a
few words of the rebutting testimony, when he silenced the linguist,
and rising from the chair, said it was Heaven's business; if he had
judged wrong, God would punish him for it hereafter; he knew in
his own heart the man was guilty; he must be delivered up. With
this he quitted the Emily, leaving upwards of 1000 Chinese on board,
and the ship surrounded with war boats.
Terranova, in a few days afterwards, willingly surrended himself,
which was a good proof of his innocence. He was conveyed to
Canton, and it is supposed a similar mockery of justice gone through
before the viceroy, and on the third day he was strangled outside
of the city wall. His body was sent to the Americans, and the trade
opened on the same day.
The viceroy thereon issued an edict, in which, after narrating
CHINESE MOCKERY OF JUSTICE.
413
the execution, he says, "previously to this, in consequence of the
said nation's chief staring about, and not delivering up the actual
murderer, I communicated with the hoppo, and requested him to
command the man to be given up; and I examined the records,
and in imitation of an English case, I suspended the American
trade. Since they have delivered up the murderer, who has been
clearly tried and punished, the said chief has behaved respectfully
and submissively; and it is proper to open their trade in order to
manifest our compassion."
"The Celestial Empire's kindness and favour to the weak, is rich
in an infinite degree; but the nation's dignity sternly commands
respect, and cannot, because people are foreigners, extend cle-
mency to them. Let the Hong merchants explain this official
mandate, and persuade the said foreigners to be warned by it, and
thereby to be filled with reverence and awe, that each may ensure
the safety of his own person and family." In his report to the
Emperor, the viceroy says: "In the present case, the name of the
murderer was pointed out by the said foreigners, and it was
acknowledged by him (Terranova), that the jar thrown was his
property. If he was not the murderer, why did he become sick
from melancholy ?-and, moreover, why did his captain put him
in irons? In these proceedings there is every species of self-con-
tradiction and incoherency, which shows the crafty and deceitful
disposition of the foreigners. It is, moreover, proved that the said
murderer, in open court, struck his breast with his hand, to make
a sign of confession that the jar was his. And more still, it is
authenticated, that he took up the jar in his two hands, and showed
the manner in which he threw it down from above. In this state-
ment of the case, there is no evasion or gloss. Now, it is written
in the law, when persons outside the pale of Chinese civilization
shall commit crimes, they too shall be punished according to law.
I, therefore, ordered them to take the said foreigner, and, accord-
ing to law, strangle him, to display luminously the laws of the
empire.
"In every similar case, foreigners ought to give up murderers,
and thus they will act becoming the tenderness and gracious kind-
ness with which the Celestial Empire treats them."
Terranova was an Italian; it is said that a few hundred dollars
would have saved his life.
In 1844, the American consul at Canton erected a flagstaff, sur-
mounted by an arrow for a vane. This circumstance caused great
excitement among the disorderly inhabitants of Canton. It was
soon removed, and a placard was issued from the authorities,
which shows that they pander to the popular cry in everything
that concerns foreigners.
On this occasion, the Americans, in self-defence, shot a China-
man, but the Canton government did not dare to demand an
American in return, and enforce the demand by stopping the
414
AMERICANS SHOOT A CHINAMAN.
trade. On the contrary, the following edict was issued by the
imperial commissioner, Keying, which well illustrates the altered
state of feeling which the Tartar government at Peking are now
compelled to manifest.
CC
Keying, Imperial Commissioner and Viceroy of the two Kwang
Provinces, &c., and Ching, Lieutenant-governor of Canton, hereby
issue their clear commands.
"Whereas a native of Tsing-yuen district, named Seu-amwan,
was shot dead by an American, as is on record; and,
Whereas, we transmitted our commands to the American
consul, Fuh-sze, to institute strict investigation, and deliver up
the murderer to us, to be dealt with according to the laws; the
said consul, it appears, has now represented that he has clearly
examined into the case of the murder of Seu-amwan, by a man
named Tan-yeli, and that he has delivered him over to an Ameri-
can envoy, to be adjudged by him according to the laws of his
native country.
CC
"And, whereas, in the supplementary treaty concluded with
England last year, it was provided that, when altercations arise
between natives of China and subjects of that country, the former
are to be judged by our officers according to our laws, and the
latter by the English consul, according to the laws of that country.
And, whereas, by the treaty of commerce entered into in the
present year with various countries, amongst whom is America,
the same is expressly provided for, when quarrels and altercations
arise between Chinese and Americans, we have memorialized the
throne, and have now received the imperial command, in reply,
respecting the case of Seu-amwan, to the effect that, as the Ameri-
can consul has clearly ascertained that Tan-yeli shot Seu-amwan,
it is agreeable to the treaty that he be delivered over to be dealt
with according to the laws of his native country. Wherefore, be-
sides giving our commands for the information and respectful
obedience (of the consul), we now issue this clear proclamation
that all you soldiers and people may fully understand. Do not
seek after private revenge, and thereby give cause of dispute.
Let none oppose this special proclamation.
"Issued,
"Tawkwang, 24th year, 8th month, 11th day,
"September 2nd, 1844."
In 1844, the United States government sent an expensive em-
bassy to China, under the direction of an able plenipotentiary,
Mr. Caleb Cushing, for the negotiation of a treaty between the
governments of Washington and Peking, similar to the treaty
entered into with England; the Chinese government having pro-
mised, on the representation of the American Commodore, Kearney,
previous to the treaty of Nanking, that whatever concessions were
made to the English should also be granted to the United States.
The throwing open the ports of China to Europe and America was
AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA.
415
not, therefore, the result of our policy, but had its origin in the
anxious forethought of the Americans, lest we might stipulate for
some exclusive privileges.
When our plenipotentiary heard from the Chinese commis-
sioners, that it was intended to grant to other nations the terms
given to England, he, of course, concurred in the wise policy pro-
pounded, as, in fact, the treaty of Nanking (which was framed in Eng-
land exactly as it was subsequently and immediately accepted by the
Chinese commissioners, without negotiation), contained no exclu-
sive clause referring in any manner to the United States, or other
countries. This explanation is necessary, as great merit was
claimed, and great praise given, for that which had no existence
in reality.
The following is a list of thirty-four articles, deliberated
and determined upon, for the trade of the merchants of
the United States of America, at the five ports in China.
Translated from the Chinese.
1st. "Hereafter the Great Pure Dynasty with the United States,
and the people of both nations at any place whatever, shall mutu-
ally be on terms of amity, good faith and harmony, preserving
together peace and quietness for myriads of years, without anything
to disturb it.
2. "The people of the United States coming to China to trade,
shall pay duties on imported and exported goods according to
the tariff already settled, without being charged more than other
nations; all former expenses and fees being completely done away
with. Should the underlings of the custom-houses make extortions,
the Chinese nation will punish them according to law. Should
China hereafter wish to make any change in the tariff of duties, it
must be deliberated upon, and consented to, by the consuls and
other officers of the United States. Should any extra advantage
be extended to other nations, the people of the United States must
equally and universally benefit by it; in order to display justice
and equity.
3rd. "Henceforth the people of the United States shall without
exception be permitted to take and carry their families to all the
five ports of Canton, Fuh-choo, Amoy, Ningpo, and Shánghái, to
dwell and trade there. The vessels of the five ports, carrying
cargoes backwards and forwards may follow their own convenience;
but into any port other than the five ports not a single vessel shall
enter nor presume to wander about. They also may not privately
trade with the lawless inhabitants along the coast. Should there
be any who oppose and offend against this prohibition, the vessel.
and goods must, according to the regulations already agreed upon,
all revert to China and be confiscated to government.
4th. "The people of the United States being permitted to resort
to the five ports for purposes of trade, it will be right and necessary
to establish consuls and other officers at each place, to superintend
་
416
AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA.
the affairs of the people of their own nation. The local officers of
China shall receive and meet them with increased liberality. In
all mutual intercourse, whether by the interchange of public docu-
ments or by interviews for personal consultation, both parties shall
maintain their proper rank. Should the local officers insult or
slight the consuls and other officers, the consuls and others will be
permitted to take the grievance, and complain of it for redress to
the high officers of China, who will in equity and justice examine
into and arrange it. But the consuls also may not follow their
own will and inclination, thus giving rise to many altercations with
the Chinese officers and people.
5th. "The people of the United States trading at the five ports,
with the exception of merchandise forbidden by the Chinese laws
to be imported or exported, will be permitted to take every other
article of merchandise, and either bring it from their own or other
countries, and import it for sale; and they will also be permitted
to carry out Chinese merchandise and export it to their own or
other countries for sale, in both cases paying duties according to
the present established regulations, beyond which, no other ex-
penses or fees will be permitted.
6th. "All vessels belonging to the United States proceeding to
the five ports to trade, shall have their ships' papers examined by
the consuls and other officers, who will report to the superintendent
of customs; when, according to the number of tons which a vessel
can carry, she will pay the tonnage dues. Thus, those which can
carry more than 150 tons shall for each ton pay tonnage dues five
mace; while those below 150 tons shall for each ton pay tonnage
dues one mace. The former fees, for measurement and other
items, shall be entirely done away with. Should any vessel enter
a port, having already paid her tonnage dues at the custom-house
of that port, and because of not completing the sale of her goods,
take them to some other port for sale, the consuls and other offi-
cers shall report it clearly to the superintendent of customs, who
will, on that vessel leaving the port, take the fact of her having
paid her tonnage dues, and clearly state it in the grandchop; and
he will also forward a letter to the superintendent of customs of
the other port to examine into it, and on the said vessel entering
the other port, she shall only pay duties on her goods, but no
tonnage dues, to avoid a second charge.
7th. "When people of the United States at the five ports, use
their own boats and other craft, to carry passengers or baggage or
letters and eatables and other things, for which duties are not pay-
able in the tariff, it will not be necessary for such craft to pay
tonnage dues. But if, besides these things, they should carry
merchandise, then they should, according to the rule for vessels
under 150 tons, pay one mace per ton. Should Chinese boats be
engaged, they will not come under the rule of paying tonnage dues
according to the number of tons.
}
13
AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA.
417
8th. "All trading vessels belonging to the people of the United
States entering the port, will be permitted to hire pilots in going
through narrow passages and dangerous places. When a vessel is
reported as brought in, as soon as she shall have completely paid up
her tonnage dues and duties, a pilot shall be ordered as before to
take her out immediately. In hiring servants or compradores, or
in requesting the services of linguists and writers, or in engaging
Chinese boats to remove goods or convey passengers, or in hiring
additional workmen, servants, or sailors, and in all circumstances
where necessity requires, if not contrary to the laws, every one
shall follow his own convenience. The price of work, the mer-
chants and people may themselves determine upon, or it may be
arranged by the consuls; the Chinese local officers are not to
interfere in the matter.
9th. "When a trading vessel of the United States comes to a
port, as soon as a pilot has brought her in, there shall immediately
be deputed from the custom-house trustworthy runners to attend
the vessel and guard her. These runners may either lodge on
board the merchant vessel, or hire their own boat and attend the
ship according as they find it most convenient. For food and ne-
cessaries, the custom-house shall daily give money; they may not
extort from the merchant ship any fees, however small. Should
they disobey, they will be considered as guilty of receiving bribes.
10th. "On a merchant vessel of the United States entering
the port, either the captain, supercargo, or the merchant agent
shall, within a period of two days, take the ship's paper, bills of
lading, &c., and deliver them to the consuls and other officers of
their country to keep and hold. The consul shall immediately take
the name of the vessel with the names of the people, the number
of tons she carries and the kind of goods, and making a minute
list of them, communicate with the superintendent of customs, who
will then allow them to receive a permit to break bulk and unload
the goods; should it happen that, before the receipt of a permit,
any should presume to unload goods, they shall then be fined 500
dollars, and the goods which they presumed to land and remove,
shall altogether revert to China, and be confiscated to government.
Should a merchant vessel enter the port, and only unload a portion
of her cargo, she shall pay duties according to that portion of the
goods discharged. The goods yet undischarged may without excep-
tion be carried to any other port for sale. If a vessel should enter
the port, and not yet having broken bulk, should wish to go else-
where, she will within the limit of two days go out of the port, but
she must not remain longer; in which case also no duties nor ton-
nage dues will be levied or received. But on her arrival at any
other port and making sales, she will then be required to pay duties
according to the tariff. Should a merchant vessel, after entering
the port, have exceeded the term of two days, it will then be neces-
sary to pay the tonnage dues, and the superintendent of customs
2 E
418
AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA.
may as before fill up and issue a grandchop, and make it known
to the other ports in order to avoid paying them a second time.
11th. "Merchant vessels of the United States dealing in goods
either for import or export, shall report the day fixed for unload-
ing and shipping goods to the consuls and other officers, which
report shall, by the consuls and other officers, be transmitted to
the superintendent of customs, who will on the arrival of the day,
depute an official attendant that he may in conjunction with the
captain, supercargo, or merchant agent and others, equitably and
fairly examine the merchandise, in order that the duties may be
levied according to the tariff. If among them there be any goods,
the price of which must be estimated to determine the duties, or
respecting which there may be differences of opinion as to the price,
or as to the deduction of the amount of tare, so as to give rise to
disputes which cannot be readily settled; the said merchant shall,
on that same day, petition and report to the consul, so that he may
acquaint the superintendent of customs, and with him consult upon
and determine it. If the petition and report be delayed, then no
permission will be given further to arrange it.
12th. "At the places of the consuls of the United States at
each port, there shall be furnished by the Chinese superintendent
of customs, a chang measure, a cheh measure, a steel-yard and
weights, of each a set, ready for measuring lengths and breadths,
and ascertaining weight and lightness. They shall be after the
pattern of those distributed by the hoppo of Canton, and will be
marked with engraven characters- one rule applying to the five
ports, in order to avoid irregularity and villany.
13th. "After a merchant vessel of the United States has en-
tered a port, on receiving a permit to unload goods she must im-
mediately pay up the tonnage dues; on goods imported, the duties
must be paid at the time of unloading; and on goods exported the
duties must be paid on being shipped; and when the duties and
tonnage dues shall have been completely paid up, the superintend-
ent of customs shall issue a grandchop, having examined which the
consul shall return the ship's paper, and permit the merchant ves-
sel to go out of the port and return to her own country. The
duties paid, shall be received for the Chinese officers by bankers
appointed by them, either in sycee silver, or in foreign dollars,
made up to the standard, all in accordance with the already exist-
ing regulations. Imported merchandise that may be taken by
Chinese merchants into the interior for sale, shall on passing every
custom-house pay duties according to the old tariff: there may be
no further addition or increase.
14th. "Merchant ships of the United States anchoring within
a port, will not be permitted to tranship goods from one to the
other. Should it be necessary to tranship into another vessel, the
merchant must present a request to the consul, who will report it
to the superintendent of customs, that he may send an officer to
AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA.
419
make clear and true examination, when permission will be given to
tranship. Should any, without petitioning and waiting for exami-
nation, confusedly go about transhipping, the goods thus tranship-
ped shall altogether revert to China, and be confiscated to govern-
ment.
15th. "According to the former regulations, the commercial
intercourse of every nation reverted to foreign hongs, established
by the Canton officers to arrange and control. Now it is deter-
mined upon to take the list of the foreign hongs, break it up, and
do away with it. Thus, people of the United States importing or
exporting goods are permitted to trade with any Chinese merchants
they please; there shall be no limit or restrictions, so as to put a
stop to all the villany of grasping and monopolizing.
If an
16th. "Should Chinese merchants happen to owe money to the
people of the United States, or should they defraud them of their
property, the people of the United States may themselves go and
sue for it; the officers cannot be security for its recovery.
accusation be lodged with the officers, the Chinese local officers,
on receiving a communication from the consul, must immediately
make equitable investigation, and push the recovery of the debt;
if the debtor be already dead, and his property gone, or if the
fraudulent villain have really escaped into concealment, and there
be no traces left of him, the people of the United States shall not
adhere to the old regulations, and require the hong merchants to
make it good. If any people of the United States contract debts
with, and defraud Chinese merchants, then it shall be arranged
according to this rule, and the consul also will not be security for
its recovery.
17th. (C
People of the United States, trading at the five ports,
whether dwelling there for a long period, or temporarily residing
there, are in both cases permitted to hire and rent the people's
houses, or to hire ground in order to build themselves houses, and
for sites on which to establish hospitals, halls for worship, and
cemeteries. It will be necessary for the Chinese local officers, in
company with the consuls and other officers, to consider and in-
quire into the feelings of the people, in selecting and fixing upon a
spot of ground. The people of the United States, with those of the
inner land, are equitably to determine and fix the rent of the
ground; the people of the inner land are not to raise the prices and
extort, nor are the people from afar permitted to compel the hire,
nor to be hard and rapacious; and it is necessary that each party
express its own wishes in accordance with equity and honesty.
Should, peradventure, any graves be destroyed or dug up by the
Chinese people, the Chinese local officers will make strict seizure
and punish them according to law. In the places where the people
of the United States anchor their vessels, and take up their tempo-
rary abode, the merchants, sailors, and others, will only be per-
mitted to walk about on the neighbouring ground, and will not be
2 E 2
420
AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA.
The
allowed to go far into the villages and hamlets of the inner land
and wander where they please: still less may they go to the mar-
kets and military stations, and privately carry on trade.
boundaries will be consulted upon, and fixed with the consuls by
the local officers of the five ports, each according to the people's
feelings, and the situation of the place; and they may not be pass-
ed over; in order to fix the period for eternity, and for the mutual
quiet of both.
18th. “It is permitted to the officers and people of the United
States to engage scholars from all parts of China, to instruct them
in the dialects of every place, and to assist them in literary affairs;
of whatsoever rank or class the persons so engaged may be, the
Chinese local officers and people may not in the slightest degree
molest or injure them. The people of the United States are also
permitted to collect and buy all kinds of Chinese books.
19th. "Hereafter people of the United States quietly trading
in China, will be on terms of mutual friendship and amity with the
Chinese. The local officers must constantly afford them protection
and care, causing them and their families to be in perfect peace.
They will also make inquiries and prohibit all vagabonds from in-
sulting and vexing them. Should any lawless villains of the inner
land, with malicious intent set fire to and burn the foreign houses
or plunder and rob the property, the consuls will immediately re-
port it to the local officers, who will send soldiers and police to sup-
press the tumult, make examination and seize the offenders, and
also take the vagabonds who burn and plunder, and punish them
severely according to law.
20th. 66
People of the United States having brought merchan-
dize into port, and paid duties upon it, should they wish to take
the disembarked goods and transport them to another port for sale,
may state the matter clearly to the consuls, who will convey a re-
port to the superintendent of customs to see if the duties, said to
be paid, agree with the custom-house books, and to send an officer
to make inquiry whether they really be the original bales and the
identical goods, and that there has been no breaking open and
moving, or taking out and changing, and such like impropriety;
when he will immediately take the number of peculs of merchan-
dize, and the sum of the duties already paid, and enter them into
a pass; which will be given to the said merchant to receive and
hold; at the same time, he will dispatch a letter to the superinten-
dent of customs of the other port to examine accordingly; and
when the said vessel shall enter that port, and it be found on
examination that there is no discrepancy, she will immediately be
permitted to open her hold and make sales, in order to avoid the
payment of duties a second time; should there be any false accu-
sations or secret conveyance of things, on the discovery of it by
the superintendant of customs, the goods shall be confiscated to
governnent.
AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA.
421
21st. "Hereafter, should any Chinese have any quarrels, dis-
putes, or get mutually involved with the people of the United
States, the Chinese will be seized and examined by the Chinese
local officers, and will be punished according to the laws of China.
The people of the United States shall be seized and examined by
the consuls and other officers, and will be punished according to
the law of their country; but it is requisite that both should in
justice and integrity divide the question, and neither side cherish
partiality, which would lead to quarrels.
22nd. "The United States having now with China adjusted and
sworn to peace and amity, their ships may go and come at the five
ports to trade. If at any future time, another country should be
at enmity with China, China may only prevent the inimical nation,
and not permit it to resort to the five ports for trade.
When peo-
ple of the United States go to the other country to trade, or trans-
port the merchandize of that country to the five ports, China must
recognise the United States flag, and permit them to enter the
river. But the United States merchant ships will not be permitted
privately to introduce one soldier of the other nation into port, nor
receive the bribes of merchants of the other nation, who call upon
them to exchange flags, and bring merchandize for them into port
for trade. Should there be any infraction of this prohibition, it
shall be allowable for China to search it out, seize the parties, and
settle it.
23rd." At the close of every Chinese year, each of the consuls
residing at the five ports must take an account of the ships and
goods of the United States yearly entering and leaving the port,
and of the prices at which they are valued, and minutely report it
to the governor-general of each province, that he may transmit it
to the board of Revenue, as a proof for examination.
24th. "Should people of the United States in any important
matters make complaints to the Chinese officers, they must first
petition the consuls and other officers, who will examine whether
the words and phrases in the petition be clear and intelligible, and
the subject reasonable, after which they will at once transmit it to
the local officers to examine into and arrange. Should Chinese in
any important matters make complaints to the consuls and other
officers, they must first petition the local officers, who will examine
whether the words and phrases in the petition be clear and intel-
ligible, and the subject reasonable, after which they will at once.
transmit it to the consuls and other officers to examine into and
arrange. Should it happen that people of China and of the United
States wrangle about any matter, and are not able to arrange it
amicably, it will be necessary for the officers of both nations to
make inquiry, and equitably examine and decide the matter.
25th."Should people of the United States at the five ports of
China be involved in disputes among themselves about property, it
will be examined into and arranged by the consuls and other
422
AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA.
officers of their country. If people of the United States in China
dispute and wrangle about matters with traders of other nations.
it must be arranged in accordance with the rules established by
their respective nations; Chinese officers will make no inquiry
whatever about it.
26th. "When merchant ships of the United States enter the
five ports of China, and anchor there, they come under the control
of the consuls and other officers in company with the captains of
the vessels, China will have no control whatever over them. Should
it happen that on the high seas, other nations insult and injure
traders of the United States, China cannot revenge it on their ac-
count; but if merchant vessels of the United States, when on seas
within the jurisdiction of China, be plundered by pirates, the
Chinese civil and military officers, must, as soon as they hear it
reported, make a strict seizure of the robbers, and punish them ac-
cording to law. The recovered stolen goods, of whatever quantity,
must all be delivered to the nearest consul and other officers to be
all returned to the original owners. But the territory of China
being vast, and the people numerous, it is ten thousand to one
but that the principal thief cannot be caught, or there be thieves
and no stolen goods, or the stolen goods may not be completely
recovered, and the Chinese local officers must act as is separately
provided for by law, and cannot make up or return the stolen
articles.
27th." If merchant vessels of the United States, when off the
Chinese shore, meet with tempests, strike on rocks, get on shore,
or meet with pirates, so that the vessel be destroyed, the local
officers along the coasts, on examination and knowledge thereof,
must immediately set on foot measures for rescue, and devise
means for showing increased compassion, so that they may reach
their port and get repaired. In all buying of rice and provisions.
and obtaining fresh water, the least oppression or hindrance must
not be given. Should the said merchant vessel be wrecked on the
outer seas and be drifted to the Chinese shore, as soon as the
officers shall have made clear inquiries into it, they must also treat
them all with soothing compassion, and arrange their matters
securely.
28th. "Merchant vessels, and property, belonging to people of
the United States, which may be found at the five ports of China,
may not be taken by force or intimidation by the local officers,
such as laying embargos on vessels for public use or otherwise.
But they must be suffered quietly to carry on their trade in order
to avoid trouble and annoyance.
29th. "If, among the people of the United States, there be
any on ship-board, who do not attend to their duty, and leaving
their ship, escape to the inner land to conceal themselves, the
Chinese local officers will immediately depute police runners to
seize and bring them to the consuls and other officers for punish-
AMERICAN TREATY WITH CHINA.
423
ment. If any Chinese, having offended the laws, go to the houses
and dwellings, and on board of the merchant ships, of the people
of the United States, to conceal themselves, the Chinese local
officers, on discovering it, will immediately address a letter to the
consul and other officers, to seize and send them back. In either
case, the least shelter or concealment must not be given. With
respect to the merchants, sailors, and others of the United States,
they will all come under the consuls and other officers, who will,
when necessary, make examination and keep them under restraint.
If the people of the two nations use force, and make disturbances,
or carelessly use fire-arms and wound men, so as to lead to fight-
ing, killing, and other serious cases, the officers of the two nations
must maintain the laws, and severely punish them: there must
not be the least partiality, which would cause the hearts of all to
be unsubmissive.
<
30th. "Hereafter, in the official correspondence to and fro of
the great ministers of China with the great ministers of the United
States, there must be used, in accordance with the principles of
equality, the form of official communication.' In the official
correspondence to and fro, of the consuls with the Chinese local
officers, the form of 'official communication' will also be used. In
reporting to the high officers, the form explanatory statement'
will be used. If common people address officers, they will, as be-
fore, use the form of 'petition. There may be no appearance of
insult or disrespect, to the wounding of public friendship on either
side; while the two nations must not seek for, or extort from each
other, ceremonious observances.
6
31st. 'If, on a future day, the United States send a national
letter to the government of China, the original document must be
presented on their account by the imperially appointed high com-
missioner, or by the governor-general of the Two Kwáng, or of
Fookeen, and Chekiáng, or of the Two Kiáng, or by other great
ministers who may be arranging on the part of the middle na-
tion, the affairs of outside nations.
32nd. Hereafter, if the United States have ships of war sent
to inspect the trade coming to the different ports, the naval com-
modore, or high naval officers of the vessel of war, will be treated
by the high civil and military officers of China at that place upon
terms of equality, in order to show a feeling of amity and good-
will. If the aforesaid ships of war want to purchase provisions, or
get fresh water and other things, China cannot in any way forbid
or hinder them. Should, perhaps, a ship of war be injured, she
also will be permitted to be repaired.
33rd. "All people of the United States who presume to take
upon themselves to go to other ports, where no custom-house has
been opened, and privately carry on trade, smuggle, and evade the
duties, or introduce opium and other prohibited articles in China,
the Chinese local officers may themselves adjudicate it, and punish
424
KEYING'S COMMENTS ON AMERICAN TREATY.
them. The government, or people of the United States, must not
afford the least protection. If vessels of another country assume
the flag of the United States, and carry on illegal trade, the United
States must take measures for prohibiting and preventing it.
34th. "As soon as the treaty of peace shall have been deter-
mined upon, the two nations must each obey and keep it, and not
trivially make changes. With respect to the dissimilarity of the
circumstances of each port, and the regulations regarding barter,
and the high seas, it is to be feared that there cannot but be some
slight changes; therefore, after a period of twelve years, the two
nations will appoint officers to consult upon and settle them equit-
ably. Further, after the treaty of peace shall have received the
imperial reply and assent, the government and people of the two
countries must both reverentially obey it. With respect to the
several states of the United States, they will not be allowed to de-
pute an officer hither, or otherwise have further deliberations."
An incident connected with the foregoing treaty illustrates Chi-
nese diplomacy. Mr. Cushing in order to conciliate Keying, the
Chinese commander, refrained from attempting to go to Peking,
and even refused to make the attempt, when M. Lagréné, the French
plenipotentiary, asked Mr. Cushing to join him, and proceed to the
mouth of the Peiho, and thence to Peking. Yet there is no doubt
that Keying misrepresented this negotiation with Mr. Cushing, as
he had done others, and spoke of him in a most degrading manner
to his sovereign, as shewn in the following document :-
Concluding remarks of Keying, respecting the American Treaty, in
his memorial to the throne.
"The original copy of the treaty, presented by the said barbar-
ian envoy, contained forty-seven stipulations. Of these some were
difficult of execution, others foolish demands, whilst several of the
most important points of the treaty were omitted on the list. The
sense of it was, moreover, so meanly and coarsely expressed, the
words and sentences were so obscure, and there was such a variety
of errors, that it was next to impossible to point them out.
"Your slave Keying, therefore, directed the treasurer Hwang,
and all the deputed mandarins, to hold interviews with (the Ame-
rican envoy) for days together, to discuss the matters verbally, and
severally decide what stipulation ought to be granted or rescinded,
lessened or increased. Thus thirty-four regulations were agreed on.
"We clearly pointed out whatever was comprehensible to reason,
in order to dispel their stupid ignorance, and to put a stop to (de-
lusive) hopes, whilst expatiating with strictness upon the most bind-
ing of the statutes, we were obliged to polish those passages which
were scarcely intelligible, so as to render the sense somewhat more
AMERICAN TREATY EXAMINED BY KEYING.
425
obvious, in order to remove all ambiguity; and only after four
times altering the copies, we adopted (the paper).
66
Amongst the original paragraphs of the said envoy, it would
appear that there were ten, which it was impossible to grant, al-
though the demand was made with firmness.
1st. "Whenever the consuls of the various ports have any
affair, they ought to submit the same distinctly to the Governors
and Lieutenant-governors; but the said barbarian envoy request-
ed to bring complaints before the censorate.
2nd. It is evident, that whenever the factories are burnt by
accident, they ought to be rebuilt by the merchants themselves.
Yet the said barbarian envoy, brought again forward the old Hong
law for compensation and re-erection, requesting that the authori-
ties should make good the loss.
3rd. “After the bulk of foreign goods is broken, and the ton-
nage dues are paid, the authorities do not trouble themselves about
the rapidity and slowing of the sale; yet the said barbarian envoy
wished, that the duties on articles which could not be sold within
three years, should be refunded.
4th. "Notwithstanding the abolition of the Hong system, and
the optional commerce of the barbarian merchant with every
Chinese dealer; the said barbarian envoy still requested, that man-
darins should build warehouses for them.
5th. "The barbarians are allowed to go to five ports only, and
not to any other places, but the said barbarian envoy wished to
have permission to trade with nations that were at war
peace with China.
or at
6th. "The control of merchantmen, that have entered a port
and anchored, devolves upon the consul. The said barbarian
envoy, however, thought it his duty to ask, that the Celestial Em-
pire should exercise the whole power of protection and manage-
ment: so that if accidentally any other nation inflicted insult, China
might be required to requite this.
7th. "When foreign nations are engaged in strife, China has no
means of restraininy them; yet the barbarian envoy requested that
an enemy pursuing a merchant ship, the Central Empire ought to pro-
tect and aid them in attacking the same.
8th.
CC
Foreign men-of-war ought to anchor outside the port,
but the said barbarian envoy would have it, that on their arrival,
mutual salutes, as a token of honour, should be fired both from the
forts as well as the vessel.
9th. "The official correspondence ought to be received and
severally examined by the nearest Governor and Lieutenant-go-
vernor; the said barbarian envoy, nevertheless, requested, that the
state papers of their country, should pass either through the
cabinet of the capital or the supreme boards.
10th. "The treaty is solely intended to promote harmony and
426
DIFFERENCES IN AMERICAN TREATY.
friendship, and to remove points of altercation beforehand; but
the said barbarian envoy would have it, that when the two nations
were at war, the removal and return of their merchants, for avoid-
ing calamity, ought still to be permitted.
'Many of the items present obstacles, or can scarcely be carried
into effect, or would constitute abuses, others are mere trifles, or
erroneous views, with quite a sufficient variety of gain seeking and
cunning designs. Your slave therefore directed Hwang-gantung and
the deputies, to reject one by one each article, and not in the most
distant manner accede to them. At most, some points have been
more than a thousand, at least, others five or six times discussed.
It was then, that the said barbarian envoy submitted to reason,
and being at a loss for what to say, was willing, and agreed to
have (the objectional clauses) expunged.
"About eight-tenths of the trading regulations, now established,
agree with the recent stipulations of last year.
(Exceptions are :)
1st. "When a vessel has paid her tonnage dues, but is not able
to dispose (of her cargo) she may go to another port, without being
obliged to pay again port dues.
2nd. "If a merchantman has anchored in a harbour, but not yet
broken bulk, and wishes, within the space of two days, to proceed to
another emporium, she will pay no tonnage dues.
3rd. "When a merchantman has entered the port, paid the
whole of the dues, and wishes to proceed with the landed goods
to another port, to sell the same, she is exempted from paying ton-
nage dues and duties, a second time.
"These are some slight changes in the regulations of last year.
But the circumstances of the times of yore, when there was only
one mart (viz: Canton) open, differ from the present, when trade
to five emporiums is permitted. The said barbarians therefore
will, whenever there is no demand for goods in one port, sell them
at another, for this is the unvarying conduct of speculators, and it
would not be right to restrain them, nor would it be proper,
after having paid the duties and port dues, to levy them a second
time. In order therefore to meet the spirit of commerce, we ought
to make conditionally some alterations, and still go on making
strict inquires, to obviate abuses.
1st. "At the ports where they trade, we allow them to rent
ground for erecting themselves chapels, and for a burial place.
2nd. "They also requested, that scholars of the central empire
should teach them their native language, and assist them in their
literary labours, as well as to buy all kinds of Chinese books.
"Your slave refused this at first to them, but the said barbarian
envoy again remarked, that the Portuguese at Macao, as well as
the English at Hong Kong, could both build chapels and choose a
burial place, so that the living might sow the seeds of their happi-
BUILDING CHAPELS, BURYING THE DEAD, &c.
427
ness, and the dead hide their bones somewhere. At the com-
mencement few of their countrymen came to China, and did not
dare to ask the grant of a burial place, and it would be putting
them into the background, if they were at this time not permitted
to rent grounds for these establishments.
"As for the request to allow Chinese scholars to buy books, this
was an old affair, and they therefore requested to enter it amongst
the provisions of the treaty, and words to that effect.
“It appears on re-consideration, that the said barbarians them-
selves rent the ground for the burial place, and for building
chapels, and it would not be right to refuse this flatly and obsti-
nately. Still we must distinctly explain the prohibitions, that
they do not forcibly rent, and ruthlessly take possession, in defi-
ance of the peculiarity of circumstances. If the gentry and people
are indeed unwilling, the said barbarians will have no further
pretence.
"We have no means of ascertaining whether it has always been
the case, that scholars bought books (for them), but there can be
no objection [to granting this request.]
"The remaining demands have reference to the treaty of peace,
and do not concern commercial matters, and will by no means
present obstacles to the execution of the law.
"Merchants that presume to repair to other places, except the
five ports, for the sake of clandestine trade and smuggling, and
who introduce opium with all other kinds of illicit articles, will be
by the Chinese local mandarins proceeded against and punished.
This is one of the additional clauses, to which the said envoy in-
stantly acceded, and is a sufficient proof that those barbarians will
obey the laws of the Celestial Empire, and not dare to yield to
their passions and act wantonly.
"The paragraph, in which it was agreed upon, that the consuls
of the five ports, should, at the end of each year, give a clear
account of their vessels and cargoes, to the respective governors
and lieutenant-governors, to be transmitted for examination to the
board of revenue, furnishes sufficient evidence that the said barba-
rians will, in their commercial pursuits, abide by their duty, and
are not willing to defraud the revenue.
"The said barbarian envoy would agree to all the particulars of
the tariff established last year, but merely remarked, that lead was
a product of their country, and that it was certainly exorbitant,
that it should pay four mace duty, which is three times more than
iron pays, and therefore proposed a reduction. Your slave taking
into consideration, that foreign lead is not a staple article, and that
his request is reasonable, lowered the duty therefore one mace two
candareen per pecul, to which the said barbarian envoy instantly
shewed obedience.
"Whilst respectfully forwarding the memorial, we subjoin this
428
CONDUCT OF AMERICA IN CHINA.
provision of this treaty agreed upon, with an accurate explanation
of all the particulars.
وو
The intercourse between the United States government and
China has been purely commercial, but great credit is due to Ame-
rican citizens for their philanthropic and Christian exertions in
China. They have been the chief if not sole promoters of that ex-
cellent establishment, entitled the "Medical Missionary Society,"
which has now hospitals at each of the opened ports in China, where
the sick and diseased are cured, and their hearts prepared by kind-
ness and skill, for the reception of the truths of Christianity.
That estimable man, Dr. Parker, has founded a noble hospital at
Canton, which I visited, and saw the remarkable effects of his
surgical skill in active combination with his missionary efforts.
The Right Rev. Dr. Boone, Bishop of the American Episcopalian
Church, is now in China, aided by several excellent male and female
missionaries. But of these subjects I shall treat hereafter. Suffice
it to say that the United States government in their treaty with
China, and in vigilant protection of their subjects at Canton, have
evinced far better diplomacy, and more attention to substantial
interests, than we have done, although it has not cost them as
many groats as we have spent guineas, while their position in
China is really more advantageous and respected than that of Eng-
land, after all our sacrifices of blood and treasure, as will be sub-
sequently demonstrated.
It was not until the year 1846, that the Canton Government
made an official announcement of the treaties between the Go-
vernment of China and Foreign Nations, as given in the following
Proclamation,
"Lew, Prefect of Canton, raised ten steps and recorded ten times,
issues these lucid orders for general information.
"We received previously the Imperial orders, that every nation
should be permitted to carry on trade within the precincts of the
ports, including Canton. The Imperial Commissioners, in con-
junction with the Governors and Lieutenant-governors have
therefore made from time to time treaties and regulations, which
having received the approval of the Emperor, were carried into
effect, and proclaimed by my predecessor in the prefecture; as is
on record.
"I the Prefect having now entered upon the duties of my office,
am apprehensive that the people do not yet universally know the
business that has been settled, and how they should act in obe-
dience [to these stipulations]: I have therefore made a selection
of those articles which concern both foreigners and natives, draw-
ing up a list of the same, and publishing them to all the military
and people, that they may in a body obey them. Do not oppose!
As for the duties on commerce, which are under the management
of the Marine Custom-house, we did not deem it necessary to
include them in our notice. A special Proclamation.
1
J
CANTON GOVERNMENT ANNOUNCE FOREIGN TREATIES. 429
1st. "From henceforth our natives ought to live in mutual
harmony and friendship with the barbarians of every country;
they ought not to insult each other, but cultivate peace on both
sides.
2nd. "The subjects of every country are now allowed to bring with
them their families and relations to the five marine ports of
Canton, Amoy, Ningpo, Foochoo, and Shanghai, for the sake of
carrying on trade and commerce, without any hindrance.
3. "The merchants of every country are permitted to stop
either a long or short time in any of the five ports, with the families
they brought with them, to hire the houses of the citizens, or rent
ground to erect themselves buildings on it, to establish hongs,
warehouses, hospitals, churches, benevolent institutions, schools,
colleges, and burial grounds. The Chinese Mandarins, after
having in conjunction with Consuls ascertained the wishes of the
people, will fix upon some spot to that effect. The natives will
then settle the rent with [the merchants] of the various nations in
a fair and equitable manner; but the Chinese must not raise the
price to extort money. The foreigners, however, must not compel
them to let their houses, or take forcible possession of the same.
The number of houses occupied and the respective amount of
rent, will be reported annually by the Consuls to the local autho-
rities, who will transmit the same, that it may be placed on record.
4th. "The ships of every nation are permitted to trade at the
five ports, but not allowed to go everywhere. If they, in defiance
of the treaty, do not conform to these restrictions, and go of
their own accord to other places, loitering about and trading,
the Chinese Government is at liberty to confiscate the cargo
as well as the vessel. If however the Chinese at any spot,
except the five ports, carry on a clandestine traffic with these
merchantmen, they shall be dealt with according to the laws of
their country.
5th. "There were formerly at Canton hong merchants esta-
blished, who having been abolished, the traders of the various na-
tions are permitted in future, when repairing to any of the five
ports, to have commercial dealing and transactions in exports as
well as in imports with any Chinese they please. If there is any
combination amongst the inhabitants to bring about a monopoly,
the consuls will communicate the fact to the Chinese authorities,
who will prevent this, and bring [the guilty] to trial.
6th. "If any Chinese merchant cheats traders of the various
countries with whom he has had commercial dealings, and without
paying for the goods runs away when in debt, he will be denounced
to the local authorities, who will pursue him. But if the defaulter
has concealed himself, and no traces of him can be discovered, or
when the debtor has died, or has no property; the former law in
force among the hongs, for seeking an indemnification, cannot be
applied, and no request for making up the loss be preferred. The
430
OFFICIAL ANNOUNCEMENT OF FOREIGN TREATIES.
various nations on running up debts with Chinese merchants, ought
to be dealt with in a similar manner.
7. "Every nation, in loading and unloading cargo, may at their
convenience, engage any kind of boat or lighter for carrying their
cargo; and there is no fixed price, so that every merchant may
settle it with the boatmen without any interference on the part of the
mandarins; but if the boat people are found smuggling, they will
be punished according to the law. Those who, when carrying the
goods, cheat, or run away with them, will be seized and brought
to trial by the local officers with due strictness. The boat people
and coolies engaged in loading and unloading vessels, must not
engross the employment exclusive to their own number; if so, they
will be subject to punishment.
8th. "At every anchorage of the various nations, the consuls
will appoint a subordinate officer to exercise control over the
sailors, to avoid disputes or quarrels betwixt them and the Chinese.
If such take place, means will be adopted for bringing the same to
a termination. If the seamen go on shore, the official person will
appoint a mate to accompany them. If any altercation arises,
that mate will be held responsible for it. The mandarins of the
place, ought on no account to hinder natives of the lower classes
from going alongside the ships, to buy and sell any provisions
which the sailors in the various vessels may require.
9th." The merchants of the various nations, who are either per-
manently settled at, or visit for a short time, any of the five ports,
must not wantonly go into any villages, or walk about at their plea-
sure, nor proceed into the interior to trade. There will be limits
established which they are not permitted to exceed, according to
the localities and the dispositions of the people. But if they, in
opposition to this prohibition and treaty, wander wilfully far into
the country, the inhabitants of the place are at liberty to seize and
deliver them over for punishment to the consul. They ought, how-
ever, not to presume to engage with them in strife, and wound or
injure them.
10th. "As merchants of the various nations are permitted to
live at the five ports, the Chinese must seek no cause for insulting
and troubling them; neither ought they wilfully to destroy their
factories, warehouses, hospitals, and graves. But if they, with
ruthless ferocity, create disturbance, plunder, and commit arson,
the local authorities will instantly suppress this, seize the offenders,
and prosecute them without the slightest show of mercy.
11th. "The merchants of the various nations at the five ports
will hire compradors, linguists, clerks, workmen, and sailors, whom
they are permitted to employ. Nor is it prohibited to persons
whom they engage, to teach them the Chinese language and litera-
ture, and assist them in their learned labours. The wages and pay
may either be fixed by themselves, or settled for them by the con-
.OFFICIAL ANNOUNCEMENT OF FOREIGN TREATIES.
431
sul at their pleasure. Every foreigner may buy Chinese books of
all descriptions without restriction.
12th. "Any foreigners who have a cause of complaint, may
through the consul, transmit a petition to the local authorities;
the Chinese who have any grievance, must forward the same through
the mandarins of the place, to be sent to the consul to be managed
in like manner.
13th. "If the Chinese have any case of dispute with foreigners,
they may state the subject to the consul, who will institute an
investigation as to the respective merits of either party, and en-
deavour earnestly to put a stop to it, so as not to grow into a re-
gular lawsuit.
But if he cannot dissuade them from it, he will
transmit his request to the local authorities publicly to examine
and justly to pronounce a decision. The consul will himself de-
termine the nature of the offence on the part of his own merchants,
and deal with them accordingly, whilst the crimes of the Chinese
will be punished according to their own law.
14th." If any runaway sailors, or people of any other descrip-
tion, have concealed themselves in the Chinese territory, they will
be apprehended by the mandarins of the place and delivered up to
their authorities; but if any Chinese, having transgressed the law,
escape to any place where foreigners live, or on board their vessels,
to hide themselves there, the respective consuls will, on discover-
ing them, hand them over to the local authorities, that they may
be punished according to law. If they are not yet found out, the
local officers will send official notice, to institute an inquiry for
their apprehension and delivery; but they must not afford them
shelter, or a hiding-place.
15th." If any Chinese engage in strife with a foreign merchant,
so that lives are lost, the local authorities will seize the murderer;
if he be a Chinese, judge, and treat him according to their laws;
if he be a foreigner, he will be apprehended and punished by the
consul according to the laws of his own country.
16th. "Whenever a foreign vessel is plundered by pirates in
the Chinese waters, the case must be reported to the nearest mili-
tary or civil authorities, that they may capture the outlaws with
the utmost rigour, and punish them according to the laws. If any
of the stolen goods are recovered, they will be handed over to the
consul, to restore them to their owner. But if nothing is secured
from the robbers, the local officer entrusted with their seizure shall
be denounced according to the established laws, but not make
good the plunder.
17th. "Any foreign vessels meeting with bad weather in the
Chinese waters, or running on a rock, or getting aground or en-
countering robbers, so as to suffer loss and destruction, the man-
darins on the coast will, immediately after having heard of it,
adopt measures for their rescue, safety, and protection, and exert
432
CHINA TO BE TREATED AS A CIVILIZED NATION.
themselves to show them kindness and convey them to their har-
bour to refit. The people on the beach or the native boats must
not avail themselves of their distress to plunder them; in doing
which they will bring severe punishment upon themselves. In the
inner waters the same rules shall prevail.
18th. "Vessels of every nation that have suffered damage, are
allowed in the nearest place to procure materials for repairing, to
buy provisions, and take in water, and the inhabitants of the sea-
shore must offer no obstacles.
"2nd moon, 11th day, (8th March, 1846)."
The Historical Abstract of British Intercourse with China will be
given in the ensuing Chapter, at some length, as it is of great im-
portance, especially at the present period, to examine carefully our
past policy, in order that we may be better enabled to pursue, in
any future arrangements, a wiser course than we have heretofore
adopted. By the preceding Treaties, and the official announce-
ment of them just given, the government of China has been brought
within the political pale of the Western Nations; and in all respects,
China should be viewed and treated as a civilized nation with a re-
sponsible government.

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